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96
N43

1864/65

CHAPEL

\

Date Due

J

, J

ANNUAL REPOET

OF TITE

AMERICAN INSTITUTE,

OF THE

CITY OF NEW YOUK,

FOR THE

YEARS 18G4, '65.

ALBANY :

«. WEKDSLL, PBINTBS.
1865.

Aw3

yt4

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

-^•—

Page,

Officers of the American Institute, 18G4-65 v, vi

Faculty of the Institute vi

Letter of Corresponding Secretary to the Speaker (xf the

House of Assembly vii

licport of the Trustees of the American Institute, March 27,

ISCo .._. 1-3

Report of the Committee on Finance, February 2, 1805 4-6

J\(>port of the Committee on Agriculture, February 2, 1865 . 7-8
Keport of the Connnittee on ]\Iaiuifactures, Science and Art,

January 25, 1865 9-11

Kcport of the Committee on the Library, February 2, 1865 . 12-13
llcport of the Connnittee on II()rti(nilture, Fel)ruary 2, 1865, 14-16
Premiums awarded at the Horticultural Exhibition, Septem-
ber 27, 28, 29 and 30, 1864 17-20

Proceedings of tho Farmers' Club, together with the Rules

and Regulations adopted by the Committee on Agriculture.. 21-295
Proceedings of the Polytedniic Association, with the Rules .
established for its government by the Board of Science and

Art 296-605

Proceedings of the Horticultural Association 606-723

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Trastees and Committees.

1 8 G 4.

PrM»</*n/— WILLIAM HALL.

Vice-Pruidufts — Dcdlky S. Orbgory, Edward Walker, JoH.f Grat.

Rttording Secretmry — Jireb Bull.

Corrttponding Secretary — Thomas McElbatb.

Treasurer — Sylvester R. Comstock. %

Finantt Committee — Tho*. M. Adriance, Nathan C. Ely, Cyrus H. Loutrel, Thos. Wil-
liams, jr., George Peyton.

Managers of the Fair— William H. Butler, James C. Baldwin, Wm. Ebhitt, William S.
Carpenter, Thomas F. De Voe, George Timpson, Andrew Bridgeman, John B. Peck, Jaa.
Knight, William Cotheal, J. Groshon Ilerriot, J. Owen Rouse, George M. Woodward, Georga
R. Jackson, James R. Smith, John B. Rich, I. M. Ward, Isaac Buchanan, Jonathan N.
Tifft, J. S. Underbill, Jeremiah Simonson, William W. Marston, R. G. Hatfield, Thomai
6mnH.

Committet on the Library — William Hibbard, James K. Campbell, Chas. P. I>aly, Jacob
L. Baldwin, Ebenezer U. Brown.

Committee on Agriculture — Jan^es J. Mapes, Isaac P. Trimble, John G. Bergen, William
8. Carpenter, William West.

Committee on Manufactures, Science and Art — John D. Ward, Joseph Dixon, Charles A.
Joy, James L. Jackson, Samuel D. Tillman.

Committee on Commeru — Rash Patterson, Lather B. Wyman, Wm. K. Strong, T. Spenasr
Eirby, John P. Veeder.

Comtnittu on the Admission of Members — Robert LoTett, John W. Chambers, William A.
Leffingwell, Charles £. Burd, Charles Pilla.

Committee on CorrtJtpondence — John U. Whit«, Josepfa Hozie, Henry L. Stuart, John W.
Arery, (Jeorge F. Barnard.

Committee on Repository — MarXia £. Thompson, Jamei Bogardui, Albro Howall, Thoma
D. St«tMn, Frank Dibben.

CUrk and Librarian — John W. Chambers.

Mustnger — Dar id N. Jacobus.

1 8 G 5 .

/VMid«i/— WILLIAM HALL.

Vice-Presidents— l)tti\.Tr S. Gregory, Edward Walker, Thoias McElrath.

Recording Secretary— J ikzb Bcll.

Corresponding Secretary — Samcel D. TillmAI.

Treasurer — Stlve»tbr R. Comstock.

VI TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Managfrs of the Fair — Wm. S. Carpenter, Jn.". R. Smith, Win. Ehhitt, Thomas F. De
Voc, M'illiam H. Uutlcr, James C. Ualdwin, (icorgo Timpson, Andrew BridReman, John B.
Peck, James Kni;;ht, J. Groshon Herriot, J. Owen Rouse, (leo. M. Woodward, Isaac M.
Ward, Geo. R. Jackson, J. S. Undorhill, Jeremiah Simonson, Wm. W. Marston, R. G.
Hatfield, Nathan C. Ely, Rodman B. Dawson, David G. Starkey, Thomas C. Smith.

Finance Committet — Thomas M. Adriancc, Nathan C. Ely, Cyrus H. Loutrol, Thomas
Williams, jr., George Peyton.

Committe on the Library — William Ilibbard, James K. Campbell, Jacob L. Baldwin,
Dubois D. Parmeloc, Jireh Bull.

Committee on Repository — John B. Rich, James Bogardus, William U. Butler, Albro
Howell, Thomas D. Stetson.

Committee on Manufactures. Science and Art — John D. Ward, Joseph Dixon, Samuel D.
Tillman, Charles A. Joy, James L. Jackson.

Committee on As^riculture—'Sa.than C. Ely, James J. Mapes, Isaac P. Trimble, John G.
Bergen, George liarllett.

Committee on Horticulture — William S. Carpenter, Benjamin C. Townsond, Andrew
Cridgeman, Peter B. Mead, John Uendcrson.

Committet on the Admission of Members — Robert Lorctt, John W. Chambers, Wm. A.
Leffingwcll, Charles E. Burd, Charles Pilla.

Committee on Commerce — Rush Patterson, Luther B. Wyman, John P. Vecdor, Edward
D. Bass(ord, Warren Rowcll.

Committee on Correspondence — John II. White, Joseph lUxic, Ilcnry L. Stewart, John
W. Avery, Gcorgo F. Barnard.

Clerk and Librarian — John W. Chambers.

Messenger — David N. Jacobus. <

Faculty.

James J. Mapes, LL. D., Professor of Natural Philosophy and Chemistry as applicable to
the Useful Arts.

Julius G. Pohl6, M. D., Professor of Analytical Chemistry.

Samuel D. Tillman, A. 51., Professor of Mechanical Philosophy and Technology.

staff of %t\xi iork.

No. 202.

IN ASSEMBLY,

Miarcli 29, 1865,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

American Institute,
New York, March 27th, 1865.

To the Honorable George G. Hoskins,

Speaker of the Assembly of the State of New York :
Sir — I herewith transmit the Annual Report of the American
Institute of the City of New York for the years 1864-5.
I have the honor to be,
Very respectfully,

Your obedient servant,

SAMUEL D. TH.LMAN,
Corresponding Secretary.

REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES
OF THE AMERI'^^ ^v.-tt^xE OF THE CITY OF >"?: ' ^ -'.K.

To the Iloaora^jic tJu L of (he State of Xeic I'^iw :

The Trustees of the Ai. .<....-... Institute of the Cit^' "'' '^" "^ T rk
resi|K-cifulIy report —

ThiU, duriii«j the last session of your honorable boar, a ia^ was
p:>-cU authorizing the Common Council of the City of Xew Tork to
' i.voy to the American Institute a suitable site on which to erect a
buildinir commensurate with its wants, for their daily operations and
An; ''" -

i; ^ the reception of a certified copy of the act. the

Trustees memorialized the Common Council of the City of Xew York
:o make the Institute such a grant as was stated in the memorial, or
to convc}* to them, at a nominal rent, a piece of ground suitable for
the contemplated building. That subject has been under considera-
tion for some time, but no favorable result has as yet been attained.
This delay has ■ ■ • ' ' - from the fact that the act of the

legislature was < live in its provisions.

The importance of this subject to the welfare of the Institute, as

lly. hds Ik on foreiT>ly r ' 'U our
y t'i.' Tn: >*■»■<- :iii-] :!;■ "! _ . . ALuio-

'»\ itii a tixoa ' \imaiing to two miiiiv>ns of people,

within a ' ' •• - : ... .....v - .. .a the City H:dl. it appears evident

iliat an . .lion like the American Institute should receive a
[public endowment, which would enable it to cany- into full effect the

; " " --,--- -■ " - 1 - . . • - .-.•-. ' ^ in-

pru|H>rtioQ$ to admit and pro[)erIy display all samples of the product

:ry and genius of our

\ . - -v-

Stich a permanent naiiooal depositor}- for inventions and museum
of art would di»ubtlo.v< fHMome the resort of our he

thoas;uid> of strangers who are daily attracted tu i.i< v.i. . ^-. .i an
institution is demanded not only to gratify the tastes of the transient
visitors and satisfy a commendable curioisity. but also to act as a safe-

[Am. Ln-st.] * A

I: TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

guard a<rainst toniptations which are prcstntcil to them on every tiide.
It is ti) !>(' reirivtted that hut few attractions of the character alhulcd
to, couinicnsuiato with th. .rn ;itncj.-; of this metropolis, have thus far
been iiuiijiurati- ';.

In the principal cilicci ol Uiuor countries it is ticcnicd important to
cncoijra*xe all enterprises the tendencies of which arc to instruct and
amuse the masses of the people ; hence larire appropriations aro
made for the support of museums, galleries of statuaries and paint-
ings, polytechnic schools, and other useful institutions which contril>-
utc largely to make usi-ful and intelligent citizens, Avhile they attract
the stranger and traveller in pursuit of useful and valuahlc informa-
tion.

Philadelphia, Boston, Baltiir.ore, and other sister cities are not
without suh$tautial evidence of patnmagc to advance and encourage
til - which prompts the Anierietm Institute to enlarge its

*;pi. :i and usefulnos.

The Board of Trustees takes great pleasure in stating that the
weekl\' meetings of the Farmers' Club and the Polytechnic Associa-
tion have been v.ell attended duriuir the rear, and the increasin":
interest manifested ^u the subjects discussed leads us to anticipate
that the material furnished from these sources to the next volume of
Transactions will exceed, in interest and impoilancc. any that have
preceded it.

Through the instrumentality of some of the active members of the
Institute, a Ilorticultural Association has been ad«lc<l as a new depart-
ment. The proceedings of this Association will forrn ;i vi rv inter-
esting portion of the volume of Transactions.

A c(»urse of lectures has already been inaugtirated !i\ ih;^ Asso<i-
ation. which has attracted large and appreciative audiences.

The Board of Managers finding insurmountable obstacles to the
holding of the usual Annual Fair, the Institute made an appropriation
of five hundred dollars, to be expended imder the direction of the
Board of Managers, for the purpose of enabling the Horticultural
branch of the Institute to give, during the autnnin. an Exhibition of
fruit and flowers.

The Exhibition was held during the latter part of the month of
September, under the auspices of the Horticultural Committee of the;
Institute, and enjbraced a very superior collection of fruit and
flowers. One hundred aiid fifty varieties of fruit from France were
also on exhibition, and. from the attention devoted to them by prom-
inent .\ fruit growers, we may reasonably infer that many f)f
these V . v. ill soon be foimd as a product of (jur own soil.

The Library has received during the year many valuable additions,

REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES. 3

and is consulted by thoso who arc always anxious to examine the
l:iti'>t scientilir puhlications.

By retVivncc to the report of the Finance Committee, it will be
j)erceived that the finances of the Institute are in a more prosperous
condition than at any other period of our great Xaticuial crisis. In
the month of August bust the sum of one thousand dollars was paid
by a stranger to the Uncording Secretary, with a request that the
same should be placed in the Treasury of the Institute, Avherc it
rightfully belonged. That he was prompted to make this restitution
tt» sati-fy the clamors of an awakened and distur])ed conscience.

The Trustees report with much gratification a constant accession of
members to the Institute, as well as a growing interest in its dailj
opcratit>ns. And they indulge the pleasing anticipation that the time
is not far distant when, with a united countrv. restored to the oblijra-
tions of one Constitution and one triumphant and victorious flag, this
corporation will j)ursue with renewed vigor its career of usefulness,
and continue to foster the spirit of emulation and improvement
which has long characterized its operations.
All of which is respectfully sulimitted.

AVILLIAM HALL.

D. 8. GKEGORY.

EDWARD WALKER.

JOnX GRAY.

THOMAS McELRATH,

JIREII BULL.

S. R. COM STOCK,

Trustees.
New York, March llth, 1865.

IIKPOUT OK Till-: COMMITTEE ON FIXANX^E.

Tin- loIKiwiiiir is a statcini'iil of i lie icccipis; and cxpciKlituros of
the Anu'i-ii-an In.slitiitc from llic \>\ day of Filniiarv, 18()4. to tlic
1st dav of February. ISC') :

l>alaiu-(' in the treasury, Fi'luiiaiy 1st, 1804 $158 55

The Kicc'Kirr.s of the year have heeii:
For real estate. — Kent of Xo. Ii51 l>road\vay

and No. (Sl>.\ Leonard .street, 1 year .*?(!, 7 15 Ml

For athni^sion fees and annual dues from
inemhers, viz: Initiation fees, .$155; annual

dues, $4(10; life memher.ship, $11)5 75(1 (10

For restitution money jiaid to the Keeord-

inof Secretary from an unknown source 1.000 00

Foi- (hiplicjite meilal . (I 00

" crrlilicates of au;ird iJi! 00

" sales of old ncwsi)apers, <fec 47 74

" library, Ijooks lost, «kc 7 50

" use of rooms 7 50

Fi-om Treasurer Stat(> of New York :

Ap[)ropriation ISO:] S!t50 00

I^ss collection 1 5(i

Dt.S 50

ii.54!) 05

t'i>,707 GO

K.M'KXniTUKES.

Ihal Estate.
Interest on bond an<l mortgage,

$20,000 §1,200 00

Taxes No. o51 Jiroadway and ^\)\

Leonard street 1.5;?.') 74

New water-eloset.s ami comiiMlion

wit h .sewer .".5( i ( »(i

Faintin;^ iron .shutters and repairs, 15 (il

.v.l,l2.S 75

Library.

Books §70 10

Ferio<lic.aU ><< i >>< »

Bindini: .".0 1-^

Itia ()«

Carrie. 1 f..rw;ird $3,322 43 $'1,707 00

REPORT OF COMMITTKi: ON FINANCE. 5

r>r()U^i;ht fornanl ^o,:\'2-2 1.". ^.[),7{)7 CO

On account of' ',V)lli Annual Fair.
SilviT-waiv lor pioiiiiimis aiul i-n-

irraviiiij lj'20<^ 50

Diplonias — paper, [)riiilinij aiul cii-

irrossiiiix 7il 40

r.(K)ks aiid tVoiirhl 13 DO

J'rinliiiLr li^t (it'awards and postairo, 23 25

?rl\ -21

On ar'f <>f llnvlicultural Exliihition.

\ppr(>i)riatioii $424 11

424 U

()n act ftf Poh/tcclniic Association.
Prcparinji reports of the A;>.sotia-

lion for Tiansaetions $500 00

lu'l)or(in<r nuH'tings 84 00

584 00

^[isceVanoous.
lu'iit of rooms in the Cooper Union

hniUliiig 1 year $1,325 00

In^uranee, real estate 81 -75

library 32 00

Newspapers 43 07

Advt rtisinix ^S 33

Printing -T 19 38

Stationery 44 02

( Jas ' 88 00

Taint inir iron railinirs, «te., in (ireen-

wooil Cemetery 15 00

Liltrary, earjienters' work. <te 11 80

lln;^ro»in;r eeitilieates of award. . 3 20

l^n^raviniT and re-striking medals, 0 1)5

Freight on Traiisactior.s 5 91)

Painting and glazing 8 48

Incidental expenses... 251 1)7

i.nno 20

iSalarics.

(I-rK $1,875 00

AKssenger 212 00

2,087 00

8,737 95

liaianee in the trea^nv Vvh. 1. 1805 $909 G5

THOMAS M. AI)PIA\("K. )
THOMAS WILLIAMS, die, „.

NATHAN C. LLV, \ n '"'-,?

(iKOla.L i'LVTON, U'ommittce.

CYiaS II. LOUTJiKL, j

Xr.w YoiiK, Fthrnary '2d. 1^05.

G TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Amount of jn'operbj Jitid hi/ (lie Anurivan Institute Feb. \st, 18G5.
llt'iil estate — No. o^il Broadway ami Xo. S!i.\

Leonard street, cost ' .' :< tr),,S()0 00

Less uiortgnge. 20,000 00

$25,800 00

Lil)rai-v and lixtiircs i;i,!M!» ;')()

C)llice t'tiriuturc and tixtnres, iron .sales, ease of niodids ol'

iVuit, kc i)o4 00

Property used at the I'aiis 3o0 00

$4i,oa;5 r)()

Casli in the treasury Fel)ruary Isl, ISC') 9(51) Cf)

Total 812,003 21

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INSTITUTE.

IJKrOHT or TIIK COMMITTEK ON AlilMcri/riJlJK.

Tlio (.'oiuniiltcH' on Aicrii'iiltuvc of the Ainciicaii Tii.siiditi' ros[)oct-
fiiliy n-poit —

Tliat (lu'V take jxrcal pK-asiirc, in iutorniii)2: Uie Instituto tliut tho
Fanners' Ciuh, wliirli is innli-r iho iniinciljalc cliarirc of yowv Com-
uiittfi', have regularly held its wcokly nuH'lin<rs (luiiiiii: the \y,i>it year,
ami at whirh somk" of thv ('(miniittcc; lia\<' In-eii i)i('scMit at every
meet in 2:.

-file atteiukuK'e lias been V( ry iuiniero\is, an<l a imniher of farmers
:\ud others from distant parts of our eomitry, Avho take an interest in
au'rienltural ini[)r()ver.ient, have vi.sited the Cluh during its discus-
sions, and have given the results of the experiments in this import-
Mit Iiraiieh of American indu:4ry.

The doings of the Cluh have h{>eu fully re[)orted and publivshcd in
some r)f the leading jjapers of the city, and, to show how Avidely
these reports have lieen eircidated, the Secretary lias received many
hundred letters, from ditterent sections of the United States, asking
advice or furnishing the iTsnIts of experiments made by tl:e writers.
The ('<»nimittee cannot let this oi)portunity pass without acknowl-
edging their indebtedness to Mi". A\'m. K. Prince, of the Linnacn
Nurseries, Khi'^hing. for ovef thii-ty vaiieties of seeds of hardy, tlo\v-
' ring ]ierenni;d plants and shrubs. These seeds have becMi put up
into small bags and di>tributed. The demand for these see<ls has
been so great that two humlred and tifty letters have been received
in one day containing applications for them. During the last sixty
<lays over 14..'itJ0 of these packages liavi» been gratuitously distiii)ute(l.
The Farnu rs' Clu!) was established in the year l>ii:5. and was tho
lir.st of its kind in this country. Its regulations are \cvy simple, ami
constant applications Ibr intormalion ar(^ made by jjersons desiring to
estaiilish similar fcocieties in various parts of oui- extended countiy,
'Ihe «liscussi(»n.' have been very irUeresting and inslruclive; many
of the persons taking a pas't in them an? kn«>wn as able ;)onioIogist3
and practical fanners.

In addition t<» the discu-sion of miscellaiu'ous matti-rs, ilu- i'ollow-
ing subjects have occupied the attention of the Clu!) :
'Agrieultui-al implements and improved agric iilluia! marliineiy.
Cultivation of corn, wheat, potato:^, fruit and fruit trees.

TRANSACTIONS OF THC AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Insects iujuriou.s to vojjftiition.

Blight on trees.

Forest trees — eireiihitioii of sup.

(Jrasses — restoring worn out nuadows.

Hop raising.

Sugar making.

k^orgluini.

Diseases of sheep — wool.

Hedges and hedge pUmts.

Evergreens.

Enn'irration to Maryland and Missouri.

Consumption of meat in eities.

Textile i)Iants — lla.\.

Climatie inlhienccs.

Poultry.

City sewerage.

Cisterns.

White willow, itc.

All of which is respectfully suimiitted-

JAMKS J. ]\JAPES,
,I()HN U. BElUiEN,
WM. S. CAK'I'KNTKK,
ISAAC P. Tlil.Ml'.LE,
WHJ.IAM WEST,

Commitlee-

Kkav YonK, Fchruary 'Id, 1865,

REPORT

OF Tin: rO.\[MITTi:K ox MANTFAOTrinvS, SCIENCE AND Ai;
OF 'I'lir: AMEKIUAX INSTFITTE.

The Coiniiiittcc on Maiuit'acturcs, fScioncc and Art, report:

That the several subjects referred to them during the past 3'ear,
Mitli «ine exoej)(ion, have been carefully exaraiucd, and iheir con-
clusions are embodied in reports previously presented.

The investitration as to the merits of the new Chemical Nomencla-
ture and notaiioii, has been postponed at the request of the author
until he can present his paper in print.

The Managers of the Institute having decided that it was inex-
pedient to hold a Fair in 1><M, the large class of inventors and
manufacturers, who are attracted by a liberal offer of premiums,
have not mad*' lh<ir annual contributions of Mechanical and Chemi-
cal novelties.

The Polytechnic Association, under the charge of your Committee,
was organized for the year by the re-appointment of its otlicers
whose term of service will expire on the first day of May next. Of
the |)unctual di.'^chaige of ofhcial duties it is only necessary to remark
that the Chairnnni has not failed to attend n sin.ule meetinc: since his
tiist appointment, more than tv.o years ago. J)uring the past year
he has made Aveckly reports to tin- Association, on the progress of
invention and di'-covery, in Avhich aic briefl}' dcscrilied the principal
novelties brought out in both the old and new Avorld.

'J'he debutes of the rolytechnic have embraced a wide i.inge of
topics. Those relating to the Army and Navy, and to the wonder-
ful ilevelopment of the lVtic)leum region of our own countiy. having
licited more than ordinary interest.

In the volmne of Transactions for 1.SG3, just published, will be
found .several extended discussions on iron clad ves.sels-of-war. At
one of these debates, in whieh the late Com. Wm. B. Porter j)artici-
pati d. a large delegation of ofhcers from ih:' IiUs.»i;in lliH't, undi'r
Ailiniial Les>olVsky, was in attendance. The princip.al novelties
described in the volume alluded to are ste.am surface condensers, the
new steam engine nivented l)y .1. \). lioot. the new steam gauge by
Shaw it Justice, the Ilarison globe lens, the glass reflectoi- by Dr.

10 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITCTE.

11. Dnipcr. a large uiimbor of measuring instruments, including those
rolatiuii to Hort»logA-. are tlcscriheil. The mo^t important paper
having a Siinitary hearing is upon the chemistry of lead pipe.

The principal topics of discussion in 18G4 were: The value of
' ■ !s of fuel: the best mode of using steam e.\pan.>ively;
II cf waste products: the form of water pipes; oil wells
:ind the products of crude petroleum: the best methods of preserv-
ing fruit: the manufacture of gloves: pneumatic i-ailways, elevated
i-.iilways. and tunnel railways for cities; the manufacture and use of
furs: the manufacture of straw goods; the manufacture of salt: the
' auses of the occasional impurity of our city atmosphere: the manu-
I'acture of thread; the manufacture of ether, chloiT»form and bisul-
phide of carbon, and pumps and other apparatus for raising water.

The discussion of these subjects, as well as the criticis-ms on the
sck lit itic items presented by the Chainuan. and on the variou>5 ma-
chines exhibited, evince the high mechanical and chemical attain-
ments of the members of the Polytechnic, and that peculiar acumen
"to the complete comprehension and elucidation of all
< relating to technology.

In addition to the regular attendants occasional visitors arc attracted
to the meetings by the invitation extended to them through two of
the daily papers of the city. Distinguished scientitie gentlemen have
casually participated in the debates and contributed valuable infor-
mation.

It has been the aim of 3-our Committee to offer through the Poly-
technic everj- facility to inventors for the free exhibition and explana-
tion of novelties of art, and for full and imjxirtial criticism. The
wi^< 'ion of the Associati<m to appoint no special committees

to t -iiventions. effectually precludes all chance of tavoritism.

and prevents the perversion of their organization from its legitimate
purpt>ses.

Your Committee are fully impressed with the importance of pro-
perly reporting the debates of the Polytechnic, which, with the
other tr :.sof the American Institute, are published by legis-
lative ;.; ..;y and distributed equally in each assembly district of

the >:;.te. to the members of the Institute, and which also tind a place
in msny of the public libraries on both sides of the Atlantie*. Our
niunial volume. ree*entlv jrreatlv increased in circulation, has
gi\'en to the Institute a coiTesponding increase in facilities for
doing good by more widely diffusing information alike useful to the
fanner and to the n ' :rer. It may therefore be safely :isserted
that the Amerie-an I iiy means of the annual volume as well

as l>y weekly notices apjjcaring in newspapers, now exerts a wider

HEPOBT OF TEE COMMITTEE OX MANUFACTUEES. &C. 11

influence than any similar asMxiation in the world, and your Com-
mittee feel justitied in exprcss^inji the opinion that the reports of the
proceedings of the Polytechnic branch are worthy of such a volume
and of your cordial approval.

Rcfi-pectfully submitted,

JOItS" D. WARD,
CTIAKLES A. JOY.
JAMES L. JAC K.-OX,
JOSEPH DIXOX.
SAMUEL D. TILLMAX.
Xew Yoek, January 2oth, 1865. Cojnmittte.

REPORT

OF THE LIBRARY COMMITTKE OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The Lihrarv Committee, in mnking its report for the year 1864,
coufornmhly uitli the provisiions of the Iiy-hnv^ of the American
Institute, \K'fz h>ave to .submit the follouinjr :

During lliis great national crisis its ojicrations have been greatly
embarrassed in consequence of the (.lilliculty cxperienccl in obtaining
that class of Ijooks -which the necessities of the Institute rcfjuirc.
The aim and policy of your Committee is, and has been, t(» be pos-
sessed of all recent publications, both in this and foreign countries,
treating upon those subjects "which are the specialty of the InslitJite,
rather than the more miscellaneous works, which, wiiile they arc
more attractive to the general reader, do not tend to promote the
objects contemplated in the organization of oni- Institution. The
rate of foreign exchange, and the increased piice of all American
publications, have re.sti'icted your Committee to the purchase of only
such books as have been deemed indispensable.

The regular increase of the number of volumes to the Library
renders it necessary that ( nlurged accommodations should be pro-
vided, in order that the new volumes ma}' lind a convei'.ient resting
place. Your Committee therefore recommend that the Trustees be
authorized and empowered to make .such adn^i'iiK rf <;;-is juid
shelving as is required for this purpose.

The Library now ct.ntains f?,()83 volumes, all in cxcclient condi-
tion, and is jjrobably one of the linest collections of scientific books
in the coimtry. And the Committee are desirous that this fact be
extensively known, believing that this knowledge would have the
effect (if inducing n.any wl.o are i)robabIy igi:or:int of it to Ixcomc
members of the Institute.

AVhile the Tarmers' ( lub, the Poly tt clinic, and the Horticultural
Associations arc di^^( niii:alir.g wi<Iel} j:.s< ful an<l valu:;))le infoi n:;jtion
without money ar.d without price, th<' Libiary. though less publicly,
is quicily performing its important part l)y ^iK ntly imparting that
intellectual aliment wh<ise results are not confine <1 to the individual
recipient.

It has been suggested tt) the Committee that the interests of the
Institute woidtl lie prj)moted by having on oui- tables .some of the
beot and newest atlases, and also ma;- "*' t'l" more recently explored

REPORT OF LIBRARY COMMITTEE. 13

parts of our own vast ti-rritoiii's. ami ospocially of tliosc States
when' now and inipi)rtant discoveries have been made, and where
larjxe enteri)rises are now heing carried forward Avith great aclivit}'.
Your Conmiittet> cannot well refrain from commending the effi-
ticncy of »I<>hn AW C'liamhers. the Ijii)rarian. in the arrangement of
all that pertains to the Library, and the wntchtul care of its inter-
ests, whiili characterises his etforts to make the reading rooms a
j)U'asant, agreeable an«l [)rotitable place of resort to all the meml)ers
of the Institute.
The numl)er of volumes in the Library at the date of the

last report was 8,579

There have been added dining the year.

ViV punhase 24

subscription .. 1(5

exchanges _. 6

donations 58

— 104

Making a total mnnber of volumes now in Library.. 8,(383

For a (letailed statement of the purchases and donations, reference
is made to tlie list hereunto apjiended.

From the liberal a})propriation made by the Institute to this Com-
mittee last year, it is to be hoped that our successors will have ample
nieans tor all necessary exjK^nditures ior the coming year.

Literature, agriculture, science and the arts are not Iocs to the gov-
ernment M-hich fosters and protects them: and although, for the past
four year."-, darkness visible has surrounded onr governmental domain,
wc can now offer congratulations that the bright streaks of re-union
light are rapidly becoming more and more visible to the true patri-
ot's e}-e. and with it tlu* assurance that soon no longer the noise of
war and the clash of rebellion will be lu^anl in the land.

With a speedy establi.-innent of a lasting peace, and u bright, pros-
perous and glorious future dis>i[)ating our long winter (^f discontent,
may we not imlulge the hope that the labcMs in whiih we are
eiig.iged will be prosecuted with increa.sed vigor and be aiteuiled
wiih a far greater amount of usefulness.

All of which is respectfully submitted.

WILLIAM IIir.r.AKM).
.lA.ML.s K. ( A.Mrr.KLL.
JA(.()li L. liALDWIX.

Committee.

REPORT

OF THE COMMITTEE ON llOIJPIcri/rriiE OF THE AMERICAN

INSTllL'TE.

The C'OnimilU'o on Ilortirulliiic, lir.st of all, lake jxreiit plcasmv in
announcing:: the lorniatioM of a new branch of the Inslilnlc. untlcr the
name of the Ilorliculluial Association of the American Institute. It
may not he out of place to state here l)rielly that the «rcntlcnien who
chielly interested themselves in its formation, Avcre of opinion that
Horticulture did not occupy in the Institute that prominent position
to which its importance justly' entitled it. Embracing, as it does, so
many objects which contribute largely to the necessities and comfort
of man, and scarcely less to his enjoyment and pleasures, it was
thou<2:ht that somethiufc more than an animal e\hil)iti()n was needed
to bring and keep it })ronn'nently l)efore the public and make tlieni
familiar with its practical and avstlietic truths. It is onlv b\- makinn;
peo[)lc familial' willi our bcaiiliiul art that \ve can hope to make them
love and patronize it. It was determined, therefore, to organize this
association, and hold fre(pieut meetings for conversational purposes,
to read essays, listen to lectures, and in all possilde ways to promote
and dilVuse a love of horticulture.

An informal meeting was held on the lUth day of March, 18l!l,
the subj.'ct I'nlly discussed, and a connnittee appointed to nominate
officers and committees and draw up by-laws. The next meeting
Avas held on the (itli day of April, when ollicers and committees were
elected, the bydaws adopted, and the association formally organized.
The proceedings IVoin this time fcuward, as kept by the secretary,
are ]ircsented as a part of this rc[)ort. They contain a full history
of the association up to the pr(>seut time. The committee may add
that the experiment has thus far Itceii ciitiridy successful and gratify-
ing to a degree that was hardly antieip.ateil. The meetings of the
a.ssociation have been wcdl. and in many instances large ly altend(.'d.
Flowcr> lia\c bciii cxliilntcd; the conversations have iiccii interest-
ing and instructive, and a record of them, as far as i)reserve(l, is
lierewilh pre.senletl. Tliey will eon^lilule .-i valuable ;iddilion to our
amiual volume of Traiisnetions,

l''iir reasons not nece>s:iry to meiilion lure, it was deeme(l inexj)e-
dieiit to hold an annual fair; but il was, neverl heless, ctuisidered
very <lesirablc to hold a h(uticullural exhibit inn. It is mortifying to
be compelh'd to state that the city of \ew Y(uk does not i)0sse«s a

RErORT OF COM.MITTEE ON HORTICULTURE. 15

room siii((Ml (o ;iii cxliiliilioii of lliis kind. Al'lt r much lime spciil in
iVuitlc'ss cllort.s to liirc soim> kind of ;i room, it \v:i.s linally determined
to hold the exhibition in our own rooms, iind admit only IVuils aixl
llowt-rs. 'l"h(> >i/,e of the.s(> rooms preidudiMl the idea ol" a I'ull c .\hi!)i-
tion. verv mn^di to the eonnnittei-'s i-egret. Jt wa.s near the lli'^l of
Septeml)i'r before puldio notice eotild he given, but notwithstanding
the shortness of the time, the rooms were crowded with (dioicc spcci-
iniMis. It must bo stated that the season was a poor one for all fiuils
exi'i[){ Lirapes. Plnms M-erc> mostly destroyed by the eureulio, and
the apple and [)car were generally much disfigured by the eureulio
ami the apple moth, the last having caused a large part of tiie eroj)
to fall prematurely to the ground; yet such are the care and skill of
some of our t'ulti\ators, wc had an excellent show of apples, and bet-
ter pears wi're never seen on our tables. Grapes "\v(>re shoAvn in
great abumlanee and variety. The display of foreign grapes was
conspicuous for the number of large bunches, one bunch of the Bar-
barossa weighing some six })Ounds. The native gra[)es were particu-
larly noteworthy for their abundance, variety and excellence. There
were scvci-al new kinds on the tables, some of which promises to
rank very high. So many line specimens of native grapes were pro-
bably never before seen together in New York, Wc have seen about
the last of the rejiroach that 'wc have no native grapes fit to eat.
Several beautiful pine apples, grown in pots, attracted much notice.
The fruit was large and very fine.

The exhibition of flowers was confined chielly to bomiuets, baskets
and cut llowei-s, the first two j)red(jminating. The display was beau-
tifid. put plants and some othci's were not called for, as they could
not be shown in these rooms without the risk of nnich damage.
Thei-e were, notwithstanding, a few remarkably handsome specimens
■f ornamental leaved plants. There were si)ecimcns also of rare and
beautiful orchids, displaying their very remark;d)le and imique ilowers.
^'egetables were not shown, there being no room for them. Not-
withstanding its curtaibncnts, the exhibition was one that will bo
looked back to with i)ride, A list of the awards is herewith presen-
ted, as well :is a statement of the ex[)enses of the exhibition.

It ought to be stated here that a public s[)irited member ofiered
$l(»o in i)rizos, .$,')() of thi.- being for a set of ornaments for the din-
ner table, TlK)Ugh the oi-naments exhil)ited did not meet the re(juire-
ments. the gentlemen alluded to none the less deserves our thanks.
Two otln'r members oU'eroil s')(» foi- a native seedling giapc. to pos-
sess specified (pialities. This pri/e was not awarded, but is si ill open
for competition. The lion. Ilmace (ireely, with a spirit worthy of
all praise, ofFered three prizes, of $100 each, for an apple, a pear and
a grape, each possessing sjiccificd (jualities antl adapted to general

16 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

cultivation in the niitldle States. 'J'lic LirMpc \)v\/.o was awanlod to
the Tona.* T\]v api)li' .-md pear i)i\'iiiiuMis havf 1)c'c'M laid over until
next fall.

If may also ho state*! in this eoniieetion that we were irreatly
indehted to ^Ir. Andre Leroy. ot" Anders, Franee, for a very fine col-
lection of api)les and ])ears. The specimens were larire and hand-
some, ami adde<l a very interesting feature to the e.xhihition. A
suitahle acknowledgment has l)(>en made to Mr. Leroy for this puhlic
spirit and enterprise.

The eonunittee would state, in conclusion, tiiat a course of free
lectures is now being delivered before the association, which promises
to add materially to its character and usefulness. The subjects of
these lectures relate directly to horticulture, and many of them will
illustrate its principles and practice in a manner highly conducive to
a more thorough untlerslanding of its so calk-d mysteries. The fol-
lowing ar(^ the names of the gentlemen who have thus far consiaitecl
to lecture: Horace Grecly, eTames Ilogg, John Ilcndcison, Ih-nry
Ward Beecher, Geo. Thu'rber, I\rason cC Weld, I. .M. Trimbh". Sam-
uel Osgood, Wm. C. Bryant, Peter Ilomlerson, G. W. Ilunlsman. I.
M. AVard. Andrew Bridgeman, Peter B. Mead. Lectures ha\ e already
been delivered by Messrs. Osgood, Campl)ell, Henderson and Hogg.
These lectures, as far as delivered, are presented as a part of this
report. They Avill add another interesting and useful feature to our
volume of Transactions.

On the Avhole the Institute has nmch reason to feed proud of this
last outgrowth from its body.

All of which is respectfully sulimitted.

r,. (". TOWXSKXl).
.1. W. r.AKK'OW,
I'KTLU B. MKAI),
dOllX HFA'DKKSOX.
dA.MKS IlOtiG,

Xkw Vokk, J'WjriKfri/ 2, l.S(!"». Coiiunittee.

* Dr. (iraiit, to whom tliis promiiim waa awarded, being nnxiuus to meet mure coiii|jclitor3
than ut the la-t txhibilifnu <lcclini's to rcicivc it. The $100 prize will, therefore, be given for
(lin )>< -t "r.iiKj >-lii>\vii at llio Hiituinii cxliiliiUon uf ISGa.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HORTICULTURE. 17

PIlI'.Mil MS .\\VVIll)l-I> at the Iloitioultural ICxhibitiou of the American
Institute, September 27th, 2Nth, *.2'Jth and 30th, 1NU4.

Pkaiis.

ElhvaiiiriM- t^- r>;inv, llocheyter, X. Y., for the best fifty named

varielit's of prars $35

Ilovey S: Co., C'aml)i'id<;c, Mas-s., i'ov the secoiul best fifty named

varit^ties of pears 20

Will. L. Ferris, Throg's Neck, N. Y., for the best thirty named

varieties of pears 20

John Sanl, Washington, D. ('., for the seeond best thirty named

varieties of ])ears 15

K. W. Wartl, Newark. ^.J.. for the l)est twelve named varieties

of i)ears ._ 10

John Kgan, gardener to E. II. Stevens. Iloboken, X. J,, for the

sei-ond best twelve named varieties of })ears.- 5

r. T. (^ninn, (Snperintendcnt for Jas. J. Mapes, X'ewark, X^ J.,)

for t he best six named varieties of pears 5

E. Williams, Mt. Clair, X. J., for the second best six named

vari('ti("s of pears 3

1'. T. Quinn, (Sn[)erintendent for J. J. Mapes,) Newark, X'. J.,

for the l)c.st twelve table pears, one named variety 3

Special.

1 ). I). l^)U(lianan, Elizalx'th, X'. J., for sixty varieties of pears,

►Silver Medal.

Franeis Rrill, X'ewark, X\ J., for nineteen varieties of pears flO

Francis Hrill, X'ewark, X'. J., for twelve Benrre Bose jDcars 2

Spencer S[)ringstead, Union Port, X'. Y., for twelve varieties of
pears 5

Ari'LKS.
( ). S. Hathaway. X'ewburgh, X'. Y., for the l)est fifty vai'ieties of

ai)ph'S 25

E. Williams. Mt. (Mail-, X. J., for the l)est six varieties of ai)ples, 4
E. Williams, Mt. Clair, X'. J., for the ])est twelve apples, one

variety . .' , 3

Plums.
Ellwanger & Barry, Rochester, X\ Y., for the best six named
vurieties of plnms 10

Pkaciiks.
Spencer Springstead. rnion Port, X'. Y.. lor the. bes( twelve
peaches 3

Ql IN^KS.

Ellwanger & Bairv, Kociiester, X. Y., for the best twiive apph;

(piinces 3

Franeis Brill. Newark, N. ,L. for the best twelve pear rpiinees.. 3

[Am. Lnst.J B

18 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

(iKAI'KS GlunVX UXDEli GlASS.

J. ^ri'Millcii, iTMiHliMUM" li) Francis Morris, Throg's Neck, N. Y.,
for the l)cst six Miric'tii's of foifiiiii grapes $20

Tlioina.s Wado, ganlonor to (ion. J. II. Vkin Alon, New Ilani-
burjjjh. N. Y., for tlu' second l)cst six varieties of foreiiiii
grapes 15

John Egan, gard(MU'r to K. A. 8teven.s, Iloboken, X. J., for the
best three varietii's of foreign grapes 10

Joliii Cheney, South Manchester, Conn., for the s<.'eond best
t hree varieties of foreign grapes f)

John Ellis, gardener to Charles I>utler, Fox Meadow Gardens,
AVestchester coiinl y, \. Y., for the lieaviest bnnch of grapes,
Barbarossa. "weighing nearly six pounds _. 5

Native Grapes.
C. Marie. Tiil)l)y Hook. N. Y., for the best three bunches of Del-
aware grapes ._ 3

C. ^larie, Tubb}' Hook, N. Y.,for the best three bunches of lona

grapes 3

Stephen Underbill, Croton Point, N. Y., for the best three

bunches of Catawba grapes 3

C. AV. (irant. Toua Island, \. Y.. for the best three bunches of

Israel ia grapes. 3

Isaac Merritt, Hart's Village, N. Y., foi- the best three bunches

of Concord gi-a])es 3

Van Brunt AVyckofl", lirooklyn, L. J., for the best three bunches

<»f IIartfoi-(l pi-olitic grapes 3

John Dingwall, Albany, >«'. Y., for the best three bunches of

Anna grapes 3

S. Cndci-hill, Ci'oton Point, X. Y., for the ))est three bunches of

I>ab(dla grapes 3

Geo. II. Ilite. ]\Ioriisania. .N. Y., for the best (hice bun<'hes of

Union A'illage grapes. — 3

Van Brunt ^Vvckotf, Seventeenth street, Brooklyn, L. I., for the

))est three bunches of Rebecca grai)es 3

Stephen Underbill, Croton Point, X. Y., for the bist three

l)unches of Allen's hybrid grapes 3

Isaac Meriitt, Hart's \'illagc, Dutchess county, X. Y., for the

best thi"<'(! l)iuiches of I >iana gi-apes 3

Geo. A\'. Martin, AVillianisburgh, L. I., for the best three bunches

ol" EUingburgh gi'apes — 3

John (i. liergeii. (lowanus. L. !.. t"«tr the i)est liogers' hvbriil

Lfrapcs, (No. I.).- 3

Van lirunt Wyckolf, SeventeciUth .street, Hrooklyn, L. I., for the

bot ( 'lintoii grapes 3

John !>iugwall. .Vlbany. .\. Y., for the best three l)unches of

•Awv nthcr kind. To-Kalon. 3

C. \V. (irant. loua Island, N. Y., the "Greely prize" of -i^lOO

for the "lona" grape.

report of committee on horticulture. 19

Mklons.

Francis Brill. Xownrk, X. J., for the best three musk melons,
(Allan's supcrl),) ._ 3

Pink Atples.

James Skinner, jrarclener to Eilwin Iloyt, Esq., Astoria, N. Y.,
lor the hest pine apples in pots .$15

Cr/Vxberrip:s.
J. C. Yoiinjr, Lakeland, L. I., for the best cranberries 3

Cut Flo\v'ers.

\\u\. A. Bnriress. Glen Cove, L. I., for the l)est twelve named

varict ies of roses 5

Isaac Buchanan, Xo. U West 17tli street, for the best twelve

hybrid irladiolus 5

I'cter Henderson, Jersey City, X. J., for the best twelve named

verbenas 3

A. Ci. r>uriress. East Xew York, li. I., for the best twelve named

varieties of dahlias _ 5

Baskets axd Bouquets.

P. laid tV: Son. I'rooklyn, L. I., for tlie l)est l)asket of flowers.. 10
Ekireh «.fc Fitzpatrick, \d Union Square, for the best hand-l)()U-

qnet. LTeoinetrically arranored 5

\V. <.t J. Cransloun, llobokcn, X. J., for the l)est naturally

arrauLTcd b()U(|uet 5

-Mrs. J. W. Faulkner, Stamford. Conn., for the best phantom

bouquet 5

Mrs. W. PniL^cr. 21 West 11th street, for a beautiful specimen

of tlowers naturally preserved 5

Special.

^^'nl. Fitzpatrick, Xo. 121.) l>road\vay, for a set of floral deco-
rations for the table 25

l.saac Buchanan, Xo. U West 17th .street, for the best six orchids
in Idoom, Barrow premium 20

^Vnl. r>;iker, Xo. KU East 12d street, for the best orchids in
bloom, n.irrow premium 8

James C. I'rovost, Grecnpoint, L. I., for an excellent specimen
of brandy _ Diploma.

Andre LcBoy. Anrrers, France, for his efTorts in introducin«i; the
choicest fruit of France, to be cultivated in this country,

liarire (iold Medal.

.lohn IIend«'rson, Jersey City, X. J., for a sujierior exhil)ition
of plants in bloom . Silver Medal.

20 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Receipts and expenditures of the Horticultural Exhibition, held under
tJte direction of the Committee on Jlortieulture of the American
Institute, SejJteniber 21th, •2>>th, 2'Jth and oOth, 18G4.

Keckiits.

From salos of tickets $175 50

,[. W. l^.irrow, special prcniiiun 2<S 00

From INIrs J. W. Faulkner, donation 5 00

John G. Bcrgcu, donation _ iJ 00

$211 50
Appropriation American Institute, passed Aug. 11, 18G4, 42 4 11

$635 ()I

ExrEXDITURES.

Printing circulars, posting hills, etc $95 58

Ticket-seller and door-keeper 14 00

Cari)enters' -work, ttc. — tables 17 25

Gas fixtures 5 20

Use of crockei'v and G:lass 2<> 00

Freijrht and cartage 31) 00

Postaii^e, cleaning, <tc 23 08

Premiums 418 50

$635 61

Amount outdandinr/, chargeahle to this account.

Premiums ._ ^54 00

Tables, &c 30 00

Gaslight 15 00

Clerk hire and labor 186 00

$285 00

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB.

Ill I.KS ANlt RkcII.ATIONS OF THE FaRMERS' ClUB OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE,
ADOPTED BY THE COMMITTEE OF AGRICULTURE.

1. Any porson may become a member of this Club, and take part in the
debate by simply coiilViriiiinp; to its rules.

2. Any member, for di«urderly conduct, may be expelled by a vote of the
majority.

3. The minutes of the Club, notices of meetings, etc., shall, as formerly,
be under the contr(d of the Secretary.

4 The Club shall be called together Tuesday, at 1| o'clock, P. M., of
each week.

5. A chairman pro tern, shall be chosen at each meeting.

f). The tirst hour of the meeting may be devoted to miscellaneous sub-
jects, as follows: papers or communications b}' the Secretary, communica-
tions in writing, reports from special committees, subjects for subsequent
debate proposed, desultory or incidental subjects considered.

7. The principal subject of debate shall be taken up at 2^ o'clock (but
may be introduced earlier by a vote of the meeting), and continue until 3^
o'clock, unless a motion to adjourn prevail.

8. No person shall speak more than fifteen minutes on the principal
subject, urdess by consent of the meeting.

9. All controversy or personalities must be avoided, and the subject before
the meeting be strictly adhered to.

10. Questions pertinent to the subject of debate, may be asked of each
through th(; chairman, but answers must be brief, and not lead to debate.

11. The chairman may, at any time, call a person to order, and require
him to discontinue his remarks.

12. When any committee is appointed by the Farmers' Club, the mem-
bers of said committee shall be members of the American Institute.

13. No discussion shall be allowed that is not connected with the great
subjects of Agriculture ami Rural Improvement.

May 3, 1864.
Ww Nathan C. Kly, in the chair.

Is THE IllIUPAKB PlANT WhOLESOME ?

Mr. rjeo. Carpenter. — The stalk of the rhubarb properly cooked is a very
delicate- food, and is very grateful to some palates, but it has proved so
detrimental to my general health that my physician has forbidden its use..

A gentleman related a case of a family that used pie-plant leaves for
pn"ccnB, and two of the family sickened and died, the physicians said from
the poison in the leaves. He had never known an injury from the use of
the stalks, though he had often heard it said that the acid was injurious
to teeth. This, if true, should be extensively known, as people's teeth are
generally poor enough in this country, without making them worse by
using an article that can be easily dispensed with.

22 TRANSACTSONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

A New Fertilizer.

Mr. AVni. Van Grawcrit/, 103 "West 49th street, cxliibited ypccimens of
furriers' waste, and eiKinired wlit-tlier its value as a fertilizer ^Ya.s known
here. lie stated that the kind eotnposed mostly of hair cnuld be bought
for 2^ cents a i>ound, and that composed mostly of skin at 3^ cents a
j)onnd, and that 100 tons could now be obtained if fanners would like to
try it for manure. This substance is extensively used in France, l)ut he i»
uot aware that it has been nsed in tliis country.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — I notice that a considerable portion of this sample
is saw-dust, which tiic gentleman states is used in the preparation of tlic
skins to absorb the grease. \ow, as saw-dust is not a valuabh- manure,
I should be afraid that it would be mixed in too large rjuantities-, if the
article became suitable for manure, so as to make a great demand.

Mr. Adrian Bergen. — We Long Island farmers liave found adulteration
one of the great evils of all concentrated nianures. At fnst I found bone
dust and superphosphate, and poudrette, all very excellent, and thought
that I should be able to manure my land very easily — mucli more so than
with bulky manures. I am sorry to say that the manufacturers have so
reduced the standard of their wares, that it is not worth while for any
farmer to buy.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Mr. E. P. Prentice, Albany, N. Y., carried on an
extensive furrier business some j'cars ago, and he tried to induce farmers
to accept of the waste and use it for manure, but could not. lie then
bought a poor, sandy farm, and used the waste upon it, and it proved to
be a most valuable manure, for it made an almost barren land very fertile.
It is not a question now wliethor furriers' waste is a good fertilizer. The
true question is whether farmers can afford t(^ pay the price named, in
preference to buying other fertilizers, or the bulky manures of tlie city.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — All my experinK'iits with concentrated manures
have tended to confirm me in the opinion that all farmers who are so situa-
ted that they can obtain city manures at a moderate cost f)r transportation
will lind them the most economical. The horse-stable manure I have
found preferable, and I find that the straw mixed with the droppings,
an<l whidi has absorbed the liquids, acts not only as a fertilizer to the
plants, but has a mechanical action upon the soil that is beneficial. 1 have
found that our best soil, under a contintied use of C(»nce)itrated fertilizers
and clean culture, deteriorates. I lind that such land is actually benefited
by a growth of weeds after the crop, which, being turned under, act me-
chanically upon the soil and benefit the next crop. As to the (]uesti(tn,
which I wtMild jtreler at the same ct)st, horse or hog manure V I must say
that that depcmls upon the crop I wish to grow. Por pumpkins and coarse
squasheB, hog manure is the most valuable of any kind. For melons, I
sliould prefer hog and horse manure mixed. It is important for many kinds
of early market vegetaldes that we should have the bottom heat which
horse manure gives. Fur others, the cold nature (»f hog manure is valuable.

The Chairman inquired: "ilow about hog manure giving a bad taste to
squashes and other culinary vegetables?"

Mr. John (i. Bergen replied that he never had found it ho in all his expe-
rience as a market gardener.

proceedings of the farmers* club. 23

Sorgo Bagasse as Manure.

Mr. Jolm Willctt, West Cosco, Michig'.in, says tliut lie put sori^o baj^asse
upon wet land, cniployiiig^ a boy to pitch it in the I'uiruw as lie plowed, and
it did not prove deleteiious, but on the contrary lie had a good crt)p of
corn.

Mr. Win. Hliss, Davenport, Illinois, says that he has used bagasse with
stKccss, as follows: "After pruning niy grape vines in the fall, 1 lay them
down and cover them with it. This covering is hift on the ground as mulch
The quantity is so great that it prevents the growth of weeds, rendering
lioeing unnecessary. Late in the fall I cover my strawberry beds with it;
in the spring remove it to the currant bushes and other shrubbery, and lay
it (juile thick on the ground. The pith very soon decays, the other part
mostly within a year, leaving the surface of the ground very loose and
mellow. You need not be afraid of any acid about it being detrimental to
vegetation. People who are not able or willing to pave their walks from
dwelling to out-houses can put the crushed cane on, and thus by having a
cleanly walk save the women folks an innnensc amount of labor. The earth
among my currant bushes is as loose as though it had been spaded; and
under this treatment it was astonishing to see how the}^ are laden with
fruit. I left a Diana, Kebecca and two or three Catawbas on the trellis
exposed to the climate, and they do not appear to be injured."

Gas Lime — Its Value as a Manure.

^fr. Solon Robinson. — We have frequently had this question before the CI ub :
"What is the value of gas lime as a fertiliser?" The question has never been
di'finitely anwered. Here is what is tliought of it in Scotland. An Edinburgh
gas maker says: "I believe that waste gas lime is equal in efficiency to fresh
lime for most of the purposes aimed at in its use in farm lands. I sold all
the lime thus produced at a gas work in Forfarshire for sixteen years to
several farmers, who uniforndy expressed their satisfaction therewith.
One very usual application of it was its mixture with the ' wrack,' viz:
the large piles of weeds and tangled roots of grass cleared oil" the fields
annually. On being composted in this way the lime gradually killed all
the vitality of these weeds, and returned them to the land in the way of
manure. It also served the purpose of opening up stiff clay soil, being lirst
spread over the surface and then plowed down. But the chief and most
beneficial use of gas lime is found in its admixture with farm yard manure
at the time it is applie<l to the fields. This is explained by the fact that
the lime from gas works, while retaining all its original properties as a
hydrate of lime, has acquired, in addition, a large amount of sulphur, much
of which \n/ree, and when openly exposed is taken up readily by the oxygen
of the atmtisphcre. This sulphur, so readily parting from the lime, enters
into combination with the volatile ammcjniacal elements of the fresh man-
ure, retaining them in the form of sulphate of ammonia, to be afterwanl
taken up gradually by the crop to which it has thus been applied. It is
in the first and last mentioned application that gas lime has proved most
beneficial in those cases coniing within my own knowledge. It is not equal
to newly burned lime shells for breaking up^stiff clays."

24 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The Secretary said tliat it was an axiom of Prof. Mapes that g'aa lime
should not be used until it had been s(!vcral years exposed to the atmoa-
pher(\

Mr. Martin K. Tlumipsoii. — That i.s because it contains some of the {j^aa
when first thrown out of the gas works, and that, we know, is poisonous
to all vegetation.

Mr. John 0. Bergen. — Yet I understand that gas lime is much sought
after b}' man}' farmers, who consider it A-aluable. I have never used it.

Mr. George Bartlett. — I have been told by the gas makers of this city
that they sell all of their lime for agricultural purposes. If that is the case
its value ought not to be a matter of doubt in this vicinity, and those who
have used it ought to give their experience.

Liquid Grafting Wax.

Mr. L'lloinme Lefort invented, not many years ago, a grafting composi-
tion, which is very cheap, very easily prepared, and keeps, corked up in a
bottle with a tolerably wide mouth, at least six months unaltered. It is
laid on as thin a coat as possible, by means of a flat piece of wood. Within
a few daj's it will be as hard as a stone. It is not aifected by severe cold;
it never softens or cracks when exposed to atmospheric action. Wiicn
applied to wounds in trees it acts as an artificial cuticle. After a few
days' exposure to the atmosphere-in a thin coat, it assumes a whitish color
nnd becomes as hard as stone, being impervious to water and air. As
long as the inventor kept the preparation secret it was sold at very higii
])rices.

It is made after the following formula: i\Ielt one pound of common rosin
over a gentle fire. Add to it an ounce of beef tallow and stir it wi'll. Take
it from the fire, let it cool down a little, and then mix with il a tablcspoon-
ful of spirits turpentine, and aficr tliat about seven ounces of very strong
alcohol (95 per cent.), to be had at any druggist's store. The alcohol cools
it df)wn so rapidly that it will be necessary to put it again on the fire,
stirring it constantly. Still the utmost care must be exercised to prevent
the alcohol from getting inflamed. To avoid it the best way is to reniovo
the vessel from the fire when the lump that may have been formed com-
mences melting again. Tiiis must be continued till the whole is a homoge-
neous mass, similar to honey.

Mr. Geo. Bartlett — Tiiis is un<l()ul)tedly a valuable recipe. I have found
that gtuu shellac, dissolved in alcohol, was one of the most useful prepara-
tions that a gardener could have, and it should always Im; kept on iiand
and used like paint to coat over any wounds in trees. In budding, it is a
great saving of labor, when you wiisli to cut away branches, to give the
new one from the bud an opportunity to grow, as it excludes the air until
lh(; wound heuls.

Jlors — How TO Save Expense of Poles.

Mr. Solon Kobinson — The common n)ethod of poling hops with two
poles to each hill, is estimated at 8100 an acre. Various devices have l>een
made to save a portion of this expense.

PROCEEDINGS OF TIIK FARMERS* CLUB. 25

Mr. Will. Illinails, Hal)CiK-U Hill, N. Y., says (in 27i« Country Gimlleman).

'' One way is to set the rows six or seven feet apart — then the liill.s nine
feet apart in tlie rows. Then use stakes .seven feet loii<^ out of the ground
— stakes square on the top. Set them between every third and fonrtii hill,
then use No. 9 wire, strained tight over the top of these stakes — then one-
third of the distance from the wire to the ground, use a line of marline,
drawn tiglit and wound around each stake, parallel with the wire — then
from eaih hill run two .small strings to the wire ; fasten tlicm two or three
feet apai t.

'Training Ihe Vind^. — "Start two green heads up each string. When
they reieh the wire, then train them each way ; the arms will hang dinvn
so as to fasten on the marline below — train them as above.

'•Concerning the yield, lean onl}' tell from observation and hearsay,
which was very flattering indeed, compared with the expense of the com-
mon way of two poles to each hill, at a cost of S150 per acre.

" Ballnoning is my favorite way. Use one pole for nine hills; hills seven
by eight feet apart — short stakes to each hill except the one the pole is at;
pole 18 or 20 feet long; use common wool twine from the top of the stakes
to the top of the poh;, to train the vines on.

" I have one yard, about five acres, that is wired with No. 8 wire, which
I like very well. The poles are set at each end, and between the seventh
an<l eighth hills. I have noticed some yards with short stakes running
(>n(? row and a half to each wire; then run strings from the top of each
stake to the wire."

The Chairman — This is important information, as the consumption of
malt liquor is so rapidly increasing that the growing of hops beconies an
itenj of some account in American farming. Indeed, the crop now is a
very important one in some counties in this State.

IIow TO Trap Ants.

Mr. Solon liobiiisor. — Mouses that are infested with ants, black or red, may
be disinfected by a little attention to trapping them. A sponge is one of the
best things for trapping them. S[)riiikle it with dry white sugar, the sponge
being slightly moist, it will adhere. The ants will go into the cells of the
npong*.' alter the sugar in large nund)ers, and cm be destroyed in hct water,
and the sponge S(iueezed out and sugared again, and returned to the closet
for another haul, until all arc caught. Housekeepers will please not to com-
|)lain any more, after they learn this, about the way they arc tormented
with ants.

Mr. John (». Hergen — I am much obliged to Mr. Robinson for prt^scnting
llfat receipt. It looks reasonable and will prove valuable to many house-
keepers. I Would also stiggest a large coarse sponge to trap crotoii l)Ugs,
as we call the small cockroaches that infest some of the houses in this city
to such an extent as render them unfit for comfortable habitations. The
plan is certaitdy worth trying for both bugs and ants.

The Maguey Plant in California.

Mr, Solon Robinson — The following very interesting account I find in
a late number of the San Francisco Bulletin. It Bays:

Zb TIlANgACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

This bofiutifiil species of tlic Aj^uvo family is cxcccMling-ly ahiiiidiuit in all
Iho clovalc'd ami nioniitain land of South Caliloiiiia. Its raiig'c is as cxtcn-
sivo as from Ccdfos Ihlaiid, in lalitiido 28 degici'S, to the nuttlieni line of
Monterey county. It is als(» met with in some parts of the southeru di-
vision of the Sierra Xevadas. It is also well known in North ^lexico. It
{generally prefers the coast line at from 1,000 to 3,000 feet elevation, and
prows in the most arid and rocky localities. It is particularly abundant
in the mountains around Santa IJarbara, Santa Yne/., and San Buenaven-
tura, where it is known amoiij;* the Indians and native Californians as
KaJiolr, or the Little Mapuey. It is a species allied to the American Aloo
or century plant of Mexico. The latter is a preat curiosity in Kuropc and
the United States, and is the article fr-'Ui wiiich is made the pulque of the
Mexicans, and also rope, paper, and a thousand other useful thing's.

"The California Maj^uey is mentioned by all the old Spanish expeditions
before 1545, even from the times of Cortez. as extensively used by the
Indians of the Californias, who roasted the stem until it turned as sweet
as the supar-cane In this state it was invariably brought as presents to
the Spanish sailors as one of the most desirable of gifts.

"The habit of the plant and its outlines are similar to the century plant,
except that it is in every respect more gracc^ful and beautiful. The size of
the leaves is not a seventh part of that of the Mexican Maguey, nor arc
they serrated on the edg'es. Tiiey are not thicker than the rind of an
orange, whereas its riiagnifieent Mexican re lativc has leaves a yard or two
long, and an inch thick at the base. Tiic stem of the ('alifornia i)lant is
also gciK-rally much smaller, th(Migh it is often found growing fifteen feet
in height in favorable localities, and three inches in diameter, which is nearly
that of the other species named. The stem grows straight up, and is bright
green in color; and when in bloom, from April to August, according to
latitude and elevatit»n in our southern countries, the flowers arc disposed
in alternat<' panicles of little bells.

"When in full blow the flowers are as while as the purest snow, form-
ing one of the most nnitjue and magniticent lloral displays v.'hen a muuber
of them are neighbors it is possibhr to conceive. Imagine the sides of
Telegraph Ilill all covered with green telegraph poles, adorned from top
to bottom with snow white bell (lowers, each llower as large as a pigeon's
t'gffi '""1 emitting a faint violet order, and some idea may be formed of
their a|)i)earancc and perfume on their native mountain sides at jtarticular
seasons.

"The leaves of the Maguey are bayonet slia|)e, of a light green, with n.
point sharp and hard as a needle, and the plant, instea<l of occupying two
yards diameter, like the Mexican Maguey, would t)nly fill a bushel basket
leaving out the stalk or pillar, which is of extreme .symmetry and beauty.
The llowers commence to arrange; themselves alternately two or lhre<!
feet from the base, and hang their litlh- white banner cupp to the bree/.e,
one or two hundred to each plant from small arm stalks. Tlies(!eds, which
are very numerous, are Hat and black, and the size of those of a parsnip,
and their receptacle is of the dimensions and figure of a green gage.

"The native Calif(»rnians and Indians roast the green stems and roots
in an earthen oven, and when properly cooked they are very sweet and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMEBS' CLUB. 27

mitrititius, and favorite articles of food. Tlic jdaiit is said to lie found in
Bonic of tlio mountains around San Francisco, and is well known to every
(\ilifornian boy and Indian. In the soutlieni counties tliey Idonni every
three or four years, and then die; but in tlie cohl hititude of the bay it is
}>robabh' tliey are more tardy in tioweriii.u- ajid seediiif^. Tliey are thi' very
home of rattU'snakes, and tlie road-runner birds or correo del caiiiino, and
the huminiiij^ bird and little native canary of the country tiiid al)iindaiice of
insect food in its bell llowerw. Nothing can surpass the evident sense of
lite and enjoyment of these feathery admirers of the Ma^jjuey blossoms, aa
they dart in and out of each snow-white habitation of their musketo prey.
The plant is called stackay by the indians around San IJuenaventura and
Santa Barbara; and akol by those of St. Diego, in wiiich last locality it is
very ab»indant."

How TO Seed Michigan Marshes.

Mr. J^. M. Kose, Amboy, Hillsdale County, Mich., g-ives the following-
directions;

•' I have liad some experience during the last five 3'ears in reclaiming
Michigan marsh land — on a small scale — and am willing that others should
be benetited by my experience. I have tried a variety of experiments and
have now good timothy growing on muck five feet thick, where five years
ago nothing grew but the rankest, coarsest kind of sickle grass. The sub-
soil is clay. A part of it has been mowed two years, yielding a very heavy
crop of the very best kind of hay. If farmers will exercise a little common
sense, and a great deal of perseverance, I think they will succeed. If I
ha«l another marsh to subdue I should proceed as follows : First: Draw
ofl' the surface water but nothing more. Deep draining leaves the land
t«io dry. Second: If it could be plowed I should mow it in August, take
off the grass and then turn it over with a sharp plow; harrow well and
put on the seed — pure timothy. If it could not be plowed, or if I had not
time to do it I would sow any kind of grass seed that I could get most
easily, caeh spring and fall mowing and removing the grass anil weeds
each year until I got something better than sickle grass. Stock of all

kinds should be kept off." Adjourne<l.

John W. Chamhers, Scvrdary.

May 10, 1SC4.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely, in the chair.

i*EAR Tree Blight.

.\. W . Whrat, Oberlin, Ohio, writes that a great many pear trees in that
vicinity are affected with blight, and wants to know if the Club can give
the cause and cure.

Dr. Trimble said it was remarkable that the disease was unknown in
N'ew-Jrrsf'y.

Mr. Win. W. I'rincc said that he had never had any pear trees affected,
except the St. Michael, at Flushing. His father thought that it was occas-
ioned by the sap becoming overheated upon the south side of the tree.
His remedy is to saw off the affected limb as soon as the blight is discov-
ered.

2S TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Julm G. Borgjen. — Tln-ro are two kinds iA' poar Mij^Iit — one sunimcr
and OIK' winter. I do not think that any one can say what is the cause,
nor give a i-mo. It is much worse upon some soils than othi-rs.

Filtering Cistern.

"Jesse llawley, Sahnu Colninhia C-.)nnty, Ohio, g-ives the fulhiwitiLC as tlic
plan upon whicli he luiilt a filtering- cistern that works well, and hopes it
will be of use to others lit,' says :

"I dnp: my well nbout 30 or o5 feet deep, 10 or 15 feet in the rock,
walled from the rock up, dug- or picked the well largest at the bottom,
cemented as high as I wanted the water to rise. On one side of the well
I dng aliout six or seven feet deep, and made the bottom in the form of
half an egg, with the little end down, in order to brin,g the filtered water
to one point, and then conveyed the same into the well, through a hole
made for that purpose. I filled the filterer, with gravel and charcoal, put-
ting the fine gravel in the bottom; then a layer of sand, theji co:il, and so
on until full, imtting coarse gravel on the top to receive the water from
the conducter. I leave the top of the filter in the form of a basin. Where
there is no rock the well for the cistern should be dug not less than 25 feet
deep. If the wall is too loose to plaster, it must be walled six or eight
feet at bottom, and ordy two or three feet at top, tlie month being secured
by an iron ritig. Such a cistern will give cool healthy water.*'

How TO Grow Mushrooms.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Mushroom beds are made in cellars or caves, arti-
ficial or natural. Horses' droppings are piled compactly ten or twelve
inches deep, and pieces of the mushroom spawn are inserted in holes about
six inches apart, and slightly covered. Tiie bed is then smoothly covered
with rich earth one or two inches deep, and the bed kept at the tempera-
ture of about 75 deg-. Fahrenheit. It may need watering occasionally with
luke-warm water. Il will take five or six weeks for the plants to show,
and they will mature in two days and continue in bearing several months.
The mushroom spawn can be obtained at seed stores. It comes in form,
and has somewhat the appearance of a sun-dried brick. It would be use-
less to make the roof of the caves of wood, as the room is kept so close and
warm that it will decay and fall in witliin three years.

Crimson Peas.

Jonathan Lee, Salisbury, Ct., sends a sample of crimson ])eas obtained
from an accid<-ntal seedling found in his g^arden, which he supposed migiit
have been produced by a hybridization of the Black-eyed .Marrowfat with
the Victoria or Champion. These are from the third crop. The vines grow
U[»on richly manurerl land ten or twelve feet long, thick set with po<ls, and
independent of their value as food, Mr. Lee thinks they nuiy be useful for
coloring, an they aflord a good crimson dye. He inquires whether such a
pea is well known, and if s<», what is its history. Th(> flower of the vino
is of a purple color, as an; those of some other late bearers.

Mr. Trincc said that these peas are common in England, and it is proba-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 29

Me that a siiij^lo one was iiiix<Ml willi tliose which the gentleman bonglit
anil planted. They are always inentinned in the London catalognes, and
appear tu be n>orc esteemed there than here. I imported them tliirty years
since.

Laws of Maine which every other State should Copy.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — The following' interesting letter from Mr. A. Drew,
Augusta, Maine, I read in ho|)es that other States will follow the example:

"By a law of this State any person, to the acceptance of the selectmen
of towns or the mayors of cities, who will construct a watering trough or
tub by tln^ roadside, into which a constant stream of pure spring water
sliall be discharged, acceptable to man and beast, shall be entitled to $Z
aiuiually fn»m tiio municipal authorities, to be deducted from his amount of
yearly taxes. In consequence of this law there is not a town, and hardly
a road, in Maine where the traveler will not find, at convenient distances,
the relVeshment of a fountain of clean, living water, where he can conven-
iently water iiis horse, and where, generally by means of a tin vessel hanging
u[)on a p<Kst near by, he may slake his own thirst with the real " Maine law "
beverage. (Tliis State, you know, by law prohibits all dronrjer waters.)

"Ex-Gov. John Hubbard, of the neighboring city of Uallowell, is enti-
tled to the credit of originating this law. In the course of an extensive
professional practice as physician and surgeon, he had often been called
into various and distant parts of the State, journeying with his own beast
he realized the want of frequent and accessible watering i>laces; and a
dozen or fifteen years ago, when he was Governor, he suggested to the
Legislature the expedience of a law encouraging people residing upon the
highways to provide watering troughs or tubs for the refreshment cf horses,
oxen and even human travelers, and offering them a bounty therefor by an
abatement on their taxes. The Legislature saw the propriety of his idea,
and legalized it at once. Since which time you can travel far on no
settled road in ALiine witliout meeting with a neat watering privilege,
always kept in order. This Maine law for the provision of Adam's ale on
all public roads, and the other Maine law for the prohibition of intoxicating
liquors, as well as his paternity of the State Keform School for Juvenile
OlVinders, are three measures of Dr. Hubbard's administration, whicli are
enough to give him a historic record on the archives of his native State.

"There is another law of the Dirigo State which I think is entitled to
national commendation. By this law the authorities of towns and cities
are authorized to give bounties to farmers or other citizens who shall orna-
ment streets and roads where they reside, by planting out and protecting
rows of hardy shade trees. This is already done to a great extent in many
of our towns. True, the trees are yet young, but time and care will secure
their full growth, when nothing can be handsomer than the" view of rcjads
and avenues made green and shady by the over-arching tops of magnificent
trees. Had this work been done fifty years ago, farms would have risen a
high percentage in market value, and Maine at this day would have been
tlie most brautiful Stale in the Union for the traveler, as she will be, under
the operation of this law, fifty years hence. All our highways, then, will
be as refreshing and beautiful as any of the avenues of the Khine,

30 TRANSACTIONS OF TIIi: AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

" \Vr liave a ji^rcat variety of rxi'cllciit forest trees for this purpose,
ftinoii^' which ii\ay bo reeUoued the elm, (l»olli the erect ami the weepiiif^J
the maple, (siiicur ami white.) the limleii or basswuod, ash, hickory, cherry,
buttcrrmt, willow, ami other deciduous varieties, beside everji^reens; tho
silver fir, spruce, arbor vita», hendock and pines. By a j^ood taste in
arranging' these roadside linings, having reference to summer and winter
ornamentations, the effect may be greatly eidianced. Wliat, in tlie hot sea-
son, is more refreshing than a shaded iiighway, especially if to this is added
tlie ^[aiIle law luxury of cool water fountains every mile or two ?

" A word or two with regard to the rock or sugar maple. Tliese are
indigenous to our State. The forests are full of them. Some of the largest
and handsomest trees I ever saw are in the native forests of Aroostook.
Our white oaks or pines are hardly more valuable than the rock maples.
For fuel they are about ecjual to hickory; for ship timber the}' are excel-
lent; for furniture, especially the bird's-eye species, they are valuable, and
for the saccharine quality of their sap everybody knows their sweetness.
As ornamental trees, too, they excel. The forms are symmetrically coni-
cal, the branches and foliage thick and dense; and then they are remarka-
bly clean, never being polluted by vermin as the elm is. True, tliey are
liable to borers, like apple, pear, linden and accacia trees, but these make
no external offences.

"Many years ago the streets of our citj' (Augusta) were nearly all lined
witli shade trees, consisting mostly of sugar maples. This was done at the
instance of the late Judge Fuller. But he, and others after him, have com-
mitted one great error. Bef(jre setting out the young trees they decapita-
ted them, in order to make them send out lateral branches. This contra-
dicted tlie intentions of nature, which never intended to have the head of
anything cut off; and the consequence has been that a weakened, rotten
place was occasioned where the decapitation took place, and the uppermost
lateral branches, on becoming large, have split off from the main stem, and
thus ruined very many ftf our otherwise beautiful trees.

The (.'liairman — Dr. Hubbard, who is mentioned in the letter, and with
whom I am intimately acquainted, is a gentleman that deserves well of his
C4juntry.

Mr. John 0. Bergen said: I cannot too highly commend the whole of this
letter to public attention, and particularly that part of it that recommends
planting shade trees by tlie road-side. There are a great many places
where road-side watering places cannot be provided, but none where trees
cannot be planted — none whert; the value of farms would not b(; increased.
I must diller from the direction which seems to indicate that the tops of
trees never should be cut off. If it is c<nTect in regard to the maple, it is
not in most trees, for thcjy are apt to grf)W so tall in nurseries that the head
will nut assume a handsonx! shapes unless cut off when transplanted.

How TO Plant Fiuit Trees.

The Chairman inquired how he shouhl plant a lot of pear trees, ordered
from RochcKter six weeks ago, which he is now advised liave been shipped,
and will proljably be in a bad condition when tliey arrive. Will it be best
to water them freely ?

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 31

Mi\ ^\'m. >. Curpentor. — Tlie roots of tlio trees sliould be cut ofT to abi)ut
tell iiiclies eacli siile the tree before it is planted. The roots sliouhl be well
Kpreinl out and the earth placetl round all the roots with the lingers; it is
useless to use water; the earth should be well pulverized, and the trees
should be mulched with litter. I received some choice trees and plants from
France; these trees had been packed two months, and I was surprised on
openinj:^ the boxes to find the trees in perfect order. Among' them wero
some Kh«nl<>dendrons and Mag-nolias. These plants were in splendid con-
dition. They were in full blossom. The roots were well packed in moss,
which had been slightly moistened. The subject of ])acking trees is an
important one and is hardly known among^ our nurserymen.

The Secretary cntjuired how they were packed ?

Mr. Win. S. Carpenter. — They came in a larjjc bo.K, the roots closely
packed with moss at each end of the box ; the tops of the trees were
towards the center, and were loose.

Mr. Geo. Bartlett said that, in planting- a great numl)er of trees, he had
been most successful in the following practice: When the tree is placed in
tlie hole it is held in position by one man, while another pours two pails of
water in, and immediately sifts in line soil, previously prepared. The water
causes it to pack so firmly about the roots that the tree will stand without
staking- better than with stakes if planted dry, and, what is better, never
fails to live. That is the way I would plant those which the Chairmau
supposes will be somewhat dried up wlien he gets them.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — I think the ideas advanced by 3Ir. Carpenter arc
correct. I consider it very important that the soil should be well prepared,
it is necessary that the branches slu)uld be shortened also; in very dry
weather I use a little water; the earth should be well packed round the
root.s.

Mr. Geo. Bartlett. — 1 fully concur in the mode of pruning the roots and
tops, but my plan is to dig the hole large, and, after putting in the tree, I
pour two pails of water into the hole and sift the well-putverized <;arth
round the tree; by this means I have always been successful with the trees
I have set out.

Hard Soap for Family Use.

Mrs. Mary A. Walker writes tlu.* following letter from Burlington, Vt. :
*' I have notiecd in your reports of the Farmers' Club that occasionally
you favfircd the ladies and kindly lent a helping hand whenever they asked
for information. And now, don't turn a deaf ear just because this commu-
nication does not come from a man, upon grape culture, jM)tato rot, or moon
thef)ries. Do you not know, fathers, that of the 200,000 th;it listen weekly
to your words, nearly f>nc-half are females, and, of course, they watch
oagerly for anything which will benefit them. In short, as letters must bo
brief, we want to know how to make hard soap. Farmers' wives all liave
a will, and would it not be a luxury for them to make and lay by for the
365 days 100 pounds of white hard soap ? Remember that for every pound
of hard soap we buy wo have to pay 28 cents. So please donate a part of
a session to us."

32 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The Secretary. — I liave seen lianl soap made in tlic following way :
"Take 25 pounds of tallow and two quarts of tdive oil — put lliis in your
boiler and set it over the fire until the talluw is melted, then add 10 pounds
of caustic soda ley, strength 32 per cent., stir with a wooden si)atula; the
heat must now be increased and the mixture kept constajitly stirred to pre-
vent it adhering to the bottom and sides of the boil<-r; at the end of three
or four hours the mixture assumes a whitish appearance, as, by continuing
the heat, the aquc(tus part is entirely evaporated and the mass reduced to
a perfectly dry state. The heat is now increased, and in a short time the
mass becomes again of a li<|nid form and changes to a brownish color, which
indicates that the combination of the fat vrith the alkali is effected. The
boiler is then lifted off the fire, but the stirring is continued so long as any
danger of scorching is ajiprehcnded. The second part of the operation
consists in breaking up the product whicli is now in a solid form. To this
add one gallon of pure water and thoroughly agitate the mixture for half
an hour. The boiler is then set on the fire and the contents raised to the
boiling point and kept so for about three hours, during which time the stir-
ing and agitation must be continued. So soon as the evap(nation has beeu
carried to the desired extent and the soap appears of a proper consistency,
it is allowed to cool grudnally. The whole contents of the boiler, while yet
in a liquid state, arc now put into the ordinary frames and left to cool.
The da}' following the contents of the frame will be found hard enough for
cutting."

Mr. H. T. Babbitt, New York, furnishes the following receii)t: "Take
one pound of concentrated potash dissolved in 12 quarts of water in a kettle
calculated to make the soap, a<ld to the ley 5 pounds of grease, and boil
slow until it becomes soap, which will take from one to five hours. Aild
water to the kettle as it boils down; keep about the same (jiiantily in the
kettle until it becomes soap. Then add 3 ounces of common salt and boil
10 minutes, which will separate the water frcjm the soap. If rosin is
wanted, melt that in a separate kettle; add ley t > it until it becomes thick,
which will take about one quart to a pound of rosin. Then add the rosin
t() the boiling soap before the salt is added. The salt causes the soaj) to
separate from the water and rise upon the top. AVhen cold it can Ik; tak(>n
off or dipped into molds while hot. The above hard soap may be perfumed
just before it is cool. It will be understood that when the ley is loo strong
it will not mak(j soap, therefore if the kettle, while boiling, is not kept with
about the same (juantity, the ley would b(»il down too strong before the
ioap is made."

A lady correspondent furnishes the following: " This is my receipt, an<l
is easier than the one given: Take two pails of soft soap, add a pint bowl
half full of salt; bring it to a bfiil, and let it stand till cold; cut up and
put itito a ketth.-; add half a pound (tf soda-ash or sal soda and four ounces
quick-lime, pn;viously slaked with two ipiarts of boiling water and setthid
clear; drain off the; clear water into the soajt; Ijoil all together till tin; soda
is dissolvi'd, and then cool a litth; and turn into shalhjw boxes; when cold,
cut into bars and tlry in the sun."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — This is doubtless a good process. So is that given
by Mr. Babbitt.

PROCEEPISaS OF TFIK FARMERS* CLUB. 33

Mr. li. S. IliiiiiiMn, IMcasaut Vulc, Ct., sends \\\c ((illdwini:; f(ir tnakiii;^ ;i
first-rato Jirticlf i>f hard soap for family use, which is good for clothes-wush-
iiig or t(»ilot use: Clean wlutc grease, G pounds; sal soda, 6 pounds; lime,
3 pounds. Slake the lime in 4 gallons of water, and add the soda and heat
to boiling, and then stand till the water will pmr off clear, quite free from
settlings. Now add the grease and boil till it is soap, and, when c(Jol
enough, pour into a 8uital)le form to cut out l)ars when cold.

Hard soap can also be made by using an article sold under the name of
saponifier, by following the directions given on the box.

Wheat and Fruit.

Dr. S. J. Parker of Ithaca. It has been said that the past winter has
been a severe one on fruits and wheat and other products. If so, we have
a favored spot, here in the Cayuga valley. As to wheat, no more com-
plaints have been made of loss than usual. Most of our wheat of this
eastern part of the Genesee country is of the winter variet}', little or no
Buow covered it the past winter. It stands a little thin, yet for miles in
the .sight of my house the lovely green of thousands of acres attest that we
8hal! have a fine crop if the balance of the season is good. Four years
ago much spring wheat was sown as the insect ruined the wheat, but the
insect is gone and the winter wheat is sown as the best wheat.

Peaches are opening their blossoms. Cherries and pears and apples will
be fidl bloom. Currants, though denuded by the worm of every leaf by
July 25th last year, and had not a leaf fen* the remainder of the season, are
now n full leaf and full of fruit buds just opening.

Grape buds are safe, and expanding finely, though the roots are black-
ened by the open winter, near the top of the Hoil, and the grape crop
promises to be a rich one.

A letter from Kelly's Island, Ohio, says : "Yours, and your box sent me
of grape roots are safe at hand. I see your roots have suffered a good
deal, about as much as our's here, by the sudden cold of January. I never
saw roots killed half as bad as last winter. Thousands of roots have evury
fibre dead. One man had Delaware roots for.sale, strong plants, and I found
every one dead. My Delaware, Concord, Diana, &c., stood well. Allen's
hybrid killeil to the ground, as were Linccdn, Clara, Ilerbemont and others."

Now what I want to note is, that though my roots look blackened near
me surface, .say eight inches off the top of the ground, yet they are not dead,
nor arc the fruit buds injured. My Lincoln is killed root and all. Taylor
Bulli't lo.st all the fibers and spongioles of the root, y^et the vine and fruit
survives. Diana also swells its buds slowly and has its rootlets injured.
Indeed I regard this as peculiar in several grapes and ask attention to it.

The shnvness of the expansion of the buds show that the vino has to re.
vivc the rootlets before it can grow vigorously. Several of my new fcvU-
lings that I hybridized in 1861 and 1862, are dead root and all, even when
covered with six inches of earth.

But on tlu? whole, nature wears a smiling face and flourishes wvU in this
vicinity, notwithstanding it has been a winter with less snow than ever
before within the memory of man.

Adjourned. Jonx W. CiuMnERS, Secretary.

I Am. In3T.] C

34 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair. J/ay 17, 1864.

Poor Man's Manure.

Mr. Natliaii Whittoii, Etna, PonobscDt comity, Mo, says : "I wish to
give my e.xperience about what has always been termed ' poor man's man-
ure.' Several years ago 1 was breaking up pasture ground in April, upon
which to plant potatoes. A strip about two rods wide and twenty rods
long was left unfinished at night. During the night four or five inches of
damp snow fell, and the next day that was turned under. No more was
thought of the circumstance until the crop made its appearance. Tiiis was
when good crops of potatoes could be produced M'ithout manure; and no
manure was applied in this case. The whole piece Avas treated alike-, but
when the potatoes came up, this strip developed rank, vigorous plants,
while the other portion of the field produced far more feeble plants, and
exliibited the same appearance throughout the season. A fair crop was
dug from the two sides of the field, but from the middle it was truly mar-
velous, producing more than twice as many on the same amount of land.

" I have been thus exjilicit because I consider facts better than theory.
Now it makes little difference to the farmer what chemical or philosophical
principle is involved in this question; whether one of the thousand and one
elements so much talked about now-a-days, or all of them, produced the
result; or whether it is some other more subtile gas or fluid, that defies
detection, so long as he knows the result is favorable to crops. I know
this is an isolated case. I could state others, but think this will do for the
present."

There was plenty of theorizing over this statement, but facts of any im-
portance were not adduced. Mr. Bartlett said that as freezing water expels
all gases, he could not understand how snow could contain ammonia. Mr.
Solon Robinson said that when plowed under it would tend to make the
furrow slices lie more lightly and aerate the soil. Turning dew under is
beneficial to land. Snow mixed with flour, only dissolving just enough to
wet it and make into cakes, and baked immediately, makes light, sweet
biscuit. Why not make the land light?

Mr. W. S. Carpenter conceded great benefit to land from spring .'^nows,
acting as a mulch, but did not believe that it could be of any benefit, plowed
under, lie and all other doubters are recomniended to try the experiment.

The Goitre in Lambs.

Three letters in answer to the inquiry of Mr. Dean, of Parma, Mich., for
a remedy for this disease, were read. One from a corrospondent who
writes from llipton, Vt., recommends a surgical operation to remove the
lumps in the necks of young lambs. As soon as they are discovered, fix a
pair of splints, one upon each side, so as to prevent the lump pressing upon
the windpipe, which is the cause of deatii, and then get a person of suf-
ficient skill to cut out the lump and sew up the wound. It is important, the
writer says, to save? lamlis in that vicinity, since at one year old they often
H<'II from 8100 to $1,0U() each, and some have been sold at 82,000. One
two year old ram sheared a fleece of one year's growth that weighed 23 Ibs^
and he then weighed only 102 lbs.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 35

Mr. Milo C. I'fck, Bcnsim, Vt., says : "One year I lust twn-tliinls (jf
my pnie brei'd Iambs IVdiii the same disease; I atUiluitc the cause to high
feed oil Lfi aiii, and laek of extjrcisc for the slieep. I ctjiisulled ' Youatt,
Skinner & RandalPs Hook on Shccp-Htishaii'liy,' an'i I'ohikI tiiat there was
no euro for it save by the h'ss use of i;rain and nioi-e exercise. They g'ive
the name of goitre or swelled neck, pr(d)ably not one in a lnnidn;d live to
iiiatme with them in their throat. Mr. Joseph .Sheldon, uf Fair Haven, in
this county, has a buck bred by Victor Wright, of Cromwell, Vt., which
has them, and yet he is lialo and hearty, and is the tnost valnal)le S[)aiiish
Merino buck in this crmnty, and is valued at S3, 000. lie never en-
tails the bunches in his lambs, and, - therefore, it cannot bo hereditary.
My practice has been since I lost so many 1 nnbs from this disease to give
my brood ewes good hay and water till about the 1st of March, tlien I com-
mence giving them lightly of grain till they begin to drop their Iambs, then
give grain and roots freely. Since I have pursued this course, 1 have iiad
no trouble with goitre."

Mv. A. (J. Percy writes from Newark, Wayne county, N. Y., and con-
tends that the disease is organic, and tiiat " the only cur(! is to cease
breeding from bucks or ewes that have any connection or relation to flocks
that have produced them. I have no doiilit, in my own mind, that the dis-
ease is hereditary, and of a scrofulous nature, as bucks do not always trans-
mit it, for it is well authenticated, that bucks having large lumps in their
necks have been used, never producing a single lamb that had lumps in its
neck; then again, bucks that had small lumps, have transmitted to almost
every lamb that they sire."

Mr. .Aaron Reynolds, Jackson, Mich., says he thinks half the lambs in
that county die of goitre. "Six years ago I paw the first case of goitre.
In two years I did not raise one lamb in five. My ewes were all fat. I
sold them to a man who kept them very poor ; says he has no trouble with
goitre. Two years ago I bought 40 ewes in the fall; all wore very poor-
In the spring they were all in high order. I raised 37 lambs, anclhad three
or four cases of goitre. This spring the ewes were all fat. Number of
ewes, 30. Several had twins. I have rais(!d 8 of them. All had swelled
neck but four. Some lived two days, and died. Those that make out to
live do well. I have a pet wether four years old that has it, but it never
seems to get any larger. If the swelling is close to the jaws, they arc
sure to die; if down the nvddle of the neck, they arc more apt to live. As
many reasons are assigned as there are for potato rot. The poorest kept
flocks suffer but little. Ewes in high order have but few lambs that live.
I keep l)ut a small flock, from GO to 100; keep them in yard from December
to middle of April; never allow them to get wet while there. I feed clover
and timothy hay, with wheat straw, with plenty of water. Thus they are
in bett'i .rd-r in s|)ring than in the fall — in fact, they are fat.''

A \ ALL ABLE INVENTION FOR StRAWBERY PiCKERS.
This is a sto-.l only weigliing one pound, made with a standard ronnd top
iltached ti» an iron sole, which is strapped to the foot, so that a person may
use with both hands full, and when he desires to move forward, his foot

36 TRANSACTIONS OF THi; AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

moves the stdol along-. It is th • iiivcini f ]-]. Whitiloscy, ILuiiiltoii, N.

J., and, we believe, is (lcsi<^ned to suvc niiniy a Imrk mcIic of n'ardfncrs, lloi-
ists, and stiawbeny pickers.

How THE RisLiNG Grape is Grown in Germany.

Mr. Mieliael Haas, Mendon, St Josepli County, Mieli , j^-ives the follow-
ing account of the way that the Kisling Grape is trained in Germany : A
slont trunk of the vine is formed about three feet hij^h. By the side of
this a stake seven feet high is planted. Two canes are trained upon this
stake, and when they reach the top they are pinched off. In autumn these
canes are laid down upon the ground. Next spring they are raised and
tied in the form of a bow, and thus produce fruit. In the ineantinu! two
other canes are trained to the top (»f the stake. These are laid down tlie
next winter, and the two canes which fruited, cut away. Some full grown
vines are allowed to produce five or six bearing canes. The vines are
planted from eight to ten feet apart. Mr. Haas wants to know if the Dela-
ware and other vines cannot be treated in the same way in this country.

Mr. G. II. Greenman, Milton, Rock County, Wis., who wants information
about grape culture, particularly under glass, is recommended to buy
Chorlt<jn's small book upon cold graj)eries, and Fuller's Grape Culture,
and he will get a thousand times as much information as he could expect
from the discussions here.

Sowing Small Grain with Corn.

Mr. Michael Ilaas, Mendon, St. Joseph County, Mich., wants the Club to
advise th(; farmers to sow small grain with Indian corn, and wants to
know if any one has had experience with winter rape, which is much u.sed in
Germany. If sown in September, it "comes ofT the next year time enough
to sow wheat. It makes a thick mat in the fall, and remains green all win-
ter, and would be just the stuff to plow under for wheat, as we, now-a-days,
don't want it for oil. This is only my say so; I wish to have the Club
give us their advice about it." The seed of rape, he thinks, would costless
than ry<', and be eijually good for winter feed for sheep. Any crop that
will cover the ground and prevent baking, even if it has no other vahu%
Mr. Haas thinks, would more than pay the cost of feed and sowing among
the growing corn.

This matter was well approved by several persons present who had had
some experience with rye, wlutat, and turnips sown among corn.

Manuring Str.\wberries.

Mr. Peleg H. Daniels, Stephentown, N. Y., wants iiiloiina! ion about top-
dressing strawberries in spring.

Mr. Solon Kol)inson. — 'i'he l)i'st time is aiiliinin. If coarse majiure is then
applied, it serves as mulch and fi-rtili/.er If the aulumn dressing has been
neglected, use fine compost liberally early in the spring. Ground may be
too rich for strawberries. It often is too poor. It seldom is too rich.

proceedings of the farmers' club. 37

Opium Poppy.

Mr. A. 1!. Mills, :Mi.Mlrl.iiry, Vt., says that " the socd rlistrilmt<Ml l.y J.
Stork, Cow iitryvillo, dt) not pidduce the oiiimn poppy, but most bciiutitul
llowcrs, wliil<' the Teal opium poppy ilower has no beauty. Tlie seed ciip-
sule of the hitter is as liir<>;e as a good sized hen's eg<^. The two plants
are as uidike as crab apples and pound sweetinj^^s." The Club will proba-
bly be able to distribute seed next year, as some seed sent by Mr. Mills —
all he had — has hvvu planted by one of the members.

Mr. Wfii. K. I'rince. — The opium {loppy, about which imiuiries are mad(;,
is not a handsome flowering sort. The flower is white, single, not large,
but tlie seed bulb is larger than the double-flowering sort. The seed can
lie obtained at seed-stores, or at apothecaries' shops, where the heads are
kept for sale for medicinal purposes.

Apple Trees for Fence-posts.

Mr. 0. W. Stebbens, N. Y., writes as follows : "As an item of useful
information, I will describe a fence of which apple-trees serve as posts,
which has been perfected by Mr. Foy of the Chatauqua County Nurseries.
A board fence is made in the usual manner, except that the boards are
miiled to light pieces of cheap timber in place of posts, and being set upon
Hat stones, the whole is fastened by means of hooks and staples. This
makes not only a strong and durable fence, but also a profitable one, as we
may reasonably expect each post to furnish five or ten bushels of apples in
a season."

Cure for Scratches in Horses.

Gardner Griffith, Iowa City, says: "This disease may be speedily and
thoroiighly cured by shaving closely, but not so closely as to draw the
blood, the warty bunches on the. inside of the legs called castors I think.
I have tried it with perfect success after failing to effect a cure by the use
of the usual remedies. I make no claims to horse philosophy, but will sug-
gest that these castors serve as an outlet for matter necessary to be dis-
charged, and whtfii their pores become closed, as they probably do some-
times in muddy travt-lling, tliis matter seeking an outlet causes tliose'cracks
about the hoof called the scratches."

Mr. W. 8. Carpenter stated that white-footed horses are much more liable
to this disease than black ones.

Potato Experiment.

Mr. .1. W. lieland, Baltimore, Vt., makes the following statement : "In
1862 I put some potatoes on a plot of grass ground, covering them with
mulch to the depth of three or four inches, and they grew and produced
bulbs to the size of hen's eggs, and about as white. In 1863 I planted
them in the centre of a potato patch, and the result was, at digging time,
tho.se <lo5cribed above produced potatoes perfectly sound and good, wliile
others in the same neighborhood were badly affected with rot. As the
experiment is very easy of trial, I would reccominend to the farmers to try

38 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

it. It would lie :i very easy process to raise a supply fur scctl yearly liy
the aliove described melhud."

Remedy for Worms in Seed Corn.

Mr. 11. A. Slitddoii, of Middleliury, Vt., sends tlie rollowiii;^,-:
" Last season my sweet corn failed to come up, and the plaiitin;^ having
been followed by rainy weatiier, I attiibnted it to rottinj.1^. The second
planting; also liaving failed, I exainineil the hills, and found in the kernels
a small chocolate-colored worm, not larger than a small jiin, from ^ to 1
inch in length, with pairs of legs extending its whole length. I counted
12 in the husk of one kernel, llic inside being all oaten away. Some
sprouts an inch long were eaten oil". 1 should like to learn the name of
this worm, never having seen it except in my garden. I then took a half
an ounce chlorid(j lime and a quarter of an ounce of copperas, with water
enough to mix with one pint of C(U-n, leaving all the corn immersed, and
allowed it t(» soak twelve hours. The seed so prepared came u[) finely."

The IIoney-Bee in California.

Mr. S. W. Jewett sends the following:

" Within a few years, many a hive of bees lias been imjiorted into this
State and Oregon. It is now fairly demonstrated that the climate is con-
genial, and that they arc very prolific, and manufacture a good quality of
hone}', equal in flavor to any Eastern honey, except that from white clover.
Bees on this coast and interior gather much of their sweets from the willow
and the oak. Plants in the morning are often covered with the honey dew.
When young swarms emigrate, they accept the best accommodaiions which
they can find. Sometimes their lodge consists of a standing hollow tree,
or trunk iq>on the ground, which is often filled with bees and honey. Quite
often, they occupy burrows in the ground, the home of wild beasts such as
the wolf and the badger. Many cattle annually die in this State; some-
times their flesh is entiiely consume«l by insects and small animals, leaving
only the bones and hid(; in quite a peifect stale. In Santa Barbara, the
attention of a gentleman was called to examine the carcass of an ox, then
admitting at each end the egress and ingress (»f numerous winged insects;
at one end lie soon withdrew his hand, and a comb well filled with honey.
This iiiuch increased his excitement and curiosity. After well preitaring
himself for the contest he made an assault and soon came ofl' vicliu', taking
from them a booty of over 200 pounds. I saw the notice of an A|>;irian
who R«'t up 35 large healthy swarms at San Jose; the season and pasture!
proved fine for them. They soon multiplied Iteyond all expectation. Winn
the honey and swarming season was weli over, he conveyi-d them by b(Kit
to Stockton. There set them up again. It was said, at the final close of
the season, the bees had mulii|»lied their cohiiiies to more than one thou-
sand, and the amount of honey exceeded twenty tons, (jood swarms
multiply about four times and young colonies twice in favorable years."

Introduction of the IIoney-Bee into California.

The Secretary — During the year US-Ol, Mr. Krancis Keisey, a somewhat
noted apiarian, was at the rooms of the Institute, then located at No. 351

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB, 39

Broadway, ami, diniiijjf a conversation witli Mr. A. D. Frye, spoko of the
advantaj^es ot the climate of Califnniia for tlic production of iioiioy. Mr.
Kryc observed that it would be a fortune to any one that w(ndd take the
honey-bee to California, as h«' had nut seen any during' his travels in that
country.

In fact tiiis little creature had never been known in California; the Rocky
Mountains were impassable to it, and the great heat of the Isthmus de-
Htrcyed the wax of the honey -comb, so as to render it extremely diflicult
to Carry tiie bees across it; even sealinf;^ wax on letters melts in the transit-
Mr. t^heltt)n had just returned from California, where he had been en-
gaged in agricultural and iiorticultural pursuits; he attended some of the
jiiietings of the Club. I mentioned to him the observations made by Mr
Frye, and advised him to take out with liim some hives of bees.

Mr. Shelton procured fifteen hives. A friend of mine, who went
fellow passenger with him, informed me that eleven of the hives were lost
in crossing the Isthmus, by the excessive heat melting down the combs and
smothering the bees with the honey they contained.

He arrived in San Francisco, in the spring of 1853, with four of the
hives in fine condition; he intended to locate them on the Stockton Ranch^
at Santa Clara, but Providence ordained it otherwise, as Mr. Siielton
was unfortunately killed by the explosion of the boiler on board a steam
vessel while making an experimental trip.

^^r. Shelton sold one of the hives on his arrival at San Francisco,
at a fabulous price, the others were disposed of after his decease.

I take this opportunit}', while the subject is under discussion, of giving
credit to Mr. Shelton for introducing the honey-bee into California, as
1 believe his bees were the first introduced, and their swarms have spread
over the whole country.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

May 24, 1864.
Mr. Nathan C. El}- in the chair.

Manure for Wuite Beans.

Frank B. Mills writes from Dunbarton, N. II.: "What is the best ferti-
lizer for white beans on light, sandy loam ?"

Mr. Solon Robinson. — The answer to this is very simple. Tlic best is
thon^ughly decomposed stable manure. The next best is good compo.st. of
which home-made poudrette stands first. This is the opinion of all present
including some farmers who " know beans."

Protection to Cucumber Vines.

E. M. Bullard, Grand Rapids, Mich., says that he fthds the plan fully suc-
cessful, which ha.s been so often recommended by this Club, to protect
squash vines from bugs, by putting a box around the hill. He uses six
inch siding. He also says that he is building a machine that will dig
ditches for drain tile, and one to fill them again by horse power.

40 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

A Cheap Cure for Vermin upon Cattle.

Joscpli Nichols, H(ines<lale, Petni., givt-s tlic ftillDwiii;^- simple ionu'(|y for
lii^t' upon domestic animals: Having an old rnaro that would n(jt work nor
brocd, he Icl't licr to shift for herself among other stock in the yard, and
tluring the winter she became extremely lous}'. In the sjiring he used her
to pack bags of plaster (ground gypsum) out to the field, and it sifted
through and covered her so that she looked like a white horse instead of
her natural color. The result was that the lice all died. Applications of
gypsum to cattle have proved equally successful.

Several members inquired whether the aj^plication would be equally efli-
cacious at other seasons, since feeding cattle grass cures lice.

Does Flaxseed Hybridize ?

A. Farmer, Ikirlington, Wis., says:

" I wish to inquire of the Farmers' Club wlictlior flaxseed hybridizes with
yellow seed. I sowed a piece of ground last year with flaxseed, in which
only now and then a yellow seed could be found — one-tenth of the seed
from that crop was of yellow seed."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — How can any one tell what is meant by "yellow
seed ? " Is it a wild seed, or is it what is known in England and this coun-
try as charlock, the raphanus raphanidrvm, or sinapis avensis, the latter
being known in some places as wild mustard ? If it is either of these, we
can assure the inquirer that flax does not hybridize with it, and we do not
know any plant with which it does hybridize.

}Av. ^Vm. R. Prince. — Common flax, Linum usifalis)<imum, os is well
known, is cultivated for the fibre or thread obtained from it, and for the oil
wliich we extract from its seeds. It is an annual plant, long cultivated in
Europe and America. The flowers are usually blue, but a wliite flowering
variety is extensively cultivated at Riga, in Russia, and in Belgium, where,
by way of distinction from the yellow varieties, it is called Lin royale.
They cultivate in Europe four varieties of the yellow flowering flax, and of
those the Riga variety is the most extensive. The plants are of taller
growth and less branched than the other varieties, and consequently yield
n much larger staple. We have a similar tall growing variety in America,
which is probably identical. This length of staple is a most inqmrtant
advantage, and as the flax culture is now being extensively developed, <nir
cultivators otjght to make it a point to obtain their supply of seed from the
best im])roved varieties, and some especially of the tall yellow flowering
kind.

There is but one species of flax indigenous to North America, the Linum
virginiannm. It attains a height of one and a half to two feet. I
am not aware that its textile merits have been tested. The writer of the
letter from Huilington, Wis., suggests that our cnnmion flax plant hud
hybridized with u yellow flowering weed of that vicinity. 1 assert posi-
tively not, as the two j)lants referred to arc of distinct genera, and there is
no more possibility i;f hybridizing two distinct families of plants than there
is of changing tiie progeny of horses and cattle merely because they graze in
the same field.

proceedings of the farmers' club. 41

Gapes in Chickens.

A j^Piitlcrncii of iiitc'llif^i'iK'o aiul db.'-MMviitiuii writra from Franklin, New
York, upon tin* above question as follows: "Tiiis question lias been dis-
iissed V)y the Fnrinera' Club, as appears in the Transactions (jf the Aineri-
ean Institute for 18G2, pajj^e No. 84, and several opinions advanced as to
the probable cause of the disease. A correspondent, though not directly,
yet impliedly, attributes the disorder to in-and-in breeding-, want of clean-
liness in the roost, &c. Two others, members of the Club, dissent from
tliis view, one of whom says 'he lias invariably traced the gapes in chick-
ens to feeding them corn meal recently wetted.' The meal, he adds, should
be mixeil u day before it is used, if not it swells in the chicken's crop and
causes the disease. Neither of these theories appears to me to be sustained
by facts. Last year, wishing to change by breed of fowls, I obtained eggs
frou) a neighbor whose cliickens were never troubled with the gapes; but
I was disappointed by seeing every one of the cliickens hatched from those
i''^'^>^, about 80 in number, nmre or less severely atllicted with this distress-
ing complaint. I am in tin; habit of cleaning out tl\e roost once a year,
and last year I made a new one in a different part of the barn from that
which had hitherto been used for this purpose; and when the young chick-
ens were confined I used to change the situation of the coop daily, so that
neither changing the breed, or cleaning the roost, or changing its site, has
had, with me, any appreciable effect in preventing the disease. If the
gapes are caused by 'recently wetted corn meal swelling in the chicken's
crop,' why does not the disease follow the condition of that organ — ceasing
altogether in the morning when the crop is nearly or quite empty, and
beginning again only after a full feed? and why will not the substitution
of some other food for the 'recently wetted corn meal' immediately allay
or wholly remove the trouble ? Why do not very young chickens — those a
week or ten days old, and also goslings and old hens fed on recently wet-
ted corn meal — have the gapes as well as chickens three or four weeks
old ? Three years ago a late brood of chickens picked their living solely
from the fields, the hen, which was very wild, never coming near the house
until driven in by a scarcity of forage in the fields; yet the chickens all
had the gapes. In this case the disease was not caused by corn meal or
whole corn, for they had neither till the approach of cold weather. When
we consider that the chickens crop is situated upon the ^«r/bo' of the body,
and is so clastic that it easily accommodates itself to its contents, it seems
■ ■ me absurd to suppose that the pressing of the :,rop, though ever so full,
against so firm and rigid an organ as the windpipe could cause the gapes.
The recently wetted corn meal theory, tlun(,'fore, to say the- least, rests
upon a very mealy foundation. A few days since I dissected a chicken
which had died of the gapes half an hour before. In the windpipe I found
nine wurnis, one an eighth of an inch in length about an inch from the
larynx, antl the others some two and a half inches lower down, var3-ing in
length from one-half to three-quarters of an inch, and of a deep red color.
These eight woims, which were about the size of a pin, were all lying
together in the windpipe, and completely ol>structed the passage of the; air.
On jdacing one of them under the microscope, I had a tolerably fair view
of its anatomical structure. The head was oval and a very little larger

42 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

tliaii tlio part of llii' ImkIv adjoining, and liad a Koriicwlial larg'o opening
partly upon one .side. Tlu; other cxtifiuity was pointed, of a dark color,
and nearly opaijue, havinjj; no orilice tliat I could discover. Two intestines
were traced runninj^ from the middle of the I'ody to about one-eighth of an
inch from the extremity, then returning to the middle, where the folds and
convolutions became so numerous that 1 could follow them no further.
Another vessel, extending abimt two-thirds tiie length of the body, and of
a much larger size than the intestines, I took to be the ovary. It contained
hundreds of ova, oblong vesicles, the transverse to the longitudinal diame-
ter being as one to three, or nearly, and packed together in the most regu-
lar order, completely (illing the sack which contained them. A\\ of the eggs
were of the same size, and all presented the same appearance, except that
Bonio of them had vacant spaces within, as if they were less mature than
the others. On examining one of the eggs with a iiighcr power, it appeared
to be filled with granulated matter, and to be dividid into two parts by a
dark line at a right angle with the longitudinal diameter, and about one-
third of the distance from one end. Another peculiarity of llic worm was
a pn>cess or proboscis attached to the body alxmt one-eiglitii of an inch
from the head, and a little more than one-eighth of an inch in length, and
considerably smaller than the body. It was tubular, transparent and col-
orless. The worms seemed to lose their deep red color in part b^' standing
some time in water, but I could discover no blood globules cither in them
or in the water. I examined all the worms successively, and they all pre-
sented the same g(;noral appearance. It did not occur tome at the time to
search the inner surface of the windpipe for eggs. Not feeling' the interest
in this subject before having read the discussion by the Farmers' Club,
above referred to, that I have since, I did not make as thorough an exami-
nation as I might have done, but from what I saw I was and am fully con-
vinced that the immediat(^ or proximate cause of the gapes in chickens is
worms in the trachea. Tiie obstruction (»f th(> air passage produced by the
worm occasions difficulty of breathing, and causes the chicken to open its
mouth at each inspiration; and the frequent sneezing^ or coughing of the
little sufl'erer is its effort to eject the foreign substance. How the worms
get i"'o the trachea and what becomes of them is more than I can say. I
huv«' I. '.I remedy to propose for the disease, but I presume the horse liair or
the lea'her introduced into the windpipe ma}' often allay, a?id perhaps in
some cases wholly remove the trouble. 1 agree, however, with the mem-
b«T8 of the Club that prevention is better than the cure, and 1 liave no
doubt it will be preferred and generally adopted ichcn it .''hall have, been
foxind out.

Protecting Vines from Cut-Worms.

•Mr. A. W. Davis, Marsfudd, Tioga ('ounfy, Pa., says that he efl'ectually
prevents the ravages of tlu; cut-worm upon his choice vines and garden
plants in the following manner: He digs a little ditch around the hill, so
as to make a st^ep embankment of dry, line particdes of soil, up which, if
the worm attempts to crawl, he tumbles to the bottom of the ditch. Mr. I),
also fences them out with little hof)ps, made by splitting tln^ ash hoops of
flour barrels, and tacking tlu; ends togellu^r in a circle just large enough to
inclose the plant; tin; edge being inserted in the soil, the worm will not
mine under it nor climb over it.

proceedings of the farairrs' club. 43

Packing Trees for Transportation.

The Chairman said tliat he tlion^lit that those whu <h) pack trees hon-
estly (>u<;-ht to be comineiuled. lie said that h(; had recently received from
two well-known nnrsnry firms in Uochestcr, 60 standard pear trees, ordered
late in the season, and allhoiijrh the bills bear date May 4, they did not
reai-h his conntry seat. Norwalk, Ct., nntil the 14th, having, as he sup-
poses, laiil a week in AU)anyor other depot, and yet, owing- to jjrcat care in
paekin;;^ and plenty of moss and not very wet, they were in fine order. If too
wet, the small tibroiis roots will be apt to rot. Gredit should be given to the firms
of Frost & Co., and CJoidd, IJeokwith & Co., and all others who take great care
in packing'; nut carlessly, as if because sold they had nothing- more to do
or care for, as is sometimes apparently the case. He also stated another
case to prove the benefit of good packing'. He said in June, 18(i2, I bought
at Jeffeison Market, a good large size apricot tree, (as large as my wrist),
which was then in full bloom. The seller said it had been there nearly two
months, and being crooked, no one would buy it. I set it out on the north
side of the street in rear of my residence, the blossoms soon withered, and
I thought the tree would die, but after several weeks it leafed out, and in
1803 bore fine fruit, and now has a fine crop maturing', showing that
apricot trees can be transplanted safely while in bloom, if well packed, as
this was.

Mr. Wm. II. Trince. — Well conducted nurseries always keep men who
perfectly understand the business of packing, and I never heard of any trees
smt from Flushing that died in their transit; some years ago I sent some
trees to Hnssia, and we never heard of the smallest plant tliut perished for
the want of care in packing. There should be plenty of well prepared
moss put around the roots, damp, but not wet.

Mr. Geo. Bartlett said he had no doubt that Mr. Prince knew how to
pack tri'A's — he had never heard any complaint upon that point. The
trouble was that they did not always turn out according to the labels.

Mr. Wm. S Carpenter. — 1 have been in the habit of receiving packages
of plants from Europe, and from nurserymen in various parts of our country,
some of them w(.'re well packed, and the trees and shrubs although a long
tinje on the passage, yet they arrived in perfect condition. Some of our
nurserymen are very careless in their mode of packing, sometimes only a
little wet straw it used, by this careless mode of packing and sending out
tree.s great loss and disappointments are experienced. I received one lot
of trees from New-Jersey, that were mis-sent by the nurseryman, so that
they were a few days over the expected time, and owing to the very bad
packing, not five per cent of them lived.

Mr. S lion Robinson made the same statement in regard to a lot received
from Kcirliester.

Mr. Wm. R. Prince. — We pack our trees in moss from the swamps, and if
properly done there is no danger of their dying if they are months in get-
ting to tlieir destination. The proper time to plant trees is when they are
in a perfect dormant condition. I pref<.-r the autumn to plant trees, and I
think full tweuty-five per cent is gained in planting at that season.

44 transactions of the american institute.

The Cause of Blight upon Fruit Blossoms.

Mr. S. writes from Orang-o, N. .1., May, 'H : " The fiiiit treoR cf all
kii'.ds, gave an early jjroinisc of an aluindaiit liarvest; indeed, I never saw
them look better; luit within a lew days, (ir weeks, Homethivc/ lias occured
to hlast all the cherries and most of tiie ciurant.s, and also lias afTrcted apjde
and pear trees to some extent. What can have caused it? Can it be the
eflfect of the recent prolonged and heavy rain-stt»nn ? Did yonevei liear of
fruit blossoms being 'drowned' by such rains ? It is a great disappoint-
ment to find that the fruit-t-rnps will be liglit in these days of high prices
of meat, »!tc.''

^Ir. W. S. Carpenter insisted upon it tliat it was owing to the storm, and
Dr. Trimble that it was caused entirely I'v the warm w<;t weather that
rotted the capsule of the frnit, particularly white cherries, and caused the
fruit to decay.

Mr. John G. Bergen says that the cherry trees are much affected with
insects or some other disease, which will very much diminish the crop.
Some say it is caused by easterly storms, but he does not believe in that
theory.

Dr. Trimble sa^'s that he has carctnlly watched the disease, and insects
have nothing to do with the case; it is all caused by changes in the atmos-
phere. He also declares that he has proved by investigation that the curl-
leaf of peach-trees, and all similar diseases, are caused 1)}' insects. The
aphides will very much lessen the crop this year, and would miuh more,
but for tlie birds, which destroy vast quantities of them.

Mr. John G. Bergen controverts the theory of insects causing tli(> curl,
because he has tried in vain to discover them upon curled leaves with a
good jnicr(isco])(,'. With all of our theories we are still very ignorant.

Fragrant Grass.

Mrs. Mary Treat, HIairstown, bnva, writes: "Inclosed you will find some
specimens of a native fragrant grass. It blossosns with our earli(;st flow-
ers and is vt-ry fragrant, making it a desirable acquisition to our spring
boiKpiets. The specimens I send you were gathered in April. It r(!tain8
its beauty and fragrance for some weeks. If you would like some seed, I
will send it gratuitously as soon as it ripens."

Mr. Wm. 8. Car[tenter. — It is a very beautiful grass, and I Impi; the sec-
retary will write to the lady thanking her for her ofier.

Mr. Wm. 1\. Prince — The specimens of grass sent to the club by Mrs.
Mary Treat, of Iowa, is the J/iaruchloa burcalis, Seneca grass or sweet sum-
mer grass, described by Torrey and Gray, and in Katnn's Manual of Botany.

It is a perennial, and found abundantly in th<' Newark and llackensack
meadows, in the environs of Seneca Lake, and in many localities in the
western States. It is remarkable for its sweet and pleasant o<lor. It is a
native creeping specie's and spreads rapidly. A species of Ilierocloa grow-
ing in Norway and northern Germany greatly resi'tubles, and by some
botanists has been deemed identical with this plant. I difTer.

In the Eastern Hemisphere, however, they possess a grass of a distinct
genus, which presents a counterpart of our own Seneca grass as to char-

PROCEEDINGS OF THK FARMERS' ri.UB, 45

actor. The Anlhoxanthum, or swvct scL'iitcfl venml grass wliicli has a
siiiiilar Hwoet and allocable pci rmiu . It is a native of tlic iiurtliciu
count lii's of Europe, ami the simple einumstance tliat it is an exotic
anil far fetcheil, it is much cultivated in the (lower borders of our g'ardcns,
while aen.'s of similar, and in some respects of a superior character, which
absolutely surround this city, are passed by daily unnoticed and unknown.

Periiaps I may Ite permitted to comment on this proneness to pitjfer
foreign articles to those of American orig'in, as it has been so unwisely and
inconsiderately applied even to our food and t>iir raiment. This seeming'ly
national defebt of judgment is characteristic only of the weak and the giddy
portion of our population, and it is itself an exotic passion; for we witness
that even in many European countries, the fashionable societies look to
Paris for dictation; but with us, as patriotism and economy seem now in
the ascendant, we may trust that the nobler independent sentiments, which
are truly American, will be amply developcjd.

Then, indi-ed, we shall be taught to regard our glorious country, yet
oidy in its inf.mc}', as the mightiest demonstration of God's creative wisdom,
power and love, combining, in her vast regions of inexhaustible mineral
wealth, numerous oceanic lakes, boundless forests, and fertile fields, all the
matrrial elements of greatness.

Setting out Trees.

Henry A. ( ook, Hillsdale, N. Y. — I set out 310 apple trees with the aid
of two boys in two days in the spring of 1862, and on the 1st of September
following but six dead ones were to be found. I adopted the following
plan ; 1st, I staked out my ground both ways, having a line of stakes for
each row, I then took an iron beam plow, set it to run as deeply as possible
attached to horses, letting a boy drive while I held, now coming to a place
where a tree should be, I let the plow dip in suddenly and as suddenly
threw it out, and so on to the next place for a tree until I came to the end
of the line, then returning, dipping in the same places, but throwing the
furrow in the opposite direction, and so on until the holes are all made,
thus they were very large each way, and the ground loosened a depth
below the tree. I then made a thick solution of muck and water in a
wash tub, immersed the roots of as many as I could plant in half a day,
sending a boy to place them near the Ixdes, following on to set them. The
muck adheres plenfeously to the most minute libre and retains moisture
beneath the surface.

This is my practical plan, with the above results.

Mr. Joseph Caller, i'awtucket, II. I., wants to know how to keep rosc-
bugs t'fl' grape-vines.

Mr. Sill. Ill K.iliiiisiiii — Thi- (iiily i-fiufdy f<ii- them is to pick them otV and
kill them.

I)r. Triiiii !'■ says loads <'at thi-m, and but lew birds will cat liicm.

Mr. Win !{.. I'rincc says that in his nursery they preserve all the birds,
and are not troubled with inst-rts.

Fruit Growing.

The following letter from .Mr. C. \V. Carpenter, .Mt. Gilead, Ohio, upon
the subject of fruit growing, was read. He says :

46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

"I see this matter discussed in the Farmers* Club; in fact, it is a
subject of no small solicitude, for the apple is the standard fruit of the
people, rich as well as poor. The general cause of deteri()ratit)n is want
of vip;or or vitality, which may arise from several minor causes, such as
cropping: the soil until it becomes exhausted. This jiraclicc is quite
g'eneral, and the wonder is that the trees maintain their vi^or as Ion-;' as
they do, training the tree too higli, making- of it a weakly couriumptive
spindle-shanked concern, so tiiat the sap has too far to travel, and the
natural efl'orts of the tree to prepare itself, f<ir sudden climatic changes for
which America is noted, are slow and feeble, causing what many term
"frozen sap blight." The borer surely follows; it never attacks a healthy
tree. More top than the long feeble body and exhausted soil aforesaid can
maintain, and so thick that the sun-light and air cannot |)enetrate. I would
add that high wiiidt, injure such trees very imu li. .\ very good remedy
for old orchards is re-grafting; this gives a new and vigorous top, and re-
invigorates the whole tree. Yet sour, wet land will not give healthy
nourishment to a tree, it must ultimately sicken and die. All of tliese
causes contribute to deterioration and early decay of apple trees, and are
applicable more or less to other fruit trees.

How TO Grow a Healthy Orchard.

Go to tlie nursery and get one-year-old trees of such varieties as are not
affected by scab or bitter rot, set tiiem out on any dry land, not nearer
than thirty feet apart, and if the land is rich, thirty-five feet. I am not in
favor of digging holes if the subsoil is stiff clay; it makes a deep hole for
the water to stand in. Spread the roots straight, as near as they were in
the nursery as possible, fill in with fine top soil, then send for "Barry's
Fruit Garden," and follow his instructions for training dwarf jiear trees,
which are something like this: Keep a straight stem in the middle, let the
branches grow out from this main stem, commencing low — if two feet from
the ground the better, let them alternate and never grt)W one opposite the
other. The limbs or horizontal branches must be far enough apart on the
main stem so that the tree will never need trimming, and so as to give
plenty of sun-light and air to the fruit and branches. Your trees will not
overbear; altnost every specimen will be ])erfect. The way evergreens arc
trained will illustrate what I intend. If the orchard is cultivateil in beans
and jtotatoes, as much must be put on as is taken (»ff. The best manure is
S'jil from th(,' roadside and well rotted manure. Every farmer (Might to
make use of the wast«.' soil along the highway; he has a perfect right to
it, and ought to make use of it, even if it spoils a little poor pasturage for
the poor man's cow.

Fruit Gardens for Women.

Every farmer whose wife desires it ought ti» give her a fruit gartlen of a
quarter, a half, or even one acre, to plant to grapes, blackberri«'s, rasp-
berries, or strawberries. It would afford more pleasure in many ways
than the CJiltivatioii of flowers. It would be a good |>lacc to leave nervous
headaches, &c., caused by too much indoor work. ]}ut, say many, I have
as much to do as I can, to drag myself around and do my housework ;

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 47

women's W(jrk is never done, &c. We know it, but such exercise will give
increuseil vigor of hoily und mind, and the liglit elastic step; then you can
lly around and do your hous(!Work in a jilVy. If a womarj takes good care of
her fruit garden, besides su|)|)lying her family with health giving luxuries,
she can have a hutdred dollars' worth or more of fruit to sell every year.
Women want a tliousand little et ceteras which the huj^biind does not see
the need of, and he has so many ways for his money she is put ofl"; besides,
she wants something besides politics to read. All of these extras she can
jnirchase with the proceeds of her fruit garden. It will drive away ill
health caused by too much indoor work, bring health, peace, and happiness
to the hearthstone. She will soon learn to love her miniature -fruit-farm,
take [tride to show it to her neighbors, the example would benefit the
neighl'urhoiid, and who knows but regenerate the rickety, sickly women of
America.''

Adjourned John W. Chamber?, Secretary.

Maydl, 1864.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the Chair.

Leaf Bligut.

The Chairman called attention to the state of the weather, which was
cold and stormy last week, and dry and cold on Sunday, but to-day hot
enough for summer. lie also called attention to the almost universal
blight that has fallen upon cherries, and exhibited branches showing not
only the loss of fruit, but the foliage badly damaged by insects. He also
exhibited limbs of the apricot tree mentioned last week as having been so
well packed that it bloomed in the packing, and was planted in that State,
and this j'ear has a full crop of fruit. Now, almost every apricot has been
desirovfd by some animal that eats away half of the substance. "What
this destructor is I have failed to discover, as I find no living animal
about the tree except a large ffy. Can any one tell what it is that has
made such sudden havoc with the fruit ?"

Dr. Trimble replied that he thought it was one of the leaf-curling cater-
pillars. The blast of cherry leaves exhibited is the work of aphides.
The blast of the cherries, I stated last week was occasioned by the warm,
wet weather, which rotted the calix, and the young fruit inclosed. Here
are specimens and here you see limbs of the black Tartarian cherry, which
18 hardier, or later, with the fruit all sound. But the great bulk of the
cherry crop, most of the plums, an 1 some of the pears, in this region, were
destroyed by the peculiar state of the weather, just as they were shedding
the blo8«or:.8. Now -look at these apple-tree limbs. This one looks as
though it had been scorched by a blaze of fire, shows the work of the
canker-worm. This one, with every leaf curled or coriugated, shows the
effect of little plant lice, which are so small that they are almost imper-
ceptible, 3*etHo innnerous as to cover every leaf during the very short period
of their existence, producing this blight which some people attribute to
the oast wind. Where large- trees are infested there is no remedy but to
preserve the birds. For small plants I f<jund a remedy in a strong decoc-
tion of plug tobacco. Dip the leaves into the liquid if convenient to do so,

48 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

and if not, wet tlioin by sprinkliiii;', or witli ;i l>insli. Tliero is one pest
that tobacco won't kill, any nmro tlian it will iiicii. That is tli(> curculio.
I have soaked them in a strong solution of tobacco, and the eifect was to
increase their propensity to propag'ate their species. For many things,
the tobacc(» decoction is valuable — much more so than simfF.

Mv. Wni. U. Prince — W<} have used it many years in our nursery. We buy
stems, soak them in a cask, and use the- liquiil with a comnmn water-
ing-pot.

The chairman exhibited a shoot of the Peonia that had been set out six
years since, but has never produced a flower; there is a large number nf
these shoots.

Mr. Wm. R. Prince — I would advise that next fall you dig up the plant and
divide it; every part that has an eye will produce flowers next season. Most
people think that the Peonia should be planted in the waiinest place in your
garden, this is an error, nearly all the Peonias are natives of Siberia and
northern China, and will stand a great degree of cold, so tliey may be
placed in the coldest part of the garden.

The Currant-Bush Destroyer.

Mr. Fisk, LaGrange, Wyoming county, N. Y., says :

" Our currant and gooseberry bushes in this vicinity, have been for the
past few years, and are still being destroyed by small green worms, which
come in such multitudes as to make the protection of the bushes quite
impossible. We have tried unleached ashes, lime, and soapsuds ; but if
wc clear the bushes of worms to-day, there will be about as many on again
to-morrow, and so we are giving up in despair. Some of my neighbors
have taken up their bushes and burned them. The worm comes from
the egf^ deposited bj' a fly on the underside of the leaf. I send you here-
with a specimen of the insect ctuight while de|)ositing its eggs. I have
counted over 40 eggs on a single leaf. Can your Club tell us anything
about this fly, or how to keep the worm it biceds from destroying our
bushes ?"

Mr. Solon Robinson — I regret to be obliged to say that no remedy has
been discovered for this pest to the farmer, which is well described in the
above letter, and which is very prevalent in Central New Y(jrk, and bids fair
to spread over the country and totally destroy the currant bushes. It is
barely possible that the worms might be got rid of in a small wa}' by
smoking them with sulphur. A lady says: "The Club often speaks of
slugs uj)on rose bushes, mine have been savi'il by smtjking with sulphur,
the 1st of May with you an*! the middle of May in the north part of the
State. Thf;n about two weciks later smoke again, for there are two crops
at least in a season ; but bushes so treated never look seared, turning
brown. Why will not. this treatment do lor the slugs upon the currant
and gooseberry bushes 'i"'

Dr. Trimbh — I think if the bushes were washed with a strong decoc-
tion of tobacco two (»r three times during the season it would clear them
of these worms.

Mr. Manilas Smith, Manlius, N. V., says :

" I have, made a Ccw observations on currant worms that give a hint as

PllOCEEDINQS OF THE FAUMERS' CLUB. 49

to the l)ost way dF (>xt<'rniinatiii.t^ tho.s(« posts. In oxaiiiiiiiiia: a Ixisli that
iias rcL'ciitly W'vii attacked one will find loaves with niinierous small holes
in tliem. On t>xaniiniiii^ llie niuler surface oi" sucli a leaf tnauy small
worms may l>c* found which have jrnawed these holes, and in the veins of
the leaf, luore espeeially on the midrib, will be I'ound the remains of the
of^izfs from which tlu-v hatched. Very commonly in close proximity to the
|K'rlorate<1 leaves will l)0 found others, en the under surface of which
lire tudiatclied e<;'jj:s. These are white, about the twentieth of an inch lorij^
antl one fourth as wide, laid end to end along tin; midrib and larger veins.
On larger leaves there may be found several groups — evidently distinct
litters, as some are diniinulive and show no appearance of embryo under a
magnifying glass — while (ttiiers are sw(iilen and exliibit clearly tlu; un-
liatched worm within. About twenty-live eggs appear to constitute a
litter, and the average nuniber of eggs on a leaf is perhaps fifty, many
large leaves have over one hundred on them. When lirst hatched the
worms cat little holes through the leaf. When they have finished this,
they begin on another, commoidy eating from the edge of tlie leaf. The
large veins an? left untouched, and tliis is in huruinny with the fact that
the eggs are laiil on these portions of the leaf. I have found leaves with
all the intervening substance devoured, while the veins are left covered
with unhatched eggs. The practical deduction from these facts is the
plan of searching for these leaves with eggs on them, as well as those
with small holes in them. They may be picked off into a pan, the larger
worms that are found being] added to the collection. They stay content-

iiy iu the pan if there are leaves in it also. At convenient intervals
empty the contents of the pan into a fire. Of course this method must be adopted
early to be successful. From one currant bush in a few minutes I picked
over one hundred leaves with eggs equivalent to, perhaps, 5,000 worms.
It appears, also, from these facts why simpl}'^ picking off the worm does
not rid the bushes fnnu the evil, as in a fvw days, or perhaps hours, the
eggs left behind send out ik'W legions of devourers. Probably lime and
other applications reach only the worms, without affecting the unhatched

:g8. I suppose these eggs are laid by a winged insect, but have not yet

-'•ertiiined what insect itis.''

How TO Make Aspar.\gus Beds.

Mr. Wm. n. Prince — I prefer in making my asparagus beds to trench
the ground at least twenty inch<?s deep, and see that the bed is situated so
tli.it no vr,\ter stands in it. I'ut ati abundance of strong manure at the

• ttom, and make the soil fine and rich, and set the roitls fifti-en inches
apart, with the cr<iwn of the roots four inches below the surface. Those
of two ur thn-e \-ears ohl are the most suitable for making a bed, and the
best time to set the roots is in aututnu.

In the winter the top (»f tin' bed is coveretl with litter, early in the s[iring
thi.>» should l)e forked in. .V small fjuantity of salt, sprinkbsl over the bed
will be found of groat advantage.

Farmers Should Economize Time.

Mr. lJol>rrt Willis, II;imilton county, Iowa, wishes tiie following ipiestion
di.scus3ed by farmers' clubs. He says :
[Am. Inst.] D

0\) TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

" Tlieie is (Uio iniportant siibjci-t to wliicli I wonlil r<'s]>('ctfiilly caT! tlit*
attiMition of VDiir cliil), ami \Uni is. tijc iiia»ijji)ialii>rK>r si>ii>e r('i;-ijlar svsteii*
for the tlivisiou of u fanner's time : Tliis becomes ai>]»arei>t when we see
Fanner A risiiij;- at daylij^ht, and hiboriii;^ inig'ht aiul main fur fourteen or
fifteen hours a ilay, while Farmer \i — a man of less physieal and nventul
aetivity — becomes discoiiraf^ed at snch desperate eilbits to gain a liveli-
liooil, ami hence concludes that the savage's life is the n>ost congenial to
man; and, wifliont any more reflection, takes his fo«'Iii>g-piece in hand, and
spends his precious time in killing innocent birds, leaving his dilapidated
fences to take care of themselves. My theory is that proper division and
application of the powers of man is the only direct road to true happiness.
The club may object to the inaugurating of systems for the regulation of
society. If so, I would ask that some of j'oiir experienced correspondents
wonlil stiggest rules and propound (jueries uu this subject. What ails me
is, 1 have had no system, and am consequently nothing but an old, worn-
ont pack-horse."

Mr. Solon Kobinsi>n — I think that is what ails a great n^any faruiers.
The want of system, and the want of improved tools and modes of cultiva-
tion, and better adaptation of crops to clin)ate and soil, nuikes then) prc^
maturely " old, worn-out pack-horses." Who can devise any feasible remedy
for this unfortunate condition of farmers ?

Seed Corn — Remedy against Worms.

31 r. John Graves, Poughkeepsie, N. Y., says: "Some j'ears since I
planted a piece of ground that was much infested by worms. I planted
four times, three plantings being appro])riated b}' worms. I afterward
read in son)e periodical that soaking the seed for twenty-four hours in a
decoction of tobacco would be found a sure preventive. I have followed
that direction ever since, and the worms have never deprived me of a
single seed. It is the only use I have ever made of tobacco, having often
wondered previously of what possible use it could be to nvmkiiid."

A Pestiferous Weed Described.

Mr. (i. Churchill, of Troy, Medina county. 111., gives the following useful
description and name of a weed which, according to this description, would
not be a valuable " fibrous j)lant " for cultivation. Mr. C'hurchill says :

" In the report of one of your me<'tings, J. W. IJennetl, near Terra
Haute, Iiid., speaks of a fibrous weed that ' abounds in cornfields,' but
'does not know its name.' Its name is 'Indian .Mailuw.' 'Cultor,'
a scientific writer, in lite Iowa Farmer, for l)(criul>(r, IS;"),"), p. Ifci,
gjvc-8 the following description of it :

" Indian .Mallow, Almlilou Aviceiiuie (Sida Abutilon, Linn.), demands at-
tention from its size and rapid spread. It is an upright |)lant, from three
to five feet in height, with pale-green bark and foliage, and orange-yellow
flowers, three-f )iirlhs of an inch in diameter, 'fin; leaves are roundish,
lieart-shape<l, soft and velvety. The capsules are divided into about fifteen
carpels, each of which c<uitains about three seeds, and is surmounted by
two points or beaks, which project, forming a kind of cni) on the upjjcr

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 51

8uli\ The bark of this jihint, to<:^i.'tlier with the woody p;ut, whicli is very
white, I doubt not might he nuulo into pood paper.'

" As an enemy tu the farmer, the Indian mallow is seetmd only to the
Canada Thistle, which somebody, not long ago, reeommended as a paper-
making plant. The man wlu) shall devise pj-aotieal mt'ai\s of e.\t<'rminatirig
both plants will be a public benefactor. The 'rank, siekeiiiiig odor ' of the
Indian Mallow is so ofl'ensive that no animal will cat it. Though an annual
plant, it is abnost impossible to extirpate it. It will llonrish and ripen,
and spread its seeds in the wrll traveled highway. It is so tenacious of
life that you eaiinot traniple it to death. Someb(»dy has also been trying
to revive the memory of the ' Urtica Whitlowi, or Whitlow's Nettle,' as a
fibrous plant. I reineinlK.'r ' Pr(»fessor Whitlow' very well, and the favor-
able report which Citizen Genet and some other men made respecting the
professor's nettle. I resided at Albany, N. Y., when the professor was
trying to bring his nettle into public notice. This was a great while ago;
yet I trust there is yetsulficient common sense am^ng the people t<j prevent
them from cultivating thistles, nettles, or hulian mallows — at least so long
as they ran raise flax and hemp."

Mr. Wm. It. Prince. — It is "AhuUlon Aciccnna of Torrey and Gra}- — Sida
AbutUon of most previous authors. It is an annual weed of ver}' repelling
appearance, throe or four feet high, much branched, found wild along our
liighways, in numerous waste places and more especially where there arc
manure heajis, or where the manure has been removed, leaving the soil
cnriche<l. It is a native of the East Indies, and pr(»duces abundant seeds.
As it appears ta be such a pest in son»e parts of Illinois, I will suggest a
very sure mode by which it may be nearly or quite extirpated, if all the
neighb(»rhoo<l will adopt the same means of riddance. At the commence-
ment of its blooming, mow down or cut down with a sickle every plant.
Do this for three years, and the seeds which may still remain in the earth
to be germinated will be few and easily subdued."

The view of the question expressed in the closing sentence of the above
letter is that of every member of this Club — that is, that no ])lant has yet
been discovered that can compete with tlux and hemp, and all the talk
about substituting this weed or that is worse than idle talking — it is mis-
chievous.

Sorgo Begasse — Its Use.

Geo. L. Dinsmore, Eagle V. (>., Lasalle Comity, III., says: Sorgo Be-
gasse i.H verj' useful for .nnilching fruit trees; and for bedding cattle, horses
and hugs, there is nothing better.

Blackberries — Selecting A\'ild Ones.

Mr. Dinsmore also writes as follows, and we recommend others to do as
hr has done: " I am trying some of our wild blackbi'rries, which I found
last season in ratnbling through our barrens; they were the largest I ever
- iw, I marked them, and this spring I transplanted them to my garden,
and the most of them are now doing well. I am not very sanguine in pro-
ducing another liawton, altlDUgh I have faith in sonie inqirovcment. We
have abundance of the black raspberry from the wild, transplanted to the

no

02 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

gank'ii. Yt>t it was luit (ill tlir tliinl yaw afti-r lrans|ilaiitiiiy: lliat tliey
bore any. I was alxmt to juill tlicin up, Imt (ttlit'r lal»or prcvcjitid and
iiuw iiiuiicy would hardly Imy tliciii it 1 roiild not vcplaco theni."

FuuiT AT Tin: West.

Mr. William (Jray. wiiU'S May '2'.], IVuni Uavcnport, Iowa, tlial lie lias
resided tliere twenty years, and has never seen a greater promise itf fruit,
peaehefi exeept* d. " Notwithslaiiding" the sevfic winter, the ias|tl)erry
]dants never did lietter. 1 (diserve lliat fpiite a numlier of the IdikIs on the
grape vines lifive failed to pM.sh out, still there are enough to g:ive us a
larg-e trup. I have ahout 2W vines of eig;ht or ten varieties, all of whicli
are kept low, and prnne(l on the long'-cune systom, and laid down and eov-
cred with earth during- winter, e.xcept the C'lintoJi. This place is in latilndo
4U,", and exposed to severe/- noitli-west winds during: winter (excepting-
siiine sheltered spots). What do the vine-growers of your Club think of
leavii g' unprotected during* winter such vines as the Delaware, Concord,
Ilarti'ord rrtdific and Diana in such a locality as this? How can tLoso
who g-row grapes here give eounse; to grape-growers in Iowa, where all
the circumstances arc so ditferent? The vine g-r<twers of Missouri an-
much more competent to g'ivc advice. The n)t>st interesting thing is to sec
the growing- interest iu the culture of the vine."

Moles.

Mr. \V\n. 11. r.cnhain, Wrig^litstown, Fa., says : "The discussions be-
fore your Farmers' Club are very interestinj^. May I ask you to j^ive us
some information, aboi^t getting' rid of moles in the •garden. Is
there any remedy other than trappiu}:^ ? Is there ajiy poison to extermi-
nate them, or is there anything known so impleasant to them, which if put
into their holes or routes would drive them away ?"

Mr. Solon Ivobinson. — I have st)metimes hdt in need of the sajue informa-
tion, yet I am not sure if I knew how to drive the n)oI(!s away, whethirr 1
shouhl do wisely if 1 did so. 1 know that they never live in g-mund that
is not infested with worms. 1 have used salt to such an extent tluit it
killed the worms and then the moles left, but a year or two after they came
back aj^ain. Tln-y have done me some damage, but I am not certain i)ut
they are like the birds, f»f more advan(a}^(! than damage to the farmer.

Dr. Trimiile. — If the g'entleman will dissect Kome moles as I have birds,
to leain what their food is, he will l)e betl(!r able to satisfy hims(df whetln'r
it Ih worth his whih; to try tf> pret rid of tluMii. Soiik? folks would g^et rid
of toads, not knowing that their food is bugs and beetles, whose prog^cMiy
woidd < at up all the crops if not destroyed by toads, frogs, moles, skunks
and binls.

.^!l. .\diiaii IJerg-en. — The moles arc so troublesome on Long' Island, that
ihey sometimrs root up a row of corn. J'erliajis if thi'y ilid not the worms
would eat it up. I lind that plowing' the field (d'leii, or .•*|)ading and booing-
the garden, will drive them away. That is the only reme<ly that \\<' know
of for nudes.

Mr. Wm. H. Prince. — Nature has arrangeil that we have enough birds to
keep the insectH under; if the binls are destroyed, then tin; insects increase

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUR. 53

in p^roat (jnantitics. NCillicr my I'alli-r nr iiiyscir all.iw a liinl tt^br killed
on (»ui" ]>i"i.'iiii.st's. Ailjiiiuiit'tl.

Jiuiv \V. CiiAMUKKS, Sri-nianf.

June 1, 1864.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in tlio cliair.

Insi:<^t.s Destructive to Strawberries.

Ml-. 1). 11. Cil-s Mcmplii.s, Midi., writes:

" I (MK-ltiso you some insects tliat are dcstidyiiij;- my sd-awboirics, also
some leaves of the plants t(» show their ravaj^es. Will llie Club iuroiin us
Tfrhat tlu-y are, ami a'lso a reinetly, if there is one?"

I>i-. Trimhle, State Eiitoinolog-ist of Xew Jersey — This appears to be a
new pe^t. I think it is luiknown in this vicinity. It appears to be a beetle
of till' same g'enns (if the ciirctilio, tlionj;-h not half as larg-e. I see by the
jilaiits that itcatslmles in the leaves and would probably so destroy the
fujiage as to ruin the crop where the insect is very abundant. As a j^encral
rule, insects in their perfected state do not cat; this class do. Here is a
specimen of tin? aspara;:;ns beetle and its work. Look at this stalk, studded
full of ejTg's, set in endwise. I find the best remedy fur these insects is
poultry. A hen and chickens would destroy' an immense number of them.
The b<'st remedy a_u;ainst all kinds of insects is to encourage the increase
<if binis. I have been making careful examinations this summer of the
cr.'jps of various birds, swallows and martins included, and have found that
iliey consume a multitude of beetles which are destructive to farmer's crops.

The Chairman said — 1 have placed all my coops of chickens in the garden
near the asparagus bed, and it is interesting to see how readily the young
chickens run to catch the beetles, and what numbers of them they destroy.

.NIr. Solnii Kobinson — Several tobacco growers of West Tennessee aa-
.-^iired me they could not raise a crop of tobacco without the aid of turkey's.
I think as a general thing farmers do not appreciate the value of poultry
in destroying insects.

Description of the Beetle which Destroys Apple-Twigs.

Mr. Uiiij. I). Walsh. Kock Island, 111., gives the following interesting
and valuable descrii>ti<>n of the inseCt mentioneil by Horace Everett,
(\»uncil IMufT, Iowa, whicli perforates the twig (if the ap[»le tree just above
the buds, and W(uks into the pith, which he follows d(»wnward. Mr.
Everett deBcribed the insect as a fly. Mr. Walsh says:

! ■ no doubt from the description of the operations of this little

0.\r iHiyfrirliiis rii-ainlatus i>f ^ny, which connnonly attacks apple-

tPH; iwigs ill the West in this manner, though, so far as has been hitherto

• -eorded. it is unknf»wn in the East. In the year ISGO, early in .May, I

iblished in llir I'mirif Farnwr (pp. 308-9) a figure of this insect, with an
account of its mode of boring, and a figurj; of a bore(l twig; and that you
may identify the sjiecimens sent by Mr. Everett, with the greater certaint}-,
I enclose copies of the above figures. Your readers may know it by its
being cylindrical in shape, almost S(piarely docke<l at each end. from \ to
\ of an inch long, and rather more than three times as long as wide.

64 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Before I wrote the above account, Dr. FitcVi liml alsc) puhlislicd a liricf
notice of the opcMiitions of this beetle, in liis excellent lit'portu on No.riottif
Jngt'clfi, volume II., sectinn 12. lie says that if "occurs from Pennsylvania
to Mississi|)pi, but has never been met witii as yet in New York or New
England." To distinguish it from the other two borers which infest the
apple-tree — two-striped Sapo'cfa, common both east and west, and the apple
buprestis ( Chnjsvliolhris femorala, j which is peculiar to the west — I have
pro|M.)scd lor this insect the English name of the "Apple-twig Hurrr."

Mr. Everett, being probably not familiar with the technical language
used by entomologists, calls his little enemy a "black fly." It is, how-
ever, not a lly, but a true beetle, belonging to the great order ColcoiAera,
or yiielly-backs, to which appertain the well-known horn-bugs, lightning-
bugs, cucumber-bugs, May-bugs, and rose-bugs, besides the two abovt;-
mentioned borers of the apple-tree. Moreover, although it is black under-
neath, its upper surface is not black, but a very dark chestnut brown. I
have nev(;r seen it so abundant as to do any material damage to apple
trees. Indeed, 1 question if its presence in small numbers is not rather
a benefit to the tree than otherwise, by acting in the numner of a summer
pruning.

Blight on Pear Trees.

Mr. E. G. Hunt writes from Emporia, Kansas, in relation to a discussion
in the Club upon blight on pear trees, as follows: " Some years since, where
I was raised in the central part of the State of North Carolina, the pear
tree was seriously ail'ected with the blight; my father's trees were very
much ii jurcd. A friend informed him that if he would bore a hole with a
lar'-e gindet into the body of the tree some inches, and till nearly full of
roll sulphur, and plug up close, cutting oil" the plug even with the bark, so
that it could grow over it, that a cure could be elfected. My father adop-
ted the plan, and the blight disappeared."

Dr. Trimble. — The pear tree blight is not known in New Jerj^ey, but I
hope we shall frown down all attempts to destroy the blight by boring a
hole in the tree and filling it with sulphur, or driving a nail into the tree.
These foolish notions should not be for one moment tolerated.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — I do not think that it is the business of this Club
to ridicule this or any other statement of a iact which may be made. This
gentleman says distinctly that the pear trees were iliscased, that a cer-
tain remedy was applied, and the disease disappeared. Now, who knows
wlu'ther it was cured by the sulphur or not ? It may appear to us very
ridicnhms that disease should be cured by hom<eopathic do.ses, but, ridicu-
lous as it is, it is nevertheless true.

Dr. Ward. — The form of blight that has alTected the orchards in North-
ern and Western New York I have never seen in New Jersey, and 1 have
seen thousands of trees. The only way to test this moile <ii" cure by the
use t)f sulphur, is by actual experiment. We know that sidphur is used in
graperies with great success. AVe do know that the introdnetioii -.1' poison
into the animal syste-m in the minutest (piantity j)ossible to conceive, as
in the case of the; bite of a snake or rabid dog, or sting of a bee, produces
the most painful effect. Wc also know that the animal and vegetable

I
I

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 55

kmpfdoms hnvo niaiiy c-liaraffcrlstifs whicli arc aiialii,i::;mis. Do wc know
that sulpliur tims iiitroiliict'd will not so afi'ect tlie tiet; as to prevent dis-
ease, as the writer state's ?

Mr. John G. Berg;en.— This matti^r must be settled by experimental facts
and nttt by tlKviry, and it must be by a series of exjioriments — (jiit; never
determines a f^et. Theiv is a p;entleman present who states to me that he
has tried tJie exjK'riment \A' pluj^j^ing' sulphur iji cherry tre<?s, and it pro-
<luced rut cflevt. But that does not disprove the fact stated by the g'entle.
inan that suipliur did apparently cure the jiear blight in North Carolina. I
wish Uv liad stated v»liether it was the summer or winter blight, for they
are distinct and their ellect very different. The progress of the winter
blight is sometimes very slow, while that of the summer blight is often so
raj>id that the tives are often past recovery bcf<H-e the disease is discovered.
Tiic best reuKxly for the winter blight is to carefully prune off all the limbs
d»twn to t]ie sound wooil. The same remedy might be applied to tiie sum-
mer blight if discovered in time

Mr. Win. S. Carpenter. — I should like to know how a remedy could be
applied to such a bliglit as swept over the country this year, withering the
leaves upon one side (jf all the trees in an orchard in one day, indeed, almost
instantly. I believe the ordinary winter blight, common all over the
United States, is caused by strong growth and immature wood suddenly
frozen in autunin. The cause of the summer blight is less certain- it affectp
large and small trees alike.

Mr. Wm, R. Prince. — I believe the cause of summer blight io as much
atmospheric as that of winter blight. It appears to be caused by intense
beat upon vigorous branches. The most vigorotis growers, such as the
Madeleine and White Doyenne, have been more affected than others; that
is, in our vicinity. The Bartlett produces much immature wood, and is
more apt than others to be aff«'cted by winter blight. It was the practice
<if my father to cut the trees down some ten or fifteen inches below where
the tree was affi-cted. I do not remember losing one.

Mr. K. (}. Pardee. — The blight whiLh has been most common in Western
New York does not attack and destroy suddenly, but may be seen first
upon one leaf (.n the end of a twig, then upon another and another, gradu-
ally wcuking its way down, and during the summer a long portion of the
shoot will be found to be dead. If, as Mr. Prince recommends, the limb is
cut off below where it is aflectcd, the tree, in all probability, will be saved.

Gas Lime.

Mr. Marcus Spring, Perth Amboy, N. J., asks: " IIow, and to what
xtent, arc the fertilizing ipialities of lime affected by its use as a pinifier
fcoal gas f Plea«e also say what is the best mode of using gas linii! as
I fertilizer."

.Mr. Solon Robins(»n. — This f[uestion has been repeatedly answered in the
discussions of this Club; I suppose it must be again. Experience, I believe,
has invariably proved that gas lime is injurious to crops. I will ask Mr.
I'arllett, who is better authority in this matter than I am, to state the rea-
son wh}*.

Mr. George Bartlett said: It is because the lime becomes charged with

56 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

cailMHiic ficid and sulplimi'ttrd liytlrn^eii. Avliirli it abstracts from llic g"'iS,
Tliat is the piirpuse lor wliicli the lime is nsod. In its iVosli cojulilion
thi'se substances are ?<> acrid tliey are dostractive to vegetable life. It
Bli«)idd be tlien composted witli nmck or some otlier substance. If tlic linio
is kept exposed to ibe at»nosp)iere for a year or two, it may tben bo nsed
in tiie same wa}- as sniphato of lime ^plaster), and ■witli al)oiit the same
efl'eet. \Nliere tlie action jiroduccd by (jnick linie is recjnired, ga« lime is
.not valuable.

Presertino Meat without Salt.

yir. Oeorg'e Bartlett stated an important fact wliicli lias lately been pub,
lislied, in reg'ord to a discovery lately made by Prof. Morgan, of Dublin
for preserving- >neat b}' infusing- brijie into the arteries of an animal as soon
as life is extinct. A reservoir containing the brine lias an elevation of 30
feet. An incision is then mad(! into the great artery of the heart, and the
nozzle of a flexible pipe inserted and made fast, A corresponding opening
is then made upon the other side of the heart, and the sto|>cock of the pipr*
opened, and the pressure forces out all the blood from the body of the ani-
ni;il. NYhen the brine begins to run clear, the discharge opening i.s closed
and the veins ren^ain filled with brine. The salt is somewhat absorbed
thri'U;jh all the tissues of the meat, -which, it is r.aid, will then keep almost
any length of time required, without any further aildition of salt. Prof,
Graham, L(jndon, has discovered a process by which he is enabled, at
slight expense, to extract a large amount of nutriment fronr brine which
has been used i)i the preservation of meat, m* it is well known that the
action of brine on meat extracts much of its nutritious quality. The pro
cess of Prof, Morgan preserves all this nntrimcnt in tlie meat.

Flower Culturi — How to Increase It.

A lady in Vermont sends the following interesting letter to the Club :
" Having been disappointed in trying to procure some »eed of the aihui-
thus ill another quarter to wliich 1 apj)lied, I have the assurance to ask
you to assist me to some. All my life I have devoted a few lei.snre hours
to the cultivation of llowers, and for the ten years last fiaut 1 have had the
])le;isuro of seeing my neighbnrs one alter antitlier esigagiiig in gardening,
and many quite thriving flower gardens can now be seen in tiiis neighbor-
hood, and there is a plensant rivalry among us for tlx- .^mest flowers and
the rarest and new?st seeds. I dispense seeds (.such as 1 have myself, or
can procure) to tlic young people for many miles around my own home —
and every j'ear I try for new ones. I have read (he debates of your ("iiib
and wished I might be a hearer instead of a readi-r, and share in the choice
Heeds distributed there. J id>served yesterchiy in a ridi* (tf some s<'ven or
eight miles, some new thing.'* that I liked — many litthj pieces of grounll
formerly neglcct(;<l as coiisidere(l worthless for cultivation now ting up
nicely, the bushes )>ullcil dul, and the stones pih'd up and the ground
plaiiteil. Many pieces used as pasture ami partly overrun with biisl es and
brier have been brought into line condition. But 1 am making too long a
letter, when I do not even know that you will think it woiili looking at. I
have long wibhcd to be one of your corre.^poiidenls, l>o yon know anything

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS CLUB. 57

nlKtiit Diir elms, in this |>;irt (»!" tlic State? At this Hcasoii [he seeds fall
IViiiii tlie trees and are carried in Utth* chtuds dl' IhiUcs in the air, il" there is
a light wind partieularly, and they st-tlle on the ground and in a few daya
they co(ue n|' in hundreds and grow rapidly. If our IVicnds out on the
j)rairies could see the (|UantitieH I pull up each iSjiriufj;-, and tlieir rapid
};ro\vth, he would know wliat to g"et to plant upon his lands. 1 don't
know as this letti'r will reach the distinct person, as I hardly know how to
direct, hut 1 must niaki^ anotlier ell'ort to get some ailauthus seed, as I wish •
tt) go into the silk worm business if I can procure the re(iuir(,(l matc'iials.

Mr. \Vn». li. I'rince took the address of the lady and promised to furnish
her with some ailanthus seed. AVe fear it is a little too far north, thougii
the tree is decidedly hardy here. Mr. I'rince states that a few years since
he hud an order from I'aris lor 15 barrels of ailanthus seed, which he pro-
ennd readily by hiring boys to gather it from the trees growing in city
: reels and along the country roadside. A great number of acres arc now
; overed with ailanthus trees in France, and rapid progress is making in the
business of producing* silk from worms fed upon their foliagv. Ue thought
it full time that a patriotic elfort should be made to revivify the silk busi-
ness in this country and stop silk importation. It is an ascertained fact
that nearly all the silk of Japan is i)roduccd from the ailanthus tree; and
imiloubtedly the same material c.-uld be as well produced in this country
as in Japan. The trees are kept cut down so that they formed shrubsj and
were abfiut si.x feet high.

Mr. Georg-e liartlett said that he had observed in stjme of tlie French
papers, statements that the Japanese silk-pvoducing- ailanthus was of a
iitferent species fvom that commonly grown in this country.

Mr. Win. R. I'rince ve[)lied to this statement that the French writers
must certainly be mistaken. He had read descriptions and seen draw-
ings of the trees, which fully acci^rded with those to be seen so common
in our streets.

Gapes in Chickens — Cause and Cure.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — 1 will read the following letter I'roni a gentleman
who has had great experience in raising chickens:

" I'erha|>s 1 can add a litth.' to the intormation of the gentleman from
Franklin upi>n the subject of gapes in yonn<^ j)onltry.

"His description of the worm in the trachea is correct, except the part
he desci-ibes as a proboscis appears to me to Ite a lind) with a true foot. I
Urteil a glasH of I«»\v power, Init the iiart in (lUestion appeared muscular,
and tli(.' fringed extremity like a claw, by which the parasite proj^ressed
diiwMWHrd and fixed itself to the lining of the windpipe. The mouth ap-
■ like that of the leech, and I thought I coidd discover a piercer in its
: . but am not sure. It moves, I think, by fastening its month to the

de of iho trachea, then stretching out its arm and claw to a new place,
iiius drawing it.self along, sucking the l)lood of its victim for its nnurish-
nient.

" The diitken dies with the animal fdled witii eggs in it. These must
hatch and become m.^rc or less developetl in the decomposed remains, then
remaining in the dust attach themselves to the living chickens or the old

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fowls to gvt ill the tliroats (o bcconip porfcrk-d into t!i(> tiiiiped or one footod
U'acli.

" Now, tlio poultry raisers say, ' no lice no j:;ap(>s,' brlievin;j: that lico
crcM^p ill the nostrils;, cliaii^'iiia; as tlwy proci'cd downward to tlu'Si' worina.
This is not so absurd as it at (irst appears. Two kinds of lice infest fowls.
The common poultry Ious(», fiiu* almost as dnst, covering- everythiiiLC in the
roost like powd<'r. This kiml hns nothin<j^ to do with u'apes. Many heii-
nicrios iiifestetl with these, have no trouble with gapes of the ehieken.
There is another louse, huf^e and few in number, fiinnd under the wiiij^s of
the mother, and on the heads of the young'. This, by creeping in the nos-
trils, causes the disease in question. The action of the chicken in the com-
mencement of the disease shows the irritation to be h cated in the nostrils,
later in the throat, and finally' we witness the long noiseless gajjc proceed-
ing from obstructed windpipe.

" I'KF.VENTIOK.

"In setting the hen have the nest clean, and sprinkle the nest and oggs
with sulphur. This drives olT all lice, which is good at any rate. When
liatched remove from the head any lice that may be found there. Grease
their heads, and under the wings of the mother. Have coops with loo^e
board bottoms, so that the chickens shall not have to keep their feet on the
damp ground, as this chills them and makes them rheumatic and weak — an
easy prey to parasites. Feed peppers, cayenne or common garden pepper.
The last made in a tea and their food moistened with it. This, with onion
tops or chives chopped, strengthens the digestive organs niid the whole
system. Cure. — Keep them strong, as above, and they will be able to
expel most of the intruders. To help them do this, do something to make
the habitations of the worms disagreeable to them.

"The feed of onions and chives makes the breath unitleasant, compelling
the animals in the throat to relax their hold, when they will be coughed
out; assafcctida (tlu^ tincture) mixed with the food, is more efl'ectual in the
same way — it acts likewise as a tonic. I think the most effectual remedy,
however, to be suliihur mi,\<'d with the food. It seems to taint tin- breath
80 as to disgust the worms entirely, when they are easily thrown oiit by
sneezing.

" If tills theory or hypothesis of the cause of gapes be correct, it will be
necessary to bury deeply or burn the dead chickens. The old yards are
the ones most infect<<l with this disease. If your ct>rrespondent observed
in the worms taken from dead chickens numerous eggs, these must bi'dune
develope«l in the dead l»ody, from thence; in some way infesting the living.

"Some person will yet trace this animal from the germ thr<»iigh all its
transf.irmations, (d»serving its habits and peculiarities. We can then
speak of its suppression and eradication wilh knowledge and cerlainly, till
then w(! can but guess."

.\Ir. .1. A. I'ond, Kingsley, Crawfni<l cnunty, ra.,s;iys he has ascertained
that the cause; of the worms which produce gapes in chickens arises from
their feeding upon angle worms, because his chickens always have gapes
•when tliey run where tiny can obtain these worms, and never when shut
iu close coops. Young turkeys which run wilh hens have gapes because

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 59

hens scratch and fccil lliciii worms. AVIicii (lie}' luu with their natural
rn«»thfis they do not have trapes. Yoiinj;' jjoslin^i's l»r(»u;:;lit n[t hy liand
wnr fed with urigK" wiunis, had ^apcs and died; othcis of tlic same aj^o
raisid l>y tlioir mothers wore licalthy.

Mr. .1. IJ. Hiickl>c<', Nfudos, Ontario county, N. Y., in cointncntiiij;" n[)on
what has been said in tlic chil), s:iys: " One writer declares that the disease
is caused by filthy roosts. That is true. Another says it is caused by
worms in the throat of the chicken. That is also true. So it is that hens
and hen roosts bec<ttne infested with vermin, the ovary of which is iidialed
by the young chickens, which produces the woiins, and consequently the
gapes in the chickens. This is more easily prevented than cured. Any-
thing that will kill the vermin upon the brood hen will prevent the gapes.
A little sulphur scatt(Med about the roost will destroy vermin. Places
where hens can wallow in dry plaster (gypsum) will destroy verndn,
because it contains sulphur. Places for hens to wallow in dry lime and
ashes are good. Sassafras poles in the hen roost and penny royal in the
nests, will effectually destroy vermin and prevent the gapes in chickens.
Now for the cure of the gapes after it shows itself in chickens. Dough,
such as wheat brCad is made from, allowed to get quite sour, is a cure. I
think any ground grain wetted and allowed to ferment will cure the gapes."

Peonias.

The Chairman. — Before we adjourn I wish to call 3'our attention to the
magnificent bouquet of peonias presented to the Club by Mr. Prince, who
informs ujc that he has upwards of one hundred varieties of this plant now
in bloom.

Adi'iuriied. Joii.v W. Chambers, Secretary

Jane 14, 1SG4.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely m the chair.

"What is Yellow Seed?

Mr. Solon Robinson. — I present to the Club some specimens of the yellow
Bcod which was found growing with flax, and which was supposed
hybridized with the Hax. The gentleman who sent it says: "It is no wild
seed or charlock, neither is it wild mustard. I never saw it growing except
among Hax. The i)est way to get rid of it is to pull it up when small."

.\(r. Win. R. Prince. — This is the seed sown under the name of yellow-bird
Reecl. I do not now recollect its botanical name, but I am sure that the
two will not hybridi/.e.

The Secretary. — The seed sent, is known here as the yellow-bird seed.
In the Farmer's Dictionary it is described as the weed T/ilaspi vampestre,
false flax, mithridatc mustard, a cruciferous annual with mustard-llavored
pod.**, which abounds in flax fields, and is very troubleson»e. It can <jnly
be avoided l>y screening the flax seed carefully, and omitting tin' cultiva-
ti«)n of flax for a seascm, introducing cleaning or hoed crops instead. There
is als<» a plant Camdina tfcUiva, Gold of Pleasure, which it very much
resembles. It is cultivated in Europe, and is a common crop in many
localities. Its seed is manufactured into oil, which is edible when fresh,

CO TRANSACTIONS OF THE AAIERICAN INSTITUTE.

but is apt to bfcoine raiicitl. It l>iiriis well in lamps and i.s liard to froozo.
This cro]) is sown in the spiincf of thi; year, but may be defenc d until
June in countries having; a warm, dry autumn. It is sown broadcast at
the rate <>f four jxuinds per acre, and is harvested wlien tiie seed ])ods
be<;^in lo turn yellow. If too ripe it is ajit to whell. In Eng'Iand the crop
is averaged at from '24 tn o"2 bu.shels per acre.

Can we Produce Silk ?

Mr. Tiicodnrc Martindalc, I\irtlanil, Ohio, Wiiiits the CluV) to discu.ss the
question in reffard to the practicability of prolitably <>rowing silk in the
United States. He thinks " if we can ever raise our own silk, now is tho
time to connnence, as we must necessarily have a hi;;]i protective tarill" on
all articles of luxuiy like silk."

Mr. Solon Kohinson. — The writer probably is not as well aware as many
meinhers of this Club, that the ])raclicability of producing* silk in thi.s
C(Mintry was thoroughly demonstrated more than fifty years ago.

31 r. ^Vm. li. Prince gave a brief review (jf the history of some early
eflbrts in this behalf, and the reason why they failed. It was simply the
want of |)rotection to the early producers and manufacturer.s.

The Canada Thistle on Western Prairies.

Mr. J. AVesley Philips writes from NVashington, 111., as follows:
" I wish to call the attention of the Farmers' Club to a question I regard
of much importance to the farming communit}' in the west. The Canada
thistle is now making its appc^arance in many parts of this State, brought
hero in various ways, to wit: with trees from eastern nurseries; seed
grain, roots, hay and straw packing aliout various wares. It was brouglit
here to Washington in the spring of 1803 with a|)ple trees from a IJociies-
tcr nursery. The owner of the soil discovered it during the sunnner in
vast numbers ab(»ut one tn-e, when his susju'cion Avas aroused, and ho
used great exertion to suIkIuc it; but, to his astoni.'-lmn'Mt, this spring it
was thicker than ever. Now, it is claimeil by Honu; that the ('anada
thistle will not live and mature in this rich ))rMirie soil of the west, but
being so well acqu.iinted with it in New York State, feel <]uit<' siir<; it will
1)0 a nmch more stubborn thing to deal with her<' than where tin- soil is
loss fertile. I wish tin; opinion of the Club on this subject, ami the man-
lier in which the thing sliouhl l>e dealt with from the lieginning."

Mr. Solon Pobinson — There; is but one course for praiiie farmers to ]iursue
with this pest. It is to wage upon it a war of utti-r extermination. No matter
thai it may be like the present war of the Nation. The thistles .are like tht;
rebels — tlu-y must be ci)n<pu'red and snbduOil, or they will con(pier and sub-
due the farmers. Whenever the prairie soil becomes as thickly stndiled with
tliistles as some of the farms of Canada, the land will lie no more valnaiile.
Indeed, it will be le.><s valuable, because, the soil being so much deep»r
and richer, the thistles will grow ranker, and when they once beeome
fi.xofl, will be m<ue difnctdt to exterminate* than they are in the poor, haid
soil of the north; ami there they have obtained such .'i firm hold that all
att<'mpfs to exterminate them have been giv(,'n up. Of all the pests ever

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. Gl

inflicted upon Illin<)i^^, tlicic is nothing' l»iit Cojipevlic'iids that can ho worse
for its intliistrioiis fanners.

Wild Flowers from Iowa.

.^hs. Mary Treat of Hhiirstown, Iowa, sends some specimens of grasses
g'rowii ill Iowa — one a pretty flowering" grass witli wliito bh)Ssoms, otliers
with lilue, antl still anoliier with a pinkish or <h'sh-coh)red tinge. You
can form no idea of tlieir hi'aiily from tlie dried specimens, except you
have seen it growing in masses as I have found it this spring. Its botan-
ical name is Lisi/rinchiinn Aun'pfs; tlio next is u little bulbous plant,
familiarly called star fjrcsa, frequently abundantly intermixed with the
al>o\ I'. It is about the same hight and blossoms with the List/rinchium,
so that by blending the four colors, it would be pretty for borders. Its
botanical name, Ili/poxis Ereda. At the left is a plant far more elegant
than many of our cultivated flowers; I infer it has nevcn* been cultivated
as I have not found it in any of the catalogues. It coidd be easily grown
in almost any soil. The specimen I send is small, the flowers Hot so many
nor perfect as in larger plants. The leaves are all radical, two of which I
inclose. Scape usually about a foot high. It is found in order, Primulaccfv;
name, Dodecatheou media. There are some three or four colors, but I should
call them only varieties of I), media, seeds of which she would forward to
any lover of flowers wiio would be willing to exchange rare sorts with
her.

Mr. \Vm. 11. I'rince. — one of these flowers, known as " Shooting Star," is
the Docafhan Meaili. It is also called American cowslip — not the one
that grows in marshes. It is very abundant in California, and is occa-
sionally fotnid wild in the Atlantic States. It is grown as a fine orna-
ment t(» gardens, and sold by florists.

3Ir. A. S. Fuller. — I have it — two varieties, from Wisconsin. Another
f the plants in the letter is very common at the west, where it is known
as " blue-eyed grass." It is the Ci/.-<rrinclium.

City Sewage.

Mr. .Solon Robinson. — Alderman Mcchi says: "I consider the sewage of
liOiidoii worth more than £2,000,(100 sterling annually to British farmers
delivered on their farms. Probably' the rate|»ayers of London may ulti-
mately fairly clear JE2">0,000 <»f this anujunt, th(! rest to go to those compa-
nies which may undertake; to convey it into the C(»untry. The wlxde
matter is wonderfully simplified by our Metropolitan Hoard of Works.
Their two great covered tanks, of 1.5 acres each, at Balking and at I'lum-
'ead will receive all the sewage of the metropolis. From those tanks it
may be made to flow buck to the fields from which it came. Katepayers
must take care that their representatives at the Metropolitan IJoard of
Works do not part entirely with the control of so valuable a treasure,
-Mthough not at this moment sufHcientl}' appreciated, the tim*; will come
when it will yield a large revenue to towns, as well as to the companies
which convey it and the farmers who use it. Hut then, say others, how
are you to get it on the farmers' lands? The engineering difliculties of so
doing arc insignificant in comparison with our railways. It is a simple

62 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

(lucstion of piiinpinj^ tu a siinioiciit clovatioii. Mighty stoain lias settled
tliat (luostion. M'Leaii's inoiithly reji^istcr of llic pcifuriiKUiee of llie best
Cornish eiij^incs shows that 112 lbs of ct al (worth Is.) will raise 101), 000,-
000 Ihs. <jf waterone foot hi«^h. Sir .Tosepli Paxton in his evidenee before the
Parliaincntary committee, values the water alone of the sewaj^e at 2(1. per
ton at certain seasons. The sands near Edinburgh, not worth 5s. per acre,
have been raised in annual value to £21 per acre by the application of
town sewage only."'

Prof. jNIapes. — There is a great difference between the two countries. Our
sewage here is so much more diluted, and coal to produce power so much
more expensive, that it is very doubtful whether the value of the sewage
would p;iy the cost of its elevation to a hight sullicient to carry it out upon
any cultivated lands in the vicinity. There would be another diniculty
liere, and that is to induce the farmers to use the sewage water after it is
brought within their reach. It is notorious that American farmers arc
very negligent about using fertilizers.

Mr. Win. S. Carpenter. — I think it of more importance for our farmers
to attend to the sewerage of their own houses, as every house produces
enough to fertilize acres of land. I have erected a suitable cistern in
which all the slops of the house, water closets, &c., are conveyed; this
material I appl}' to the growing crops on the toj) of the soil, and have
experienced great results from its use.

Prof. Mapes. — I am glad Mr. Carpenter has introduced the subject of
house-sewerage. I have for years used this material on my crops, but not
until this substance has been in the cistern sixty days, during whiili time
a great change takes place in its fertilizing ([ualities.

Grapes and Strawberries in Illinois.

Mr. E. D. Davenport, Waynesville, J)e Witt Co , 111., says: " Let me tell
fruit gr(jwers in Central Illinois that if they expect to grow strawberries
without a good deal of labor, in the way of mulching and watering, they
will fail; tor by the sweat of thy brow thou shalt eat strawberries. I
liave planted this spring the following varieties of grapes and strawber-
ries: lOU Uelawares, 5 lonas, 5 Ilerbemont, 5 Anna, T) Diana, 5 Ctjuciird, 5
Union Village, and 2 Isnl.ella; also, 100 Bartlett and 100 Triomphe de
Gand strawi)erries. My grape vines are all growing without a single
exception, and so far as I can judge, the leaves all look healthy; and a.s
for my strawberries, I am more than pleased with them — I am rejoiced,
they look ho well." He asks which of an ecpial numl«'r of Helaware,
Concord, Hartford Prolitic, and liiidn Village, would pmbalily jiroduce the
greatest returns in money. TIk; answer to this »]uesti(in would be simph'
theory, and not Wdrth tlu; paper that it was written upon. What he wants
is facts. If nr) osie can give them from actual experiment, i\Ir. l)avenport:
must wait until he; can (jbtain them by his own experience. He says: " I
have been lor some linu; an attentive r<'ader <>i \)\. (J rant's works on
grape and strawberry growing, but am not (juite abh; to con)prehend his
meaning — [A g<jod many others are in the same |tredicament.] Dr. (Jrant
says, that in order to complete the planting of my vines I must layer or
bed them next spring, a distance of about ten or twelve inches. 1 wish to

1

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. C3

kiiiiw if I may not do it this fall, at the saiiu' (iiiic thai 1 fill up llic exca-
vatiuiis thi'y are set in, aiul lliiis save a j^ood deal ol iaijor.''

Mr. Suhni llobiiison. — Tlic answer tu this qnt'stion is in the atlinual ive.
The vinos can ho hiyerod in autnnm as woll as spring; iiuh'cd tiny arc
ufton covored for the pnrjjoso of winter protection.

Apple Trees — Varieties Adapted to the Climate of Iowa.

^Ir. James II. Mason, Marion, Iowa, gives liis experience since 1852: lie
says: " Tlie winter of 1856-7 was the most severe in tliis State, tlie tlier-
nioinotor sinking to 32° F., below 0. Tiie varieties tliat withstood that win-
ti'r in this vicinity are the YoHow Belltlower, White Winter Poarmain,
Hononi, l\ed and Sweet Komanite, Ked and Sweet June, Fanieuse, Falla-
water, Fall Fippin, Winesap, Early Bough, Roinanstein, Maiden's Blush,
Tallman Sweeting, Milam Golden Seedling, Paradise Winter Sweet, Baily
or Pattorson's Sweet, Limber Twig, Early Pennoek, Domino, Keswick Cod-
lin The Rawles Jaiiette or Never Fail, of New England, in many locali-
ties was half killed. The Tnlpehocking, about three-fourths destroyed;
lied Kambo, three-fourths injured; the White Rambo, but little; the Michael
Henry Pipjiin, totally dcstroyi'd I own an orchard of about 200 trees,
but no nursery, and living north of the parallel of 42", I think I liavo had
an opportunity of testing the varieties I named above. The last winter
was very severe, the thermometer sinking to .30" F. I can discover no
injury to my trees, except one of the Early Harvest varieties, which appears
to be one-half killed. My oldest trees arc 11 years old this spring, and my
best bearer is the Romanite, and also the Romanstcm, a native of New
Jersey, and I suspose well known to some members of the Club. I
addressed a line a few weeks ago to the Club, soliciting some information
if well decomposed oak sawdust is a good application for fruit trees, and
the answer was they have had no experience. I will ask the Club if they
ever applied chip manure to apple trees, and what were the results. .My
system of treating trees is to train very low tops and cultivate the land."
Mr. Solon Kol)inson. — Several members of the Club have used chip man-
ure with beneficial results.

KOSEBUGS AND GrAPE BlOSSSOMS.

A fiirmer's boy writes from Ridgolield, (Connecticut wo suppose,) that
lie accidentally ascertained that a white cloth spread over a grapevine
while in bloom keeps olT the rosebugs. fie sa>'s: "I have often seen the
ro.sebug spoken of as fiod for poultry. Will your Club tell me, through
the Tnhitne. what kind of a fowl (except a toad) will feed on Rosebugs,
md what they can be had for by the thousand ?"

Mr. Solon Robinson. — 1 will answer a part of this question. I know by
. bscrvation tliat young turkeys will eat rosebugs. I cannot say that they
will gather them of their own accord from the bushes, but when gathered
in a cup, which ia the plan we practice to keep them from destroying the
blossoms of the vines, and fed to y<»ung turkeys in a coop, tliey eat them
freely. I have not tried the ex|)eriment, but have no doubt that young
ducks also would eat rosebugs. Tin; inference fnun the above, that toads
• at bugs, is worthy of consideration. Toads are truly friends of the far-

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nior, and as suoli sIkhiIiI Ik^ fustcrcd. Sd arc cmws and skunks, for tlicy
coiisiinio an cnorinons <|nantity of Itcctlcs. As to k('<'|tinjj: 11m; ntscbuji's oil'
tin* <:^rai)i'vii;!'s with a wliitc clotli, I sliouM liko to know wlictlicr the rlotli
serves as a " scaie-crow," or wlietlier the vine must be entirely covered
"with the cloth to prevent the destrnclive di-predations of the beetle fami-
liarly called roscbui^". The writer nf the above letter says that he shonid
writ** oftener, Imt he is afraid of criticism; that he makes no pretensions to
scholarship — " I only ;;o thrt)U<^h the world with my eyes open." No, sir,
you do not. If you did, you wouh! see how incurrectly you spell many of
your words. ()|»en your eyes, sir, and you will resolve never to write
another Utter to an editor witlmut referring," to that Webster's Dictionary,
that you speak of, to see that every word is sp(dled correctly. (Jrammar
and style we never criticise. I<;iiorance of facts that ylare every one in
th(! lace, so- that they may be seen by openinj;' the eyes, we do criticise.
So we do doj>-niatical assertions, which a.e easily seen to be erroneous by
any one who opens his eyes. AVe have no malice in our criticism. It is all
for the ;j^eiieral g-ood.

A Phenomenon in Farming.

A Scotch farmer raised a crop of potatoes early last season on part of
the field, sowing turnips broadcast without nianure, and on the other part
sowing-, at the same time, drilled turnips, to which he api)lied tii cwts.
Peruvian guano and 2.^ cwts. dissolved bones. All was eaten off by sheep,
and the whole field sown with wheat. Singidar to say, the crop is decidedly
supcrif)r on the land where there had been no manure. Can any of our
readers explain the phenomenon ?

Prof. Mapes. — Probalily this matter, like many others, is overstated. It
is like a great many statements of farmcMs' experiments in this country.
It is no argument against the use of manure.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — Tlu; matter niay and ni;i\ iku lie overstated, but
this is a fact in regard to all similar statements. The facts given a it-
based upon the experiments of one year; they are not snllicient basis lor
an opinion. I have often seen similar results upon the market garden
farms in this vicinity, wher" a field planted ail to one crop this year, anil
all treated ccpially alike as to manure and cidtivation, may show a marke<l
dilference in the growth t.if the crop up to a given row. On referring back 1
have found the field was treated last year exactly alike, so that the difl'e-
rence could not be traced to that or the preceding year, i>ut n|ion looking
still further back om; or two years, I havy invariably found the cause to
proceed from tlx- diflereiit manner of cultivating, manuring, or the kind of
crop grown. This ])roves that the soil feds the influence of tieatment for
several years.

Amount of Flaxseed Per Acre.

.\| r. <'. I>. r'aridiain writes to Tin- lUirnl Xrir Yorhr : " I have li:id a good
di'al of experieiice in raising an<l dressing flax for the l.ist twenty years,
having raist'd yearly fro?ii twr-nty to fifty acres. I have sf»wn dilferent
amountH of seed, Inu I think one bushel per acre enough for any land. I
hfivi- sown more, but, as a general thing, heavy rains will knock it down,
it will sDoil, prodiicc but litth- seed, and not near as mtn-h flax when dressed

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 65

Rs th:vt which has less seed sown; ;iiul it is more work to pull it. When I
havf sown two Imshi'ls to t)io acre on ii;i)od hiiid, it has JaUcu and iciiiaiiu'd
as flat as if il had boon rolled; and not ouo-tenth of it will straight(.'n up
uiiti4 pulkd. In suclj cases the crop is not worth half price. I generally
Kow on p:r(H'n sward, and seed with clover. In this way my land is improv-
inpf. I think where land is seeded it does the grass as much good to pull
the llax as it does corn to hoe it.

Pleuro-Pneumonia.

^tr. S )l(>n Ivohinson. — The following interesting facts are taken from tes-
(iniuiiy elieited before a select committee in Scotland: " Mr. Gaujgee rc-
peat«"d his statement that tliere was not proper supervision of the slaugh-
ter houses in Edinburgh — only a small proportion of the diseased cattle
being condemned. With regard to the large towns, the ordinary practice
was to milk the cows as long as they can be kept on, and they were usually
sent away within the year. Diseased cows with plcuro-pneumonia would
generally die in five months. He had known cases in Glasgow where dis-
eased cows were purposely bred from, because a higher price was paid for
those that had had the disease. It was almost impossible to buy cattle in
the market at Glasgow without taking pleuro-pneumonia home. He would
recommend inoculation in large dairies as the best remedy for the evil; and
the objections which had been raised against the practice were entirely
consequent upon the clumsy performance of the operation. He liad prac-
ticed inoculation extensively himself in farms of 100 and 150 animals, and
in dairies in Glasgow of an equal extent, with only one case of failure. In
one of the large d;iiries of E'linburgh ho had inoculated, and tlie cattle had
been in an irreproachable condition ever since. His experience was that
plcuro-pneumonia was only taken once, except in very rare cases, and inocu-
lation was, in his opinion, the most effectual preventive."

Nitrate of Soda as a Manure.

Mr. Solon Iv<»binson. — For the information of the members of the Club, I
will read the following extract from the 3Iark Lane Express:

"The use of nitrate of soda, as a top dressing for barley, is gradually
extending; and here, as in the case of other nitrogenous manures, it is
found useful to combine it with an equal weight of common salt; and where
a too rapid growth is still apprehended, the mixture has been successfully
applied, at an interval of three or four weeks, as in the experiments made
by Mr. W. Horn, of Scole, in SufTolk, in the season of ISOO, on a light soil,
where the manures were ajiplied in two pmtions. viz., in the secimd week
in April and May 1. This division was intended to prevent a too rapid
growth at one tim<*. The following are the manures and the results ob-
tained per acre:

Foil rimple prodaeed ?,i bushels.

1 ewt. (fiiano, 1 ewt. ofjalt, do 41 bushels.

J cwl. of nilratr of soda, 1 ewt. salt, do 42 bus-hcLi.

4 ewt. of »ul. of ammonia, 1 ewt. salt, do JO bu.ihcls.

"The small proportion of nitrate of soda, successfully employed as a top

dressing for barley, is remark.ible, for 42 pounds of cubic petrc (nitrate of

(Am. Ikst.] K

C6 TRANSACTIONS OF TIIC AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

soda) are not more than will three times lill a man's li:it; and certainly it
is marvelous that three hatfulR of any snbstance should increase so much
and s(» rcj^ularly the eorn upon a whole; acre of <;round, as it did foinhined
with 04 pounds of common salt, in one expcMiment, in whiih it in calcula-
ted that one horse cart load of nitrate of soda i>roduccd eij^ht cart loads of
grain. Tlw. ]>urpose of the common salt is to restraijj tln^ invi;^'oriitinj^
power of V V nitrate. One cart load of nitrate and two of salt prodvici il an
eflect equal to 400 cart loads of farn) yard nKiinue.

Petroleum for Fruit Trees.

Mr. Thcioii r. Paikt-r, Byron, Ogle county, 111., gives the following as
his experifuce in the use of gas tar iijion fruit trees; and as cnie fact is
•worth a volume of theory', we publish his letter entire:

" 1 notice in a late report of the Farmers' Club that George Bush, of
(.'rawford county, Pa., says that 'crude petrijleuin applied to fruit trees aa
a wash to the bark, destrt)ys all kinds of vermin.' If the last two words of
the sentence were omitted I think hi.s statement entirely correct. And as
inftrnnition was solicited at a former meeting of the Club with regard ti>
the use of gas tar as applied to young trees, and the tar and pftrolcum aro
so nearly relateil, I proj)0se to give my experience in using it. Jjast year,
after preparing my seed corn with gas tar and lime, 1 had some of the tar
left, and I thought it would be a good use for it to put it on the bodies of
some twenty thrifty young apple trees that had been put in the orchard to
supply vacancies. 1 thought it wt)uld prevent rabbits from gnawing the
baik, as I have been much annoyed by them. Well, it did do that elVectu-
ally, for only one, and that a pretty large ojie, survived; and that looks art
if it had had the ague.

"These applications for killing bark lice and otiier insects remind mo of
a pert reply of a doctor to an im|)atient mother, who inejuired (»f the doctor
if he could not give her sometiiing th;it would kill the worms in her child.
' Oh, yes, matlam, there is no diflicully about that.' ' Oh, do then, doctor;
I shall be so glad to save tin; life of my child.' 'Ah,' sanl the doctor, 'if
you want to kill the worms and not the child with them, it is a pretty
dillicult matter.' Such, at h-ast, has been my experience. Strong soap
Hiids is by far the best ap|)lication I have ever used for bark lice. I5iit the
tar on seed corn does well, for nothing will eat it, and it does nut injtne the
seed when prc»perly prepared."

Top Onions.

Mr. K. \V(,llington, Lowville, N. V., impiires iiow " the onions conimonly
called Dutel) Sets are raised? ^Vhelher they are froui the black scu'd, or
an entirely difl'ereiit kind? At what time they ought to be so\Vn, how t<»
preserve the seed? " &c.

Mr. Solon llobinson. — This is an entirely dilVerent variety fron» the
black seed onions. The sets are miniature onions, which planted in spring,
grow to largo onions. These nnittire earlier than onions from seed. Thai
is their greatest value. If kept over till spring and set out, they produce,
instead of black seed, a handful of little onions on the top of the stalk.
These should be preserved over winter in a dry room, where they will not
freeze. Plant them as early in spring as the ground will permit.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. G7

English I.MroRTATiON of Agricultural Products.

Mr. Solon lJi)biii8iiii. — The ft»IIo\viiig' statcriKMit froiii an Knglisli paper
.-iiows wluMO we may (iiul a market for man}' tliinj^s tliat conUl be profita-
I'ly ;^ni\vn in (his ('(ninlrj* for exportation. The iniporlation of the follow-
ing articles is taken from the Custom House returns:

" Taking' them in the g^roup.s in which they naturally arrang'c them-
selves, rather than in tlu^ alphal)(?tical order in which tliey arc placed,
they are as follows: I'ung'ent and aromatic seeds, carraway, coriander,
cumin, and anisf.-ed to the extent of 13,000 cwts., and of the value of
£22,000. Dari, millet, and canary seeds, in all, 9'), 000 cwt., worth about
X2G,0U0. Trefoil, lucern, clover, j^rass, and other pasture seeds, 262,452
cwt., valued at JGG01,712. Unenumerated garden and field seeds, 26,847
cwt., valued at £31,817, beside carrot and onion seeds, worth £12,000
moix'. Tares, lentils, and kidney-beans, 61,159 quarters, value £130,643.
This is exclusive of one million quarters of beans and peas imported and
classed under 'corn' from havin^^ to pay the Is. per qr. duty, while all the
other seeds come in free.

" Lastly, we have the oil seeds, the most important as regards quantity
and value, and which wo may specificallj'- enumerate from the official
returns of 1861, as we have done the other seeds. ^Ve maj' here advert
incidentally to the want of uniformit}' in the unit of entries, of whicli we
have often coinplained, for we have all the confusion of lbs., cwts., tuns,
bushels, and quarters, instead of that simplicity and uniformity so essen-
tial for calculations aiixl in drawing conclusions and summaries. The oil
seeds im[)orted in 1861, were:

Value.

Mustard cwfs.. 2."), 299 £25,386

1:>I' 'irs.. 249.035 711,144

1' M.v .)is.. 5,451 15,717

1 ^v <ir.i.. 24.160 65,230

Lint qrs.. l,i:i(i,UO 3,042,825 ,

Hemp f,rs.. 10,571 25,084

•''^' -""c ,,r>.. 2,112 6,862

" ■ " 'ir.s.. 93 1,.39'4

'••'t-n tuns.. 20,034 152,194

t'otuumcTfttcJ qrs.. ;;2,3U5 92,321

Qu«rtcrji 1,400,447 £4,138.157

"To the seeds already enunieratcd, as coming within the same range,
wc may perhaps a.ld tlc.wcr roots, of which about £20,000 worth were
itnp«.rted, and plants, shrub.s, and trees to tlie value of £24,000.

** Hut a very small portion of the imported seeds are intended for sowing.
The pasture grasses, some of the flax seed, a little of the mustard and
canary seed may possibly be so eniployed. The garden seeds are all for
cultivation, and much (»f the cott(m seed imported is intended for distribu-
tion abroad, in different new (luarters where cotton cultivation has recently
been r'Uterfd on.

"About 17,000 cwt. of clov*'r and 23,000 quarters of lla.K and rape seed
went direct to the Scottish ports, 26.000 quarters of flax seed and 2,000
cwt. of clover to the Irish p .rts. Hull imd (irimsby are the great ports
of entry for the continental seeds, more than half a million quarters being
received there — nearly equal to the amount which comes into Loudon —

68 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

while Livci[)cx)l stands third, the imports tliere beinj^ about 250,000 qnar-
tiM-8 annuully. Newcastle', Hristol, (jiloucoster, and a few others receive
smaller amounts.

" Now, ■whence do we derive our supplies of these seeds? The aromatic
seeds come from Europe and Africa; the grass seeds from Gerjnany and
France, except a little Tiniothy from North America; the p^arden seeds
chiefly from Holland, Ilel<^iu?n, France, and IIambur<:;, and the oil seeds
mostly from Kussia and Imlia, altliouj^h Egv|)t, Italy, and Prussia now
send us increasing' quantities. The pulse, lentils, &c., arc principally
from Ej^ypt and Portugal. The aromatic seeds and others are used for
cooking-, for confectit)nary and medical purposes. The great bulk of the
oil seeds furnish beside painters', burning, and other oils — oil-cake for
cattle food and manure, of which our imports are not so large as they for-
merly were, probably because it is found that we can make a better
article at home. The wretchedly foul condition, however, in which UMich
of the seed is received renders it extremely diirioult to make a palatable
cake for cattle, much of it being refused by beasts, owing to the quantity
of earth and sand with which it is mixed."

What is a "Quarter" of Grain ?

Mr. Solf)n Robinson. — The discussion on the change of duties in England
elicits a distinct statement from those engaged in tlie grain trade, as to
the meaning of the English term " quarter," as a measure of grain, when
it is calculated on the wtitjhl instead of by actual measurement. One of
the speakers at the meeting (f the Corn Trade, at the London Corn Ex-
change, gives the following standard weights to the quarter of eight
bushels of the diiFerent grains:

Wheat 496 lbs. to ttc Quarter— equal to 62 lbs. per Bushel.

Harlcy 4O0 do do do 50 do do

Oats.'. 320 do do do 40 do do

The Yield of Broom-Corn.

Afr. Solfjn Robinson. — It is estimated by broom-corn growers that an
average of seven acres of good corn is required to produce two tuns of
brush. An acre will average 35 bushels of seed, which is worth 40 cents
a bushel, and is tolerable food for all kinds of stock and poultry. There
are four varieties of broom-corn usually cultivated. First, the Sanq)son,
which has long, heavy, coarse brush, lit (^nly for coarse, heavy brooms, and
is unprofitable to the manufacturer. Secondly, the Early broom corn. This
ripens some three weeks earlier than the other varieties, and has a fine,
t<jugh brush, juuch liked by broom-corn makers. Thirdly, the South Caro
lina Dwarf, which has short, fine brush, suitable for wisps, and small, fine
brooms. Fnurthly, the common variety, which, for ordinary puri>ose3, is
profitable alike to grower and manufacturer. The crooked and short stalks
should not be thrown away, as they answer well for the inside of brooms-

A White Wistaria.

Mr. A. S. I'liIhT presented some very handsome flowers oi AVhite Wista-
ria, a seedling of the Wintaria fuhjcnx, produced by Ellwanger & Barry, at

PROCEEDINGS OP THE FARMERS* CLUB. 60

Rochester, N. Y., which is far superior to tlie Chinese Wlnte Wistaria, and
bciii.i? ('(jtnilly hiinly with tlie Wisiaria /ra<jans, is a valuable addition to
our rjiiuliitij;- plants,

Adjtnirii<(.i, John W. Chambers, Secretary.

June 21, 18G4.
Mr. Nathan C Kly in the chair.

Increased Growth of Plants in Moonlight.

Mr. J. H. Cressinfj^er, Sullivan, A.shland county, Ohio, expresses his con-
viction that the growth of plants is considerably greater in moonlight
nights than during the moon's dark period. This he proves by marking
time and space at tlie ends of growing vines of various sorts.

Mr. Wni. R, Prince disputes the premises of this writer, but says he has
never tried actual experiments.

Do Sap Suckers injure Trees.

Mr. Charles D. Tracy, Wavcrly, N. Y. — I see great complaints among
Rome farmers that the woodpecker have picked holes in their apple trees.
I have seen trees where the bark has been completely perforated with holes.
I have a remcd}- for such trees, and for old trees, where, as I term it, they
are hide bound. In the longest day of the year I take a knife and split the
bark up an<l down the tree, then take my fingers and peal the baik ofl* the
tree from the ground up into the brandies, taking good care not to bruise
or scratch the gill which is under the bark, which, if the old bark was left
on. Would form into wood, but by taking oft' the old bark this substance
forms into a new bark, and the tree takes new life and grows finely. I
have tried it a number of times within fifteen years in difierent places, in
• ''is and other States, and never had one die.

To dest.-oy the worms on currant bushes I dust over them plaster
and sulphur. This I do several times in the season, and have been suc-
cessful in keeping my bushes free from worms.

l>r. Trimble. — I have made repeated careful examinations and find that
it irt the sap and not worms which the birds obtain from the tree. Wood-
peckers, on the contrary, perforate the rotten places in trees for the pur-
pose of obtaining worms.

Emigration to Maryland.

Mr. Solon Robinson introduced to the Club Dr. J, E Snodgrass, of this
city, formerly of Maryland, who stated that he had prepared a letter of
enijuiry on this subject which he should be pleased to have the Club adopt
an its own. Dr. S. proceeded to say that his knowledge of that State was
acquired by fifteen years residence, and he is sure that no State in the
l'ni«»n oflers greater inducements or will otfer, if it becomes a free State,
and he naujcd several prominent individuals in the emancipation movement
who would willingly communicate any informaiiun whicli the Club might
desire alxjut the price of land, kind and amount of cro[)S that it will pro-
duce, state of society, and with what degree of respect emigrants from the
castcro States would be received and treated.

70 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE

The fi)ll<)wing^ letter, prepurcil by Mr. Siiodgi-ass, was rcail by him at the
close i»f his remarks:

" Observint;^ that your iiaiiic is proniiiu'iit in the pri)C('eiliiii;'3 of tlie Con-
stitutional Convention now sitting' in Maryland, as an atlvueatc ol emanci-
pation, we address yon this letter ('i'emjniry.

"As those interested personally and in behalf of many others eng-aged
itJ aj^rieidtural pursuits, we desire some li<;-ht on tiie ftiljowinpf questions:

" 1. What is tlie actual prospect of an early removal of slavery from
your State ?

" 2. ^^'hen will the chang'e, if ii takes place, be consummated ?

"3. At what price can lai»ds, in piod cultivation, be purchased ?

"4. At what price such as have been under shive culture, and are sup-
posed to have been exiiausted thereby ?

"5 Wiiat are the ailvantages of the eastern shore of the Chesapeake
Baj' for agriculture proper? What for hurticidtnre ?

" 6. Wiial are tiie facilities for reacliing a maiket?

" 1. Has any considerable attention been given in any part of your State
to fruit culhtre as a distinct branch of business ? If so, has ti\e ixperiment
proniised well ?

"8. Wiiat deg-ree of social tolerat'on, to use a phrase which our pens
almost refuse to write, not to say of weh;ome, would \Te 'Yankees' receive
in neig'hborhoods heretofore given up to the abnost exclusive control of
slave culture and jiro-slavery prejudices; such, for example, as those coun-
ties, as we learn from the U. 8. census, there were before the war live
slaves to one white man ?

" W^e desire to be s[)ecially informed as to probabilities touching' this last
query, because we have read statements of tlie results of settlements in the
border States, and particularly of the one much spoken of, some years ago,
as that of 'the Yaidiees in Fairfiix,' Va., which, while they ajipeared to l>e
most successful pecuniarily or m.ilerjuUy, seemed to encounter social bar-
riers which were surmounted, when at all, with annoying- dilVicnlties.

" In answering the above questions, and others which yinir own mind
will naturally anticipate as arising in ours, yoTi will oblige thousands in
this section of the country who ojily await the removal of that natural
repellant <»f free labor, against which the majority of your people seem to
be setting their faces, and reasonable assurances of some degree of W(d-
(;ome, to the end that ihey may seek new homes and l-etter conditions iit
your more sunny clime.

Mr. Solon llobinson moved that this letter be signed by the chairman and
secretary and forwarded to some promine-nt gentlemen in Maryland, ask-
ing for definite information that will be interesting to farmers in the north-
ern States who may desire to emigrate to that State in case slavery eman-
cipation should be carrie<l into efTect, and fdlowed his motion with some
re'iiaks, showing the jjropriety of that course.

Dr. Trindde thought one of the inquiries should Ik; in regard to the health
of the country. He said that the eastern shore of Maryland, though much
the finest agricultural jiortiou of the State, is not so healthy as the iipper
counties. As a general thing he woidd prefer to emigrate to Maryland
rather than any of the western States. Some sections of that State hare

PROCEEDINGS OF THK FARMKRs' CLUD. 71

been f^i'oatly improved by Quakers fVniM Pennsylvania, \\\\n have i:,^oii(; in
siiflici«'nt numbers ti) form nei^'libmlioixis ami societies of their own. As
this letter is to obtain informatii)n for the people, he hope<l it woukl be
Ko wordetl as to elicit it in the lullest manner.

Mr. Solnu Kobinson. — Where lime is nsed ami imin'ovomonls made, the
Country has become more healthy. '

The motion of Mr. Ivobinson was nnanimously adopted.

Flowers.

Mr. Wm. It. Prince presented to the Chib a nuij^^nificent Ixjuqnet com-
l^osed cif the folhtwinf];' flowers: Wistaria violacea; Lilium bulbifernm; Li-
lium umbillatnm fnli^idiim; Delphinium formosum; Transcentia alba; Trans-
eentia ro<e;i; Bij^nonia crueigera; Oenothera Missouriensis; Oenotiiera
Fraseri; llii-raceum speciosum; Penstimon graiidillorum; Passaper crocca
(yellow poppy); Rosa pallida (climbing prairie rose); York and Lancaster
darnusk rose; pearly blush (Chester noisette) rose; Rosa nitida (native);
Iris ])seudacarus (yellow flowering Albion); Epilobium speciosum; Tarra-
poii speciosum; Tarragon (spiej' flavor, to mix with salads); Clematis erecta
purple: Ranuncuhis bulbosus (double yellow); Male Vitus labruscs; ^fen-
tha California; White Japan fragrant honeysuckle; Sedum Crux Andrice
(St. Andrew's cross, live points or angles.)

."^I;-. Prince gave a little history and description separately of each of
those plants, which was very interesting and instructive to those present,
but whieh cannot be reported, on account of the frequent allusions to each
of tlie llow<'rs which he held in his hands and referred to during the dis-
'•■"irse.

StR.\W BERRIES A NeW PeST.

Mr. J. P. Fiixford, Bedford, Canada East, writes as follows about a new pest
of the strawberry plant: " I am interested in the discussions of the Ameri-
can Institutt." Farmers' Club, and a{)ply to them to help me out of trouble.
Knclosed you will fljid several bugs which I have found on my strawberry
plants. You will see that they have beaks. With these they make holes
in the stems for the purpose of extracting the juice, wliich causes the buds
to wither and drop off. Two-tiiirds of the btids have already fallen ofl' from
my phmtK. and the insect is etill at work. I have tried tobacco juice upon
them, but without perceptible eJTect. The plants are Triomphe dc Gand.
You will find some lilvle grf*en fellows, which I think arc the young of the
dark colored ones I hope the Cbd) will not overlook this subj(?ct because
it coiiicH from Canatla — at present the land of skedaddlers."

Dr. Trimble examined these insects, and declared that they were new to
this section of country. They will be a pest indeed if they ever become as
abundarit as the asparagus beetle has in this section.

The Chairman, Aid. Kly, observed that he had found a remedy for the
asparag-tis beetle in placing his coops of her.s and chickens near the beds.

Worms are kot all Pests.

J. \ ale, Pomlret, Vt., gives the following important information to far-
fners, which we present to our readers in his own original style:

' Tlje article in the Tribute headed 'Interesting to Farmers,' sometimes

72 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

puzzles nic to fiiul whore the interest ccmies in. If this comnninicatinn in
of that ehiss suppress it without fail. The last Tribune g-ives a learuciJ
and scientific piece on the importance to farmers of birds. We have long"
appreciated this here. They are not only defended by law, but by moral
and relig'ious teachinijs to the risinj;' generation.

"But how is it about worms ? 1 have been taught to consider thcni as
enemies to the farmer, and waged war on them according. But lately I
found that is not right, expedient nor proper to kill all kinds of worms-
Now to illustrate: My farm is located on a southern declivity, and cut-
worms have been the pest of my life, reaping the young corn cl(>se to the
ground entirely out of season; of course I destroyed them without mercy
when I was so lucky as to find them in hoeing. While engaged i?i this
occupation of hoeing corn and killing cut-worms, occasionally a wortn came
to the surface that appeared diflerent; he would throw himself on hia beam
ends and show fight, but the corn was missing where I found him — prima
facie evidence — and he suffered the fate of the transgressors, the cut- worm.
By and by the tluuight struck me, are not these the Avorms tiiat the good
God Almighty has made to follow on the track of those euised cut-worms,
and destroy them.

"Well, why not demonstrate this? I had a basin two-thirds full of dirt
in which was a llourishiiig hill of C(Mn; 1 caught jMr. cut-worm and put
him in the basin. I caught Mr. nondescript and put him in; he made good
time round the basin, not quite 2:40, but respectable time for a worm. Mr.
cut-worm could not begin with him in speed. After making two or three
rounds he came across the cut-worm; he seized him at once b}* the throat,
then came the tug of war; but with all Mr. cut-worm's writhing and squirnv
ing, nondescript held his grip, and I could think of nothing more singular
than a tiger fastened t(j his prey. lie abstracted the inside of that cut-worm
by suction, not to speak very philosophically, and left nothing but the skin-
lie gave the quietus in the same manner to two other worms forthwith,
with this difl'erenre, they were not so completely exhausted. You may be
sure I never killed any more of these liger icorms.

" Now, sir, if you think this worthy of your notice, present it to the
savans; perhaps it is nothing new, and perhaps it is.

"This worm resenibles the cut-worm very nearly — a little darker color,
more activity, and a horny, spade-like head."

Dr. Trimble. — This tiger worm, as the writer calls it, is fully described
by Dr. Fitch in his <"ssay upon the cut-worm. He also describes several
(.tli<r ill ^^tnl^tll^s t>f that pest.

Worms on Grape Leaves.

Dr. Trimbh". — .My :ittention has lately been called to a small, bright
colored bug, found in ctunpany with worms upon grape vines. A gentle-
man asked my opinion about destroying these bugs. On examining their
movements with a magnifying glass, he foun<l that a bug approached a
worm atid sud<!i'nly thrust him with a hitherto concealed dagger, upon
•which he held hiinsilf Hist while li<' ate *lie juice of his body.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 73

A Practical Test of Hot Water upon Peach Trees.

Mr. Frederic Kindley, New Holland, Wabash Co., Indiana, writes limv
he ciired a si^k peach tree. lie sny.s: " I had one some eiglit or tt-n inches
thn>u<;h, hanging full of peaches, and it took the yellows, and the leaves
bepan to fall o(\', and tlu; peaches shriveled .so that I could feel tiie stones
in the fruit. One day when they were washing 1 said to my wife I wouhl
help that tree to die, so I took my mattock and dug around the roots of the
tree, and took my brass kettle, put it over the fire, with some ten or twelve
pallons of soapsuds in it, and when it came to the boil I took it and poured
all the contents en the tree, in the forks thereof, which were a foot or so
from the g'round. The suds ran down and slood around the root.^ of the
tree, and in a few days the leaves quit falling- oiT, and the fruit filled up
and came to perfection, and the tree grew vigorously for years, when one
cold winter killed it and all the rest of my peach trees; and I believe the
same pn>ce.ss will cure the curls also. I think after 1 sudsed it it bore the
greenest foliage of any of my i^each trees."

Sclphur for Borers.

A farmer gives the following as the way he destroyed the apple tree
borer: " Having seen in the doings of the Farmers' Club a great deul of the
trouble caused by the borer, which is so destructive to apple trees, I will
give my recipe, which I think will not fail to remove the trouble. Twelve
years ago I had a choice tree that put forth leaves and then turned yellow,
I dug the grass away from the roots and put sulphur around tlie roots and
in the holes maJe by the borer. I did not dig the worms out, but the sul-
plinr must have killed them, for the next spring the tree was as thrifty as
ever, and has been full of apples every year since. I have used this remedy
now fur twelve years, and it does away with digging out the worms, and
has never failed.

Fruit Culture in Southern Illinois.

Mr. S. S. Wallihan, Evansville, Wis., wants to know "what success
attends fruit culture in central aud southern Illinois. Each season we hear
iodeQnile atatenunts of dealers in early apples, peaches and blackberries,
that they are from 'down in Illinois.' Now, as Illinois is principally one
grand prairie, the question arises, has fruit culture on prairie lands as far
north as the 40th or 41st parallel been made a success? Or is it only in
particular localities and on land previousl}- covered with timber? Some
report from thoR° win) know, covering the above, will be very acceptable."

Minnesota Crab Apples.

Mr. ^^ . C. Watt, Richfield, Hennepin county, Minn., wants to kmiw some-
thing about the value of the native crab apple. He is apparently a new
immigrant into that scctitm, and finding some crab trees in blossom, wants
to know if they will pniduce fruit worth preserving, and whether the trees
will bear grafting with our cultivated varieties of apples.

Mr. J^olun Robiiison. — I have repeatedly answered these questions. I
will do it once more. Some of the crab trees of the western prairies grow

74 TnANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

the Iiii'Ljost ami siiidotlicst trees, and piodiu-e llio lar{;'<.'st ami liiirost fruit
of any of t!ie cral» family wilhiii my knowlcd^X'^ I have Keen the apples a
full averayo size of tiie lady apjde, ol" a li;;:ht, beautiful yelldw, and when
fully matured in winter tiiey attain a si <;-ht de;;ree of melli»\vness, hut they
are still sour as crabs. We have used them for pies and as slewed fruit)
but I should not like to ineur the price of su.D^ar at the )iresent rates. In
the lack of other fruit they make passable sweetmeats, n-rpiirin;:- the same
amount of su^^ar as other fruits, that :s, poutid for pound. I have always
fiiund it a losinj^ business to set grafts upon erab trees.

When to .Transplant Evergreens.

A new bej;inner in Allep^'any county, J'a., asks: " Which is the best si-a"
son for Iraiisplanlinj;; ever<j;'reens ? Would ne.xt montii be too late ? I have
known siisiie cases where they have done well in tlie I'all.''

Mr. Win. \l. Prince.— Evergreens should be planted from the lOlh of .\piil
to the lOlh <.f May.

The Cliaiunan said that Ije had planted evergreens with success in June.

Beans for a Late Crop.

Mr. L. .M. .Stevens, Le Koysville, Bradltnd county, Pa., says: "For the
benefit of the farmers please bring the following before th<' Club I have,
of late years, planted some beans late, say the lOlli nr loth of dune; tliiii
the late frost camiot hurt them, and the weeds are startetl, which you plow
tinder before planting. Then, in the fall, when the bean has got its full
size, or about half the pods are dry, )>ull them, and spread or set them up
in small btmcln's until they an? partially eincd; then put them on an open
scaffold in the barn or some <ttlier building, leaving them loose as they aic
pitched in; the?), in the last of December, before the Christnnis thaw, thresh
them out, and you will have beans that are all cured, and the vines, if
thrown out in the yaril, wi!I lie eaten by cattle, especially by sheep, befor(;
hay. We had some cranberry {>olc beans in tlie garden last fall, and when
lh(! frost came they were as gieen as ever. On the evening Ixjfcuc th<» frost
wc look the poles, with the beans, and set thein in the wagon hotise until
March, v.hcn I picked off the pods and gave the vines to the sheep. Any
one, by looking at the beans, would think they were perfectly lipe Ix'foro
they were gathered, and when conked they tasted like green beans. Par-
mcrs, try it."

Poison Ivy Cure.

Mr E. 1). Wright, Pierpont, Ohio, sends the following stalemerit of an
ntcidental discovery of the cure of poison by ivy. lie says: " A fi-w years
ago my feet were biidly poisoned with ivy. While they were at l\w. worst,
out of spiti! from what I suffered, I inunersed them in soft soap half or
three-quarters of an hour, and, to my glad surprise, I found that it cured
them. This spring, being again poisoned on my hands, as it had got (piitc
bad, and growing W(use ev(!ry day, I held them in soap 20 or 30 minutes,
and they were entirely cured the second day after. Some relief will be
fomid, and perhaps a cure, by covering the j)oisoned part with soap, and
letting it dry on. This, however, will have U> be rcjiealed Kev( lal times.

PROCEEDINGS OF TIIK FARMERS' CLUB. 75

I would rccnniniciul tliis :is :v ruic. aii<], liclioviiij^- it ()n,i;']it to l»c j^'ciicriilly
known, I place it at yoiir disposal."

Mr. Solon Kobinson. — Another c.xccllrnl rcinrdy for tlic poison of ivy

h'hiis tnxicodcmiron), is a strong" to;i made of ilio leaves of tlie sweet fern

[Cowptoitia asjilt'nifoHa). with wliie'Ii llit; part aflected is washed a.s hot as

it can be borne every lionr until (li(> pfiison is eure<i. Sometimes one appli-

ifion eures. If tlie poison alVccts the stmiiacli of the person, drink IVeely

<'[' the tea.

Cause of Kust on Wheat.

Mr. James Laurie, Chalmers, Wlntc Co., Intl. — I think that t])C nist on
wheat was caused by dew, or };'e)itle rain or fog", remaining' on the stalk or
leaf of the plant, and the hot sun coming' out immediately after and li(,'atinf^
these mifiute drops and scalding the plant. I proposed a remedy, by dis-
turbing (when there i.s no wind to do it for you) the growing wheat by a
lonjr lint-, ^vith a man at each end, and drag-ging^ it over the top, bending
each 8talk over and causing the particles of water to collect and run down
in drops.

Raising Calves by Hand.

The Hon. Wm. C. Dodge writes from Washington city npo}i the subject

f raising calves by hand, as follows:
" Thi; demand of the army, and tiic destruction of cattle to supjdy it,
iiavc rendered stock high and .scarce, there being now less in the country
than there was in 1800. llencc it ia an object to raise every calf we can;
but the high price of butter and cheese makes it more profitable to use the
'ow for those purposes than for rearing' calves, especially in this region,

vhcrc they know nothing of our process of raising^ them by hand, the only

.ethod in Maryland and hereabout being to let them run with the cow.
"Now, my idea is this: to make an artificial teat of rubber, mounled in

1 metal socket that can be readily attached to the top or edge of a i)ail,
trough or other vessel, with a small llexible tube reaching down into tlu; milk,
BO that tlie young calf or lamb can feed itself witliout the trouble and
bother of teaching it to drink, which at best is an unpleasant and disagree-
able job, coming in the spring, when the yards and pens are muddy, and
when the farmer is in a hurry. They can be fed on skim milk porriilge,
Ac, and the use of the cow thus secured for making butter and cheese, and
the calves be raised at the same time. Oat meal jjorridgc is said to be
fully equal to milk for them, and I am iid'ormed that it is largely used in
''.wiada and (treat Britain for that purpose. I'lease let me know what you

;iink of the idea. Is it oi' any utility ? Will it be of benefit, and likely to
be adopted if made ?"

There is already one patented utensil for this purpose. It is a pail with
an India rubber teat, the pail being suspended so that the calf reaches up
to 8Uck. We <lo not think that it has ever l»een extensively used. There
is no reason that we can see why it it will not answer a g.jod purpose.

Chess in Wheat.

Mr. .\. Jones, Lafayette, Van Huren county, Mich., communicated the
following fact to the Club, hoping to get correct answers to the two (pjes-
lions which close the communicution. He says:

70 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

" A fioUl of some eig'lit or ten acres was alternately planted with corn
and oats, and then seeded witli timothy iU'd clover. TIuh lot was mowed
for some three or four years, and finally used fur pabturc as many more
years, when it was broken up or summer fallowed, and sowed to wheal.
Great pains was laken to procure li'ood, clean seed, free from cockle or
chess. On one part of tli'- lot (one-ha!f or three quarters of an acre) was a
slight depression, upon which, in the fall, the Hood waters of a iiei.i,fhl)()ring
nloug-h often settled (us it did in the present instance) and remained in a
cong^ealed state, and otherwise, duriufz; the winter and spring. Soon after
the drying up of the waters a fine, luxuriant green presented itself upon
the lately submerged depression. This was contrary to my expectations,
supposing everything was killed or 'drowned out' thereon. When the
wheat was well in head I visited this part of the lot again, when lo, and
behold! instead of wheat a fine thrifty growth of chess presented itself to
my astonished view, with here and there a wheat head interspersed. \Vhere
did this chess cotne from? Will wheat degenerate and become chess?

Mr. Wm. R. Prince. — I have for fifty years seen this discussion renewed
from time to time, and have read statements many times where the ques-
tion has been satisfactorily determined by special culture ami critical inves-
tigation. Is the questiou never to be deemed settled? Will not the Club
pronounce their fiat on this nnitter and settle the moon stories at the same
time, once and forever, and refuse the propounding of either of those sub-
jects as ail evidence of an unsound mind ? and further, the Institute has no
time to waste on vagaries.

lYitirum Salivum, common wheat, Bromus Sccalimus, chess or cheat, has
been distinctly described in a inanrun- that they cannot be mistaken, by
every botanic author from Wildenow down to the present time. They are
disluict genera, and there has never occurred, since man existed on this
gjobe, a single instance where one genus changes into another in the vege-
table or animal kingdom. And no such variation can ever occur, and I beg
a.11 such inquirers to try and comprehend the fact that nature has one
eternal law, which never vascillates any ntore in the minutest plant or tiie
tiny insect than in the largest tree or mightiest animal. Were it not so,
that there exists barriers impassable, all the races of animals and of trees
would become one confused mass of hybrids, and the wise purposes for
which each race was created could no longer be consumniat<'d, and God's
great work would prove a failure.

Source of the Wool Supply.

Mr. Sdon llobinson. — .\n estimate of the number of sheep in tlif-
fererit courttries, published in YVtc Jiural New Yorker, gives the follow-
ing figures; "The number of sheep in Sweden in 1SG2 was I,587,H0n; tht;
number in Algeria in 1HG2 was lO.OdO.UOU — product, loO.OOO (juintals of
wool; the number in l.'p|)er Canada the same year was 1,170,225 — increase
from preceding year, 120,000; the number in Francte in 18G2 was 36,000,000.
Three-lourths of these were Meriiuts or Merino grades. The number of
goats and kids in Franco was J, 400,000. In Ireland there was a d(,'crear»e
in IIJOJ, as compared witli flu- preceding ye.ir, of ir)2,201 sheep, and a lose

PROCEEDINGS OF TJIK FARMERS* CLUB. 77

in valuation of i^lG7,421. In SonOi Anstralia, (^urinj^ tlic year endinpf
Miircli 31, 18G3, there liail been an increase over the preceding year of 12J
per cent., making a total of 3,431,000 sheep.

S.\LT AS Manure — Valuable Experiments with Potatoes.

Mr. Soh)n Kohiiirton. — 1 present for the iiiforinatiuii of our farmers the
fnUowing valmiliU' experinnMit in th(* use of salt: "An application of farm
yard dung, at the rate «)f twenty tons per statute acre, produced nine tons
nine cwt. of potatoes, of which fourteen per ceiit. were diseased; while
twenty tons of farni yard dung and two and a half cwt. of salt per acre
produced thirteen tons sixteen cwt. of potatoes; and twenty tons of dung,
with two and a half cwt. of salt and five cwt. of lime per acre produced
.sixteen tons of potatoes; the juoportion of diseased potatoes in the two last
named trials being in reality ' next to nothing,' or about one-fourth per cent."

Storing M.\nuee uneer Cover — Its Value.

In a Scotch experiment with manure, made from the same lot of cattle,
part of it stored und(»r sheds and part exposed to the weather, the follow-
ing wa.H the result: " Potatoes manured at the rate of twenty tons per acre,
with the uncovered numure, yielded eight tons six cwt. per acre; with the
c«»vered manure, seven tons eight and a half cwt. The succeeding season
wheat was grown on the field with no further application of manure, and
the product of straw and grain accurately ascertained, showing an appa-
rent difference also much in favor of the protected manure, but as the piece
of wlicat was winter killed unequally on the two parts of the field, this
resJilt has nf)t so great weight as that of the previous season."

Where manure is exposed to the weather, a large admixture of litter
loam, peat or muck, answers instead of a roof. A well built compost heap
will not absorb water from the rains sufficient to lessen the value of the
manure.

Adjourned. Joii.v W. Chambers, Secrelarij.

June 28, 1SG4.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Gapes in Chickens.

Mrs. James Adams, Weelaunce, Winnebago Co., Wis. — I think it the
duty of every one to relieve suffering both to man and beast, and as I have
Hccn Hevcral times in the reports of the Club accounts of the gapes in
chickens, and believing that I have a remedy, I thought I would send it to
the Club. It is simply to put salt into their meal, about as much as we
would to make it for our own eating. It is not only a cure but a preven-
tive, at least I never knew it to fail; give it daily.

Mr. Solon Hobinson said salt might answer for chickens; he doubted it;
he knows that .salt is deadly poison to young turkeys.

Mr. N. Smith, Delphi, Carroll county, Ind., writes as fc^llows upon this
subject: "The di.scussions in the Farmer.s' Club upon the subject of gapes
io chickcus, make no allusion to a remedy which I have seen used succesa-

78 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

fully, and a perfect euro efrected in two or tlnee hours where the chicken
was too far gone to eat any of the articles suj;-<::ested as remedies. Take
the chicken in yonr hand, niicii its inonlii, and press duwii tin' point of the
tonj^ne, and the orili(!(' or entrance t<t the trachea is at once seen; now take
a horse hair eiu^ht or ten inches long', dt>ul)le it, and insert it into th(? wind-
pipe as far as it will go; twist the hair between yt»ur thuinh and ling(>r,
and from one to half a dozen small worms will adhere to it, which are
easily drawn out. 'J'his operation may he rcjicatcd nniil every worm is
removed, and the chicken will in a few Inuirs L)e perfectly restored to
health."

This remedy, although not referred to in the last discussion, has been
spoken of in some of our meetings, and the Kev. Mr. ^V(avcr said he had
tried the horse hair remedy with success.

Mr. T A. Goodwill, Indianapolis, gives a better plan than all that have
been devised for curing the disease. He would prevent it. lie writes as
follows:

" In the reports of the Club I see you have discussed gapes in chickens.
Not having seen a case of gapes for nearly ten years, I had suii|)osed {hvui
about e.xtinct. I have nothing to say against the learned disquisition as to
the origin of the worm which causes tiie gaping. Whether it ever was a
louse or not I cannot say, nor is it material. Ten years ago. when Shang-
haes were young, I tested an ' infallible cure.' Take a grain of black pep-
per, put it in tiie end of a goose quill, so cut as to receive about one-third
the grain, hold the chicken's legs between your knees, open the mouth
gently with the left hand, and thrust the (juill, loaded with the grain afore-
said, about four inches down its throat; withdraw- the quill, and the chicken
never gapes but once more. It kills the worm nineteen times out of twenty,
and the chicken about nine times c)ut of ten; but I never discovered that
it pays. In short, I long since concluded thai in a yard infested with
gajtes, raising chickens is unprofitable. .Some one said new yards are less
afl'ected with gapes than old ones, and thereby hangs the prevention. To
cure gapes is impossible, to ])revent them is easy. You want no sulphur,
no grease, no chives, no onions. It consists simply in giving the chickens
access to plowed ground. You never see gapes in the yard oi' a new settler,
around the cabin in the corn field. CJapes are peculiar to a high state of
civilization and refinement, which deprives the young one of its appropriate'
food. You want no coo{)s with |)Iank bottoms to keep their little feet dry.
Put the hen in a movable coop in your garden, and while the young ones
■will deslro}' a thousand insects which would injure yoin- garden, tliey will
never have the gapes. I dont't pretend to give the philosophy, I onl}' state
the fact, and 1 wish to state it >.7ro/j [/—chickens having con.stant access to
plowed ground never have gapes.

Poultry Raisi.ng.

Mr. X. II. .Merwin, Kockport, Ohio, wants to know if there are any ecca-
lobions in practical operation in this country.

So far as mendjers of the Olub present are iidormerl, (he answer is that
all attempts to produce chickens in this country out of the natural order,
have proved impracticable.

PROCEKDINGS OF THE FARMERS CLUB. < U

^^|•. M. s.iys: " Tlic b )oks ineiilion tliiit Ihmls tiun their og;^".s at tiiiu'S.
Is it not ti) luini;' tho DUtside eg'^s into the center of the nest to receive
tnore warmth, anil thereby equalize the amount of heat the cgg^s receive?
r is motion necessary to the liatehing of tlic eggs ? If so, how often would
it be neeess:irv in artificial hatching ? What degree of iieat is necessary
to hatcli eggs ? Some writ(.rs say 101 deg.; others, 10-4 deg., 100 deg. I
lind UO lU'i;. siifiicient."

^Vill i''^'^'^ hatch that are transported, say a do/,(Mi miles in spring wagons,
the eggs packed in bran ? If they will stand that distance, how much
mor<' ?

Mr. John G. Hergen. — A few yt^us ago tliere was a large chicken hatch-
ing establishment in Brooklyn. It was conducted a year or two, I should
think, at considerable expense, and then closed. It proved an unprolitable
investment. I have heard of several cither attempts to make poultry rais-
ing a specialty. I have never heard tjf a single one that has succeeded.
I have always heard it observed that transportation of eggs injured them
for incuitatioii. I have known them when carried only a few miles in a
common wagon to be seriously injured. I should not expect more than
one-half of such eggs to produce chickens. As to the question whether hens
turn their eggs and what for, it needs proof by experiment.

Dr. Trimble. — It needs no experiment to prove that they do turn them.
I have often seen them do it. If the eggs were- not turned, I believe the
chickens would not be perfect; they would come out mis-shapen and one-
sided. When eggs are packed in barrels, it is necessary frequently to turn
tlie barrels.

Dr. Snodgrass. — The hen does not turn the eggs to bring the outside
ones iniD the center, ut^r to equalize the amoimt of heat, but to e(jualize
the pressure of the albumen, which instinct teaches her is necessiary during
the process of incubation.

v>.\ssAFR.\s Poles a.nd B.\rk used in Heneries.

Mr. riiilip W. Kohler, Hopewell, Warrru Co., Maine. — To keep poultry-
free from lice have no other than sassafras poles for your roosts. Leave
the bark on. I would not have any other if I had to import them hundreds
of miles. 3Iy setting hens are not troubled with lice. Fine tobacco leaves
r sassafnis bark (the latter is the best) mingh'd with the straw is an
tleclual remedy. Procure sassafras roosts and you will have no use for
bacco. It is my opinion that lousy chickens are most subject to the
gapes. Since I have adoptt-d ilu^ tise of sassafras roosts, my chickens are
free from all disease and lice. They get all the corn they want, and water
:oin a never-failing spring running through the yard. 1 would like to see
lie man that gets nutre eggs than I do from the same number of hens.
/"<j h-rp hugn mcaij/rom your curumber and melon vines, save your washing
suds every week till they become a week old. Ky this time the smell
bfc»»mes Very oflen.sive; apply this to your vines liberally twice or three
times a we«'k. It is a good fertilizer, and will make your plants grow
rapitlly. The .same is good to apply to y<»ur cabbage plants, or anything
lial'le to be attacked by bugs.

Mr. Gccrgc Carpenter related a fact of which he was cognizant, where

80 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

a sassafras stuini> wliidi liad boon burii'd an iiiilciiown nuiiibor of years was
found wlion dug uj) to have the sassafras odor as strong' as tliough it was
from a tree cut but yesterday.

Flowers and Fruit from Nebr.vska.

Mr. \l. 0 Tlionipsoi), Syracuse, Otoe county, Nebraska, sent the foHow-
iu'^ letter with the article mentioned, which came in good order, and were
much admired by the Club: " I enclose to you to-day a few specimens of
Rocky Mountain plants, pressed; two pentstemons and a verbena. I have
a large variety of western plants, and will send specimens as they llower;
also seed. I inclose five gooseberries, small, but of f^ood quality. In a
few days I will send you some fruit of the Nebraska Prolific gooseberry,
which is hardy, larger than the Houghton, never mildews, and as to quality
you can judge when eaten. The verbena enclosed to j-ou is from the Yel-
low Stone River country, and the plants from which these flowers were
taken remained out unprotected when the cold went to thirty-two deg^rces
below zero. I send them for you to present to or before the Farmers' Club,
as I wish to disseminate these things among those who leel an interest
floral and pomological.

How TO Grow Good Radishes.

Mr. M. D. Williams, Waterloo city, Ind , wants to know " how we can
raise radishes that are not worn)y or pithy; we try it every year and fail
every time." Some persons declare that it all depends upon the time in
the moon that the seed is planted. We believe those are most successful
who plant the seed in very rich fine soil, and water the plants very freely.

Mr. Jolm G. Bergen. — I do not grow for market but for family use, and
sometimes fail. Changing ground is one of the best remedies 1 have used.
I sow at all ages of the moon, and it makes no difl'erencc.

Mr. Adrian Hergen. — I have been very succ<'ssful in raising this vegeta-
ble. My family put a quantity of house slops on the beds, and my radishes
arc never affected with worms. In dry weather the radisii will grow hard
and worthless unless often watered.

Mr. Reuben Ball. — I have always been successful in raising radishes.
My soil is sandy, but I dig it well and ajiply composted manure.

The Present Season — Is it Early or Late.

Mr. .Tolin O. Bergen. — In a late conversation with a farmer, he coni-
plaine<l of the backwardness of the; jMcsent season. I told him I thought
he was mis:aken. In my opinion it was a week earlier than the aveiage.
Another farmer thought it perhaj)s about the average. Jlr. Robinson now
gives it as his opinion that, in the grape crop particularly, it is ten days
earlier. As opinions are so various, let us look to statistics for facts.
After the conversation alluded to, 1 immediaLely reftjrred to my farm books.
I find the first picking of various market garden crops since IS.'iO entered
under the following dates. They were grown under similar conditions
each year:

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 81

Peas. cjtring beans. SquaiihcB.

IR50 Tuno 29 July 3

1851 .: Jimo 2(1 Juno SO

1862 June 2ii Juno 23

186.1 Tunc 20 Juno 23

1854 Juno 22 Juno 25

1855 Juno 2;) July 2

fSSI Juno IG Juno 27 July 1

1857 None July 6 July 7

185g June 14 Tunc :?0 July 0

1859 Juno 9 June 27 Tuno 2'.l

1860 Juno n Juno 27 July 2

ISfll luno 10 June 2r, Juno 27

1802 Juno 12 Inno 25 Juno ;!0

18«3 Juno 1! Juno 20 June .50

1864 Juno 6 Juno 22 Juno 22

I find from my own books and from conversation with my iioiglihors tli;it
the avt>raj?e time ttf inakinjj^ the first pickinj^ of field cucumbers is the 3d
and 4th of July. This year on liay Kidg;e, where cucumbers are extensively
ffrown as a market crop, one farmer who has twenty acres, picked and
ncnt to market yesterday, June 27, six thousand cucumbers, and some
others, from one to two thousand. These statistics fihow pretty clearly
tliat the season is a week earlier than the average upon Long Island.

A New Fertilizing Plant.

Mr. John Lowrey writes from Saratoga Springs as follows : "Inclosed
is a sample of a plant that grows wild in the fields, on light sandy soil, in
this section. I think it might be cultivated and used as green manure, if
plowed under when in bloom. Will the Farmers' Club give their opinion
of its value, and give it a name? Is it 'Blue Lupine,' or what is it? It

•mcs up early in Spring, and flowers in May, in time to plow under for
corn. It ripetjs early in harvest, and the pods burst open, and the seeds
scatter upon the ground. The seed is somewhat like a small bean."

Mr. Solon Robinson — This is evidently one of tiie lupin family. The two
most common in this country arc known as white and blue lupin. This
might undoubtedly be cultivated for the purpose of turning under as a green
crop manure. Hut what would be the advantage over clover for the same
purpose ? That should be the (juesticMi in all propositions to grow a sub-
stitute for ch)ver. Has the substitute any advantages ? In the Eastern-
Shore counties of Virginia the soil is naturally sandy, being much of the
same character as that around Saratoga. Under a very bad system of farm-
ing, it liaH maintained its fertility for u great length of time, owing almost
entirely to the natural growth of one of the lupin family, similar to the
sample seat with the above letter. It completely coats the ground of every
corii-fifid as well as every other spot not occupied by crops. It is easier
t.» alltiw this to grow than it \3 to cultivate clover. Whether farmers at
-iraloga would derive any advantage from growing lupin as a manure
' rop, can be determined only by actual experiments. In sonie parts of
Kuropp, Portugal in particular, white lu|)in has been extensively used as a
fertilizing crop, and will grow on sandy land where no other plant can bo
►iuccesHfully grown. It is of very rapid growth, produces a large amount
•f vegetable matter, much of which is drawn from the atmosphere, and a
[Am. Ijust.] F

82 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITDTE.

poitiun from a low dcplli in llio subsoil, which its stroiij^ nx/ts open ami
anic'liorati'. It is raivly injurrd by diuiilh or insects. It must not be .sown
in tlie SiJiinj; until the danger of frost is past. Tho seeds are used for
cattle food, but it cannot be recommended for that use in this country.

Cherry Trees Infested with Aphides.

Mr. James Bedford, Shefiield, Mass., writes : " Our cheiry trees for the
last two years have been grievously afllicled with an insect that is new \o
me. It is first seen on th(» under side of the leaf, a mere mass of black
Bpecks. It causes the leaf to euil, grinv sticky, and finally to fail from the
tree. This season, this insect has taken possession of the fruit, and is in
such masses that the bunches of half-grown cherries and the small twigs*
and limbs of the trees arc a mass of black stick}' matter, and alive- at that.
Under the microscope they present a disgusting appearance. I tried early
in the season a sprinkling of unleached ashes on the foliage, but without
effect. I send herewith a specin.en of the ' varniijit.' "

Dr. Trimble said that the lice which overwhelmed Egypt are said to havtr
come out of the dust. That is not the .way these cojne. liy watching
them with a magnifying glass tlu; manner (jf reproduction can be seen, and
the rapidity of increase is enormous. There is no kind of vegetation exempt
from tiiese {)ests, and nothing but an increase of their natural destructors
can ever rid us of the nuisance. I have some spinach that is literally alive
with swarms of these aphides. On the same jjlants 1 have lately observed
a multitude of lady bugs. They have come to enjoy a feast of their natural
food, and they increase so fast that I am at a loss to kiunv how they are
to live when the lice are gone. These bugs arc our real friends.

Manure — its Effect on Fruit Trees.

Mr. J. riocker. Fort Sully, D. T., reiterates the slatemcnt heretofore
made, of the efi'ect produced by a manure pile upon one siile of an apjde
tree which greatly increased the grcnvth of branches upon that side, lie
now says : " I should have mentioned that the tree previous to deriving
any benefit from this manure pile, was growing together with others in a
small strip of timotliy meadow, and naturally Irom the continuation of this
cause (being a tree of some eight or ten years of age) was in a languish-
ing condition. It may very well be that some trees will send forth roots
of the nature of the tap root, seeking those conditions most favorable to the
growth of the roots, and the tree show no corrcspotuling- growth of branches
on tiie side of the tree thus favored, or again the roots may be entirely cut
away from «tne side of the tr<-e, and tin.' branches over these roots show but
slightly the ill efi'i-cts of such tjsage, because the spau^,- occupied by the
decaying roots will soon be occupied again by other thrifty growing roots ;
but both these circumstances do not destroy the idea that th(! branches on
one side of tin; tree may be accelerated in their growth by a particular
management of the roots. For instam*e, the forest trees near a clearing
will, under favorable circunislances, throw out the thriftiest branches on
the side of the clearing, and the plowman finds to his cost that the roots
follmv suit. In c<jnnectiou with this subject, a writt.'r in an iigricultural

1

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 83

pnpor rpmoMstratos aj^iiiiist allowint^ sIkuIc trees to <^io\v near a roadside.
But llie olijt'ctioii is generally raised from a one-sided standpoint. Settlers
in a timber region know very well how long they have to combat against
niiry roads. Hut in a forest, below a bed of leaves, lies generally a light,
louse soil, and a narrow track, absence {»f wind and sun and recurring
swamps give to trees in general a bail reputation as adjuncts to good road.s.
iMit there is a reverse to this picture. To look at the Missouri river at its
lowest stage, passing by the arid plains of Dakota and Nebraska, [\ would
Hccni as though the river would be lost before reaching the Mi.ssissippi, yet
the snow mountains and far ofl' timl)er regions of the Rocky Mountains
periodically send forth tiieir floods and allow steamboats to wind their way
to the Upper Missouri. Look across the immense plains, and where can
you point out a solitary tree. The " King of the plains" allows only of
bufl'.ilo grass, that crisps like wire springs under your feet. In the numer-
ous ravines y(Ui may find ponds bordered by wild fruit trees, but the forest
trees must hide their diminished heads when reaching the level of the plains.
If we wish the storm wind to dry up our rivulets and springs, and render
the growth of forest trees more and more a matter of difficulty, we have
culy to grow prejudiced against trees, and allow the woodman's axe full
swing; only keep on in this way, and tlio settled States may in due time
boast of plains dry and barren as those of the buffalo regions, and ])erhaps
settled by Arabs on a par with our Siou.v and Buttcs as to civilization.
Adjourned. Joii.v W. Chambers, Secretary.

July 5, 1864.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the Chair.

How TO Subdue and Seed Woodland.

The Chairman inquired how he should subdue the growth of weeds, ferns,
small bushes, &c., in a piece rf woodland of about five acres, which he
wishes to get into grass, without injury to ai.'y of the large trees.

The old [)lan would be to cut the weeds and burn them on the ground.
What if I mow when the growth is largest, and when very dry, say in
August set it on (ire? Then how shall I seed the land, and will the fire
injure the trees ?

Mr. Win. S. Carpenter — I would advise that you mow it now, and again
in August and September. He said that he had a piece to subdue, and that
was the course that he should pursue. If he had cattle enough to crop the
lot very close, that wonUl be the easiest way of subduing it, as white clover
naturally follows such pasturing.

A very slight fire running through a young orchard when the sap is in
full (low wi'l materially injure it, and may kill some trees. I had some
trees injured in this way.

Mr. Sohm Robinson — I do not think that it would injure large forest
trees to burn the ground over as the Chairman suggests ; and as he does
not wish to preserve the smaller growth it would be the easiest w;iy to pre-
pare it for seed, except by close-jtenning cattle over the whcjle lot by means
of a moveable fence. The Kentucky blue-grass pastures arc prepared by

84 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

cnttinp and f^rubbiii":, ami liairowing and sowinj^ the seed, and by a very
careful imrsinf^ for a jcar or two.

31 r. John G. Bergen — la the Kentucky blue-grass the same as a similar
grass that we have here.

Mr. Solon Robinson — The same differenco of opinion had existed for a
long time among those who have written upon the subject. I will not
undertake to settle the dispute, but I will say that I have never seen any
grass growing naturally in the Eastern States that compared favorably
with the growth of the blue-grass of Kentucky. It often forms such a
heavy coat upon the gr.:-und that it will bear up the heaviest fall of snow,
.ind cattle push their noses through, and obtain an abundance of green, suc-
culeiit food. The blue-grass is of more value to Kentucky than her boasted
tobacco crop.

Clover and Clover Hay.

Mr. Solon Robinson — Botanists give the names of 59 sorts of clover
(trifulium), yet only four or five are cultivated, and, as generally under-
atood, oidy two — the white and red. A kind called yellow clover is a weed
pest. Until lately, clover has not been highly esteemed by American
farmers. It is now considered excellent for all stock by many who have
tested its value thoroughl}-. It has been cultivated in America about a
hundred years. As a renovator of worn-out soils, clover has no equal. As
food for cows in a milk-dairy, clover stands ten per cent, ahead of timothy.
We may judge something of its value from Prof Way's comparative analy-
sis, showing the following results :

"R'ntcr. Fleshy Matter. Futty Matter.

Crcen Timothy 57.21 4.:{6 1.50

June r.rnss 07.14 .3.41 .86

(^)rchnr(l (Jrass 70.00 4.06 .94

I^ed Clover SI. 01 4.27 .69

M'hilc Clover 7'J.71 3.80 .89

Pry Timothy 11.:'.6 .3.55

June (Jrass 10.;i5 2.«;1

Orchard Ora?g 1.3.53 3.14

Red Clover 22.55 3.67

Mbite Clover 18.76 4.38

It will thus be seen thai timothy is best when green and clover when
dry.

One of the reasons why farmers have not grown clover for Winter forage
to a greater extent, is that it is c(tnsidered diiTicult to cure. Part of this
diniculty is purely imaginary. "The modes," says a writer upon the sub-
ject, "of curing clover hay widfly differ in tlu; same neighborhood. Some
let it go to seed before cutting, then dry and turn it till many of the leaves
and blossoms arc shaken ofl", and lastly cart the dry and bulky clover
sticks. Others cut it when the blossoms begin to show, fork it the same
day into Kinall cocks, ami then let it stand several days, either with or
without hay caps, till dry enough to cart. Latterly it has been found safe
to cart it the same day, or as soon as wiltecl, being careful only to avoid
artificial moisture, and to fill up the bent or nK)w within throe or four days,
or before it begins to sweat. Hay is improved b}' sweating and changing

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 85

color, like ti'lacco. Wlicn it l»»'trins to sweat it sliould not be disturbed
till tlie sweat is o\vr. The nKiislure and steam will go to the top, no mat-
ter what the height, and the top is the only part in danger. A foot of
straw on top absorbs the moisture and saves the hay.

"One farmer eut 12 to 14 tons of mixed timothy and clover, and carteil
as fust as cut, without regard to weather. Straw was placed on the top
to absorb moisture. The straw rotted, but the hay turned out good.
Anotlicr cut four or five acres of clover, raked and cocked it all in one day
Threatening rain caused its hurried cartage the following da}'. It occu-
pied a bent and a half in the barn. The full bent came out bright and good
except about IS inches of the top. The half bent was partially injured by
adding other fodder, and thus keeping the steam in. Another knew of 30
to 40 tons of hay being cut and carted the same day. The mow smoked,
sweat and generated toad stools, but only the top was spoiled. The bal-
ance was sweet and good, the blossoms were unchanged, and the cattle
lappe<l it down like meal.'

The Chairman.— I have lately conversed with a man who had just finished
the cutting of 35 acres in Norwich, Conn., and sold the crop at 812 a ton,
taken from the cock in the field. At that price would clover be a profita-
ble crop? Several members said yes, if cured in the manner stated in the
article just read.

Moving Trees from one Locality to Another.

The Chairman. — A gentleman has lately expressed himself very ddcidedly
to me that it would be far more profitable for persons desiring to plant an
orchard to procure their trees from their own neighborhood than from a
di; tance. What is the experience of the Club ? What would be the ex-
pense of moving trees, say from the old Colony Nursery-, where they have
always been exposed to strong sea winds, to the interior of the country ?

Mr. Carpenter. — My experience is that I have lost fewer trees from those
imported frcjm France than I have from those grown in my own nursery.
It makes no difference to me where the trees have been grown, nor in what
soil, so that the growth has not been forced by stimulating manures.

XIr. John G Hergcti. — This is a difficult qiu'stion to settle by individual
experience. For instance, one might get his trees from abroad this year,
and owin;^ to the drouth loose half of them. He might attribute the loss
to change of climate or S(jil. Of this he wtJuUl be convinced next j'car by
getting trees in his own neighborhoiKl and not losing one. My experiena;
has Iten during several years as follows: I obtained trees from a nursery
QUO and a half miles distant, where tke soil is sandy loam, exactly like that
of my farm. Also from Boston, where the soil and cfimate are both dif-
ferent, and from France, from soil with which I am not familiar, and from
Mr. Herd's nursery, Elizabethtown, N. J., some ten or fifteen miles west-
ward, where the soil is a stiff* clay. Invariably Reed's trees have proved
best, and those from Boston worse. The only reason I ct)uld give was,
(hat Heed's trees seemed to be the best grown and in the best condition.

8g transactions of the a:\ieriran institute.

Varieties of Stuaavberries.

Mr. Ciirpcntcr said: As tlie sca.son is apiuoacliiii^ wlieii people will bopfin
to think of makiiip^ new strawberry beds, would it not be well tor us at this
time to express some opinion as to the best varieties ? I do not wisli to
dictate, b«t as I have had experience with ni(Me than a hundred sorts, and
have fruited fifty or sixty sorts this year, I can express my preference,
which those who have not had experience may take for what it is wortii.
Amony all those that I have {^rown this year, of the varieties which can be
obtained by the public, I must rank the Ixussell first. It has improved with
me for three years, and is now more prolific even than the Wilson, and less
acid, which is a very important matter when su^^ar is 22 cents per pound.
The Wilson has qualities for the million and must not be discarded. The
Brooklyn Scarlet, one (jf the Trihioie prize strawberries, I take as a model
of perfection of qnalit}'. It is beautiful in color and form, not as prolific
as the Iiussell or Wilson, but has qualities which will always make it a
favorite. The Monitor is of good quality, large size and prolific. These
two arc perfectly hardy. Tiie Monitor may somewhat lack vip^or in some
localities. The Colonel Ellsworth, I fear, has a taint of foreijj^n blood, which
makes the plants tender and liable to fail in fruiting-. It is but simple jus-
tice to the Tribune Association that we should say, and place it upon
record among our transactions, that in sending out these plants more has
been done to induce people to plant strawberries than in all that had here-
tofore been said and written In the Buffalo seedling 1 am disa])p(iin{ed.
I shall not continue its cultivation. I may say the same of Kobinson'.s
seedling, a sort sent out by Dr. Grant. It is one of the most remarkable
rank growing plants, with long leaf and fruit stalks, but a shy bearer, and
the fruit not first rate. Frencii's seedling is promising. The Austin con-
tinues to give goo 1 satisfaction, is prolific, and the fruit sells at a high
price, and is largely grown by some as a market berry. I procured last
year one of Mr. Boyden's new seedling, now called the Agriculturi.st. It
is certaiidy a very remarkable sort. I have n«itliing to c<impar(; with it.
Plants which grew from runners last summer, and were set in place in
October, formed stools which produced this year 220, 240, 2t)4 perfect ber-
ries upon each. Some of tiicm were over six inches around. It is true that
all new varieties should have mon; than (Uie year's trial before they are
recommended to the public. The fruit of this sort is good, though imt the
best. May we not hi)|)e that experiments will b(' continued in pro<lucing
seedlings until we sliall get a strawberry as sweet, high flavored and
aromatic as the Brooklyn Scarlet, and as large, hardy and pndific as tlie
Agriculturist. We could not then ask any further improvement.

Food of Bir'js.

The Cliairinai: — I have four cat-birds which make their nests near my
trarden. J liave lately oliserved these birds very busy among the cucum-
ber vine';. They apparently looked under every leaf for a worm. Tlio
leaves upon .ny cherry tree are curled, inclosing green v.-ortns. Tin; mar-
tins are continually flying back and forth between ihcir boxes atid these
trees, where they tipcn the leaves, pick out the worms, and fly with them
to their young.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMEUs' CLUB. 87

Mr. Carpenter — I have taken notic(! IVequently, in chiviiip^ from the city
iu my I'uirn, 2o Jiiilos distuiit, tluit insects (if all kinds arc niucli tlic most
niiinerous nean-sl the city. Tiiis is owin^;" ti» the cnntiinial warlare of city
gunners iijum the Itinls.

To PREVENT Cattle from Jdmping Fences.

Mr. Si»h>n Ivi)l)ins(»n — I lately learnoil a curious remedy to prevciit steers
from jumping' fences, which is so easy of application and appears so effec-
tual, that we ;;-ive it to the public. It is simply to clip off the eyelashes of
the upper lids with a pair of scissors, and the ability or disposition to
jump is «s etVectually destroyed as Sampson's power was by the loss of his
locks. The animal will not attenipt a fence until the eyelashes are grown
ajjain. Of this we are informed by Samuel Thome, tiie g-reat breeder of
Dutchess county, wlio assured tis that he had tested it upon a pair of very
lireachy o.vcn. As it was of j^rcat value to him, he hopes it will be tried
by others.

Mr. Carpenter — 1 have lately succeeded, after several trials, in making
a yoke which prevents a ct)lt from jumping, that could not before be
restrained l»y any ordinary fence. 1 took a slim, straight iiickory, twelve
or fourteen feet h)ng, which is split in two as tlunigh intended for the hoop
of a cask, and shaved smooth, and so thin in the center that it is easily
bent to fit the neck. It is held in place by a tough half-inch pin under the
throat. The ends must be so long as constantly to drag upon the ground.
It was a little awkward at first for the animal to cat in this yoke, but it
Boon learned to reach forward to get at the grass, but it has not A'ct learned
to swing it over the fence.

Training Horses to Ste? High.

In riermany this is done by putting large magnifying spectacles upon
the 3'ou!ig horses, which magnify the size of pebbles, and gets the horse in
the habit of lifting his feet high, and the habit, once fi.Kcd, continues, and
this increases his value as a stately carriage horse for the London market.

Season of Cutting Timber.

A Michigan farmer writes: "I have a pair of bar-posts, quite sound,
made from a white-oak tree cut in June, 1835, when the bark peeled freely.
I have proved that basswood rails made in midsummtn- will last longer
than will rails made in winter. Always cut trees when the bark will peel."

Cheap Farms in Maryland.

The Chairman — The letter that was forwarded to Mr. Stockbridgc, of the
Maryland ('onventiotj, he answer<;d promptly, e.\[)re8sing great satisfaction
to sec that people in this section felt interested in the emancipation move-
menl in Maryland, and said that he would give answers to all the ques-
tions nB 8<M)n us his other duties enabled him to do so. Kecent events
have probably added to the delay, but in the meantime the following^
information has been given by other parties, which it is thought it may be
iotcrcstiug to make public.

88 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

^Ir. James McCauloy, of Elkton, Murylaiul, writes tlie follDwinp intorcst-
inp^ letter, and kiiully ufler8 to answer individuals who may desire further
information about einig^ratinj:^ to Maryland :

"Gentlemen — I notice in the public ])apers your imjuiries addressed to
Mr. Stockbridgc of the Maryland Convention, on the subject of agricultinc
in Maryland. I am a citizen of Cecil county, the northern one on the east-
ern shore — here I was born and raised, as have been my ancestors for the
last century. My business, as land surveyor and agent for the sale of
land, has given mc a good opportunity for seeing the lands generally, in
this county, and noticing their productions under different methods of cul-
ture. In the northern part of Cecil theie has been very little of slavery
for many years, though the lands have been, and still are, lower in price
than in the adjoining States of Pennsylvania and Delaware.

The convention, Jiow in session in this state, will abolish slavery — then
the adoption of the constitutitni will be submitted to a vote of the people,
by whom it will be approved without doubt. This will take place in llic
current year.

There is considerable land in the market, much of which you would not
consider in good condition, of which the average i)rice might be set down
at S^O per acre. The eastern shore has great advantages as an agricul-
tural district. There is scarcely a place in it, ten miles distant from tide-
water, where lime, oyster shells, and all the manures in (he market cannot
be obtained. The soil is generally a sandy loam, though some stiff clay
soils are found.

"Wheat and corn have been the staple crops, and the soil and climate
seem well adapted to their growth. The land is level and easily cultivated,
and well adapted to the growth of vegetables. Sweet potatoes and water-
melons flourish here, and are of excellent ([uality. In the lower part of
Cecil and in Kent counties peaches are grown willi great success, and as a
peach-growirig district it is now second to lujne in the United Slates.
Apples do well, but do not probably grow to such perfection as in the
Northern States. The blight (jf slavery has been on the Kasteru Shore ;
but when it shall have emerged from the plague it will be a splendid
country. Connected with the great cities by water communication, and
with a soil and climate so well adapted to the growth of grain fruit and
vegetables, and to their jierleclion for the early markets, it will rapidly
fill up with industrious and enterprising men, and be Iho very garden spot
of the United States.

" In regard to social toleration there will be no difliculty. The slave
arietoeraey will go down with slavery, as a tottering building falls when
the prr ps are knocked away, there being nothing to keep it up, as them
was in Fairfax, Va., where the institution was still flourishing.

"I will be pleased to answer any special impiiries respecung property
and productions on the Eastern Shore of Maryland,

" INrrsons desiring particular locations and character of land will receive
information by writing."

MessiB. K. W. Templelon & Co., No. 4S Lexington street, Baltimore, als(7
offer to give inforuiation to any inciuiries. They say thai valuable I'arms

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUH. 89 '

are for sale in almost every county in the State, at wliat would be consider'
cd, in New Enjfland, reniarkably low prices. They give the price of four
faints in Cecil county, where the other correspondent writes from, as
fi)llows :

No. 1. Tdily-.^ix acres; price, $'2,S00 — stone dwelling and good out-
houses, barn and stone stabling, four miles north of Klkton, on Philadelpiiia
I't Haltimore Kailroad.

No. 2 One hundred and twenty-five acres ; price, §8,125— new dwelling
and good out-houses, plenty of fruits, eight miles from Port Deposit.

No. 3. Fifty-t'ight acres ; price, 8:3,800 — good dwelling and out-houses,
fine water, fruit, &c., seven miles frf»m Elkton.

No. 4. On<! hundred and thirty acres ; price, $10,000 — brick dwelling,
barn, &.c., good land, at Elkton,

In Haltimore county, farms can be uonght at from $13, without buildings,
to $100 t») 8:'iOO per acre, according to improvements, and in other parts of
the State at rates proporlionattly lower, according to distance from market,
W»; have no doubt tiiat those who are desirous of buying land in that State
can obtain valuable information fiom eitlier of the above parties. And we
have no doubt that land can be bought both in Pelaware and Maryland,
according to its actual value, cheaper than in Illinois or any other Western
State. And we have no doubt that the first free labor settlers will get their
land at less than one-half the price of those who come ten years later-
There is no mistaking the signs of the times, Maryland is about to be
redeemed from a most terrible curse upon her fertile soil and healthy, mild
climate. Let all the friends of free labor help to set the tide of emigration
toward her fchores.

Statistics of Illinois Farming — Comstocr's Spader.

The Secretary — Here is very interesting letter from M. L. Sullivant, oikt
of tlie largest farmers in the United States, which gives the detailed cost
of procuring corn on the Illinois prairie, by improved machinery. Probably
\v)..n v.ti;,tn is applied, the cost will be still less. Mr. Sullivant says :

IIoiiER, III., July 2, 18G4.
" I liave prepared and planted to corn thi.'^ season 1,335 acres of land ;
844 acres were plowed in <Hir usual manner, say about four inches deep, at
a cost of

445 dayi manual labor, nt $1.50 JfifiT 50

8"J0 clo>« botso lubor, at JOc 415 UO

ToUl $1,112 60

"Or 51.31 per acre

" Thrrt' were spaded (eight inches deep) with Comstock's Itotary Spader,
491 acre.-*, at a cost of

89 1 dajf mnnoal labor, at $1.50 fH.T 87

20S Amjt hor»c labor, al 60c 104 00

291 ila>» ox labwr, at 2Jc 72 76

ToUl t:\0 62

" Or 63 cents per acre.

90 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

" I have liad in oppriition two liorse and tliroo ox niacliines. One
inacliiiic was worked 33 days, witli tlii' Ranif team of four luiiscs. At tlie
end of the season their condition sliowed tliat tlio work had not been harder
for them than ordinary ph)win<if. The ox rnaeliines require a team of two
or tliree jniirs of oxen each. A portion of the season I worked two of tlic
ox machines g-anp^ed with six jiairs of oxen, one man manajj^in^ tlie team
and spaihrs readily. Four of tiie spaders are three ieet in width each.
For a It \v days in the hitter ]>art of tlie season I had at work one three
feet eight inches wide, which is the usual widlii of our corn rows. IL is
proposed to construct the most of them hereafter this width, and attach a
sell-actinn" corn-planter. This will be capable of »spading' and plantinj^one
acre [)er hour, Mith a speed two and a quarter miles, al a cost not exceed-
ing' 44 cents |)er acre, allowing eight iiours as a day's work. As a labor-
saving imidement, and a deep and thorough tiller ol" tlu^ soil, I am greatly
jileased with it, and shall watch with a good deal of interest the product
of the crop at maturity. At present there is no perceptible difl'erence in the
appearance of the corn on the plowed and spaded land, but J .shall expect
a yield of Irom 10 to 25 per cent in favor of the latter."

The Chairman — The Club will be very glad to have the result c»f the
yield. If the dmulh has been as severe there as it has here tli<' yield of the
deep tilth will be double that of the shalh)W, and more than ten fold pay
the cost.

Adjournment of the Club for the Summer Months.

Agreeabh; to usage, on adjourning the Club lor the day it was agreed to
take a recess through July and August. The next meeting, therefore, will
V«c held on Tuesday, Sept. G.

The Chairman — I hope every member will feel it his duty during this
recess to make a note of all such facts as he may thiid< will add interest to
our discussi(jns or be of value to the large number of persons who read the
rejioits of our proceedings. We hope our friends in the country who have
sent Mr. llobinson and the Secretary so iducIi valuable and interesting in-
ffjrmation will continue their good work. \\'e hope at the next meeting
they will have u budget of letters from tlie people wliich will furnish us
ample matter for discussion without lixing upon any regular (piestion for
debate. Atljourned. Jon.s \V. Chamhi i:s, Srcrrlarij.

Sr-plnnhcr G, 18G4.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Dlf^EASE OF THE LeAVF.S OF THE GrAPE ViNE.

Mr. K. 11. Williams— While at I'hiladelphia last week, I visited the
garden of Mr. .Tas. L. Lovering, at Oak Hill, and was shown by Mr.
Tripe], his gardener and su[>erintendi'nt, through the various deparlments,
and through his kindness 1 ant alile to pn-scnt to the club the acc(»mpany-
ing grnp<; leaves of various varieties, exhibiting the fungus and its eflects
\}\)nn the leaves of the grape vines, which was brought to the nc>tice of the
club, at the labt meeting, by Dr. Trimble.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUR. 91

Mr, Tn'pol toUl mo tliat lie liist ohscrvtMl tlio disease last j'car poiva<ling'
the (lifkTiMit vari(>ti(>s niltivatcMl tinder f^Iass inoiu! or loss — tlio wliito vario-
tips cvidoncinp the ollrot iiu ro readily and soMHildy tlian the more liardy
colored varieties jj^onerally. One vine of HIack Harl)arosa, a vig-(;ronH and
rampant <;r<>wer, appeared more injured tlian any other in the collectioi),
and he oonelnded to try the experiment of cntting' back and forcing new
wood from near the root that he might test its eirocts on the new growth.

The resnit is as ho showed me, the growth of vine was really strong and
even rampant, reaching in length from 18 to 20 feet, it exhihitod tiie rav-
ages of the dist'ase as much or niori; than any (.)tlier vine in the grapery.

Mr. 'I'riplc's conclusion is, llial it is a fiingns, and during tlie present
.season, it iias shown itself upon all the varieties grown on the grounds of
Mr. liovering, including the most hardy natives, and those both grown
under glass and in the open air. Tiie more delicate varieties exhibit
greater sensibility and more fatal n.'.^ults, tlian the native or more hardy
foreign varieties.

He thinks the disease is much extended from last year, and tliat it per-
vades the root as well as the vine, as evidenced from the experiment which
I have described. Mr. Triph; assured me that Mr. Levering as well as
himself are much interested in the investigation of the subject, and would
be happy to add any further knowledge, that their ( xpcrience may enable
them to aid the eflbrts of the Association to ascertain its cause and remedy.
My observation in the neigliborhood of Philadelphia satisfies me that the
disease is very general, and that the efiects this year will result in a very
short ancl inferior crop of fruit.

The query is, is it climatic or constituiioiial ?

Mr. John G. Bergen — This is an impotant subject, and I hope the mem-
l>ers will give us the results of their observations.

The dry .season this year has been very favorable to the grape. I shall

fruit more than fifty varieties of native grapes. I have not found any

'^ym|)toma (>f rot in any of the varieties so far. I tiiink it requires the

xprricnce of several years to make up an opinion as to the value of these

varieties.

Mr. J. Iv. Lancaster, Quakertown, Berks (Jo., Fa., writes as follows : I
acknowledge an indebtedness to the Farmers' Chib for nuuh valu;iblc
infr»rmation. I take the liberty of asking whelher the members know if
I)elaware and Diana grape can be made into raisins.

At a recent njccting, Mr. S. 0. Cross suggests a theory on planting fruit
trees to prevent sun or frozen sap blight. As the fall season is approach-
ing, I take the liberty to suggest a mode of transplanting I have; prac-
tised for the last fifteen years in a small way (aUhough I prefer the spring
to the fall for transplanting). I select my trees in the nursery, and mark
the south side of them. I take care to preserve all the roots I can. I
prepare the ground so as to receive them in their original position, the
Bame as they stood in the nursery, for the reason that nature's laws are
generally .self-evident. Those who will take the trouble to satisfy them-
selves on the subject will be convinced of the fact that there is a dinVrencc
in the texture of the wood of the body of the tree on the north and south
sides. If we change the position, we chatige the natural growth of the

92 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

tree. Ilcncc tlio dispnsition to sun blight wliich I think to be tho most
prominent cause nine times out of ten. Ask the wocjcl-cliopper wlio has
been an observer of nature, he will tell you the south side of a tree that
is exposed to the sun, is touj^her and harder to eliip.

Mr. John (}. Bergen — The result of my observation is, that it docs not
make any difference which way you plant the trc^, wliethcr it stands in
the same position as it did in tiie nursery or not. The idea seems very
natural, but the facts must be decided by e.xperienee.

Cattle on the Highways.

Jlr. Adrian Berg'cn — I wish to call the attention of the club to a decision
that has been made in King's county on the suliject. Some cattle had been
taken into custody by me for trespassing^ on the highway ; the person to
whom they belonged paid me the fifty cents per head according to the
statuti>, and then sued me before a justice of the peace of the town, on the
ground that 1 was nut the person to whom the fine should be ])aid. The
justice of the peace gave the decision against me. I ap|)euled to tho
eounty judge, who in his decision gays :

"The statute don't say to whom application fur redeniption shall be
made, v.diether to the justice or the person seizing the cattle. The natural,
and I think the proper person to apply to is the person having the cattle
in custody, and I see no objection to such person receiving the justice's
fees and paying them over to him, whieh was done in this case. Th(>
defendant received no more than the statute required the plaintill" to pay
for the redemption of his cattle, and so both parties seemed to have under-
stood at the time. The payment was voluntarily made without olijection
or protest, and, as it would seem, without any demand by the defendant.

There is no evidence to sustain the verdict uf the jury, and tlie jiulgment
of the justice must be reversed with costs."

JOHN DTK EM AN,

Kinf/s CouiUij Jitdgr.

Apple Trees. — Rot in Grapes.

Mr. John Q A. Jones, Hanover, Howard Co., MarylaTid. — I am very
much interested in the difcussions (jf the Farmers' Club of the American
Institute. Since purchasing my farm four years ago, I have been noticing
fruit trees with more than usual interest. On my place are several young
apple trees, sufliciently large and thrifty in appearance to produce u good
quantity of apples. Tliey generally blossom and set fruit, but before niatu-
rity th(! fruit falls. If any one of the Club can tell me what to do to obtain
u crof> of ripe apples, he will ct)nfer a favor upon me and many others. I
would also a.sk whether dry weather causes grapes to rot.

Mr. Solon ll(jbinson. — 1 wish wc c<juld tell Mr. Jones how to secure a
good crop of apples. Perhaps the trees are not old enough to bear. To
the question whether dry w(>ath».'r causes grajxs to rot, I reply no.

Mr. (i. A. Cooke, Waba.sha eounty, Minn., sny.s; "Can you or some one
of your Club tell me what is the matter witli my apple trees? They an;
all dying off, a limb at a time. They commence on this year's growth, then

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 93

llio limb (urns black, and dii>s tU)\vn to llic tiiink, and s(i continncs till tlio
wluile tri'c is dead. It cuniiiK-nciHl throe 3'cars a<^») among the Siberian
crabs and killed them, and now the j^rafted trees are attacked. No insect
can be discovered, thoujAli a kind of p:nm oozes out of the younjif growth.
I'ldess I ca;i find a remetly soon, I shall lose 100 fine trees jnst beginning
to bear. Cold weather has not afTected them, although 40 deg. below zero
when snuiU. I have peach trees that stood the same degree without pro-
t.M-tion."

.Nfr. Benjamin Summers, Vermillion, Erie Co , Ohio. — Some 25 years ago
a tri'e in the southwest corner of my orchard became affected in a somewhat
similar manner as were many trees in various sections of this country. ^Ve
then called it fire blight, from the sudden withering of the limb or twig
diseased. The disease on Mr. Cooke's trees may be different, but his short
description very well describes the fire blight. It killed many trees — the
one first affected in my orchard entirely; and it spread to the other trees
80 that some 20 or 30 were going the same way in that corner of the
orchard. Learning or judging that it must be the work of an insect, though
too small for my discovery, I undertook the seemingly Herculean task of
cutting off and burning the limbs as fast as they died. It did not prove as
great a task as I expected, and after following it up a few years two or
three times in a season, I saved all but one tree, and they are now healthy
and entirely free from the disease. I communicated these facts to an agri-
cultural pap?r and they were published in the U. S. Patent OiBce reports
some twenty years since. If it is the same disease, I am confident a
thorough excision of the limb below wliere dead, and burning them, jjersis-
i>id in, will cure.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — I have pureucd the same course but not always
with success, because though the effects are the same, there is probably a
variety of causes. Win. S. Carpenter, John G. Bergen, A. S. Fuller and
other experienced fruit growers, have repeatedly given their opinions upon
this "fire blight" in the discussions of the Fann(?rs' Club without coining
to any definite determinatit)n as to cause or cure. All are agreed in one
thing, however, and that is to cut away the affected limbs as soon as dis-
covered. The present season, in the vicinity of New York, many limbs,
in some cases entire trees, have put on the appearance of fire blights, in
conscfjuence of being infested with worms — a new order of caterpillars.
It remain.^ to be seen what may be the lasting effects. I wish we could
tell Mr. Cooke how; to save his apple trees. The same disease has killed
many thousands in the New England States.

A Remedy for Apple Tree Borers.

-Mr. W. Taylor, Berlin, X. Y., has accidentally discovered that blue clay
is a perfect protection against the borers. He makes a mortar and plas-
ters the trees up as high as the b(.>rers would work, making the application
Hpring and autumn. The remedy has been worth so much to him that he
wishes to make it universally known, by having it printed in the proceed-
ings of the Farmers' Club.

94 transactions of the american institute.

Cure for Poison Ivy.

Mv. J. Booth, McdiciiievilU', Wayne county, Iowa, wishes to corroborate
the statement nuule in thi-se reports some time since, tliat soft soap will
cure the poison of ivy, ("poison vine.") He says:

" Fil'ty years ag'o my father said he had used it twenty years and never
knew it fail to cure. I have never known it fail since that time.

" iMy method of usinj^ it is to put it on the part alVected, wet it and rub
it till it becomes a white latiier, and let it dry on, and it .^eldom fails to
cure by fust application. It is also a preventive whenever a person is
exposed to be poisoned. If lu^ washes thorouj^hly with soft soap (it must
be «oft soap made of lye and grease) the p:irt washed will never be i>oi-
soned.

" It will also prevent and cure the poison of poison sumac (which is di.s-
tinguihhed from sumac by the shoots being red); it grows in Xc-w Kngliind;
I have never seen it in the west; but it will not cure the poison from
parsnip.

"All who are subject to be poisoned by cither of these plants should
remember this cheap, easy, convenient remedy."

Coal Oil for Insects.

Mr. George Bush, Little Cody, Tenn., reiterates his assertion that " coal
oil," " rock oil," " petroleum " and "kerosene" are eflectual destroyers of
insects upon trees, and the application does not work any injury, lie says
that it is "coal tar" that kills trees, and not coal oil, because the tar dries
and ftums an impervious coating, excluding water and air, while the oil
whether used in a crude or refined state, is mainly washed ofl' before it does
any injury, except to the animals that it is desirable to kill, lie earnestly
advises those who have any doubts upon the subject to procure a single
ounce (jf pctr(deum and try its effect upon a worthless tree. To apply the
oil, he says: " I thoroughly saturate a rag with crude petroleum and rub
the barU until wet, and then wipe off with a dr}- chith. I stated before a
siniple fact, which I had tested upon my own trees, and therefore recom-
mended it through your Club to others. Some of them, instead of trying
it, go into a dissertation about the injury that coal tar has done. 1 did not
recommend coal tar, nor would I recommend barn yard manure piled about
a tree to exclude air."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Mr. Bush, with his facts, has the best of tlw; theo-
rists. As a general rule one such fact is worth a bushel of theory, and so
we give another:

Mv. .1. A. Donalson, St. Joseph, Mich., sa^'s: " A word abotit the effects
of petroleum on fruit trees, when used to kill the borer. An acquaintance
of mine tried the experiuKMit on about a dozen fine jjeach trees, which a
one hundred dollar legal t«Mider would not have bought, and the trees died.
I did not learn whethi-r it killed the worm.s or not."

Now, is it possiljlf! that what killed in one case did no harm in th<^
other ? Or did the parties use diHorent substances ?

PROCEEDINGS OF TIIK FARMERS' CLUB. 95

How TO Kill Canada Thistles.

Mr. A. N. Kent, A;nl)i)y, Aslitaluila i-oiinty, Oliio, i^ivcs liis cxpcrictice
with tlu'sc pi'sts (if the t'lirmcr, tor tlic bciiclit of the oonesporKleiit in Illi-
nois, wiio stiiletl that tliey were just he-;imiiiig to inake their ai)|)earaiice in
his neijrhburhoocl. Mr. K. says:

" I will tell you how I did. I had u patch of several rods covered with
them. I pulled them up two years, but they grew more plentiful. I was
bound to Hit rill of them, and I diti it thus: I took stron;^ brine out oi the
bottotn of a purk barrel, sharpenctl a slick and run it down si.\ inches close
tt) the root of each thistle, and lliied U|)the orifice with the brine. Il killed
them c<>ni[>letely."

We have known a small patch of thistles killed most expeditiously as
follows: They were first mown, and then a man went over the stubble with
an oil can fdled with sulphuric ucid, and poured a few drops from the spout
into llie hollow stalk of each plant. Except the labor, this is noi an expen-
sive application.

Mr. James Seely — I think seeding- and mowing the only renicdy for this
pest. To cultivate the ground, except by thorough fallowing-, is a sure
means of encouraging their growth and spreading. And even the most
perfect and expensive fallowing is liable to fail of its object if by chance a
single stalk is alhtwed to seed in the neighborhood, because tlic seeds are
scattered by the wind with great facility, and the better the tilth tlie more
readily the seed germinates. By ordinary cultivation the roots are broken
and distriliuted, and the seed is matured usually before the crop is ripe
enough to harvest. Under such circumstances the spread is very rapid.
And oven in pastures they multiply rapidly, especially in loose soils. To
rid land of thistles, seed it thickly with grass. A good strong growth of
grass, besides reducing the am<junt of thistle at once, decreases its vit;jlity,
and thus retanls the maturity until a later period than that at wliich the
grass is ripe enough for haying. . If, then, the crop is cut in season, the
ttlcnder stumps of the thistles are exposed to the damaging efTccts of the
weather, and no fear need be entertained of spreading by either root or
seeding. If the cutting is delayed, there is little danger from seeding, as
it is rare to find seeds having vitality when grown among grass. Time
and patient determination are necessary to final success. How long a
time will be required in every case to complete their destructi(jn, I will
n(»l undertake to say ; but I iiave never known an instance when enough
thistles were found at the second cutting to injure the market value of the
hay, or \n nmteriall^' lessen its amount. As a rule, I think the third
mowing will prove efiectual, except against what may yet spring from
seed remaining in the soil."

The Clover Hay Worm.

Mr. \Vn) K. (irifRn — Etiuality, (Jalbitin Co. (."southern) Illinois, gives us
the following dt'scription of a farmer's pest, that is new to us here, or at
least has not been observed. It will be well for every out- who discovers
the "bad appearance" of clover hay, spoken of by Mr. G., to examine
whether it is caused by the worm that he describes. He says :

96 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

" Tliere is a worm here that feeds upon clover hny. Tt is of a reddish
brown color, with a bright red head, and is about three-fourths of an inch
long-. It begins its ravages towards the latter part of the feeding season
at the bottom of the mow, and works its way upwards, devouring the
heads and leaves. It leaves in its pathway a filniy web which gives the
impression to the careless observer, that the hay has become mouldy from
having been stowed away too green. When the hay is thrown out, a sub-
stance resembling gunpowder in appearance is deposited which is probably
the excrement of the insect. The worm is shy and active, avoiding the
light, and is not apt to be observed unless sought for.

" Tiie neighbors here had never heard of this worm till I mentioned it.
This may be owing to there being but little clover hay made h(;re, and
that being generally fed out early ; or perhaps the worm is a new comer.

Two years ago I noticed the bad appearance of the hay at the bottom of
the mow, but did not discover the cause till a year later. By the last of
February of last year, I found the worms had penetrated two or three feet
from the bottom, and when I came to the bottom in April there was not a
head or leaf of clover to bo seen ; nothing but the naked stems, with a little
mixture of timothy, which was not disturbed. Last spring they made
their appearance much later than before. I saw nothing of them till April,
when within six or eight inches of the bottom of the mow. They had
evidently just begun to work.

Pigeon Manure.

Mr. Solon Robinson — A correspondent wishes to know the best way to
use pigeon manure. I reply that "I have used within two or^three years
past about 150 barrels of pigeon manure, obtained from city dove cotes.
It has proved eminently successful until the present year, when, owing to
the drought, it has in most cases been useless, and in some injurious. My
mode of using it has been to mix it with five or six times its bulk of muck,
mold or loam, makiiig up the pile out of doors where it would be exposed
to the rain which softens the lumps, and by frequent turning mixing the
ingredients well together, so that the whole mass is extremely rich and
well suited for any kind of manurial purposes. It will bo good for straw-
berries in a rainy season, and good for nothing in a dry one. It is purely
an ammoniacal manure, and like guano and other manures of that class,
requires moisture to develop its value."

Shooting Catterpillars.

Mr. Thomas G. Redding, Royal Oak, Michigan, recommends by his own
experience the plan of shooting catterpillars' nests from trees as the best
way to get rid of them. " Load the gun with a small charge of powder
without wad. Place the muzzle of the gun near the nest, and its explosion
explodes all the worms." His theory about producing sweet and sour
apples by joining the halves of buds from sweet and sour trees, has been
so often and thoroughly exploded that it would be a waste of powder to
fire at it again.

TROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 97

Do Toads Eat Bees?

A bec-kccper in Brooklyn beg-ins a conununicalion with tlic above ques-
tion, lie says:

" While transfeniiii;- a swarm of bees, I observed a toad snap np one or
two of them whieh were on the ground. Tlio same animal domiciled near
the swarm placed in the garden, and noticing his plump, portly appearance
and fearing he was fattening on my bees, I determined to offer him a
sacrifice to science. Well, 1 slaughtered and dissected him, or rather dis
sected him first, as ho refused to die, even wlum cut in pieces. His stomach
was an interesting* sight lor a naturalist ; but 1 will remark in his favor
that not a single bee, or part of a bee, did I find. The contents were two
long, hiiiry catterpillars, numerous heads and parts of beetles ; but the bulk
was made up of a sort of cabbage beetle, or flea, jet black, of small size,
with a hard shell. I had noticed them very abundant on my cabbages and
turnips. Finding* so many noxious insects, I regretted his destruction, but
to atone, I have collected a whole family of toads and am bringing them
np with g'reat care, giving- them the best garden culture."

This proves what we have so often asserted, that the toad was one of the
farmer's best friends, and as such we protected him and taught our child-
ren to do so ; and we have tried many times to convince farmers of this
fact, and that the}' should give the toads the " best kind of g-arden culture,"
and we should have still continued to urge them to do so, if our friend had
found the evidence in the stomach of the cne he dissected, that toads do eat
bees. We have often heard that they do, but have always enjoyed a
doubt. We have also heard that the King bird eats bees, but it did not
make us an enemy to him, because it has been frequently proved that he
only ate the drones. We dare say it is the same with the toad. And now,
speaking' of bees, we have a question to ask :

Do the bees gather their great store of honey from fiowers ?

We doubt it — we have always doubted it. We are sitting now as we
write under the branches of a chestnut tree, among the leaves of which the
bees are buzzing merrily. They are not after the flowers, for the liowering'
season has long since passed. It is mid August ; the burs are an inch
and a-half in diameter. What ai;e the bees after ? Not the chestnut burs,
surel}'. We have just examined and solved the question. The leaves are
covered with " honey dew," and we have observed in every good season for
honey, that this substance was abundant. And so we have observed in
seasons when there was no " honey-dew," that everybody said "what a
poor season for liono}- !" Now we close with a repetition of the question,
" Do the bees gather their great store of honey front flowers ?

A New Caterpillar Pest.

Mr. A. J. Traver, Lisburn, Cumberland Co., Pa., gives the followiuff
description of a new kind of caterpillar : "It first made its appeariince in
our section about two years ago ; it has now become a te'rril)le pest ; it is
a small worm with long hair, green body, with bright yellow and black
spots, and cjuite unlike the old variety that tised to infest apple orchards,
but have now disappeared. They appear upon all kinds of fruits and
[Aic. Inst. J G

98 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

shrubs ill myriads ; they do not take time to buihl webs, but appear to be
continuall^'^ ' marching on,' and, in inany respects, resemble the ravages of
the army worm wliich I witnessed a few years ago in the West. Tliey are
entirely destroying my crop of grapes, by eating off" the stems and letting
them fall. I conunenced cutting off br'inches and loaves as fast as possi-
ble, in order to defeat them, but their reenforcements entirely outflanked
me. I next applied air-slacked lime, but all to no purpose. Does the club
know of any remedy?"

The club docs not kntnv of any remedy. The same pest has made its
appearance in this vicinity this year in countless numbers.

A New Strawberry.

Mr. Traver also mentions a new strawberry called the Ida, originated
by Mr. Cockling, of York county. Pa., which, after a test of several years,
promises to be a valuable acquisition to the list. " It is a strong grower,
wonderfully productive and very hardy. The berry is of medium size,
beautiful scarlet color, round and smooth, uniform in size, good flavor,
■bears high up, and is hard enough for transportation. I wish some mem-
bers of the club to test it, as I wish it to stand or fall upon its own merit.
J will send a few plants to any person that the club may designate, free of
'charge, as soon as the season for transportation arrives."

We will suggest the name of Wm. S. Carpenter, as the proper recipient
.of the plants, as he has tested more varieties than any other amateur
member of the club.

Aftermath.

"An old-style farmer" asks the " opinion of the club about aftermath?"
Mr. Solon Robinson — The opinion probably would be, of a majority, if
fairly taken, that, as a general thing, aftermath is more valuable on the
land for mulch and manure than it is for feed. Its greatest value as feed
is for calves, or for lambs dropped in autumn or winter. It is also good
for milch cows, but it must not be relied upon alone. Ic has not substance
enough to keep up the supply of fat. In curing aftermath do not sun it
too much. It is so succulent that if exposed long to a scorching sun, the
best of it is burnt out. If you cut it to-day, while the dew is off", let it lie
until to-morrow in the swath, then turn it over without shaking apart,
when it is well heated in the sun. The next day put it up in large cocks,
with hay caps. These are almost indispensable. Watch the cocks until
cured to see that the inside does not sour and mold. Heating, if not car-
ried to excess, will not hurt the hay. It may turn black and still be sweet.
If carried to the barn when cured on a sunny day, that operation will dry
oft" all the sweat, and it will keep very sweet. Some farmers salt after-
math. It is not a good way. Three or four days are necessary to cure
aftermath in the swath or cock.

The New Pest of Currant-Growers.

Mr. Geo. W. Putnam, Peterboro, N. Y., sends the following description
of the lly which is the parent of a worm which is devastating the currant

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 99

buslios of all central Now York. It is fVom the pen of Thomas Barlow, an
cniinenf entomoloc^ist, Canastota, N. Y. : " It is about three-eighths of an
iiicli in length, alxjonien lomon-yellow ; neck and month yellow ; m-ud and
eyes black ; upper and lower sides of the thorax black ; the other sides of
the thorax yellow ; legs yellow, except the tarsal joints of the hind legs,
which are black; antennaj about half the length of the body, or three-six-
teenths of an inch; four wings, or hymenopterous, with a small black spot
on the t)uter edge of the upper pair about one-third distant from posterior
extremity. The worms passed into the pupa state the 2GLh of May, and
on tlie 8th of June tiiey appeared in the perfect lly. The whole insect has
a shiny, glassy appearance, lik(^ a winged parasite. The wings are very
transparent and ribl)ed considerably like the wings of an aphis. The
abdominal form is much like that of the ant, and the wings lie along upon
the body with but little spreading at the hind ends. Althongh I have
specimens of last season presented mo as stated in a former article, th(;y
were in too much of a shriveled condition for delinitc description." Mr.
Tutnam says :

■' In that article Mr. Barlow described the worm, and speaks of the
rap.idity of its transformation, a few days only sufficing for it to become a
perfect Hy and to commence laying a multitude of eggs. These eggs are
soon hatched, and thus the pest is indefinitely increased. In that former
article, Mr. Barlow gave as his opinion that neither lime, ashes, soap-suds,
nor any similar remedies were of any avail worth mentioning ; that the
oidy effectual way was to place sheets of paper under the buslies, knock
the worms off by striking the bushes lightly with a stick, and then destroy
the worms. In this conclusion Mr. B. is undoubtedly right. I have tried
both ashes and lime, and though ihey cause the worm some trouble they
do not stop its ravages. With the leaf well covered with ashes or lime the
worm will continue its operations along the edge of the leaf with undimin-
ished appetite. I have taken the worms, covered them with lime or ashes
and then slacked the same by applying a drop or two of water ; but neither
the slacked lime nor the lye from the ashes trough, both powerful enough
to aftect the fingers, seemed to produce any effect upon the worm. In each
case they only squirmed a little, and finally came out as good as new, with
apparently an increased appetite. By proper management, however, the
destruction of these posts becomes comparatively a trifling task. The
bushes should be cultivated well apart and out on open ground, and witli-
out grass under them. By placing sheets of paper as above (pieces of oil
cloth carpeting are bettor), then bending over the limbs and striking light-
ly with a rod, the worms will drop off by hundreds, and can be burned or
drowned. A sprinkling of lime or ashes on the bushes will make them curl
up and relax their hold more readily. The eggs already laid on the under
Bide of the leaves will of course hatch out in a few days, and the same treat-
ment must be administered to the new brood. Follow up this process for
two or three weeks, and the fruit and foliage are mostly saved. It will
readily be soon that the above remedy faithfully applied will well nigh
exterminate this race of depredators, and if all the insect tribe which infest
the garden and orchard could be as easily disposed of, the lovers of fruit

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might well rejoice, In the Hon. Gerrit Smith's garden the bushes stood on
open ground, which was entirely free from grass and weeds. The worms
had got a grand start before they were taken in hand. ALen were then set
at work to beat the bushes ; the worms fell by thousands, and the. men
mashed them on the ground as they fell with the flat side of their spades,
and thus a good portion of the foliage and most of the fruit was saved.
An earlier application of this remed}' would have been easier, of course, and
more effectual. As the Hessian fly appeared with the coming of the Hes-
sians, so the currant worm made its appearance with the great Rebellion.
It might, therefore, with some propriety take the name of the ' Secession
worm ;' but I doubt if it would be morally right to libel any, even the most
loathsome worm, by applying to them that hideous cognomen."

Protecting Plants from Frost.

Mr. E. Aloswortli, Peterboro, N. Y., has accidently discovered how to
protect plants in frosty nights. He was in the habit of using boxes, casks,
pails, pans and cloths. One very cold night he covered one plant with a
basket. " In the morning on examination, everything was killed or nearly
so except the plant under the basket ! Now it is a well known fact, that
on the approach of a frosty night, if the breeze keeps on bloiving there is no
frost to do n)uch injury; but if the breeze goes down with the sun, and is
succeeded by a calm, then woe to the young flowers and garden [ilants.
But any covering open on the sides or ends will create a draft in the stillest
night, and this was the case with the basket. Ever since that time, Mr.
A. has simply placed boxes, &c., at intervals, and laid boards on the top of
them, leaving both sides wide open. It seems like no covering at all ; but
it is all that is needed, and he never loses a plant. The people are greatly
troubled by frosts in that high region. In early June, and even in July, it
is not an uncommon thing lor them to put their flowers, &c., to bed, and
tuck them up. Blanket, sheets, and cloth with boxes, pails, pans, &c., are
all brought into requisition, and even with these the plants are often des-
troyed. But the gentleman above named always saves his plants by
covering them in the method described."

Mr. J. E. Covington, Churchill, Queen Ann's Co., Md.:

Gentlemen — Having seen your letter to Mr. Stockbridge, I take the
liberty of writing to you. To all the questions asked I can return a favor-
able answer so far as our section of country is cojicerned. I am a resident
of the eastern shore of Maryland. I will try and give you a correct state-
ment of our count}'. Slavery with us is nearly extinct, the slaves having all
removed themselves but very few remain. I thii:k in a short time there
will be none to remove. Land varies from twenty to sixty dollars per acre,
according to the Quality and situation. Our advantages for agriculture
and horticulture are good; land can be no better situated, for marketing of
all kinds which has been carried on, so far as fruit is concerned, with suc-
cess.

So far as your reception with us is concerned, that depends altogether on
the man, if he conducts himself as a gentleman, I can assure you he need

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 101

have no fear of an unwelcome reception. We have some fine farms for sale,
and will be glad to have you with us. A friend of mine lias a very good
farm for sale, the land is thin, but there is no better natural soil; it is situ-
ated about a quarter of a mile from Chester river, within fifteen minutes
ride of a steamboat wharf and grainery. It is in a fine, healthy neighbor-
hood with good neiglibors; there is a lime landing on the place, also a quan-
tity of red cedar. Such a farm can be purchased at from tliirty to thirty-
five dollars per acre, it being finely situated for grain, fruit or marketing
of any kind. There is a steamboat to and from Baltimore every day.
Should any friends wish to make inquiries concerning this or any other
place, I will gladly do all I can to aid them.

Geo. W. Russum, Denton, Maryland:

Gentlemen — My desire to contribute everything in my power to the
growth and prosperity of my native State will, I hope, be a sufficient
apology for the obtrusion of this letter as a response to tlie interrogatories
propounded in your hotter to Mr. Stockbridge, and by him published in the
Baltimore American of a late date.

The first and second of that series can possibly be better answered by
Mr. Stockbridge than myself, and they doubtless have been already. Whilst
Mr. Stockbridge speaks of the convention and its purposes, it may not be
amiss that I should state so far as the people of tliis district, comprising all
the State east of the Chesapeake, are concerned, the prospect of an early
renioval of the curse of slavery from our State is as good as could be
wished. The^- are ready for it whenever the convention shall fix the time
for the operation of the new Constitution, which they hope will not be later
than October 1st, 1864. The convention has already- provided for the elec-
tion of olEcers under the new Constitution in November, which indicates
that the wishes of the people are to be faithfully executed by that body.

To the third and fourth interrogations, I would reply that land can be
had in this section of the State at prices ranging from ten to sixty dollars
per acre. This will indicate pretty well which are the exhausted lands and
which are under good culture.

To the fifth, as to the advantages of the eastern shore for agriculture and
horticulture, I reply that a/Z the. advantages, soil, climate and markets, are
in favor of the eastern shore. Its soil is easier cultivated, being clear of
stones, but few hills, and the season some week or ten days ahead of the
renpectable part of the western sh(n'e.

()th. The facilities for reaching m irkets are excellent, the bay vessels
and steamers to Baltimore, to Philadelphia through the Chesapeake and
Delaware canal, and by Delaware railroad to Philadelphia and New York.

7th. Considerable att(;ution has been given to fruit culture, and the ex-
perirr.ent has not oidy prtunise I well, but proven exceedingly remunerating.

8th. You "Yankees," as you call yourselves, the bone and sinew of the
great and christian North, would be heartily welcomed by all true 3Iary-
landers. There is but one section of the State where it is likely there
would be an exception to that, viz., in the lower section of the western
shiire, known among loyal men as " South Carolina." I hope your Club
will send a deputation to this eastern shore to view its advantages and

102 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

report upon it. Though I am well n'gli broken up at fighting this pro-
slavery locofoco party, and am not in eondition to extend to you man}' hos-
pitalities, yet I have a few friends, and if you or any of your Club chance
to come, as 1 hope you will, nothing would give me as much pleasure as to
go around with you and by introducing you to the true men of the shore,
make your visit both pleasant and profitable. The route to this place is
by Delaware railfoad from Philadelphia to Harrington, Del, Leave New
York 6 p. M. to-day and reach here to-morrow at 4 p. M. If your Club can-
not come down and see our country, I'll get our farmers (for I am a law-
yer) to come and meet you and tell 3'on what a great country we have. If
there is any point on which you desire more information, please write me,
for I am anxious to fill up the State by just such men as you repi'eseut.
Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

September 13, 1864.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Poultry, can They be Kept in Large Flocks ?

Mr. Martin A. Reeder, Winchester, Randolph Co., Indiana: "A large
proportion of the farmers in this section are very much interested in all
your discussions about poultry, for they derive a considerable profit from
poultry which is sent alive to the New York market. Some persons have
sent very larg:e quantities, dead and alive, of turkeys, geese, ducks, fowls.
I propound the following questions which interest a very large number :
Will chickens,, fowls, turkeys, &c., remain healthy in large quantities
together? (I.)- Would it be profitable to keep 5,000 hens together in an
inclosure constructed similar to our country fair gnnicds ? (2.) If so, how
niary acres, and whether in cleared or forest lands ? (3.) Are there any
such chickeries in operation within your knowledge ? (4.) How have they
succeeded ? (5.)

Mr. Solon Robinson — I have p-oposed the following answers to the
questions :

(I.) Not unless they have a very large range of ground, part of which
should be woodland, and the other part frequently plowed and sowed with
grass and small grain. Fowls require green food and fresh earth and
running water to keep them liealthy. They also require animal food,
which they obtain in large quantities when running at large.

(2.) Not unless the inclosure is a very large one, at least 50 acres, and
probably 100, and then the chances of profit are very doubtful.

(3.) This question is answered in the above.

(4.) I do not believe there is one in this country. The nearest approach
to it is the establishment of the Messrs: Beatty, near Geneva, N. Y., who
are not poultry raisers, but poultry feeders. They purchase the birds in
autumn, and fatten them for market in an inclosure, just as some men pur-
chase and fatten beeves and sheep. In this they are eminentl}' successful.

(5.) Several attempts have been made in various parts of the count r}' to
raise poulliy artificially and have all failed. In our opini(;n, that, like the
production of silk, must always be carried on in a domestic way. We

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 103

have never known either to succeed when undertaken upon a grand scale.
A factory like that of the Messrs. Beatty, for tlie collection and preparation
of poultry for market, would be profitable in every county in the country,
and would induce farmers to prodnce poultry in much larg-er (quantities,
and at a very considerable profit.

I.MrROVEMENT WaNTED IN CARRIAGES FOR FARMERS.

Mr. G. W. Stebbins, Portland, N. Y., makes the following sensible sug-
gestions upon a very much needed improvement :

" Will it be proper to suggest to the Farmers' Club an improvement ia
pleasure carriages, so that farmers and their wives, after the exhausting
labors cf the week, may be spared the acrobatic feat of climbing into a
high buggy preliminary to the ride to church ; so that aged people may
ride without the fuss of carrying out a chair, and without requiring a boost
from tilt' entire family? (1.) How we ever came to have such elevated
vehicles I do not know, unless the;y were first used for their convenience.
in driving over stumps (2) when the -country was new, and are to be,
retained until some great genius like that spoken of by Charles Lamb,,
who taught the people of China how pigs could be roasted without burning
down the sty, shall arrive to show us we can ride just as well nearer the
ground. If it should be thought advisable that the members of the club,
including 'outside members,' should each have built a carriage after a
plan of his own, and then at a grand carriage show a premium should be .
awarded to the best, I should like to be counted in (3). A broad sofa-like
seat, that might be reached by an easy step, would be- the main feature of
the one I should offin- (4). I sometimes dream of riding in such a one, in
the 'good time coming,' when roadside fences shall disappear, and every
road shall be like a gravel walk throughout the entire garden of America

(5.)"

Mr. Solon Robinson — I answer the questions in this order :

(1.) Yes, very proper, and urge it upon all the wagon makers in America,
and keep repeating it until somebody has gumption enough to make the
improvement. Our present fashionable stj'le is simply ridiculous — that is
all. To this there is not a single exception. The Russian drosky comes
the nearest to what is wanted for "old people," but the wheels of that are
ridiculously snuill. There is no need of small wheels to bring the body of
the carriage near the ground. That should be done by crooked axles. We
have seen carts for moving heavy burdens, with six feet wheels, the body
of which swung only six inches above the earth. Why not have go-to-
me( ting carriages upon the same plan ?

(2.) If such was the origin, it will probably continue as long as a stump is
to be seen. You might just as well expect a wagon wheel to make for
itself a new track, to escape the old dec-p rut, as to expect a wagon-maker
to vary the pattern of his respected grandfather. Besid(!S, if you, Mr.
Stebbins, had a new carriage built after a common-sense pattern, have you
independence enuugh to use it?

(3.) And so should I. And I think that any agricultural society tliat will
offer a prize large enough to bring out such a desirable inq)r(>vement iu

104 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

farm carts !ind carriag-es will do more good than ever has been done by
prizes for fast trotting, fat hogs, or big cabbage-heads.

(4.) I like your idea. Why not develop it ?

(5.) Oil, may that good time soon come ! It may be hastened, if we who
have had the scales removed from our own eyes keep diligently trying to
remove them from those of others who are still blind to their own interest.

Peach Trees and Tanzy.

Mr. D. M. Fisher, Arch Spring, B'air Co., Pa., dispu'cs the position of
Mr. Kohlei-, of Missouri, about tanzy being a preventive of borers and
curl-leaf in peach trees. ^Mr. F. says :

" I would say that I. have tried the remedy thorougldy, and in no case
has it proved to be a prevent ve of either. I 'have peach trees standing
amcmg the tanzy dead and dry. I examine my trees annually, and some-
times oftener, and have alwaj's found the boreis as plenty where the trees
were surrounded by tanzy as anj where else^ and the curled leaf is just
found the same as elsewhere."

This gives both sides of the question. Jlr. K. thinks tanzy useful. Dr.
Trimble thought the idea ridiculous, and Mr. Fisher says that he has fully
satisfied himself by actual trial.

Do Birds Eat Strawberries ?

Mr. Fisher also settles this question by the following statement. He
also tells us how to cheaply p otect the fruit from the birds. He says :

" Yo 1 old strawberry growers may laugh at what I am about to write,
but laughing in New York will not hurt in Pennsylvania. Having planted
a bed of Triomphe de Gauds, and being quite pi'ond of tlieii- bright appear-
ance, I was depending on them for a number of delicious messus, when lo,
the robins and cherry-birds began to pick off all those that had the least
appearance of coloring. After they were gone, tiiey coniinenced on the
green ones. Being determined to outdo the birds, I took newspapers, one
for each hill, and with small stones and sticks I laid the edges of the paper
tight to the ground and saved the crop. It improved the fiavor of the
berries very much by being shaded. In dry weather bits of paper will
answer Iirst-rate to keep the birds off the ground.

The New Desiructive Caterpillars, and How to Kill Them.

Dr. W. P. Peck, English Neighborhood, N. J., says: "The caleipillar
spoken of at the last meeting of the club, has this season done an innnense
amount of damage to young fruit trees in tliis vicinity.

" Perluips the result of my experience may be of value to your readers
I conitnenced to make war upon them early in the season, when they first
made tli(?ir appearance, by taking off the leaves upon which I found them
and l)urning them in the kitchen stove. I have made it my first business
in the morning to visit m}-- trees and destroy the destroyer. 'J'lic larger
p;irt have been destroyed while very small, and before liny had done any
damage, and bef )re they were laig(? enough to emigrate to my grapi; vines,
which have consequently escaped the damage done to those of my neigh-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 105

bors. The yonii^i;- fi-uit trees of man}' in tliis vicinity appear to bo totally
ruined by this pest, vvliile mine and those of others who have pursued the
same course seem not to have sulfered."

Mr. Solon llobinson. — We have pursued the same course, or ratlier the
female intMubers of our family have — a lame arm having' prevented us from
eng'ag'ing" in the sport. The success upon our grounds has been quite equal
to tluit mentioned by Dr. Peck. Some limbs upon large apple trees, which
we could not induce our Irish g'entleman to risk his worthless uv.ck to clear
of the worms, look now as though the leaves had been scorched by fire. It
is certainly the most destructive worm that has ever infested the trees in
the vicinity of New York. It appears to possess a poisonous quality which
turns brown every green leaf it touches, and it is in no way clioict; upon
what kind of bush or tree the leaves grow. It has infested every kind of
fruit in our garden, and nearly' all kinds of flowering shrubs, and we have
seen it on several kinds of forest trees and bushes. The period of its dep-
redations is mostly confined to July.

Value of the Improved Black Raspberry.

Dr. Peck gives us the following testimony in hivov of this fruit, derived
fronj his own experience. - He says: " I have now grown it for four years,
and iind it the most profitable crop I can cultivate. It costs less to culti-
vate an acre of them than an acre of corn or potatoes, while the product of
an acre will sell for from $300 to $500. With special care in cultivation I
am CDnfident that $1,000 can be realized from an acre, at the price for
which they have been sold in this market.

Grape and Wine Questions.

Mr. Jos. Harsh, Clyde, Iowa, asks about the Oporto grape: " Is it worthy
of being classed among the fine varieties of wine grapes, such as Diana,
Anna, Delaware, &c. ? (1.) Is it hardy as either or all the ajove, and a
g'lod bearer? (2.) Has any work been published yet that is trustworthy
upon the subject of wine making in America? If so, who is the author,
and where can it be had ? i 3.)

Mr. S;don Robinson. — Judging from several samples of wine that we
have seen from the Oporto grape, we must answer tliis question with a
ver}' decided negative. It is not, as its name indicates, the gi-ape from
wiiich Oporto wine is made, and we do do not think it is a variety which
will be successful in general cultivation. (2.) Of that we have no personal
exp(;ri('nce — those who have will answer. (3.) Col. Harazthy, of (Califor-
nia, pu!)li,sii('d a work s(une time since, which can be had of the Messrs.
Ilarpf rs, in tiiis city.

Seeding Land to Grass.

F. 1) P.'iyne, Randolph, Vt., says:

" W'r. have considerable dilhculty, especially in a dry season like tliis,
in getting our lands seeded down to grass (clover and timothy). We
usually sow to oats and grass seed together in the spiing, after having
manured and raised a hoed crop the previous year, and especially upon

106 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

upland of rather sandy soil, the grass seed often fails to come. Now, what
course can we take to be sure of success in stocking' down lands (1); how
deep should the seed be covered (2); and whether harrowed, brushed or
rolled in (3); and how can we best stock down after taking off the oats or
other grains, and finding no grass starting up (4); is it a good way to sow
a new suppl}^ of seed before the fall rains, and harrow in (5j; or first plow
again, then sow and harrow — or wouldn't it be as likely to success to wait
till spring and sow on the last snow (6)?"

Mr. Solon Robinson. — (I.) The only sure way to success is by irrigation,
and this is an important secret that American farmers will some day learn,
that irrigation is one of the most valuable improvements that can be made,
wherever it is practicable.

(2.) The proper depth to cover any seed is but very little more than the
diameter of the seed. The imperfection of covering makes it necessary to
cover some much deepei:, while others are left entirely exposed. If we
could be sure of a heavy shower immediately after sowing grass seed, that
would cover it sufficiently.

(3.) We prefer to plow in oats lightly. The best implement for this is
Share's cultivator. Then harrow smooth, and sow the grass seed, and
brush lightly by a fine limbed bush drawn by one horse.

(4.) If the land is spotted with grass, it is best first to harrow and then
sow tlie vacant spots as soon as the oats are cut.

(5.) Yes; but it is not necessary to wait for the fall rains before you
sow, because, if the seed is on the ground, it will be ready to grow when
the rains commence.

(6.) If the ground is all bare, we should recommend you to wait for the
next spring crop.

The Rosin Weed of the Western Prairies.

Mr. J. Makinson, Monticello, 111., sends a specimen of the rosin or wax,
as he calls it, of a plant that grows very abundantly upon all the western
prairies, commonly known as " rosin weed." It is also known to some as
the "Polar plant," its leaves indicating north and south. Mr. M. says it
may be obtained in large quantities from the juice of the pressed weeds.

Mr. Solon Kobinson. — I believe it is one of the helianthxi^ family of plants.
I have frequently gathered the rosin from the broken stalks, but that is a
ver}' slow process. The specimen sent us, obtained in tliat way, is of a
very light yellow color, quite transparent, so much so that a sheet of the
thickness of common paper glass does not afford any obstruction to the
reading of fine print. The gum is very pleasantly aromatic, and is slightly
stimulating. AVhether otherwise medicinal or not we cannot say. Unless
it is so, it would hardly compete with other gams more easily obtained.

A Currant Bush Pest Described.

Mr. L. A. Willington, Glens Falls, Warren county, N. Y., gives the fol-
lowing lucid description of a worm which he thinks diflerent from tlie one
described by Mr. Barlow. He says:

"The worm makes its appearance here before the currant leaves are fully
grown. It is at first a minute thread about thrce-eigliths of an inch long.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 107

of a brilliant black and orang-c. It is very lively, has a voracious appetite
and <2;ro\vs rapidly; is of the kind known as measuring worms, and when
shaken from its hold drops down and hangs suspended by a thread, by
which it ascends to the bush ag-ain. About the 16th of May I selected
three full gmwu worms and put thetn in a lemonade glass, with about one
inch of fine earth at the bottom of the glass. I fed them for several days,
and they one by one disappeared. Turning up the earth with a stick, I
found the worms in a torpid state. Going to my garden, I dug them out
of the earth about the roots of niy currant bushes in the same state. Two
days later they were small, dark brown chrysalises. In a little over two
weeks one of them made its appearance as a perfect insect — a small maize
butterlly, with light gray marks upon its wings. In a week more they
were very common in my garden, never going far from the currant bushes,
nor could 1 discover when they laid their eggs. They fly mostJy by night,
and are very difficult to catch; but a candle set in a pan of water might
attract them and destroy thousands before they had laid their eggs. The
worm has been common to currant bushes for years, but it is seven years
or more since it commenced to be troublesome here. One of my neighbors
counted 900 worms shaken from a single bush at one time.

A Parasite Plant.

Professor Thurbur names the plant sent 1»3^ John H. Mudget, Sr., Fonks-
ville. Lake county. 111. Its common name is "Dodder;" its botanical name
is Cu.-^cida Gronovii. It is the pest of flax growers in England. It is a
true parasite, like the mistletoe {Vit^cum album) and many others. It ger-
minates its seeds in the earth, but as soon as the slender stem rises aljove
ground it attaches itself to some other plant and the root dies, and then
all the sustenance gf the parasite is drawn from the supporting plant, which
suflers in consequence. The one sent by Mr. Mudget is attached to the
stalk of dwarf willow, which grows common on moist prairie soil, and may
not be the same which plagues the fla.K growers of England. If it is, it
will be likely to prove troublesome in future in Illinois. Mr. JVIudget says
he has most generally found this species of dodder attached to the largo
stiff stalks of the golden rod. It grows in long yellow threpds, without
leaves, which twine around the supporting stalk, where the dodder forms
a little cluster of seed vessels. Dodder has no use, medicinal or otherwise,
that has ever been discovered.

Adirondac Grape — Its Value ably Discussed.

Mr. Geo. W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, sends us a comnmnicatiou of
which he says: " My object is to bring out the facts, if possible, about the
Adirondac Grape, and while I seek no notoriety in the premises, I never
allow myself to write any thing for publication to which I am unwilling to
place my signature.

"I am fully satisfied that the Adirondac is not hardy enough to be of any
value for general cultivation, and although I have the plants for sale, and
means for increasing them to any desirable extent, I cannot with my pres-
ent impressions recommend it; and I feel it to be due t.) the public that its
true character and value should be ascertained."

108 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE. ,

The foUov.'injj are the reasons given by Mr. Campbell, why he does not
indorse the Adirondac:

" This grape has now been offered to Ihe public for two or three years,
and somebody not specially interested in disposing of the plants at high
prices, ought to be able to give a little more information in regard to it,
than has yet been vouchsafed by its introducers.

Having invested over $200 dollars in the purchase of vines of this variety
from Mr. Baily, and others, it has been my desire, as it certaiidy is to my
interest, that the Adirondac f-hould prove all that is claimed for it, but I
am compelled to say, that in some important respects it has not met ray
expectations; and that my impressions as to its value, especially for gen-
eral cultivation, arc not favorable.

" 1 procured the first plants (grown under glass), of this variety, in the
spring of 1862; cu: them back to one eye, and plar.trd them carefully.
The few ej'cs which I took off I grafted upon some thrift}' young vines of
the Taylor, and placed them in 6-inch pots on a propagating bed, all of
which grew promptly, and as soon as they were well started, I removed
them to open ground, where they made growth nearly equal to the original
plants. In the fall I cut them all back to about three inches, covered them
with fallen leaves, and over these, mou-ids of earth from four to six inches
thick. They were planted upon high sloping ground, where water never
stands, and I regarded their ])rotection as pei'fect. In the spring, upon
uncovering tiieni, I found all the buds killed down to the collar lu^ar the
roots, on the original plants, and a part of those grafted killed outright,
though the point where they were worked was an inch or two below the
natural surface of the ground.

■" Protected in the same wa^', Rebeccas were wholly uninjured; and those
left nnprotected, were not injured as badly as the Adirondacs which were
carefully covered. This is to me c(uiclusive evidence that it is vot hardy,
and in consequence not suited to general culture. The Adirondac is better
covered with foliage than the Rebecca, and in open ground this season it
has shown rather less tendency to mildew than the latter variety. From
its foliage and general characteristics of growth, I juflge the Adirondac to
be an Isabella seedling; and though apparentl}' much less hardy, may be an
improveinent in quality upon its parent; bnt I do not C(Uisidcr this well
established. Most perscuis have doubtless observed that Isabella grapes
grown in warm aiul sheltered hjcalities, and otherwise well cared for, ac-
quire a size and flavor greatly superior to those grown carelessly and in
open exposure. I have seen them tiius grown that I hardly recognized;
and which, without explanation, might easily pass for a new and improved
variety.

"As to the (piality of the fruit of the Adirondac, I have no kiujwledgc
excei)t that derived from reports i>f committees, and from others wlio have
seen and tested it. So far as I know, it has not yet fiuited, except in its
original locality, on the baid<:s of Lake Champlain, in Ess(,>x counly, N. Y.
The vine is ncnir, or at the base of a semi-circular range of iiills some 200
feet high, sU)ping south, and sheltering it perfectly, — the valley opening
only s.mthwani. At New York, last fall, and at Cleveland, it is but reason-
able to sui)pose the fruit shown was " got up" specially ftr exhibition. At

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 109

New York, I umlcrstaml tlio report of the coiuniittee was favorable as to
its quality, except tliat Mr. Clias. Downing- dissented, giving liis pid'crcnee
to the lona.

At Cleveland it received a prciniuin as the best grape, but the fact as
stated by Mr Lyon, of Michigan, one of the committee, is that there was
notliing placed in competition with it except the Catawba, and Mr. L. inti-
mates that the award would probably have been in favor of the Catawba
had tiie latter been ripe. Mr. A. S. Fuller, of Brooklyn, who visited the
original vine in 18G2, thus describes the fruit; " buncli large and compact,
shouldered; berries large, round; skin thin, dark, nearly black, covered
with a delicate bloom; flesh tender, with scarcely any pulp, melting sweet,
but not rich." lie adds: "7/" this variety proves to be as. good in other
locations as there, I shall consider it a great acquisition."

" I have written the above for the purpose of eliciting information. If
the experience of t)thers has been inore favorable than mine, I should be
glad to know it, for I feel an interest in having the matter fairly tested;
and if the pub ic arc to invest the two, three, or five dollars per vine, now
asked for the Adirondac, I think they should do so in possession of all the
facts that can be obtained as to its true character.

Tea and Coffee — Economy needed in their Use — Substitutes.

Mr. Wm. A. Drew, Augusta, Maine, gives us the following argument
upon the above question, which we commend to all the readers of these
reports. lie says :

" The object of my present letter is to ascertain from you, or the Farmers'
Club through you, what, if any, wholesome substitute for the Asiatic tea
may be found in our pastures, fields or gardens ? In these times of high
prices it becomes the duty of every prudent housekeeper to study economy
in the use of the necessaries as well as the luxuries of life. True, in this
war, our ladies can do without tea as did the women of the Revolution ;
but ftn* the reason that what were ivomeii then are ladies now, I fear that,
so muclf are they under the potent influence of luxurious fashion, the wives
and daughters of the present day are hardly so personally patriotic in
matters of self-denial as were, the mothers and girls of '1Q. Of course,
then, we must have tea upon all our tables witli ever}' declining sun. But
when, as now with us, providers have to pay a dollar and fifty cents per
pouufl for Oolong, we fathers and husbands are tempted to provoke the
question, can anything be gathered or raised from our own soils that will,
partially at least, if not altogether, take the place of the Chinese herb as
an acceptable and healthsome beverage to wash down our bread and but-
ter, our pies and cakes, at the third meal of the day ?

With rfgard to the morning repast, various substitutes have been pre-
pared for coffee, some of which are well approved and in general use.
These have largel}' taken the place of the Javas and the Rios. .Indeed, I
hardly know of a family now that uses the pure unadulterated coffee for
breakfast. My own experience in this matter is as follows : I knew, In-fore
this war, that chicory was an article of commerce, and even in cheap times
entered into the preparations of ground coffee as furnished to the army and

110 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

nav3', and as retailed in our i^-roceries. But I bad never tested its virtues
upon my own table. Tlie fact of its approved use, bowever, suggested to
me the idea of sendino-^ as I did send a year ago last spring, to Tborburn,
New York, for a quantity of cliicory seed, a few vows of wbicb, on its
reception, I sowed as an experiment in my garden. Tlie ground was rich
and mellow, and I thinned the plants early to about six inches apart iu
the rows. Tiiey grew luxuriantly, and from three rows of four and a half
rods each iu length, I harvested in autumn nearly six bushels of large,
fair, hatids(jme roots of chicory — resembling the largest and most comely
parsnips. These I put in the cellar, with a little loose earth over them, for
a winter's supply, and commenced the use of them as follows : After wash-
ing a few roots, we cut them crosswise in slices about the thickness of a
half dollar, and spread them on pans in the brick oven after bakiti'g or in
the stove after cooking, and there let tliem shrivel and dry till proceeding
to burn them as we would coffee over a hotter fire. Thus prepared, a few
blows from the pestle in a mortar broke them ud fine enough to pass
through the coffee mill. Before the rebellion I was satisfied to bu}' Java
coffee by the pocket or bag at a Yankee shilling per pound. Since the
war has driven me to chicory, our practice has been to mix one part of pure
Java coffee with three parts of chicor}^ and this, ever since last autumn,
has been our morning beverage — and strange to tell, no person in the
family'- or friend visiting it, has ever complained, but all have been pleased
with the composition ? Indeed, we think the chicory is a positive improve-
ment on the coffee; it has the Java flavor still, and is certainlj' more whole-
some than entire coffee, for everybody knows that there is something in
every variety of the dandelion species that is highly congenial to the
biliary system of the human stomach. So now, when old Government Java
is sixty cents per pound, it really costs me but fifteen cents — cheajjer than
of yore. Were it to return to the old price of a sldlling, we should con-
tinue the mixture of our chicory with it ; as now, preferring it thus prepared
as a beverage, and believing it to be more healthy.

"But in the matter of tea, I need information from the club, udiother
anything hereabouts can take its place or be mixed with it to advantage.
It seems to me to be important that this question should receive a public
answei* for the economical advantage of the people. ,

" I remember that in the last war with England, in 1812-15, my father
owned a West India coaster, that used to visit North Carolina for naval
stores. On those voyages the captain and crew made it a point to gather
or purchase a native tea which was in use there, and wliich they brought
home in (quantities and sold to our grocers in Massachusetts {my native
State), who supplied many families with the article. I have forgotten the
name of the plant, and would give almost anything to recall it. Can you
tell what it was ? Can any of the club tell what it was? Does any one
know anything about it now ? I only remember that it was a popular
beverage, and sold readily in market as a substitute for the Chinese tea.
It was called ' tea,' but the Indian i)refix I have forgotten. If you, or any
of your respected associates, can tell us its name and describe its quality',
I sliall be well rewarded for the writing of tliis letter. Remember it is a

■ PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. Ill ,

North Carolina plant, and I tliink may be found growing- wild on lloanokc
Island.

" ^leainvliilo, all the experience I can give yon in my own case is this,
it may not be of any service to you or the club. In my garden I raise a
great many black-cap raspberries, or thimbleberries, as the}'' are otli(;rvvise
called. Now, when the new canes are growing, young and tender, we
strip the leaves from a foot or two of the ends of them, spread them where
they will dry in the shade, and to one part of Oolong tea and two parts of
these tender black-cap leaves, and steep them together in the common tea-
pot. Tbe bererage is certainly innocent, pleasant, and few C(jniioisseurs
at our table can tell the difference between it and the unadulterated article.
At this rate the Oolong, which now sidls at retail for one dollar and fifty
cents per pound, costs us, in realit^', I'ut forty-seven cents. II' you know
of a better substitute, please give us the benefit of your knowledge. Com-
mon raspberries, I suppose, will do tils well as the black-caps. Some use
the hardback of our pastures, and this is not a bad arrangement. Sage
makes an excellent tea, but it is an herb, more adapted to the exigencies
of sick people than to the tastes of well ones.

"We must economize in all these matters, and he who will show his
neighbors how to do it effectually and practically, is a public benefactor."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Upon this I have to remark that we commenced
the growth and use of chicory and commended it to others before the
advance in the price of coffee made it as great an object to do so as it is at
present. Our mixture is somewhat more economical than thatof Mr. Drew.
It is as follows: one-sixth coffee, two-sixths chicory, three-sixths rye. This
mixture has given old coffee drinkers great satisfaction. The odor of the
rye is neutralized by the coffee, which is well known is one of the best
deodorizers that we have in common use. The addition of chicory to coffee,
whether mixed with rye or not, is a positive improvement. In regard to
its preparation, we cut and dry the roots in autumn. They are afterwaids
roasted for use as wanted,, but not ground. Using them in small broken
pieces, requires rather more weight of chicory than if ground, but used in
this way, it is an advantage inciiusing the coffee to "settle" without using
any other substance for the purpose. The roots will require examining
during the spring after drying, as like apples and other substances they
are apt to become wormy. To remedy this, put them in the oven and give
them a slight baking.

The name of the North Carolina tea is Yupon. It resembles in size,
growth and full age, the common garden plant called " Strawberry tree,"
{EuovymuK Eiiropueiif-.) The leaves are gathered at any time after full}'
grown, and dried in the shade, and packed away in bags or boxes for future
use. The plant is common upon all the coast range of North Carolina, and
very 'itthi tea of any other kind is used by the natives. When they are
sick and need an euielric, they drink the Yupon tea very s'trong. It answers
the desired purpose and saves doctor's bills. As a beverage, we cannot
say that we took to it kindly, though we have frequently drunk it while
traveling in that country, and were told that by continued use we should
become fond of it. To our taste, we should greatly prefer the " Jersey

112 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN llfSTITUTE. '

tea," {Clcanolhus Americanus.) We highly approve the suggestions of Mr.
Drew to seek for some substitute for tlie costly Cliinese tea. We have no
doubt that there are several more healthful, and which, perhaps, as in the
case of Yupon, would give equal satisfaction to those who become accus-
tomed to their taste. This is an important question, which must receive
immediate attention from all who arc disposed to make experiments, as
leaves must be gathered before they fidly mature.

AiLANTHus Silk.

Sarah M. Koss, Ai., Fulton county, Ohio, rnaniiests her zeal in behalf of
non-importation, in a practical way. She says ;

" I take the liberty that the lady from Vermont has, that is, to get you
to procure me sorrie ailanthus seeds; I have long wanted to commence the
silk-work business, and if I can get the eggs and food for the worms I
intend to have a dress of my own manufacture (I have been a reader of
the Tribune for four years, and read the debates of your club witli pleasure),
and if can get some ailanthus seed and silk-worms eggs. I hope with profit.'

There will be no difficulty in getting ailanthus seed from any large city
seed stores in autumn. Perhaps this Club will have a lot for iVee distribu-
tion. The eggs of the worms that feed upon and make silk from ailanthus
leaves are in use in France. We do not know of any in this country.
Silk-worms that feed upon mulberry leaves have been common many years.

Wild Flowers from Wisconsin.

Mr. J. Weston, Briggsville, Marquette county, Wis., says: "I send you
inclosed two specimens of our beautil'ul wild flowers. They both grow on
most sandy land, and by the roadside. They are exceedingly beautiful and
fragrant, and they continue in blossom a long time. If any one should
wish for any seed, I will send them some. If any of ycjur Club know the
botanical name, please give it in the Tribune."

Prtjf. Thurber gives the name of the one with the spike of purplish
flowers as Amorpha canesaen!<, and the other Tephronia Virginiana. The
first is known as the Lead plant; and is supposed to indicate the existence
of galena in the vicinit}' where it is found in abundance. The common
name of the other is Goat's Hue. Both are pretty flowers, and so are manj'-
other wild ones in the West.

Prairie Tea — Jersey Tea — American Tea.

Mr. Charles Boynton writes from Lyons, Iowa, as follows: "Inclosed
with this I send a few of the tip-ends (jf llie sprouts or branches of a shrub
that grows plentifully throughout tliis region, on the higher portions of the
prairies, and which has been called by some Prairie Tea, but is generally
known as Red Root. It grows about two feet high, in clusters of shoots
springing from the root, or from the shoots of last year's growth; I think
both. The root is large compared with the top, is very tough, and runs
out in horizontal branches to a great distance. It is much dreaded by
prairie-breakers, and a higher price is paid for bi'eaking up land in which
it abounds. It is of u red color, and is very astringent. The leaves of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 113

this plant have, no doubt, in decoction, somewhat of the flavor of tea, and
they resemble it in shape and other characteristics. I am led to suppose
that it may contain Hiein, and I have, or can gathef sufficient of it for an
analytical test, if such can be had. I think it likely that the same thing
has been presented to you before, and that you are acquainted with it
better than myself."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — It is the identical article that was extensively used
after " the g-reat Boston tea party," and during the Revolution was called
" Jersey tea," and of late has been called "American tea," and as sucli has
been gathered and cured to sufiScient extent to fill a great many empty tea-
chests, and from these the tea has been retailed in this city to considerable
extent; a good deal of it has doubtless been sent to the country and sold
at a dollar a pound to the very persons who have had to pay an extra price
for breaking prairie that was covei'ed with tlie identical shrub bearing the
leaves which furnish their tea-party beverage. Tiie leaves of this shrub
do not contain Thein, nor do they contain anything deleterious, and they
do make a rather pleasant beverage, which is a very good substitute for
the real OTinese article. The leaves should be gathered when fresl> and
green and dried in the shade, or else like tea-leaves, by fire heat in shallow
pans, stiring constantly. We recommend our western friends to try a
little of the abundant "prairie tea."

A New Wheat.

Mr. Isaac Diehl, Jarvis, De Kalb County, Ind., says: " Eight years ago I
selected from my field five heads from one stool, sowed the seed, saving
and repeating until I got 83 bushels before selling any. Since then some
of my neighbors have grown 48 bushels per acre. This year not quite so
good. It is now much sown in this section, as it is the earliest variety
known, and in this bad j'ear is the best of any variety here. The straw is
short and heavy, and does not lodge upon rich ground."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — If all this is true wheat growers will do well to
procure some of the seed and try it. The sample sent is a fine, plump, white
berry of small size.

Opium from Common Poppies.

A correspondent writes as follows:

" If all the opium in the poppies in our gardens were to be saved, I believe
it Would amount to one half the consumption in the States. Last week I
experimented a little, and estimated that, with enough plants, an active
person could gather four ounces in a day, which, at the present wholesale
price would be worth four dollars. Many people think that the common
garden poppy does not give pure opium. To satisfy myself on this I tested
some, and found the yield of morphia equal to the best imported.

" Directions. — After the flowers have fallen oft', with a sharp-pointed knife
make a slight incision entirely around the capsule, about half way down
from the top, being careful not to cut through it. The milky juice will
instantly exude, and in two or three hours be dry enough to scrape ofif
with a dull knife. It must not be done in wet weather."
[Am. Ikst.] U

114 tkansactions of the american institute.

Canada Thistles.

Mr. E. W. Mann writes from Wisconsin about this pest, that appears to
be spreading rapidly over the prairies. He says:

" I have two small patches, and they keep spreading- from year to year
in spite of my efforts to subdue them. How much salt will it take per acre
to kill Canada thistles, and, if sown broadcast, the effect it will have on
the land, and how long it will destroy' the crop.''

We have never tried the experiment as to quantity, but we know that
20 bushels per acre does not destroy crops; we suppose that it may take
100 to kill thistles. We think that the land would recover in one year,
and be better than ever. It certainly would by adding as much lime as
you used salt.

Mr. B. C. Arnold gives his experience in killing Canada thistles as fol-
lows:

When the plant is so far advanced in blossoming, that seed is rapidly
forming there is a heavy draft on the accumulated supplies, and all the
resources of the plant. This occurring at a season of the year jr fually hot
and'dry, I reasoned that to mow it at this time, leaving the stumps exposed
to the hot sunshine, would destroy it. I mowed them, and but few plants
made their appearance the following season, and those were of the smaller
ones of the year before which had not seeded so freely, and consequently
were less exhausted. It is therefore essential that the cutting should be
delayed as long as can be without incurring the risk of seeding with a new
crop of them.

Hops.

Mr. James Manning, Will county, Illinois, writes for information on this
subject, and inquires if hops can be grown in Wisconsin as well as farmers
grow them in Central New York.

Mr. Solon Robinson — I spent some time during the summer among the
hop growers of New York. There is no reason why you cannot grow hops
in Illinois and Wisconsin, but you will find one trouble. The soil is so
fertile that the vines will grow too large, overrunning and breaking down
the poles and not producing fruit in proportion to the growth of the vines-
At least that has been the experience of those who have tried to grow hops
upon very rich, mucky soil. There is a great difference in soil, as to the
quality of the hops, so that half the quantity grown upon one soil is worth
to the brewer more than the larger quantity from another district. This
value can only be proved by years of experiment. Of that you must take
the chances. Of the preparation of the ground, whatever prepares it well
for corn does for hops. In this word well, I include the draining and sub-
soil plowing, as first, and such other cheaper preparations as are usually
given as second and third. The tending of the crop is exactly what a
good corn-grower would give; that is to keep the ground absolutely clean
and mellow with the plow and horse hoe, and a little work with the hand
hoe. I found in the clay-slate lands of Cortland, Cayuga and Onondaga
counties, that the hills were about eight feet apart each way, with four to
six vines on each hill, trained upon two poles, ten to fifteen feet high. In
some places I have seen them 29 to 30 feet high. I believe that long polea

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLtTB. 115

are unnecessary. Like grapes and other vines, they always produce the
fruit on the top, and if that top is trained low, the yield is just as good as
when high. I know that Lima beans do better on low poles than high ones,
if the ends of the vines as thc}^ fall over the tops of the poles are pinched
off, and I have noticed the same result with hops. But as I am not a hop-
grower, I cannot give information derived from experience. Perhaps others
will. One of the difficulties about hop-growing is, that it cannot be taken
up this year and laid down next. When once prepared for, the business
must be continued. The roots planted this year, will produce a good crop
next, and succeeding years. The poles are at first expensive, but last
many years, if made of durable timber, such as cedar, tamerack, chestnut.
To grow hops upon a large scale, you must have a good drying kiln. The
first preparation of the ground, the roots, the planting, the poles, the kiln,
and proper appliances for bagging, all involve considerable outlay, and deter
ordinary farmers from the business of hop-growing, except in a neighbor-
hood where the small farmer can sell his crop to the large farmer, who has
the proper appliances for preparing them for market. You ask " what are
the dangers of failure ?" They are as numerous as with any other crop.
For instance, I find among the hop-growers whom T visited this season,
that some fields are almost a total failure in consequence of being infested
with an aphis, similar to that which has destroyed oats and other crops.
Then the drouth has very materially affected the product. In some seasons
there is a failure to produce the essential principle of hops, called lupulin,
that yellow powder which you see in the blossom. When that is the case,
the hops, however large the yield may be, are unsalable, or rather salable
at a reduced price. There is no crop which the farmer grows, so variable
in price. It sometimes ranges within a single year from six to sixty cents
a pound. It is considered a good crop at an average of twenty-five cents.
It is unlike corn or wheat — it cannot be kept over. Hops must be sold
while new, or else they may prove a total loss. There is a hope that a
recent discovery may obviate this. Dr. Samuel R. Percy, a chemist of
New York, has discovered that by infusing hops in water he can extract all
the value, and then evaporate the water, by steam boiling in vacuo, com-
bining the extract with molasses, so that he can put all the value of a bale
of hops in a five-gallon keg. In this form it can be kept any desired length
of time without deterioration. This discovery, if successfully carried out,
may give an impetus to the hop-growing of the West.

Packing Eggs for Winter.

Mr. 0. M. Teachout, Prescott, Pierce Co., Wis., recommends those who
desire to pack eggs for winter, not to let cocks run with the hens. He
thinks the hens lay better, and if they happen to sit a few days upon the
egg», they are not as readily spoiled.

How TO Seal Fruit Cans.

Mr. C. W. Carpenter, Mt. Gilead, Ohio, says: "I wish to add a couple
of items to your discussions about canning fruit. First:

" That putty is generally used hereabouts for sealing up cans of fruit.

116 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

It has been tested for several years, and is considered by all who use it as
much superior to wax, as it is a hard matter to seal a can or jar with wax,
■without getting the wax in the fruit, which spoils the taste, and certainly
the putty is much the cheapest."

" I think it is not generally known that peaches can be peeled for can-
ning or drying by scalding the same as tomatoes. They must be ripe, not
too ripe; take a small wire or splint basket filled with peaches, dip them
into a kettle of boiling water a few minutes; a little practice will enable
one to get the right scald every time. They can be peeled in this way
with about one-third the labor and much more saving, as it takes none of
the flesh off the peach. Tin cans should be emptied immediately after open-
ing, as the fruit will eat the can more in a few minutes exposed to the air
than it would in twelve months sealed.

" VA^hen eggs are not expensive, a very neat, good sealing can be made
by dipping white paper in the white of eggs made more fluid by beating
slightly with alcohol. Tumblers can be covered in this way entirely air
tight." Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

September 20, 1864.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

American Pomological Society at Rochester.

The Chairman. — I understand that some of the delegates appointed by
the American Institute to the American Pomological Society are present,
and I hope they will give us some account of the proceedings of that
Society.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — I was one of the delegates to the Pomological
Society. Mr. B. C. Townsend, chairman of the delegation, will make a
written report. In his absence I will say that the delegation of the Insti-
tute was cordially received and participated in the discussions. The object
of the Society is not so much to have an exhibition of fruit as to discuss
the relative character of the various varieties of fruit, and their suitability
to locations and soils.

Mr. William S. Carpenter. — I took the opportunity of examining the
great nurseries in the vicinity of Rochester. I understand that there is
from six to seven thousand acres of land devoted to this purpose. One
firm had over a quarter of a million of grape vines fit to be set out the
coming season. These nurseries are purposed to send out every variety
of fruit.

Dr. Trimble.- — We talk much about setting out trees, but we neglect to
destroy the little insect that is driving out the plum from cultivation.
There was only one exhibition of plums at the meeting free from the effects
of this insect. There was hardly a pear or an apple shown that was en-
tirely free from injury. In my opinion we have trees enough. Do not let
us act so cruelly as to let these small insects get the better of us and de-
stroy our fruit.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — I differ from the entomologist of New Jersey that

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 117

"we have trees enough. If we plant trees we shall get an abundant supply.
I have raised six varieties of plums this year, and two years ago I had a
verj fine crop. These insects will regulate themselves.

Dr. Trimble. — Circumstances favor us some seasons, and we get a par-
tial crop. While in Rochester a gentleman from Michigan told me a sin-
gular circumstance in relation to the ravages of tiie army worm. They
came in such quan-tities that he was afraid they would consume his whole
crops. He fought with them night and day, and got his neighbors to help
him. They would cat off" a field of clover as clean as this floor.

Mr. William S. Carpenter.— -I am surprised to hear any gentleman say
that we have trees enough, in this day of enlightenment and progress. I
never think of the curculio except I meet Dr. Trimble. I shall endeavor to
plant all the varieties I know worth cultivating. A neighbor lately told
me that unless the curculio had thinned his crop of plums, his trees would
have broken down with their immense load. I want the country to be sup-
plied with a bountiful crop of fruit, so that all may eat. We have received
in this city over a hundred barrels of plums per day for the past two
months.

Dr. Trimble. — I believe we are on the same track. Our object is the
same; we are trying to supply our people with fruit — Mr. Carpenter by
increasing the number of trees, I by preserving those we already have.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — Some years ago the lady bug was very destruc-
tive to the squash, but they have passed away. I have seen but two or
three during the past season. At one period the St. John wort was so
thick in our fields that more than half the crop was St. John wort, but now
this plant is hardl}' found. Why may not the curculio disappear as sud-
denly?

Dr. Trimble. — We must judge of the future by the past. I say these
insects are increasing. The apple moth is more destructive to the apple
than the curculio.

Mr. K. H. Willia-nis. — I am pleased to hear that our friends have been
through a part of Western New York. I am happy to hear that these gen-
tlemen iiave found that there are other places to grow fine fruit outside the
environs of New York. I am pleased with the remarks of Dr. Trimble.
From my observation I am positive that these insects are on the increase.
With the consent of the club I will make a few remarks on

Western New York as a Fruit Growing Region.

This somewhat celebrated and productive portion of the State, owes per-
haps more to its peculiar formation, both as regards its geological and
physical organization, than to its latitudinal position, for its fertility and
productive powers, and at an early date of its explorations and settlement
was denominated the " Genesee Country'" by some, and by others the "Lake
Country," as distinguishable from other and surrounding localities. It may
be generally described as that section bounded on its north eastern, south-
eastern and south-western borders by a series of lakes and their land slopes,
whose waters and drainage fiow into Lake Ontario, and on the west by the
Genesee River and its west side slopes, which find the same general reser-

118 TKANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

voii- — and embraces within its general sweep the counties of Oiiondag^a,
Cayuga, Seneca, Wayne, Ontario, Yates, Livingston, Monroe, and the east-
ern portion of Genesee and north-eastern Orleans.

The drainage of this region, it will be seen, is towards the north, and its
whole physical organization corresponds with this fact.

The lakea upon its outer rim, forming extensive reservoirs of the purest
and most beautiful water, are elevated above lake Ontario from one hun-
dred and fifty to five hundred feet, according to their distance and direction
therefrom, as the elevation is greater and generally more rapid in a south-
erly and soiithwesterly direction ; and the slopes whose drainage supply
these reservoirs attain their greatest altitude and reach their summit level
between the water flowing to the north and finding their ultimate outlet to
the ocean through the St. Lawrence, and those flowing south and their final
source to the Atlantic through the Susquehanna, at elevations varying
from eight to twelve hundred feet above lake Ontario, which is two hun-
dred and thirty-one feet above tide-water.

It is therefore most favorably diversified with valley, plain, hillside and
ridge, varying between the most productive depressions to that of the most
desirable thermal elevations, securing both sunlight and heat by day and
resisting nocturnal frosts, the fruit growers' dread and scourge, by the dry
atmosphere of the altitude in late spring and early autumn.

On its northern and somewhat converging front are the tempered waters
of lake Ontario, while upon its outward semicircular rear lie the glittering
basins of the Oneida, Onondaga, Skaneateles, Owasco, Cayuga, Seneca,
Crooked, Canandaigua, Honeoye, Canadice, Hemlock and Conesus lakes,
ranging from sixty to forty miles in extent, north and south, and from a
mile to four miles in width, exerting a most beneficial influence upon the
temperature and salubrity of the climate, both by summer evaporations
and winter modifications.

The geological structure is also equally favorable. It lies wholly upon
the secondary formation, and from Syracuse west to the Genesee, within
the area of the se-micircle, there is not a decomposing rock or a drift foi'm.a-
tion unfavorable to vegetable growth and perfection, adapted to the
latitude.

From the saliferous rock containing or overlaying the salt deposits at
Syracuse, along and contiguous to the Erie canal westward, are found in
beds all the various mineral combinations which lime assumes from that of
shell marl beds, carbonate of lime, or common limestone, in all of its varie-
ties, including the cement or water lime and plaster of paris (sulphate of
lime), and all in great abundance, associated with their legitimate geolo-
gical rock strata and appearing at the surface in many localities to the
Genesee river, and also southerly and interiorly on the borders of the
Cayuga and along the outlets of the Seneca and Canandaigua and other and
various localities, in a manner to facilitate every demand of agriculture or
art that may arise for their use.

In addition to tlie salt springs open and elaborately worked at Salina,
Monte/Aima and surroundings, there are mary other indications of similar
minerals throughout the canal route westward. We find the white sulphur
springs at Clifton, Ontario county, and the magnesian springs at Avon,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 119

Livingston county, flowing from immense and exhaustless sources ; while
others of less note and importance are to be found in almost every locality.

Add to these natural compounds for forming and sustaining a superior
and enduring soil, the more than probability that the whole is underlayed
by the coal and oil bearing geological formation, which, in view of recent
investigations and discoveries, may be supposed to bear within its bosom
unmeasured reservoirs of rock oil, that some adventurous auger may soon
penetrate and develop to art and commerce, on the south side of lake On-
tario, as has already been accomplished on the north or Canadian side, and
which by its carbonaceous and oleaginous permeation of the earth has ever
been exerting, and must continue to exert, a powerful influence in supply-
ing to the soil valuable elements of vegetable production.

This idea of the permeation of the soil by continual exhalation and capil-
lary attraction towards the surface, is strongly sustained from recent
explorations by scientific minds among the oil regions of Pennsylvania and
West Virginia. That this region is underlaid in many localities with coal
or oil is indicated by the emission of carburetted hydrogen gas from inu-
merable sources, scattered throughout its whole area, as well as by the
long established fact that similar geological strata are found cropping out
along its northern and northeastern border and probably forms the basin of
lake Ontario, and holds the deposits so successfully tapped in Canada ;
while on the southern border and within twenty or thirty miles south of the
dividing ridge the Blossburgh bituminous coal mines are furnishing annu-
ally their thousands of tons for the consumption of the country.

To this peculiar region then, as a favorable fruit-growing section, we
may sum up the following advantages : Its superstructure is of the best
geological character known for agricultural purposes, being rich in mine-
ral deposits, and in their diflfusioti generally free from a porous substratum
that continually swallows up all added stimulants like much of the primi-
tive formations.

It is surrounded by a water border upon its outer rim at both its lowest
and greatest elevations, calculated at once by the extent of surface to
temper its climate and furnish moisture from evaporation to protect against
the severity of droughts experienced in many other localities.

By its elevations and depressions it furnishes every variety of soil and
altitude desirable, while its physical structure (the drainage being from
south to north), secures sheltered hillsides and valley adapted to every
production applicable to the latitude within which it is found, viz., between
forty-two and forty-three and a half degrees north.

That it is peculiarly adapted to the most successful growing of the
apple, pear, plum, cherry, and all of the commoner small fruits, with the
peach in the most favored localities, has long been established by the
extensive orchards throughout its area, and the thousands of acres appro-
priated to nursery purposes, stretching from Syracuse to Rochester, suffi-
ciently attest, and that it is destined to be the great grape-growing and
wine-producing region. When its extensive natural advantages are duly
appreciated within the State or the limits of its latitude, the successes at-
tending recent trials at the head of the Canandaigua, at Naples, where an
hundred acres or more are already set and much of it in bearing ; at the

120 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

head of the Crooked, at Hammondsport, where several hundred acres are
in bearing (and they have extensive wine presses and cellars), and other
hundreds set and being set annually; and also along the western border of
the Seneca, and at many other localities, give assurances calculated to
stimulate increased effort from year to year in that direction.

The localities which give greatest promise for grape culture are those
slopes forming the western margin of the lakes and their outlets, and the
elevated hillsides elsewhere along the valleys on a soil formed from the
decomposition of the calciferous, or Genesee slate as it is sometimes desig-
nated, overlaying a marly or limy clay subsoil, which is usually found
upon all the lake borders and ridges, and affords a pliable yet firm and
enduring soil, happily influenced by most of the mineral and all vegetable
and animal manures, and resisting the destructive effects of both excessive
drought or wet in an eminent degree.

Originally this section of the State was a vast wilderness of heavy tim-
ber, unbroken except the spaces occupied by the lakes and streams, from
its eastern to its western border, and embracing nearly every indigenous
variety of trees.

The shagbark, maple, basswood, white elm, predominating on the flats,
and alluvial deposits, while upon the hilltop and sides were found the oak,
chestnut, hickory, beach, poplar, and in many localities the white pine
flourished in seldom surpassed luxuriance, and thus, for ages had been fur-
nishing the material for the vast accumulations of vegetable material found
overspreading the surface everywhere, and accumulated in every ravine
and valley in such quantities as to supply, by prudent application, the
demands of agriculture and pomology for a long time to come, in addition
to the annual product of manure from its other various and extensive
sources, for it is unsurpassed if equalled for the production of all the
cereals and the grasses of the Northern States.

It is, therefore, perhaps not unreasonable to anticipate, that with the
intelligent effort now being directed to the culture and production of the
more valuable fruits, and particularly the grape, this section will be found
leading the enterprise, and directing the investigation of both soil and
climatic influence, bearing upon the subject, and what may be most suc-
cessfully applied in amelioration of the one and the improvement of the
other.

Indeed I even look forward to a day when the planting of the sugar
maple, oak, elm, pine, hemlock and other forest trees along the highways
and exposed farm margins, with hedges bordering and sheltering the
northern and western exposures of the orchard and vineyard, shall pro-
dace a most decided climatic improvement, and add both beauty and profit
otherwise to the rural districts. And when a more perfect knowledge of
the thermal line, or that point shielded from late and early frosts by at-
mospheric influences in the ascent of hillsides by diurnal evaporations,
slmli be better understood and observed in the selection of locations, I
anticipate a vast accession of territory heretofore overlooked, and perhaps
the rejection of much that has long been occupied with unsatisfactory
results in fruit culture.

It is, therefore, to these two influences of position, viz: water fronts on

PROCEEDINGS OP THE FARMERS' CLUB. 121

lakes and elevations affecting- the dew-point of tlie thermometer, in com-
parison with those sections watered by rivers and creeks, emanating from
springs and following narrow channels, and flowing in currents more or
less rapid, in the same or even much higher latitudes and on soil similar,
that I desire to invite the attention of both scientific and practical observ-
ers; and I will close by citing a few instances in evidence of their
importance.

At Uanimondsport, at the head of Crooked lake, which is four hundred
and eighty-sevon feet above Lake Ontario, and seven hundred and eighteen
feet above tide water, the most extensive and probably successful vineyards
within the State are found, and they extend from the lake shore to eleva-
tions approaching to near four hundred feet along the slopes. Here, also,
every other variety of fruit succeeds in great perfection.

Bath is only eight miles south, but on the southern declivity of the
dividing ridge, and on the Cohocton river (a tributary of the Susque-
hannah), at an elevation of only three hundred and seventy-two feet above
that of the waters of Crooked lake at Hammondsport. Yet no known
variety of the grape has been found to ripen and perfect without the aid
of glass or other aitificial means, while other and more hardy fruits suc-
ceed but partially.

At Naples, at the head of the Canandaigua, four hundred and seventy
feet above Lake Ontario, the same success is attained as at Hammonds-
port, while six miles south, on the southern water slope the difference is
even greater than at Bath.

Such decided and dissimilar characteristics, I think will be found on all
of the slopes south of the dividing ridge encircling this country of lakes,
and on the growth of grain, as well as fruit, these remarkable influences
are exerted apparently without material modifications from differences in
latitude or soil.

Carpenter's Seedling Grape.

Mr. Wni. S. Carpenter exhibited a new seedling grape he found growing
on his farm; the vine bore fruit last year for the first time; this season it
has some thirty bunches; they a,re of good size; color dark purple; the
bunches have shoulders which shows the adaptedness of the vine to make
large bunches. I suppose the vine to be an Isabella seedling.

Mr. John G. Bergen remarked that the bunches were much more compact
than the Isabella, and larger both in fruit and bunch than average Isa-
bellas at this season of the year. They have every appearance of being a
good market grape, and even an improvement on the parent stock.

Mr. R. H. Williams suggested to the Club the appointment of a com-
mittee to visit the exhibition of fruit at the Pleasant Valley's Fruit. Grow-
ers' Association, to be held at Hammondsport, N. Y., on the 6th of October.
This place is located at the head of Crooked lake; the influence of the large
bodies of water keeps off the early and late frosts; it is eminentl}' suited
for the cultivation of the vine. The Catawba grows as fine here as in Cin-
cinnati.

122 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. John Bergen. — The influence of water to the culture of the grape is
shown by the fine crop of grapes raised at Kelly's Island. A large number
of vineyards are being laid out on the borders of Lake Erie.

On motion, Mr. R. H. Williams was appointed a committee to visit the
exhibition of the Pleasant Valley Fruit Growers' Association.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

October 4, 1864.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Farms in Missouri.

Mr. J. S. Newmeyer, Le Platte county, Missouri, says:
" Farms are selling there at six to twelve dollars an acre. The soil is
good for wheat, rye, oats, corn, clover, timothy and fruit. Winter grain is
sometimes subject to winter kill. Slavery is considered dead. There never
were many slaves here, and they have nearly all left. As regards good
Union people being safe, there are places they would be perfectly safe, and
others that they would not be safe at all. The most of this county would
be safe at present, between here and the Mississippi river. I would advise
the man who inquired, by all means to take a little time and come out and
see the country. I have lived here eight years; was born and raised in
Fayette county, Pennsylvania."

Mr. Hawkins, mayor of Oregon city, and Mr. Kaucher, sheriff of Holt
county, also write in the same tenor. They say that county is one of the
most peaceable in that State. The soil is good, cheap and inviting to good
Union men. Slavery is past resurrection.

Yield of Grapes to the Acre.

Mr. Solon Robinaon. — I regret that Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter is not present,
as I have a letter critieising very sharply his statement that it is possible
to raise ten tons of grapes to the acre. Mr. Carpenter said that ten tons,
20,000 pounds of grapes, might be raised on an acre of land, and this quan-
tity, at 15 cents per pound, would amount to §3,000. This correspondent
asks if that is not drawing a long bow. Mr. Robinson then made the fol-
lowing calculation: There are 43,560 superficial feet in an acre. A vine
trained to a single stake can be grown upon four feet of ground. Say
10,000 vines per acre. At only two pounds per vine the yield would be 10
tons. Or if the vines are planted at twice the above distance apart, or
four feet each way, which is much more than is necessary, there would be
2,722 per acre. At 7^ pounds per vine, we should have 20,415 pounds.
Grape vines trained to single stakes will grow as closely as hills of Indian
corn. Say three feet apart each way, and we have 4,840 vines. It is not
"shooting with a very long bow " to estimate an average yield of five
pounds per vine, after the vineyard has attained its maturity, if it is well
cared for. The members of this Club know vines standing thus near
together which averaged more than this the present year. But suppose
upon such close planting as three feet apart we only estimate a yield of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 123^

two pounds per vine, we shall have 9,680 pounds upon an acre, and that at
only 10 cents per pound, Avould give a bett,er result than can be obtained
from a crop of any kind of grain, deducting the expenses of each. Is the
gentleman satisfied that Mr. Carpenter did not over estimate the quantity
of grapes possible to be produced upon an acre ?

Dr. Trimble. — I think, Mr. Chairman, that these large statements are cal-
culated to mislead. It must be remembered that for one perfect crop that
we get there are several imperfect.

The way to Raise Pears.

Dr. I. M. Ward. — If Dr. Trimble means this remark to apply to the pear
tree, I shall dispute its correctness. My pear trees have borne for fifteen
years a good crop every year.

Dr. Trimble. — Dr. Ward has had a great deal of experience, and with the
thorough care that he takes of his trees he may always have a good crop.
But it is verydiiferent with the culture that farmers ordinarily give to their
treee. I would ask Dr. Ward how often he has changed his trees.

Dr. Ward. — I have some fancy varieties that have been replaced, but the
Duchesse d'Angouleme, the Bartlett, and others that I rely on for my crop,
are the same trees that I set out fifteen years nince. '^

Dr. Trimble. — How often do you plow the ground ?

Dr. Ward. — Every spring I go through with a light shear plow that stira
the ground about two inches deep, and then 1 put on the mulch.

Mr. R. H. Williams. — What do you use as a mulch ?

Dr. AVard. — Salt hay or straw. I spread it on two inches deep, so that
a man can lie down anywhere in the orchard without soiling his clothes.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — How often do you manure the ground ?

Dr. Ward. — Every year; and I think it very important to spread the
manure on the surface. I find that if I omit the manuring one year, though
the crop is about the same, the fruit is smaller in size.

Mr. George Bartlett. — I believe the same care practiced upon a vineyard
which Dr. Ward gives to his pear orchard, would insure a certain crop
every year, and almost as certain as a crop of hay or corn. One farmer
made a valuable crop of ha}' this year simply by manuring, while his neigh-
bors, who did not manure, failed. It is well understood by most farmers
that highly manured land withstands the drouth much better than land
which is not so treated.

Planting Vines — Is Trenching Necessary ?

The above writer says: " Dr. Grant and most others who claim to speak
with authority on the propagatitMi of the vine, advise us to delve down into
the bowels of the earth two or three feet or more in preparing to plant
vines; and the Doctor tells us shallow planting and surface manuring will
do for a few years, but the vine will soon fail thus treated. I am not an
advocate of shallow planting, but could point the advocates of deep trench-
ing to hundreds of large and thrifty vines, from 60 to 100 years old, which
were originally planted very shallow, and have been surface manured ever
since with the decayed leaves of the surrounding forests. Is it not about

124 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

time they should begin to fail ? The highest ridges and the poorest, thin-
est soil in Ohio is where such vines most abound; the subsoil a yellow,
gravelly clay, so hard that nothing but a pick can penetrate it. Nature
furnishes us facts and nurser3'nien give us theories. The two should har-
monize. I believe no fruit bearing plant, shrub or tree, will bear so much
mangling, pruning and dwarfing, of both root and branch, as the grape
vine and live. It seems to me almost a miracle in nature that vines can
be planted two or three feet apart, and kept dwarfed to the dimensions
vineyardists advise, without killing them entirely. May not the diseases
the vine, 'which have been developed of late years, be traced to the practice
of close planting and dwarfing ? I have planted one hundred vines, and
expect to plant that number each year. I plant in rows ten feet apart, and
eight feet apart in the row, but do not expect to get ten tons to the acre,
should be more than satisfiedwith less than half that amount."

At this distance apart the gentlemen will have only 846 vines to the
acre. Will he be satisfied witli less than 20 pounds per vine, spread upon
trellis with arms four feet long, and at that distance apart growing very
liigh and strong At that he would have 10,920 pounds per acre; at 25
pounds per vine, 13,650 pounds; at 35 pounds per vine, 19,110 pounds; at
37 pounds per vine, 20,202 pounds. We don't know that an acre can be
made to average that, but single vines, of the same size, have yielded 50
pounds, which for an acre would make 27,300 pounds.

Some of the members of the Club thought that this statement was too
"rose colored," though none disputed the calculation as a possible result.
Others thought that farmers need just such statistics constantly presented
to induce them to undertake any new branch of culture. It is, said one,
the neglect of all the cardinal principles of fruit growing that causes so
many to fail.

How TO Keep Winter Apples.

Mr. S. D. Comfort, Fredericktown, Knox county, Ohio, says:
" A neighbor of mine, one j^ear ago, packed eight barrels of winter apples
with dry sawdust, and left them headed up, exposed to all the rigors of our
last unusually cold winter. The result was, they were taken out in the
spring sound, and had retained their flavor better than if buried in the
ground or kept in cellar. Query — Could not grapes be kept in the same
way ? The same enterprising neighbor (a Maine Yankee), preserves his
cabbages through the winter by packing among refuse or leaves, head
downward, in boxes, each layer of heads with the stems cut off near the
head and covered with loose leaves of cabbage. Freezing will not injure
them when thus covered." '

Native Iowa Plants.

Mrs. Mary Treat, Blaistown, Iowa, sends the following communication:

Mr. Secretary. — Inclosed find specimens of Jersey Tea ( Ceanothus Ameri-

canui<), and two species of Liatris and Cassia. This last is one of our most

beautiful native plants. It grows in close masses from one to four feet in

height, according to soil, situation, &c. It is quite sensitive, the leaves

I

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 125

closing upon being handled, and at night and before rain. It flowers all
Slimmer, is still in bloom Sept. 19th. I send with it the matured Legumes.
The Jersey Tea recommended by you as a substitute for tea, is a beautiful
floweringg shrub with a profusion of white blossoms. The Liatris adorn
our prairies most through the month of August, though still in bloom;
they are very brilliant, showy plants.

Seeds of all the above flowers can be had by sending to me, with inclosed
stamps, to pay return postage. I have received a great many letters ask-
ing for seeds, but nearly all neglect stamps.

One of your correspondents asks the cause of the falling of the Sorghum.
The farmers here attribute it to the chinch bug. I have examined the cane
but could find none of any account about the fallen, but about the green
and more thrifty looking hills, I found mj'riads working at the roots, so of
course they must leave after sapping the plants to their satisfaction, in
pursuit of better.

/ Sowed Corn — How to Cure.

Mr. E. W. Allen writes fiom Broken Straw, P. 0., Chautayqua county,
N. Y., that owing to the drouth winter fodder is very scarce, and he wants
to know the best way to cure sowed corn, as well as corn-stalks when cut
up by the roots.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — I once cured a very heavy crop of sowed corn in
the following manner: I commenced cutting one side of the field and set-
ting the stalks against the fence. Then I set a row of forks and poles in
the space cut off", and set up stalks upon both sides of the pole, leaning
together, and so continued till all was cut. This is only practicable near
the forest. Where not convenient to set the stalks up in this way, I would
carry a bunch of straw along and tie the stalks in small bundles as fast as
cut, and set them up in loose stooks until partially cured, and then put
them together in form to withstand the weather. The same plan may be
pursued in curing corn cut up with the ears on, or after they have been
plucked. There is no better way to preserve stalks in winter than to set
them up like a roof across a straight fence, stone wall, or pole on forks, so
as to leave an open space through the center. When straw is of no value,
Oivev the peak of the roof with enough to shed the rain.

Mr. K. H. Williams. — I would not bind the stooks, but set them up as
loosely as possible, so that the air can circulate freely, binding the stock
together at the top with a straw band.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — There is a very simple little machine for this pur-
pose which I have used with great satisfaction. It is a wooden spindle
about three feet long, sharp at one end, with a crank and handle at the
other. The spindle should be made of ash, about an inch and a half in
diameter. The crank may be ten inches long and pretty strong. A stout
cord is attached to the spindle near the handle, with a hook on the other
end of the cord. To operate it the spindle is thrust through the stock of
the cornstalks near where the band is to pass around. The cord is then
passed around, and the loose end hooked into a staple in the crank. A few
turns of the crank draw the cord tight and press the stalks more firmly than

126 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

it is possible to do by hand. The band is then applied and the cord
loosened. A man can put up twice as many stooks in a day with this
implement, and do it more than twice as well as he could without.

Kentucky Blue Grass.

Mr. T. G. Donaldrary, Scroggsfield, Ohio, wants to know when to sow
and in what soil to sow Kentucky blue grass. He also wants to know how
much seed it will yield per acre and whether it will pay to grow blue grass
for hay or pasture.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — ^Sow in February or March upon land well pre-
pared in autumn, upon limestone clay soil. As to the quantity of seed, no
one here can answer. Whether it will pay, is answered in every drove of
fat bullocks that leaves Kentucky for an Eastern market.

How TO Spoil Meadows.

Mr. Allen asks the following question: "Will meadows keep up where
the hay is taken off and no manure returned, if not fed oflF spring nor fall?
If not, what is the cheapest and best mode of manuring, if too far off to
draw barnyard manure?

" Will Peruvian guano, so far off, pay, the expenses are so much for
transporting by railroad?"

Mr. Solon Robinson. — The answer to this is most decided, that there is
BO better way to spoil a meadow; and the best and cheapest mode of
manuring it is to keep the cattle off. On some land plaster will pay, and
where hay is as valuable as it is near New York, it does pay to use Peru-
vian guano. In Chautauqua county, we think it would pay to buy wood
ashes. If you have a muck bed, it will pay to dig and pile that until it is
decayed, and use that for a top dressing. So much depends upon locality
and other circumstances, that it is impossible to give specific directions to
suit such a case as this.

Dr. Trimble. — I never saw but one place out of Kentucky where blue
grass did equally well, and that is upon the Brandywine Hills, Chester
county, Penn.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — It does equally well in several places in Ohio. It
will do well in any place where there is limestone clay.

Mr. R. H. Williams. — It does well in Putnam county, N. Y., upon land
which is so hilly and rocky that it cannot be plowed. I think it would do
well in nearly all of Western New York, if farmers would allow it to get
well rooted. The trouble is, where all the land is arable they are disposed
to turn over the sod by the time it gets well set.

Location of Vineyards.

The Secretary read an invitation from Mr. Younglove for the Club to
visit the Pleasant Valley Wine Company's vineyards, in Steuben county,
New York.

Mr. R. H. Williams observed that he believed this company had the best
location in the State for vineyards; that they are eminently successful in
growing the Catawba grape.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 127

Mr. Solon Robinson disputed this point as to the best location, because
he believes locations equally good may be found upon the borders of all of
the intex-ior lakes of the State, as well as the one upon which Pleasant
Valley is situated. Mr. R. II. Williaras and several others concurred in
this opinion.

Careful Packing op Grapevines.

Dr. Trimble related an anecdote which he thought ought to be published
to the credit of Dr. Grant. Some vines sent to a person in Hunting-ton
county, N. J., which should not have been over tweoty-four hours on the
passage, got astray on the railroad, and did not arrive till the next spring,
six months after they were packed, having been exposed all that time to
the vicissitudes of rail cars and freight houses. The gentleman expected,
of course, to find the vines worthless, but the doctor had lately seen the
growth that they had made this summer, and never saw a more vigorous
one.

Dr. Trimble read a part of a letter from Mr. Kilpatrick, of Iowa, about
the success of vines in that State, which he attributes in a considerable
degree to the careful manner in which they are packed at the nursery. He
cautions the doctor not to show the letter to the reporter, for fear he might
get his name in the paper.

A New Cotton Pest.

Mr. Bryce Crawford, Sparta, Randolph county. 111., sends a sample of
cotton grown there, inclosing the chrysalis of a worm which has destroyed
the crop, which is unlike the common army worm, and old cotton-growers
say tliey never saw anything like this before. This worm, Mr. Crawford
says, has entirely blasted the hopes of the cotton-growers in that section.
In some fields the worm has destroyed every leaf, blossom and young boll,
*' We got our seed from Dixie, and if we have imported a new pest, it will
be one more evil arising from our slaveholder's rebellion. I send you the
worms in their present stage, expecting that they will get their next dress
by the time your Club meets, and some of your professors can tell us all
about them." The worms were utterly crushed, so that we could not make
out anything about them. Insects or worms sent to the Club should be
placed in small paper boxes.

Substitute for Tea. ^

Mr. H. S. Alexander sends specimens of a plant which his family use as
a substitute for tea, and which he thinks can be cultivated to advantage.
The stalks grow very closely together, and from eight to twelve inches
high.

The Chairman remarked that he had never seen anything that had so
much of the odor of Young Hyson tea as these leaves. He took them home
for trial, and will report their quality.

The Flax Pest.

The plant sent by Mr. E. D. "Wright, Pierpont, Ohio, is the Dodder, fully
described in our proceedings some weeks since. It comes from seed as

128 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

much as any other plant, and lias its root in the ground, though soon after
it starts it strikes a new root into the stalk of the flax or some other plants
and then the original root dies, so that it appears to be a parasite.

Name of a Grapevine Insect.

Dr. Trimble. — The name of the insect sent by Robert Cushman, Paw-
tucket, R. I., is called Thrips. I cannot name any remedy. They are all
of the same character in a different state of development. As he says,
some are white, some brown, some I'ed-striped, and appear to be a sort of
flying or skipping louse. Although so small, they injure the vines much.

"Paradise Stocks — What are They?"

Mr. Solon Robinson. — They belong to the crab-apple family, and are
spoken of as English and French Paradise, in the same connection with
wild crab stocks. We don't know the difference, except that cultivated
apple scions take more readily upon Paradise than upon wild crab stocks.
Large nurseries keep the Paradise stocks for sale.

White Willow.

Mr. A. Pittenger, Hancock, West Virginia, wants to know :
" If the white willow, about which so much has been said, is suitable for
hedging ?" The answer all rests upon what you may understand about
the word " suitable." It appears to suit some people^ It undoubtedly
suits Mr. Pike, the man who started it, and who paid the expenses of the
enormous pufiis given it by some of the papers, as he has realized more
than a hundred thousand dollars by the operation. The losses of those
who have tried to make a fence of the willow and failed would probably
Bum up a million of dollars. If Mr. Pittenger would like to join the happy
family, let him at once procure willow cuttings, and go in to win or lose.

Training Grape Vines.

The above correspondent says : " I have lately seen a small vineyard,
which has been pruned in a different way from any I have ever seen
recommended. The vines are trained to stakes, and the same cane allowed
to bear fruit but once, and a young shoot kept coming up every year to
bear fruit the next. Is this a new way ?

Mr. Solon Robinson — It is the good old way which has been practiced for
centuries.

Strawberries.

Mr. C. K. Adams, Ann Arbor, Mich., wants the club to name three or
four varieties of strawberries for family use, that will give fruit the longest
time, and of the best quality. This has been done repeatedly, but it may
not answer at the place named. We would, however, risk our chance
upon the following : Wilson, Hooker, Russel, Austin, Bartlet, Triomphe de
Gand, Brooklyn Scarlet, and some of the members were disposed to add
the " Agriculturist ;" but that was objected to, because not yet sufficiently
introduced to the public.

. PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 129!

How TO Preserve Scions.

Mr. C. C. Hatch, Ischua, N. Y., who has followed grafting over forty
years, says ;

" I cut lay scions in February. I then take resin with a little oil or tal-
low to reduce it, as clear resin is apt to crumble off. Melt it, and when
boiling hot dip the end cut from the tree of each scion. This seals the pores
of the wood, and then stand tlie buts of the scions on the damp gronnd on
tlie bott«>in of my cellar, and turn an empty cask over them. In this way
they keep fresh the year round. I have scions of apples and pears in my
cellar to-day that are as fresh as when cut last February • and one year,
for an experiment, I kept some over the next winter, and set them in April
after being cut H months, and they grew. And grape cuttings prepared
in this way, and then rolled up in oiled cloth or oiled paper, might be
brought from Chili to New York in safety."

Wheat Weevil. — Where it Breeds.

Mr. Geo. W. Putnam copies the following article from The Detroit Adver-
tiser of Sept. 22, and forwards it for the consideration of the Club. It is
furnished by Dr. Isaac Smith, Grosse Point, Michigan. He commences
with the question, '"Does the weevil breed in the muUen ?" and then says:

"I have not seen it stated any where tliat the weevil is in the mullen.
It was by accident that I discovered this to be the fact. I believe that if
the mullen was exterminated the weevil would go with it. It is a fact that
no domestic animal will eat this plant, and that this is a safe retreat through
the winter for the weevil. This insect works more on the edge of a wheat
field than in the middle. When the ground is summer-fallowed there are
often very many mullens left around by the fences. At the proper time the
weevil leaves the mullen and attacks the wheat, and then returns to the
mullen in the fall. I cannot find it in any other plant. They are located
in the mullen about the seed pods, and are thickest near where the wheat
stubble is. This matter ought to be investigated by those who have a
better opportunity than I have."

So weT think ; and therefore bring it before the club and through this
report, before a great many thousand farmers, who have the means of
investigating the subject. But, and here is the trouble; does Dr. Smith
mean the weevil, or the wheat midge ? It is the latter that destroys the
wheat when the kernels are in milk. It is the former that destroys it
after it is stacked or housed, and often after it is threshed and stored for
winter. This is the Calandra granaria. The other pest is the Cecidomyia
Tritici, sometimes called midge, and sometimes red weevil. It is a. fiy and
not a beetle, and therefore not properly called weevil, but we suppose it is
the insect spoken of in this communication.

Diggers versus Plows.

A California correspondent, having read the letter of M. L. Sullivant, of
Illinois, about Comstock's rotary digger, writes to say how much pleased
he is with tlie information. He thinks that diggers will supersede plows
upon the plains of California, as it would produce a great saving of expensive
manual labor.

[Am. I.nst.] I

130 transactions of the american institute

Squash Borers — Remedy.

T. A. Lynn gives the following remedy for squash-vine borers.

" After the squashes were half grown, noticing a wilted look in the leaves
I supposed the borer was at work, so 1 took a shovel and placed a shovel-
full of soil over the joints about two yards from the hill, and the vines
rooted anew where they were covered, and I now have some fine squashes
to pay for five minutes' work with the shovel. I would recommend, as soon
as the squashes are gathered, to cut the vines close to the hill, leaving the
stumps in the ground, and then to pour upon the stumps, from a tea-kettle,
boilivg water, which will disagree with the borer, and if her eggs are laid,
will cook them, so that they will not hatch next Spring. It is advisable to
cover the joints of squash, melon, and similar vines, where there are no
borers, as new roots will form, new vigor will be added, and a larger crop
secured."

Another person practices slitting the vines as soon as borers are sus-
pected, and taking them out, and thus preserving the life of the vines.
Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

October U, 1864
Mr. Nathan C Ely in the chair.

Apples for a Name.

Mr, Leroy Whitford, Harmony, Chautauqua county, N. Y., sends to the
club a seedling apple which originated in David Arnold's garden on the
east side of Chautauqua Lake. They are highly esteemed here, both as a
cooking apple and a dessert apple. It ripens gradually from the middle of
August until November.

Mr. W. S. Carpenter. — The apple has a fine red color, but it is too soft
for a market apple. The flavor is only of a medium quality. There are so
many apples so far superior to this, that I do not think it would be an :^d-
dition to our already extended list.

Mr. P. T. Quinn. — The apple is certainly not a superior eating apple, as
the flesh is very tender. No doubt it is a good cooking apple.

Mr. Robinson. — As a local apple it may be valuable. The flesh resem-
bles "Sops of wine." 1 hope the apple will be placed on exhibition iu the
rooms of the Institute.

Questions for Discussion.

Mr. S. Crosby, Lagrange, Indiana, asks a series of questions iu relation
to the sap in trees.

On motion the subject was referred to Dr. Ward and Mr. George Bart-
lett, to answer and report at the next meeting.

CuRCULio — A Remedy Suggested.

The question of what can be done to prevent destruction of fruit by cur-
culio, having been called up by a letter read by Solon Robinson, it was
suggested by Dr. Ward that mulching may be found to be a remedy. His
pear ochards have been almost free of damage from this troublesome insect

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 131

for several years; he has tliis year come to the conclusion that it is owing
to mulching. He particularly examined two neighboring pear orchards
this year, which are well cared for, except mulching, and found the fruit in
a sad condition — particuhirly that of Mr. Goldsmith, who several gentlemen
here know as a good cultivator. His fruit was not marketable, while not
one in a iuuidred of Dr. Ward's was injured. " Now," said the Doctor, "I
do not affirm that mulching is a remedy, but it looks like it, and if it is, I
want it should be known. At least let others try tlic experiment. I use
salt hay, perhaps three tons per acre, spread on after plowing in spring,
and my men are at work to-day raking off and stacking the hay for use
again next year. Manure will now be applied."

Mr, Solon Robinson. — As you use salt hay, may we not attribute a part
of the virtue of mulching to salt as well as to the shade?

Dr. Ward — Perhaps. That experiment must be tried. At any rate the
mulch is of the greatest benefit; it keeps the ground so loose that it is now
very mellow, and it prevents all growth of weeds, which exhausts the soil
as much as a crop of grain; and besides, the mulch saves the fruit that
drops, from bruises.

Mr. F. Quiun. — If there was no other benefit in mulching, I would use it
for that alone. It saves its cost in the protection to falling fruit. For a
crop in a young orchard, I prefer potatoes. Beans will do, and so will car-
rots if the land is rich and mellow enough.

Plowing Under Weeds.

Mr. George Bartlett. — I once had a piece of timothy killed by the army
worm in Illinois. I turned in the hogs to kill the worms, and they rooted
up the sod and then there grew the largest crop of bitter weeds, known
by some as rag weed, hog weed, and stubble weed. I rigged a plow with
an extraordinary high beam, and with three horses abreast turned under a
growth that w^as higher than the horses.

Osage Orange Hedges.

Mr. P. T. Quinn. — I must speak of the value of the osage orange as a
Ledge plant. I had occasion to visit a farm in Monmouth county, N. J.,
belonging to Mr. Thomas Bell. I there found the farm fenced entirely with
the osage orange. The fields contained about twenty acres each, with a
line of gates in the centre. In each of these fields were cattle, horses,
sheep, and swine. The fences were perfect to keep the stock separate. I
think any person who requires a fence should see that of Mr. Bell's. I am
sure they would use the osage orange.

Dr. Isaac M. Ward. — About 1850 I planted a line of buckthorn hedge
and another of osage orange. The first is a complete failure; the second
is a complete fence against man or beast. It is not affected by cold. From
some recent experiments I am satisfied that I can make a good fence of
Norway spruce. For all purposes it is better than arbor vitse. It bears
shearing, and the limbs grow so strong that they resist all efforts of cattle
to get through, and a fence can be made of this spruce as soon as with
osage orange. I would set the plants one foot apart.

132 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. W. S. Carpenter. — I prefer the Honey locnst to any plant I have
seen for hedp;es.

Mr. Solon Robinson observed that the great difficulty with the osag-e
orange, as a hedge plant, was the danger of the thermometer falling 20
degrees below zero, when they wonld be destroyed.

Mr. James B. Olcott, East Greenwich, R. I., contributes the following
pleasant letter to the Club:

Of Poison Ivy and Sumac,

my experience may be interesting. I have been poisoned by them a hnn-
dred times, I dare say — once so badly that inflammation closed my eyes, and
often so that a week's misery ensued. My father bad a swamp lot — as
good as the itch to me — which, despite my last year's smart, I wonld an-
nually assist in mowing. I tried remedies and preventives, drinks and
washes, all of no avail. Woolen pantaloons and bnckskin mittens would
not keep me clear of poison. At last I hit upon the idea of washing myself
in simple water as soon as possible after exposure, within two hours is
best, though a thorough washing and rubbing at the end of each half day's
work will do. In this way I can work among poison plants with impunity,
or at most, feeling but a slight burning of the skin, which, but for the
washing, would result in blisters. In clearing a swamp, with plenty of
poison sumac in bunches, I left the snmae until I had two or three hour's
work, then cut, piled and burned it, never forgetting to wash myself imme-
diately afterward. My theory is that the trouble arises from the fresh juice
of the plant, or its exhalations near the person. The smoke of it will not
poison me: that is the juice scalded, I suppose. I do not believe people
are poisoned simply by walking near these plants. If it were so I know a
much traveled road that would keep half the inhabitants of a country
scratching themselves. Some persons can handle these plants without
harm, and among my acquaintance the exempts have mostly fair complex-
ion. I kill these plants remorselessly whenever they come in my way,
unless it be when the ivy handsomely covers a wall or tree.

Furze-top Grass.

In Rhode Island farmers buy and sow grass seed under the name of
" furze-top," or Rhode Island bent. I have been trying to get a knowledge
of that grass these four summers past. I am no botanist, but study Flint's
work on grasses, and ask questions of all my neighbors. The gra.ss which
my neighbors call " furze-top" blooms about the last week in June, red- top
fashion, but lighter colored, and blooms but once a year, throwing up a
thick aftermath of narrow, yellowish-green leaves. It constitutes the
greater portion of the sod in the hollows of old meadows, pastures, and by
the roadside, where sand and gravel prevail, perhaps throughout New
England. This grass very nearly answers the description of Flint's "green
meadow grass, June grass, common spear grass, Kentucky blue grass,"
&c. It may be the grass which Mr. Flint calls " fine-top," and which he
Bays dealers sell out of the same bog from which thoy sell red-top. I judge
80 from the similarity of the names tine-top and furze-top. The grass I am
speaking of makes the handsomest and best turf for lawns. Is it identical

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 133

■With Kentucky blue grass? If I cannot find out -without less trouble I
would send a sod of it to Kentucky. Furze>top or Rhode Island bent seed,
I am told by dealers, is usually gathered from old meadows and pastures,
and sells for twice the price of red-top, if of good quality. I have an acre
of it in lawn, sown a year ago, which appears, except for its want of age,
like the best sandy roadside turf wherever I travel in New England.

Sweet Corn.

We are eating a kind of sweet corn so very excellent that I feel ashamed
of myself that I don't save it all for seed and send it to the Farmer's Club
for distribution. It may be more common than I think, and may be readily
recognized from the reddish purple of tlie entire plant with the exception
of the cob and kernel, which are of the whitest. It has small, eight-rowed
ears, often three upon a stalk, needs especially generous culture, for which
reason it will not find favor with market gardeners, or with consumers,
who must have a bulky dozen for their money. As plain boiled corn it is
delicious.

How TO Make a Strawberry Bed.

I dislike very much the weeding of strawberries, so I clean my ground
before planting, if possible, and have a patch now in hand for fruiting in
1866. It was a solid meadow sod, plowed July 4th, since which it has
been harrowed with Share's coulter harrow nine times, to the 12th of Sep-
tember. The ground was infested with Canada thistle, dog-grass, and
another grass about as hard to kill as either, which appears equally at
home upon the dryest and wettest land if it be but rich enough. These
weeds are not dead yet, but they are all weaker. I keep that harrow on
the ground, and whenever the team has a spare hour the land gets a
thorough cultivation. I expect to plant next spring upon clean ground. I
have enjoj'cd reading in the Tribune the accounts of the mischief in all
parts of the country done by insects — though those that come from the
West are almost too tragical — for the fact is that next to drouth, worms
and bugs are my chief misery. My farming grows more wormy and buggy
every year. I shouldn't like to confess as much to m}' neighbors (among
whom I get the sobriquet of "old compost,") bat I don't mind telling you
that my secret and growing belief is that thoroughly prepared farm com-
posts are perfect breeding places of the insects which destroy vegetables.
And to make matters worse, I give so clean cultivation that there is
nothing but the young plants for insects to live upon!

It is the unanimous desire of the Club that Mr. Olcott will send some of
his corn for distribution next Spring. Direct to J. W.Chambers, Secretary
American Institute Farmer's Club. Such practical letters as this are very
interesting, not only when read to the members, but will be perused wi-th
pleasure by all who read the reports.

Grapes in Iowa.

Mr. Jacob Hare, Canaan, Iowa, says : — " That notwithstanding I live on
the prairie, where there is not an acre of natural timber in the township, 1
succeed iu growing grapes of the following varieties : Catawba, Isabella,

134 TRANSACTIONS OF THE,AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Concord, Hartford Prolific, Diana, Delaware and Clinton. But the fact 1
wish to bring to your notice is, that the Clinton is preferred in my family
above all others. If so, why not place it in the foremost ranks as a good
grape for hardiness and prolificness ? But it should hang upon the vine
till frost, in order to mature its good qualities. We have also succeeded
in cultivating most of the small fruits as well as apples, but peaches are
uncertain."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — I would recommend Mr. H. to try Norton's Vir-
ginia, as that succeeds admirably in Missouri, and is preferable to Clinton,
particularly as a wine grape.

The Chess Question.

Mr. Egbert Cowles, Farmington, Connecticut, relates his experience at
some length upon the chess question. He says that sixty years ago he
assisted to clear oif the forest and sow a field of wheat, in which were two
hollows where the water stood during winter. "In the spring the plants
in these hollows in this stage of growth could not be distinguished from
wheat, yet to my surprise, when we came to gather the crop in one of the
spots indicated, so far as the water had stood the crop was entirely chess,
without intermixture of wheat, while the surrounding crop was clean
wheat, and the line between the wheat and chess was as distinctly marked
as the boundaries of our field, and all OA'er the remainder of this field of
some ten acres there was not one head of chess to be found. Now the
answer to the question, ' how chess originates," is of no practical import-
ance, because it is rarely troublesome or injurious, yet it is interesting as
a question of science, and we ought to be able to answer it; and I confess
I can come to no other result in my case, from the facts I have given, but
that the water standing upon my wheat plants so far changed their nature
as to produce a bastard seed called chess. If any of your experienced cor-
respondents can give any facts that will enlighten us, or that will explain
the fact^ I have given so as to show a different conclusion from mine, I
shall feel thankful for the information."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — And so would a good many other persons who
have had the same experience. No member of this club will offer to in-
dorse the heresy that wheat turns to chess, but some of them have seen
chess grow where nothing but wheat was sown.

What Ails the Bees ?

Mr. William G. Tritt, Meadville, Pennsylvania, answers T. B. Whipple's
inquiry why bees leave the hive, that it is the want of ventilation. Mr.
Tritt asks the following question : What is honey-dew, or from whence
does it result ? He is respectfully referred to Webster's dictionary,

Substitute for Coffee.

Mr. Egbert Cuwles, Farmington, Connecticut, says that he has tried
nearly all the articles recommended as substitutes for coffee, and finds
nothing that equals beets, prepared in the same way as directed for chicory,
that is by drying and roasting and afterward mixing with coffee in such
proportion as may be desired, or as experiment indicates may be palatable.

PROCEEDINGS OP THE FARMERS' CLUB. . 135

Potatoes — How to Grow Them in a Drouth.

Mr. William Tucker, Madison county, Illinois, says that from the 9th of
May to the last of S<>ptember, there were only two small showers, which
were not sufficient to wet the ground three inches deep. TLe result is no
potatoes have been raised except by one man, who laid his potatoes on the
ground in February, as though planting, and then covered them with six-
teen inches of straw. Ilis crop is a very fine one.

Flowers and Flower Seeds.

Miss Ada L. Morrison, Alton, New Hampshire, wishes that this club
would give more of their discussions to the subject of flowers. She says it
would greatly oblige those who live in the country who love flowers, yet
see but few of the finest cultivated sorts, and she would be greatly de-
lighted at being the recipient of some of the seeds which good folks some-
times distribute. She says : " Something seems to tell me that if I write
in season, before the frost destroys the flowers in the garden (and the frost
has not injured mine yet), I can get more of a variety than if I wait till
spring. These that I have -that I prize the most, are dahlias, petunias,
balsams, gillyflowers, and a few more of the same sort — very pretty for
the kind, but not enough, I should be very grateful for a few pansy
seeds. I take great delight in the garden, and spend many hours through
spring aiid summer there at work. For a number of years we have been
deprived of grapes, though the vines -always seemed to bloom well. Last
year I was told the cause after it was too late. This year I bt^gan in
earnest, and by great industry on my part, hundreds if not thousands of
rose-bugs lost their lives. The result is our vine hangs full with the
tempting, luscious fruit, and we feel that our labor is not in vain. Is this
the only safeguard to the vine, to kill the bug? There is another question
to be settled for me : Will squash seeds when planted ever turn to pump-
kins if not planted near each other ? I for one think they do, for this sea-
son we have met witli a complete failure."

Mr. Solon Robinson, — In^answer I would say that squashes and pump,
kins do not hybridize so as to affect the fruit of the present year. The
difficult}- is with the seeds planted. If they were from fruit of either sort
grown in proximity to tlie other, the result will be entirely uncertain. In
regard to the grapes, nothing but " eternal vigilance" will secure a crop
where rose-bugs abound. "

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter. — I will relate a little anecdote, to show how
attractive flowers are. A few days ago, a carriage stopped in front of my
place, and a lady got out and asked the privilege of examining some
flowers that she saw from the road, which were new to her. She observed
that she had lived many years in the West, where her opportunity to
observe cultivated flowers was limited, and one of the greatest delights of
her visit at the East, was the study of these beautiful ornamentations of
home. To her a home without flowers was lacking in the main feature of
attractiveness.

Mr. Jireh Bull suggested that the Horticultural Societ}' should take up the
subject of flowers, and give practical instructions about kinds and Culture.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

]36 TRANSACnONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

October 18,1864,
Mr. Nathan C. Ely, in the chair,

Thayer's Steam Cultitator,

Mr, A. P. Thayer, Syracuse, N. Y., exhibited a model of a steam cnlfi-
vator, and g'ave a description of his machine and what he hoped it would
accomplish. It is not a plow, but an earth catting" machine, and its ope-
ration is not unlike a straw cutting- machine, which has knires set around
a cylinder in a spiral form. These knives, four in number, are fire feet
long, twenty inches wide, one-fourth inch thick, of plate steel, and so
arranged that some part of them are continuous and equally cutting slices
of earth, three inches thick, and to any desired depth, being easily regu-
lated by gearing, which hoists the knives quite above the earth when
necessary. These slices are cut into five pieces, by cross knives, and
carried to the rear and deposited bottom upwards. Tlie cutting cyliiiderg
runs with a speed ten times greater than the driving Avheels, so that some-
thing is gained by momentum, and the operation is all the time drawing"
the machine forward, instead of holding it l?ack, like a dragging anchor,
as is the case with locomotives that drag a set of turning plows behind.
This cutting cylinder is in the rear, between the two main wheels that
support the platform which carries all the necessary machinery. The
boiler and chimney resting upon another pair of wheels project forward,
and are so arranged as to steer fhe whole as easily as an ordinary wagon
is steered by turning the forward wheels. There would b(^ no difficulty in
plowing a square lot about going within twenty feet of the corner. The
inventor calculates that a full-sized machine would weigh 3,000 pounds,
without fuel and water, and that it would require an engine of from eight
to ten horse power,

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter asked the inventor if he thought the earth would
be freed from the knives in the rapid motion he intended to give the cyl-
inder?

Mr. Thayer, in reply, said he thought the earth would fall out of the
knives as they revolved.

Mr. Solon Robinson asked what would be the effect of the machine,
should it hit a hidden boulder?

Mr. Thayer. — The machine is not intended to work in stony ground. If
the knives should strike a firmly bedded stone, the effect would be the same
as when a plow struck it, the plow would stop.

Dr. J. P. Trimble.— I am pleased to see that efforts are making to use
the power of steam in the cultivation of the soil. I hope to see in my day
that all our plowing will be done by steam power.

The chairman expressed the opinion that the efforts of the inventor waa
very satisfactory. Of course nothing definite can be said about this plan
of working the earth until a full sized machine i» tried, yet as far as he
could judge, the plan looks fea-«ible.

Fruits on the Table.

A splendid exhibition of seedling grapes was made by Mr. David Thomp-
son, of Green Island, opposite Troy, New York, some of llie bunches of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 137

"which grew so compactly as to appear at a little distance to be perfectly
solid.

Mr. E. Williams, New Jersey, exhibited seedling apples, much resemb-
ling Rhode Island greenings, thongh with a sharper acid, reported as oidy
second-rate for eating, but excellrnt for cooking. The tree is a very free
bearer. Some pears exhibited by the chairman, from trees which he bought
for Easier Beurre, were decided by Mr. Carpenter and Mr. Bergen to be
Beiirrc d'Aiijou. Some Duchessc pears from a tree allowed to bear all the
fruit that set, showed the bad policy of that practice, the fruit being only
about half the usual size,

Mr. Carpenter made a statement that in Mr. Knox's vineyard at Pitts-
burgh, Pennsylvania, vines planted six feet apart — 1.295 per acre — yielded
fifteen pounds per vine ; which would give a result of 19,425 pounds per
acre.

Dr. Trimble thought it wrong for the club to tell of such large yields.
Mr. Solon Robinson thought it best always to tell the truth. Mr. George
Bartlett thought the club might positively assert that ten tons per acre
could easily be produced.

The One Hundred Dollar Prize for Apples.

Mr. Carpenter announced that the Greeley prize of $100 for the best
bushel of apples was open to all the world, that some had already been
received, that others would be, and that all received would be examined
by the committee on the first day of each of the months of November, De-
cember, January and February, and afterwards exhibited to the public at
the rooms of the institute,

A Glass Fruit Jar.

Mr. Williams exhibited a glas fruit jar invented by Griffin & Titus, New
York, which was examined and approved by the club. The cover is of
glass, ground into the jar, and made perfectly tight by a gasket of India
rubber. The top is held on by a curiously formed piece of malleable iron
which operates as a screw upon the neck of the jar. It is a fact worth
knowing, that after jars become perfectly cool, there is no need of outside
pressure, and the screw clamps may be removed and applied to others.
This appears to be the most convenient form of jars yet exhibited.

How TO Send Insects by Mail.

Dr. Trimble desires to call particular attention to the proper mode of
sending insects by mail. One lately sent to Mr, Robinson in a bottle was
nothing but a mass of mold. Others sent in loose paper in letters were
crushed out (jf all shape. They should be put up in pasteboard boxes.

The Circulation of Sap.

Mr. S. Crosby, La Grange, Indiana, at the last meeting presented the
following (pieslions to the club, in hopes to get an answer upon scientific
and rational principles :

"Does the sap in trees remain stationary or dormant when the timber is

138 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

not frozen, until by accident or design some portion of the grains of the
wood is severed, when as is known, the sap flows ?"

" If it docs not remain stationary, does it have a continuous flow up and
down the trunk of the tree?"

" If so, then by what power, and where does it go up, and where down
the tree T'

" In that species of wood known as the ' sugar maple ' is what is called
the ' sugar water ' really the sap of the tree ? and is it, or is it not (Essen-
tial to the life and growth of the tree ?"

" What produces the saccharine quality of the ' sugar water ?"

"It is well known that for good sugar weather it needs freezing nights
and thawing days. Now is it the freezing that makes the 'sugar water?'
And is the moisture wliich is required for its production taken into the tree
through the foliage and branches, or through the roots ?"

Mr. Geo. Bartlett, from the committee appointed at the last meeting,
made the following very satisfactory report:

The several queries in that communication constitute a request for a
general account of the circulation of sap in trees, and the formation of
maple sugar. We proceed to give such an account in the briefest and
clearest manner at our command.

Trees are made up of fine tubes which extend from the root to the leaf,
and it is through these tubes that the circulation of the sap is carried on.
If a growing tree is pulled up by the roots, and the roots are placed in a
vessel of water containing some colored solution which they will absorb,
we can trace the course of this solutitm througli the tree by cutting notches
into it at successive periods. The coloring matter is always found first in
the bod}' of tlie wood near the root, then in the wood higher up, and so on
till it reaches the leaf; then it begins to appear in the inner bark near the
leaf, and it passes down through the bark again to the root. This obser-
vation shows that the circulation of the sap is up through the wood, and •
down through the bark.

We are not able to answer the question of j'our correspondent, what is
the force that causes the sap of plants to circulate. There has been much
speculation in relation to it, but it has never been settled by observation
and experiment. It is pretty well established that sap circulates in the
winter, though less rapidly than in the summer, and less rapidly at that
time in deciduous than in evergreen trees.

The Formation of Sugar in the Maple.

The solid portions of thoroughly dried wood, and other parts of plants,
are composed mainly of water and charcoal. When charcoal is burned, a
small portion of ash is left. This ash is the mineral or inorganic portion
of the substance of the tree, and consists principally of potash, lime and
flint of silex. That portion which burns in carbon. In burning, the car-
bon unites with oxygen to form carbonic acid, an invisible gas that floats
away in the atmospheif.

The water and the inorganic matters enter the tree through tlie roots;
the carbon enters mostly through the leaves. Carbon forms about one-half
of the solid substance of the tree, and water the other half

Water is composed of two elements, oxygen and hydrogen, in the pro

PROCEEDINGS OP THE FARMERS' CLUB. 139

portion of eight pounds of oxygen to one of hydrogen. These in entering
into a chemical combination with carbon, lose the liquid state of water, and
form the various solid substances which make up the body of the tree.

In its course the sap undergoes important transformations. The trunks
and leaves of trees arc scenes of constant chemical operations, many of
them more mysterious than any of the operations of the laboratory. One
of these is the decomposition of carbonic acid in the leaf. The aifinity of
carbon and oxygen is very strong indeed, and there are few forces in nature
that can rend these two elements asunder; but the combined action of light
and vegetable life is separating them throughout every day in the leaves
of all growing plants. Carbonic acid is absorbed from the atmosphere by
the leaf, its two elements are torn apart, the oxygen is returned to the air,
and the carbon combining chemically with oilier elements in the sap is
carried to the places where new wood is being formed, and is there deposited
in its proper place to help build up the structure of the tree. The sym-
metrical order in which the carbon is deposited in a tree may be seen by
looking at a piece of charcoal.

If wood is examined under a powerful microscope, it is found that the
tubes through which the sap circulates are formed of minute sacs or cells.
The substance of which the walls of these cells are formed is called cellu-
lose. It has been the subject of a great deal of chemical research, and is
found to consist of carbon and water, or more strictly, of carbon and the
elements of water, oxygen and hydrogen. Cotton and linen are almost
pure cellulose. Each atom of cellulose contains twelve atoms of carbon,
ten atoms of hydrogen and ten of oxygen. Starch, gum and sugar all have
the same composition. This is one of the wonders of chemistry, that sub-
stances composed of the same elements, combined in the same proportion,
should have properties so different as gum, starch, sugar, and cottoii or
linen fibre. Their different properties must of course result from the dif-
ferent modes in which the atoms are arranged.

Besides these four substances there is one other constituting a consider-
al)le portion of the body of trees, which is also formed of the same elements
as the others but in slightly different proportions. This is lignin. It is an
incrustation on the inner surfaces of the cell walls, and its office appears
to be to strengthen and stiffen these walls. Its constitution is twelve atoms
of carbon, eight atoms of hydrogen and eight of oxygen. In this case, as in
the others, there are just as many atoms of hydrf)gen as of oxygen; these
two elements enter into the compound in the same proportion to each other
as that in which they unite to form water. If a tree or other plant is
thoroughly dried so as to expel all of its uncombined water, nine-tenths of
the remaining substance consists of the five compounds, cellulose, lignin,
Btarch, gum and sugar, and all of these are composed of hj'drogen and
oxygen in the same relative proportion as that in which they exist inwatur,
chemically combined with carbon.

Why it is that the atoms of these substances are so arranged in one part
of the plant to form cellulose, and in another to fc^rm starch; wiiy it is that
they are so arranged in one tree as to form gum, and in another to form
sugar, are mysteries which lie beyond the present boundaries of human
knowledge.

There is one other organic element, and several inorganic, besides those

140 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

mentioned, which enter, though in small quantities, into the constitution of
plants, but a full discussion of the part which they perform in vegetable
economy would demand an exhaustive treatise on agricultural and vegetar
ble physiology. The presentation of this general view of the growth of
plants is deemed the most proper discharge of the duties of your committee.
On motion of Mr. Robinson it was resolved that the Secretary enter the
report at length on his minutes.

How Can Cider Be Kept Sweet ?

Mr. W. S. Clement, Winterport, Me., wants to know how cider can be
kept sweet without using sulphite of lime, because that if used in suflBcient
quantity to preserve the cider sweet materially injures its quality. Mr. C.
says: "I have lately heard from a person who has tried the experiment
that from six to eight pounds of fresh beef cut up and put into forty gal-
lons of cider, with one pint of rock salt added, will preserve the same bet-
ter than any other preparation which he has used"

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Tliis will answer no better purpose than the sul-
phite of lime. It imparts an unpleasant taste, and sometimes the odor is
intolerable. I have seen tallow used with a better effect, and I have been
assured there is nothing equal to oil, a pint of which, poured gently into
the bung after fermentation, has proceeded just far enough to make a
pleasant beverage, excludes the air, and prevents any further fermentation.

Mr. W. S. Carpenter said all that is necessary to prevent the fermenta-
tion of cider is to entirely remove the sediment. This can be done by isin-
glass, about an ounce to each gallon in the cask. It should be dissolved
in hot water or heated cider, and poured into the cask and thoroughly
shaken. It is then bunged up, and in a week or two all the sediment has
settled to the bottom. The clear cider may then be drawn off into a clean
cask. A new cask or one that has had some kind of alcoholic spirits is
preferable. The chairman said that he had used large quantities of isin-
glass to fine wine. When it is first put in it gives the liquor a milky
appearance, but the muddiest looking wine will, by this process, become
very clear. He has also known mustard seed used to prevent fermentation
of cider.

Mr. Solon Robinson said that was simply because the mustard seed is
composed largely of sulphur. It will be well to define what is meant by
isinglass, as in many parts of the country mica is known by that name.
The article recommended is an animal substance. It is largel}^ manufac-
tured by Peter Cooper of this city, and sold in small sheets of white gela-
tin for culinary purposes.

Mr. Norman Francis said that he x-ecollected an instance where his father
put a handful of alum into a barrel of cider when slightly fermented, which
he bunged up tight, and it kept perfectly in that condition till more than
a year old.

To Prevent Worms on Trees.

Mr. Charles Thompson, St. Albans, Vt., earnestly recommends everybody
to make a strong effort from December to May to destroy all the egga
which will hatch into caterpillars next Spring that can be found by the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 141

most diligent search upon the trees. lie thinks this is a far easier process
than killing the worms. " To save our orchards, destroying the worms in
some manner, is the only remedy. The chrysalis is not always to be found,
the millers cannot all be captured, and one escaping will deposit many
eggs. If the worms can be shaken from the trees they infest, shake them
off and crush thom upon the ground. If, like the apple tree worms, they
are found in clusters, crush them in their nests. If hang-worms, shake the
foliage, and they will run down on a silken thread, from a foot to a foot
and a half in length, and while thus suspended may be crushed between
two pieces of board or shingle."

A New Wheat Pest — Destruction of Whole Fields of Newly

Sown Wheat.

Mr. Truman Beeman writes, Oct. 10, from Washington county, Ind., the
following letter, which gives gloomy, though important information. The
description which he gives corresponds with the destructive cut-worm. He
says: " We have a new wheat pest among us this Fall, at least it is new
for this section of countrj^ as it has never been seen here before. It is a
cut-worm, from half an inch to one and a half inches in length, and the
largest about one-quarter of an inch in diameter. It has a longitudinal
brown stripe the length of its back, sometimes checked with light and dark
checks, with darker brown stripes on each side, while its under side is of
a dingy white. It has two rows of legs about one-eighth of an inch long,
and walks fast. It has destroyed two-thirds of one field of my wheat,
taking clean as it goes, hardly leaving a spear. It cuts oft" the stalks
above ground, and then eats down to the roots, sometimes leaving a part
of the cuticle, but generally taking the whole plant, roots and top, so that
I can see no signs of wheat where they have been, even by digging down
into the ground. When they have cleaned out a spot, they move on like
an army, leaving no stragglers behind, but taking every laborer along to
other parts of the field. Now, if you or any member of the Farmer's Club
can tell me where these worms have come from so suddenly, and in such
numbers, for they are countless, and tell me how to get rid of them, or
whether they will leave, or die oijt and leave no progeny, or can give any
important information concerning their nature or habits, you will confer a
great favor. There are many other fields about here which are injured as
bad as mine. My wheat was sown on the 14th of September, on oat stub-
ble, with a heavy growth of green oats plowed under, wheat sowed on the
furrows, and harrowed in. All the wheat which I have heard from as being
damaged by this worm, was also sowed on oat stubble."

Coal Ashes For Vines

Mr. G. H. Lincoln says: " I have been trying coal ashes on vines for the
striped bug, with complete success, by sprinkling the vines in the morn-
ing, when the dew was on; I would like to know if it is the sulphur that
does the business?" No sir, it is the dust. If taken from the road it would
do just as well as from the ash barrel.

142 transactions of the american institute.

Deterioration of Sorghum.

He also asks: "Will sorghum seed deteriorate by long continued plant-
ing without changing the seed ?" That portion of the sorghum family
known as Chinese sugar cane, or sorgo, will deteriorate if grown anywhere
near broom corn or other members of the family by hybridization, so that
the stalks will be as innocent of sweet sap as a mullein stalk. It requires
the greatest care to keep the sugar cane seed pure. The true sugar cane,
arundo saccharifera, never seeds in the United States, and therefore does
not hybridize and deteriorate. The Chinese and African sugar cane that
we grow at the north, is very subject to deterioration and great disap-
pointment in the product. The growing of broom corn near it must be
rigidly prohibited.

Cause of Rust and Mildew.

Mr. William Tucker, Madison county, Illinois, thinks the whole secret of
rust and mildew is excessive moisture. He says : " All rust in wheat, all
rot in grapes, all splitting of fruit on the tree, all mildew upon living vege-
tables, results from a superabundance of moisture, received from the earth
through their roots, and the leaves, and the stems, and the fruit, all of
which absorb moisture from the atmosphere." Perhaps this theory may be
doubted by some people who have seen serious cases of mildew in a very
dry season. Mr. Tucker thinksfthat high culture has rendered fruits d«li-
cate and liable to disease. In regard to the disease of grape vines, he states
something that needs further confirmation. He says: "It is known that grapes
grown upon vines lying upon the earth are not so subject to rot or mildew
as grapes grown upon vines supported in the air. Why is this ? Simply
because the fruit lying on or near the earth draws moisture from the
ground, and being protected by weeds and the foliage of the vine, moisture
is not rapidly exhaled or evaporated from the fruit. The fruit thus kept
fully expanded absorbs but little additional moisture in damp weather, aud
as there are no rapid contractions or expansions, the consequent strain
upon it is not sufficient to rupture it."

Name of an Insect.

Mr. R. H. Arnold, Honeoye, New York, asks the club " to give the name
of the little insect that sings at eve upon the trees. It is a green insect,
about one inch and one-quarter long, and at the extremity of the wings
about three-eighths of an inch wide ; has grasshopper legs ; wings are
semi-transparent, with crosslines ; sings on warm evenings with a loud,
sharp voice, all singing in one tone, but on cool, frosty nights, its voice is
mellowed down and becomes very soft and sweet, and different ones take
different tones. Its song is produced by the wings." The specific name
of the insect in question we cannot give, but it is of the order of orthoptera,
of the same family as the katydid, and not injurious to farmers unless the
noise is annoying.

Squash Vine Borers.

Mr. R. S. Williams, Gastoron, Fremont county, says that he effectually
cures the ravages of the borer of squash vines by examining them care-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 143

fully two or three times in the early part of the season, and finding where
the borer is by the enlargement ol' tlie vine, lie cuts it out with a sharp
knife, and covers the vine with earth, pressing it down hard. In this way
he has grown this season half an acre ot Hubbard and other winter
squashes.

Mr. Charles Thompson, St. Albans, Vermont. — "To prevent the ravage
af the melon bug, it is only necessary to place a box, without top or bot-
tom, around each hill of plants. The bug will fly against the box and fall
down on the outside of it, and if it be well bedded in the earth, so that no
entrance can be found beneath it, the plants will be secure. It is the
practice of some to cover the top of the box with muslin, but this is alto-
gether needless."

Wheat without Plowing.

Mr. Norman Matteson, Berwick, Warren county, Illinois, says: "I see
in several agricultural papers, that 'subsoiling, fall and spring, and
deep plowing,' is higlily recommended for wheat. This would not
do so well here in our rich soil. We succeed best not to plow at all,
to sow very early in the spring, on level land, among corn stalks, harrow
with the team astride each row both ways, and then roll. Such treatment
prevents the chintz bugs from doing their ravages; the ground being solid,
tlie bugs cannot breed among the old corn-stalks under ground. I sowed
ten acres after the .'ibove rule, the first week of last March ; it yielded 255
bushels of the first quality of wheat. It was a very heavy growth, where-
fore it all lodged flat to the ground. 1 cut it one way with a McCormick
reaper. My neighbor, right across the line, possessing just such land as
mine, plowed his ground and sowed one month later ; but the bugs nearly
destroyed iiis wheat, so that he cut only part of it. Another neighbor I
persuaded to sow three acres of wheat according to my rule, and the crop
weighed 93 bushels."

Buckwheat as a Manure Crop.

A correspondent, Mr. Allen, asks tlie following question : " I would
wish to inquire of the club their opinion as to the benefit of replenishing
land by plowing in buckwheat wliile it is green. Would it be a good
manure for winter wheat if plowed in just before sowing the wheat."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — To this it may be answered that buckwheat is
rather better than no ci'op to turn under for manure, but it is not half as
good as clover, and is less valuable than several other things which are
just as easily grown. A crop of sowed corn would be far better than
buckwheat. The common flat turnip has been highly recommended for
tliis purpose. But of all things to turn under to improve land, there is
probabh' nothing so valuable or economical as red clover. There certainly
is no way that land can be manured so easily as growing the manure upon
the soil to be improved, and 160 loads of well decomposed sods would be
counted a good dressing for an acre. Then why not grow them where
they are needed ?

144 transactions op the american institute.

Apple Trees for the West.

Mr. L. L. Fairchild, Dodge county, Wis., wants a list of "very early
bearing apple trees adapted to the West. And tell us about how long
after three or four year grown nursery trees are planted out before they
may be expected to boar?" We hope some Western correspondent will
answer this question for the benefit of Mr. F. and many others.

Tomato Worms.

Mrs. C. A. Cassilt writes as follows from New-Castle, Penn.: "Excuse
me for troubling you, but I will stand in some little corner and wait very
patiently indeed, if you will only tell me in your own time, if the tomato
worm bites, if it is poisonous, what is its origin, &c.? Now don't please
laugh or scold. I have such a horror of the ugly thing that I fear that
the tomatoes would not be gathered, if it depended upon me to gather
them. We have had an unusual large number of worms on our vines this
Summer, and I have been tempted to wish tomatoes were called ' Jerusalem,
ajyples' still, and naughty chilpren whipped for eating them. Notwith-
standing, I have made seven gallons of superior catsup, and put up I don't
know how many cans ' air tight.' " We have often handled these worms,
and never heard that they would bite, or were poisonous. Its origin is
like that of all similar worms — from the eggs of a large moth.

Southern Illinois Described — State of Agriculture, by a

Resident.

"In writing to you some weeks ago about the clover hay worm, I inti-
mated that I would furnish the Club with some items pertaining to the
state of agriculture here, and to my own experience in that branch of in-
dustry. In order that you may better appreciate what I have to say, I
shall venture to introduce myself with rather more egotism than is con-
sistent with the rules laid down by Chesterfield.

"Equality, from which I date, is a village of some 500 inhabitants. Its
principal attraction consists in its coal mines and salt works. I live six
miles to the northward of that place, at which is my nearest post-office. I
came here seven years ago and settled in the woods. Upon my little tract
of one hundred acres there was not then a tree missing, except here and
there one that had been fallen by the hunters of bees or coons. I have now
an improvement of about forty acres, chiefly the work of my own hands.
This is still enclosed on three sides and half of the fourth by a dense forest.
Within the last three years I have constructed nearly a thousand yards of
under drains, which is, b}' the way, a thing entirely new to this region.
These introductory statements will enable you to understand that I am less
familiar with the pen than with the axe or spade.

"Southern Illinois is probably less frequented by Northern and Eastern
people than any other portion of the free States. I have never seen more
than two or three persons here that were originally* from New England or
New York, snd not one that was engaged in farming. English and Ger-
mans are also rarely met with. There are a few Irish, but the farming
population is made up almost exclusively of emigrants from the slave

PKOCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 145

States and their descendants, of which Middle Tennessee has famished the
largest share. These people have been sufficiently set off by occasional
correspondents of the Tribune, who have traveled or sojourned among
them. I will therefore let them pass for the present, though I may have
occasion hereafter to allude to some of their characteristics.

"My personal knowledge of this region is confined chiefly to this county
(Gallatia), and the county adjoining on the West. They are situated in
the south-eastern corner of the State. The face of the country is in some
places brt)kcn by hills of considerable magnitude, but much the larger por-
tion is simply rolling. The more depressed portions are nsually wet dur-
ing the latter part of Winter and early Spring. The bottom lands along
the streams are subject to overflow. This is especially the case with the
bottoms of the Wabash, which are very extensive. The beds of the small
streams are njuddy; the waters are turbid and have a sluggish current
when low. The back waters of the Ohio not unfrequently reach a point
fifteen miles or more in a direct line from that stream, through the Saline
river and its branches.

" The timber upon the upland is nsually post oak, black oak and hickory,
with a scattering undergrowth of dog-wood, hazel, and varif)us other sap-
lings and shrubs. There is a cypress swamp some six miles from the
Ohio, and running nearly parallel with it, and extending from the Wa-
bash eighteen or twenty miles. At the point where it is intersected by
the road running north from Shawneetown, it is passed by means of a log
causeway a mile in length. This swamp furnishes great quantities of valu-
able lumber, which much resembles pine, and is perhaps quite equal to it
for building purposes. What is called low or wet land here, is hardly enti-
tled to the name of swamp, inasmuch as the surface is solid even when>
covered with water, and is generally sufficiently dry to admit of being
planted in corn during the month of May; though there are few Springs so
dry that these lands would not be greatly benefitted by a system of under
drainage.

" Of the bottom or low lands there is considerable variety both of timber
and soil; the former being a very good index to the latter. That is, a good
judge of land can determine with nearly as much certainty of the quality
of the soil when the ground is covered with snow as when bare, simply by
observing the growth of timber. The richest, the most desirable, and
probably the largest proportion of this class of lands, is what is called
black land, from its color. The timber most characteristic of tliis is hack-
berry, black mulberry, and slippery elm. There is also often interspersed
white ash, honey locust, sweet gum, and the large variety' of elm. And
here let me remark that upon all the lands, whether high or low, there is
usually a sufficiency of oak of one kind or other to answer all the ordinary
demands of fencing. We sometimes meet with a small area of low land
where the soft maple, and a variety of red oak called water oak, prevail.
Ilere the soil is of a lighter complexion and less fertile. We have a kind
of oak called overcup, probably from some peculiarity of the cup which en-
closes the acorn. It is found abundant in some places upon the medium
quality of low land. The bark resembles in color that of the white oak,

[Am. Ln-st.] J

1 16 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

and the wood is as durable as that of any kind of oak. Its peculiar value
consists in its growing very straight and free from large limbs; and of its
being found, oftener than otherwire, of a size suitable for log buildings.

"The whole surface of the country that I have seen is free from stone,
and it is not often met with in digging wells; though quarries of stone are
found here and there on the banks of our large streams, some of which
make excellent grindstones. Beds of nearly pure sand are occasionally
met with, but it does not predominate in tlie soil. The upland, though not
remarkable for' fertility, has a light, warm, mellow soil, which is easily
tilled and gives very satisfactory results for several of the first years it is
under the plow.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

October 25, 1864.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Food of Cedar-Birds.

Mr, S. R. Dunn, Woburn, Mass., thinks that cedar-birds have kept his
fruit trees nearly clear of worms for several years. They come in flocks
as soon as tlie worms appear.

Dr. Trimble, the entomologist of New Jersey. — I consider the cedar-bird
one of the most valuable laborers upon the farm, orchard or garden. I
have paid great attention \o the subject during the past summer. I have
shot and dissected several of these birds at different periods, and found
their stomachs filled with worms. In one I counted the remains of thirty-
eix^of the destructive kind known as canker worms. I have watched the
parks in' this city and found that upon days when but few persons were
there, cedar-birds came in flocks to feed upon the span worms, which are
such a nuisance every year, and am of opinion that if the parks were closed
for some weeks, at the proper season, that the birds would soon abate the
nuisance. When the worms first appear, would be the proper time, for
then it takes a much larger number to satisfy a bird. They feed upon
them, however, in all stag-es of their existence, even after they are wrapped
up in their cocoons. These birds never have their young until worms are
abundant. It is true that later in the season they eat a few cherries, for
which they are shot, and in autumn we see long strings of them exposed
for sale in the city markets. This should be utterly prohibited. They
should be protected in ever}^ possible way, and so should all the class of
insectivorous birds, particularly the three warblers of Wilson and the
bobolink.

Rev. Mr. Weaver asked the doctor to describe the cedar-bird, as we now
have many in the city which resemble the canary birds, only larger. Some
call them English sparrows. Are they cedar-birds or sparrows?

Dr. Trimble said that they were neither. The cedar-bird had a high tuft
on its head, and the ends of the wing and tail-feathers appear as though
tipped with wax. They are very beautiful as well as valuable.

The chairman said that a flock of these yellow brown birds spoken of,
had been busily searching the trees in his yard for two weeks, and he had
taken great care not to frighten them away. What are they?

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 147

Dr. Trimble. — These are the 3'ellow rumped warblers of Wilson. These
should not only be carefully protected by law, but the people should be so
instructed that no law would be needed for the protection. Every man
who owned land would learn to consider the birds us part of his property.
Another most valuable bird to the farmer is the Baltimore oriole, that beau-
tiful little creature which builds such artistic habitations for its young,
hanging from the limbs of trees. Both birds and nests are ornamental
besides being useful. Whenever you fiwd one of these nests you will find
but few worms on the trees. The oriole is the only bird that I know that
eats the curculio.

Squash Vine Bugs — Remedy.

Mr. Anson Hammond, West Liberty, Iowa, says that by plaaitiiig a few
seeds of hemp in each hill of squash or cucumber vines, the striped bug
will bo effectually kept away. Let the hemp plant grow until the vines
are out of the way of the bugs, then pull them up like other weeds. This
information will be worth remembering until next season.

The Wheat Midge.

Mr. D. Steck, Hnghesville, L3'coming county, Penn., gives the following
full description of the wheat midge and its habits. He saj^s:

" The perfect insect is a small gnat or fly, as its name (midge) indicates;
it is of an orange color, in general form it somewhat resembles a mosquito,
but is a little smaller, being only about one-tenth of an inch in length. It
has long, slender legs, and two transparent wings. Its antenri-ae are of a
blackish color; those of the male are nearly twice as long as those of the
female. The eyes are black and prominent-. It makes its appearance from
the first of June to the end of July, according to latitude, later as we pro-
ceed north.

" The female deposits her eggs upon the kernels of the wheat, by means
of her egg tube, which she inserts in the opening between the valves of
the corolla or cliaff Avhich inclose the developing kernel. As many as ten
or fifteen are often found on one kernel. In a day or two the larva or mag-
got is hatched from the egg, and commences operation upon the immature
grain, from which it sucks the juice, of course preventing its full develop-
ment, and when several are present, rendering it entirely worthless. la
about two weeks the larvae attain their full size, and are prepared to undergo
the next change in their existence. They cease feeding, the body of the
worm contracts within the skin, and it remains torpid in this state for a
few da^'s. It then bursts this envelop and emerges from one end leaving
its shell behind. Its appearance is slightly altered. Soon after moulting
the insect falls to the ground, where they burrow five or six inches below
the surface. Here they lie ensconced until the following spring, when they
undergo their next change, that is, from larvae to pupa?. This change is
comph.'ted without casting the skin; the wings and limbs of the yet imper-
fect insect being uncc)nfined, instead of closely enveloped, as is the usual
condition of most insects in the pupae state. It now works its way to the
surface, and emerges in the final, complete state, ready again to multiply
its species for further destruction.

148 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

" I will here mention an instance that occurred in the sprinc^ of 1856.
Early in April I plowed a piece of land on which the midge had destroyed
a crop of wheat the previous season. Soon after the plowing- was finished,
there was a heavy fall of rain; the next day I chanced to pass over the
field, and to my great astonishment I saw millions upon millions of the
midge in the low places where the water had carried them. They were
then apparently in the same condition as when they first issued from the
wheat to enter the earth. As the water subsided, they gradually disap-
peared by burrowing in the earth again.

"According to the statements in the article referred to in the beginning
of my letter, the midge would necessarily become a perfect insect iu the
fall, when they take refuge in the mullen. What nonsense."

What makes Color in Grapes ?

Mr. S. R. Dunn, Woburn, Mass., wants to know "the difference between
the white and purple or colored grapes chemically? What is the coloring
matter, whether iron or not, and the effect on the sjstetn in their consump-
tion?"

Mr. Geo. Bartlett. — This question is wholly unanswerable, as to what
makes the color. It has no effect on those who eat colored grapes.

Dodder, the Flax Parasite,

is said to be medicinal by Mr. John Graves, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. "It was
considered, in England, an efficient remedy for hypochondriasis and bilious
complaints; and the medical faculty of that period used to import from Italy
and Turkey, as being still more efficacious, the Guscata minor, (the Dodder
being Cuacata major,) which attaches itself only to the Thymum durins,
(our common garden thyme,) that herb growing wild in those countries.
Perhaps even now, in some cases, it might beneficially supercede the min-
eral medicaments so frequently used for the cure of such diseases."

Apple Trees that Bear Inundation.

Mr. S. W. Gavitt, writes from Kern River, California, that in several
inundations that he has witnessed in that State, he has found the Northern
Spy apple trees have lived, when all other sorts have perished, and there-
fore recommends it for all situations subject to overflow.

Economy in Wheat Growing.

Mr. P. D. Beckwith, Dowagiac, Cass county, 3Iiel)., wants the Club to
discuss the subject of grain raising in all its various relations. I think
we, as a people who raise grain, and particularly wheat, do not sufficiently,
understand the subject in scarcely any one particular. He says: "It is
admitted by all farmers who have used grain drills, that they cannot afford
to sow their grain broadcast, but should use a drill by all means," and he
thinks Gage's roller drill superior to all others. The advantages of drill-
ing wheat ave: Saving of labor and seed, increase in yield, [and protection
from winter-killing and drouth. All the seeds is buried out of the way of
the birds, and seeding can bo done in windy weather.

PROCEEDINGS OP THE FARMERS* CLUB. 149

Poultry — How to Keep it Healthy.

Hr. Jonathan Kepler, Pleasant Monnd, 111., says that forty years ago his
mother was told tliut if she wanted to keep her fowls healthy she must kill
all the old cooks, kei'ping none over but one winter. Pursuing tliat course,
he has not known one case of the gapes in that time. He also recommends
never to allow old hens to accumulate in the flock, and to obtain eggs from
neigiibors every year to produce a cross in his stock.

Mrs. James Aikuns, We(^law-lee, Wisconsin, says that gapes are entirely
preveuted among poultry by salting- their food in the same proportion us
food for ourselves.

Tripe — How to Clean It,

Mr. Robert Terrett, Newton, Licking Co., Ohio, says, in these times of
scarcity and high prices of meat, he thinks the club would confer a great
favor upon all who read its discussions if it would give some directions
how to save and clean beefs tripe, which makes a most excellent article
of food, but which few people in the country know how to prepare.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Tlic answer to this is, cut as small an opening
into the paunch as possible through which to empty the contents. Do this
with care, so as not to smear the outside, and carefully wash off any sub-
stance that may adhere. Then let one man thrust his arm in.to the opening
and seize the bottom firmly, while another turns the sac inside out. Now
sew up the slit tiiat was cut firmly with strong twine. The sac is now to
be thoroughly wa-shed in cold water, and then either covered with white-
wash just as you would cover a sheepskin to loosen the wool, or else placed
inu tub of strong alkali made of lime or wood ashes or potash, and kept
there until the wooly coating is loosened so that it can easily be scraped
off with a knife. As soon as this is the case, give the sac another thorough
washing to cleanse it of the lime, and then it is ready to be cut up for
scraping. Cut it in long strips, about five or six inches wide ^ lay one of
these upon a table or board before you, fastened at one end with a couple
of tacks, and scrape with a dull knife until quite free of the adhering coat.
Then wash, and put the tripe to soak in weak brine for twenty-four hours
or longer. Then wash again and it is ready for boiling. It should be
boiled until it is quite tender, when it may be pickled or put away to be
calen fresh, after recooking, by stewing, frying or broiling ; and there cer-
tainly is no part of a beef that affords richer or more palatable food, and it
is through the sin of ignorance that it is so often wasted.

Sowed Corn for Fodder,

A farmer in Chautauqua county wants the club to keep agitating the
question of sowed corn and how to cure it. lie says that some of his mea-
dows have been in grass twelve or fourteen years, and must be broken up
this fall or next spring. The consequence will be that he will be unable
to winter hii* stock unless he can do it upon corn-stalks or some other sub-
stitute fn" hay. A great many other persons have old meadows which
th(y hesitate to break up for the same reason — they do not know what to
substitute for the grass during the transition stage. Many who have tried
%owed corn have found the difficulties of curing it for winter feed so ^reat

150 TEANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

that they have abandorsed the attempt. This writer says he has tried
"binding in small bundles, putting- the bands as near the tops as possible,
and also the plan of setting it round a pole on forks, and the result is about
the same. The earliest sowed corn cures the easiest. The difficulty is in
keeping- it sweet after it is packed away for winter. Although supposed
to be well cured, it often retains moisture euougli to cause it to mold. He
finds the best way to keep it is to pack it with straw layer by layer, He
wants to know if any one has had experience in the use of salt in cnring-
corn-stalks. Some suppose it injurious instead of beneficial, as it tends to
keep them damp, and dues not help to cure it except in such large quanti-
ties as to be injurious to cattle.

Mr. Solon Robinson, — I approve of the method of packing cornstalks
with straw, but disapprove of the use of salt.

Ashes as a Manure.

The same writer asks, what in the opinion of the club, ashes are worth
as a top-dressing for meadow, where hay sells for' $20 per ton.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Many of the club who have had experience in the
use of ashes, con&ider them worth twenty-five cents a bushel upon any
land in the vicinity of this city. They may be pi'offtably applied to grass
land at the rate of twenty bushels per acre.

Mr. George Bartlett said that he had seen the effect of ashes upon land
twenty years after the application.

Mr; Wm. S. Carpenter said that there was a great difference in the
qiiality. Those from hickory wood are worth fifty cents a bushel for many
purposes on the farm. For potatoes, ashes are almost invaluable.

The chairman asked the opinion of the club as to the value of leached
ashes. He used 200 bushels year before last upon potatoes, without any
perceptible advantage.

Mr. George Bartlett replied that he might have used the ashes upon soil
already sufficientlj^ supplied with potash. They are apt to be of the least
advantage upon clay soil.

Mr. Solon Robinson said it is certain tliat they are advantageous upon*
the sandy soil of Long Lsland, as farmers there are willing to pay the cost
of ashes in Canada West and transportation all that distance.

Mr. Martin E. Thompson mentioned the advantag-e of leached ashes upon
Long Island and a crop of potatoes this year, 315 bushels per aci'e.

Grape Vine Worms.

Mr. A. Gilbert, Tipton, Indiana, says : " I found on my vines several of
the worms with the parasite cocoons stuck all over them. I put one under
a tumbler, and a few days after there was a large number of small black
flics in the tumbler; they were three-sixteenths of an inch long, large head
for the size of the body, body slim and two hairs from the tail. To be
gure that they came from the cocoon, I took out the worm and cut off the
top of one of the unopened cocoons, and out crept a fly like the others,"

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. ISI

A Plant for a Name.

Mr. G. also says: "I send a specimen of a small, pretty vine, tliat came
in a box of plants from New Jersey. It has a yellow flower. I would like
to know the name."

Professor Thurbcr. — Tliis jilant is known among country people as penny-
wort. Its bota?\ical name is li/^iniachia nianmularia. It g-rows verj'^ pret-
tily from hanging baskets, that is, baskets tiUed Avitli damp moss in which
the roots of the vine are planted, and from its small, shining round leaves
grow and hang over so as to drape the sides of the basket and form a very
pretty winter ornament for rooms.

Sorghum in Southern Illinois — It Deteriorates.

Our seasons here are several weeks earlier than necessary for the matu-
rity of sorghum. It was not injured by frost last year, though it came five
weeks earlier than usual. The seed is planted in May ; it might be in
autumn. Scattered seed often grows to become a nuisance in the cultiva-
tion of the nest crop. Cane need not be fully ripe to make good molasses.
I have made it of excellent quality from canes where the seed had not half
turned. A neighbor made some fiom unripe cane, which much resembled
maple mrilasses. The opinion generally prevails that the seed should be
fully ripe. That opinion is erroneous. For family use a plain wooden mill
will answer where an iron mill is inaccessible. The juice should be skim-
med thoroughly just before and just after it begins to boil, and it should be
boiled inimediately after it is pressed, and boiled as rapidly as possible,
and removed from the kettle as soon as done, beciause the affi'nity of the
molasses for the iron injures its quality'. Glean the kettle thoi'oughly be-
fore using again. That sorghum sometimes degenerates, is an established
fact; but I am not aware that the cause of such degeneracy has been fully
brought to light. I will therefore give the club the benefit of my experience
in full, bearing upon that point. Three years ago last spring I planted
one-fiiurth of an acre in the corner of a cornfield, and the yield of molasses
was very satisfactory. I saved a portion of the seed, and the next spring
planted three- fourths of an acre in the same corner. I was not at home
when the crop was worked up, but found that tlie yield was but little more
than that of the preceding year from one-tliird of the land. At that time I
attributed the deficiency to some defect in the old wooden mill, or to the
incapacity of those left i» charge. A portion of the seed had been saved,,
witli which I planted one-fourth of an acre the following spring in another
corner of the same field; corn still growing upon two sides of the patch, as
in the two former years. Upon commencing to grind out tin's crop, I soon
discovered there was some serious defect in the cane ; the juice was not
there. So I abandoned the job, and hauled what was left to an iron mill,
the owner of which told me my cane was running into broom corn. He
also inf(M-med me that he had f(tund a good deal of difference in the pro-
portional quantity of juice afforded by different crops; and pointed out one
pile which he said was not worth working up. This, upon inquiry, I found
to belong to 9 man to whom I had given the seed. Upon a more critical

152 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

examination of my cane, it was found that a few of the stalks were hearj"
and full of juice, while much the larger portion were nearly as dry as corn-
stalks. From the whole quarter of an acre but five and a half gallons of
molasses were made — less than one-fourth of what was obtained from the
same area two years before. There was no broom corn grown near either
of the crops referred to. If I were to plant sorghum again I should select the
seed from that crop which should be found to yield the largest quantity of
raolasses from the smallest bulk of cane, and should plant as far as possi-
ble from corn. Four years .igo an occasional farmer here and there raised
a small patch of sorgo, and ground it upon his home-made wooden mill,
and boiled the juice in such kettles as he happened to possess or could
borrow. Now iron mills are coming in all around, and there is not one
farmer in five within the circle of my acquaintance whose table during the
coming year will not be abundantly supplied with this new-born luxury ;
while at the same time there will be a surplus sufficiejjt to supply the home
demand. The owners of iron mills manufacture molasses for fifteen cents
per gallon ; the cane being delivered at the mill. The farmer, or aivy one
else who can command half an acre of good land, must be poor and lazy
indeed who cannot now keep his table supplied with this ni;tritious and
wholesome delicacy."

The writer wishes to know how far north sorghum can be profitably grown.
He thinks as far north as Central New York. Perhaps that may be the
case in some localities.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Sorghum has but little cultivation in this or other
North-Eastern States, though it has been grown to some extent in gardens.
My opinion is that it has never succeeded north of latitude 43 degrees, and
only partially as far north as latitude 42 degrees 30 'minutes. The fact
mentioned by the writer about the degeneracy of sorghum grown in the
vicinity of Indian corn, is a very important one. If such is the case that
it does hybridize with corn so as to injure its saccharine quality, the fact
should be definitely known, and no seed should be used of cane grown ia
such a situation. We know that it will hybridize with broom corn, Guinea
corn, Doura corn, and other varieties of the sorghum family, but did cot
know it would with Indian corn. We have heard much the present year
about sorghum that yielded no juice, or the juice of which was not saccha-
rine, and we hope that this statement will lead to the cause and a remedy.
Sorghum is altogether too important a crop, particularly for the West, to
leave anything unconsidered that will tend to its improvement. It is of
the utmost importance to keep the seed pure. Its degeneracy in other situ-
ations can only be accounted for upon the hypothesis of this case mentioned
in Southern Illinois, tliat it has been affected by growing too near Indiaa
corn. Let us have more facts.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter said that sorghum was largely grown the present
year at New Milford, Conn. This is a little above 41^ degrees. A gentle-
man there estimated there were about 250 acres, and that it would yield
200 gallons of syrup per acre. There is a factory that grinds the cane and
manufactures the syrup for toll. If such factories were established in other
neighborhoods, sorghum would be extensively grown in this region as well
as the West,

PROCEEDINGS OP THE FARMERS* CLUB. 153

Mr. J. Irish said tliat sorghum had been successfully grown in Onondaga
county for several years. Many farmers produce more than tlioy require
for use, and consider it easier to make molasses from sorghum tlian from
maple trees. There are neighborhood mills estublisii(;d tliere, which grind
the cane and make tlie syrup for twenty cents a gallon. The seed ripens
perfectly in that county, between 421 and 43 degrees.

Mr. Weaver said he had lately heard of molasses made of Indian corn, at
the rate of three gallons to the bushel.

Mr. BartU'tt said it must be done bj' previously malting the grain.

Mr. Irish said he had heard of molasses made of cornstalks.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — That was done extensively at Wilmington, Dela-
ware, more than twenty years ago by a Mr. Webb. He found no difficulty
in iriaking molasses, and but little in making handsomely granulated
sugar. The only secret about the matter in making molasses from Indian
cornstalks is to carefully strip off all incipient ears, and then allow the
stalks to grow to maturity. Mr. Webb gave up the manufacture of molas-
ses because wc were then under the southern rule of no tariff, and foreign
molasses was introduced so cheaply that it would not pay to make it at
home. There is no necessity now to make it from cornstalks, because sor-
ghum is preferable. The only thing we want to know is how to keep the
seed pure.

Strawberry Plants — How to Preserve Them.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter. — Strawberry plants sent by mail or otherwise
are often received in a very dry condition. If set in the earth in tliat state,
and watered, they will surely die. If laid upon the surface and covered
with damp moss, and that pressed upon them with a board for one or two
days, they may revive. I lately received some from Wisconsin which
were all apparently dead. I treated them in this way before setting them
in the ground, and now they are growing vigorously. If you have no moss
at hand, you may cover the whole plant in soil, or with almost any other
Bubstance, rather than to plant them in the ordinary way.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

November 1, 1864.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely fn the chair.

Emigration to Maryland.

A letter was read from Prof. W. Buer, Sykesville, Md., who oflbrs to
come here and deliver an address before the Club, giving important inform-
ation to those who may desire to emigrate to that State.

Mr. P. T. Quinn. — I think there is no better State to emigrate to than
some of the counties of Maryland. Land can be purchased there at a mode-
rate rate in Kent, Carroll, and Baltimore counties, where I have been in
the habit of visiting for the past five years. A friend of mine purchased a
farm on which twenty acres of wheat had been planted, which yielded
twenty-two bushels per acre. The facilities of getting to a market are
easy. The quality of laud is equal to any in this State.

154 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter said that he knew several persons who had gone
from this part of the country to Maryland, and had become very much dis-
satisfied.

Dr. Ward thought the only way to get at the truth Avas to have the sub-
ject thorouglily discussed. We know that some parts of the State of Mary-
land is very productive, and now that slavery is ab(jli8hed it will be a very
desirable State for emigrants; and moved that the Secretary notify Mr.
Baer that we will give public notice that he will be at a meeting of the
Club ready to answer any qnestions in relation to Maryland.

Sugar and Syrup from Indian Corn.

The Chairman stated that he had ju^t seen and carefully tested the qual-
ity of s^'rup made from Indian corn al'tcj' the process discovered by a Ger..
man cliemist of Buffalo, who is certain that he can obtain as much molasses
from a bushel of corn as a distiller can whisky; that is, three to four gal-
lons, and the quality of that which he saw is equal to the best sugar
refiner's s^'rup, which now sells for $1,50 a galhni, and the cost of making
is declared |;o be quite small. Two sugar refiners who have examined the
process are so taken with it that they have each agreed to put in §50,000
to establish a raanufactf)ry of syrup, and probably sugar, from corn. At
present sugar has not been made, but some of tlie syrup left standing in a
bottle solidified, so that the bottle had to be broken to get it out, and it
proved to be a fine grained, plastjc sugar. Upon some surprise being ex-
pressed that sugar or syrup could be obtained from Indian corn, Mr. Ely
observed that the whole success of the distiller of grain depended upon the
amount of saccharine that the grain contains, and therefore it does not sur-
prise him to hear that this saccharine can be extracted before as well as
after it has undergone fermentation. The only thing is to hold the fer-
mentation ^t the right point, and make sweet syrup instead of alcohol.
Some of those who have examined this new process, and they are men of
sound judgment in such matters, are satisfied that the whole country can
be supplied with sugar and molasses from Indian corn. At any rate the
problem will soon be solved, for some of the wealtiiiest men in New York
are engaged to fully test the process.

Mr. Solon Robinson said that the question that corn contains saccharine
is not disputed. The only thing to be settled is the cost of extracting it.

Prof. Tillman thought that there was a still more important question, and
that is, whether it will prove to be true cane sugar, or more like grape
sugar, which is less in value, because less sweet. Now is it settled that
this new produv^t is sweet, not only in taste but in fact? that is, does it
contain C' H" 0^'?

Mr. Geo. Barllett. — T understand that this syrup is made of starch, which
is .nothing new among chemists. In France it is an established industry.

Osage Orange — Is it Hardy ?

Mr. E. H. Rood, Bloomington, 111., says : " I notice in the last report of
the Club that the Osage orange would be killed with twenty to thirty de-
grees below zero of cold- I have lived in Illinois nineteen years; last
winter, with one exception, was the coldest during that period — thermome-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 155-

tor twenty -five degrees below- zero. Peach trees killed very generally, but
I have yet to sec the first hedge killed by last winter's cold. The cold
winters of 1854 and 1855, however, did kill many Osage orange hedges,
but that is the only winter in which they have been killed since their intro-
duction as fencing material."

Mr. Solon Robinson.— That is just the whole tliat I have stated in regard
to this kind of fence; that it could not be relied upon further north than
the cotton growing region. Any plant to answer for a fence in this lati-
tude must be proof against any degree of cold ever known. If it is not,
and a fanner has used it to fence his farm, he is never certain of the next
crop. One hard winter may leave him fenceless. I grant all that is ever
claimed for the beauty and goodness of Osage orange hedge, but still it is
not suflicientl}^ hardy.

Mr. Geo. Bartlet thought that it would be safe to plant Osage orange
wherever jieach trees flourish. At any rate he thought the isothermal line
of the cotton plant quite too low.

Mr. P. T. Quinn said that he had known a hedge of this plant to endure
the winter in Jersey twelve years, and he thought a man could afford to
lose his fence once in ten years rather than fence with rails. Besides, the
less fence we have the better.

Mr. R. Cr. Pardee. — The greatest difficulty about a hedge of any kind is
not its liability to be kill<;d by cold, but to be neglected and suffered to
grow out of shape, unsightly and worthless. Tiie generality of farmers
would never pay proper attention to a hedge to make it answer for a fence.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter. — I believe tho wild pear tree would afford a good
material for hedges. It would be verj' hardy, strong, and not liable to any
disease. It: would, in my opinion, make a good hedge.

Mr. Solon Robinson — And so would apple trees. Witness tliose in old
pastures that have been broused by stock; see how rugged tliey grow. No
animal could get through such a hedge.

The Chairman. — I notice in an account of the discovery of a new pass
over the Andes, that a forest of apple trees was found upon one side of the
mountain.

Poison Ivy Remedies.

Mr. E. n. Rood, Bloomington, HI., says : " I notice in the reports of dis-
cussions at your Club that you have mentioned several remedies for the
poison ivy. After the poison has taken effect, and sores are a consequence,
bran poultice is a specific. This I know from actual experience, having
been many times poisoned — bran of wheat or rj'e equally good." "Yes,"
Bays a lady, who has been often poisoned, "equally good; but no better
for me than hot water without the bran. A very hot poidtice of anything
is good, and often renewed will effect a cure; but all the remedies that I
have tried are not equal to the sweet fern tea. Perhaps bran is a specific
for some persons; it is not for me."

Mr. Pardee said that he knew of a child that was troubled years with
poison sores cured by tea of Honduras, sarsaparilla. He would oppose all
remedies that tend to drive the poison inward."

156 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Grapes — How many can be Produced upon an Acre ?

Mr. Solon Robinson.- — This question lias been considerably agitated of
late. Here is an item of evidence that members of the Club have not over-
estimated the possible production. Suel Foster, Muscatine, Iowa, in a let-
ter to The Country Oentleman says, in speaking of an exhibition of grape*
at the Iowa State Fair, that Mr. Jobe, of Clay, Washington ct)unty, Iowa,
raised this year on half an acre, containing eight hundred vines five years
old, 8,665 pounds. He had the proof of this crop with him, and expected
to get a special premium from our " Discretionary Committee" for this most
extraordinary crop of Concord grapes. He had about four acres, set mostly
with Concord. His yield of wine, with some select lots, was a gallon to a
little over eleven pounds, but the average was about a gallon to fourteen
pounds. A portion of his grapes were sent to Chicago, and sold at fifteen
cents, netting him at home twelve and a half cents per pound. At the
same rate his vines will yield 17,330 pounds per acre. Does any one doubt
if they will do that at five years, that they will yield 20,000 pounds at ten
years of age ?

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter said that he lately read a statement in the Genesee
Farmer that Mrs. Munn's grapes were splendid. She has five hundred and
forty-six bearing vines, seven years from planting. They are trained on
post and slat trellises, seven feet high. The vines are fourteen feet apart
each way. The whole vineyard occupies two acres and five-eighths. In
1862 it produced seven tons of grapes; last year eleven tons, and this year
the crop is estimated at fifteen tons. . They are all Isabellas. Mr. Adams
has charge of the vineyard, and has certainly been very successful.

Heavy Seeding of Grass Land.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — The following mixture of grass seed for an acre of
land is used by Mr. Collins, a- dairyman at Collinsville, Conn.: nine lbs.
timothy, nine lbs. orchard grass, three lbs. red clover, three lbs. red top,
seven lbs. Italian rye grass, three lbs. perennial rye grass, two lbs. tall
meadow oat grass, and four lbs. white clover. In England two bushels of
large and twelve lbs. of small seed is given as the seed for an acre, and
the cost is stated at "twenty-five to thirty shillings" an acre,

Iowa as a Wool Producing State.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — It was estimated that between 400,000 and 500,000
sheep were driven into Iowa in 1863, and that the influx this year wnll be
equal to the last. This, with the increase of lambs, which is very large,
as the sheep are remarkably health}', will soon give that State a high rank
in the production of wool, particularly as marked attention is given to fine
wool sheep. There were fifty Vermont bucks in one lot at the Iowa State
Fair. . .

Profitable Stock.

Mr. E G. Holcomb, Brashier Iron Works, St. Lawrence county, N. Y.,
says : " From seventeen stocks of bees I had eight hundred lbs. honey and
twelve swarms; one hive made eighty-one lbs., but did not swarm. This
crop was mostly obtained from the last of June to the middle of August, at

PROCEEDINaS OF THE FAliMERs' CLUB. 157

the time that white clover was most in blossom. As for honey dew I have
never seen it in this section. In some seasons we obtain a good yield
from basswood, but none tliis year. The quantity of buckwlieat honey
was very light — about two lbs. to five of clover; tiierofore I consider white
clover the main source of supply, and in this section there is plenty of it.
I wish to ask the Club, or any of the outside members, if there is any feasible
mode of stifling the worms or moth eggs in boxes, after being removed from
the hive, without the use of sulphur, which is apt to give the combs a green
color." Would the fumes of charcoal answer ?

Mr. Bartiet, who is a practical chemist, replies no; nothing of the kind
■will destroy the vitality of eggs.

Evans' Rotary Cultivator.

Solon Robinson. — I am glad to announce to the Club that "Evans' Ro-
tary Cultivator" has been so much improved by Mr. Hepburn, its present
proprietor, that it is almost a new maohine, and much more promising of
success in practical use than it was when exhibited two years ago at Roches-
ter, at which time it was highly commended by a committee at the State
Fair. I am informed that a company has been formed for the purpose of •
introducing it to the public. The machine is now ready for exhibition, and
it is intended to have a public trial of it at Flatbush, L. I., on Thursday
next, and the proprietors would be glad to have a committee of this Club
present." ^

On motion of Mr. Robinson a committee of five were appointed to examine
the working of the machine: Messrs. Solon Robinson, John G. Bergen, Wm.
S. Carpenter, }'. T. Quinn, Isaac M. Ward were appointed said committee.

Consumption of Meat in Cities — London and New York

Compared.

Mr. Solon Robinspn. — I find the following statistics in The Mark Lane
Express of the consumption of meat in London, which I think worthy of
transferring to the reports of this Club, to compare them with those of
New York. The figures are from a paper read by R. Herbert before the
British Association for the Advancement of Science. The writer appears
to mourn the inability of England to furnish meat for its own people. He
says:

" If we closely examine the returns of the great metropolitan market,
which has to furnish a supply for nearly 3,000,000 people, we shall find a
state of things which would appear to shake confidence as regards our
powers of production. In 1853 and 1863 the total supplies of stock dis-
posed of in the above market were:

185.3. 1863.

Beef cattle 252,(524 288,177

Sheep and lambs 1,325,474 1,389,142

Calves ; 20,395 23,291

Pigs 34,677 53,985

From the above figures, we must deduct the numbers of foreign stock
offered, in order to see how far production has increased in the United
Kingdom. These numbers were:

158 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

1853. 1863.

Beeves 52,344 72,907

Sheep and lambs 220,429 285,296-

Calves 22,619 26,630

Pigs 8,508 17,562

It follows, therefore, that the increase in hcme-fed beasts in the ten years
was trifling in the extreme, and that there was a falling oft' in the supplies
of English sheep in 1863, compared with 1853. Here, it will be perceived,
the question assumes more than ordinary importance, because the progres-
sive nature of our home and foreign trade, and the increased power of pur-
chase and consumption must, at no distant date, tell seriously against the
consumers. Let us now see how prices have ranged in the tea years. In
1853 and 1863 they were as under, per stone of 8 lbs. net:

1853. 1863.

Beef, from 2s. 6d. to 5s. Od. 3s. 4d. to 5s 2d.

Mutton. . . 2s. 6d. to 5s. 4d. 3s. 6d. to 6s. 2d.

In the period here alluded to, then, inferior beef has advanced lOd., and all
kinds of mutton Is. to Is. 2d. per 8 lbs.; although, as I have shown, tlio
arrivals from abroad have continued to increase. If .we refer to 1842, and
to the ten years prior to that period, we shall find even a greater difference
in value. The best Scots were seldom worth more than 4s. to 4s. 2d., and
the best Downs 4s. 6d. to 4s. 8d. per 8 lbs. There is, therefore, a much
larger profit to the grazier without a correspondng increase iu the
supplies."

I will now give the number of butcher's animals reported at the market
places in this city, which does not include some thousands of calves and
sheep, many cows, and a few beeves sold at the Hudson River market
boats and other places. Cows are included as butcher's animals because
they are nearly all fed for that purpose upon distillery swill. I have not
the figures for 1853, but here are the current returns of

1854. 1863.

Beeves 169,864 270,561

Calves 68,584 35,709

Sheep and lambs 555,479 519,316

Swine 252,328 1,101,617

Total 1,046,255 1,927,203

The enormous excess of swine here do not enter into the city consump-
tion as fresh meat, but is packed, and much of it goes to feed the English,
who are unable to produce enough for themselves. Beside the live stock
received in both cities there is an enormous quantity of dead meat brought
in. We have no statistics of New York, but the article from which we
have taken our figures in regard to London, says:

"In the two years ending with 1853, about 20,000 carcasses of beef,
and 200,000 carcasses of mutton, received from Scotland, were annually
disposed of in Newgate and Leadenhall. In the two years ending with
1863, the average number of the former received by railway and steam-
boats was 27,000; of the latter 300,000. It follow.s, therefore, that the
production of food in Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Nor-
folk, Suffolk, Essex, and Scotland, has steadily increased during the last

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 159

ten years, and were it not tliat the dead markets were from time to time
heavily supfilicd with meat I'rom Scotland, Yorkshire, &c., prices would
have been unusually high, since it is evident that the quantities of stock
exhibited in the cattle market are wholly inadequate to meet consumption.
Again, we may remark that at various periods of the year, large numbers
of prime beasts and sheep are purchased in London for transmission to the
various outports and watering-places. It would be diflicult to ascertain
the quantity of meat annually consumed in the metropolis, but we may
consider it about as follows: 250,000 beasts, 1,500.000 sheep and lambs,
20,000 calves, and 400,000 pigs. The enormous supplies required year by
year prove that great efforts will be necessary on the part of our graziers
to meet the still increasing volume of trade."

The same state of things exists in this country, and if it were not for
the bountiful supply of meat given us by the Great West, New York city
would be as much under the necessity of importing meat from foreign
countries as London. Of the future of England, the writer says: "At
present, the prospect is, even with an increased importation of stock from
abroad, that all kinds of meat will be very high in price for a long period.
We must bear in mind that France, like ourselves, is suffering from a
scarcity of stock, compared with the consuming powers of the country.
Last year the imports in France, chiefly from Holland, Germany, Belgium
and Spain, amounted to n(!arly 600,000 head; and yet prices ruled high.
From that country, therefore, we can expect no aid, because she is now
competing with us for a supply of food." Does this not look fair for Ameri-
can farmers, that the demand for salt beef and pork will continue to be so
good that we can aftlird to send this food to England without cutting short
our own supplies.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

November 15, 1864.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Wheat turning to Chess.

Mr. L. H. Patchen, Depewville, Jefferson county, N. Y. — I observe that
Mr. Egbert Cowles, of Conn., relates his experience upon the chess ques-
tion; there seemed to be a doubt in the mind of the Club with regard to
wheat turning to chess. I would state what I have observed on the sub-
ject: I have seen wheat and chess grown in the same head together; it
was not thought an incredible thing by farmers that wheat would turn into
chess; when we were clearing n[) our lands in the northern part of Jefferson
county, or at least by many some forty or forty-five years ago. I have
noticed, as Mr. Cowles says, that in the low places where the water stands,
and dries awaj' in the spring, it will produce chess. I have examin(!d the
roots that produce chess, aiid, as near as my judgment would allow me
to decide, the main stalk of the wheat was killed and the sprouts from the
roots produce chess, I should like to know the views of the Club upon
this peculiar head.

Mr, Wm. K. Prince. — I consider it a waste of time to discuss this ques-

160 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

tion, which seems never likely to be settled. Wheat and chess are two
distinct g-cnera, and one genus will not change into another.

Dr. Trimble. — I will read the following extract from Dr. Darlington's
•work on weeds and plants:

" This foreigner is a well known pest among our crops of wheat and rye,
and occasionally appears in the same fields for a year or two after the grain
crop; but being an annual, it is soon choked out by the perennial grasses,
and fallen seeds remain, like myriads of others, until the ground is again
broken up, or put in a favorable state for their development. The best
preventive of this and all similar evils, in the grain field, is to sow uouq
but good clean seed.

"Among the curious vulgar errors which yet infest the minds of credu-
lous and careless observers of natural phenomena, may be mentioned the
firm belief of many of our farmers (some of them, too, good practical far-
mers), that this troublesome grass is nothing more than an accidental
variety or casual form of degenerate wheat, produced by some untoward
condition of the soil or unpropitious season, or some organic injury, though
it must be admitted, I think, by the most inveterate defender of that faith,
that in undergoing the metamorphosis the plant is surprisingly uniform in
its vagaries, in always assuming the exact structure and character of
bromus.

"A similar hallucination has long prevailed among the peasantry of
Europe in relation to the supposed change of character in the grasses.
But in the Old World they were even more extravagant than with us, for
they believed that wheat underwent sundry transmutations, first changing
to rye, then to barley, then to bromus, and finally from bromus to oats. I
believe the most credulous of our countrymen have not been able as yet to
come up with their transatlantic brethren in this matter. This grass has
been cultivated within a few years as Willard's bromus, and the seed sold
at a high price. Tiie farmers found that they not only did not get a valu-
able grass, but were reall}' propagating a worthless and pernicious weed,
being thus doubly cheated."

Mr. R. n. Williams declares, though in opposition to the theory of Dr.
Darlington, Mr. Prince and other eminent botanists, that chess is indige-
nous to this countr}''; that he has often seen it growing wild upon both
timber and prairie land. In that condition it is so minute that it is seldom
observed; but cultivation develops it to the size it is found in wheat fields.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter thinks all the chess theorists honestly mistaken,
and until something can be proved that the question shall be, so far as
discussing it in this club is concerned, considered as settled in favor of
botanical science.

Flower Seed for Distribution.

Mr. Wm. R. Prince sends in some flower seeds for distribution, and says
that lie intends to send others, in order that the gardens of the interior
may be filled with plants of permanent and enduring beauty. Those sent
in today are of the Japan, blue striped, hermerocaUis, which he says should
be kept in a cool, dry place, free from frost, until the middle of April, be-
fore being planted. Also the golden trumpet flower, bignoniajiava, a hardy

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 161

clinibing slu'ub. Ladies in want of these or otlicrs that vnny be named
hereafter, must send stamped envelopes to the secretary, J. W. Chambers,
and he will ghidly distribute these and any other seeds that may be put
into his hands for that purpose ; and it is to bo hoped that those who have
puoh thinj^^s to spare will take this method of putting tliem into the hands
of those who will receive them with thankfulness.

Evans' Rotary Cultevator.

Three of the committee appointed November 1, to examine the working
of Evans' Rotary Cultivator, at Flatlands, Long Island, attended to that
duty, to wit : John G. Bergen, Wm. S. Carpenter and Solon Robinson, all
practical farmers, who have had repeated opportunities of witnessing the
operation of this machine, in previous years, as well as others designed to
dig up the soil as a substitute for the [)low, or other contrivances for ren-
dering the surface pulverous and in fine condition for seeding with any
crop.

The spot where the trial was made was upon the farm of David W. Wet-
more, near the mill-pond, in Flatlands, where the soil is of that character
of loam that makes it pack together very firmly after it has been lying
some time exposed to the action of the sun and rains. The land had been
well prepared by plowing and harrowing in July for a turnip crop, which
had entirely failed in consequence of drouth and grasshoppers. Con-
sequently it was very compact and level, and required the strength of four
horses to work the machine to its full capacity, which is eight inches deep
and thirty inches wide.

The njachine is made with steel teeth about an inch wide, like those of
an ordinary spading fork, which are set, two by two, on a flexible chain
band, working over rollers; and a machine may be made with two or more
of these chains ; two cutting twenty inches wide, and three thirty inches,
and so on. The one that we saw at work had three chains and six rows of
teeth, and these, with the rollers, levers, etc., for regulating the work, are
mounted upon a pair of wheels, are about two feet high, and the whole,
with a seat for the driver, occupies just about as much room, and is of
about the same weight as a Buckeye mowing machine, minus the cutter-
bar.

Upon hard ground, like that at Flatlands, it is necessary for the driver
to ride, or carry weight, to keep the teeth in and steady.

In moving trom place to place, the teeth are lifted from the ground, and
the whole weight then rests upon the wheels. When let down to fall
work, the wheels are lifted, and the whole weight of the machine and
driver, say eight or ten hundred pounds, rests upon the teeth to force them
int(» the ground ; and the rollers are so arranged that the teeth strike as
they revolve upon the points and are forced almost perpendicularly into
the earth, to whatever depth they are set for, from one to eight inches. If
the motion of the team is rapid, the action of the teeth upon the earth, as
they come around the hind roller, by a short, sharp leverage, is to throw
it up in a spray, like the hay behind a tedding machine. In a small way,
the action of the dirt is pretty well represented by an active dog, digging
in loose earth, and throwing it up behind him. Of course, no other known

[Am. Ixst.] K

162 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

process of working; the soil could possibly put it in better order for anj
crop, particularly one grown from fine seeds.

As to the value of the macliine for many purpt)scs, the committee think
that there can be no doubt. There were a g-ood many farmers present at
the trial, all of whom appeared to be satisfied upon this point.

It is worthy of being higlily rcconmiended to farmers as a new, valuable
agricultural implement, Avhieh has been greatly altered and improved since
its first inception, still retaining the original idea of fixing the teeth upon
a flexible chain, as far better than upon a rigid cylinder. The proprietor
attributes to it the following qualities :

1. Will completely revolutionize the mode of cultivating the earth.

2. Will diminish the cost of preparing the soil more than one-half.

3. Will increase crops from fifty to one hundred per cent.
4 Will add to the quality and richness of all products.

5. Will shorten the time of preparing the soil for planting, seeding.

6. Will hasten the growth, and of course the ripening of crops.
1. Is a safeguard against drouth or very dry seasons.

8. Is a perfect security also against flooding or wet seasons.

9. Any person, even a boy or woman, can easily and safely work it."
The committee think:

1. It will add one more excellent agricultural implement to our present
stock, but it will not " completely revolutionize" present modes of cultiva-
tion. It will not drive the plow from the field.

2. We are not sure that it will diminish the cost of preparing the soil.
It requires four horses to cut thirty inches wide, and it would require three
to cut twenty inches, and that we think would be the best way, working
the three abreast.

3. There is no doubt that it would increase crops, upon land prepared in
this way, over that plowed and harrowed, because it is better prepared.

4. In this all will agree, because the crops are, as ag-encrul thing, always
of better q-iality upon land prepared in the best manner.

5. Comparing the preparation of soil by this machine with the hand-fork,
which it resembles, the time would be shortened.

6. Of course; because the act of working it so completely aerates the
soil, that seeds will vegetate readily.

1. This will depend upon the depth of working.

8. Doubtful. The machine has good qualities enough without clainiing
any doubtful ones.

9. In this the committee would not agree. It requires as skillful a wt)rk-
man to operate it as it does to work a reaping machine. It never should
be undertaken by a boy or woman.

In conclusion, the committee are satisfied to recommend farmers to give
this machine a place upon all farms that are tolerably level and free from
rocks aj»d stumps. Upon all such, it will work to advantage, though it
will not turn sod, and probably would not work well in weedy stubble.
But upon deeply turned furrows, if the teeth of this machine were set at a
depth not to disturb the grass or weeds turned under, it would fit the sur-
face for any kind of seed better and probably cheaper than any other

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 163

macliiiie in use. It will uiidoubtedlj' prove a very valuable implement
upon the great Westcin prairies.

Tiie report appeared to give general satisfaction to all present, and con-
siderable conversation ensued upon the importance of improved methods
of cultivatidu. Mr Bergen said, the report in one respect, perhaps did not
do the machine justice. He was not sure that it would not work in sod
ground, though it would probably require a very strong team. Tlie com-
mittee have not intended to say anything more than their observation fully
justifies. It certainly puts the ground in the very best possible order for
crops. The question of expense of preparation must be settled by prac-
tical experiments. Mr. Carpenter freely acknowledged that he was disap-
pointed in the working of the machine. He went upon the grounds some-
what prejudiced, at least prepared to believe that it could not supersede
th<' plow and otlier implements; and if lie had expressed his opinion upon
looking at the machine before it was operated, he should have condemned
it. The more he saw of it, the better he liked it, and that appeared to be
the case with every one present. Dr. Dwinnell said that he had been
accjuainted with this machine from its first inception, and was fully per-
suaded that now, in its present perfected state, it would become just as
popular with farmers generally, and give as good satisfaction as it appears
to have done to this committee. The old system of cultivation by the plow
and harrow, compacts the earth together; this lifts and scatters it. la
virgin soil, before a watershed has been formed by the pressure of the
plow, and the feet of the animals drawing it, there is a relation between
the surface and the subsoil, the roots of plants freely penetrating tlie latter.
After a field has been a long time plowed, and never stirred below a cer-
tain depth, the roots do not appear to even run any deeper. Stirring the
soil with this' digger will tend to break up that artificial bed so that water-
and roots can both penetrate it. Thus it will benefit crops in drouth.
What the report states about aerating the soil is an important matter. In
one field which had been cultivated in strips, one prepared by one of these
machines, and one by the plow and harrow, the increase of product fully
justified the proprietor in saying that it will increase the crop from fifty to
one hundred per cent.

Dr. Wellington inquired of the committee if the h(jrses labored harder in
operating the cultivator than they would in doing the same amount of work
with the plow.

Mr Hergen and Mr. Robinson thought they did; but the preparation was
better. Mr. Bergen said it was the best pieparation he ever saw. lie
plows eight to fourteen inches deep, and if the plows, team and land are
all in good order, the land is probably left in as good condition, though not
as fine as that prepared by the cultivator. Sometimes it is a great advan-
tage to pulverize soil as finely as it is done by this machine. For all crttps
it is not necessary, and however finely clay ground is pulverized, it will
not remain light and porous, it will pack in spite of us.

Mr. Carpenter thought that an acre of land could be thoroughly prepared
for a crop by this cultivator cheaper than by the plow.

I'rofessor Tillman moved the adoption of the report, and that the secre-
tary copy the same upon the minutes of the club. Carried.

164 transactions of the american institute:.

Sorgo in Connecticut.

Mr. William A. Bacon, AVest Meiideii, Ct., says: " Onr sorgo crop tMs
year is iarge, and the quality excellent. At C»Qilford, Ct-, the yieW is
immense. A good many mills are at work gTriinding the cane aad making-
gynip, but they are Bot sufficient to work np all the crop.''^

Varieties oy Sorgo — Which is tbe Best.

Mr. L. F. Hadley, La Salle, 111., made a report to a convention of sorgo-
growers, at Eockford, that must be very lisef'al, for it givea a detailed
acconnt of his espenmcnts this year with all the known yarieties of sngar-
cane grown in that State. The report is published in full in T/te Prairie
Farmer, Chicago, Nov. 5. We will make a few extracts. After giving
his statement of the growth, tisiae of ripening, appearance^ &c., of each
variet}', he sums up as follows:

" HaviBg ascertained the exact yield of every sort sitited to o»r climate,
we are now prepared to ascertain their comparative value j also to compare
each kind with corii.

Table Showing ihe Value of ihx Diffejrknt Sorts per Acre.

Ho. in point of Sails, per Value after dedueft-

earliDess. a«re. ing \ for making.

1. Ijtrge early Sorg&uma. .................. 90 $45 00

2. Early Sorghum 100 50 00

3. Neeazana 90 45 00

4. White Impbee or tbe pura Neeazana 90 45 OO

5. • Early Red Impliee 70 35 OO

6. Shlagoova, or Early Blask Imphse — iaapcrfecl tjial.

7. Pure Sorghom 145 72 50

8. Eengha 135 &3 00

9. Oomseana 102 51 OO

30. BoomTwana lk»2 5100

31. Eeananioodee , 106 53 00

12. Z«'Ombana (imperfect trial), probafely ssims aa 4be

Eeanamoodee, which it resembles.

33. Zimm&oxaana 106 53 00

14. Zimmoomana 106 53 00

15. Shlagoonda 110 55 00

ll>. Vimbisehuapa, or a mongrel — rot suitable fo7 sj'rap in this latiinde. Yield wouli
probably have been 4" B, about 70 gallons per a«r*.
One acre of such corn, to 68 bushels worth, $34.
Corn worth 50 cents a bnshel-, syrup $1 a gallon.

"Having now ascertained the comparative yield of all the sorts worthy
of cultivation, we are prepared to compare the difterent sorts with a good
crop of corn, and though syrup is high, so is corn; and when sj'rup comes
down to forty cents a gallon, it is presumable that corn will come down to
twenty cents a bushel, or nearly in that proportion.

" Corn vs. Cane.
" I will suppose that husking and marketing corn is worth as mnch as
to strip and haul tbe cane, which would be nearly equal in some cases, but
not in others; and to cover the extra expense of handling the canes, we
will allow the odd gallon to be left out for that expense. And it will be
seen that the value of the Early Red Imphee just equals the value of the

• It is but fair to suppose this cort would yield more with a better stand. It is f^ortby of
extended trial.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS^ CLUB. 165

COtn. And pure Sorghum more than doubles the value of the corn.
Oomsceana (OtahcitaiO is worth 1^ more than t^orn; Eengha, l^ more than
corn^ Neeasana, 1^ more than corn; Boomvwana, \^ more tiran corn;
Eeanamooda, ly more than corn^ Zimmooniana, 1^' more than corn^ (But
I believe it costs me 610 more per acre to raise cane than corn the com-
mon way.) Of course it is to be undci-stood thut the cultivation is the
same in both cases. But the canes to be planted as thick agai{» in the
rows, and costs as much a^gain to each hoeir.g, which must be deducted
from the cane. I estimate the expense of raising- one acve of cane the pre-
sent year as follows:

Plowinj; and harroNving one ■acrr;, and mjirkiag seme ....>...«............ $2 00

Planting sniue by hand (carefully as mine v/as) 2 00

First but-ing bi-turc {jjowing Q 00

First plowing ..^v.... ,.,v ...,..,,... . 1 00

Second hoeing ..>........ ....,..« '6 00

i^econd plowing >.', «...«..>«.> 50

Third hoeing and pulling w««ds ,. ».,. 1 50

Kentofland ...» .....,, 4 59

Totel : $20 50

MucK^ — Its Value as Manure.

Mr. J. A. Donaldson, St. Joseph, Berrien county, Michigan, writes the
following letter to Mr. Solon Robinson : *' In a late number of The Country
Gendeman, a writer over the signature of " Old Hurricane," states, that an
intelligent friend of his in New Jersey considers muck of no value as a
fertilizer. Also, that a neighbor of his expended a large sum in hauling
muck and composting it with lime; but he considered the labor and expense
lost, as his corn was no better where the compost was applied, than parts
of the field without it. As you were so well pleased to find a muck bed on
your friend's farm, I conclude you have a very high opinion of it. Will
you please to state before the club whether your opinion of muck as a fer-
tilizer is founded on actual experiment."

To tliis Mr. Solon Robinson answers ; I have had a little personal expe-
rience and a good deal of observation in the use of muck as a fertiliser,
and am just as well convinced of its value as I am that barn-yard nmnure
is good. I am also satisfied that muck is as variable in its value as soils
are variable in their ability to produce crops. Sometimes muck, or what
is called muck, is quite inert ; it often is when used in a raw state. It is
often very unskillfuUy prepared. This was the case in the article referred
to, as it says :

"Our conversation at on<; time turned on muck, and lie said that it was
worthless as a manure — not half so good as common earth for mixing with
manure. I expressed my astonishment, after reading so much about muck,
and buying andcarting it myself at an expense of $1.50 per load. It was
good as an absorbent on the principle of a sponge, and his opinion was
the result of .experiments, of draining and cultivating, and selling a forty-
acre rnuck farm. He had taken off the nigger-heads, put them into large
heaps,' haystack fashion, made them hollow within, filled with lime un-
slaked, then covered all with more muck, poured on hogsheads of water,
left it for a twelvemonth, then tincfjvered, expecting to find iL cluirrod and
reduced, but found it uninfluenced by the burning of the lime and (;ontar.t
with it."

166 TRAlSSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

These "nigger-heads" are about the hardest kind of things to decorn'
pose, and not much more likely to be by the process described than they
would be in their native situation 5 and they bear about the same relation
to muck that a stack of bog hay does to a corn crib. Such bogs, or bog
hay, when thoroughly decomposed, make manure, but it is of a very low
grade of quality. Muck is a different article from bogs called nigger-
lieads. The best of it is decomposed leaves and other vegetable matter of
swamps, which may have been a hundred or a thousand years in this con-
dition, sometimes almost pure vegetable matter, so much so that it burns
freely as peat, and sometimes it is mixed with silt, which detracts from its
value. Sometimes it is good manure, just as it is dug from the swamp or
pond, though it is generally much improved by piling, mixing with stable
manure or some animal substance, or decomposing by mixing in lime that
has been slaked with strong brine, or else allowed to lie in a heap long
enough to become thoroughly decomposed by the natural effect of the at-
mosphere. Sometimes muck, when first dug, contains so much acid or
iron, that it is not only inert, but positively injurious to vegetation. Then
it needs long exposure or lime mixed with it. I believe tl)at it is always
advantageous to compost muck with other manures. It is an excellent
absorbent for the liquids of the stable and pig-pen and slops of the house.
" Old Hurricane" says "he has tried muck two years without any satis-
factory result, but bought it and used it because others did, and because
that other parties with more muck than brains have done the same thing.
I have seen but one experiment on a large scale. A poor German near me
leased a fifty-acre farm, had no manure, and could not buy it at two and
one-half dollars per load. Ho carted muck through the fall and winter,
composting with lime, and putting it on his corn land. No visible good or
manurial benefit could be seen over other portions not so treated, and he
considered the expense and labor lost."

Another person whom he calls " Judge," says " his idea is that as a fer-
tilizer, it is valueless; as an absorbent, it is good ; but placing it far, very
far in value below the estimates made in the books." In short, that muck
has no manurial value.

With such statements before him it is no wonder that Mr. Donaldson
writes his letter of inquiry. For one, I assure him that it would take an
"old hurricane," strong enough to blow away all the judges in Jersey, to
convince me that muck has "no manurial value, except as an absorbent."
I know that I have found other value in something that I called muck, and
I believe that by its use some very badly worn out farms have been reno-
vated, and that a great many others mt,ight and certainly should be made
more productive than they now are. As to its value, that caa (mly be
tested by experience in each locality, as the value of almost every muck
bed differs from another. It is a question of experiment how far it will
bear hauling, or whether land can bo manured cheaper some other way.
But let no man give up the idea of using it until he proves that it has no
manurial value.

Woman as a Farmer.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — What a woman can do, is proved b}"- what she hag
done. The Cincinnati Gazelle says that Mrs. Sarah Owen, Clinton county^

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 167

Ohio, niltivatod a farm of seventy acres this j'car. She had her haying
and wheat harvest, and grew eight acres of corn, besides sweet and com-
mon potat(>(>s, a patch of s(trgo, and a good kitchen garden. She only
cmplityed a hired man part of the time. She strijiped and cut her sorgo,
and dng her potatoes. When the first frost came, she was out at daybreak
to cut off the vines of the sweet potatoes before the sun wilted the vines,
as that is apt to injure the tubers. Mrs. Owen is a highly educated and
acc(un[)lished lady, the widow of a soldier, and is a fine example of what a
woman and mother can do in case of necessity.

Concentrated Coffee.

Mr. Disturnell, presented specimens of coffee, prepared in cakes like
chocolate, by Dr. L. D. Gale, formerly of the Patent OflSce, Washington,
whicii, upon trial, proves to be a very good article, and very convenient for
soldiers or travelers. Its cost is one dollar per pound.

Insects Named.

Dr. Trimble stated that some insects found upon the leaves of a Scotch
pine, which were sent to the Club some weeks since by Albert A. Cramp-
ton, Henry county, Dlinois, proved to be of the familj' of bark lice, manj'
of which have been destroyed by some parasite.

Apples Suited to Illinois.

3Ir. Lucius C. Francis writes from Springfield, III., as follows:
" For the benefit of Mr. Fairchild and others, I will give our experience
with an orchard of 800 trees, comprising some 30 or 40 varieties. The
Wagner is the earliest bearer we kiiow of, producing fruit sometimes the
first and generally the second year after setting out. The Ilawthornden is
an early bearer^ so, also, is the Maiden's Blush, Jersey Sweet, Wine Sap,
Jewett's Fine Red, Pennock's Red Winter or Big Romanite, Fameuse or
Snow Apple, Carolina Red Jane, Victuals and Drink. The manner in which
trees are work(?d makes a great difference in their early bearing. The
nursery trees are almost universally root grafted, and with us, generally
come into bearing late, while those of our own raising, budded or stock
grafted, commence bearing early, I have repeatedly planted seed the same
spring I have set out late-bearing varieties from the nursery, cut scions
from these nursery trees, and grafted the young trees when they were three
years old, picked apples from these trees as soon, and in some instances a
year before the nursery trees bore. The stock grafted trees are also more
harih'. 'fhe winter of 1855 and 1856, which destroyed so many fruit trees
in the West, proved it conclusively to me. The Baldwin and Jennetting
from the nursery suffered severely, while those stock grafted were unin-
jured; and were I to set out another orchard, I should purchase thrifty
seedlings, set tiiem out in orchard, give them good cultivation and graft
them in the top after they were well rooted and growing thriftily."

Emigration to Delaware and Maryland.

^Ir. Solon Robinson. — There seems to be a growing spirit of inquiry arter
lands in states that have heretofore been shunned by emigrants from ihe
free states. Ilcrejs a sample of many inquiries;

168 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Truman Piper, Birmingham, Conn., said he has tried in vain to gel
8()me information about Delaware; that many would like to emigrate there,
particularly into the south part, if circumstances are favorable. He wants
to know the character of the soil, what crops succeed best, whether the
region is considered healthy, and any other information useful to one
anxious to purchase land and settle in that locality.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — In answer to this I can state that the south part
of Delaware is generally level; at least it has no very hilly land. The
most of the soil is sandy or sandy loam, except the black land of creek
bottoms and swamps, some of which have been reclaimed and are very
productive. The upland soil is very light to work, and produces, with
manure, good crops of corn, wheat and sweet potatoes, and where it is cul-
tivated, good clover and grass. The best crop in Delaware is peaches.
Apples do not do as well in the south as in the north part of the State,
where the land is more clayey and rocky. There are but few stones in the
two southern counties. There is much good land, good timber, and many
good people, and some who hate a Yankee worse than they do the devil.
They hate freedom and all its accompaniments. With this exception, Dela-
ware is a good State for Nortliern men to emigrate to. There was a society
organized at Dover to encourage emigration Where is it? Let it speak.

Dr. Snodgrass said tliat he hoped the action of tliis Club may have as
favorable an effect upon emigration to Delaware as it had upon Maryland.
He has no doubt whatever but the letter addressed by this Club to the
Marjdand State Convention, was really the cause of making it a free State.
It was published in nearly all the papers in Maryland, and it showed to the
small landholders of Maryland that there was a spirit of inquiry abroad
about purchasing homesteads in that State, if slavery should be abolished.
From personal observation he knows, that many such owners located in
filaveholdiiig neighborhoods have been long anxious to sell but could not,
because the slaveholders would not allow the hated Yankee to come among
them. As there were only 474 votes majority for the Constitution, it is
very fair to suppose that 238 of this number, which made the turning
point, were influenced by this letter, as the probability of being able to
dispose of real estate. He is happy to mention this subject to show what
an influence for good may be produced by the action of a few men organized
and acting together as this Club has for many years.

White Willow.

On motion, it was resolved that the Secretarj* open a correspondence
with Mr. E. S. Pike, of Painsville, Ohio, in relation to sending out a mem-
ber of the Club to examine and report upon the value of the white willow
as a hedge plant.

Adjourned for two weeks, John VV. Chambers, Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 169^

November 29, 1864.
Mr. Natlian C. Ely in the chair.

Sorghum — Where is its Northern Limit of Growth ?

Mr. Solon Robinson. — We stated, in a late report of proceedings, that
BorghuMi would not be likely to nucceed north of 43 decrees. A corres'
pondent in Wisconsin says we are mistaken, as he has made this year a
thousand gallons of syrup, and he liv(^8 on the line of 44 degrees. The
canes were grown from seed ripened there the previous year. Some of the
oane was fit to work on the 15th of August. I began n)aking syrup the
25th. Much of the cane was Irom ten to fourteen feet high; most of it
matured its seed. The White Chinese and Imphee are most trustworthy,

Sorghum Sugar.

Mr. F, K. Phoenix, Blooniington, 111., sends two samplcfs of sorghum
sugar, made by Th(jma8 Moore, who has discovered the art of converting
any sorghum syrup into sugar. He prefers Otaheite or gray Imphee, but
Biiccecds with molasses of any other variety that has not been seriously
deteriorated, or had the juice ruined by bad management. Mr. P. says
that ^Ir. Moore's theory is that the saccharine matter of sorgun) sirup is as
much cane sugar as that of the Southern cane, and that, properly treated,
its sugar can be extracted equally well. He claims to have produced from
2^ to 8 pounds of good sugar to the gallon of syrup. After experimenting
many months he says he has reduced the matter to a scientific certainty,
and produces good speciniens to back his asseitions. Herewith lind two
of his samples, one from the juice of the Otaheite cane, the other iVom a
common dark sorghum molasses taken from a store. Before making his
process public, he desires to place the matter beyond cavil by establishing
a factory and making sugar in large quantities. If people write him they
must pay return postage. He states that in a few weeks he expects to be
pr(>pared to mak(; sugar by the barrel of such molasses as can be " picked
up," that will answer the purpose, I learn that there is talk of calling a
Sorghum Convention here some time this Winter, to get the people of this
section, especially, fully aroused, to -the importance of planting the best
varieties of sorghum largely next season. Any general or suitable inqui'
ries you may propose to him I tiave no doubt will be courteously answered,
Mr. Moore claims to have reduced the vexed question of sorghum sugar
making to a practical and scientific conclusion, in which there can be no
failure if the principles are fully carried out, as he is making sugar from
molasses bought at the stores, and it is expected that his process will
enhance [uices of niolasses. He also intends to refine and purify and de-
odorize molasses for farmers at a small expense, enhancing its value one-
third.

Mr. ^Vm. S. Carpenter.- — The sample of Otaheite cane sugar is a very fine
Bpecimcn, and wf)uld bring in this market 23 cts. per lb. The sample made
from sorghum molasses W(ju!d be worth 21 cts. per lb.

Apples for Illinois.

Mr. Henry Morey, Babcock's Grove, twenty miles west of Chicago, sue-

170 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

cecds well in growinf^ the following- early apples: Early Strawberry, Sops
of Wine, Early Red-Streak, Summer Rose, Early Harvest. The Strawberry
apples rii)en the middle of July.

OsAGE Orange — Its Hardiness.

Mr. S. W. Noble, Leroy, 111., comments upon the statement of Mr. Rood
about the hardiness^ of Osage oran^^e. Mr. Noble says:

"Mr. Rood's statement is correi-t as far as it refers to the plant. But
there is one fact which he did not mention, and that is, that when our
hedj^es 'froze out,' in '54 and '55, the root did not freeze, but sprouted up
in th(.' Spring rnu(;h thicker and stronger than th(>y had ever grown before,
making decided improvement in tiie hedge. The dry stocks, which are
very (irm and hard, answering every purpose for a fence until the sprouts
come again. The best hedges on our farm were froZ(ui to the ground in
1855, but instead of killing them, as you infer from Mr. Ivood's letter, it
was a decided advantage to them. All Osage orange hedges were improved
by the freeze. Hedges are improved in the same way by fire. There are
Osage orange hedges in this county, on the prairie, where the fires have
run through them every winter for the last eight or ten years, and, as a
consequence, the plants and sprouts are so numerous and bushy that they
will turn quails and rabbits. This idea of Osage orange plant being fen-
der, has been a great drawback on the agricultural interests of this prairie
country.

"My only object in writing is to call the attention of your Club to the
above facts. I have no plants to sell, or other reasons for advocating the
claims of the Osage plant."

Hedges.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter. — Last evening I was in company with the pr(
rietor of Reed's nursery, at Elizabeth, who suggested that as the subjec
' hedges is often discussed at the Club, and as he had a great variety c

1 !• „ 1^ a!.„ ni..K ~: 4:„„ i.„ ii :.,i, ,t...i ji..,*. u ;

Hedges.

pro-
prietor ol lieeci's nursery, at iiiiizaueni, wno suggesreu inai as me suoject
of hedges is often discussed at the Club, and as he had a great variety of
lied'^es on his grounds, the Club give notice to those interested that it will
meet on his grounds and discuss the subject with the various specimens
before tluMu.

Dr. Trimble.— I hope we shall adojjt the suggestion of Mr. Buchanan and
meet there some time next Summer.

Apples.

Pr Trimble exhibited apples which, he said, were declared by English-
men to be "Bk'nheim Orange," which Downing describes as sweet, but
these arc sub-acid, of delicious quality.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter.— These apples are the Westchester Seek-no-
further. The original tree stands in the grounds of Stephen P. Carpenter,
at New Rochelle. It is very old and large, and the fruit most excellent.
There is no apple more worthy of propagation.

Cure for Poison Ivy.

A farmer at South Creek, Penn., who has suflered verj' severely for many
years from poison ivy, has discovered a perfect cure in a plant called Wild

PROCEEDINGS OP THE FARMERS' CLUB. 171

Lettuce {Lacfnca elongafa), wliicli grows on tlic sides of meadows, fields or
gardens, from two to four feet in lieiglit, and in Autumn tlie top reseinblea
common garden lettuce. It is not found in pastures, because cattle are
very fond of it. Bruise the stalks and leaves and af»ply them as a poul-
tice, or bathe the spot with the juice. One application has produced a
cure in cases that resisted every other known remedy. There is no danger
of driving the poison into the blood.

Lard — llow to Extract it from Cracklings.

Mr. J. E. Long, Hublersburg, Center county, Penn , gives us the follow-
ing very important information, appropriate to the present season. lie
says:

" In rendering out lard ov tallow, that which remains in the cracklings
after dripjiing or pressing may be secured in the following manner. While
the cracklings are yet warm smash them line, as you would potatoes for
the table; then pour water over them to tin; depth of three or four inches;
bring the whole to a boil and set away to cjol. The cellular tissue will
sink to the bottom while the lai'd or tallow will rise to the top in a clear,
pure cake. The cracklings must be fried hard enough to crumble easily."

Washing Potatoes — A Cheap, Convenient Apparatus,

A farmer who has tried and is much pleased with it, sends us the f(jllow-
ing description of a cheap domestic apparatas for washing potatoes for
stock or family use:

"Have a tub made of a suitable size to set in another, and not to make
too tight a fit. It should have handles like an}' tub, but should be without
the usual bottom. Instead of that there should be a bottom of slats set
parallel to each other, and about half an inch apart. They may be about
one inch square, and the upper side should be rounded, so as not to catch
dirt and hold it. They may be fastened in with nails, but the nails should
go in lengthwise of all the slats. Set the tub with slats into the otho.v and
pour in the potatoes and water and stir with a stick. When the dirt is
removed lift the tub out and pour on clean water to rinse the potatoes.
They can then stand awhile to dr^in, after which thej' may be set in a con-
venient place to use."

Cider — Keeping it Sweet by Sulphur.

Mr. R. n. Eastman, Co. I, Heavy Artillery, N. IT. V., writes from the
Post Hospital near Fort Williams, Virginia, in answer to Mr. Clement's
inquiry how to keep cider sweet, as follows ; " Let it ferment until suited
to your taste, then rack off all that is clear and appropriate the sediment
to the vinegar barrel. Wash the cider barrel thoroughly, and put back
about one-fourth of the cider. Then make a long-pointed bung that will
reach within three or four inches of the cider. Attach to the lower end of
the bung a rag dipped in sulphur, which set on fire and replace the bung
closely. When the sulphur has done burning, give the barrel a thorough
eliaking, fill it, bung tight, and the cider will remain unchanged fur years."

172 transactions of the american institute.

Grafting Grape Vines.

Mr. S. I\. Duvcn, Woburn, Massaclmsotts, wiuita to know if he can sue*
ccssfnllN' graft Delaware scions upon wild vines. The answer is yes, though
that variety is a little more diirionlt to grow than some others.

Mr. Solon Robinson—- A gentleman in Brooklyn set a scion of tlie lona in
a -wild vine, and got a growth in one season of over thirty feet.

Staking Fruit Trees.

Mr. 11. IT. "Williams. — There is no question in my mind more important
than staking fruit trees. I think, from the experience of orchardists in
Westchester county, that a tree three years old staked, was equal to one
five years old not staked.

Mr. George Bartlett, who has had a good deal of experience in tree
planting, said that he C(juld set trees so firmly by the use of water that
they would not require staking " Fill the hole full of water, and then sift
in the dirt, and it will form around the tree roots almost as compactly as
though cast in molten lead.'' He had often set posts in the saiile way, and
found them to stand tirmer than by any other process. It is a great and
useless labor to stake trees.

Mr. John G. Bergen thought that water would not answer upon such
loose 6>oil as his upon Long Island, nor was it necessary to stake trees.

The chairman said that he planted his pear trees last spring upon garden
soil, using water for part of them, which were as firm two days after as
though they had been set a year. The others were planted without water,
and he saw no difference in the growth. None were staked, and he did
not see Jjny necessity.

^Ir. William S. Carpenter thought (hut staking was quite out of data.
He had never used stakes; and theie is an orchard of a thousand trees
upon a neighboring farm which was not staked, and yet they grew as
finely as any orchard that he ever saw. If trees are properly grown
in the nursery, there never will be any necessity for staking them. There
may be with trees having long, slim bodies, and large tops, if planted
without pruning. He would cut away such tops one-third, or perl;aps
one-half.

Mr. Solon Robinson expressed himself very warmly against the plan of
staking, on account of its great cost and uselessues. He believed the
effect of the wind had a natural tendency to strengthen the roots of
the trees.

Root-Graftinq.

Mr. Henry Morcy, Babcock Grove, 111., says: "I wish to inquire the
reason of y<'ur preference for top grafting trees, as that is one of my
exploded hobbies. I have both kinds of the same variety, and can see no
difference."

Jlr. Carpenter said some varieties would not grow if grafted upon the
root. Tliis was the case with Newtown pippins. For all his grafting he
prefers stocks of natural fruit, which have always produced the best rcsiilta
for him.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 173

Mr. John G. Berp^en said tliat scions set upon natural stocks bad always
proved the hardiest with him, and equally good whether set low or high
from the ground. He had not had much experience in root-grafting, and
did not care to have much.

Early Apples for Wisconsin.

The following list is given by Mr. George W. Shaw, Garden Grove,
Iowa, f()r an acre, trees twenty feet apart: Sumn)er apples — Red June, 5;
Sweet June, 5; Benoni, 3; Red Astrachan, 2. Autumn — Lowell, 3; Maiden's
Blush, 5; Cole's Quince, 2. Winter-Jonathan, Genitan, White Winter
Fearmain, Winter Sweet Paradise, Wilton's Twig, Domine, 10 of each;
Yellow Belle Flower, Sweet Romanite, Small Romanite, 5 of each; Striped
Sweet ripi)in, 8 — making in all 108 trees.

Mr. Shaw wants to know when to whitewash fruit trees.

Mr. Solo4i Robinson said potash or caustic soda ley is far better. If
lime is used, J^pply the water only.

Curing Sowed Corn.

Mr. A. A. Cook, Hillsdale, Columbia county, N. Y., recommends binding
the stalks in small bundles, with straw l)ands, and set them in stocks of
six bundles each, and, when partly cured, lift the stocks to a new spot, to
give the butts a better chance to dry. After they are cured and put in
stack or barn, they undergo a sweat; then remove and air them and they
will not mold.

Flower Seeds.

Mr. William R. Prince sends in for distribution seeds of Bladder Senna
(Colutea Arhorei^cena ) , which grows in shrubs six feet high, bearing yellow
flowers. Also Hihhcusi Moscheulos, a perennial plant with large white
flowers, with crimson center.

Early Marketing Potatoes.

Mr. Abel S. Makepeace, Ilyannis, Cape Cod, wants to know the best
variety of early potatoes, of which he wants to plant two acres upon a clo-
ver sod, on good sandy loam, and how many cords of manure per acre the
Club would recommend.

Mr. John G. Begen. — I would recommend the Mercer, although we on
Long Island raise a great many of the Dyckmari, but it might not answer
as far north as Cape Cod.

I would recommend the application of at least twenty cords of manure to
the acre. Some of our potato growers use all they can get.

Mr. Solon Robinson said that some of Mr. Goodrich's seedlings were
highly recommended for early potatoes

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter said a kind called Early Cottage, gave great sat-
isfaction in his neighborhood. The quality is good and the yield large, say
250 bushels to the acre.

Molasses and Sugar from Corn Meal.

The Chairman statud that a company had been organized in this city,
with a million dollars capital, to manufacture molasses and sugar from

174 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

corn meal. It has been settled that a bushel will yield sixteen quarts of
molasses, and when twelve quarts only were extracted the quality was
equal to sugar refiners' syrup tliat is now selling at $1.75 per gallon.

Prof. Mapes. — At one of the early fairs of the American Institute I
exhibited several specimens of sugar made from corn, corn stalks, woody
fibre, &c., but they were proved to be grape and not cane sugar. In damp
weather it is so hydroscopic that dry sugar softens into a wet mass. It is
a poor substitute fur cane sugar.

There is nothing new in the matter. At the present high price of sugar
it ma}- be made to pay a profit.

Strawberries.

Mr. H. A. Catlin, Gerry, Chautauqua county, N. Y., says: " I picked
seven bushels of strawberries this season from two and a half rods of
ground. The most of them were set in June 1863, in old garden soil, only
manured with ashes. They were tilled perfectly, not a weed allowed to
grow, and mulched in autumn. During the drouth they were well wa.;ered.
I picked one day forty-two quarts, and fifty of the largest berries filled a
cubic quart measure. The variety was Wilson's seedling, the most pro-
fitable for general cultivation."

Cranberries in the Garden,

Mr. Catlin says: "I set cranberry plants last Spring upon dry sandy
loam garden soil, treating them like strawberries, and they grew finely
and produced some specimens of fruit.

Broom-Corn Seed for Sheep.

Mr. L. Farnswortn, of Sullivan, Ohio, says that Mr. Cipher, of Ashland
count}', Ohio, has for several j^ears past, during the Winter season, fed his
sheep corn or oats daily, and has usually found a large number of ticks on
them at the shearing season. But for the last two or three years he has
substituted broom-corn seed instead of other grain. The result is the ticks
have disappeared, and his sheep are vigorous and healthy.

Now, if any of the Farmer's Club have had experience in feeding this
kind of grain, some of us here in the West would like to be infomed of the
results. If it is a fact that this kind of feed is a preventive of this evil,
perhaps some one may be able to tell us why it is so.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary,

December 6, 1864.
Prof. Samuel D. Tillman in the chair.

Lands and Climate of Maryland.

The Chairman introduced to the Club Prof Baer of Maryland, who said:
It is more important to one buying a farm to know the composition of the
subsoil than to know that of the surface.

If he did not look to that he might as well buy when the farm was cov-
ered with snow as at any other tirue. Do not trust to surface appearance.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 175

It is also equally important to look to climate and the condition of the
locality for health. If you should write to any county in Maryland for
information about buying a farm, you would be told that the locality was
decidedly healthy; yet it is certain that some parts of the State are not so,
particularly in the thirteen counties of tertiary formation.

In the Eastern Shore counties, it is nccessar}' to be careful always to
build the dwelling upon the south side of streams or marshes, because the
south wind always comes loaded with miasma, and therefore a site is
always more healthy althoug-h upon low ground on the south side of a
stream, than it is tjpon the top of a hill on the north side. That side of the
State is very fine for Winter residences, but is subject to summer fevers.
In all situations, when the air is damp that the house sweats, it will be
loaded with miasma if there is any in the vicinity. It is certain that the
lower counties of this State are subject to chills and fever. The middle
aiid noithern counties, where primitive rock prevails, are as healthy as
other similar regions. In a section where bilious fevers are prevalent, all
H(juth or south-eastern windows and doors should be closed an hour before
sundown, and whenever the atmosphere is damp, fire should be lighted iu
tlie house, no matter what is the state of the thermometer.

If you go to the State to select a farm, do not take the opinion of the
seller about the healthiness f)f the location. My practice is to go to the
graveyards, and look at the ages recorded upon the tombstones. In some
neighborhoods I have never been able to find one indicating that anybody
lived over ft)rty j-ears. I do not believe such a location is healthy. Do not
take the evidence of a single crop as the productiveness of land. I have
known men make e.Kertions to raise one large crop for the purpose of sell-
ing the farm. This can be done by guano or some other stimulating
manure.

The aspect of a farm is important, not only for health but productive-
ness. I know farms where the wheat is ten days earlier upon the field
with a southern aspect, than in another which slopes toward the north,
and the earliest ripening is always the heaviest. I know situations where
grapes grown upon the south side of a hill will produce good wine, ■v/hile
lliose grown only a few rods distant upon ground with a northern aspect
aae only fit to make vinegar.

The importance of having a deep, dry subsoil is proved by the fact that
tJie roots of wheat will penetrate eight feet deep. I have traced the roots
of sorrel three and a half feet, and well authenticated reports say that hop
roots have been traced iu England 20 feet deep. If the subsoil is impreg-
nated with peroxide of iron, as soon as the roots penetrate it they are killed,
and a conmion expression among farmers is, " My wheat has gone back."
It is simply because its roots have gone into a poisonous subsoil. !Much
(»f the State of Maryland needs underdraining. In the northern part there
is an abundance of stone; in the southern there is none; there tiles must
be used.

Speaking ff the benefits of lime, Mr. Baer deprecated the use of that
which is air-slaked. Magnesian limestone, fresh burned, and slaked with
water saturated with salt, is ten times as valuable as lime in any other
Ibrra. The objection to air-slaked lime, or shell marl, is that it requires a

176 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

very long' time to produce any effect. The hydrate of muriate of lime is
soluble. Potash and soda are alike in their action upon the land, and soda
is not more than one-third the cost of potash. All gneiss rock is full of
potash, and if we use chlorine, we set it free and give it to vegetation;
and the chlorine is obtained by slaking the lime in salt water.

Mr. Baer said that farms could be purcliased in Maryland at from S5 to
$50 per acre. There is some very good land in that portion of the State,
which has been overrun by the armies, which can be purchased at a low
figure, but it is destitute of fences, and in some places the buildings have
been destroyed.

The above is only a brief report of the remarks of Mr. Baer, who
promised to write out his notes, but in consequence of ill-health, he lias
not furnished them.

Dana's Hovey Pear.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter.— The pears on the table to-day are the Dana's
Hovey. They have been sent to the committee on large fruits in compe-
tition for the Greeley prize, for the best pear for general cultivation.

Mr. C. M. Hovey, of Boston, a gentleman well known to the horticultural
world as one of our oldest pomologists, is present to-day, and I doubt not
will give us an account of this choice pear. I take great pleasure in intro-
ducing him to the Club.

Mr. C. M. Hovey. — Mr. Carpenter has spoken too flatteringly of my hum-
ble efforts in the cause of horticulture; but I will give you an account of
the pear now before you.

It was introduced by Mr, Dana, of Roxbury, in 1854, and has received
high encomiums from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society.

H may not be out of place to mention here, that nearly all the American
pears, now well known, have been accidental seedlings found in pastures
or neglected gardens, where they have sprung up from chance seeds. Of
the many varieties in our collection, but a small number have been the
result of experiments made in sowing seed with a view to raise improved
varieties.

It is a theory with some cultivators that seeds of the finer varieties of
pears would never produce improved fruit, and that the fruit so produced
always degenerated, or returned to the character of the original type. The
theory of Van Mons was gradual improvement from the wild state, by suc-
cessive generations, and was thought by him to be the only reliable mode
of producing great results.

All experience in regard to our American fruits contradicts this, for
many of our best varieties have been found in old gardens in the neighbor-
hood of fine old pear trees, and from whose seeds the trees have sprung up,
and when grown to maturity the fruit excels that of the parent.

Mr. Dana has had unusual success, and has produced more remarkable
varieties than has been raised by the most successful Belgian cultivators
out of the same number of trees; and the simple fact of Mr. Dana's achieve-
ment, in the production of seedling pears, will now dispel all doubt in re-
gard to the results to be gained by sowing the seeds of our best varieties,
and that the theory of Van Mons, though undoubtedly leading to partial
success, is only done by the loss of years of time and labor, and is a pro-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 177

cess which the patience of few men, however ardent in their love of pomo-
logy, will ever be likely to attempt. Is it not better to commence where
others have left off, than to g;o over the whole ground again?

A great variety of new seedlings recommended, and with such rapidity
that before one kind can be fully tested another is pressed on our notice,
consequently we are taking up many of our old varieties which have been
overlooked.

According to my experience it takes from fifteen to twenty years to bring
into general cultivation any variety of new fruit.

I would advise every cultivator to sow a few pear seeds from choice fruit,
and no doubt we shall hear of some valuable varieties produced from them.

Mr. Dana has done me the honor to give this pear my name. It is of
nearly medium size, about three inches long and two and three-quarter inches
in diameter, form obovatc regular, largest about the middle, narrowing to
each end, with a small crown; its color is a rich crimson russet, dotted
witli white and grayish specks-, its flesh yellowish white, fine, melting,
and very juicy; its flavor sugary, refreshing and luscious, with a most
delicate, peculiar and indescribable aroma; ripens in November and De-
cember, and with proper care may be kept until the tenth of January. It
never rots at the core, but begins on the outside, which may be ctit off
witlunit injuring the flavor of that which remains.

The tree is almost as remarkable as its fruit. It is very vigorous though
not a rapid grower, making a stocky, short-jointed wood, like the Seckel;
in habit it is erect and pyramidal like the BufFum; its leaves are rather
broadly ovate, and of a deep glossy green, maintaining their color and
holding on to the tree till late in autumn.

There is an old adage, " that the proof of the pudding is in the eating."
I propose that those present now taste the fruit and express their opinion
as to its merits.

At the conclusion of Mr. Hovey's remarks the pear was examined and
tested, after which Mr. Solon Robinson offered the following resolution:

Bejiolc^d, That the Dana's Hovey is the best winter pear known by the
Club, which resolution was seconded by Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter and unani-
mously adopted.

Mr. Carpenter paid a very liigh encomium to Mr. Greeley for the offer of
his liberal prixes, which alone were sufficient to attract the attention of
such men as Mr. Hovey, and bring him here to make known to the world
8uch a valuable new variety of fruit.

What Ails the Pumpkins ?

Dr. John B. Rich stated that a disease prevailed among the pumpkins in
Columbia county, N, Y., more fatal to the crop than the rot ever had been
to potatoes. Upon his own farm and some of his neighbors' the pumpkins
had almost universally rotted. lie made the statement for the purpose of
inquiring if the disease prevailed in any other section, and if any one knew
the caiisc or a remedy. The decay has taken place since the fruit was
fully ripe.

Dr. Wellington said that he had never seen pumpkins sounder or better
than they were this year iu Massachusetts.
lAk. Inst.1 L

178 transactions of the american institute.

Apples for a Name.

The apples sent by Mr. J. Manning, from Youngstown, Ohio, are unknown
here. He says that they keep well until April.

Flower Seeds Distributed.

Mr. J. W. Chambers, Secretary of the Club, reports the receipt of large
numbers of letters from ladies from ten States, asking for a portion of the
flower seeds sent in for distribution. The supply being exhausted, Mr.
Chambers wrote to Mr. Prince for more. He replies: "1 will send you
enough of the four sorts uamcd for one hundred persons. I cannot promise
more, but will try to hunt up some other rare seeds. None of these seeds
are for sale anywhere. I took this course to distribute them because I am
now sixty-nine years old, and have but one year left to do good to human-
ity, and the propagation of rare plants will permanently beautify the
earth My reward will be, when my spirit walks the earth, I may hear
people say: 'There are some of the beautiful things that Prince distribu-
ted in the last days of his life.' The names of the seeds sent in to-day are
the amorphia fruticosa, blue flowering shrub; autumnal perennial aster, and
splendid double hollyhock, all colors.

Farmers should Improve their Common Schools.

So writes a farmer from Verona, Wis., who saj's "that half of the time
of children is spent with matters long since entombed. Of what practical
use is it to a Wisconsin farmer's child to learn to repeat that old table of
the obsolete currency of New England: Four farthings make one penny,
twelve pence one shilling, twenty shillings one pound ? Or why should
our children be taught to measure cloth by the ells of the Flemings, F'rench
or Scotch; or to weigh articles by the rule of Henry VIII of England, in
aliquot parts of a tun of 2,240 pounds, which is almost as obsolete as New
England currency or Flemish ells ? These, and many other absurdities
still taught in common schools, farmers should eradicate as they would
pestiferous weeds that make farming a drudgery; for attending schools is
greater drudgery — so much so that children, to escape from it, will per-
form the worst on the farm. I wish that the Farmers' Club, which has
reports in The Tribune, would discuss this subject and awaken farmers to
the necessity of a reform in all our common country schools."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — The suggestion is a good one, not only for this
Club, but for every other club, and for all scientific discussions that could
influence the public to produce a reform in this particular. The reform is
as much needed in this city as any place I know of, as it is a common
practice of grocers to sell articles by the aliquot parts of " 100 lbs. gross,"
which at wholesale are never sold in that way. Sugar, for instance, is
sold so much for 3|, 1 or 14 lbs., and not one clerk in ten can tell readily
the number of cents it is per pound, and I have often been refused ten
pounds, because the grocer could not calculate the price. I must take it
by the seven pounds or not at all; and I have sometimes refused to deal
with grocers who sold goods in that way. If every one would, it would
cure the ridiculous fashion. The only established trade in gross hundreds.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 179

is in flour by the barrel, which is "seven-quarters," after tlic old English
measure of 112 pounds per cwt. If our boards of trade in cities would
resolve that all fl nir, after a certain date, should be packed in barrels of
exactly 200 pounds, they would do much to abolish that foolish old English
custom. We should all try to introduce the decimal divisions of weigiits,
count and currency in our trade; and there is no better way to bring about
this much needed reform than through our common schools.

Sweet Potatoes — How to Grow Them.

A North Cart)Iina sweet potato grower answers the question, " What is
the matter with the sweet potatoes?" as follows: "Having had much
experience in raising that valuable esculent, I will give it as my opinion
that the two principal causes of failure were the deep tillage and probably
the kind of manure used. Land for sweet potatoes should not be cultivated
to a very great depth, and especially in northern latitudes, as the soil
ceases to be a conductor of heat in proportion to the depth to which it is
broken. Hence, as they require all the heat that can be given, the ground
should not be broken to a very great depth, but kept stirred often while
growing. Much depends on the kind of manure used. The potato takes
largely into its composition of potash; therefore manures containing it are
most suitable. Hence, wood-ashes may be considered about the best
manure. All lot manures should be mixed about half and half with ashes,
the quality of each being improved. However, the best of all manures
that I have ever tried is the dirt and cleanings from under houses, consist-
ing largely of saltpeter. In a careful experiment with some ten or a dozen
dififerent kinds of manure, I found the scrapings from under houses best;
fowl-yard manure second; ashes and barn-yard manure mixed next; ashes
next; barn-yard manure next. It is not an unusual thing to hear it said
that certain pieces of land are too rich for potatoes, especially barn-yards;
but should you give the same a heav}' coating of wood-ashes, you will then
find that it is not too rich. It is merely too rich in vegetable matter, but
lacks the potash. Potatoes should always be planted in hills."

Sorghum in Illinois.

Mr. D. F. Rogers writes from Waltham, La Salle county, Illinois, that
" The present season has been very favorable to sorghum, and the breadth
planted was very large. La Salle county makes her own molasses this
year, and sends a good deal away to other markets. In spite of the con-
tinual ciy that tlie cane deteriorates, the average yield this autumn is
larger than the three preceding, varj'ing from 160 to 200 gallons per acre,
and richer than common in sweetness. This fall we are making it up at
fifty cents per gallon, or half the syrup, and the best sells readily at $1.40
per gallon. I have been a sorghum boiler for four years, and so speak from
experience. We find the best cane " all round" is that which comes the
nearest, in its spring, summer and fall habits, to the first importations of
Chinese cane, though it will be evident to any one who thinks of the mat-
ter, that to keep sorghum seed of an}' variety, or I infer, of any variety pure
in flat, open country like this, where winds, birds and bees can carry tho

180 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

pollen from tassel to tassel across leagues of land, is an utter impossibility,
notwithstanding all that sorghum conventions may say about the matter. Iii
this county we shall stick to the sort that did best this year, no matter by
what name it may be called. As to sorghum, or Imphee, mixing with corn —
the best testimony against such an idea is, that they blossom almost inva-
riably some four or six weeks apart, and unless there is some other bond
of sympathy between them, they can't mix. Half the cane planted in this
county is planted near corn fields, and I never saw it better than this
year."

The Osage Orange — Its Hardiness in Illinois.

Mr. Rogers also writes in regard to the Osage orange being hardy in
that State the following fact: "Within a circuit of ten miles about me,
there are at least twenty miles of hedge of this kind, all the wa}- from one
to fifteen years old, some trimmed closely, some running wild. They have
all stood the thermometer at 28 degrees below, and are thriving yet."

The Chinch Bog.

Mr. T. S. Clough writes from Mendota, La Salle county, Illinois : " If
talk about chinch bug is not thi'eadbare, I will reply to Mr. McDonald, of
Nebraska. According to my observation the chinch bug flourishes in a
dry season only, the more rolling and dry the land is, the n»ore damage
done by it. Your wheat sown upon your fall plowing was probably sown
first and up early, thus affording the bug a longer time to operate than
upon the later sowing, or it might be they were ashamed of your cornstalk
farming; also, thonghtyou would probably need all you mightgetin that way.
Here in Illinois it is a dangerous practice to sow spring wiieat upon corn
stubble simply harrowed in, unless it is sown very early upon very dry
ground, otherwise the weeds will overrun the wheat. In 1859, the year of the
great June frost, chinch bugs did much damage ; the next year very little.
We have now had two dry seasons, and much complaint of chinch bugs.
It is reasonable to expect a wet season next year, and I shall expect to
hear very little of the depredations of this pest.

" My rule is to farm without any regard to the notion that the chinch
bug has a course of three years to run. I do not believe in that doctrine.
There is no alternative for Western farmers but to plant and sow as if
chinch bugs never existed. When they let us alone, let us make good use
of what we obtain, to economize to meet the emergency of a year when
they destroy the farmer's labor. Don't give up, but live on and try, try
again."

Mr Norman Mattison writes upon the same subject from Berwick, War-
ren county, Illinois : "I sow without regard to the bugs. I do not believe
tliey will be thicker next spring, where they destroyed the crop this year
than in any other place. If corn and wheat stubble are both infested with
bugs, I slmuld prefer to sow the spring wheat upon corn stubble without
plowing. I would sow two bushels to the acre as early as possible in the
spring. Wheat stubble ground will do without being ploughed, if you
burn off the stubble clean and harrow it thoroughly. In every case I roll
wheat, oats and corn, after the seed is in the ground. My reason for pre-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 181

fcrving level land for wheat, as stated in a former letter, is, bccauso that
smartwecd which abounds here grows more upon level than upon rolling
land. All the weed seed that matured amonjj the corn lies on top of the
ground, and can come up earl}' enough to be one of the causes to prevent
the damage of the bugs. I now calculate to sow wheat next spring on
corn stubble ground, where the bugs came from my neighbor's field and
nearly destroyed my corn for ten rods wide. My experience teaches me
that there will be no more bugs there than anywhere else.

A New Disease op Poultry.

Mr. D. I). Hamilton, Clarence, Eric county, New York, gives an account
of u new disease of poultry ; wants to know if it prevails otherwhere, and
if any one has a remedy. The disease is worms in the intestines, sufficient
to produce death. In one laying hen that died he found ninety worms,
from a quarter to half an inch in length, somewhat hairy, the size of wheat
straw.

To Remove Rocks.

Mr. Joseph Green, Jay, Wayne county, N. Y., recommends burning in-
stead of burying rocks. lie says: " I dig a trench around the stone nearly
to the bottom: a foot wide or more; fill the trench and cover the stone with
old wood, broken rails, pieces of stumps, roots, etc., all of which are an in-
cumbrance, set fire to tliis, and, when burned down, take an iron bar to see
if it is not cracked, which is generally the case; get off all I can; if not
able to get it all out, fill up again with rubbish as before and burn again-
I once burnt one three times; it was eight feet across it, three feet thick in
the center, half the thickness above ground, I got it in pieces of 150 to
300 pounds, put them on a boar, tlience to th(^ wall. Stones that are clouded
with dark green, or black, with white and copper color, are very hard to
drill, but leadil}' crack to pieces when exposed to the fire.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Where wood is worth six and eight dollars a cord,
it would be too expensive. It appears to mc that burning is not suited to
all localities.

Chess or Cheat — Bromus Secalinus.

!Mr. Wm. R. Prince says: "There is not a botanical publication in any
language that does not explain scientifically the distinctive characteristics
of this plant and of wheat. Tiiis is an annual plant, and trilicum hyhernum
is a biennial one, and their specific attributes are as plainl}' defined by
nature as are those of our oaks and our hickory trees. There is, conse-
quently, no excuse for any man to remain in a state of ignorance, as to the
marked distinctions between chess and wheat, any mru-e than between any
other grass or grain. It is a native of Europe, and did not exist in America
until it was intr(-duced here, mingled with wheat or some other foreign
grain. It has been a common pest of the grain fields of Europe from ti.Tic
immemorial, and it h)ng since attained the name of cheat, because of the
disappointment of the husbandman, who so often found in some portion of
his fi.-M :i crop of chess in place of wheat. It is natural to humid locali.
ticfc; and, when any portion of a wheat field is winter killed by the wet-

182 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ness of the soil, the chess -will start forth and usurp the place of wheat.
With this simple statement about the botanical character of this plant, let
•us close the discussion as to whether wheat ever turned to chess."
Adjourned, John W. (vHambeks, Secretary.

December 13, 1864.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Sorghum — How far North it can be Grown.

Mrs. Flora A. Sanborn, Owatonna, Steele county, Minn., says that place
is lat. forty-four degrees, yet sorghum is raised by a large number of farnierg
in this vicinity as regularly and far more profitably than corn. In 1861
our yellow imphee produced a fine syrup at the rate of two hundred and
seven gallons to the acre. It retailed at eightj' cents per gallon that j'ear.
This year the yield of sorghum is abundant, and of fine quality. It retails at
$1.50 per gallon. My husband uses an iron mill and Cook's evaporator.
Sorghum is grown as far north as St. Anthony, lat. forty-five degrees.

Mr.D. C. Dutcher, Bufl'alo, Scott county, Iowa, says the variety of sorghum,
called Hoang-ho, he believes will mature as far north as lat. forty-eight
degrees. " I planted seventy rods of ground on the fourteenth day of May
last, and it was fully matured on the twenty-third day of July. The yield
was one hundred and twenty gallons, or at the rate of two hundred and
seventy-four and two-sevenths gallons per acre."

Mr. 11. G. Pardee. — It is pleasant to see what new interest has been
wakened about sorghum culture almost all over the United States. The let-
ter just read is very interesting, as it shows us how far north the culture
of this plant is successful. I was surprised last summer, in traveling
through Pennsylvania, to find that almost every farmer had his little patch
of sorghum. Witli a little more experience it is probable that they will all be
able to make their (jwn sugar.

Prof.Mapes. — There is no doubt about the fact that sugar can be made
from sorghum. Joseph S. Levering, of Philadelphia, several years ago fully
demonstrated that fact. The trouble generally with farmers is that they
do not conduct the process with sufficient rapidit3\ The exposure of the
syrup to the atmosphere to a great extent destroys the power of crystalli-
zation. All the manipulations of the syrup lessen that power. The more
it is stirred the less sugar it will produce. Natural sugar crj'stals are
converted into molasses. The most perfectly crysta'lized loaf sugar can
be converted by melting manipulation into cream candy. That candy can
never be restored again to crystallized sugar. So rapid is the process of
the sugar refiners in this city, that they can take raw molasses and con-
vert It into the sevral grades of refined sugar and syrup, and put the pro-
duct upon the market again in four days. It is necessary for the farmer
to understand that he must use equal rapidity in converting his cane juico
into sugar. In boiling, he must use albumen in some torm — the most
simple is blood, eggs or milk — which collects all the albumen, dirt and
fecula of the juice, and floats it upon the surface so that it can be skimmed
oft. To make white sugar, the syrup must be filtered through bone char-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 183

coal. Some of the filters of the refiners here arc thirty feet high. For this
purpose bones arc burnt and giound lO about the fineness of common pow-
der, and the dust carefully screened out. In the filtering operation the
charcoal takes up all the color. The charcoal is frequently renewed by
heating in a retort to a red heat, which burns off the matter collected from
the syrup. Our seasons here are too short for manufacturing sorghum sugar
up(»n a large scale, as it is in the West Indies, where they have months to
work up the crop, while with us the work must all be concentrated into a
few daj's. Let it be the duty of the Club to send out light upon this subject.

Mr. Jireh Bull thought tliat because cheese was now made in neighbor-
hood facttu-ios, instead of families, thatsorglium could be manufactured in the
same way. If it is fvrofitable, there would be no lack of capital to establish
sugar works in every neighborhood. What is wanted is information upon
the subject. Let it be the business of this Club to send out light soon upon
the subject.

!Mr. :?olon Robinson. — The great difficulty about the matter was that the
cane is so heavy an article that it would not bear transportation any con-
siderable distance. It can and should be grown for domestic purposes
upon every farm. It is very doubtful whether it ever can or will be grown
upon a large scale, for the purpose of making sugar, as the true cane is in
Louisiana. Some gentlemen think it depends upon the price of sugar
whether sorghum will continue to be grown, I do not think so, so far as it
affects it as a domestic institution, because maple sugar and syrup have
been manufactured ever since America was discovered, without regard to
the prce of cane sugar.

Pro', Mapes said farmers would be much more successful in boiling their
syrup if they could do it more rapidly and at a higher heat, which can only
be done in a closed boiler. It is essential to raise the heat to two hundred
and fa'ty degrees, particularly as the sorghum juice is weaker than that of
the tnie cane. Strong molasses weighs fourteen pounds to the gallon. As
the Hjward vacuum pan cannot be used except in a large manufactory, the
Professor described and recommended a process by which atmospheric air
is forced into the bottom of the boiler through a pipe and discharged, as it
were, through the nose of a fine watering-pot. This enables the syrup to
boil it a lower temperature, but is not used by sugar refiners, because the
prodict is never as white as when boiled in vacuo.

Ml. E. Williams said that associated effort to work sorghum was not alwjyys
successful. There was such an one in New Jersey this year, and much of
the 8}rtip manufactured had soured, and proved almost worthless.

Sugar from Indian Corn.

The Chairman thought that sorghum growing was likely to prove less
important in consequence of the recent discovery that sugar could be made
from Iidian corn. He had been assured that sugar refiners of this city
have jaid the inventor $400,000 fur his patent.

Pro'. Mapes contended that the principle was not patentable, neither
was V new. Lavoisier, who ditd in the old French Revolution, gave the
process, and showed how sugar could be made from any rooty fiber that
contained starch. He thinks that it is highly probable that the new pro-

184 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

cess is simply the old one, and that the sugar refiners have paid for a pro-
cess long since discovered and published. It has been long known that
we could make sugar from beets in this country. So we could from Indian
cornstalks. This has not been done, because the price of cane sugar ha»
remained so low that it would not be profitable.

Eelievixg Choked Cattle.

Mr. F. J. Wellington, East Braintree, Vt., and Mr. Wni. H. French, Sa-
lem, Columbus county, Ohio, both recommend the use of oil to relieve
chok(^d cattle. About half a pint of any kind of oil poured down the throafc
of the choked animal, and at the same time rubbing briskly on the outside
of the neck, will generally produce relief.

The Langdon Cultivator.

In answer to the question. Prof. Mapes stated that this implement was
not now manufactured. It has been superseded by one known as the car-
rot-weeder, a small V shaped piece of steel, with teeth at the rear to comb
out the weeds which it cuts when run just under the surface.

Cure of Black Knot.

Mr. George C. Beecher, Rochester, Ohnstead county, Minn., says flat he
used to cure black knot, when he lived where it prevailed (Livingston
county, N. Y.,) by paring away the knot and washing the limb with super-
carbonate of soda in solution.

Removing Sod Impoverishes Land.

Mr. James Walker, Orono, Muscatine county, Iowa, says the reisona
that the tomato plants, mentioned in a former report, did not grow was
because the land was impoveriiehed by the removal of the sods. A piece
of c(-rn planted where the prairie sod was removed to build fence, rrew
about two feet high as well as that upon the adjoining ground, but lever
made any further growth. Land so stripped of sod is rendered unproduc-
tive for several years. Mr. W. says that the cause of the sugar cane fall-
ing was undoubtedly the chinch bugs, as he had part of a field of b-oom
corn destroyed the same way. Tlie bugs weakened the stalks neai the
ground, and the weight of the seed heads caused them to fall.

Mr. L. McBcan, Croxttm, Ohio, wants to know if apple pomace is ■valu-
able as manure, and what is the best mode of preserving dried applen

Uninviting Farming. I

Mr. J. Plockcr, Thirtieth Wisconsin Volunteers, Fort Sully, gives the
following uninviting picture of Western farmiiig: "The universal sdccess
which has attended the raising of corn, and its subsequent conversioi into
pork, has led Wi-stern firmcrs into a mode of agriculture that pres(lnts a
very uninviting asp(>ct to visitor or traveler. Orchards old, broken down,
moss-grown, are plenty enough, but fruit trees whose smooth bark de:)otc»
youth and thrift, and who.se spreading branches give an idea of frujtful-
ness, these are very scarce indeed. High bred stock, and even stodt of
lower degree, why should it be so scarce when grain is so plenty? CorOi-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 185

stalks to the viglit, to the loft; cornstulks every where. Ap^ain, why ahovild
hogs and mire be so closely and universally connected? Even if mud be a
necessity to profitable fattening, might it not be well, for the sake of ap-
pearances and consequences, to provide a partly enclosed plank floor' for
bedding- and feeding;? As an excuse for cruelty the citizen farmer exclaims,
" they are only hogs!" Next from the farmer soldier you hear the excla-
mation, " they are only Indians, niggers, or secesh," as the caise may be,
until liiially retribution with heavy hand comes to set things to right-
Farmers of Illinois, Indiana and Missouri, do not allow your patriotism to
be exhausted in Sanitary Fairs, Christian Commissions or brokerage in
substitutes. "

Honey Locust Hedge.

Mr. H. Paine, Lockport, N. Y., says there is a hedge at Darien, Genesee
county, N. Y., forty years old, which he has watched from the start, in
hopes to see tiiat it would make a good fence. He is now convinced that
it will not answer, because it inclines to drop its lower limbs and grow
to a trce,

SuLPHUR FOR Mildew on Grapes.

Mr. Paine says he he has tried it thoroughly, and is convinced that a fool
and his money are soon parted, whenever he pays for sulphur to kill mil-
dew. The best remedy that he lias found is an application .of salt annually,
at the rate of three bushels per acre. He says: "I have three acres of
grapes, and sold my crop this year; tl»e first tun, put up in twenty-five
pound boxes, for 12 cents per pound, $240; the balance I sold for 5 cents
per pound; picked them from the vines as they grew, and delivered them
in town— over twelve tun.s— at $100 per tun. I am willing to pay an
income tax on that to support the war and help put down the rebellion."

A Variety of Information.

Mr. Tlobinson S. Ileinman, Pleasant Vale, Ct., is desirous as one of the
outsi<le members of the Club, to contribute his (piota of information "inter-"
esting to farmers," which ho does as follows:

To Prevent Bugs from Eating Hams-

"U'iicn they are taken from the smoke house in the spring, dip them in a
Btronjj tea made of elder leaves and young sprouts.

Value of Muck,

An old Quaker uncle of mine told me that he used muck from two different
muck-beds that he formerly owned, witli n»ore profit than he ever used barn-
yard nianuie. He did not, however, ai)ply it to a piece of heavy clay soil,
but on a piece of warm river land that was uaturally sandy. One of my
neighbors also has a garden, part of wiiich wouldn't bear beans it was
so warm and dry. He put on a little muck about five years ago, and it ia
good land yet.

When to Cut Bushes.

In a discussion of the subject among old farmers, eome thought the old

186 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

of tlie moon in August, when the sign was in the heart was the time.
Others thought there were pavticuLav days in every month, that answered
the same purpose. Has the subject ever been ventilated?

How TO Restore Worn Out Meadows.

I have some meadows that are ritn out that I wish to get back to their
original fertility. The reguhir way for doing this in this part of Connecti-
cut is to plow in about twenty or thirty loads of manure, plant corn, then
sow oats and grass seed. I dont have manure enough to get along in that
way fast enough. So I had thought of planting more land with corn, and
putting on the manure with the oats.

I figure as follows, using the same manure in both cases:

BY MANURING CORN.

Yield. V.ilae.

1st year — 1 acre corn with 30 loads manure 60 bushels $50

2d year — 1 acre oats 30 bushels 15

3d year — 1 aero grass l^tons 20

Total value $85

BY MANURING OATS.

1st year — 3 acres corn, no manure 50 bushels $50

2d year — 3 acres oats, 30 loads manure 90 bushels 45

3d year — 3 acres grass 4| tons 60

Total value $155

85

Difference in value, that ought to pay difference in labor $70

I now have three acres improved instead of one.

AvQ there any members of your Club that can tell me by experience
whether my theory is correct?

Some tell me tliat the oats will lodge. If likely to do so, might I not
cut them green for hay with still more profit to the field?

Some say the oats will draw all the manure from the land. Can they
draw more from raw manure than from that well mixed with the soil, as is
the case after corn that has been manured?

Another consideration that I value is the saving in grass seed. Experi-
ence shows that when barnyard manure is spread on a rye lot no clover
need be sown, as there is plenty in the manure.

Mr Solon llobinson. — I raised the largest crop of oats ever seen. in the
neighborhood by heavy manuring. They did not lodge. I attribute the
cause to the use of salt, at the rate of about eight bushels per acre. A
smaller crop grown last year upon the same place without manure and
without salt did lodge. The straw of the first crop would average five feet
long, and strong in proportion. I believe wiierever hay is worth $20 per
ton, that a crop t)f green (jats would be worth more than a crop i)f ripe
ones. They did not upon my land. Oats after corn will undoubtedly
exhaust the soil more than when grown upon the same soil previous to a
crop of corn using raw manure. With me this is a new idea. It will only
succeed where clover hay is largely used for fodder.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 187

December 20, 1864.
Mr. Nathan C. El}^ in the chair.

Japanese Wheat.

Mr. J. Q. A. Troy writes from White Chjud, Kansas, and sends a speci-
men of seed from a plant which lie has grown three years, the seed of which
was bought at a "big price," under the name of Japanese wheat. He wanta
to know what it is, as he lias beeir told that it is millet, and from his
description of the plant, we are sure that he has been told cornjctly. It is
the kind that grows the seed heads in long spikes. He saya it yields two
or three tuns of hay per acre and stock are fond of it.

Potatoes — Best Early Sorts.

Mr. Preston Eyre, Dolington, Bucks county, Pa., replies to the inquiry
which are the best sorts of early potatoes, that he considcs the Michigan
White Sprouts far superior to any other both for table use and for produc-
tiveness. They arc extensively cultivated in the neighborhood of Camden,
N. J., for the Philadelphia market. As I never see them quoted in The
Tribune I presume they are not known in your market. If such is the case
you are certainly losing very much by not having them. They are a long
smooth potato, resembling in shape the blue Mercers, perfectly white, dry
and mealy, and are fit for use sooner than any other variety, I think. They
have oidy been known in this section for four cr five years.

Mr. Henry A. Catlin, Gerry, Chautauqua county, N. Y., thinks the Carter
potato the best grown in tliat region, but he does not say whether it is
early or not.

Lima Beans — How to raise them and how far North.

Mr. J. Stebbins, Highland, Clayton county, Iowa, says that a Mr. Whit-
ney of that county, raised Lima beans abundantly every year, and from
him he has learned how to do it, with no extra culture except soon after the
first blossoms appear cut off the vines and not allow them to run more than
four or five feet long. Seva beans are next to the Lima and similar in
shape and color, but smaller; these have answered very well, coming ear-
lier and bearing profusely, which, with the stringless bean for late use,
with pud or without, have been my reliance for years for summer and fall
eating. The large, long, round white bean I have found the best for winter.
But I think of dispensing with all but the Lima, now that I know how to
raise it so readily and so early.

A Brooklyn suburban resident recommends trellises instead of poles for
all climbing beans. He thinks it absurd to grow pole beans in hills, as
the roots are crowded and the vines twisted up together in their attempts
to twine around the pole. If planted by a trellis with a wire for each vine
they arc spread out to the sunshine and will produce twice as much as in
hills. The best plan is to have a permanent fiaine for Lima or other runn-
ing beans. Set strong posts twelve feet apart, with a slat or Avire on top.
The posts according to the Iowa recommendation should not be over five
feet high. A slat or wire is als(j fastened upon the posts about a foot above
the ground. The beans are planted in a drill under this wire, and when

188 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ready to ran are led along twine to the upper wire. Such a trellis may be
used for a blind in summer, or as an ornamental screen of any part of the
garden. Another good form of trellis is made portable in lengths of eight
or ten feet. It is formed by nailing strips of lath together, or it may be
made of wire or in any form to suit the taste. These frames are set up two
or tlircc feet apart at the bottom, leaning together at the top and fastened.
The vines are planted upon the outside of each frame. Beans may be thus
grown to be both ornamental and useful. A garden, or a part of it filled in
the ordinary way with beans on poles, is anything but ornamental. The
great secret, hower, of growing Lima beans, is to keep them pruned.

The Chairman said he had been lately recommended to plant Lima beans
eight inches deep.

Mr. Williams and Mr. Dodge both declared that if they were thus planted
they would never come to the surface; that it was important not only not
to plant them too deep, but to set the beans carefully by hand right side up.

Dr. Trimble said it was not only important, but that the young plants
should come up and continue to grow straight up from the surface. Some-
times, if the seeds arc not set straight, they will not grow at all, or if grow-
ing crookedly, they appear to lose vigor. In a country where young cedars
can be obtained, trim them with the butt of the limbs a few inches long, and
they make the best support for beans of anything that he had ever seen
tried.

Mr. Dodge said he greatly preferred the Agricultural bean to the Lima.
The latter, to be productive, need constant attention to keep all the runners
pruned closely.

Union Men Wanted in West Jersey.

Mr. P. N. Parkhurst, Hammonton, New Jersey, thinks " that instead of
declaring New Jersey unfit for the residence of white men becanse it is so
filled with copperheads as to give a majority of votes for tl^e rebel candid-
ate for president, we should recommend good union men to locate there
sufficient to overcome that majority. For one, I have strong hopes we can
do it, and I do not feel willing to leave this land of my adoption, neither
am I pleased to have others advised not to come here from so high a source
as The Tribune. The same reasoning applied to the city of New York
■world induce all honest men to leave it. If New Jersey is not fit for a
■white man, it is fit for colored men, and you may recommend them to leave
a city where they are hung on account of th<?ir color, and come to this
region of cheap lands and rich productions of all that makes life comfort-
able."

Cheap Lands on Long Island — Information Wanted,

Mr. S. D. Hough, Collinsville, Connecticut, writes as follows : "Can you,
or an}'' members of the American Institute Farmers' Club, give any infor-
mation as to the locality of cheap lands upon Long Island ? A few yeara
ago I noticed much relative thereto); nothing lately. The country' is flooded
■with ciiculars and advertisements of cheap land in small tracts in New
Jersey; and mauj'^ mechanics who desire a small homestead, hold about the
same opinion of that State, politically, as was expressed in the reports
lately. Is it not for the interest of New Yorkers to desire the increase of

PROCEEEINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 189

the population and wcaltli cf their own State? And if, as I suppose, Long
Island contains tens of thousands of acres of uncultivated land, pray let
the mechanics of New England know of the locality and price per acre at
which such land can be obtained. One can hardly afford to travel upon
uncertainties these times. If cultivation for sugar is profitable in France,
why not here at present high prices ? IIow much sugar will an acre of
beets yield on an average ? Is there any work published containing in-
structions on the nianufacturc of beet sugar ?"

The Secretary. — There are large tracts of unimproved lands on Long
Island. By reference to a report of the Club, made 1847, by a committee
consisting of many practical agriculturists, they were recommended for
cultivation. A full discussion as to the value of these lands can be found
in the volume of Transactions for that year. Last season we had exhibited
some specimens of chicory, as fine as any I have seen grown on any soil;
the small fruits also grow well, especially the cultivated cranberry which
sells for a high price.

Dr. Trimble said some of the most sandy regions of N. J. had been made the
most productive by the use of marl, the application of which was from an
accidental discovery. It was dug from a well and spread upon a sandy
surface, and white clover, red clover and grass soon after began to grow
luxuriantl}'. Other parts of the State have been greatly benefited by the
use of lime. He had seen its beneficial effects upon an orchard, from an
application thirty years previously. It is a fact proved by the census
returns that the cultivated lands of New Jersey possessed a higher value
per acre than the cultivated lands of any other State. What is wanted to
make it one of the best States to live in is, instead of discouraging immi-
gration, recommend good Union men to go there and unite with the good
men already there, until they are strong enough to crush that horrid rail-
road monopoly, which would redeem and improve the State.

Hardiness of the Clinton Grape.

Mr. J. A. Donaldson, St. Joseph, Berrian county, Miciiigan, says: "That
the Clinton grape in that vicinity is very hardy, perhaps the most so of any
one cultivated there. It also endures the winters of Wisconsin and Iowa
without protection. It has not proved productive here with close pruning;
but I saw last summer a young vine here, in the garden of a young lady who
is iunocent of the science of pruniilg, and it was a picture of productive-
ness. It has been said of this grape, too, that it never rots or mildews,
and tliat it keeps remarkably well through the winter. If it is as hardy as
generally reported, it would perhaps be well to reconmiend it, where better
kinds would not stand the winters, to that class of persons who cannot be
induced to cover their vines."

Growth of Delaware Vines.

Mr. H. P. Spencer, Rockport, Cuyahoga county, 0., gives the following
account of the growth of a Delaware vine:

"The vine, a little thing, something larger than a common knitting
needle, and containing three or four buds, was received in a four-inch pot

190 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

in the fall of 1860, it having' made one season's growth. It was planted
immediately in naturally well drained soil, after having been prepared by
digging a hole six feet across and two feet deep, and refilled by placing
soil that was originally on top at the bottom, and the vine well protected
by covering for the winter.

"In 18G1, it made a moderate growth.

"In the spring of 1862, part of the growth of the previous year was laid
down for the purpose of propagating vines, and I took away several good
layers.

"In the spring of 1863, part of the previous j'ear's growth was laid down
for the same object as before, and last spring (1864) I took away fifteen
vines, (laj^ers,) each of which I should rather have than mine when 'first
received.

" 1864. — The vine was trimmed to two canes, each about two feet in
length, and tied horizontally to stakes, and received no pruning of any kind
during the growth of the past season, and grew sp far beyond my expecta-
tions that I took pains to measure, and find it to be the following, of well-
ripened wood, exclusive of laterals: Eleven canes, ten feet each, one hund-
red and ten; seven canes, nine feet each, sixty-three; two canes, seven feet
each, fourteen; three canes, six feet each, eighteen; two canes, five feet
each, ten. Total, twenty-five canes, two hundred and fifteen feet, besides
fifty-five bunches of grapes."

Mr. John G. Bergen. — With me the Delaware vines which I have pur-
chased and planted on my place, near Brooklj'n, have always made a very
slow growth, while vines which I have obtained from layers have generally
made a very rapid growth. My Clinton vines have borne four years, two
of which they have rotted badly, I think, on an average, two-thirds of eveiy
bunch. In 1864 they bore a generous crop, and did not rot as much, per-
haps not more than one-third of every bunch. I have pruned my vines, but
if they will do better untrirnrned, it is an important fact which ought to be
generally known.

Mr. Dodge said he had found his Clinton vines very rampant growers,
very haidy and fruitful, and not rotting much.

Will Sorghum Kill Cattle.

Mr. Robert Means, near Buffalo, Scott Co., Iowa, says: "I saw, about
two years ago, about four acres of sorghum, that had been cut the previous
autumn, stripped and put in close sho(»ks for shelter ready for manufactur-
ing, but was left in that condition in the field, wliere a number of cattle on
the farm had access to it all through the winter, and none of tliem appeared
to be injured by the use of it in any way. It is stated, by a man from
Summit county, who fed a cow liberally one evening on suckers which he
pulled from his sugar-cane, that the next morning she was dead. I am well
acquainted with a practical farmer who states to me that he has fed sorghum
suckers to his cows giving milk from three to four weeks, and that the
quantity and quality of milk was very materially increased. The butter
made from the milk was very rich. It was entered at the county fair, where
it took the first premium, and the only objection that was made by the com-
mittee was that it was almost too sweet. The butter had a very rich color.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. ] 91

It is believed by many that sorgluun bagasse is injurious to cattle and hogs.
I have seen, this season, a large quantity of sorghum bagasse ground and
thrown on the side of the public road, where cattle had at all times access
to it, and I have not seen one instance in which the slightest injury has been
done, and they have been around it for weeks together."

Care of Farming Tools.

A fanner wants to know if all the farming tools have been taken care of
as such costly things should be for the winter, as exposure injures them
more than use.

He says, if you have no other shelter, put up a rude hovel, with evergreen
boughs woven in for sides, and a thatched roof. And as the season for
snow approaches, see that every tool not in actual use at the time, is kept
in its appropriate place. What farmer that does not recollect the annoy-
ance of sometimes having an ox-chain, an axe, beetle and wedges, shovel,
iron bar, or some such implement, buried beneath the snow, to be found
only by a long search, or perchance not until the melting snows shall have
discovered it in spring.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — I like the plan of a house devoted exclusively to
implements and tools, including a good carpenter's set, with an outline
painting of each article in its appropriate place on the walls. If anything
is missing, its blank outline staring at you is a reminder that the article is
out of place.

Culture of Sugar Beets.

The Chairman in answer to the question asked by a correspondent, stated
that several works had been published in France upon the beet culture and
the manufacture of sugar, and he believed a work had been published in
this country upon that subject.

Mr. Carpenter, of Kelly's Island, Ohio, said that the last volume of the
Ohio Agricultural Reports contained an article upon this subject, and a
detail of experiments made by a Frenchman near Columbus in the growth
of beets and manufacture of sugar, which determined the fact that the
business could be niade profitable in this country.

Mr. Sulon Robinson stated that extensive experiments had been made in
Illinois, and a considerable sum of money expended in the erection of a
factory, which, according to a report in Tlxe Prairie Farmer, proved that
beet culture in this country may be made very profitable.

Mr. R. II. "Williams contended that it never would be profitable; that
beets may be profitably grown for stock, particularly milch cows, but never
for sugar-making. When grown upon some soils, they possess such a
small amount of saccharum as to render them unfit for the purpose of
Bugar-making. Ue thought farmers should all confine themselves to the
production of some sweet substance, or else give up the attempfto make
their own sugar. The climate of our country is more suitable to raise
S«jrghum and Imphee than the beet, and therefore sugar can be mado
cheaper from these than from the beet.

Dr. Trimble thought it was no use to war against climate. This portion
of the earth was not adapted to sugar-making. All Northern farmers will

192 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

fail who attempt to make sugar. They cannot compete with tropical cli-
mates. They are all prosperous now with ordinary crops. Let them sell
them and buy sugar and coffee, and pay the war tax on them, and not try
to shirk that and be always looking- for a substitute for coffee. There is
Mr. Robinson continually recommending chicory, rye or some other sub-
stitute.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — I do it upon principle; not to avoid the tax, not
because coffee is so high, but because I think some of the substitutes
recommended are more wholesome and more economical than coffee, and
their general use will enable people to pay their war taxes.

The Chairman concurred in this opinion; he was not in favor of recommend-
ing any of the mixtures or concoctions advertised as substitutes for coffee;
but he does recommend the use of cereals, such as farmers can produce
and prepare without much cost. He said he had lately drank a preparation
of coffee made by mixing rye and coffee, half and half, and he doubted
whether any old coffee-drinker could have detected the adulteration. Good
coffee is now worth about sixty cents a pound, and he thought very few
farmers would feel as though they could afford to pay that price.

Coffee Roasting.

Mr. S. B. Ward exhibited one of Mills' coffee roasters, and stated that it
was the invention of a physician who, in his practice at the West, had dis-
covered the great want of such a culinary utensil. There, where the women
generally do their own work, and often live in houses of very limited
capacity, the coffee roasting is often neglected, and sometimes the costly
coffee berry is spoiled in roasting and rendered worse than valueless. Rye,
too, is very largely used, and is only fit for use when well prepared. He
found the smoke of roasting rye often very annoying to his patients. As
he was a Vermont Yankee, he at once set his mind to work to devise a
machine that would obviate these difficulties. It is composed of brass
clock work in an iron case, operated by springs, which give a rotary mo-
tion to a woven wire cylinder, about a foot long and four inches in diame-
ter. This will hold a quart of grain or coffee, and the cylinder is enclosed
by a tin cover, which prevents the aroma from escaping into the room, and
prepares the coffee far better than can be done by any ordinary process
within reach of the farmer's wife. The present cost of the machines, now
that all metals are at gold prices, is $6, $9, $12, according to size. The
examination of the machine elicited much attention, and the Chairman
stated that the opiniou appeared to be unanimous in its favor, not only as
a labor-saving machine, but one which would tend to reduce the consump-
tion of coffee, by enabling farmers' wives to prepare substitutes out of the
produce of the farm. Mr. Ward recommended growing the coffee bean as
the best known substitute for the coffee berry. He said the next best sub-
stitute was dried sweet corn.

Mr. Williams recommended whenever farmers are disposed to use any
kind of grain that it sliould be ground, baked in bread, and that dried and
crumbled and then roasted.

Mr. Ward said that rye was greatly improved by being previously par-
boiled.

proceedings of the farmers* club. 193

Lime as a Manure.

Mr. R. n. Williams. — I tliink a small quantity of lime will not hurt ma-
nure if spread upon the surface. I think the whole of the lime would be
taken up by the soil. It should not be used in such quantities as would
burn up the manure.

Dr. Trimble contended against the practice, because lime is not a ma-
nure, and its action in the soil is that of a solvent of inert matters, and
manure does not need a solvent. He is sure that the best farmers do not
practice liming and manuring at the same time.

Mr. J(jhn G. Bergen said that he did not know that it was the practice
with the best farmers, but he did know a good many successful ones who
did practice it. Some of the Long Island farmers who use manure the
most extensively, spread it broadcast, and also lime, sometimes at the rate
of fifty bushels per acre, and use manure in the hills or rows with the
seeds. Mr. Robinson's recommendation never to sow grain in a young
orchard is correct,

Mr. R. H. "Williams. — Would any one present object to the use of ashes
with manure. I think not; we want an alkali added to the soil.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — We cannot grow cabbage or cauliflower on the
same ground except we use lime, and I have never seen any injury from
its use.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

December 27, 1864.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Pears.

Mr. John G. Bergen exhibited someBeurre d'Anjou and Beurre Diel pears
to show their relative condition of ripeness. The Beurre d'Anjou was a
large, handsome pear, ripening from the outside toward the center, and
just now in good condition for eating. Mr. Bergen considers it a very
valuable variety. The Beurre Diel, on the contrary, has not yet clianged
its green color, but is withering and worthless.

The Chairman remarked that it was the same with his Beurre Diels, that
he had not had one this winter fit for eating.

Fruit-Growing in Iowa.

Mr. C. R. Bent, West Union, Fayette county, Iowa, gives the following
very encouraging view of fruit-growing in that State. He says: " I have
an orchard of 500 apple-trees and a vineyard of 1,.500 grapes set last spring,
which appear to be doing well. I have set only Concord and Delaware
grapes. I would like the opinion of some person that has had experience
in cultivating the Siberian crab-apple for the purpose of making cider. Can
there be as much in quantity' grown from an acre as of apples ? What is the
value of the juice compared with apple juice? What varieties would you
[Am. Inst.] M

194 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

recommend ? How far apart would you set them ? The Siberian crab-ap-
ple is the hardiest fruit-tree that we have in the west. Would you now
advise a person to set for the purpose of makiiig wine the lona in prefer-
ence to the Delaware grape ? I am a little prejudiced against the lona,
from the fact that Dr. Grant claims to know a little more than all the fruit-
growers in the United States. I think that class of men are more liable to
blunder or willing to deceive."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — I would advise the gentleman to plant some other
varieties of grapes if he intends to grow a vineyard for wine, as it is not
quite settled that the Concord, although a good table grape, will be profita-
ble as a wine grape. I believe the Delaware more valuable for the table
than for wine. All the Delaware wine that I have tasted is very rich,
sweet, too much so for a common healthy drink. I do not wonder at the
doubt expressed about lona. • 1 know that the same cause has produced
the same effect upon many minds. But I assure Mr. Bent, and every other
doubter, that I believe the lona the best American grape ever discovered.

Information about Crops, Climate and Land in New Jersey.

An old resident of Salem, New Jer'=ey, sends the following information,
addressed to the New York Farmers' Club. Having had some experience
in the culture-of the cane, and having manufactured above 3,000 gallons of
syrup each of the last three years, I will offer you my experience in reply
to some of your questions in regard to its deterioration, hybridizing, &c.

" SORGHUM IN NEW JERSEY.

" I have worked cane grown on light sandy soil, on heavy clay land, and
on all intermediate mixtures of land, and on tide meadow, and have made
good light colored syrup from cane grown on all these kinds of soil. Not
good light colored, like New Orleans, but much lighter colored and better;
nor like your Hlinois correspondent, containing much acid, but much more
like honey in taste and color. Light sandy and gravelly land produces
generally the best and highest colored syrup; and yet I have had some
cane from all these kinds of soil that did not work well — did not produce
good syrup. The cause is the gum of some other constituent of the juice
gravitating to the bottom and burning on the pan while in the process of
evaporating the water. The smoke from this gum escaping through the
syrup imparts to it a dark cok)r, and sometimes a burnt and bitter taste,
and makes the syrup of an inferior quality. Some lots of cane produce a
syrup very light colored, and apparently good and sweet, but will not make
a fine hair stream. Such in time becomes more like jelly — owing to gum
or other impurities contained in it. Green cane produces more of the latter
kind of syrup, and that grown on low Avet land more of the former.

"This year's crop produced only two-thirds as much syrup per acre as
last year's crop, owing to the drouth. The richness of juice I have not
found confined to cane grown on any kind of soil on land that has been
limed, but cane that stands thinly on the ground is generally the richest.
The saccharometer stood at twelve degrees in the richest juice, and at six

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 195

degrees in the poorest. Sorghum cane does not deteriorate by cultivation in
this country, only as it hybridizes with broom corn, or something else.
The stalks of such grow much larger, and contain, when ripe, little or no
juice, and are entirely wortiiless for syrnp. Have seen fields of cane half
of which was a hybrid with broomcorn. It mixes in the seed the previous
year. I tried a new importation, the last year, planted it, and compared it
with that from seed from a former importation: it was no better. Sorgo
cane is not poisonous; have made hogs very fat on the green skimmings
alone; have lost some hogs by eating too much when first fed to them, but
not afterward. Have lost hogs by eating too much whey — but who would
infer from that that whey was poisonous? The husk of the cane is too
sharp and liard for cattle, but they will eat some while it is sweet. Have
seen their mouths bleed in their efforts to masticate it. Had some cane
topped and bladcd by calves after it had been blown down without any
injury to them. The seed makes good feed for stock, poultry included.
Have known above fifty bushels of seed per acre. The bagasse was
wortli last year $15 per ton at the paper mills. Have tried Indian corn
stalks and watermelons for syrup. The saccharine matter in both is very
small compared with that in the sorgo cane, and the syrtip is very inferior.
The steam rising from the evaporator while boiling them was almost sickr
cuing.

" MUCK AS A FERTILIZER.

"A few years ago we had a water course cut twenty-four feet wide, six
feet deep, and three miles long, through the best of tide-meadow mud mixed
with mud to the bottom, which has gone down as the country subsided and
new mud from sediment made over it. I hauled three j^ears ago last sum-
mer one thousand loads of this mud and spread it on a field of twelve acres,
or eighty loads per acre. The same year I spread a strip with green sand
marl, a rod wide across the poorest part of the same field. The mud was
spread on a clover sod after harvest and left one year to pulverize. I then
plowed it all under with the clover for wheat. The marl has about doubled
every crop I have had oft" of that strip, but I have yet to see the first benefit
arising from the muck."

"DELAWARE AND JERSEY COMPARED.

"A member of your Club replies to a correspondent that Delaware is
better than South Jersey for planting a vineyard, but does not assign any
reasons for such a decision; does not specify any particular part of either
State. If he means to call Vineland, South Jersey, with its two or three
inches of soil, and that clay intermixed with fine i^ ravel sufficient to make
their roads good turnpikes, and compare that with some parts of Delaware,
I can agree with him full}', having traveled over much of Delaware, and
visited Vineland recently. When there I witnessed the poor clay and
gravel from the cellars being spread on the land to enrich or give it fertil-
ity, at the suggestion of agricultural writers perhaps that Vineland was
once an ocean bed, and the cultivators had only to plow or dig deep to
reach the phosphates ! I landed at the depot and set off on foot on a stroll

196 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUE.

of several miles, to examine the soil and witness the productions. Did not
see any good land — land that would in its natural state produce good crops
of grain or grass without help. It is beautifully rolling, particularly along
Landis avenue, and is susceptible of improvement, but would be attended
with great expense to improve it sufficiently to produce truck or small
fruits to profit. There is some nice truck land half a mile v/est of the
depot, without gravel and without improvements. Was on one field that
had been in wheat; the stubble was the finest certainly I had ever seen;
corn was small; the best wculd yield probably twenty to twenty-five bush-
els per acre. That in the village was very poor. Round potatoes did not
look promising; neither did clover sowed to fertilize the land; the under-
growth of scrub oaks had taken possession; sweet potatoes were more
promising; dwarf pear trees and grapevines the most promising; peach
trees showed signs of decay; standard pears and apple trees will probably
succeed because they delight in a Clay subsoil. The summer has been very
dry, which will account in a measure for the failure of crops. There is
land in Salem county, where it was equally dry last summer, that produced
thirty-five bushels of wheat, sixty bushels of oats, and sixty bushels of
corn per acre.

"fruits in south jersey.

" If your Club will visit the grapery of Wm. S. Sharp, printer, Salem,
New Jersey, they may see some thirty varieties of vines more flourishing,
I have no doubt, tlian they ever imagined for South Jersey, if not in their
most favored localities. Pears grow quite as large and fair here as they
do about Rochester, if those brought from there to our first exhiiDition are
fair samples. I have seven hundred pear trees coming into bea:ing, half
of them standards. Have had Belle Lucratives to weigh nine ounces each,
and they the smallest of twenty-five varieties of good pears — the Bartlett
being the poorest. If I were to assert tliat there have more varieties of
good apples originated in the country in South Jersey bordering on the
Delaware, than in all our country besides, j^ou might think it great arro-
gance in me; and yet, if we take our pomological societies' proceedings,
and our nurserymen's catalogues as guides — as producing the best — with
Downing and Cox as authors, that assertion would certainl}' come within
the bounds of truth; and a country that can originate such good fruit can
grow that fruit in the greatest perfection; and yet, v^ith all their advan-
tages, not a fit residence for any respectable white man !

" I had intended to sa}-- a few words about a remedy that I discovered
last spring for the yellows in the peach tree — or rather a cure. But per-
haps Ihave said too much already. I will just add — the trees I operated
on were nearly dead, apparently past recovery. They were in blossom at
the time. They soon after put on a green color, and formed plenty of buds
for another year, and the fruit hung on the trees a mo}ith after the usual
time for ripening. If the trees continue to do well next spring I will write
you the particulars. The remedy is within the reach of all who plant peach
trees."

The reading of this letter was listened to with marked attention, and the
good-natm-ed hard hits of the writer were received with equal good nature.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 197

because it embodied a great deal of valuable information to the public.
Some members were a little surprised at the statement touching the infer-
tility of muck, though all were conversant with the virtues of Squankum
marL

Dr. TrinUile expressed his surprise that this valuable fertilizer was tiot
used outside the State of New Jersey.

Mr. John G. Berp^en.— We have a gentleman with us this morning who
lias had some experience in the use of Jersey marl. I would therefore call
upon Mr. Townsen<l to give us^some information upon the subject,

Mr. B. S. Townsend, Bayridge, Long Island, said he had obtained two
sloop loads for the purpose of experimenting upon its value upon his farm
on the west end of Long- Island. His investigations have shown him that
there is great difference in the value of gn^eji sand nuirl from difierent
localities, and even from the same locality. One load that he obtained is
of a light green and the other of a dark greeo color, Mt:ch of the marl
found under the soil of farms in Monmouth county is of such low raanurial
value that it will not bear transportation beyond the limits of the farm.
That which he obtained from Squankum cost him II cents per bushel deli-
vered at the wharf, to which the cost of cartage to the farm must be added.
He finds that it averag^es about twenty bushels to the ton, which will make
the cartage very expensive if hauled any considerable distance. He tiiinks
one of the good qualities of the m.arl upon the sandy soil of Long Island is
that it helps to retain rooi.sture.

One of the experiments which he tried this season was upon a crop of
turnips, one-half of whicli was dressed with stable manure, and tlic other
with an equal value of marl. Tiie marl portion was the best from the start,
and it was estimated that the product was 33 per cent heavier than the
manured portion. He did net obtain his supply early enough in the season
for general crops, because the orders of New Jersey farmers were so large
that they were unable to fill them as fast as required. Mr, Townsend tried
another experiment upon grass to test the value of the light and dark-
colured marls, the dark being ceusidei-ed the itKj.st valuable. He dressed a
piece of grass heavily, and found th<it instead of being a protection against
drouth that the park marled suffered more severely than the undressed
portion, acd the grass was the worst killed upon the part dressed with the
iiglit green mad. No good efiect is visible upon the grass this first year.

Dr. Trimble iusistod that where marl had been long used it does prove
•an advaut-age in time of drouth. He said Professor Rogers had proved by
-analysis of tnarl that it contained the constituents of ashes of straw.

Mr. E. Wilbiams said that he had found a great difference in the quality
•of marl, and that that whicii contained most clay was the best upon sandy
soil, showing that it has a mechanical as well as chemical action.

Mr, Jolm G, Bergen. — I am very glad to hear friin Mr. Townsend's state-
ment tliat Jersey marl is likely to prove successfid upon Long Island. We
certainly need some cheap fertilizer • and as geologists say that New Jer-
sey IS gradually subsiding, I think that we ought to hurry to get all that
there is valuable out of it before it goes under the sea again. I know
■several of Mr. Townsend's neighbors who have tried the green sand marl
and find it did not pay cost. I have seen a great deal of its beneficial

198 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

efiFects in New Jersey wlicre it is convenient that it can be used in larg-c
quantities, oven if it is not of tlie best quality, it certainly does a great
deal of good. But at does not follow that it will do good eA'erywhere else.
I am sure that none but the very best quality will bear transportation, I
am willing to credit marl with all its due, but it is idle to say that it will
prevent the effects of drouth. I saw corn in New Jersey last snmmer upon
land that has long been marled, where the crop would not pay the expense
of gathering. Unless we are sure that marl is valuable in other sections,
I do not think it quite right to bring it away from New Jersey, for there
are millions of poverty-stricken acres in that State which require all the
marl that can be found beneath the surface. As to the experiment of Mr.
Townsend with marl upon grass, he said it appeared to benefit the crop
when first applied. Perhaps any other substance would have done the same.
It is a common practice with my brother, whose farm is of similar charac-
ter of sandy soil, to cart clay aud spread upou the grass which proves very
beneficial.

Cotton Growing in California.

Mr. Solomon W. Jewett, writes from Kern River, Buena Yista county,
California, Nov. 15, and sends a sample of very handsome upland cotton,
grown upon an adjoining ranch. He says: *' An experiment of three years
fully proves its natural growth Irere, and it will produce as well as in the
old cotton States. So old cotton planters tell ns. Much uncultivated
lands here might be applied to that use, that can be taken up by the actnal
settler. The best mode of fencing the crop is by planting out willow sticks
about six and a half feet long and from two to four inches in diameter.
They are set from four to six inches apart in the row, secured by a hori-
zontal pole, four feet from the ground. The first year they form quite a
top, are firmly rooted, assisted by a slight ditch, for water to pass near
them. Under good cultivation from four to eight hundred pounds of cot-
ton can be grown upon an acre between the 20th of May and 15th of Sep-
tember. Wood and water are in abundance. For the first j'ear's crop the
planter should prepare his lands by inclosures, and clearing off the weeds,
and in some parts small bushes. The land is easily coltivated and sugar
cane produces well. So it does small grains and vegetables in abundance,
as well as fruits, where encouragement has been given."

The sample showed a staple of good length, but of remarkable coarse
fiber. It would be valuable for heavy fabrics.

When Should Timber be Cut?

Mr. G. J. Locke, Danby Four Corners, Vt., gives as a reason why tim-
ber should be cut the last of August, that the sap does not then leak out
but dries in the cell into a substance like hardened glue. He says: " I
know that timber cut at this time and loft untrimmed a few weeks, will
not powder post. The cells being full of dried sap, there is no roojn for
the worms to work, and the timber has more weight. But I do not claim
that I may not be mistaken as to the best time for cutting, as my experi-
ence has not been large."

proceedings of the farmers' club. 199

An Apple Tree Hedge.

Mr. Lncl\C says: "The best live fence I have ever seen was an apple
tree hedge, I saw it at six years old. The farmer informed me wlien it
was about two feet high he begaa to shear it, to make it grow thicker, and
at the time I saw it, it would stop cattle, or a dog, if he cared to come out
with a wliole skin,"

How TO Utilize Coal Dust.

A Welchnian sends the following suggestion for the utilization of coal
dust. He says that " when a boj^, living in South Wales, I remember that
the coal which was abundant in the neighborhood was very small — every
cartloavl containing nearly a qtsarter of dust. Tliis used to bt3 mixed -with
clay, and was moulded by hand into longish oval cakes, which, when dry,
were laid in rows upon the fire and gave intense heat, with plenty of dust.
It has occurred to me lately, having been much annoyed by the quantity of
coal dust in every scutlleful of coal, that this dust and very fine coal might be
mi:?od with the refuse of the petroleum and rosin refineries, and made into
small i-xjHs, which might make admirable kindling. A ball or two put on
a low fire would soon brighten it up, and the saving of this now useless
dust might be important."

Do Turnips Exhaust the Soil?

A correspondent in Nebraska sends the following question to the Club:
*' Wiiy do turnips, containing so large a percentage of water,, so completely
exhaust land, and yield so little manure in return?"

Mr. Solon Robinson. — For one I answer this question by denying the
position in ioto. I do not believe that turnips exhaust the soil any more
than any other crop of equal weight taken from it. I do believe that a
crop of turnips plowed .under would add more to the fertility of the soil
than any other crop ever used for tliat purpose.

Home-Made Hominy.

Mr. C. S. Osgood, Coos, New Hampshire, says: " In preparing fully dried
corn I would cover it with boiling water and let it stand some fifteen min-
utes, or longer, if to be ground immediately. The object is to soften the
outside of the grain only, so that in the operation of grinding the stones
will rub and tear off the hull perfectly. Tlie coarse meal sifted out of
hominy makes first rate hot cakes if treated right. Now, friends, give this
gnbject a little attention, if you have not before, and I will warrant you it
will pay — pay in health, and in economy too. Have a good lot ground up,
spread and dry, and then put away for use the year round."

Mr. 0 says: "As wholesome and palatable nutriment may be obtained
from Indian corn more cheaply than from any otlier known source, let me
talk up the subject of its preparation a little. I'he greatest trouble about
corn is, that it requires a great deal of, or at least a great time in cooking,
in whatever shape we use it. And the coarser it is o-f course the longer

200 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

time is required to make it tender and good, so' that hulled corn needs
stewing a whole day, good coarse hominy full six hours, and meal for bread
should be scalded and allowed to stand awhile before baking, and then
baked long. In cooking hominy put on a good pot at a time, so as not to
have the fuss for nothing. Put it into the water it is to be boiled in over
niglit; boil pretty briskly for two or three hours, keeping in plenty of
water. After this time let the fire run low, or set the pot on top of the
stove, and let it coodle two or three hours longer, keeping at boiling heat
all the time. Add no water toward the last, but let it thicken up as much
as will do without scorching, then finish by stirring in carefully wheat or
rye flour till about as thick as it can be stirred."

Mr. J. K. Davis, Bradford, Vt., asks information about fruit growing in
New Jersey. He says: "I have been informed that apple trees do not
thrive well in New Jersey on account of a large yellow worm that eats up
into the trruik of the tree, and that whole orchards are often killed in thia
way. Is there any remedy for this, and what is it?"

Dr. Trimble replied that there are some orchards in New Jersey infeoted
with borers, but no more so than in any other State. They are the great
pests of all orchards, and have killed n)any trees. I have a section of one
not more than five inches in diameter, that has twenty holes through it.
Their period of existence is three 3'ears. The first j'ear they work near the
bark, girdling the tree, which causes the greatest damage. They are then
•easily found and removed by probing with annealed wire. The second year
they work inward and upward. The third year they come back again to
the bark, where the transformation takes place. They work in all kinds
of trees, and are often sent from nurseries into sections where they were
not before known. It is very easy to discover trees affected by borers, as
their chips are always exhibited upon the ground. It is very hard to find
the beetles. No person need hesitate to settle in New Jersey on account
of the apple borer. They do destroy orchards and will destroy them
wherever they are not attended to. Mr. Davis also wants to know if there
is an}'' remedy for wild onions, which he is told infest the pastures of New
Jersey.

Flower Seeds and Flower Culture.

Mr. Wm. R Prince sent in for distribution the following flower seeds:
Aste)- Furpurascens — Perennial purple aster.
Bignonia Coccinea — Scarlet Trumpet Creeper.
Lythrum Salicaria — European purple Lytlirum.
Amorpha Fruticosa — Blue Flowered Amorpha.

Information for Missouri Emigrants.

Mr. Philip W. Kohler, Hopewell Academy, Warren county. Mo., wrote a
letter to the Club some time since, ofiering to give information to persons
desirous of emigrating to that State. lie says he has been overwhelmed
witij letters since he was thus advertised in TJie Tribune. He now asks
the privilege of making a few general statements to this Club which may
serve as information to those who desire it,

" Warren county is about the tliiid in size in the State, Tiie war has

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 201

taken away many of the male inhabitants. At the Uxte election the connty
gave Lincoln 948, McClellan 271. Many of the McClellan men are Tar from
being- Rebels. A majority of them sympathize with the South, bnt not one
in six would harbor bushwliackeris. The radical Union men control tlie
connty. Warrenton, the connty seat, probably contains 2,000 inhabitants,
three hotels, one of which is a splendid brick buikling. The county clerk's
office is stone 'and brick, fire proof. There are four churches, and five
stores, a steam saw and grist-mill, and nearly all mechanics but cijopers.
They are scarce, though cooper stnff is plenty.

" Warren county is composed of various soils. On the north it is mostly
prairie, together with tracts of heavily timbered land and creek bottom.
On the north it is river bottom from one to three miles wide, and in the
center and various parts it is hill or ridge land. The whole connty is well
supplied with an abundance of good timber and water, and building stone
in abundance. The lidge land is heavily timbered, some trees from three
to four feet across the stump, and will make from two to three cnts of rails
eleven feet long. The land is broken but tlie tillable portion of it is level
or gently rolling enough to carry ofl' the water after heavy rains, the most
beautiful sites for orchards and vineyards in the world. Unlike most hill
land, if you manure it, it stays there. We have to dig cisterns for water
fur domestic use, eight feet wide and from fifteen to thirty feet deep, which
furnishes an abundance for all purposes. In the valleys, which are nar-
row, there is an abundance of never failing springs, and splendid range for
all kinds of stock. Cattle or hogs turned out here in the spring, will return
in the fall, fat. Wheat raised on this ridge land will weigh from three to
five pounds more to the bushel than wheat raised on the adjoining bottom
lands, but it will not yield as many bushels per acre. A better wheat
country I never saw in Missouri. Farmers here who only run two plows
have sold, this winter, from GOO to 800 bushels of wheat at from $1.70 to
$I.8;'i per bushel.

" I know of no land or farms to rent in my immediate neighborhood, but
there is a plenty to be had if j-ou come in time — the 1st of March is moving
time with us. Cash rent from one to three dollars per acre, or one-third of
the crop. A plenty of saw and grist mills all over the county. A plenty of
fruit of all kinds, which do much better than fruit in most of the other States.
Missouri can't be beat for fruit. At St. L(niis and Sherman there are a
plenty of good nurseries that raise fruit well adapted to our climate. Some
of us have been badly sold by the agents of eastern nurseries, which has
impaired our confidence. Squire Wilson, in the bottom, bought some beau-
tiful pear trees from the agent of a Rochester nursery at fifty cents apiece;
the folluwing year they bore a crop of crab apples. Timothy and clover do
well on the ridges, therefore this land is well adapted to sheep raising.
You can buy a small or large farm, with good improvements, at from three
to five dollars per acre, probably one-half or two-thirds of the land would
be level, good tillable land, the balance broken bnt heavily timbered. In
the hollows you arc apt to get a good sugar camp, large trees. It is fie-
quently the case that yon can niake a good field in the valley for corn,
wheat, kc, which we call branch bottom. Vine growing is a profitable
business in this State, especially on these high ridges.

202 TRANSACTIONS OF TITE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

" Af r. Georg-e Husman estimates the value of vineyard land in Missouri
at $1,000 per acre. He made 1,200 gallons of wine from three acres, and
soid from the same $300 worth of grapes. Any family accustomed to weav-
ing would find profitable employment in this county. The usual charge for
weaving jeans is tweuty-five cents per yard. Our next State convention
will abolish slavery and disfranchise rebels. As soou as the war is over
land will rapidly increase in value. It has already increased, as, two years
ago, you could have bought almost any farm in the county; now, I only
know of three or four for sale, which are held at $4 to $5 per acre. There
are eight churches and ten school-houses and four physicians within six
miles of my house. The diseases are mostly b>ilious fevers and fever and
ague in tlie bottom lands. A doctor who depended for his living upon the
inhabitants of the ridges would starve. My doctor's bill for five years
amounts to §7.65, and I have a wife and five children. This ridge land is
the place for invalids to recruit health. In conclusi(jn, I would say that I
am ready to extend the hospitalities of my house to any loxjal man who
wishes to settle in Warren county."

Agriculture of Peru.

Solon Tiobinson announced that Hon. E. G. Squier, the traveler and his-
torian, who h.as just returned from Peru, v/ould address the Club, at some
future meeting, upon the subject of agriciilture in that country, and exhibit
some curious specimens, one of which is some remarkable Indian corn.

On motion of Mr. Bergen, it was

Eesolved, That the Secretary address the Hon. E. G. Squier, and invite
him to address the Club on the Agricultural Productions of Peru at an early
day.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

Jannary 3, 1865.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Exhibition of Industry in Prussia.

The Chairman read a letter from Mr. Charles J. Snndell, United States
Consul, Stettin, Prussia, which states that a general agricultural and indus-
trial exhibition is to be held at that place, in May and June, 1865, to which
exhibitors of all nations are invited. The exhibition will be opened May
15, and continue to the end of June, Circulars containing particulars may
be seen at the rooms of the American Institute.

To Prevent Rabbits Eating Trees.

Mr. William A. Goodrich, Paxton, Ford county. 111., writes that a "quar-
ter of a pound of sulphur, thoroughly mixed with one pound of soft grease,
and either put on the tree or shrub needing the protection, or put on a
stake near the same, is a sure preventive, as I have tried it for years. I
keep it in a tin pale and watch the depredations of the varmint)<, and when
I see the mark of the teeth, which is mostly in February and March, I take

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 203

nn' pail, with a piece of sliinp,-lc, and put a little on each tree or shrub I
wish to protect, which 1 have- had to do for tli(> past seven years at the
time above named. 1 live on the open prairie, about two miles from timber,
and rabbits are plenty and have been ever since I have lived here."

Apples — The Swaar.

Mr. Richard Johnson, East Groveland, Living-.ston county, N. Y,, pre-
sented to the Club some specimens of Swaar Apple from Ins farm, to sliow
that tliis variety grown in that vicinity is one of the best apples on the
list. Its appearance, when fully ripe, seen at a little distance, much
resembles orang-es as they are frequently sold in this city, having a slight
greenish tinge, being of about the same size and color. Mr. Johnson con-
siders the Swaar better than the Northern Spy, Tompkins County King
or lialdwin, although the red color and large size of the latter make them
more saleable in this nuirket. As the Swaar does not take on its handsome
golden color until winter, it is not mucii in favor with apple growers in
autnuju. It keeps sound and good until March, and "with me," said Mr.
Johnson, "it is the best variety I have, and I have been a cultivator of
fruit since twelve years of age. It nuiy not suit all localities; it certainly
does mine. Livingston county is good for all kinds of fruit, tiiough pear
trees are subject to blight. The Baldwin apple does well and sells high.
My best early apple is the Sour Bougii. It is the size of the Swaar, yellow,
and ripens before the Harvest apple. The Fameuse is a good late autumn
apple. The Bailey, red color, is the best sweet npple. The Tallman i.s
excellent for winter. There are but few really e.xceiU-iit apples, and it is a
great mistake for farmers to try too large a variety. It is very important
to get about a dozen goods sorts. I have cultivated many that proved
Worthless."

Dr. Ward. — These are words of wisdom which ought to be engraven
upon the minds of all farmers. Let them confiiie themselves to a few good
sorts, and not incumber the ground witli a great variety. ' A dozen sorts
surely are enough, divided between summer, autumn and Avinter. Here,
for instance, is this excellent apple, the Swaar, which, with a sweet apple,
would be all that a family could desire during its season. The same remark
is true regarding pears; a dozen sorts will make an assortment all-sufficient
for a family, and those which are most saleable will generally be found the
most satisfactory for family use. I press this idea of a small number of
sorts upon the minds of all who desire to plant fruit trees. Mr. Carpenter
said that this depends whether the fruit is to be grown for home comfort,
prcjfifable sale, or to test the value of various sorts. If a farmer depends
upon one sort oidy for market, his crop is liable to fail. In this vicinity,
this is particularly the case with Fall and "Winter pippins. We cannot
have all the excellencies in three or four sorts, and besides we are getting
new and improved varieties every year; witness the new pears, grapes,
currants, strawberries, &c., which have been developed within a few years.
It is important also in recommending apples that they should be described
by their right names. The one spoken of by Mr. Johnson as the Sour
Bough is undoubtedly the Yellow Harvest.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter. — We arc progressing; I am in favor of growing

204 . TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

all new improved varieties. Witliin the past few years a number of now
varieties have been introdviiced. It ia important that these new varieties*
should be tested, besides, every one does not s^row fruit for profit.

Th(! Chairman said: " I certainly concur with the gentlemen who recom-
mend a short list of varieties. If a. young farmer undertakes the whole
Assortment he will be c<infuaed and discouraged. I believe a dozen varie*
ties of apples sufficient. To tiial list he can add any well established new
sort fro?ii year to year."

Distribution of Flower Seeds and Bulbs.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — It may be recollected by readers of tlicse reports,
that last year Mr. Johnson, evincing a most noble liberality, coupled with
a desire to extend the cultivation of flowers among farmers, so as to make
their homes attractive and pleasant, offered to send without charg^e a
quantity of bulbs and flower seeds. In a few weeks after that letter was
published, he had received more than five hundred letters, and has since
sent off over 3,UU0 bulbs and packages of flower seeds of different varieties.
Although the tax resulting from this proposal has been somewhat onerous,
Mr. Johnson does not regret having made the offer. One of its results has
been to introduce to him several pleasant new acquaintances.

Sorgo Syrup — How it is Manufactured in New Jersey.

Mr. Robert Hopkins, Verona, Essex county, New Jersey, says the pro*
cess of making sorgo syrup may be as simple as it is with the real sugar
cane. In that case, as soon as the juice comes from the mill it is tempered
with. unslaked lime, and neither blood, eggs (jr milk is used. The kettles
should be four in number, graduated in size, the last not being more than
one-fourth the size uf the first. The juice, when sufficiently boiled, is dip-
ped into large wooden coolers, and the molasses left to granulate, and it is
afterward left to drain from the sugar. And he evidently thinks, from the
reading of his leter, that sorgo can be manufactured in the same manner.
He says : " I have never seen the Chinese cane grow, therefore know
nothing of its length or thickness, wherein consists the quantity of juice to
be obtained. I only am able to judge by the syrup I have seen."

Sugar From Corn.

Mr. David Sears, Magnoketa, Jackson county, Iowa, thinks the. state-
ment lately made in the Club about making twelve or sixteen quarts of
molasses from a bushel of corn almost incnnlible "Yet," he says, " when
I reflect that a multitude of statements, once apparently as incredible as
this may be, have now become established and familiar facts, it is with the
greatest anxiety I inquire and wait to know how so much molasses can be
made from meal — -nearly its own weight. Iowa, if not the best, is at least
one of the best States in the Union for corn raising. Not more than one-
tenth of the land is cultivated at all, and that tenth produces no more than
half what it would if all was reasonably well cultivated. It is now sold
in different localities from 25 to 50 cents per bushel. If so nmch and so
good molasses and sugar could be made from corn, it seems to nic as soon
as it was known there would be a great rush to occupy the opening for the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 205

business. From twenty years' experiencx^ and observation in Iowa, I find
tliat corn and grass are the best paying' and snrcst crops that can be raised
with little labor. To be sure, sorgo, onions, tobacco, and many other things
might pay greater profits on the land, but they require more labor. As I
see from the market reports, pineapple cheese sells higher than any other,
I should like to have the particulars of the process of making.

Flowers — Change of Color.

Mr. D Williams, Fly Creek, Otsego county. New York, says : "I have
a dwarf geranium, the Tom Thumb, three years old. The color (jf the
blooms has always been salmon red until this winter ; now the flower is
pure white, with a pink eye. I have shown the fl<jwers to several of the
best florists in Cooperstown; they cannot account for it. Can you, or some
of the members of the Club, do so? The plant has been occasionally
watered with a solution of sulphate of ammonia, one ounce to a gallon of
water. The change is a decided improvement, if it will remain as it is
now." The writer also says : " One of my neighbors has a Garnctt Chili
potato weighing four pounds seven ounces. Can any members of the
Club, inside or out, beat it?"

A lady present stated that she had frequently seen the color of hydran-
gea changed by the use of different kinds of manure.

Mr. Solon Robinson stated it was reported a few years ago that ex-Mayor
Tiemann, who is a color manufacturer, had used the refuse of his factory
upon his garden, and the result was a very remarkable change in the color
of various flowers. I believe it is a well known fact that the use of* char-
coal darkens the cohu* of many flowers.

Mr. Wm. S Carpenter called attention to the great improvements that
had been made within a few years in growing hollyhocks. The}^ have be-
come quite fashionable among cultivators of flowers in Europe, and several
of the members expressed themselves favorable to their extended cultiva-
tion in this country.

Hedge Plants.
A farmer of Penn Yan, N. Y., Avants the Club to discuss the question of
hedging, and what is the best hedge plant, because, whether we like it or
not, we shall soon be driven to the necessity of making live fence, not only
on the prairie but in all the Eastern States. It costs more now in the old-
est settled portions of New York for tlu; fence of the farm, than the land is
worth without fence. Rochester nurserymen r.re selling and recommend-
ing h(»ney locust for hedge. What says the Club; is it a good hedge plant?
Is it as liable tt) be destroyed by the borer as the common black locust,
and how about its tendency to spread over the ground from the roots?
There has been much said lately about making a fence with the Barberry,
but I am not aware that it has ever been tested. This plant, I believe,
does iH>t grow over seven or eight feet high, and consequently would not
need the constant pruning which vther hedges require. Are any members
of the Club well enough acquainted with the habits of this shrub to tell us
whether it would be likely to succeed as a hedge plant, and, if so, where
the seed can be obtained aud how should they be treated?

206 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Is there any cheap and expeditious way of tanning", which would enable
farmers to tan pelts and skins either with or without the wool or hair on?

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Then the sooner you learn to do without fence, the
better, "for to that complexion must we come at last," unless soniething
is discovered for making- live fence that proves more successful than any-
thing yet tried in America. One of the great errors in American farming
is fencing too much. The Tribune has sliown by indisputable statistics
that the fence tax is greater than all other taxes put together, and is a
most onerous burden upon the farmer.

Some of the Club are as much in favor of the honey locust as the Roches-
ter nurserymen. For my part I have no faith in it; nor, indeed, in any
plant that naturally grows to the size of a tree. It is true it is not as lia-
ble to the attack of the borer as the yellow locust. I have never seen the
bar!)erry tried for hedging, but from the character of the plant I should
think favorabl}' of it.

There are modes by which every farmer could tan his own skins. The
only question is whctlier it would be profitable for him to do so. Sheep-
skin may be dressed with the wool on, by saturating the skin wliile in a
fresh state with an equal mixture of salt and alum. Afterward, scrape oflF
all particles of flesh with a dull knife, and wash the skin and wool per-
fectly clean, and rub it continuallj-, just before it is entirely dry, to make
it soft.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter. — I consider the honey locust as one of the best
plants for hedges. It is not so much affected by borers as the other locusts,
and does not sprout up all around the plant. If I was to abandon the use
of stone walls, I should use the honey locust. It should be pruned twice a
year, in Spring and Fall. It will make a good fence in four years, and will
turn any kind of c;ittle. The barberry would be an ornamental hedge for
a few 3'ears, but I doubt whether it will be valuable as a farm hedge.

Salt as a Manure.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — A book was published in ItJrS, in England, by
Owen Brownrigg, who contended that the whole kingdom might be enriched
by applj-ing salt to the soil. In tiiis he was correct — though others follow-
ing his advice would be liable to disappointment. Salt is no more a manure
than rum is food. Both may stimulate the bodies to which they are applied.
While we earnestly recommend the application of salt, particularly to bar-
ren pastures and hide-bound meadows, we fully agree with a writer in The
Germantoion Telegraph, who has tlie following sensible remarks upon the
use of salt, which we commend to the attention of all fanners:

It is certain that, in man}' instanc(;s of the application of salt, tliose who
apply it are disappointed with the result, wliich, in all cases, I think, may
be attributed to a want of knowledge of its ejects, and may bf accounted
for by one or more of the following reasons: Salt furnishes to the soil but
two constituents, namely, sod-i and chlorine, and hence it cannot, like barn-
yard manure, be applied ad lihilum, for, unlike the latter, it does not furnish
all tlie saline parts needed hy the crop, and hence, because the soil already
contains sufficient of these two constituents, a second application of salt
ma}^ produce little or no immediate effect, and disappointment ensues.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 207

Again, sonic plants are more benefited hy the application of salt than
others-, and hence, liy not understajiding- the Avants of the crop, tlu^ appli-
cation may not,, as far as that particular crop is concerned, produce any
eflect; or, if it does, it may be an unfavorable one.

Failures are many times caused by supposing that, inasmuch as one ap-
plication was good for a crop of corn, another will benefit the succeeding
one of oats; but, if the first application was a liberal one, it will not,
because the soil already contains enough of the constituents of salt needed
for that crop, but sooner or later the second application will begin to show
itself.

One of the main benefits which I have derived from the use of salt, as a
manure, has been when I have turned under a heavy crop of clover or rye
for wheat. I find it has a tendency to stiffen the straw and prevent its
falling down, as is often the case when green manuring is practised. I
usually sow it broadcast at the rate of one sack (three bushels) to two acres.
The most suitable time which I can find is either just before the last har-
rowing or before the drill, if the seed is put in in that manner. It is very
easy for those who have been used to broadcast sowing to arrive at the
proper amount.

I found, from experiment, that salt has the ctfect of increasing the weight
of the grain. In one case of two lands, side b}^ side, one of which, in addi-
tion to a good coat of manure, was top<lressed with salt at the rate of one
and one-half bushels to the acre, and the other had nothing but the maruire;
the wheat upon these two lands, and in fact upon the whole, was heav}--,
particularly so in the straw. On the salted land it stood up well and the
straw was bright; while, on the remainder of the field, it was all more or
less lodged and down. The salted land produced wheat weighing three
pounds more per bushel than that on the remainder of the field. During
the winter the wheat on the land to which the salt was applied Avas of a
deeper green, and from the time the wheat was up until harvest, an}^ novice
could select the one land from the remainder of the field.

In one experiment the above Avriter gained a ton of hay from an applica-
tion of six busliels of salt.

In anotiier case, when sown from wheat, at the rate of one hundred and
sixty pounds per acre, it increased the crop seven bushels per acre, making
the additional wheat cost about twelve cents per bushel.

In a tiiird experiment, when applied to oats, at the rate of one hundred
and twelve pounds per acre, it decreased the; crop (as compared with a plot
exactly similar in soil and size) at the rate of six bushels of grain per acre,
and the straw at the rate of three hundred pounds per acre, making it harsh
and Ktifl".

All the experiments wdiich have been tried have tended to prove that salt
is not favorable to the increase of oats crop, and, if applied to the corn at
the rate of more than one or one and a half bushels, it will decrease the
succeeding cr(jp of oats; but they tend to prove that it may be applied to
wheat in any amount from one to twelve busiiels without any danger of a
bad result.

208 transactions of the american institute.

Dogs and Dog-Laws.

Mr. Solon E-obinson. — I urge the Club to call the attention of the present
Legislature to the necessity of an amendment to the dog-law of this State.
H. P. Fitch, Oswego county, N. Y., in a letter to The Coiinlry Gentleman,
Bays: "There are more sheep killed by dogs in the State of New York
every year than the whole race on earth is worth. There are farmers of
my acquaintance who have for the last fifteen years lost on an average
annually ten per cent of their flocks by dogs, and still the evil is allowed
to continue.

"We have a dog-law, such as it is, levying a tax of fifty cents per head,
and making it the duty of the collector to kill all dogs on which the tax is
not paid; but it has never come to my knowledge of the first dog being
killed by said collector in default of collecting the tax, and it is notorious
that a large percentage of dogs escape both the tax and the penalty.

"What we want is a law similar to the ^fassachusetts dog-law, and
then if people wish to enjoy the luxury of keeping dogs, they can do so by
complying with the requirements of the law."

Tiie dog-law of Massachusetts provides that every owner or keeper of a
dog shall annually, on or before tl;e first of May, cause it to be registered,
numbered, described and licensed, in the office of the clerk of the city or
town wherein he resides, and shall cause it to wear a neck collar distinctly
marked with its owner's name and registered number, for which license he
is to pay $1 for a male dog and S5 for a female dog. Any person keeping
a dog, not thus licensed, registered and marked, is subject to a penalty of
$10; and it is made the duty of every police officer and constable to kill all
dogs running at large, not thus registered and marked, for which they are
to be paid, by the city or town, fifty cents for each dog so destroyed by
them. There are various other provisions, but these are the ones which
give the law its effective power.

The Chairman. — There is a similar law in Connecticut. I found last
summer, in moving to my country residence at Norwalk, tliat to keep a
small rat terrier which I took up with me, it was necessary to take out a
license and paj'^ a tax of one dollar.

Mr. Carpenter. — If it were not for dogs the rough lands of Westchester
counly might be stocked with sheep, where they are almost valueless for
any other purpose. As it is now, not one farmer in a thousand in that
county can keep sheep profitably. I tried to establish a flock, but lost
nearl}^ half of it in one night. The dogs, not satisfied with the first attack,
made a second one, killing and wounding most of the remainder. For his
part, he was quite discouraged, and so were all his neighbors. At the
suggestion of the Chairman, Mr. Piobinson moved a resolution, which was
unanimously adopted, asking all agricultural societies and farmers' clubs
in the State, and all influential farmers, to make a strong appeal to the
Legislature, at the present session, to have the dog-law of this State
amended so as to conform to the law in force in Massachusetts and Con-
necticut.

Dr. Trimble urged the consideration of the fact that the owners of sheep-

iiu g dogs arc generally the most worthless persons in community. Any

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 209

law tliat requires the detection of trespassing- dogs is useless. One of the
most pitiable sights that he had ever witnessed, was a flock of sheep which
had Ixren mangled by dogs. The value of those not killed was very much
impaired, for the flock ever after .was so timid it did not prosper.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Sec^y.

January Kith, 18G5.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Hop Culture.

The Chairman. — We have with us to-day a gentleman from Otsego
county in this State who is well versed in the hop culture, and as this
branch of industry is becoming of great importance to the agricultural in-
terest of the country, I hope he will give us important information on the
subject. I take great pleasure in introducing Mr. T. W. Collins to the
members of this Club.

Mr. T. W. Collins. — Otsego is one of the leading hop-growing counties
in the United States. It is not so because the soil, climate or situation is
best adapted to that culture, for hops are indigenous to the whole country,
and are cultivated from Maine to Minnesota, and from Vermont to Virginia.
The cultivated hops are probabl}' derived from England. There are three
distinct varieties — the English cluster, which grows in large clusters and
large sized hops, and is generally preferred; the grape cluster, which grows
in more compact bunches, and the hops are firmer than the other ; and the
Pompey hop, which is of a coarse and not as valuable sort as either of the
others. It is, however, difficult to get either variety pure, as there are few
hop yards that do not contain all of these sorts. The best time to plant a
hop yard is in the spring, as early as the ground can be worked. The
ground should be plowed and made as fine and mellow as possible. Seed
is never used. The plants are obtained from off'sets of the old roots and
are best planted with a dibble, though some plant them in a rough manner,
covering them as they would potatoes. Corn, potatoes, or any other hoed
crop can be raised the first year with the hops.

The proper distance to plant hops is eight feet apart each way, but upon
the rich bottom lands of tlie west, nine or ten feet apart. Care must be
taken to keep the sets from male plants separate from the others. There
should be about one male hill to every eight hills, each way, or one in
sixty-filur, making about eight to twelve to the acre. These hills should
be marked by a stake at planting, to enable one to distinguish them at a
glance.

The ordinary method is to set two poles to each hill. These are from
twenty t(» thirty feet long, and must be set very strongly in the ground, or
else they will be liable to blow over when heavily loaded with the vines.
Two vines are trained up each pole, and the ordinary yield is from 700 to
1,200 pounds merchantable hops per acre. One thousand pounds per acre
has been considered a good average for many years, and when the price
has averaged ten cents per pound, it has been considered as good as a
grain crop at the average of the last ten years. This year the yield has

[Am. Inst.] N

210 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

been very light and quality inferior. There is probably not half an ordi-
nary crop. This has been caused by the great drouth, by aphis -and mil-
dew, The aphis has affected the crop only during the last two years. It
is customary to manure the hop yard in the fall, by placing a shovel full
of good barnyard manure to each hill. This requires only four or five
stout loads per acre. Lime and ashes are also very beneficial, applied at
the rate of about one pint to the hill in the spring, which has a tendency tO"
prevent the work of the grubs. The best prevention of tbem which I have
found is to bury the surplus shoots which we trim off, as these serve as
food for the grubs, and while they remain fresh the grul>s feed upon them
in preference to the hard vines which are reserved to climb the polo. A
hop yard must be cultivated as carefully as a corn crop. Although Otsego
is the largest hop-growing county in this country, it is, as I said before,
not because best adapted to their culture, but because the first settlers
of that county found it too poor for wheat, too high and cold for corn, and
not very profitable for any other grain. They found the lands extremely
well adapted to dairy purposes, but they wanted son:ie other salable crop,
and they accidentally hit upon hops. I look upon it as about the poorest
county in the State for that crop, and I see no reason why the cheap landd
of Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, may not be used for hop cul-
ture as well as Otsego. Hops do well in any g-ood limestone soil, and so
they do in any soil that will produce Indian corn, with about the same
amount of pi-eparation and cu'tivation, and with less manure. I believe
the only necessity for making new yards arises from the old English
method of growing hops which has been adopted in this country ; that is,
growing them upon long poles, which renders it necessary to take them
down when the crop is picked. Tliis is done by cutting off the vines and
drawing the poles out of the ground by a lever and dog which takes hold
of the pole, which is lifted up by one man while another takes it upon his
shoulder and carries to the picking boxes. Cutting the vines while in a
fresh growing state causes them to bleed as badly as grapevines cut dur-
ing the growing season. This sometimes so exhausts the vigor of the
roots that a considerable portion of them die during the winter, and they
are unproductive the next season. I saw this fully illustrated near
Cooperstown a few years since. A yard one year produced an extraordi-
narily heavy crop ; it was picked while the vines were still in a vigorous
growth, and they were observed to bleed profusely. The next year the
vines were weak, grew small, and produced very few hops. This was
charged to their over-bearing the year before. By a different plan of
treatment, I have repeatedly proved that Avhat is termed over-bearing
never produces this effect. I have adopted a new and very much improved
system, which obviates all necessity of cutting the vines until they are
entirely ripe. Indeed they may be cut any time during- the winter. This
improvement is in using poles only seven and eight feet high, with twines
drawn from the top of the poles in each direction across the field ; they
need to be only just high enoug-h to allow a horse and boy, if one is em-
ployed for a rider, to pass under the twines while cultivating the crop.

By this system the yield is increased to 1,500 or 1,800 pounds per acre,
and the saving of expense in poling is very great, as not more than one-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 211

tcntli of the weight of timber is required, and almost any sort will answer
for these short poles, while for long ones the very nicest sort of long,
straiglit, slim young trees, of some durable wood, is required, and of such,
the hop growing counties have become exhausted, and poles are imported
from Canada at great expense. The cost of twine is not onerous, as it
can he saved and used from year to year, and the poles do not need to be
taken up and reset, •oiil}'- when thej' decay, and they do not need to be set
near as firmly in the ground as long poles, because the wind has but little
effect, as the twines run at right angles, from side to side of the yard, con-
necting all so firmh' together that not one can fall, even when rotted off at
the surface of the ground. There is another advantage in this system of
poling; that is, if these short poles are set for the first season the vines
will climb them and produce nearly half an average crop of hops without
injuring the corn. The next year the twines are put on, and the vines
trained along them in each direction so that the hops which always grow
upon branches manj'^ of them being within easy reach of the picker. In
this system, instead of taking up and carrying the poles to one spot to be
picked, the pickers pass through the field, loosening the twines from the
top of the pole as they proceed and leaving them to fully mature before
being cut. The picking is usually mostly done by girls who receive upon
the old plan twenty-five cents a box which holds about ten bushels. I pay
a little higher per bushel for picking, say four to four and a half cents, but
r save the expense of taking up and carrying the poles to the boxes.
Another advantage, there is less carrying and shaking of the hops. A
bushel of hops will make about two pounds when dried. That would make
the cost of picking an acre at two to two and a half cents a pound, $20 to
$25 per acre. If a man has five acres, and a kiln sufficient to dry the crop
as fast as picked, he should employ twenty-five or thirty girls.

Picking and curing is the most important operation connected with the
hop crop. The season commences the last week in August, and the work
should be continued as rapidly as the hops can be cured. The old fash-
ioned curing house is made with a room twelve to sixteen feet high, the
lower part occupied by a stove or some kind of heating furnace, and the floor
overhead made of wooden slats, upon which a thin cloth is placed, and on
this the hops 'twelve to twenty inches thick. They require from eight to
twelve hours' heat, and must be stirred once or twice during that time,
because the portion lying over the slats is not as much affected by the ac-
tion of the fire as that in the space between. When sufficiently cured they
are carried to a drying room. This process requires a good deal of handling
and hiss of the lupulin; as the kiln must be kept going night and day the
owner cannot always be present, A great improvement in kilns has been
made; wires are substituted for the wooden slats, so that the hops do not
need stirring while drying, and when dry enough they are removed without
touching them by hand. One edge of the cloth is attached to a roller,
which, being turned, draws the load upon the cloth along and empties it
Qver into the store room.

The telegraph plan of training hops has not proved successful. This plan
consisted in stretching wires from side to side of the field, to support twines
or smaller wires up which the vines were trained. In one case a yard of

212 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

fiix acres trained upon wires in this way was all destroyed by a single
flash of lightning.

Frost, both spring and autumn, sometimes injures hops. If the plants
are injured when about a foot high it is best to go over the yard and cvd off
the frosted plants, and trust to new shoots. A severe frost in autnmn
injures the crop. As to the rapidity of picking, I knew one yard of four-
teen acres at Rochester picked in five days. One of the acres, which
yielded 1,C00 lbs., was picked in two hours. It will take thirty good hands
to pick an acre a day. A first rate picker will average from 50 to 60 Ibs-
of cured hops per day.

Dr. Ward. — What manure do you use ?

Mr. Collins. — Most of our hop growers keep cows, the manure of which
is used on the hop grounds. Ashes are also good.

Mr. Bergen. — How do you start a new yard ?

Mr. Collins. — There are sets I'unning under the ground, this root we cut
into pieces four or five inches long, each having a pair of eyes, then we
dibble in so that the whole is covered.

The remarks of Mr. Collins were listened to with marked attention, and
at its close a vote of thanks was unanimously tendered for his interesting
discourse upon the Hop culture.

Flower Culture and Distribution of Flower Seed.

A few weeks since Mr. Wm. R. Prince sent in a quantity of flower seed
for distribution by the Club. This being noticed in the published reports
of the Club, brought numerous letters, a portion of which were referred to
Mr. R. G. Pardee, with the request that he would make a brief report, add-
ing some remarks upon flower cultivation.

The following is his interesting report:

" Prompt and earnest responses from Maine to Minnesota, from Nebraska
to Kentucky, and often from most secluded locations, have come as appli-
cants for a few choice flower seeds, showing how the spirit of enthusiastic
love of flowers lives among the people. I have looked over the letters of
between 200 and 300 ladies, and make a few brief extracts. I wish there
was time and room for more of these pleasant epistles. One lady in the
far interior of Minnesota says: 'All our flower seeds and bulbs were
destroyed by a fire which consumed our new house and household furniture
on the 24th December, 1863, and I shall, therefore, thankfully receive some
seeds, as I have always had choice flowers from childhood, and think any
place desolate and lonely without them.'"

Says another lady in one of the Middle States: "I am not rich enough
to buy flowers, but I dearly love them. They seem to bring the angels
nearer to earth and breathe over our spirits beautiful thoughts and tender
affections of the better land where they dwell, and lift us above the gross-
ness and selfishness of earth. I have often thought that the sweet face of
my angel daughter looked at me from the purple and golden petals of a
pansey. The dear flowers, who could not love them. Poor indeed is that
heart that loves them not."

Another lady from Wisconsin also says: " I shall receive the seeds with

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 213

heartfelt gratitude, as we only moved here last summer, and have not »
plant or a seed to begin with."

Writes another lady in an extreme section of Illinois, five miles from any
postofficc, and twenty miles from our nearest market: " It seems to me if
the inhabitants of the thickly populated East, only knew how isolated we
poor mortals are from our neighbors, and how few. our sources of enjoy-
ment are, compared with theirs, they would commiserate us sufficiently to
divide their flower seeds and roots with us."

Anotlier writer says, he is a boy, " but he loves flowers as well as any
lady."

Another in far Iowa writes: ''That ho has retired from the active scenes
of commercial life to the far western prairies, a pair of us, as was in the
beginning, male and female, at the age of sixty-five years, we are endeavor-
ing to prolong our stay in the modern garden of Eden, by cultivating it
with our own hands. It makes our stay more pleasant to cultivate fruits
and flowers. Please say to the Club, that I am deeply interested and
materially assisted in m}' labors by their weekly reports."

These brief extracts will serve to illustrate the spirit and scope of their
interesting letters. They demonstrate several things, to wit:

First. That in the most retired and humble homes of our land there are
multitudes of American ladies who are so refined, as to love enthusiasti-
cally the cultivation of flowers.

Second. That good flower seeds, worth cultivation, are hard to obtain,
even from some seed stores.

Third. That the generous off'er of Mr. Prince ought to be succeeded by
others of a similar kind, thus rendering the American Institute a rival of
the Patent Office. If it will send out good desirable seeds only, it will
soon prove a blessing to the country.

Fourth. These letters clearly demonstrate another thing, that there is a
very great want of plain, simple directions how to cultivate flower seeds
well

Fifth. That florists and amateurs must "help those women," who so
earnestly long to make their homes attractive and beautiful, especially
those who are united to husband farmers, who, as one lady writes, do not
care whether weeds or flowers grow around their homes, or at least will
not make the least effort to check the weeds or cultivate flowers.

Mr. Pardee gives the following remarks about

The Cultivation of Flowers.

In the beautiful language of Wilberforce, who said " P"'lowers are the
smiles of Divine Providence," let us then prepare the way for these smiles
in all gardens and windows. To do this, we must study their nature and
adapt the earth to their wants, and then we shall brighten the smiles of
all around us. A lady says: " My flowers are stunted, miserable, unsightly
dwarfs-, the blossoms single, when I desire them double. Why is it so?"
I will try to answer this practical important question. For such coarse
productions as corn and potatoes, farmers plow, harrow and furrow for
planting, and plow, hoe and cultivate two or three times, thus frequently
stirring the earth. How is it with your flower bed? Is it half prepared

214 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

as it should be? Many persons spade and rake the bed and put in lb©
seeds the same day. It thus has but a single up-turning, and it receives
an occasional scratching to the depth of half an inch, with rake or hoe, and
that is all the action the soil gets in the culture of rare, delicate and beau-
tiful flowers. It is not surprising that the soil packs almost as hard as a
brick, and that stunted plants only grow. A flower bed should be finely
spaded or forked, and thoroughly stirred two spades deep as early in the
Spring as it can be worked. Let it rest a little, and then stir it again in
the same manner, taking care to keep the best soil on the surface, which
must be thoroughly raked, pulverized and aired. After the most thorough
raking, when you are ready to plant the smallest seeds, smooth the surface
with the back of the spade, then sprinkle the seeds in rows on the surface,
and cover by sifting the soil tlirough a fine sieve. The finest seed should
not be covered more than one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch deep.
Sometimes small seeds are driven too deeply into the earth by rains. To
prevent this, cover with boards or cloths. If the weather is very dry,
water the beds daily with a fine rose watering-pot. If the sun is very hot
when the young plants appear, shade them. Watch the weeds and pull
them out when small. Weeds soon strangle fine plants. Give them
thorough cultivation and constant care. Water if necessary; see that the
growth is never checked. The earth is to be mother to the weeds, but only
step-mother to the flowers. Some plants, like the Asters, Balsams, &c.,
will be benefitted by transplanting, or even repeated trausplantings; while
other plants, like the Poppies, Lily of the Valley, &c., can rarely be re-
moved with safety. If the soil is too heavy with clay, add pure sand. If
too light and sandy, work in the day. If the soil is too old, black and
heavy, add fresh virgin soil. If the soil is foul with old vegetable matters,
or is infected by the wornis, bugs, or the eggs of worms, apply the salt
and lime mixture, njade of three bushels of lime, slackened, with one bushel
of salt, dissolved in water. If the soil wants enriching, we prefer hog or
foul manure, old decayed leaves, or leaf mold and muck; but let no kind of
manure be applied to your garden until composted to the consistency of
black mold. The salt and lime mixture will greatly expedite this process.
If you want fine flowers, care should be taken to get and preserve the best
of seed. The best varieties that can be selected from the florist's will be
the cheapest, even if of higher price at the first. Of the numerous varieties
of the Asters, Balsams, &c., some two or three kinds are richly worth cul-
tivating, while the commonest kinds would not be cheap as a gift, if you
could purchase better ones. High priced novelties are not always desira-
ble. When a fine variety is obtained, be careful to preserve the seed and
keep it pure. This can only be done by pulling up by the roots and de-
stroying at once all plants which show on the opening of the first flower a
single or semi-double bloom. I know it will be hard to do this if
the semi-double chances to be handsomer than you have ever raised previ-
ously; but you must do it fearlessly if you wish good seed for double per-
fect blossoms next year. If you have a fine bed of beautiful double Asters,
Balsams or Zinnias, and permit one single flt)wering plant to blossom in
the bed, it will hybridise and destroy all the other seed. Vigilance here,
as well as in other duties, is the price of saiety. Save all the soap suds

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS^ CLUB. 215

for watering' your garden. Such water is particularly fertilizing and rer
freshing to the flower bed.

Hardy Flowers.

Among the most valuable flowers in a garden is a class that when once
placed in the ground will remain, and, with good cultivation, will spring
tip every yonr aiid flower with great profusion. Tliey are the Dielytra,
Pompone and large Chrysanthemums, Hardy Phloxes, Peonies in variety,
Japan and other varieties of Lillies, Double Holyhocks, &c. The following
hard}' perennials may be raised from seed, and the newest and best varie-
ties arc very desirable, viz: Sweet Williams, Hardy Pinks, Snap Dragons,
Pansies. For a few annuals we would select the best varieties of Asters,
Balsams, Amaranthus, Clarkias, Tom Tliumb, Nasturtiumj Portulaccas,
Double Ziunias, Phlox Drummondi, Linuni and Lupins, Everlasting flowers
in variety, Larkspurs, Sweet Alj^ssum, Canai'y Bird Flower and C3'prus
"Vine. For the florist's catalogues you may add to this list from time to
time, provided you will cultivate them as they should be. If possible, ob-
tain from the florist every Spring a few plants of Verbenas, Petunias,
Geraniums and Lantanas, Fuchsias, &c.

If you want a few hardy shrubs, of course jon will get the spireas in
variety, Wigelia Rosea, Forsythia, Deutzia, Altheas, Rhododendrons, Ma^
honia, Japan Quince, Lilacs, Honeysuckles, Venetian Sumac and Hardy
Azalea.

For desirable roses I name the following: La Reine, Baron Grosse, Mad-
ame Laffay, Caroline de JSansal, Lord Raglan, Madame Pladue aimee,
Blanche Vibert, Persian Yellow, Gloire di Dizon, Souvenir de Malmaison,
Devoniensis, Queen of the Prairies, Baltimore Belle, Solfataire, Prince
Albert.

On motion of Prof. Tillman, it was

Resolved, That the thanks of the Club be presented to Mr. Pardee for the
report on the letters referred to him and for his interesting paper on the cul-
tivation of flowers.

Rabbits — To Prevent Gnawing Fruit Trees.

Mr. L. R. Noyes, Linn county, Iowa, recommends as the cheapest and
best protection against rabbits, to peel sections of forest trees of suitable
size, and take off pieces of bark around the body without breaking, some
two or three feet long, and place one of these around each apple tree in dan-
ger of being gnawed by rabbits. These bark shields should be taken off in
spring and stowed for future use, and will thus last for years.

Mr. Suel Foster, Muscatine, Iowa, says: "Let me repeat it, for my neigh'
bor says several of his fine young apple trees have been ruined lately by
the rabbits gnawing them: Take thick lime whitewash and thin it with
strong tobacco juice. A bucket full will serve 200 trees, and a man can
make it and put it on in half a day. It is effectual for I have tried it."

Mrs. C. A. E. Brown, Lawrenceville, Tioga county, Penn., gives in detail
her experience in protecting trees from rabbits and mice with circles of
bark. Besides the advantage of protection from rabbits, she found another
important one. She says: "The first year I placed the barks around the

216 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

fruit trees, just as I had taken them from the forest tree, and I let them
remain until the last of April; then I removed them, and my peach trees
were at least one week behind my neighbors in blossoming, but they
escaped the early frost, and I had a full crop while they had very few.
The next year I set them tunnel shape, the small end up; in both cases I
saw that peaches and plums yielded larger crops than those without this
rabbit protector.

"In Pennsyluania I used hemlock, in Wisconsin poplar bark; there the
ground is generally soft and the end of the bark can be pressed into it.
Where the ground is hard, dig a little circle and imbed the end of the bark
firmly to prevent the wind blowing it against the tree. In ui?ing barks
that have been kept over the season, they must be soaked to spring them
open so as to go around the tree, and it may be necessary' to tie them
together. I have found having barks around the tree tlie whole year inju-
rious, I do not like tarred or greased paper, for young trees like little
children should have plenty of breathing room."

Mr. A. Curtiss, Clinton, Kansas, saj's: "I protect my trees with buts of
corn stalks, which are worth nothing for fodder. Cut then) eighteen inches
long and tie them around the trees, A man can protect 150 a day."

Dr. Ward. — I find one of the best protections, is to prune late in autumn
and lay the limbs where the rabbits can get them. They will eat the buds
in preference to gnawing the barks of trees. A few trees may be protected
with bark, &c., all in a nursery cannot. The pruned limbs may save them,

Mr, R. H. Williams. — I have seen the bark of the basswood and chesnut
used for the protection of young trees from rabbits; the bark of the bass-
wood is rapidly pealed and may be applied very readilj', it should be
inserted just below the soil and extended up the tree and securely tied.

Delaware Vimes in Iowa.

Mr. H. Parker, Mt. Pleasant, Iowa, says: "Mr. N.YanVost of this place
purchased of me last spring thirty of Dr. Grant's No. 3 single eye Delaware
vines, one year old, and they were about the smallest specimen of the Dela-
ware vine that I ever saw. He had prepared his ground in the fall by
trenching, putting the top soil underneath to the depth of two feet, and
placing the clay subsoil on the top. In the spring (some time in April) he
opened the trenches, and planted his vines so as to leave the lowest but
about six inches below the surface of the ground, and as the vines grew,
he hoed the dirt to them until the trench was filled to the level of the
ground around them. lie then gave them no further attention, neither
staking nor pruning, and in the fall I went over with a friend and measured
the vines. They had made an average of fifteen feet growth, of good,
strong, well ripened wood, the main cane near the surface of the ground
being about a quarter of an inch thick. Some of the vines had made
twenty-five feet of wood. Mr. V, Made about twenty layers, every layer
being as large as half a dozen of the original vine. The vines were
planted on a side hill, a gradual slope facing the south, and as the season
was very dry, I consider this an extraordinary growth,"

pboceedings op the farmers' club. 217

Beet Sugar.

Mr.Ludovic Lcchaut, a native of France, now resident of Monsey, Rock-
land county, N. Y., says:

"The beet sugar manufacture of France commenced in 1805. After
many unsuccessful experiments, and a great waste of time and money, it
has proved a complete success, and it is to-day viewed in my native land
as one of the greatest, if not the greatest, blessings of the French agri-
culture, not only for sugar making, but also as a root crop for fattening
purposes. Flanders, Artois, Picardy and the environs of Paris have become
rich on the beta vulgaris and beta saccharifera, and the soil has increased
considerably, both in value and fertility, since the regular introduction of
the beet in the rotative cultures of thq northern farmers in Franco. But it
has been ascertained, scientiBcally and practically, (and this is the incent-
ive of the preseiit letter,) that, as far as sugar making is concerned, beets
cannot be grown profitably beyond a certain climatcric limit. It seems
that an All-wise Providence has ruled that those two great crystallized
sugar-producing plants, cane and beets, should not interfere with one
another; but, on the contrary, would be confined within certain limits. In
France, south of the great and beautiful river Loire, it is too warm for the
beet to keep sweet and capable of yielding sugar, an important portion of
this last substance being transformed into potash before the root attains
its complete maturity. I am not acquainted sufficiently with the climate
of the United States to venture an opinion about the extreme southern limit
of the sugar beet (as a sugar-giving plant) in North America, not knowing
even the localities of isothermal lines corresponding with those of Europe;
but what I want to say is that there is a limit in France where the beet
cannot be grown for sugar with the least chance of profit. That limit be-
gins a little north of what we call the olive-tree region. Is it not reasona-
ble to suppose that such a limit does exist here, and that farmers should
be very careful not to engage in large experiments in that way before as-
certaining accurately if they are on the safe side? Very probably the want
of knowledge of this important fact will lead to many splendid failures, and
will eventuall}' invf)lve nice losses of money, beside the ordinary croakings
about the humbug of beet yielding large quantities of beautiful sugar. It
was this idea that emboldened me to write to you."

How TO Head the Chinch Bugs.

Mr. D. K. Emerson, Stoughton, Dane Co., Wis., says that Mr. H. J. Everest,
of this place, has discovered how to head the chinch bugs. Several persons
tried his plan the last season, and are satisfied with the result. Every-
thing that will tend to stop the ravages of these great pests of the Western
farmer should be made known. ITc therefore gives the following formula:
" Wlien the bugs are seen marching (for few fly at that time) take common
fence boards, six inches or less wide, and run them around the piece, set
edgewise, and so that the bugs cannot get under them or between the
joints, and then spread either pine or coal tar on the upper edge, and they
will not cross it. The tar needs renewing till the edge gets saturated, so
that it will keep wet and not dry in any more, and either kind of tar is ef-
fectual. Then dig holes close to the boards, about like a post hole, once in

218 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

four or five rods, and run a strip of tar from the top of the board to the
bottom on the outside opposite the hole, and they will leave the board, and
in trying to get around the tarred stripe will slide into the hole, where
they will be obliged to remain till they can be buried at leisure, and new
holes opened for more victims. It is seldom one has to fence more than
one side of a field, but wherever the fence is it is a sure stop. After they
commence flying, corn is too far advanced for them to damage, as it is too
ripe to roast. Chinch bugs always fly with the wind— never against it. I
have no doubt if these means had been thought of in season we might have
saved thousands of acres of wheat in this county alone which were entirely
destroyed. At any rate it will be extensively tried hereabouts if the bugs
appear next season. The bugs generally commence on some small dryish
patch, frequently in the middle of a large field of wheat or corn, in which
case it would only be necessary to fence them in, instead of out."

Mr. J. H. Knight, Monroe, Orange Co., presented a new seedling apple.

On motion of Dr. Ward — Pruning of Trees and Vines was made the sub-
ject for discussion two weeks from to-day.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

January 17, 1865.

A Good Place for Emigration- — Atlantic County, New Jersey.

Mr. Nathaniel Hine, Absecom, recommends the above county to persons
in pursuit of new homes upon cheap lands. He says : " I have one half
acre (400) vines, set in the spring of 1860, from which t have sold, of fruit
and must, $620 worth. One of my neighbors has. 300 vines, set in the
spring of 1861. Last October he sold ^285 worth of must, besides furnish-
ing a large family with fruit. Other small vineyards are equally produc-
tive. I lived thirty-three years on the shore of Lake Erie, not far from
Kelley's Island. I believe this place preferable for grapes ; the quality is
superior. I have now twenty acres set with Catawba vines, which are
perfectly hardy here on the sea-shore. I have one-third of an acre in bear-
ing, from which I sold one hundred and fifteen dollars worth of fruit and
made forty gallons of wine. I understand others in the county were more
successful. I have been informed that in the new settlement of Hamonton,
in this county, they expect to load three freight cars a day next season
with strawberries. They have raised strawberries onl}' two or three years
for market. But they are ' white men ' that have come and settled in New
Jersey. With our experience, which we will readily give, other white
men can do better in the same time than we have done. Good land for
grapes and berries can be bought within two or three miles of the station
or the shore for twenty ($20) dollars per acre, accessible to good churches
and first-rate schools. All kinds of berries also are profitably grown here.
This place is fifty miles from Philadelphia, on the Camden and Atlantic
Railroad."

proceedings of the farmers' club. 219

Root Grafting.

Br. Benjamin F. Long, Alton, Illinois, says: "I am a practical fruit-
grower, laboring with my own hands and overseeing all of the operations
pertaining to the orchard. With reg;ird to grafted trees for my use, I
prefer the root grafted, and if necessary would pay a premium to obtain
them. I i^lanted one year one thousand of them, different varieties ; also
133 top grafted trees ; of the former all lived, of the latter three did not
start. If by accident a suiall tree is braken off near to the ground, you
will obtain a sprout from the stump and that will be of the improved fruit,
and will make a tree quicker than a new youngster put in ita place."

Agriculture of Peru.

Mr, E. G. Squicr. — I shall to-day make a few remarks upon tlie agricul-
ture of Peru. I .shall endeavor to demonstrate to American farmers the
great advantage they would derive from irrigation, not only in time of
drouth, but in the benefit of the water as a fertilizer.. On the coast range
of Peru rain never falls, and there no crops can be grown without irriga-
tion, but I found that planters in the interior, where it does rain, valued
irrigation almost as highly as others did where it was indispensable, be-
cause it rendered them perfectly independent of the clouds, I surveyed
one of the ancient irrigating canals, that was over 200 miles long, which
brought the water from the mountains, following the level around the
points of the spurs, and then far up one side of valleys and down the other,
giving out water at various points. This canal is supported along the
mountain side by the most substantial masonry, and all the conduits for
discharging water are solid stone pipes or troughs. Wherever he traveled
he was hardly ever out of sight of these ancient works for irrigation, some
of which are in decay, while others are still in use, though to a far less ex-
tent than fttrmerly, owing to the wretched condition of the country, which
barely produces food enough for a very meagre supply for the people. In
many places where streams were insufficient, extensive reservoirs were
made, and the water of the wet season stored up to supply a deficiency in
a dry time.

The mason work of some of these reservoirs is very substantial and
extensive, and in modern times would be expensive. Under the system of
government by the Incas, all the labor required for the public good was
levied up(jn the people. Without water, Peru could never have supported
the d(uise population that existed there at the time of the Spanish conquest,
which Mr. Squier thinks has been a great disadvantage to the world, as
the state of civilization now i,s far below what it was when the Incas
ruled, and -the agricultural productions arc verj- much smaller. Avery
large proportion of the country is incapable of being cultivated, and in
ancient times the mountain sides were terraced to an extent no where else
to be found in the world. He often saw the terrace walls twice as high as
the level at the top was wide, and all these terraces had to be watered
from some stream higher up. No animal, except the Llama tribe, could
traverse many of the steep hill sides that were terraced and cultivated.

At piescnt there arc a few very fine sugar plantations, the cane of which

220 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

yields nearly twiee as much su<:?ar as cane does in Louisiana, probably on
account of its more perfect growth, caused by irrigation. One sugar estate
owned by a Mr. Swain, a Scotchman, was conducted in the most
admirable manner, with improved machinery, which he had introduced in
spite of the most pf>rsistent opposition from native planters, who do not
appear to desire any improvements upon the old crude methods. Indeed,
agriculture in Peru appears to be at a very low ebb, and in no point of
view is there anything in that country to tempt an American farmer to go
there to settle.

The agricultural labor of Peru is done mainlj'^ by Chinese under a sort of
limited sj^stem of slavery, and by native Indians, who are not much to be
relied upon, and who still entertain the hatred of their fathers toward the
race, that conquered and subjugated their country, and they have become
indolent, ignorant, drunken and wretched, living in hovels upon scanty
food, and growing nothing more than absolutely necessary for tlieir own
wants.

Some of the food plants of Peru, I think, might be profitably introduced into
this country. For instance, Quinua, which grows high up the mountains,
above the level of the cereals. This in two or three varieties would
grow around Lake Superior, where cereals fail. I have seen quite a crop
gathered from plants in such a cold region that they only grew a few inches
high. This plant grows not unlike our common dock, the seeds being
small as mustard or similar seeds.

There is also a kind of pulse, a small white bean, that yields 2,500 to one
planted; this, I think, might be profitably introduced into American agri-
culture.

Maize or Indian Corn.

" Maize or Indian Corn in found everywhere is Peru, except in the high
Punos, and presents itself in numerous varieties. I shall not enter into a
discussion of the question whether it is indigenous in Peru, but am able to
assert that it existed there at a ver}' early period. I found it in making
excavations among the ruins of Pachacamac and elsewhere, buried Avith
the dead, in places whei'e there were three layers deep, and where the
walls of structures, ruined centuries ago, had been built over the forgotten
graves.

" On the coast the mai/.e flourishes vevy well, but ripens slowly, and is
liable to mildew. The ears are generally short, but with a small cob, set
round with more rows than ours. Tlie ordinary variety is yellow, but there
is also the white, and a stumpy variety of red and dark blue. The latter
is most frequently found in the ancient graves, wrapped up with the dessi-
cated bodies of the dead.

" In the Puno it will not grow at all, except in the immediate vicinity of
Lake Titicaca and on the islands in the lakes. Here the stalks attain from
two to two and a half feet in height, and the ear, which is seldom more
than three inches long, starts from the ground close to the foot. The pro-
duction is therefore very small, and the grain is almost wholly used for
parching, for which purpose it is unsurpassed. The parched corn of the
Puno would make the fortune of the old woman with the apple-stand on
the corner, or the lame man who supplies the offices down town. This

TROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 221

maize, or rather tliat produced on the sacred islands in Lake Titicaca, and
on the Peninsula of Copacabana, was dedicated lo the Inca, and made into
bread for him by the Virgins of the Sun. It was also used in the rites of
the ancient religion.

" But the maize par excellence of Peru is that produced in the deep val-
leys of the snowy Andes, through which the head waters of the Amazon
have their course. Tiiese valleys are relatively warm, even at the altitude
of from 9,000 to 10,000 feet. They are very narrow, often nothing more
than gigantic chasms, where the rivers flow between almost precipitous
walls, but sometimes they widen out and give strips of intervale land,
which the Incas widened by terracing up the sides of the adjacent moun-
tains. In these places the soil is usually rich, and is pressed up to its full
measure of production by careful irrigation. This valley, most famous for
its maize, is that of Yucay or Urn Camba, about eighteen miles to the
northeast of Cuzco, the old Inca capital, through which flows the River
Yilcanote, one of the principal sources of the Amazon. This, though small,
is j>erhaps the finest and richest valley in Peru. It was here that the Incas
had their royal gardens, their baths — in short what might be called their
country seat. The lands are all beautifully leveled, and nowhere in the
world is there so fine and symmetrical a system of terraces, or so complete
a system of irrigation. Flanked by mountains of disintegrating limestone,
the soil of the valley is wonderfully rich, and here is found the celebrated
maize seal or royal maize of Yucay, of which I present some average
specimens.

" The stalk of this maize is rather thick and stout, the leaves rather
broad than long and very fleshy. It grows no higher than good corn in
New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The ear, as will be seen, is short, but
very thick, and the grain twice or three times as large as that of our
largest varieties of maize. Five or six ears of nearly equal size on each
stalk is a common product, and makes this maize probably the most pro-
ductive in the world. The pellicle or skin of the grain is thin, and the
interior farinaceous to an unequaled degree. The same varieties of color
exist here as on the coast, viz: white, yellow, dark red, and black or blue
black. The black variety is sweetest, and hence is most sought for pur-
poses of fermentation, in making chich'2. Tlie white is usually boiled, the
pellicle peeled off, and then eaten with pepper and salt or with sugar. I
may mention that the maize in the Sierra of Peru is planted in rows, and
not, as with us, in hills. It is drilled very thick and afterward trimmed
out by hand. The tools used in its cultivation are extremely rude, the
plow being a cro(jkcd stick pointed with iron; just such, however, as is
now in use in half of France. The hoe is more like a small adze, such as
carpenters use, than anything else, and this is worked with one hand. The
rows are about as far apart as with us. I cannot state the yield; it must
be light, for manure is not much used. The Peruvians sell guano, the}' do
not use it extensively. Eaten in a green state this corn is very nutritious.
I advise every one present to take a few grains and plant them, and see
what the product will be here.

222 transactions of the american institute.

Potato.

" The potato is more used tlian any other article of food in Peru, where;
as it is well known, it is indigenous. It is not extensively cultiv^ated on
the coast, but on the first range of ridges inland it grows in great perfec-
tion. The best varietj' is the Papa amaniUa or j'ellow patato, which is
unsurpassed for richness and flavor. It is grown in the Camas ten to twenty
leagues back of Lima, and does not appear to bear transportation from
certain favored localities. I am told it degenerates into the ordinary
potato if planted on the coast or taken higher up in the Sierra.

" High up in the Cordilleras of the Andes, the potato forms, with the
quinua, the chief support of the people. Here, however, it is small, and
presents several rather widely separated varieties, viz: theUUuco Oca, and
Maca. The Ulluco is small, seldom laiger than the English walnut, round
and watery, of rather a sweet taste. Its leaf is like that of the potato, but
smaller. The 3Iaca is another fig-shaped variety, very sweet and subject
to ferment. The Oco {oxalis tuberosa) is extensively produced. It resem-
bles somewhat our " Lady Finger" potato, seldom more than four inches
long, and little if any thicker than the middle finger. It is generally a
beautiful clear pink, darker in the eyes, but sometimes is prettily varie-
gated with yellow and pink. Like the others just mentioned it is sweetish,
very pleasant to the taste when boiled or roasted. The Ulluco, Maca, and
Oca are almost always subjected to a course of alternate exposure to frost
at night and sun by day, before eaten. The Oca by this process becomes
mealy, and loses the slightly sickening taste which it possesses when
freshly taken from the earth. The Maca is thus exposed f(n* a long time,
until well dried, and then put in a cool dry place for preservation. The
Ulluco, through this process, may be preserved for years.

" The common form in which the potato is used or offered for sale in the
elevated departments of Junin, Aqucucho, Cusco, and Puno, as well as in
high Bolivia, is that of chuno. The chuno negro, or black chuno, is made
of the ordinary edible potato, and the chuno bianco, or white chuno, of a
larger and bitter variety, which is more productive than the other. The
potatoes are exposed on a smooth piece of ground, slighly covered with
ichu grass, sometimes on clothes spread on the ground, and allowed to
freeze at night and thaw by day for from fifteen to thirty days, being fre-
quently turned, until they become perfectly dry, when they are stowed
awaj'- for use, or packed in bags for exportation. Many roach the towns
and cities of the coast, and are much valued for use in that abominable
drench or stew called chupe. In taste the chuno, when boiled, is something
like the boiled Spanish chestnut. To the teeth its feel is like what I sup-
pose that of half-decayed gutta percha might be. The potatoes are some-
times soaked in water for some days before being exposed as above de-
scribed. Another way of preparing the potato for preservation is to boil
it, peel it, and then expose it as before. The objects of this process seem
to be the longer preservatiim of the potato, for as chuno they will keep for
years, the reduction of bulk and weight for ease of transportation, a mat-
ter of importance in those mountain regions, and finally to render the vege-
table mealy and more easy of use. Foreigners generall}' acquire speedily
a taste for the chuno, and prefer it to the potato in its other forms. Per-

PROCEEDINGS OF TUE FARMERS* CLUB. 223

liaps our farmers, having- their potato crop overtaken by frost, may take a
hint from the Peruvian practice, and make a little chuno on their own ac-
count. Tlie^' will, however, hardly find the clear frosty nig'hts, cloudless
days, and dry atmosphere of the Altos of Peru to assist them in the
process."

The Quinua, the Grain of the High Mountain Regions.

" The oidy grain g-rown in these hig'h barren "regions is the quinua or
quinoa {Chenopodium Quinoa of the botanists). It belongs to the same
class of plants with the beet, spinach and sweet dock, and the grain is a
wholesome, nutritive, and not unpleasant article of food. The leaves, while
green, are used like spinach, and are quite equal to the spinach in flavor.
The grain is cooked in a variety of ways, but more particularly in the chups
or soup (the universal dish of the Sierra), which it thickens, and to which
it gives a slightly pungent flavor. It is sometimes boiled into a thick paste
and eaten with salt, or salt and butter, and with sugar. Sometimes, also,
it is cooked with cheese and the aji, pepper. Its light, dried stems are used
for fuel, giving a quick, bright, but fleeting, flame — something of value,
however, in a country where the dried dung of the llama and vicuna con-
stitute about all there is of fuel.

"The people of the Puna distinguish four varieties of the quinua, viz.:
Q. hlanca, or white quinua, which has the largest grain : Q. real, which is
very like the Q. bianco ; the Q. acorito, or gray quinua, and the Q.canagua,
smallest of the varieties, but most hardy, and grows at the highest alti-
tudes. I found the Q. canagua at the apechita of Tiahuanaco, overlooking
Lake Titicaca, 16,600 feet above the sea. It was not over five or six inches
high on the average, but well spread out and loaded with seed or grain.
Lower down it was larger, and on the islands in Lake Titicaca, I found the
Q. hlanca four feet high, with stalks as thick as one's thuttb.

"The quinua produces largely, but I am unable to give even an approxi-
mate estimate of its yield per acre. It is a grain which, I am sure, might
be introduced successfully in the colder, sandy, and more arid regions of
our own country, where the better grains will not flourish, among the Adi-
rondacks and around Lake Superior, as well as in many parts of Canada,
even into Labrador and around Hudson's Bay. The attempts to introduce
it in Europe do not appear, from what I can learn, to have been very suc-
cessful, principally, I believe, because it is not well liked as ft)od; but there
seems to have been no difficulty in its acclimatization. I know that it is
grown in the vicinity of Marseilles, in France, where it reaches the height
of six feet and upward, and where its leaves are sought as an improvement
on spinach."

Grapes and Cotton.

The grape grows with great luxuriance. The inhabitants make a very
good wine from them, similar to sherry.

The product of cotton has doubled within the last two years. It has
been estimated that 40,000 bales will be made this year.

A great many Chinese are employed in various agricultural labors. They
are paid about eight dollars per month for eight yeai'sj then they become
free. Many of the Chinese become rich.

224 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

At the close of Mr. Squier's remarks he distributed various kinds of corn,
and other cereals, to the members of the Club, after which Mr. Solon Rob-
inson offered the following Resolution:

Resolved, That the Club has listened to this discourse on the agriculture
of Peru with an interest that is very difBcult to express. It conveys in-
formation of great importance to the American Farmer. For this the Amer-
ican Institute Farmers' Club tender their sincere thanks to the Hon. E. G.
Squier.

The resolution was seconded by Mr. Carpenter and unanimously adopted.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

January 24, 1865.
Mr. Martin E. Thompson in the chair.

Sorghum and its Productions, and where it can be Grown.

Mr. Nathan C. Ely presented a specimen of very superior syrup made by J.
P. Tilton, Monmouth county, N. J., the product being 200 gallons per acre,
of a quality that would readily command $1.50 per gallon. Mr. Tilton
states that a good deal of the same kind was produced last year in that
county, and the prospect is that the crop will be very much increased in
1865.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter thought that if 200 gallons per acre can be relied
upon in this vicinity, sorgo would prove the most profitable crop that can
be planted. He inquired what was the expense of manufacturing.

Mr. Solon Robinson replied that those who established mills would gladly
receive and grind the cane, and manufacture the syrup for one-fourth the
product. He, however, begged those who might be tempted to plant their
whole farms in sorghum, not to forget the very important fact that the
syrup which is now worth $1.50 per gallon, has been and may be again
sold in this city at one-third that sum. The refuse cane is valuable only
for fuel.

Mr. R. H. Williams. — Some weeks ago there were exhibited several fine
specimens of sugar made froni sorghum, and if even fifty cents per gallon
is realized from the syrup it will pay. From my observations I consider
this crop very exhausting to the soil.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter. — As to the question of exhausting the soil I think
there is some error, for we know that Indian corn has been raised several
years in succession.

Mr. R. H. Williams. — To grow crops in succession it is necessary to
restore to the soil, the material which the crop has taken out, and that sor-
ghum required manuring every year, and that a single crop appeared to
use up all that was applied.

Mr. Dodge said : " Then sorghum is just the kind of crop that I should
like to grow, for I want a crop that I can manure highly, and be sure that
the crop will convert all the manure into a salable product. If sorghum
can do that, then it is just what we should recommend all farmers to plant."

Mr. P. T. Quinn said that he had grown sorghum near Newark, New
Jersey, upon a small scale for a number of years. He believes the culti-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 225

vation just about as expensive as that of corn, and that it-is in no degree
moi-e exhaustive of the soil. He finds it an excellent crop to grow for soil-
ing purposes. At first, the seed was used in the poultry yard, but that
was discontinued because somebody said that sorghum seed would kill
fowls, and he had never been able to investigate the truth of the assertion.
Mr. F. Margan, Wawanda, Wisconsin, writes that l;e lives a little north
of latitude 44 degrees, and that he grew sorghum there last year which
ripened the first of September. A Mr. Hillman raised about seven acres,
which being of a late variety, did not all ripen. He made about a thou-
sand gallons, which sold from $1 to $1.50 per gallon.

Sugar from Indian Cor^.

Mr. George Bartlett said : It ivS very proper to state in this connection
what I have lately ascertained in relation to the patent which has been
talked about so much here, and upon which a company with a very large
capital has been organized in this city for the manufacture of sugar or
syrup from Indian corn. Professor Seely, of this city, who, as some of you
know, is a very competent judge of such matters, has lately returned from
Washington city, where he examined the three patents issued to the Ger-
man chemist of Buflalo, who it was alleged had made the great discovery
that cane sugar could be manufactured from Indian corn at a rate per
bushel that was somewhat astonishing. Professor Seely says that the
matter patented is simply what has been known to scientific men for many
years, that starch could be converted into grape sugar. His process re-
quires the corn to be converted into starch by the ordinary method, and
then into syrup of sugar. One of his patents is for a process of mixing
corn sugar with cane sugar. The whole secret of the new process and the
new organization for the manufacture of this sugar is a contrivance to
adulterate the sugar of commerce.

Mr. Nathan C. Ely stated that proposals had been made to him to invest
money in this new project, but investigation had satisfied him that the
process was not a new one. Nevertheless, men in this city had invested a
large amount of money for the patents, and were erecting a large building
in which they intend to manufacture sugar and syrup from corn. It is not
for him to say what they will do with it. The establishment is nearly ready
for operation, and the proprietors are well satisfied that at the present
prices of sugar and corn, the manufacture will be a very profitable one.

Merritt's Patent Tree Protector.

Mr. A. C. Felton. — This invention is designed to prevent the ascent of
the female insect, which deposits the eggs that produce the canker-worm.
It is the invention of Henjamin Merritt, jr., of Newton, Massachusetts. It
consists of a peculiarly-shaped glass circle held in an iron frame, made in
two parts to encircle the tree, and is held in place by a cloth hood, which
is tied tightly around a few inches above the ring.

It should be borne in mind that the females of all these worms are wing-
less, and that the males which are fully winged are provided v/ith uo iu-

[Am. Ikst.] 0

226 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

strument capable of damaging any part of a tree ; so that although they
may settle upon the trees, no injury can thus ensue.

As the females must crawl up the trunks of the trees in order to deposit
their eggs, or if they lay them upon fences, &c., the young caterpillars
must crawl up the trunks to feed upon the leaves, the moment it attempts
to traverse this smooth semi-circle of glass, the Aveight of the lower part
of its body throws it ofi' its balance, and it falls to the ground. The cost
of these protectors is said to be at present eight cents per inch diameter,
and that it is absolutely effectual to prevent tbe ravages of the canker-
worm. It either wholly prevents, or greatly checks, the ravages of any
other insect which reaches the branches of the tree by crawling up the
trunk, and when once applied, it requires no further expense, care and
attention, or so little as to be of no consequence.

Pruning Trees and Vines.

The regular subject, pruning trees and vines, was then taken up.

I have an orchard which has been planted twelve years, and I have
pruned it at all seasons of the yeav without perceiving that one had the
advantage of the other. I made my last pruning of large limbs in midsum-
mer, because I had read that it was best to do so when the trees were
making a vigorous growth. The article stated that in August the sap is
descending, and causes the wounds to heal over more quickly. I found
this to be the case — that some limbs four inches in diameter, cut off two
years ago, are now entirely healed over.

Mr. Ward said — I have pruned at different seasons, and for Winter
pruning prefer the last of February or first of March. I have never seen
any ill effects from August pruning. I think that all wounds made in early
Autumn heal quicker than at any other season. If the pruiiing is done
late in the Spring, the wounds are apt to bleed and injure the tree. I
never met with this difiSculty with limbs cut early in March, and it is
economy of labor to do the work at that time. I have noticed when limbs
are cut for grafting that if the weather is such that the growth remains
dormant for some da^'s, the wound heals readily. Upon small trees, pruned
with a knife, I would cut at any season. It is the best plan to pinch
back the limbs of dwarf trees, instead of letting them get such growth as
to have to be cut away.

Mr. George Bartlett earnestly recommended the use of gum shellac to
cover all wounds made in pruning, budding or grafting. He said: I used
to raise all my own apple trees, because I could do so for less Ihan the cost
of their transportation from the nursery. I found when I cut away the
stalk close down to the bud that I frequently lost my labor, beside a year's
growth. After I adopted the plan of covering the cut with shellac I never
lost a tree. I consider shellac indispensable in every orchard or nursery.

Mr. Smith, of Lebanon, Ct. — I have twenty-five acres in apple trees, and
1 have tried pruning in all seasons. I would rather do it in AVinter than
not at all; but of all others I prefer the season of blossoming. If necessary
to make a second pruning I would do it in August. It should be a rule never
to let limbs get large which will require to be afterward cut away.

Mr. Peter G. Bergen, Long Island, — My object in pruning is to get fruit

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 227

soonest. The difficulties I labor under are that my pear trees grow wood
rapidly and do not produce fruit; what sliall I do witli them? Trees that
are of moderate size and grow but little wood are most productive. Some
persons say, prune in Autumn to make trees fruitful. Shall I cut oft" all
the new wood?

Dr. AVard. — Growth may be undoubtedly repressed more by pruning in
Autumn than at any other time. I inquired of the late Mr. Reid how I
should obviate this very difficulty. He said: Wait patiently until nature
effects the remedy by giving the tree its proper time for growth. If 3'ou
cut away the limbs, others will grow in their place. You must trim to
bring tlie tree into shape; it is difficult to force its fruitfuluess by the
pruning-knife.

Mr. P. T. Quinn, of New Jersc}'. — From the observations made to-day,
Ihe pruning seems to be applied to old trees, but as a number of us are
setting out trees, the remarks I shall make will apply to young trees. It
is by the knife alone that dwarf pears are brought into proper shape. One
3'ear from the bud there is a single shoot. It must be cut back so as to
leave a stem of from one to two feet. Then several shoots start. At the
end of the second year they are generally sold at the nursery. The bud in
the quince stock is then about six inches above the surface. If planted the
same depth, the heavy top is apt to break off at the junction. If set a few
inches below the junction, the pear strikes root. After the tree is planted
leave one center shoot, and prune and train the others so as to make a
pyramidal form. Keep the fruit spurs as near the base as possible. I
prefer to prune in March and April. It is very important in pickino- the
fruit that j-uu are careful not to injure the fruit buds. I often tie the Ion"-
slender limbs of pear trees iuto a circle to check their growth and make
them fruitful.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter. — When the trees are young, they grow rapidly
without making fruit buds. There are several ways to induce trees to
bear, binding the limbs, &c. When a tree comes into bearing you will find
it does not make such rapid growth, but produces fruit buds. Pruniuo- of
fruit trees is a beautiful study.

Weeds for Bedding.

A person who lives in the suburbs of the city recommends the use of
weeds for stable bedding, " because straw at six to eight cents a small
bundle is an expensive luxury. Last season I made a loose scaff'olding in
my barn, and began in early summer to spread over it weeds from the gar-
den, along the road sides and from vacant lots, even incorporating a lot of
thistles. These I placed upon the scaffold every few da^'s, and if not dry
when put on they became sufficiently so before more was added. I am now
iising it daily to bed a cow and horse, and the supply will last some time
longer, but I shall lay in a larger stock another year, and add some forest
leaves. Besides the weeds were a few potato, tomato and bean vines, all
of which answer a gocd purpose, and my manure heap is larger and more
valuable from these additions."

228 transactions of the american institute.

Flower Seeds for Distribution.

Mr. Wm. R. Prince has sent to the Secretary the following flower seeds
for distribution:

Clematis Viticella purjnirea — Purple Virgin's Bower, a hardy climber.

Bignonia fiava — Bright Scarlet Trumpet Flower, a hardy shrubby climber.

Hibiscus roseus JaUidus — Pale rose Hibiscus, a hardy perennial.

Cassia Marylandica — Maryland Cassia, a hardy perennial.

Bignonia Princei — Prince's splendid Bignonia.

California Splendid Liqnn — Perennial.

Liatus pyramidalis — Purple spiked Liatus, perennial bulb.

Hibiscus militaris — Halbert-leaved Hibiscus,

Indigo Shrub.

Mr. Prince says of the Crimson Bignonia, that it is a seedling of B.
grandiflora. It is the most magnificent of the whole family, and blooms in
immense pendant clusters. Not a plant exists out of my possession, and
these are the first seeds distributed. Any lady inclosing a prepaid envelope
to John W. Chambers, Secretary of the Farmers' Club, New York, he will
take great pleasure in forwarding the latter seeds, with any other he may
have on hand, to the applicant.

Planting Forests on the Western Prairies.

Mr. James Vincent, Taber, Fremont county, Iowa, having approvingly
read in the reports of the Club an article upon the economy of fuel, is moved
to make an urgent appeal to all prairie farmers to plant timber trees as
among the most profitable crops they can put upon a portion of their lands.
For this purpose the soft maple and cotton wood is valuable out here, as
both will grow rapidly on the high land. I have in my garden soft maples
from four to ten inches in diameter at the butt, which I raised from the seed
planted seven years ago. Some of them have borne seed for two years,
ftom which I have raised other trees. These I have sold, though I do not
make this my business. In no other way that I know of can a farmer so
rapidly improve his farm and increase its value out on the prairie as by
planting a part of it to timber. Soft maples, one or two years old, will
bear transportation well, and would it not be well to suggest through the
' Farmers' Club' the use of this valuable wood and handsome tree, for the
improvement of prairie farms in Illinois and Iowa.

To Prevent Rabbits Eating Trees.

Mr. C. H. Bradish, Adrian, Mich., says: "Make a strong decoction of to-
bacco, simmer down in lard to the consistency of thin paint, add a little
soft soap, stir well, and it is ready for use. Apply with a swab or brush
from the root of the tree to above the reach of the rabbits. We have also
found that this remedy is equally good in preventing the depredations of
the so-called ' Sap-sucker.' "

Blind Staggers in Sheep.

Mr. James B. Anderson, Sparta, III., asks for an easy remedy for a dis-
ease in his flock, which according to his description is known as the blind

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 229

staggers. As tliere are no practical shepherds in attendance to-day, we
shall leave Mr. Anderson to the care of outside members, in the meantime
recommending him to purchase Randall's "Practical Shepherd."

Another Disease of Sheep.

Mr. D. N. 11. Howard, Winawig, Fulton Co., Ohio, writes as follows about
a disease among his sheep :

" I wish to learn, through the American Institute Farmers' Club, what is
known of a disease in sheep, commencing in brown canker sores on the edges
of the lips, and extending inside of the mouth. I never heard of the disease
until it was brought here this fall by sheep from the East. The disease is
contagious, as a number of my sheep have it by being exposed to a diseased
flock, over night, in a barn, separated only by an open board partition. Is
the disease a fatal one ? and what are the remedies ? As yet none have
died."

Stamps for Marking Sheep.

Mr. A. Todd, jr., Ontario, Wayne Co., N. Y., sends us a set of cast-iron
figures and letters for marking sheep. They are about two inches long,
made with a convenient wooden handle, to be used as types to print-letters
or numbers upon the sides of sheep after being sheared, the mark being
retained until next shearing-time. In this way a complete register can be
kept of the whole flock.

Millet for Sheep.

Mr. L. Marston, Vermillion Co , 111., asks the following question : " Is
millet a good feed for sheep? It is admitted on all hands to be good for
wethers and lambs; but is it good for ewes, especially for those with lamb?
It is raised by many farmers instead of Hungarian grass, but encounters
the same prejudices or objections as food for horses, and is rejected by some
as unfit for ewes. What sa^'s the Club; or if no one has tried it, wiM some
outside member answer?"

Solon Robinson replies that as Hungarian grass is millet, whatever is
true of one probably is of the other. I believe the only objection to the use
of millet is the diuretic effect produced by the seeds. When cut before the
seed is ripe, any of the varieties of millet make good hay.

Poison Ivy Cure.

Mv. John F. Coburn, Spencerville, De Kalb Co., Ind., says that a satu-
rated solution of blue vitriol or common salt will cure the poison of ivy, if
the part is washed repeatedly when the poison first makes its appearance.

Trenching for Grape Vines.

Mr. H. Schroeder, Bloomington, 111., a successful grape-grower of that
State, thinks that it is full time that the teaching that the ground must be
trenched two or three feet deep has been a great drawback to grape cul-
ture, and as labor is scarce we must adopt other methods. If we had to
trench all our vineyards in the old way, no part of the great West conld
ever become a grape country.

"The land for a new vineyard should, when possible, be plowed in the

230 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

fall, or if in the spring just as soon as tlie ground is dry enough. To do
this rightly, take a strong plow and plow as deep as you possibly can; in
the same furrow follow with a deep tiller plow, putting it as deep as the
horses can draw, turning the subsoil, or at least well pulverizing it, and so
go over all the land. If you have time enough, it will be better to let the
land lie for a few days or weeks before laying off your rows ; eight feet
apart is the preferred distance. To lay off your rows and have them straight,
take poles eight or ten feet Icng, and put them at the end of the rows; on
each pole put a handkerchief, cap, or a loyal, and if possible, a radical news-
paper; use the poles as a guide. Then, with a good team, plow a furrow
straight between the poles from one side of the vineyard to the other,
changing your guide poles for each row. After making the first furrow across
the field, returning make another furrow two feet from the first; so go
lip and down each row with the plow until you have thrown out a ditch,
say two feet wide, along where each row of vines is to be planted. Now
take Patrick with the spade and have him spade the ground you have so
plowed as deeply as he can. That is, have him spade the bottom of the
furrow thoroughly. If you have rotten manure, ashes or compost, go along
€ach row with your wagon or cart, and throw in two or four inches of the
manure into each ditch, covering the bottom well with it. Now put your
plow on again, and plow so that every ditch will be filled up and a ridge
formed along each row. By this plowing and spading, you loosen the soil
two or three feet deep. This frequent plowing thoroughly pulverizes the
soil, and leaves it in a fit condition to be penetrated by the tender rootlets
of the young vines. It will be seen that in preparing the ground in this
way you will have an open drain on either side of each row of vines. It
would be better if all these side drains could empty into an open drain, of
larger size, at the end or ends of these small ones. Now you are ready
for planting.

" If you have no faithful German, go'to work yourself, with a common
garden-hoe, make a slanting shallow hole into your ridge where you wish
to plant the first vine. Take your vine from its water-bath in a bucket,
where it should be kept until the moment before planting, or from ita
grouted bed, spread out the roots and cover your vine. To every vine, put
down a small stake three or four feet long; to this your vine is to be tied
during the first year's growth; trim your vine so that you have but one eye
above the ground. Witli your six or eight feet pole measure off for your
next vine, and plant as before, and so on until you get through your vine-
yard. If you have anything suitable, it would pay you to mulch your vine-
row. It will save you many a vine during the hot, dry days of our summer,
and at the same time will enrich your ground.

" You can now plow your ground between your rows, and between each
row of vines plant two rows of strawberry plants; keep these plants in
rows by frequently using the cultivator between the grape-rows and the
strawberry plant. B}^ this you keep your strawberries within bounds, and
at the same time 3'ou keep the ground around your vines in good condition.
Let no weeds grow in your vineyard nor among your strawberry plants.
By this plan of raising strawberries, last year I sold over $3,000 worth
from four acres of my old vineyard. These plants will pay you for all the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 231

treatment of the land as well as for the vines. It is very essential to have
g'ood healthy vines for planting any vineyard. The most failures have been
made in consequence of planting inferior vines. Many good varieties of
grapes have been condemned and called humbugs, by reason of nothing
but inferior steam plants having been planted. Many of these new kinds
have been sold at enormous prices, and have given nothing but dissatisfac-
tion to all buyers."

UnDERDRAINS, WHERE THERE ARE NO StONES OR TiLES.

Mr. Wm. K. Griffin, Equality, 111., gives his experience in underdraining,
which maybe valuable to many other persons similarly situated. He saj's:
"ily wet land has a clay subsoil; there is no stone near bj^; the nearest
saw-mill is five miles away, is run by steam, and never sells lumber for less
than one dollar per hundred in gold; and there is no tile manufactory in
these parts. I found that open ditches filled up from frost and overflow;
besides, they were in the way of team and plow. About three j'eai-s ago
after several experiments, I adopted the following plan for underdrains,
which lias proved highly satisfactory thus far. When the ground is satu-
rated with water, I dig a ditch three spades deep, and thirteen inches wide
at the bottom. In the bottom of this primary ditch I dig a subditch eight
or nine inches wide at the top, six or seven inches deep; the sides sloping
so as to meet at the bottom. I prepare a material for covering the sub-
ditch, by cutting a tree of some durable and free splitting timber, sawing
it into sections thii'teen inches long, removing the bark, dividing each sec-
tion into eights by means of the wedge, aiid continuing the division as
long as practicable with the froe The pieces thus obtained are from i to
^ of an inch in thickness at the bark edge, and of course much thinner at
the heart edge. They are placed over the subditch, the thick edge of each
lapping a little over the thin edge of the piece preceding. The ditch is
then filled,

" The discharge of water iuto the drain is greatly facilitated by the
action of crawfish, which perforate our wet.lands here in every direction.
I found that my first ditch drained the surface pretty effectually for four
rods on each side, so I constructed my drains about eight rods apart.
The project works like a charm, greatly to the surprise of my neighbors,
very few of whom had ever heard of underdraining before. After long
rains I have seen some of my drained land six inches under water, and in
twenty-four hours after dryer than tlie hillsides. Situated as I am, the
cost of the above described covering for the subditch is less than one-fourth
that of sawed boards a foot wide. I think that two men, familiar w^ith the
use of the saw and froe, could, in free timber, get out enough for sixty rods
per day. The size of log that works to the best advantage is that, the
semi-diameter of which is about equal to the length of the froe.

" Can any one tell by experience whether tliese subterranean passages
will remain after the covering shall have rotted away? My theory is that
they will; but I should like to know what has been the experience of
others."

Mr. P. T. Quinn. — The difiScuity with the plan is that the wood decays so
soon, and then, I think, the drain will clog and cease to operate. 1 have

232 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

had to take up a stone drain lately that operated well at first, but after
being down seven years, became clogged. I do not think that the drain
the gentleman describes will fail as soon as the wood decays.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Still, for persons situated as Mr. Griffin is, I would
recommend that mode of draining, even if it had to be renewed every seven
years, for the beneBts would more than counterbalance the cost.

Adjourned, John W. Chambers, Secretary.

January 31, 1865.
Mr. Nathan C Ely in the chair.

Vegetable Flour.

Mr. H. (jF. Bulkcley, Cleveland, Ohio, sends for the inspection of the Club,
three specimens of vegetable flour, dried by superheated steam, with pre.=?-
snre only sufficient to balance the weight of the atmosphere. The steam
comes into direct contact with the vegetables, aad they are taken from the
steam dry enough to grind into flour in a common grist mill. The steam
dispels the air, and takes its place to convey heat. Steam will carry heat,
lay convection, ninety to three hundred times as rapidly as the air, in dry-
ing. The sample of pumpkin flour inclosed is taken from ninety pounds —
the product of two double loads of pumpkins dried by steam, and ground in
a grist mill, directly from the steam. One pound of this flour will make
ten to thirteen pies. This allows of having pumpkin pies in the spring of
the year, when milk and eggs are plenty, and when other pie material i»
scarce. The dried carrot is much esteemed by some for improving the color
and richness of coffee. The potato flour may be shipped around the globe.
All kinds of fruit can be dried quicker, better and cheaper by this than by
any otlier mode. It greatly improves the quality of tobacco and prevents
waste by shorts. Four years old tobacco can be made by this process in
as many days. Superheated steam, without pressure, is a disputed princi-
ple. I have been perfecting this principle for seasoning and drying all
kinds of substances for eighteen 3'ears, at a very great expense, and will
explain to any one who desires to know more about it. Fruit and vegeta-
bles may be placed on frames, and the frames piled on cars, and dried while
the cars are passing throngh the dryer. Some persons use as many as
thirty-five cars in one kiln. As soon as a car load of the dry material is
taken from one end of the dryer another car of the undried is nin in at the
other end, pushing the cars ahead on that track. In this way the dryer is
perpetual, and no cause for going into the dryer to add or remove the dry-
ing substance."

The samples of pumpkin, carrot and potato flour were as fine and dry as
wheat flour, and looked as though they might be as easily preserved.

Roofing — What is the Cheapest.

Mr. John C. Reed, Seneca Castle, Ontario county, N. Y., wants " to know
if there is any cheaper n)ethod of renewing the voof of an old building than
by shingling. We may dispense with fences but we cannot with barns and
sheds with tight roofs. I have thought of making a cement of water, lime

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FAEMERS' CLUB. 233

and sliarp sand, and plastering over the old shingles, and after it hocnmcs
dry paint with coal tar. How do the Club think such a process would do
for barn roofs ?"

Mr. Solon Robinson. — T think it will not answer. It is ver)' difficult to
repair an old shingled roof, by any process except reshingling. A great
many roofs have lately been made with pitch and coarse gravel, laid upon
clotli nailed to a boarded roof, pretty flat, and some })crsons who have them
prefer them to all others. We think if they are skillfully put on by expe-
rienced workmen these roofs are good, durable, and not excessively expen-
sive. It is certainly time for farmers to be considering what they can use
for roofing as a substitute for shingles. We have never been able to dis-
cover the reason why thatched roofs have gone out of use in this country.

The Dog Law.

"Sh. n. p. Fitch writes from Oswego, New York, a congratulatory letter
to the Club, for agitating the subject of an improved dog-law in this State.
lie says : " It is a move in the right direction, and now is the time to act.
Don't stop agitating until we have such a law as we desire.

" There are men in every town that would be glad to circulate a petition,
but they perhaps do not know exactly how to draw up one — that is, how
to word it. If the Club would frame and publish a form, it would be copied
and circulated in many towns, and prove- a dead shot to dogs."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Here is a form that will suit the purpose :
To the Legislature of the Slate of New York :

Your petitioners ask an amendment to the "dog law" of this State. We
ask for one similar to the laws of Massachusetts and Connecticut, which
requires all dogs to be registered and licensed to live, upon paying a tax
and wearing a collar. Make it lawful for any one to kiil an unlicensed
dog, and the duty of all officers to execute them. We believe in protecting
sheep. We believe there is no mode of doing it equalh^ effective as taxing
those who will keep dogs, for they prevent farmers from keeping sheep.
We pray you, make the dog tax a general fund to pay all damages done
by dogs.

Dr. John B. Rich related''a circumstance of fourteen valuable sheep de-
stroyed one night in Columbia county, by a small Avire-headcd terrier,
which no one suspected to be able or disposed to do such mischief. He
said he was obliged to keep dogs upon his farm, and wanted a law that
would protect good ones and destroy the vicious.

^fr. D(;dge said the damage usually done sheep, as in the case mentioned
by Dr. Rich, was by dogs which had no owners. He presumed there were
ten thousand dog.s in this city in that condition.

A gentleman present said he had seen 75,000 sheep in one flock in South
America, and the flocks there are constantly attended by a number of dogs
wliich are trained to be their natural protectors. The pups are taken from
their mothers and suckled by ewes. The sheep will follow the dogs where-
ever they lead, or in case (^f danger will huddle together while the dogs
run aroufid upon the outside of the fl(jck.

The Chairman. — At the Ohio Woolgrowers' Convention, which met some

234 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

time since, a statement was made that sheep to the value of $25,000 were
destroyed by dogs in that State in one year.

Mr. R. n. Williams thought that we should improve the breed of dogs.

Cranberry Culture.

Mr. C. W. Ilartshorn, Jacobstown, Burlington county, New Jersey,
highly recommends South Jersey to cranberry growers.

He says the mode of preparing the land tliere is to grub up the bushes
and roots and cart them off, and then plow the ground. It is harrowed
level, and marked in furnjws two and a half feet apart. Vines are set in
the row one foot apart, and cultivated the first season with a horsc-hoc
afterward with a hand hoe only, and by pulling out the weeds. The great
object is to keep them clean without disturbing the runners till the ground
gets completely covered over with the vines. Now as to the selection of
the ground for the garden, the best is along a good stream of water where
it can be dammed to overflow. Ditches should be cut at right angles to
back the water into in a time of a drouth, about every thirty or furty feet.
The cost of the land and preparing it, and setting out the vines, is from
$50 to $150 per acre. The yield per acre in this section of New Jersey is
about 100 to 200 bushels per acre. The price of the berries in the market
varies from $3 to $8 per bushel. The climate in South Jersey is as good
as any in the United States for the cranberry, if not the best, as the New
Jersey berries bring the highest price in the market. Thirty dollars a bar-
rel for cranberries is a great price, and should begin to open our eyes and
mouth to the discussion of the subject of the cultivation of the cranberry."

Poison Ivy.

Mr. James Bailey, Sunbury, Delaware county, Ohio, says: " There are
two kinds of ivy. No one was ever poisoned by the five leaved vine; it is
only the three leaved vine that poisons, and but few persons are affected
by that or sumach. The five leaved variety is a perfect antidote for the
poison of the three leaved variety. After suffering indescribably from the
poison, T took a few leaves and chewed them, and rubbed some blisters on
the back of my hand with the juice. It stopped the itching at once, and
in less than twenty-four hours the blisters had dried up and become flat. I
have not had a blister on me since that time from poison, although I have
been frequently exposed to both ivy and sumach, and I have seen others
use it with the same good effect. The leaves of the five-leaved ivy, when
first chewed, have a pleasant, sour taste, but if chewed too long they have
a pungent taste like wild turnip."

Hedges.

Mr. John B. Wood, Great Falls, N. H., says that barberry will not thrive
as a hedge on dry soil, and he presumes that no farmer, after a few years
experience, would tolerate a honey locust. He sa^'s: " I think the apple
or pear is the best article for a hedge in any climate where trees are liable
to be killed by freezing. And I Avould suggest that a hedge of apple trees,
with a good mixture of tall blackberry bushes, would make a hedge through
which uo creature would be willing to risk his hide. And then only think

PROCEEDINGS OP THE FARMERS' CLUB. 235

of the delicious blackberries peering out fioui your hedge and saying,
'come eat me.' "

White Acacia Seed.

Mr. A. R. Bradford, Enou Valley, Lawrence county, Penn., writes as fol-
lows: " Enclosed you will find some seeds of the White Acacia which I
found growing on the island of Kulung-Su, opposite the city of Amoy,
China. The Yellow Acacia grows there, too, in great luxuriance, and it
forms so beautiful a hedge, that I brouglit with me a half bushel of the
pods, which I picked with my own hands. In my anxiety, however, to
preserve their vitality during the voyage from the effects of sea damp, I
exposed them when crossing the equator to the rays of the sun, till I fear
the germs were injured. The enclosed, however, were recently sent me by
a gentleman in China, and are to all appearances entirely sound, They are
the seeds of the White Acacia. In China I saw the most beautiful and
perfect hedges of this plant, growing in the poorest soil in the world. As
it is found all over that country an I Japan, it occurred to me that if it
would bear our climate and soil it would be invaluable, especially in the
West, for fencing. It is very tenacious of life, is satisfied with a ver}' poor
soil and dry weather, and forms a perfect hedge. The Chinese plant it
around their dwellings to protect them against the thieves, and from its
umbrageous character it is altogether superior to the Osage orange. As
materials for fencing are becoming scarce and expensive, I send you the
enclosed, with a request to put them into the hajids of some practical man
who will plant the seeds, and ascertain whether the plant will thrive in our
climate. I have no hesitation in saying that if it will do as well here as it
does in China, it would be worth untold millions to our prairie farmers."

Muck for Manure.

Mr. X. E. Newton, Sussex county, New Jersej', saj's: "Muck I have
tried on slate land here in Sussex county, and it is certainly equal to good
barn yard manure; rye and clover growing full as good as where manure
■was used. Each one separate was the wa}' I tried their qualities."

Flo'v^er Culture.

AVe make a few extracts from the many letters received by the Secre-
tary from women who write for flower seeds. Mrs. Fry speaks highly of
"the beautiful employment of flower culture." It seems that if the men
realized how much good it did their wives and daughters to spend a por-
tion (if their time in the open air instead of steaming over a hot stove, em-
broidering or crocheting, they would encourage them in it, and offer at
times a helping hand. Who doubts but what flowers grew in the garden
of Eden? For what purpose were flowers made if not for enjoyment?
When wearied with household duties, instead of throwing one's self upon
a bed, or lounge, confined from the fresh air, to snooze away, would it not
be more exhilerating to take a short walk among flowers, and rest our-
selves, not on our feet, but upon a stool made for the purpose, and without
fingers, if nothing better, pull out the weeds that are depriving the beauti-
ful flowers of the nourishment they require? Besides, it imparts a look of

236 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

neatness to the surroundings. Then, how it diverts the mind from trouble,
care and sorrow, to seek employment among their different farms, and de-
veloping and displaying our taste in their arrangement. In connection
with the flower garden, botany would be more interesting. Its study
exalts the affections, and teaches us to ' look through nature up to nature's
God.'"

Mrs. S. Martha Malony writes from Albion, Noble county, Indiana: " We
moved to this State two years ago. I brought a variety of flower seeds
along with me. Our land was all new and unimproved. After we got a
spot cleared and a house up, and moved in, I took a survey, and the pros-
pect was not very flattering, as the stumps were so plentiful. My husband
said I had better give up raising flowers till he could dig out the stumps
and have time to assist me. But I told him I could not wait so long, for it
might be years. And every thing looks so wild and rude after land is first
cleared, I feared I would get homesick if I had not something beautiful to
look at. So I commenced and made my flower beds as best I could, and
planted shrubs and flowers around the stumps to hide them, so that by fall
things began to look quite home like, for the plot in front of the house was
all one glory of asters and petunias. And this year I have succeeded still
better, and have distributed a quantity of seeds among my friends.

"Now if I am lucky enough to receive any of those flower seeds, I will
promise to cultivate them with care, and if I succeed, will distribute seeds
to others, as I have many friends that would be thankful to receive them."

We commend the example of Mrs. Malony to every woman whose lot is
cast in a similar situation. She is certainly a good pattern for any Ameri-
can farmer's wife. '

Mrs. E. M. Voorhees, Lodi, Seneca county, N. Y., says: " My husband is
a farmer, with all he can do to till the soil for corn, wheat, potatoes, &c.,
but I want to see and smell something more beautiful than these, and
though my hands are full of household cares, I feel sure I can spare some
minutes each day tending a few fluwers. Oui" children, too, will be made
happy by being so sweetly repaid for their labor in helping to tend them.
I wish you, and all who freely give flower seeds to those who are likely to
appreciate them, many good gifts from our kind Father in Heaven."

Mrs. C. B. Allen, Johnson, Vt., says: " Four years ago I was married
and settled here among the hills, and for the loss of dear friends and
acquaintances which were left in a pleasant city in Massachusetts, flowers
were introduced in and about my dwelling. For the first two years I
engaged much in their culture and companionship. The third I was sick
in the fall and not able to save seeds, and therefore shall rejoice to receive
new ones. I love to weave about my country home garlands of flowers,
all the while growing and expanding. Are they not a fair type of the
human soul as it should be growing in grace and wisdom, ever showing
forth some new beauty ?"

Mrs. Levina S. Leavitt, Meredith, N. 11., says: " It rejoices my heart that
there are some hearts large enough and good enough to nourish the beau-
ful flowers — God's own finn:er-work."

proceedings op the farmers' club. 237

Pruning Vines.

Mr. Geo. II. Ilitc explained tlie method he adopts in pruning grape vines,
so as to grow tlio fruit on a single cane. I prefer fall pruning, leaving an
extra bud until the spring, which should then be rubbed off.

Mr. Wni. S. Carpenter. — I think it injures vines to allow them to bleed,
if tlie injury is not seen immediately it will be found at a later period. I
would reeommend that the vines be trimmed late in the fall after the fall-
ing of the leaf, or early in the spring.

Mr, Thos. Cavenach. — I have never seen any ill effects from the bleeding
of the vine.

Dr. John B. Rich. — I am a seeker after knowledge, but reasoning from
analogy I should say that any waste of sap is an injury to the vine.

Mr. Cavenach. — I know that in planting shade trees in streets, we are
often obliged to cut off the lower Jimbs, these bleed very much, and run
down the stem and injure the trees.

Mr. R. II. Williams. — I deem this an important question, I have lived
the best part of my life in a sugar making conhty. I have never seen any
ill effects from repeated tapping of maple trees. I have seen grape vines
trinnned in the spring which bled very much, but still the vines bore a
large crop of grapes.

On motion, it was resolved that Mr, Thos. Cavenach be invited to give
some experiments in training flowering shrubs, at the next meeting.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

February 7, 1865.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Earth Fences.

Mr. Adrian Bergen called attention to a notice of a new patent earth
fence which can be made for fifty cent^ per rod, besides labor. It is said
to be applicable for all soils and climates. It is never affected by frost.
Ue wished to know if it is worthy of attention.

On motion of Mr. Carpenter it was

liesolved, That Mr. A, Bergen be a committee to examine and report upon
the merits of this fence.

Dr. J. H. Warder, of Cincinnati, Ohio. — I have seen miles of these fences
in Illinois, but I believe that they have been condemned. They look very
beautiful when first built, being sodded on each side, but the frost soon
affects them. These fences were built by English farmers who settled in
the Rock River county, I think, however, that we should fence our own
cattle in and not our neighbors' cattle out.

To Prevent Marks of Small-Pox.

Mr, Adrian Bergen. — The people in my neighborhood ai'e excited about
small-pox, and the young folks dread it on account of the disSgnrement of
the face. Now, I have heard Mr, Solon Robinson say that he has had the
disease, and as he does not appear to be marked with any of its usual pits
in the face, if he can tell others how to avoid them, he will do a greater

238 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

favor to farmers' boys and g'irls than he would by telling them how to grow
better crops, or anything else about farming.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — I have told how in print repeatedly. I will again.
Get a small bottle of collodion (liquid cuticle), costing not over fifty cents,
and as soon as the pustules begiu to discharge, varnish them over with
collodion, and take care to keep them constantly covered with it ; that is,
if the discharge lifts the film, put on more. This keeps the air from the
sore, and it heals and leaves the skin smooth. A torn rag, rolled, with the
fringe at one end, makes a good brush. Let the patient be kept in a cold
room, not necessarily a dark one. At first the scars are red, then white,
then they disappear.

A New Grass.

Mr. John K. Hale, Wyandotte, Kansas, sends a specimen of a new grass,
a single tuft of which he found last aiftumn. He says : " From the fact of
its longer growth than any other grass in the localit}' where found during
the extreme drouth of last summer, it may be peculiarly adapted to this
' thisty land.'

" I feel a great desire to know its genus, and trust you will have it
examined, and if indeed a new variety, reported on."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — This grass is common in Florida. It is out of
place in Kansas. It is not worth cultivation.

Irrigation.

Mr. Hiram Brown, Carlton, Orleans county. New York : ""We want in-
formation about irrigation upon this shore of Lake Ontario, where the soil
is good, but suffers from drouth. Last year it injured our crops seriously,
and it appears to be growing worse and worse Streams are numerous,
which could be used if we knew how and had some general system."

Mr. Dodge replied that we never can successfully practice irrigation in
this country for want of concert in action among the numerous owners of
small farms. The system needs studying and laws to promote, and edu-
cated engineers to carry into efiect.

Mr. George Bartlett said he had seen some very beneficial effects from
irrigation in Massachusetts. In one case a piece of poor sandy land was
made to produce great crops of grass by irrigation of water from a woolen
factory.

Dr. Sylvester Lyons, Wayne count}^ New York. — Irrigation is carried
on in the South in the raising of rice. The lauds have to be banked.
AVater is allowed to flow on the land in which the rice is planted. This is
called the bud-flow, and again at a later dale the land is again flowed,
which is called the harvest-flow.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter alluded to the value of irrigation for strawberries,
which cannot be successfully grown without a free supply of water.

Mr. Solon Robinson tliought irrigaticm of far greater value for grass than
strawberries, as the value of the crop can be doubled upon any land by the
use of water alone. He said that Dr. Sylvester was mistaken about rice,
that it could not be grown inland. There is a kind of upland rice that

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERs' CLUB. 239

grows like wheat upon dry land. He has seen it produce sixty bushels
per acre in the interior of South Carolina.

Apple Tree Insects.

Mr. J. S. Woodward, Hess Cross-Koads, Niagara county, New York,
sends the following :

"With this receive a box containing some apple limbs, which are punc-
tured and contain some eggs — of what insect? Also a limb marked ' 1,'
on which are a pile of eggs — of what ? Also a cocoon marked ' 2/ on
which are a lot of eggs — of what ? Also a few cocoons marked '3,' some
of them perfect, and some containing some other insect. What are the in-
sects making the cocoons, and what the insects which they contain ?

"Tiie cocoons are fastened to the limbs, and the leaf to the cocoon, on
the upper side.

" There are three worms which have appeared on orchards in this vicin-
ity within four years.

" First and worst, a w^orm about one and a half inches inches long, red-
dish brown or dark orange, with gray spots; its head is smooth and a dark,
dull red, and at about one-third of the distance from the head back it looks
as though its back was broken and a callus had formed of the same color
as its head.

" Tlicse worms when first seen are all on one leaf, about one-sixteenth
of an inch long, and the first leaf is only eaten so as to leave a skeleton
leaf, and when they move they all go to another leaf, and then range in a
row around the edge, just as thick as they can lay, and cat at the edge,
and in this way go from leaf to leaf, and soon a young tree is entirely
stripped of leaves. I have frequently found eggs like those on limb No. 1,
where these worms had been. What worm is this, and is there any better
way than to watch him and crush him in his infancy ?

" Second, but not half as bad, a green worm about four inches long, and
having two rows of spines or protuberances along his back, of an orange
color, one-quarter of an inch long, and the first pair next his head are one-
sixteenth of an inch in diameter, and are covered with black spots or dots.
These go in pairs and are voracious, and will soon clean a tree four or five
years set entirely of leaves. What worm is this, and is there any better
way of getting rid of him than J:o shake him off and put a foot on him, for
I cannot bear to to touch him with my hand ?

'■ Third, a little fellow, one-half or five-eighths of an inch long, a dirty
white, and lives in the end of the young shoots when they are two to four
inches grown, and eats down the inside and kills the shoot entirely. This
is not very destructive, but is very vexatious, as he spoils the shape of our
young trees by heading them back just when we don't want them headed
back. This is the hardest to find of any of the worm family; and when we
have found him, he has done all the mischief. Tiicse are all apple pests,
of course.

" Which is the best way of pruning a young orchard, to cut out the
centers, or to leave that and form the trees pyramidal as much as may be?
Please present this to the Club for consideration, and information to the
fruitgrowers in this vicinity."

240 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITTUE.

These specimens were submitted to Drs. Trimble and Warren, both good
entomologists^ who say that the limbs are pierced by the tree hoppers, or
^flower crickets. The parcel marked No. 2 contains the eggs of the dusky
vapor moth {Orgya leuco-digma) , one of the most beautiful of insects.
The parcel marked No. 3 is the same which have been destroyed by ichneu-
mon flies, the chrysalis of which are left in place of the eggs. The protu-
berances on the limbs are a group of the pupa of some ichneumon fly.
The worm with the protuberances is seldom numerous enough to do much
mischief. It carries its eggs on the outside in those bunches. The male
is a brown moth, with wings. The female has none. If we all knew how
to distinguish the ichneumons and preserve them, while we destroy the
eggs of worms, we should soon get rid of the pests. There is one class of
ichneumons, said Dr. Trimble, that greatly resembles the common house
fly. This one has no ovipositor, and so she fastens her eggs upon the out-
side of the worms, into which the young ones eats as soon as batched.
These are God's iiitrumonts to destroy worms that are noxious to us, and
we ought to study them carefully. The tree hopper that has pierced these
limbs did so to deposit eggs to remain until warm weather in spring. This
leaf is fastened to the limb and cocoon by the female that laid these eggs,
for their protection.

Mr. Dodge inquired if we could learn which insect to destroy and which
to save.

Dr. Trimble. — "Certainly, just as easily as you can leaVn anything else,
by careful study."

The ichneumon fly destroys great numbers of catterpillars; these flies
appear to be made on purpose to destroy catterpillars.

Sheep Shedding Wool.

Mr. Daniel Reed, Morenci, Lenawee county, Mich., wants to know what
will prevent sheep shedding their wool in winter. He says:

" I have about one hundred sheep, which I keep in a vearm, dry stable,
never allowing them to get wet. I turn them out on pleasant days for
a few hours, and feed twice each day with clover and timothy; with a
small quantity of corn once each day, 'with a good supply of water; and
yet my sheep commence to shed their wool badly. Can you give the •
reason ? I do not think there is any disease among them; they all look
first rate, and seem to do well."

Mr. Solon Robinson says that one of the best remedies for this disease,
for it is as much a disease as any other, that he has ever tried, is feeding
the flock plentifully with turnips.

Perhaps some of our outside members can give the cause and cure of the
disease. If so, it will be acceptabla to a great many young shepherds,
particularly in the West, where the complaint is more common than at the
East.

ACCLIMITATION.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — It is stated that not until the sixth century wheat
was first sown in England. Up to the sixteenth century Englishmen grew
few fruits and vegetables. Wliat they consumed were imported. Their
chief food consisted of bread, beef and mutton. Nearly all the favorite

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB 241

flowers iu Eng'land are exotics. The rose came from France, Flanders and
Italy; the honeysuckle, hawthorn and passion flower from America; the
lavender, rosemary and mignonette from the south of Europe; the laburnum
from Ifnngary; the laurel from Portugal; the bay tree and daftbdil from
Italy; the weeping-willow from the Levant; .the foxglove from the Canaries;
broccoli, beans and cauliflowers from Greece; peas from Spain; carrots and
celery from Flanders; asparagus andkidncj'^ beans from Asia; lettuce, arti-
chokes and cabbage from Holland; parsley from Egypt, and potatoes from
America. The mulberry is from Italy; the apple and plum from Syria; the
grape from Portugal; the nectarine and peach from Persia; the gooseberry,
cherry and strawberry from Flanders; the currant and apricot from Greece;
the quince from Austria; the pomegranate, orange and lemon from Spain,
and the raspberry and walnut from America. The hop plant came from
the Netherlands.

Taxing Dogs.

Mr, Solon Robinson. — The subject of taxing dogs is agitated now in ma-
ny directions. The Ledger, Philadelphia, says : " The Legislature of Penn-
sylvania is Considering the propriety of taxing dogs.

" In' the report of the Agricultural Department for 1863 is a very valua-
ble article on the whole subject of legislation in regard to dogs, especially
in the bearing- of it on sheep-raising. This very clearly shows that if we
would have sheep cultivated and wool clieap, we must abate the dog nui-
sance. Every year shows that laws of increasing stringency are being
enacted in the diflTercnt States against dogs. While in some countries of
Europe they are also of increasing severity.

" In fact it would seem that, whether right or wrong, the days of dogs
are numbered. Sprung originally from the wolf, the fox or jackal, they
seem to have been domesticated, and thus entered into a sort of Gibeonitish
league with man, that has prolonged their term of existence. From the
i.ldest historic periods, dogs have been the companions of man. And the
very (,)pening lines of the Iliad of old Homer shows that even then they
were regarded also at times as his most fearful of enemies and tormentors,
both in this world and even the next. Cities have long since had to pass
laws against the race, of great severity, for fear of hydrophobia; but in the
interior of this State at least they have had a good time generally, free
from taxation, and, if the report may be believed, with even moi'e liberty
than was good for the community."

Yet we are quite behind other communities, for instance :

In Munich, Austria, all dogs are sent to the police twice each year. If
in healili, each receives a ticket, which he wears round the neck; if not, he
\A killed. In Rhode Island every dog has to be numbered, registered, de-
scribed and licensed, with the payment of $1.15 for each male, acd $5.15
for each female. Any one violating this law is fined ten dollars, and all
unlicensed dogs are to be killed and buried at the public expense, $1 being
paid for each dog so killed. Fifty dollars is the fine for removing a dog's
collar. Damages to sheep are recoverable from the town or city treasury,
and the town may then recover from the owner of the dog.

[Ayf. IxsT.] P

242 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

In Maine dogs may be taxed in any township where the citizens so agree;
and in Massachusetts double damages are recoverable from the owner of
any dog. In fact, to lead a dog's life means something worse and worse
every year, as all the Northern States are bent on raising sheep and ob-
taining wool; and even the shQpherd's dog feas lost his old character for
faithfulness, and is voted old-fashioned, and a sort of public enemy.

Many reasons are urged for this reform. The cost of keeping our 3,000.-
000 dogs in the United States is put down at $30,000,000 per annum, or as
much as all the petroleum has produced during this last j'ear. Then a mil-
lion and a half more is put down for sheep destroyed and damaged.

Let legislatures then impose taxes; let them register and restrain; it
will probably only extirpate the vicious breeds and mongrel curs, while
the nobler forms will yet sufficiently survive only under those more tamed
and proper restraints that shall prevent them from doing harm to the com-
munity. The fear of them must be no hindrance to the keeping of sheep.

Grapes in Winter.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — I have just received a sample of Catawba grapes
from R. T. Colburn, of this city, preserved in Cleveland, Ohio, in the fruit
house built there upon the plan of B. M. Nyce, Greensburg, Indiana. These
grapes, after being a week out of the preservatorj'^, are just as fresh and
sound as though only a week from the vines in October. Ice is used to
keep the room cool, and science has been invoked to preserve a degree of
dryness in the atmosphere that keeps the fiuit from decaying. At first,
chloride of calcium was uSed, but a later discovery has proved that the
bitter water of salt works, which is absolutely costless, furnishes a valua-
ble substitute for the chloride of calcium of commerce, to absorb the moist-
ure given oiF by the fruit. I may state that calcium is a silver-white metal,
which by its union with oxygen forms lime. It is not known to exist in
nature in an nncombined state. Chloride of calcium is produced when
chalk, quicklime or marble is dissolved in muriatic acid, and a solution of
chloride of calcium, sometimes called muriate of lime, is obtained. This
solution occurs in sea water, in the refuse of salt-pans, and is sometimes
allowed to flow away as waste, from chemical works. Mr. Nyce produced
his chloride by immersing marble spalls or common limestone in muriatic
acid, which produces fermentation by dissolving the marble, and becomes
chloride of calcium in its fluid state. This is heated in a large pan of sheet
iron until it becomes very hard and dry. It is then broken to pieces and
put into troughs, where it becomes fluid again by taking up moisture in
the room. It is then again taken out, dried', and the same substance may
be thus used twenty or thirty times.

Although this process is qufte inexpensive, yet I am told that the use of
the bitterns is still less. The air of the fruit room is agitated by a fan
connected with a cheap windmill on the top of the building. The tempera-
ture is kept at 34 degrees, and the dryness is regulated by a hygrometrical
contrivance. The rooms are gas-tight, and Mr. N. keeps them most of the
time so immersed in carbonic acid, created by the gradual ripening of the
fruit, that a common candle or lamp will not burn in it. The reason for

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 243

doing this is found in the principle enunciated by Licbiji^, viz: "That decay-
is much retarded by the absence of moisture, and by the substance being
surrounded by an atmosphere of carbonic acid, wiiich prevents the oxygen
of the air from coming in contact with decaying matter."

Butter, eggs, meat, game, partially cooked fruits, fruit juices, or almost
any substance liable to decay, can be kept in one of these preeervatories.

The regular subject, Pruning, was then taken up.

Mr. Thos. ('avenach. — Visitors to the Central Park, cannot fail to observe
how systematically the trees and shrubs, which adorn that beautiful resort,
are pruned; all superfluous branches are removed and the greatest care
taken to form tlie remaining branches into a symmetrical shape. Pruning,
when judiciously performed, is an operation which is highly beneficial to
most kinds of trees and shrubs. B3' pruning we not only bring the plant
into a better form, but we can, in a great measure, control the vital forces,
distributing them through all' its various ramifications; giving each fruit
and flower a due proportion. The secret of successful pruning, consist;^ in
knowing the nature of the particular tree or shrub to be operated upon,
and the future use of each shoot or branch. If carried to too great an
extent, the object is not attained, for every plant requires a certain amount
of leaves for the elaboraticm of its sap; if this be reduced too much, flowers
are produced less abundantly. On the other hand, if the branches are
allowed to grow too thick they shade those beneath them and so exclude
the light as to prevent that perfect elaboration of the sap, without which
no blossom buds are formed, but an excessive amount of leaves are formed in
the vain effort to obtain, byalarger surface that elaboration, which a smaller
surface would effect in a more intense light. Only a few general rules can
be given, as the particular treatment necessary, for each tree or shrub,
must be decided at the time the operation is performed. The first pruning
a tree or shrub receives is when it is young, and this is for the purpose of
giving it a regular form. If the tree is to be grown as a standard, most
of the side branches should be cut awaj' and the main, stem topped, when
it reaches the height at which it is desirable to form the top; but with
dwarf trees we must reverse the treatment; we then cut back the main
stem lower down to induce the side branches to grow. When a tree has
produced a number of side branches, care should be taken to remove all
superfluous shoots, as t\wy generally throw out many more than is needful.
Most people think it will ruin a plant to remove strong and healthy shoots;
but it should be borne in mind, that each shoot will not only increase in
size, but will produce more or less side branches which will cause the
space between them to be filled with small and weak shoots, and in this
way producing a weak growth all over the tree. Some kinds of trees, as
the apple, plum, pear and cherry, produce their fruit on spurs of one or two
inches in length, which grow from the main branches; these spurs if not
injured will C(jntinue to bear many years; so that when we have produced
a proper number of main branches, regularly arranged, all that is neces-
sary, for some years, is to keep the new branches from coming in contact,
or any particular one from taking the lead, and thereby drawing to itself
more than its proper share of sap.

Trees of the kinds named, when trained as dwarfs, require a continual

244 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

shortening- in of their branches, as well as tliinning out to keep within
proper bounds, and to promote fruitfulness. For general pruning the win-
ter months are to be preferred, but no tree or shrub can be said to require
pruning only once a year, for one pruning will generally create a necessity
for a second and sometimes a third. This is the case with roses, when
first planted, it is customary to prune them down to three or four buds,
each of these will produce a shoot which must be again cut back to two
eyes or buds, and so on until the plant assumes a symmetrical shape. The
flower buds are produced on young shoots of this season's growth ; when
done blooming, these shoots must be cut back two or three buds, which
will cause it to throw out young shoots, and so continue during the season.
Climbing roses require to be pruned closely every year, removing all the
old wood which bloomed the season previous ; the strong growing varie-
ties, as Prairie Queen, Belmont and RussePs Cottage, require close pruning;
they are very rampant growers, and if the old wood is allowed to remain,
it soon becomes weak and eventually dies. The hardy varieties of monthly
roses, generally lose some of their wood during the winter ; this must be
cut away, otherwise the young shoots will be weak and consequently pro-
duce, poor flowers. The perpetual varieties such as Giant de Battailes,
Pius the Ninth, Baron Pi-evost, will flower in perfection in the fall if
pruned in July, or as soon as they are done blooming in the spring. Almost
all the flowering shrubs are benefited by pruning. Of course it requires
some little knowledge of their various characters before commencing the
operation. Those that produce their flowers on the young wood, as the
Althea, or Rose of Sharon, Syringa Gordoni and some of the spireas,
require to be cut back so as to induce them to make new wood. The
Lilac, Wigelia and Forsythia, require very little pruning,, only sufficient to
keep them in proper shape. There is another class of shrubs which the
Rhododendron may be said to represent. This class produces their flowers
on the end of their branches. These should never be shortened except for
the purpose of increasing the number of branches, and then no flowers can
be produced before the next season. The hydrangea requires no pruning
except to remove the old decayed wood of which bloomed last year, its
duty being done. The different varieties of running vines next claim our
attention. The ivy, which is not altogether hardy in tliis country, yet does
very well in some situations, requires only to be let alone ; it attaches
itself to any rough surface as brick or stone- work, and even rough
wood, in fact anywhere it can find room to creep into. The bignonia or
Trumpet creeper is similar in its habits. This plant we recommend highly
for planting next barns, fences, or any out-buildings where the boards are
rough or unplained ; it will not creep on a smooth surface. Care should be
taken to prevent its running over roofs, as it is very apt to raise the shin-
gles and to cause leakage. This requires close pruning of the young-
wood of last season's growth. Wistaria sinensis, one of the most showy
of all the hardy vines, is of very rapid growth and needs very close prun-
ing. Cut back all the young wood not required for an increased size to
two or three eyes or buds. Lonicerra sinenses or honeysuckle, is the most
troublesome of all the running vines to keep in a proper shape. It will
twine itself around a stick, string, piece of wire, or in fact anything, and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 245

like a disJvgTCoablc tenant, it is difficult to get rid of. If properly trained,
it is a beautiful ornament, loaded with fragrant llowers. It blooms at in-
tervals during the season, and retains its leaves nearly all winter. In
pruning, all the young wood of this season's growth should be entirely
removed. In training, copper wire should be used, as it is not liable to
rust, and will last several years. These variations in the cliaracters of
plants call for a corresponding variation in their pruning, and all that is
necessary to acquire a thorough knowledge of their structure and habits is
careful observation ; and while we are pruning we should remember that
nature may have designed that the plant should exert all its strength in
perfecting seed wherewith to perpetuate its species, while we desire that
its powers should be diverted from its natural channels to perfect that
part which we think is of more value to us than that which is designed by
nature.

Mr. Cavenach illustrated his remarks by pruning a great variety of
shrubs.

Dr. Warder asked in relation to pruning gooseberries and blackberries?

Mr. Cavenach. — Gooseberries will not need renewing every third year,
as some persons suppose, if the old wood is carefully cut out every spring.
Blackberries should be pruned in March, by removing all the old wood and
shortening the young branches. I do not recommend autumn pruning of
blackberry or raspberry bushes.

The mention of blackberry bushes called up the new variety known as
Kittany, discovered a few years since growing wild upon the mountains of
Sussex county, N. J., which, it is believed by those acquainted with it, will
tiitirely supersede the variety known as the Lawton.

Dr. Sylvester. — I have seen this new blackberry. I think it will be one
of the best known for canning purposes.

On motion of Mr. Carpenter, the thanks of the Club were presented to
Mr. Cavenach for his interesting and instructive dissertation upon pruning
and that he be requested to furnish a copy of his remarks for our Transac-
tions.

Fruit Trees by the Roadside.

Mr. G. Candee, Fi)rt Butler, Wayne county, N. Y., wants the Club to
urge upon the people of the State to plant the road with fruit trees. He
-a)'s: "If they were set with cherry, apple, pear, plum or peach trees,
■ ach neighborhood selecting varieties adapted to their locality, I believe
the small outlay would improve the State more than the same amount
appropriated in any other way. Let each owner or occupant set along the
highway occupied by them^ and the work would be done with trifling
expense to each. It would do much to improve the vandals, and help sus-
tain the law prohibiting cattle trespassing in the highway."

How to Build a Cheap House in a New Country.

Mr. Thomas Tasker, Scott Township, Steuben county, Indiana, writes as
follows:

" I yee by the proceedings of your Club that D. M. Strong of Minnesota,
wants to know the best way to make building brick; and as no one has

246 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMEEICAN INSTITUTE.

answered that question, I will give my plan. I dug- a circle large enoagh
for a yoke of oxen to work in. I then removed the loam, dug the clay one
foot deep, (any ordinary clay will answer.) I tread this clay with oxen,
and added some straAv cut three or four inches long. After the clay is well
tempered with working it with cattle the material is duly prepared for
making brick. I then made a mold twelve inches long, six inches wide
and four inches thick. Two molds areTenough, as one man will mold as
fast as another man will carry away. The bricks are placed upon the level
ground, where they are suffered to dry two days, turning them up edge-
ways the second day; then packed in a pile, protected from the rain, and
left to dry ten or twelve days. In all cases, before commencing the walls
for the first story, dig down to a solid foundation and fill up with stone to
at least one foot above the level of the surface of the ground; and if the
stone cf the foundation, was laid with lime mortar, so much the better,
although mine is not laid with anything. These bricks are not burned, but
dried in the sun. You can make your molds larger or less just as you like.
I have built a house twenty-four feet square, 'with a wing twelve feet, and
I would not trade it for any frame house of the same size that I have seen,
and I am satisfied a house built of unburned brick don't cost half so much
as a frame, and any laboring man can build his own house. I came from
England a few years ago, having been engaged in the bleaching business
all my life; never having seen a house of this description; did not know
anything about building, and I have as comfortable a house as any in these
parts. I am satisfied that a house of unburned brick can be built for less
than a log cabin of the same size, and it is worth five log cabins."

Cheap Underdraining.

Mr. Tasker also gives his experience in underdraining. He says:
" I believe that there is no outlay on a farm that pays half so well as
draining. I had a field of three and a half acres of what we call upland,
that is, it is hard land. In one corner there Avas a low place, generally
wet, and on one side there was another low place, always wet. These two
places kept about all the field wet. I had tried several times to raise corn,
potatoes and wheat, it was always a failure. I went at it and cut timber
four feet long and two by four inches wide. I dug the drains three feet
deep, and from two to three rods apart. Most of the drains were very hard
cutting; it was this 3'ellow clay mixed with gravel, very compact.. The
result was, I got a first rate piece of corn. I sowed wheat after corn, and
got twenty-nine bushels per acre, and seeding it down to grass got a first
rate crop of hay. Plowed again last spring for corn, but the summer being
very dry the corn was not extra, but a good crop. Last fall sowed it to
wheat, and am satisfied it will yield forty bushels per acre if it don't lodge.
This field, costing me $100 in labor, has more than paid for itself It has
been drained four years.

"I drained another field the same size, also with the same material, and on
the same plan. It was a great deal better to dig, being a blue or black
clay. ' Being more porous we put the drains abcmt three rods apart. This
field was drained three years ago. The first year got sixty bushels of
shelled corn; after corn, twenty-nine bushels of wheat per acre, badly

TROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 247

\

ludjjcd; harvested last harvest- forty bushels of wheat per acre. This lot
was in a worse condition than the other, as it would grow nothing but
grass. You can judge whether draining pays when I tell you I got $2
per bushel.

" Tin's lot cost 874 in labor, saying nothing about the timber. It will
take about one large tree and four or five cuts off another to drain three
and a half acres. I cut the timber two by four inches, lay one on each
side, and cover with a piece of the heart; if I have not enough of hearts I
split some a little wider. I am satisfied that the extra produce of this lot
on any one crnp has paid for the draining.

Adjourned. ^ John W. Chambers, Secretary.

February 14, 1865.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the cliair.

Distribution of Flower Seeds.

The Secretary, J. W. Chambers, reports that since the first notice that
Mr. Prince had sent in some flower seeds for gratuitous distribution to any
lady who would send a paid envelope addressed to herself, he has received
about three thousand letters — five hundred of them during the last week,
and he has returned many and will others as soon as possible, until the
supply of seeds is exhausted. Several persons have sent seeds for others,
with their application, thus creating a pleasant exchange. Mr. Prince has
also sent a few more of the following kinds:

Laburnum, or Golden Chain, a beautiful flowering tree.

Hibi.scu.s Sy7-iacus, Rose of Sharon, a flowering slirub.

Bignoniafiava, Golden Trumpet Flower, a climbing shrub.

Perennial Axter.

Bignonia Frincei, a new seedling, alluded to in our last report.

Mr. Solon Robinson read several letters from ladies asking for these seeds.
The first is from Mrs. 0. P. Gates, Morrisville, Vt. She says:

" I am a widow; my only sou is in the army, and my only daughter died
a little more than a year ago, leaving me quite alone.

" I have a few house plants, arid if you will please send me a few flower
seeds that I can cultivate in my yard another summer, it will cause many
a lonely hour to pass pleasantly."

The next is from Mary Cordelia Atkens, Jefferson, Ashtabula Co., Ohio,
written neatly, and you vshall say whether it does not touch a cord deep
down in your heart. Mary says :

"I am a little girl, nine years old. I love flowers very much; but Pa
lias been in the army nearly four years, so we cannot have many flowers.
Ma says if you will send me a few flower seeds, that she will let me have
a bed in the garden, and when she hires a man to make the garden, she
will get him to help me with my flowers. I would like a white lily very
much, if you can send me a root."

Mary Jane Dean, Pultney, New York, asking for some of the flower seeds,
says: " If you will please send me some of what you have, or such as you
may hereafter get, they will be thankfully received, and I will try andcul-

248 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMEIIICAN INSTITUTE.

tivate them to the best of my ability, and will ever hold you and the kind
donor in o'vatel'iil remembrance."

Mr. Dodge moved to have the wholeof the letters referred to a committee
of five, for the purpose of discovering- other fragrant flowers, like thoso
which Mr. Robinson has just presented.

Mr. Dodge, Mr. Carpenter, Mr. Bergen, Mr. Bull, and Miss Allen, of Ycr-
raont, with the Chairman,, were appointed said committee,

SWEETBRIER SeEDS.
One of our lady correspondents " wants to kno^T how to grow t!ie seeds
of sweetbrier, in which she has not been successfyl." Mr. Cavenach re-
plies: The buds must be gathei'ed as soon as ripe, and the seed washed and
placed in moist sand and frozen until the next spring, and then it will grow
without difficult}'.

Habits of the Chinch-Bug.

Mr. B. E. Flethcrty, North Prairie, Knox Co., Ill , gives the following
reason why the plan of sowing spring wheat upon unplowed corn-stubbles
tends to prevent the ravages of that terrible pest of wheat-growers in Illi-
nois, the chinch bug. The bugs that lay eggs in the spring do not deposit
them until after the wheat is up. Then they work their way deeply down
in loose ground and fasten their eggs upon all the fibrous roots. He says:
" Last spring I carefully ^extracted some wheat that was iu some very
loose ground, and it was astonishing beyond anything I ever saw of the
kind; the little roots were literally loaded with eggs". Where this took
place, the ground was broken in the spring, and the wheat was not worth
cutting. That which was harrowed in when the ground was thawed about
two inches deep yielded me about twenty bushels per acre. These little
pests can't work in the hard ground to deposit their eggs on the roots, sO
there are no young bugs. Now let every farmer make all the inquiry he
can, and see if this theory does not hold good. One thing should be remem-
bered: the bugs do not choose to lay their eggs in wet ground. D. K. Em-
erson, of Dane Co., Wisconsin, says the bugs generally commence on some
small, dryish patches, because' there the ground is more loose and generally
deeper than other places, and the}' can penetrate to the roots to lay their
eggs,"

Corn Worms.

Mr. James V. Thompson, Richland Co., Ohio, says : " I discovered, last
summer, on James River, Va., that nearly all the corn, when in the milk,
was infected with worms, feeding upon the succulent kernels at the end of
the cob. These worms, in size, color and general appearance, were much
like the cut-worm; and so far as I could see, every ear in the field was at-
tacked by this eneiny. Can the Club give us the benefit of their remarks
on this subject ?"

Dr. Trimble. — Th's worm is from the angoumois moth ; it has long been
a pest of Southern corn-growers. It is not much known at the North. The
early corn grown for market iu New Jersey is infested to some extent. We
nave frequently seen ears upon which one-quarter of the grains were dc-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 249

sti'oycd. It is not a very invitiiif^ thing- to a delicate appetite to find the
first bite of a roasting ear has been taken by one of these worms.

Mr. Theodore Ilolt, who has spent several years among the freedmen on
the islands of South Carolina, said that he took several bushels of corn from
here, thinking to grow a better variety. He docs not think an ear of it
ever ripened. It was all destroyed by the worms mentioned in Ihis letter.
They generally commence at the end of a row and eat through to the other
end of the cob. lie says the worm is more like that known here as the
spindle-worm than it is like the cut-worm. The only remedy that he has
found is to use varieties that grow very thick husks well closed over the
point of the ear. lie thinks no Northern variety of corn will answer at
the South.

Sour Plants — How to Get Rid of Them.

Mr. C. G. Brown, Ahnepee, Lenawa county, Wisconsin, propounds the
following question to the Club : " What is the best method of ridding the
soil of sour-grass, vinegar-plant or sorrel, as it is called by these names,
There arc many farmers troubled with it, and a great many ways and plans
have been tried?"

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Have you tried dressing the land with caustic
lime, at the rate of tliirt}' bushels of the powdered lime, fret^hl^' slaked, to
the acre, spiead upon the surface with wheat seed, and harrowed in at the
same time ? Have you tried wood ashes, a pint upon each hill of corn or
potatoes ? Have you ti'ied deep fall plowing, so as to turn up some of the
strong clay of the subsoil, and letting that pulverize in winter, and then
seeding it to timothy and clover in the spring ? Afterward, top-dress the
grass every autumn with manure, free from sorrel seed, or dress it wifh
lime, ashes, or finely-powdered clay — the debris of an old brick-yard is
good — and if some of these remedies won't cure your land, you may as
well emigrate.

A Mistake in the Germ.

Mr. Daniel Curtis, Farmington, AVisconsin, gives a detailed account of
a sprout that he found growing out of the dead body of a grub, which ho
appears to believe had produced this vegetable growth. lie is undoubt-
edly mistaken, notwithstanding he could not find any seed. Similar mis*
takes are often made. The pest of flax growers, called dodder, appears to
have sprouted out of the flax- stalk, where it is impossible that a seed could
have been concealed, and it has often seemed a mystery to those who have
examined it. Investigation shows that the seed is in the earth, that it
grows a fine fibre which inserts itself into tlie flax, and then the fibre dies,
while the plant, in its natural form, grows and draws its sustenance from
the flax. The growth of a jilant out of the body of the grub is no more
mysterious than the growth of the flax parasite.

Squirrels as Friends of the Farmer.

Mr. S. R. Duven, \\'oburn, Massachusetts, writes : " I wonder if farmers
arc aware that the little striped squirrel makes food of the chrysalis from
the caterpillar's cbcoon ? I have seen him at it several times within the
last two year.s, and also learned that he was a meat-eater, for food or m-

250 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

dicino. AYalkinjj over an elevated portion of a road one day last summer,
I heard a rustling in the grass and shrubbery in the ravine beside me, and
forth came the squirrel with a little brown snake eight or ten inches long,
and perched himself on a fiat stone in a wall near by, and I watched him
until tlie snake was consumed."

Sorghum — Its Cultivation and Manufacture — It will Make

Sugar.

Mr. S. L. Denney, Christiana, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, claims
that he has made a valuable improvement in sugar' cane mills, by which
the feeding is easily regulated.

Sorghum Culture. ~

Mr. D. Petit, Salem, Now Jersey, writes of his experience in sorghum
culture, as follows :

" In your discussions of December 13, Professor Mapes says : 'There is
no doubt that sugar can be made from sorghum ; that Mr. Jos. S. Levering of
Philadelphia, several years ago fully demonstrated the fact. He published
a pamphlet detailing the whole process,' and adds: ' The trouble generally
with farmers is, they do not conduct the process with sufficient rapidity.
The exposure of the syrup to the atmosphere to a great extent destroys the
power of crystalization All the manipulations of the syrup lessen that
power: The more it is stirred the less sugar it will produce, &c. Now I
apprehend the principal aim of your discussions is to elicit and publish the
truth. The Professor says : ' Let it be the duty of this Club to send out
light upon the subject.' My object in now writing is to elicit the truth,
and with all due deference to the opinions of the Professor, T will ofl'er a
fow facts in my experience, which ' are stubborn things' where they come in
contact with preconceived opinions.

" I received one of the first packages of sorghum seed sent out from the
latent OfBce, planted them, and before the seed was fully ripe, had some
juice pressed out and placed in a small vessel which was placed in a vessel
of boiling water to evoporate. Consequently it was a long time in evaporat-
ing, for it never boiled, and we did not get rid of the green matter; and yet
that syrup on exposure to the air. formed crystals — grained fully as well as
any I ever had. In using Cook's evaporator much of the juice and syruj) re-
mains on tlie pan only while passing from one end of the pan to the other,
constantly moving. I used a No. 7 pan 15 feet long. The process cannot
be performed in less time. If the current, being thin on the pan, is stopped
running while boiling rapidly, it will burn. The running motion is tliere-
fore the great secret of rapid evaporation. We have run off fifteen gallons
of good syrup within an hour, and evaporated, at the same time, ninety
gallons of juice, with one pan and only one fire. Wben making syrup, in
the Fall of 1863, the drippings on the outside of the vessels used soon be-
came thick with sugar, which shows that exposure to the air is not detri-
mental to crystalization. I placed ten gallons in an open vessel in a warm
room to crystalize, and not till after several weeks did tlie crystal show
but slightly, and then those formed first were in the skum on the surface;
but frequently stirring and mixing with the syrup seemed to accelerate the

TROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 251

graining- until it became a mass, called mush. But I have not seen any
syrup made last Fall, no matter how rapidly, \that has shown any signs of
graining-. I have a letter by me from ^V'm. Morris Davis, of Philadelphia,
the late able member of Congress from that city, a practiced sugar refiner
(who performed the experiments attributed to Jos. S. Lovering), giving me
directions for converting sorghum juice into sugar through i4s various
manipulations. He does not object to exposing the syrup to the atmos-
phere, nor to stirring it. The process is too complicated, requires too
much science, to be practically carried out by farmers, if not too expensive
to be profitable in the end. First neutralizing the acid with an alkali, then
clarifying- with bhjod or whites of eggs, or passing through a bag filter;
then removing the gum which retards crystalization by the addition of an
alkali at a high temperature; then test again to know if all the gum is re^
moved, until the white scum ceases to rise, &c."

Iron as a Fertilizer.

Mr. D. Petit, Salem, X. J. — In 3'our discussions of. Jan. IT, sulphate of
iron (copperas). a poison, is introduced from an exchange as a wonderful
fertilizer, but is not recommended by your Club; but it is there confounded
with oxide of iron, which is not a poison but is a i'vvilWzcy. Permit me to
ciTer you a few examples in support of these assertions as regards vegeta-
tion. There was a ditch cut many j-ears ago, ten feet wide by six feet
deep, along- the shore of a piece of meadow which bounds this county on
the north-east. This was 'done to cut off the springs. The earth excavated
was composed in part of a large portion of green s.and marl, strongly im-
pregnated with sulphate of iron. The ditch bank was spread on the mea-
dow side. From that time until I accompanied Prof George H. Cook to
see it (who was making a geological survey of the marl district), and
which was about eighteen years, there had not a spear of any kind of vege-
tation grown on it. An acre of a field to he, planted with corn was covered
with a part of the material. That so covered remained nearly as bare as
the traveled road, the season out, while on the remainder of the field the
corn was good. I Lave tried oxide of iron (scales from the blacksmith
shop) on grape vines, with good success, as well as on garden vegetables.
According to the analysis of my marl, the best vein contains 25 per cent,
oxide of iron, which, with the practical applications I have made, prove
that oxide of iron is not detrimental to vegetation.

Dr. Sylvester Lyons, Wayne county, N. Y. — I do not find sulphate of
iron poisonous to plants when used in small quantity. I find it profitable
to buy copperas at two cents a pound to use in the compost heap. It is
one of the best and cheapest deodorizers.

Mr. P. T. Quinn thought plaster cheaper and better; it produces the
same result.

yiv. Tiiomas Cavenach said he obtained from the blacksm^ith's shop a load
of stuff composed principally of the sweepings, which he mixed in a com-
post heap, and the result was injury or death to nearly all the plants to
which it was applied.

252, transactions of the amertiian institute.

Blackberry Culture.

Dr/Isaac M. Ward. — At our last meeting some remarks were made in
relation to the cultivation of the blackberrj'. " The best way I have ever
.found for training the Lawton blackberries is to plant them in rows four
feet apart^and three feet between plants, and then stretch .a wire between
posts at each end of tlie row, supporting the wire if necessary between, so
as to keep it about four feet high. In autumn I cut out all the old stalks
that have just done bearing; then I tie the new shoots in a bow over the
wire. I prune the side shoots to spurs about six inches long. This brings
nearly all the fruit in clusters along the wire, and the rows are so clear of
straggling vines, that ladies can v\^alk between them and gather the fruit.
I think this method of training also improves the fruit, it certainly increases
the quantity. It also occupies the surface sufficiently and yet leaves room
to pass between the rows with a wheelbarrow to carry manure, which
blackberry vines need in bountiful quantity to make them productive. It
is no matter how long your vines may be, when trained in this way they
are tied down to the wire, so tliat 'the top of the bow is not out of reach."

Dr. Trimble. — My blackberries in the garden stand in a row along a
board fence, and I have drawn a wire along in front of it, over which I
train the vines in a m.anner recommended by Dr. Ward. It is certainly the
best way of training them for garden culture that I^have ever seen.

Mr. A. A. Powell, Brooklyn, said that there was a practical difficulty in
growing this variety of blackberries in some parts of the country on
account of the severe cold in winter. He has seen this difficulty entirely
obviated by pruning closely, and then digging the earth upon one side of
the roots so as to lay the canes down and cover them slightly with earth.
I was present at the last meeting, and heard the remarks against the
Lawton blackberry. Some years sinco I purchased some hundreds of these
plants and set them out on my place, one hundred miles north of this, and
although I lost many of the plants, yet I must bear testimony of the value
of this berry.

Mr. P. T. Quinn, Newark, said: Three years ago, I had a stool of this
variety of blackbei-ries, with five canes eight feet long. I cut the side
shoots to one foot in length, and I plucked that season twenty-seven quarts
of berries.

Pruning Pear Trees.

Mr. P. T. Qninn gave a discourse upon pruning pear trees, illustrated by
figures upon the blackboard, instructive to those present, but impossible
to report. He showed how the tree should be treated, from the bud, year
by year, to^produce a fine pyramidal tree. One of the great benefits of this
form is that it induces fruit spurs to start near the ground, and close to the
main stem of the tree. The reason why trees have been hei*etofore pruned
with bare stems is to carry the ^ops high up in the air so as to allow room
to plow and cultivate the ground. He does not believe that anytliing is
gained in the long run by growing other crops in a pear orchard. The
owner should rely solely upon the fruit as a remunerative crop. It is use-
less to plant a pear orchard until the ground is thoroughly pulverized eigh-
teen to twenty inches deep, made rich v/ith manure and dry by draining,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 253

if necessary. It is better to devote three years to the preparation of the
soil, than to plant in one that is poor and not properly prepared. He
would set dwarfs 8 by 10 feet and standards 12 bj"- 15 feet apart. He
would never think of growing pears of any kind in sod ground. He thought
it a great advantage to mulch ground. It prevents weeds from growing,
and preserves fruit that is blown from the trees. .

Mr. John G. Bergen, Long Island, — I cannot speak fm- other places, but
I am satisfied that dwarf pears are not as popular as formerly on the
Island. I know they won't succeed in grass land. My trees are not
dwarf, because I planted them below the junction, and roots have grown
from the pear and made standards. There are some standard pear trees
on the Island 5200 years old, and it never would have answered to plant
these only twelve or fifteen feet apart. I like the pyramidal form of prun-
ing for the garden, but in the field that is to be cultivated trees must be
pruned higher.

Mr. Dodge inquired the object of dwarfing trees, if the pear was after-
ward allowed to strike root to make a standard.

Mr. P. T. Quinn. — The object is to make them bear fruit sooner. A tree,
after once having formed its fruit spurs, always retains them if they are
not broken off by accident or carelessness in picking the fruit.

Dr. Ward thinks the present cost of labor^ioo great to think of growing'
pears as an exclusive crop. We must combine some other with H, and
plant the trees far enough apart to work between them with a team.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

February 21, 1865.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Southern Illinois.

Mr. Wm. K. Griffin, Equalitj', Gallatin Co., Illinois:

Since my name has appeared in the reports of the Farmers' Club, I have
received letters of inquiry relative to this region from persons looking out
for homes in tlie West. I will therefore condense such facts — in addition
to what I have hitherto written — as are most sought for by the prospective
emigrant.

I shall confine my remarks chiefly to the counties of Gallatin and Saline,
which lie together at the junction of the Wabash and Ohio, a little south
of the 38th parallel of latitude; my knowledge of these being more intimate
than of other localities of Southern Illinois. Shawneetown is the port of
entrance to this section of the State, and should be the place of destination
of any one coming here from the North-East. It is not directly connected
by railroad with the interior, but has daily steamboat communication with
Evansville, 70 miles above, which is connected by railroad with the North
and East. Shawneetown is an old place of between 1,000 and 2,000 in-
habitants, and contains considerable wealth, intelligence and refinement,
considering its locality. It gave a large majurit}^ for Lincoln. Several of
the business men of this place have considerable quantities of land for sale
in the counties under consideration, both wild and improved. The former
is rated at about SIO per acre, the terms of payment usually being about

254 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

one-fouttli down, and the balance in small payments at yearly intervals.
For cash in hand good wild land was offered, last spring, at $5 per acre.

In this portion of the State there is no prairie within 30 or 40 miles of
the Ohio river. This circumstance, together with the comparative mild-
ness of climate, gives it an important advantage over more timberloss and
northern localities. The face of the country and qualitj' of the soil does
not, I think, differ materially from the more northern portions of the State,
except that in the vicinity of the Ohio it is usual to find hills of considera-
ble magnitude. We lack water power, but have, as an offset, inexhaustible
mines of excellent coal.

Wheat and corn are very sure crops, and are the principal kinds of grain
raised. Oats are not a profitable crop. Timothy and clover do well. Irish
potatoes have never had the rot here, though the yield is less than in a
higher latitude. Sweet potatoes, melons, and garden vegetables generally,
are seldom wanting in their season. We are not more subject to excessive
droughts than localities four or five degrees to the northward. Apples sel-
dom fail, though the late varieties, in old orchards, are in some seasons
subject to the bitter rot. Peaches produce abundantl}'-, as often, on the
average, as every alternate year. Grapes, strawberries, and some varie-
ties of plum, do well. Cherries and red currants are less prolific.

Cotton, though seldom raised for exportation, can be cultivated with
success. During my seven years residence here I have known of its failure
but once. At present prices it is undoubtedly the most profitable product
of the farm. Tobacco is a sure crop, and is extensively cultivated by the
middle and poorer classes. It is their chief dependence for monej'-making.

Frost seldom appears after the 1st of May, or before the 10th of October;
and the time for successfully planting corn ranges from the middle of April
to the 1st of June. The ground is rarely covered with snow to the depth
of six inches, or remains covered a week. Sheep are health}^ and hardy,
and live under a system of neglect, exposui-e and starvation that would
prove certainly fatal to the whole stock four degrees to the northward.
Figs not unfrerjuently run wild, and remain several years in the woods
without being fed.

Springs are rare, but durable water of excellent quality,, though usually
hard, is found upon mediunf elevations, at a depth of from 15 to 20 foet. In
the more elevated localities, wells of that depth are liable to failure. Small
streams are numerous, but not being fed by springs, are usually dry, or
supply water only in stagnant pools one-third of the year. These streams
have mostly deep channels, which afford excellent outlets for the artificial
draining of the extensive bottom lands that lay upon their borders.

No product of the farm is exported largely', except tobacco. Whatever
the farmer has to spare he can commonly dispose of at his own house, and
that, too, at a price often equal to what he could obtain in the markets of
St. Louis or Cincinnati. There are always many among the numerous
tobacco-growers who, from their eagerness to produce a large crop of that
commodity, neglect to raise an adequate supply of the necessaries of life.
These are the usnal purchasers of the surplus hay,-grain, meat, etc., of each
neighborhood.

Agriculture is at a low ebb in southern Illinois. What would be called

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 255

good farming in New England or New York is not to be met with. This
circumstance, together with a prevailing indifference to rural taste and
•public improvement, gives a bad iuipression to the visitor from the North-
East, and has a tendency to draw his attention from the intrinsic merits of
the country. The land, when cleared, is kept constantly under the plow.
Verj- little meadow and less pasture are to be seen, and manure is rarely
applied. The black bottom lands bear this barbarous system verj' well ;
but many of the old stumpless upland farms are badly exhausted, and should
be avoided by the emigrant. Many of the roads are narrow, crooked and
poorly worked. The farm buildings are commonly cheap structures of logs,
many of the dwellings being without glass windows. Large families of
the pofjrer class often have but one room in v,hich to cook, eat and sleep.

Southern Illinois would be greatly benefitted by a liberal intermixture of
northeastern farmers among its present population^ and many a Yankee
who is toiling to repair and renovate the timberless worn oat homestead of
his* ancestors miglit find it to his advantage, and especially to the advan-
tage of his posterity, to emigrate to this snowless region, where can be
procured at a very cheap rate all the facilities for successful farming. It
requires some philosophy to forsake the scenes of our childhood and the
graves of our ancestors; but it is according to the immutable order of
things that men, like bees, must sometimes swa,rm. Nor in doing so can
they always preserve their latitude.

We are greatly in need of establishments for converting wool and cotton
into cloth, and hides into leather. Mills for cleaning clover seed are
unknown; a wheel is never seen attached to a plow, and a plow suitable
for turning Uurf is not to be found. All that is wanting to make this por-
tion of Illinois as attractive to the farmer of moderate means as any locality
upon the continent, is Yankee enterprise, industry and intelligence.

Bitter E,ot in Apples.

In answer to the question of the Chair as to whether the bitter rot men-
tioned in Mr. Griffin's letter, prevails in this section of the country, Mr. Wm.
S. Carpenter stated that it had been known here, for a long time. It
affects particular varieties much ■mf)re than it does, others. The Pennock
pippin is very subject to bitter rot. The Baldwin is sometimes affected.
So are Yirgalieu pears. The worst bitter rot that prevails in Egypt, men-
tioned in the excellent letter we. have just heard read, I think is likely to
be soon cured V>y the infusion into that country of such men as the writer
of that letter.

Mr. George Bartlett. — I am well acquainted with the inhabitants of that
region; their prejudice against the negro is not any worse than we find it
right here. They are ignorant, prejudiced and unimproving. Their great-
est fault is improvidence. I never knew one of them to have a woodpile.
A family never has anything cooked in advance of its immediate wants.
They live literally from hand to mouth. They never in any respect pro-
vide for a rainy day. The y)eople are mostly emigrants from the slave
states, and a great many of them are of Irish origin. Though ignorant
themselves they generally manifest a strong desire to educate their chil-

256 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

dren. Tlu^y are industrious in their way. One man and hoi'se will tend
twenty-five acres of corn, and a hoe is seldom used in a corn field in that
part of the State. All that is bad among the inhabitants is of the bitter
rot of slavery.

Dr. Snodgrass. — The bitter rot of apples is prevalent in Maryland and
Virginia, in many of the seedling sorts. The idea prevails there that it
arises from the neglect of pruning orcliards.

Mr. Thomas Cavanach. — We need not go to Illinois to look for such
people as are described. They can be found within forty miles of this city;
there are plenty of them on Long Island.

Mr. Adrian Bergen said he would not attempt to defend the civilization
of the 'west end of the Island because he lived there, but he would say that
upon the east end the people were very far advanced over some other sec-
tions in one respect — they did not practice the ridiculous and expensive
folly of letting cattle ruti at large in highways.

Apple Tree Suckers.

Mr. H. A. Sheldon, Middlebury, Vt., says: " I bought a village lot with
several old apple trees, which I want to replace with better ones. From
the bottom of some of them are large suckers from one to three inches in
diameter. Had I better graft these suckers, or eradicate the whole and
plant new trees ?"

Mr. Solon Robinson. — As a general thing grafting suckers is poor busi-
ness. It should be done only as a last resort. An old apple tree if still
vigorous may be profitably grafted, but one already in a decline will go
still faster if its large limbs are cut away for grafting. In Mr. Sheldon's
case, it would be the best course to dig up the old trees, root and branch,
and depend upon new ones, and it would be better to plant them upon some
other part of the lot.

Mr. Holt said that in no case would he graft old trees, unless they were
in vigorous condition, and he did not believe it would pay to graft suckers.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter said that he would much prefer to plant young
trees upon new ground.

Mr. Dodge inquired how it would do to let the old ones stand, and plant
the young trees between, and afterwards cut away the old ones ?

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter replied that he would prefer to dig up the old
stumps and set the new trees in the same places.

The Oporto Grape.

Dr. Ward said that Dr. Sylvester, of Lyons, N. Y., was present with a
sample of his Oporto grape wine, which he wanted the Club to taste, and
have the opportunity of sajnng something of the history of this grape.

Dr. Sylvester said tliat although it bore a foreign name, and had been
said to have originated from a vine brought here b}'^ a ship captain, he be-
lieved it a native American, as it had all its characteristics, was entirely
hardy, and grows as strong as the Isabella. At Ovid, N. Y., it has been
unfailing in productiveness for twenty years. There is a vine in Michigan
twenty years old, which produced one year forty gallons of wine. Near
Lyons, N. Y., there is a vine which has grown rampant over tree tops,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 257

fallen to tlic groiind, and rooted again. This vane produced last year 23^
bushels, 40 pounds to the bushel. In cultivation, the vine grows so rapidly
that it will not bear nianuriiig. It runs then to wood instead of fruit.
Lund that will produce twenty bushels of corn to the acre is rich enough.
The berries are of medium size, nearer round than the Isabella, and give a
rich, dark ct)lor to the wine. When grown in Central New York, the juice
requires from one to three pounds (jf sugar to a gallon of must. I mix the
sugar, and ferment it with the pulp from twelve to forty-eight hours, /fhis
prevents the vinegar taste which the wine would otherwise have. I fer-
ment the wine in barrels by the use of a siphon, or else cover the bung
hole with oiled silk and several folds of old newspaper, held down by a
■weight. "We are in latitude 43 degrees, and must use sugar there with all
grape juice, to give it sufficient strength to keep. The wine should stand
tw(.> years before bottling, and should then contain about 12 per cent, of
alcohol.

Dr. Ward observed that many persons condemned sugar, declaring that'
good wine can only be made where the climate is favorable to produce a
sullicient quantity of the saccharine principle of the grape.

Dr. Sylvester contended that if sugar is added in exact quantity it
always improves win^e, and he road a variety of extracts from foreign
authors to prove this position. To grapes grown in high latitudes it is
necessary to add sugar, while in the South it is equally necessary to add
tartaric acid. , The quantity of saccharine matter in grapes varies fiom
eight to thirt}' per cent. Potato syrup is recommended, the same that is
used in this country extensively to adulterate honey. In England wine*
Avas made in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries by mixing honey and
spice with the grape juice. In France, sugar and water are both used,
and in one case mentioned, the grape skius were washed eight times, and
5,000 gallons of wine were produced from a quantity of grapes sufficient'
to produce only 300 gallons of must. In an essay upon the art of doubling
the product of a vineyard, the author contends that the addition of sugar
is not an adulteration of the wine, but an improvement, and Dr. Sylvester
thinks that where must is deficient in sugar, three pounds should always
be added to a gallon.

Mr. George Bartlett. — If the object of adding sugar to the must is to
give alcoholic strength, why not add pure alcohol? It is worth now about
40 cents a pound, and cane sugar about 20 cents. There is a large estab-
lishment in this city, manufacturing sugar from starch, and the starch of
potatoes is as good as the starch of grain, and as this sugar must be
cheaper, why not use that? But first, why not use the pure alcohol?

Dr. Sylvester replied that it had been tried to some extent in this coun-
try, and to a greater extent in Germany. It is found that alcohol cannot
be reduced and amalgamated with the grape juice, so as to entirely lose its
character as it does when produced from sugar combined with the must.

Sugar Corn — A New and Valuable Variety.

Mr. James B. Olcott, East Greenwich, llhode Island, says: "I forward
[Am. Ixst ] Q

258 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

you by express a bos of sweet corn, introduced in tliis neighborhood by
Mr. Thomas Hill, said to be of Spanish origin. I hope it will be as widely
disseminated as possible, both this year and the next. 1 have no doubt
lovers of green corn will find it a treasure."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — This corn will be distributed' by the Secretary in
small parcels. Has anybody else got some more they would like to dis-
tribute in the same way?

Value of Leached Ashes for Manure.

Mr. Willard Griffin, West Granby, Ct., gives the following information
why leached ashes are valuable for manure. He says: " Some one of your
correspondents several months since inquired if there was saltpeter in
leached ashes. There is not. Saltpeter is nitrate of potash. Nitric acid
is obtained from a substance that wood does not furnish. If leached ashes
are deposited near the house, where soap suds, urine and other slops con-
taining animal matter are thrown upon them, they will after a while con-
tain saltpeter, and from such it ma}' have been extracted. Wood ashes
contain potash, soda, magnesia and lime, beside sulphur, phosphorus, car-
bon and common salt; about one-half of ashes is lime. Leaching extracts
the potash and soda'mostly, and but little of other matters; but as potash
and soda are only a small proportion of ashes, they are nearly as good for
manure after leaching as before. I have seen plum trees growing near a
House where leached ashes were thrown around them every year, that re-
^tained a vigorous condition and were loaded with fruit. for several years,
while other trees in the neighborhood were subject to the ravages of the
curculio and black knot."

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

February 28, 1865.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Varieties of the Oak.

Prof. David Christy, of this city, exhibited to the Club to-day a fine col-
lection embracing nearly all of the oak leaves of the country, in different
stages of their growth, very varied in shape, size and color. Each kind
was neatly arranged upon a card, with its common and botanical name and
number, to compare with the number upon acorns of each sort. Professor
C. spoke particularly of the leaves of Quercua Leeana, which for a time
was supposed to be a newly discovered species, but the botanists pro-
nounced it a hybrid of the common black oak and laurel oak. The leaves
from a tree grown from the acorns of Leeana now show almost identical
with the leaves of black oak. It is eai-nestly recommended to ladies in the
country who have leisure, to make collections of various kinds of forest
leaves, placed in neat portfolios, which be ornaments for their own center
tables, or very acceptable presents to city friends.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter. — I have been highly delighted by this exhibition
of the trees of our country; this exhibition does great credit to the labors

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 259

of Prof. Christy, and he hoped this would be followed by others of other
varieties of trees.

Trimble Sweet Corn.

Dr. Trimble. — I have just received from Mr. David B. Dickinson, of Liv-
ingston, Essex county, N. J., several bushels of corn from seed tiiat has
been spoken of in the Club. I wish to present it to the American Institute
Farmers' Club for distribution.

The fav^orable notice given of this sweet coin two years ago, in the
reports of the Club published in the New York Tribune, brought me so
many letters requesting a few grains of the seed, that my little supply was
soon exhausted; but still the letters came, giving me a very troublesome
correspondence. Most of these letters contained money, and as it had to
be returned, I had to write an explanation.

A year ago last summer, I resolutely reserved for seed about one-fourth
of all I had planted in the garden for the family, much to the annoyance of
some of the members; and after supplying a great number of correspond-
ents, friends and neighbors, I gave Mr. Dickinson enough to plant about
an acre.

That acre was well managed, and produced between thirty and forty
bushels, but unfortunately, the gi'eater part of it was spoiled by the
weather. The ground had been so wet in the spring that it could not be
planted till very late. We had six weeks of such parching drought in the
summer, that it did not come to its growth till too late to glaze or ripen,
and then the fall \vas very wet, almost no sunshine. Seed containing so
much mucilage or sugar, requires much care in such weather, and the
farmer not knowing this, managed it as he did other corn, and found after
one of the long continued rains that it was sadly moulded; but by great
care he has managed to save enough to supply a good many thousand
people if they will be satisfied with ten grains each.

This corji was sent anonymously to my wife's father about fortj' years
ago, he supposed by some client who probably knew how much interest he
took in his garden. He distributed freely among his friends and neighbors.
I received it about twentj years ago from his brother-in-law, the late Gov-
Pennington, and by always Selecting for seed from that planting that
seemed to be the best, I think it has been improved. ,

1 plant in rows four feet apart, and one foot apart in the row; beginning
as soon as the ground is warm in April; and as soon as that is fairly up,
planting again, and so on till the fourth of July. We usually have it on
the table from early in August till the first of November, and would have
it three times a day if the garden was large enough to produce such a
supph'.

I do not suppose this variety will be cultivated for the market; the ears
are too short, but as it produces two or three ears to the stalk, it is about
as productive as (jthcr kinds of sweet corn; but those who grow their own
vegetables will find this as much superior to that found on the tables of
hotels and eating houses, as the Marrowfats and Champions fresh from his
own garden, are to the peas bought in the markets.

This is often called a th;inkless world. I have not found it so. Thanks
come to me from friends and neighbors constantly. I am receiving letters

260 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

all the time, full of thanks, for corn. Sometimes I get more than thanks —
some send me insects. One gentlemen sent me specimens of the grass-
hoppers of the west; another the beetles of his part of Massachusetts.
Some send me Ichneumon flies; one some Katy-dids; another the seventeen
year locusts, &c., &c.

I like to receive all these letters, but I do want to be relieved from the
labor of answering them. %

Several members confirmed the statement as to the quality of this corn,
including John G. Bergen, William S. Carpenter, Nathan C. Ely, Solon
Robinson and Mr. Dodge, who stated that although the ears were short,
the productiveness per acre was very large, as every stalk bore two or
three ears.

On motion of Mr. Win. S. Carpenter, the corn was named "Trimble
Sweet Corn."

Help for the Bees.

Mr. Steele, of Jersey city, exhibited a Swiss invention, used in Switzer-
land, to aid bees in the formation of their comb. Narrow sheets of wax
are imprinted by machinery so as exactly to represent the dividing wall of
comb between the cells. Tiiese strips are attached to the top of flie empty
Live, before the new swarm is put in, thus enabling the bees to go on
immediately to work, and also guiding them in making the sheets of comb
in the proper direction.

Pruning of Pear Trees.

Dr. Ward cautioned those who read theories about pruning dwarf pear
trees not to apply them to orchards, and to remember that there is a vast
difference in the natural habit .of growth between the varieties of pears;
that a system suited to one sort would ruin another, so that no rule of
pruning can be fixed. The place for dwarf pears is in the garden, not the
orchard, and whoever tries to grow an orchard of dwarfs in New Jersey
will be disappointed in the results. And he thought they would also be
disappointed in trying to grow winter pears for profit, as he had tried for
fifteen years, and never had a dozen fit for the table of those strictly winter
pears. The Lawrence and some other sorts that are good in early winter
are really autumn varieties. The Vicar is only fit for cooking, though at
Boston that and some other sorts are good that are not worth growing
bere.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter contended for several winter sorts as being profit-
able with him, and he has kept Glout Morceau till the middle of April. He
also recommends pruning all trees with open heads. At the fruit exhibi-
tion of Western New York, held this month, there were 105 varieties of
winter pears, many of them unknown to him.

Mr. John G. Bergen said his greatest success had come from not pruning
pears at all, except by cutting off such limbs as were in the way. lie had
nearly come to the conclusion to let nature take its course. We find it hard
to make a tree take a new form. It will answer well enough to experi-
ment in a small way upon dwarf trees in the garden, but for the orchard
the least pruning is the best. *

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 261

Pr. "Ward con(l(Miins any system of pruninj^ that necessitates much hand
labor in cultivating the ground, or that does not admit the free passage of
liorse and cart through the orchard to gather the fruit.

Dr. Sylvester says that dwarf pear orchards are not a failure in Western
New York, nor are winter pears. He particularly recomn^ends the " Ben r re
Gris D'lliver Novcau." We assure our readers tliat all that name belongs
to one pear.

Rats — An Effective Trap.

Mr. William McKelby, Mansfield, Ohio, says: "I set a barrel with some
bran or meal in tlse bottom, and let the rats work at that for a few nights
until they all find it otit and become accustomed to climb in and out, then
remove that barrel and put one in its place that has been used for soft
soap, the sides and bottom being covered. Set a dish of bran in the bar-
rel, and let the rats come again and they will stay. I caught fifteen that
v\'ay."

Grafting Grapevines,

Mr. James Hartley, Alliance, Ohio, says he is successful in grafting
grape vines in tlie roots, both by split and splice grafting, but never above
ground. Time, after hard freezing is over.

Cabbage Culture.

Mr. Htjrace Thayer, Blackstone, Mass., says: Always grow your seed
from , whole heads, not stumps. Do not use hog manure. We have a
variety of cabbage, which we have grown extensively for some years past,
which we consider far superior to any and all kinds in use among farmers
and gardeners; very uniform iu heading — large, firm heads, free from
€tump foot. We have distributed hundreds of packages in years past,
which invariably have given the best of satisfaction. If any member of
the Club would be disposed to give it a trial, we will willingly forward a
package in season for planting."

Corn Harvester Wanted,

Mr, Joseph Dysart, Lodi, Tama county, Iowa, says: "Our great war;t
here is a corn harvester. With the aid of Brown's or Elder's corn planter
a man and a b()y 1-5 years of age can i)lant in good season on the prairie
soil of Iowa 50 acres of corn; by using Stafford's, Waterman's or any of a
half score of sulky cultivators everywhere exposed for sale, either can cul-
tivate it properly. But where is the corresponding machinery to aid iu
saving this crop in autumn? The inventor of such a labor saving machine
would wake and find himself more famous than Whitney, McCormick or
Manny,"

Sheep Marks.

Mr. Aaron Smith, Pottersville, N. H., sends specimens of the invention of
C II. Dana, West Lebanon, N. H., for marking sheep, by inserting flat
metal rings in the ears, upon which numbers are stamped to corrosi^ond
U'ith the same in a register, '

262 transactions of the american institute.

Coal Ashes.

Mr. Isaac B. Rnmford, Kennet Square, Chester connty, Penn., says: "I
would like you to bring before the Farmers' Club the question, what effect
do stone coal ashes have on wood ashes ? We find that if a handful of
stone coal ashes gets in with the wood ashes the lye will not make any
soap. Why is tins so ? and will it also destroy the Talu^e of wood ash as a
fertilizer ?

Professor Christie said he bad heard of this diflSculty twenty years ago.

Professor Nash said that if the coal ashes contained any appreciable
quantity of sulphuric acid, it would destroy the value of wood ashes, unless
quicklime is added to the leach to absorb the acid. As to the value of coal
ashes as a fertilizer, all ex}>evimentn have been too indefinite to give any
trustworthy results.

Mr. Thomas Cavanach said that he spread a garden bed several inches
thick with coal ashes, which were mixed with the soil, and they rendered
it for that season almost barren. His experience is that the are of no sort
of benefit to land, except as a divisor.

The Chairman said that he found last summer a tomato plant growing
out of a bed of coal ashes, about as large as an ordinary hay cock flattened
down; so far as he knew there was nothing but coal ashes in tlic pile. He
found them exactl}' suited to the growth of the tomato. He had no plant
in the richest garden soil that was more thrifty and prolific. True, it was
but a single experiment, yet the Club might take it for what it was worth.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

March 7, 1865,
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Culture of Silk.

Mr. Frederick Baare. — By three years unceasing labors 1 have succeeded
to transplant a branch of the much neglected silk industry from the city of
New York into the much neglected valley of the Schoharie. There are
about one hundred American farmers' ancf mechanics' daughters around
here who have learned from me the art of weaving broad silks, and forty
of them are now busily engaged by me in this occupation.

Insurmountable difliculties have not deterred me, and from the firm foot-
hold now gained, I can now reach another branch cast away and trampled
down, which is shooting fresh sprouts from the dirt into which it was
buried, a fresh green branch of hope rising modestly and unobserved by our
cast down looks from thistles, and thorns, ready to spread its delightful
verdure which a nation may recover from exhatstion.

A man who has, starting from nothing, built up since 1852 his silk manu-
facturing establishment in New York, and carried it up to the highest
standard reached in our country — who passed the dry goods panic of 1854,
tlie crisis of 1857 unhurt — who lost all he had, but his life and that of one
child in 1860 — who passed the ordeal of a conflagration in 1863, and still
feels sure of his craft and maintins credit, is no enthusiast.

I think, gentlemen, that the hour has struck when the culture of the Mul-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 263

berry tree shoulil be revived. It sliould not be done by the sound of the
trumpet, but quietly, in distant valleys, by the few men to whom this
objlict k',i::ilimately belongs, and who alone can set a lasting- example.

Kaw silk in 1843, good No. 1 Tsallee waij worth in the New York market
$4.50 to $5 per lb. Wages to competent hands was no less than $3.50 to
$5 per week; about $2 for apprentices. At these rates silk culture was to
some remunerative. To-day No. 2 Tsatlee, (No. 1 is inaccessible,) is
worth in New York market $7.50 in gold, or $15 currency. Wages to-day
arc in currency, $2 for apprentices; $3.50 to 85 per week to expert hands.
(This is what will pay a girl at work, higher rates make them go visiting.)
Raw silk, duty free, taking strict No. 1 Tsatlee at about $9 to 610, has gone
up lUO per cent., while wages have gone down 50 per cent, since 1843.
The amendments to the tariff act now before Congress will tax raw silk 10
per cent duty. To all that, thousands of bales are now annually consumed
by us. Hands eager to plant and to reel are not abundant but in sufficient
number.

I want to gratifj' the wishes of my neiglibors to furnish them cuttings of
Multicaulis and White Italian Mulberry trees or shrubs; also the eggs of
the silk moth.

Flower Seed. Distribution.

The Secretary has already received and answered 2,500 letters, by return-
ing the envelopes with seeds inclosed, to the ladies who have applied for
seed sent in for distribution.

Peat for Locomotives.

The Chairman read an account of an experiment made at Syracuse, N. Y.,
in running a locomotive with peat, which proved highly successful. It is*
stated that one ton of coal for twenty miles is the usual allowance, and
that half a ton of peat did the saUiC work. Farmers who have peat swamps
arc advised of their value.

Where is the Best Place for a Sheep Farm 1

Mr. Burton L. Kingsbury, Alton, 111., answers the above question of a
correspojident in favor of the Neosho Valley, Kansas:

'■ The valley consists of high rolling prairie cut up by numerous well
timbered streams. There is an abundance of feed for all the sheep in Penn-
sylvania, free of charge. The winters are short and mild. Sheep and cat-
tle will live the year around from what they can get from the prairie and
timber; but it is more profitable to feed in the winter. Hay can be cut
and put up close to where it is wanted to feed out. The prairies will turn
off from one to four tons per acre. The climate appears to Le particularly
adapted to eheep. I was a resident of the Valley nearly eight years, and
never heard of sheep being attacked with any of the diseases peculiar to
sheep in other States. To winter large flocks there, it would be best to get
on the creek bottom in the timber, to break off the wind. The best carding
mill in the State is on the Neosho, at Burlington."

264 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

To Prevent Sheep Losing their Wool.

Mr. John William Myers, Dover, Lenawee county, Mich., says all that is
necessary is to take the flock into winter quarters in good condition, and
keep them so through the winter.

Cultivation of Onions.

Mr. H. M. Hoffman, Andover, Mo., wants information about onion culture.
He says: " We do not succeed here on account of the maggot. Is there
anything that will kill it, or (what would be better) that will keep the fly
away ? I have seen sulphur recommended. What is the best fertilizer for
an onion crop ?"

^ The best manure, and, perhaps, the best remedy for the maggot, is a
liberal dressing of wood ashes. A compost made of hen manure is also
excellent. Sulphur has not proved a preventive, nor has any certain
remedy yet been discovered.

An Inquiry About Stone Wall.

Mr. Seth Pettit, Northeast, Erie county. Pa., says: " I wish to make a
piece of stone wall upon a piece of land that is low and apt to heave by the
frost, so bad that in a few years it is as good as no fence."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — If there is a solid foundation low down, you must
dig to it; if there is no such foundation, you must make one by digging a
ditch three feet deep, and filling it with cobble stones, or else place flat
stones or timber — the latter will answer if the ground is always wet. Upon
this build your wall, and it will withstand abundant heaving,

^ Osage Orange.

Mr. E. E. Ea}^ Vermillion Co., 111., " wants to know if 0.s«ge orange can
be grown from cuttings." We think not ; certainly not without more
trouble than would suit ordinary farmers.

The Damask Kose.

Rev. Mr. Weaver speaks highly in favor of this old fashioned rose; 'says
that it is difficult to obtain it since the nurserymen seem to have taken to
newer sorts.

The Isothermal Line of Peaches.

Mr. George Bartlett says that he believes it was first discovered by Mr.
R. Southwick, of Ehode Island, that the destruction of fruit buds upon
peach trees took place in winter, and not fiom Spring frosts. Mr. John
Osboru, a neighbor of his, then set about finding what degree of cold pro-
duced that destruction. He found they were never killed except the ther-
mometer was 18 dcg. Fall, below zero. Mr. Bartlett then ascertained by a
series of meteorological tables published in the American Almanac, that
the isothermal line of 18 deg. below zero is based upon latitude 41 deg.,
and that a line based upon latitude 43 deg. with its natural deflections is
the northern limit to which peach culture can be carried with success, as
the temperature north of that line is liable to fall 18 deg. below zero every

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 265

winter. To discover wlien your buds 'arc killed, cut tlicni open with a
sharp knife, and you will find the center black. Those which are alive are
green and fresh.

Mr. W. S. Carpenter illustrated that the fruit-buds of the peach would
always be found upon wood of the present year's growth, and uidess the
trees are thrifty enough to produce a good growth of new wood, they will
fail to be fruitful. Generally speaking, there are more fruit-buds than can
be perfected ; he therefore rocommendu a system of summer-pruning by
clipping one-third to one-half of all the new branches. , In planting new
trees, use them only one year old from the bud, and cut back severely;
afterward shorten the branches every year, and the trees will continue to
be productive. It is poverty of growth or over-bearing that produces the
yelloics.

Afr. John G. Bergen. — I dispute this theory, for it is nothing but tlieory;
it has no foundation in fact. What wo want, and what should be sent out
as the opinions of the Club, are^ facts, and not baseless tiieories. I like
opinions, and I wish tnose that attend here would give theirs more freely.
We have every week a great many persons attending here, but very few
speakers. I wish others could be encouraged to give us their experience
and facts in farming. A few years ago I planted a peacli orchard upon
land that certainly was not troubled with poverty. The trees made a luxu-
riant growth, bore very little fruit, and died of the yellows. There's one
fact to ofilset a good deal of theyry.

Mr. W. S. Carpenter contended that the trees must have died from borers
instead of yellows.

Mr. Solon Robinson disputed this theory as ridiculous, because peach
trees that are touched with borers sufficiently to produce death, never have
a thrifty appearance.

Mr. George Bartlett recommended planting peach orchards upon hills in-
stead of valleys, wherever the buds are liable to winter-kill.

Mr. John G. Bergen said that poverty of soil did not kill peach trees, be-
cause some of the finest peath orchards of New Jersey were planted upon
poor, light, sandy land. A gentleman from Burlington Co., N. J., said that
the style of pruning them was entirely different from the pne recommended
by Mr. Carpenter. The young trees, when taken from the nursery to the
orchard, are pruned as smooth as walking-sticks.

A member said he had found upon one of the mountains of this State two
belts of fruitful trees about half a mile wide upon the eastern slope, one
near the top, and the other at the foot of the mountain. On the western
slope of tlie same mountain peach trees did not succeed at all.

Mr. R. H. Williams gave as a reason why buds kill in valleys rather than
on hills, that it is because they swell more in autumn. Whenever the buds
are killed by cold weather in winter, it will be found owing to the condition
of the weather in autumn. The Lake region of New York has an advantage
of at least three degrees of latitude over other sections for fruit-growing.

Mr. P. T. Quinn, of New Jersey, stated that he was in the practice of
planting about 600 peach trees per year, and pruning them to a mere stick.
They make one year's growth, and are then cut back. The ground is kept

266 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

well plowed; the trees planted 12 by 15 feet. They are well examined for
worms, and yet with all the care given, they die regularly at fbnr years old,

'The Law of Phyllotaxis.

Prof. S. D. Tillman gave a very interesting dissertation upon the law
which regulates the arrangement of leaves upon the stem of a plant. With-
out attempting to assign causes for the remarkable development, he pro-,
ceeded to show the several positions which leaves may assume with refer-
ence to the circumference of the stem. To obtain a clear conception of the
law it is only necessary for one to imagine that the vital force of the plant
ascends spirally beneath its bark, so that on rising a certain distance it
will have passed once around the wood of the stem. Now within the dis-
tance of one turn there will be either two or three leaves at equal distances
frona each other, which may be measured by the usual division of a circle,
into 360 degrees. If in the first case there are two leaves in one turn, they
will be 180 degrees apart. If there are three leaves, they will be 120 de-
grees apart. The itext order contains five leaves in two turns ; the next
eight leaves in three turns, the next thirteen leaves in five turns and so on.
If we represent this arrangement by fractions in which the numerator
expresses the number of turns, and the denominator the number of leaves
in such turns, we have the following series :

1 1 2 3 _5 JL Xrp
'2' 3' 5' 8' 13' 2 1' ^^'

Starting with the first two terms, it will be perceived that the sum of
two denominators form the new denominator of the next succeeding term,
and the sum of the two numerators form the next numerator. For example
|^-{-|=-|, and to find how far around the stem each leaf of the last order
measures, we must multiphy 360 degrees by three and divide by eight ;
the result shows that these leaves are 135 degrees apart, measuring around
the stem and not lengthwise. Lovers of flowers who watch with great
interest the development of beauty in form and color, will have their pleas-
ures heightened by a realization of the fact that for the arrangement of
leaves there is a fixed and immutable law. The design of the Creator, in
the countless forms and colors of flowers, cannot yet be so comprehended
as to express, by formula, the successive steps of development ; but of this
we may be assured, that all changes, whether according to the regular
course of nature, as far as known to us, or in apparent contradiction to it,
are the, direct result of physical causes, and that Order reigns supreme
while beauty pervades the endless variety of the vegetable kingdom.

Clean Culture.

The Chairman read the following communication to the Massachusetts
Ploughman, by S. P. Maybury, Cape Elizabeth, Maine:

Clean culture is a term that most of farmers either do not understand the
import of or do not care to practice. To such I write this as of import-
ance. They will see if they practice.

On my tour to the White Mountains, in August, I paid particular atten-
tion to the treatment which was bestowed upon apple trees. In most of
the towns which I passed through they paid little heed except to trim them,

• PPOCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 267

"wliich in some cases was duiio with an axe, leaving the tree to recover
from the rough clipping the best it could. The general result was a light
crt)p of apples. In two towns they adopted what I term clean cnltiire, viz:
The second year after they were transplanted, and each year afterwards,
they ploughed both ways amongst the trees, thoroughly niamncd, and kept
down the weeds. By that means the root shot down below the plough,
and the ground under the trees was in gocHi condition. This j^ear their
trees bore full and the apples largo. On inquiry amongst the apple dealers
at what locality they received their best fruit from, they all without excep-
tion named this locality. To those who need further proof they need not
go further than the pine forest to see that the God of nature practices the
same or arrives at the same mode, 011I3' in a different way. The foliage of
the pine is shed, and drops to its roots, covers tliom and rots; no weeds
finds place there, and if j'ou will take pains to dig tlirough that covering
you will find the soil thoroughly pulverized and lighter than any means
which art has found as yet. But, the reader will say, mulching with straw
would answer the same purpose. I have no doubt it would, but perhaps it
might serve to harbor the mice.

One orchard attracted my attention by the smooth and thrifty appearance
of the bark. On inquiry of the owner he partly attributed it, besides clean
culture, to a practice of his of putting a cow dung in the crotch of the
tree every spring. The same principle acts on my own grounds. In regard
to the other crops this last observation may seem to be needless to the
mere reader; but if he will stroll amongst the farmers, or t^iose who pre-
tend to that honorable title, but whom I designate as plodders of the soil,
he will find that every acre they till is covered with weeds left to scatter
their seeds.

Pruning Grape Vines.

Mr. P. T. Quinn at the request of a number of members, explained his
manner of pruning grape vines, and gave an illustration upon the black-
board of pruning grape vines from the first to the third year, when they
are supposed to have their fixed form. Cut back the vines the first year
to three buds, and grow two canes from the two upper buds, rubbing off
the lower one. ' Lay three canes down upon a trellis bar fifteen inches
above the ground, and cut them off four feet long. Next year, if the eyes
are too close for growing the upright cane, cut out those on the under side
of the arm. The canes should be twelve or fifteen inches apart. The first
four eyes of these canes will produce fruit. Upon young vines only one
bunch to each cane should be allowed to grow. Stop the growth of the
cane about four leaves above the fruit, and stop the laterals that will start
at two eyes. It will be necessary to go over the vines about three times.
The next year cut these canes back to two eyes, and you may grow four
bunches to each cane: and you will continue to cut back these arms in'tho^
same way every 3'ear, and never later than the middle of March. It
would be better not to make it later than the middle of February. If the
stump upon the arms from which you grow your canes should eventually
become so long'as to be unsightly, you may generally start a new bud
lower down so as to cut away the old stump at the next pruning.

268 transactions of the american institltte.

Freezing and Thawing Kills Plants.

Mr. Benjamin Giirvey wants farmers to institute a series of experiments
to prote what deg-ree of heat and cold plants and vegetables will beav.
He thinks if potatoes v>^ere graduall}' frozen, and the frost ^gradually ex-
tracted in the Spring, that it would not injure their vitality.

Mr. Jolm G. Bergen thought it would utterly destroy theni. Turnips
will freeze solid and thaw without any perceptible change, but this re-
peated several times the turnips v/ill be destroyed. As to the potato, I
doubt if the tubcu' slKudd bo frozen whether it will germinate. I have dug
lip potatoes in the Spring that have remained in the ground all Winter. 1
should be sorry to see it go out as the opinion of this Club that it does
not injure potatoes to freeze them.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter thought not if left in the earth. He has known
apples frozen quite solid. Care must be taken not to move them in the
least, not even so much as rolling them once over in a barrel while frozen,

Mr. P. T. Quinn said he had a barrel of turnips frozen through quite
solid. He buried them in the earth, mixing it through and through with
the roots, and they came out fresh in the Spring.

Mr. Robinson said that the plan of improving potatoes devised by Mr.
Roberts, of Michigan, was to allow them to remain in the hills where they
grew, and cover the ground so as to prevent frequent thawing and freez-
ing, which was the cause of injury, and not a single freezing.

Mr. John G. Bergen contended that the covering must have prevented
their freezing at all.

Mr. Robinson could not understand how that could be possible, since
Michigan is colder than this city, and the frost is now three and a half feet
deep within a hundred feet of where Mi'. Bergen stands.

Mr. P. T. Quinn corroborated this statement by personal (sxamination of
the depth of frost in New Jersey within a day or two.

Farming in Minnesota.

Mr. E. Evans, Rochestcn-, Minnesota, thinks "those in pursuit of new
homes should not all be sent to Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Missouri and
Nebraska, each of which have been recommended by the Club." He wants
a good word said for Minnesota, as all places have their advantages, and
those of his locality he proves, by his experience, as follows:

"Cost of 160 acres smooth prairie, $800; breaking 110 acres, $220;
fencing two sides of 160 acres, $260; house, $400; well and pump, $60;
grain bins and sheds, $100; seed, $160; sowing, dragging, &c., $110; cut-
ting, binding, stacking, &c., $400; threshing and putting in bin, $425;
conveying to market, §450; Avhole cost of iirst crop, $3,385. I raised
wheat, 2,'820 bushels; barley, 257 bnshcls; oats, 650 bushels. I realized
for 2,000 bushels wheat, $3,140; can sell balance of wheat to-day, $850;
sold the barley for ($2 per bushel) $515; oats worth 50 cents, $325; corn,
potatoes, beans, rutubagas, carrots, &c., $60; amount realized from farm,
$4,890; cost of farm, |3,385i diflTerence, $1,505.

"You will see according to this figuring I have paid for my farm and
ha.ve $1,500 left, besides being paid for my labor. Land has advanced

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUR. 269

some since tlion, but I can still buy the best land from $7 to $10 an acre.
I have been a resident of this Stale Viearly nine years, and am very well
satisfied with this climate. It is true that our Winters are long- and some-
times cold, but they are dry, and Summers delig'htful and healthy."

Michigan for Sheep Farms.

Mr. Samuel ^Vils()n, Pinckney, Living'ston count}^ Micliig-an, thinks that
State admirably suited to the wants of those who have written to the Club
for information where is the best place to establish sheep farms:

"Farms and flocks can be paid for in two or three years out of the pro-
ceeds. There are no better sheep lands in the West than the rolling oak
opening's of Micliigan. Our sheep are very healthy, and shear heavy fleeces
of excellent wool. The Winters I think better for sheep than further south,
being- clear and dry, and always free from mud. Farms of the class I have
been speaking of — soil good, large improvements, comlortable buildings,
good orchards, &c., and located convenient to villages, mills, schools and
churches, and not over ten miles from the Michigan Central Eailroad — can
be bought at from $10 to $20 per acre.. We say, then, to Mr. Atwater and
all others, don't wait on Missouri quieting down, but come to Michigan at
once, and I think you will be satisfied with the result."

A Cheap Substitute Hot-Bed.

A resident of Salem, Ind., says he obtains earl}^ tomato-plants in the fol-
lowing way : " Make a double box, without a bottom, four feet by five, and
eighteen inches deep. The space between the double case, four inches, is
to be filled with earth. Set this box slighUy in the ground on the south
side of a fence, sinking the south end five or six inches deeper than the
other. In this put four or five inches of fresh manure, and on it good soil,
covered with a sash protected cold nights by covering. I sowto'mato seed
early in March (lat. 39 deg.), and tliin the plants to get a good growth,
and when ready to transplant take them up carefully with the adhering
earth, and set them in place without checking the growth. Protect from
frost afterward with cloth, boards, or paper. In one season from twenty-
two tomato plants we had more than double what a family of seven per-
sons needed. They grew five feet high, supported on a frame of slats run-
ning horizontally the whole length of the bed, fastened to stakes leaning
outward. The box, slats and posts, with care, will last many j'ears, and
this cheap hat-bed would soon pay for itself if I sold the plants iqstead of
giving them away. I use the seed of large fleshy varieties, and always
save the earliest and best for seed."

Apple Tree Borers — How to Kill Them.

James Anton, Lebanon, Warren county, Ohio, recommends a portable
steaming apparatus for killing fruit-tree borers. A small copper boiler,
attached to a sheet iron fire pan, is made so portable that it is easily moved
from place to place, or even carried in the hands while performing the work.
The boiler is provided with a stop cock orifice to admit the water, aiid an-
other for the discharge of steam. To the latter a flexible tube is attached,

270 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

having; a pointed mettle nozzle which can be inserted into every wormhole
found in the tree. The cock being Cpened and a jet of steam thrown in,
efiectually cooks the worm. There is no difficulty about the steam pene-
trating through the mass of wormdust to where the animal is lodged, even
if it is at a great distance from the outside of the tree. It requires but a
few minutes to explore a tree and apply the remedy to each hole, and con-
sequently the whole orchard may be gone over in a short time. The same
apparatus is the most efioctual ever tried for killing bugs secreted in bed-
steads or inaccessible cracks of the walls of a room.

Cure for Bee Stings.

. Dr. Andrew Bush, Setzier's Store, Chester county, Pa., says that " one
drop of strong spirits of hartshorn will in an instant remove the pain
caused by the sting of a bee, wasp or hornet. It should be at hand in every
family where there are children. Smiles of gratitude, shining through
tears of distress will often i«cpay the thoughtful mind that provides and the
quick hand that applies the remedy." He also recommends the same arti-
cle for the removal of greasespots.

Hardiness of the Hawthorn.

A. Law, Nicolet county, Min., says that English hawthorn will stand on
the open prairie uninjured through a winter in which the thermometer goes
thirty degrees below zero.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

March 14, 1865.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Blackberry Wine.

A bottle of blackberry wine manufactured by Mr. Wm. G. Randall, Ilam-
mondton, N. J., made by mixing two quarts of the juice of Lawton black-
berry with two quarts of water and three pounds of refined sugar, was
presented to the Club to get an opinion as to its quality.

Mr. Pardee, Dr. Ward, Mr. Solon Robinson, and some others, expressed
^n opinion that this was like all beverages of the same class, made from
ftuits other than grapes. When well manufactured, as. this appears to be,
it makes a very palatable cordial, which is agreeable to the taste of the
majority of people. It is very different from grape wine in its effect upon
the system, and is undoubtedl}' more intoxicating.

The Chairman expressed an opinion highly in favor of this wine.

Mr. R. G. Pardee said the best fruit wine he ever saw, and which was
esteemed by many good judges equal to the best Madeira, was made by
adding three pounds of refined sugar to one gallon of currant juice. This
was fermented in- a cask where it stood uearlj^ a year, and was then bottled.
He does not think it makes much difference what fruit is used, if the wine
is made by adding such a large proportion of sugar.

Dr. Ward said he had a good deal of experience in the manufacture of
currant wine, some of which had been pronounced unusually excellent, and
.at other times, after the same process, it had proved a complete failure.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 271

This rule is to mix one part currant juice, two parts water, two parts sugar.
He has found by experiment that two pounds per gallon is sufticient to pre-
ser%'c the mixture from acetous fermentation. The currants should not be
picked \vhen heated by the sun, and ihe juice should be expressed as soon as
possible, and the whole operation conducted rapidly to a conclusion.

Mr. Solon Kobinson said there was no difficulty about the manufactui-e
of domestic wine sufficient to prevent any family who desired it having an
abundance of just such a pleasant beverage as this now before us, but he
doubted the Avholesomeness of everything but the pure juice of the grape.

Mr. George Bartlett thought we had better not undertake to discuss the
wholesomcness, as it was a difficult question to settle. The gentleman
from Ilannnondton who presented the wine said it was not difficult to settle
the question of profitableness of blackberry culture for making such wine
as this, as one of his neighbors had sold SI, 300 worth this year from two
acres and a quarter.

Southdown Sheep.

The Chairman read an article stating why Southdown sh(^cp are so called.
The name comes from a range of chalky hills in Sussex County, England,
five or six miles wide by eighty long, upon which this breed of sheep origi-
nated.

Professor Nyce's Fruit Preservatory.

Mr. Asher L. Smith, Lebanon, Conn. — During my visit to the West, I
visited the establishment of Professor Nyce at Cleveland, Ohio, and found
several varieties of grapes in perfect condition; also apples as good as
when stored in the fall. A large quantity of butter was stored in one of
the departments, put rn in the fall, when butter was cheap.

On motion of Mr. Carpenter, the Secretary was directed to invite Prof. B.
M. Nyce to visit this city and give an address before the Club upon his
mode of preserving fruits.

Chicory.

Mr. William J Spence presented a very fine specimen of chicory root
grown upon what are called thebarreji lands of Long Island, at the rate of
oOO bushels per acre, at the cost of $7 for manure fur one half acre and $T
value of labor. At a salable price, the product would be worth $800 per
acre. The land is worth §10 to $25 per acre.

Mr. R. H. Williams regarded the deleterious effects of the use of chicory
as an adulterator of coffee.

, Mr. S<jlon Robinson contended that coffee was not adulterated by an ad-
dition of one-fourth its weight of the dried and roasted root of chicory. He
said he had grown it and used it in his family for several years without
any deleterious effects, but on the contrary those who had been injured by
the use of pure coffee found themselves benefited by the use of that " adul-
terated" by the addition of chicory. And he earnestly recommends, as he
has often done before, that every farmer in the country should grow and
use chicory in connection with cofi"ee, as a positive improvement of the ar-
ticle, and without any fear of injury, no matter what old fogies may say to
the contrary^

272 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Williams desired the gentleman to explain why, if one-fourth chicory
added to coffee improved it, he does not use all chicory ?

Sandwich Island Sugar Cane.

Mr. J. Q. A. Warren, San Francisco, Cal., says there are only seven or
eight sorts of cane in the Sandwich Islands, thoug'h the natives have about
three times as many names for their varieties, suited to all soils and situ-
ations. That mostly grown on the flat lands, near the coast, is called
Ko-kea; also, a sort called Opu-kea is the color of polished white wax, and,
having a tender rind, is much used to eat out of haud. The Lankona is
another lowland sort. On the drier and upland parts of the islands the red
cane is grown; the leading canes are: Honuaula, Opiaa and Papa, and red
striped sorts called Palespua, Manulele and Raole.

The first sugar plantation at Hawaii was started by a Chinaman, over 60
years ago, on the small island of Lauai. The land was prepared and
planted by natives, with a hardwood implement shaped like a lance, and
called Oo, and the cane was crushed between two dressed stones, somewhat
thicker than a grindstone, and three feet in diameter, and. the juice boiled
in China iron pots, after the method pursued in the days of Confucius. The
Chinamen still use the Oo, but it is now made of steel. English and Yan-
kees use plows and spades. The Chinamen produce large crops without
the aid of plow, harrow or cultivation, simply with the 'Oo, which is evi-
dence of their skill is one sense as agriculturists. In very strong or rooty
land there is, perhaps, no better tool in the world than the Oo.

The cane is not produced from seed, but cuttings of the stalks. Two
sticks 'of cane, cut one or two feet long, according to number and
healthfulness of buds, are put in each hill (or rather hole) ten or twelve
inches apart, and covered very lightly in wet, and deeper in dry weather.
In the drills, the sticks are laid continuous, sometimes one, but oftener two
rows, six or eight inches apart. The tops of the old canes which are unfit
to grind are generally used for planting.

Ou the lowlands the season for planting is from June to November, and
the high land they plant any time when it is wet enough.

After the cane is started so that the rows can be seen well, the plows,
cultivators and hoes are put to work among it; and these kept working
until the cane is large enough to take possession of the ground and keep
grass and weeds down itself. All cattle are fond of young cane, and,
therefore, have to be muzzled, much against their will and Scriptural teach-
ing, while working among it. After the joints are formed and matured to
a certain degree, the leaves- then die, and, in some varieties of cane, fall off
of themselves, but most have to be stripped off by force. This is called
" trashing," and is best done in wet weather.

Opinions vary in regard to age or size, when the cane ought to be
thrashed; but doubtless they are all right, for different varieties and locali-
ties require different treatment, and this, like a thousand other special
modes in agricultural operations, must be left to individual experience.

At the islands, the cane blossoms invariably within the isoghral line (if we
may coin a word applicable to cane), in the month of November, and seldom
an arrow shoots forth in any other month. As soon as the arrow withers,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 273

the cane is fit for thq mill, in all warm and dry localities, and must be
ground as soon as possible; but where it is moist and cool, there is no
necessity lor haste, as the canes will not deteriorate for several niDUtlis.

Some of the Sandwich Islands sugar planters are provided wi(h all uf
the most approved ajiplianees for the business known in any country, and
cane planting is extending rapidly. TIk; crop of 1803-4 will r(;acii ten
million pounds, and the incoming one will exceed tliat probably one-third.
AVith suflicient labor and capital, iliere is nothing to hinder the islands
from producing at once all the raw sugars required on the racilic coast.

Currant Bushes — Do they need Renewing ?

Mr. L. II. "Warren, Augusta, Oneida county, N. Y., says: "I have a row
of bushes of the common red currant, sixty years old, which has never
failed to produce a full crop, except in the cold season of 1810, and once
since when the blossoms were killed by frost. Last season they were as
thrifty and as prolific, as ever. During all this time the roots of these
bushes have not been disturbed in any manner, nor have they been
manured except by the application of a quantity of leached ashes about
once in five years, or had any tillage whatever; and during the last twelve
years a parallel row of maple trees on the south side, and not more than
eight feet distant, have grown to a height of twenty feet, shading them
completel}^ i'lonx five to six hours in the middle of the day; ^-et there is no
^perceptible dillerence in the size or quality of the fruit. A picket fence
is near the bushes on the south side, and a garden which has been plowed
within three feet of the bushes every year for the same sixty years, and
but moderately manured, is on the other side. The soil is a naturally
strong'clay loam. But although there has been no tilling or resetting of
these bushes, the oldest wood has died out at a certain age, and new shoots
have come from the roots, as is the nature of this shrub, leaving no per-
ceptilile diniiiiutio!! or increase of growth from the stands.

" Now, sir, from this evidence of the age, vitality and fruitfulness of
currant bushes, and from other experience and experimenting not neces-
sary to note here, I deduce as follows: That the currant is not only one of
the most healthful and economical of the small fruits, but the very hardiest,
longest lived and most trustworthy; and that one has only to set the slips
in a soil ordinarily good, till immediately around them two or three years,
and then let (hfm alone (except to keep off tlie vermin"), to insure a never-
failing supply for a lifetime. Tlioy may be planted close to a fence, or
stone wall, or building, and need not interfere with anything; and as they
cost next to nothing it ought to be held a misdemeanor for the owner of
land to be found without a fair supply fur his own famih', and for at least
07ie family more that is near by, poor and landless."

Tar and Turpentine. — How it is Produced in Maine and New

Hampshire.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — We have had a number of letters of inquiry before
the Club, asking whether tar and turpentine could not be made from the
pines of New England. Lake, Hills & Co., Welchville, Oxford county,

lAu. Ikst1 U

274 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Maine, have settled that question. Tliey are manufacturing turpentine
from tlie waste product of pine stumps, which abound in that country; also
from tlie iieart-wood of tops of trees which have been cut long enough for
the sa|) to have rotted awaj^ The Oxford Democrat sa_)'S, speaking of the
operations of this Company:

"Intiieir building tho,>y have four large brick retorts, into which the
pitch wood is put, after being cut up fine, and turpentine extracted. In
this prucess tar is produced, while the volatile portions are carried off and
by the condenser are converted into spirits of turpentine; from thence it is
carried into a small outbuilding and prepared for use. The pitch wood,
after having the pitch extracted in the retort, is converted into a fine arti-
cle of charcoal, and is then used to heat the retort. Aside from the char-
coal thus made, but little fuel is needed for the heating process. One cord
of pitch wood will make three barrels of tar and about eighteen gallons of
spirits. When their works are in full operation, they will make between
thirty and fnrly barrels of tar, and six. or seyen barrels of spirits per week.
At the present prices of these articles it is a very profitable busin'ess.
There are pitch pine stumps enough in the vicinity of their factory to last
them for years to come, which the owners are very glad to get pulled up
and carried out of the way. This is the only factory of the kind in the
State. Its owners are energetic, enterprising young men, genuine 'Yan-
kees,' who understand their business, and understand how to make money
out of so forbidding an article as a pitch pine stump."

The Bodon Cultivator says: "From Etfingham, N. II., along the north-
eastern shore of Ossipee Lake ((n- the Great Pond, as it is- locally called),
and stretching away toward Conway, there are thousands of acres of pine
plains, the timber on some portions having been cut. It is from the roots
or stumps that tar is extracted by a company locally organized for the
purpose. At a place near the village of Freedom, the company set their
sfump-pullers at work, pulling from 50 to 100 stumps each, daily, accord-
ing tb the difficulties encountered. These stumps are hauled to Freedom
village, whei'e they are cut and split into pieces about the size of very fine
stove wood, and placed in what is called a basket. The basket is a wrought
iron cylinder, punched full of holes of about three-fourths of an inch in
diameter, and holding half a cord. This basket is taken by a crane and
placed in a retort made to receive it. A round-top cast iron cover is then
fitted on tight, with a pipe from the center, which connects v\^ith a' coil of
pipe in a condenser. The gas and steam passing off from the top of the
retort, and tlirough the condenser, comes forth from a barrel in the shape
of an acid (which is worth 10 cents a gallon among, the calico printers, but
is here thrown away), an^ a red oil. The red oil is then passed through a
still, and gives about half its bulk in spirits of turpentine. The other half
is thin tar, which is mixed with that which comes from the retort. From
the bottom of the retort the pitch, wiiic^i is "tried out" of the pitch wood
by the heat opplied to it, comes fortli in the shape of thick tar. There are
eight or ten retorts, v^iiich bring forty barrels of tar a week, and seven or
eight barrels of spirits of turpentine. A cord of pitch wood gives about
three barrels of tar and eiglitoen gallons of spirits, besides twice that
amount of acid. The company have stumps enough dug to keep the fac-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 275

tory running' until they can dig again in tliQ Spring; and it is said that
there are stumps enough left on the plains to last the company for three or
four years. The tar is worth about $14 per barrel, and the turpentine
about S250. Wlio but Yankees would Iiave brought down the price of tar
and turpentine by digging pitch wuod stumps for its manufacture?"

Sheep Shedding Wool.

Mr. Albert Pease, Salem, Franklin county, Maine, says: " If you do not
want your sheep to shed wool, do not keep them too warm. Here in Frank-
lin county, Maine, latitude about 46 degrees, we are careful not to shut up
our sheep in a close pen, except in tlie very severest weather We feed
mosth' undercover, but have a yard connected with the sheep pen, into
which they are allowed to go at pleasure, except in a ftiw instances of very
cold weather. We do not niiud their getting wet, if +hey have a tight
shelter to go under when they choose. And I have observed that in mode-
rate storms, either of rain or snow, they seem to choose to be out. They
should have water in the yard to go to at pleasure. It may be that expo-
sure without shelter woii'd induce the shedding of wool, but it would do it
by producing' emaciation. If sheep get very poor, and are suddenly made
to thrive by better feed, ihoy will shed their wool. Turnips are an excel-
lent feed for sheep, preventing many diseases, especially the stretches. I
feed mine a few e\:ery day,"

Adjourned. Jdhn W. Chambers, Sscretary.

March 21, 1865.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

State of the Weather.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — It is worthy of record that it was so warm to-
day that we sit with open windows, and that winter clotliing was burden-
some. Several members reported the thermometer at 65.deg. to 70 deg. in
the sliade. Tlie frost, which has been 3| feet deep, is nearl}- all out of the
earth, and the hot sun of to-da^^ will inelt the little tliat remains. The sur-
face is alr(!ady dry enougli for the plow in well drained soil.

Potatoes not Hurt by Freezing.

Mrs. W. L.P. Ilerr, Brooklyn, L. I., says she has been in the habitof rais-
ing some 8,000 or 9,000 bag-s of potatoes (I| bushels each) yearly. Part
of these potatoes were put into pits^ covered with earth. These pits were
only opened to withdraw potatoes for kitchen or distilling- purposes. Tiiose
lying uppermost were frozen so hard that with great difficulty they could
be removed in order to reach those underneath.

These pits were, of course, again properly covered, and on being opened
again in spring these very potatoes were found sprouting and otherwise iii
good Cftndition for all purposes. This, I suppose, will clearly show that
frost, if gradually thawed out, will not deteriorate potatoes in any respect.

Dr. Trimble. — It depends altogether upon the rapidity of thawing whether
'potatoes will be injured or not. They may be thawed for use in cold water.

276 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

I have restored fish to life, which were frozen solid, by puttrng' them into
cold water, the temperature of which was raised very gradually. Frozen
hands, feet or ears should be treated in the same way.

Mr. Dodg'c said he had noticed that potatoes which had been frozen
always had a sweet taste when cooked.

Mr. George Bartlett said it was because the starcli was converted into
sugar.

Improved Curser Corn.

Mr. John Van Antwerp presented specimens of ears of the improved
Curser corn, growing upon his farm at Throgg's Nex;k, N. Y., 1,410 bushels
of sound corn upon 10 acres. It is eight rowed, and ears are about 15
inches long.

Cloths from a New Fibre.

Dr. Guernsey, of this city, exhibited a variety of specimens of cloth, some
plain colored and some dyed, made from tlie lint of the common milk weed
(Asclepias Syriaca). Some of the specimens were of the pure fibre, some
mixed with six per cent, of cotton, and others with a small amount of silk
and wool. The cloths are very soft and strong, and the milk-weed fibre
takes color just as well as wool or silk. " These specimens were all carded,
spun and woven by hand from about twenty-live pounds of fiber, gathered
from the stalks, which had previously been twice mown the same season for
the purpose of destroying them. The secret in this successfuf manufacture
of this fibre, which has before been frequently attempted and abandoned,
lies in the discovery by James P. McClean, the patentee, of a mode of treat-
ing it with vegetable oil. It is well known that wool cannot be manufac-
tured without oiling it, and that none but animal oil will answer. Cotton
is naturally oily. Asclepias fibre, when viewed through the microscope,
appears like rods of glass. It cannot be worked without oiling. In all
previous attempts animal oil has been used. Now, by the, use of vegetable
oil, the manufacture of the fibre is likely to prove completely successful.
A patent has been applied for, and fifty cents a pound is offered for the
fibre. It has been estimated that it can be grown at the rate of 500 pounds
per acre, and that one pound will go as far as one and three-fourths of cot-
ton. And while cotton does not mix well with silk and woolen, on account
of the difficulty of dyeing, this fibre agrees exactly with both of these sub-
stances."

Prof. Tillman said he had made a good many experiments with this fibre,
but the objections of manufacturers to it were its glassy smoothness and
want of strength.

Dr. Guernsey said that was just the difficulty that he had overcome. He
is aware that it has been maii}^ times tried and failed, and he has now fully
proved that by the preparation tliat he has given the fibre, it can be as
easily worked as flax or wool, and these fabrics now presented show its
great strength. The fibre is natul-ally very light. The preparation gives
it a dingy color, like unbleached cotton, the yellow color of which is given
it by the natural oil. But this cloth can be bleached as white as cotton,
onlv it will require more time, or a stronger i)reparation of ciilorine. Tiiere
is one important fact which he has discovered in bleaching some of this

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMER'S CLUB. 277

cloth, woven with cotton warp and asclepias fillinr^. The cotton was
entirely burnt out and destroyed by cjdorinc, which did not injure tlie other
fiber, and it was subsequently re-workeu.

Coal Ashes — Do tuey Prevent Wood Ashes from Making Soap ?

!Mr. Geo. Bartlett, practical chemist of this city, proved by analysis and
experiments conducted before the Club that there is notliing in coal ashes
wliich has any natural tendency to prevent wood ashes from making soap.
lie said it was possible that the aslies of English bituminous coal might
contain sufficient sul[)huric acid when mixed in cojisiderable quantities to
prevent the ley from making soap; but he does not believe an}'' such result
possible from an admixture of anthracite coal ashes. Mr. Bartlett's expe-
riments and processes were witnessed with great satisfaction, and members
obtained much valuable information. One -instructive experiment showed
how colors changed by the addition of other substances. For instance, a
glass of water colored deep red with beet juice, having a little solution of
potash added to it, becomes of a bright orange yellow. Then by the addition
of a few drops of sulphuric acid, the alkali is neutralized and the color
restored. By similar means stains are sometimes removed from garments
when it is known what has produced the discoloration.

Baling Uncured Hay in the Beater Press.

'Mr. E. "V\". Stewart, North Evans, N. Y., asks the following questions:
" Can the Club tell me whether hay only partially cured may be baled by
the Beater press into the solid 500 pound bale with safety ? It has been
asserted that grass quite green may be pressed into these solid bales and
keep in good condition. If this is a safe process it will greatly cheapen
the preparation of hay for market and add 20 per cent, in weight of hay.
besides being in a more succulent and palatable state for cattle. Then it
can be stored in a small space and save much barn room."

Mr. Solon Eobinson. — This question I am. happily able to answer. Ex-
periments have been tried, on hay fit to go in barn, with satisfactory
results. 'It will undergo the sweating process, in the bale, the same as in
the mow, and for a short time look, from the outside view, as if it had
" been done for" — but when the sweat is over with, the color becomes
restored, and when the bale is opened it is found to be as green and fra-
grant as it was on the day it was pressed, and it will then, of course,
remain thus fur ages — for aught we can tell.

Still I would not advise farmers as a general thing to put up uncured
liay, but I do earnestly advise them to try experiments with this press
because I fully believe the value of hay may be increased twenty- five per
cent, by i)acking it before it has been sun dried in the usual manner, until
much of its value has been dissipated. The compactness of these bales is
so great tlmt the air is mostly excluded from the interior, so that the hay,
although it might turn lilack during the sweating process, will remain so
sweet that it is eaten with the greatest avidity by cattle, and we have no
doubt it is vastly more nutritious than hay from which all the natural juices
have been evaporated. I have no doubt that grass can be cut when tolera-

278 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

"bly ri|ic in the middle of a hot day and baled immediately and piled up under
a shed or even in the open air, and ciyne out in mid-winter in better condi-
tion than most of the hay cured in the ordinary way. Such hay will lose
very little of its original weight. A great portion of the best hay grass in
this country is rendered by errors in curing of no more value than rye
straw. I hope to see experiments extensively made during the next sum-
mer to test the value of this new press for preserving hay in better condi-
tion than it is possible to keep it when thoroughly sun-dried and packed in
the barn. It is one of the greatest mistakes of haymakers to suppose that
grass can be injured by undergoing the sweating process when curing. It
has been my determined practice for years, to put up the grass from the
swath almost directly into large cocks, where it undergoes the sweating
process. An Irishman or an Englishman invariably cocks his hay about a
small forkfull in a bunch, because they were instructed to do so in the
moist climate of England. A great many American farmers are guilty of
the same folly. Som ; of them, I hope, will live long enough to learn that
sweet grass can be packed into a bale as solid as a bass-wood log, and that
it can be preserved in this way better than in any other.

Mr. Smith, Lebanon, Ct. — I bale large quantities of hay for market every
year. I have sometimes put it up when it was so green that it turned
dark colored and iiijured the sale of it, as it is thought not to be so good
for horses. I am sure it is not injured for horned cattle. I believe Mr.
Kobinson is right in what he says about putting up hay green ajjd curing
it in the cock. If grass is not wet when it is put up, I have never found
any difficulty in curing'it. I also believe what he says about curing grass
in a mow, by placing it between alternate layers of dry straw or old hay.
I have put up rowen or aftermath in this way with old straw, when it was
only a little wilted in the field, and it kept perfectly §weet.

The Flower Seed Distribution.

The Secretary reported the supply of seeds insufficient to fill half the
orders now on hand. He announces the receipt of packages of seed, for dis-
tribution from the following persons:

Mrs. C. J. Pennoyer, Sharon Station, Dutchess county, N. Y. "

Eev. Samuel Griswold, Saybrook, Conn,

Miss Susan Leonard, Buckfield, Mass.

Hubbard & Davis, Detroit, Michigan.

Jacob Hammond, Stillwater.

Miss Susan G. Briggs, Crum Elbow, Dutchess county, N, Y.
[ Mrs. H. Messenger, Mooers, Clinton county, N. Y.

I hope others who have flower seeds to spare will put them up in clo.«5e
packages of less than four ounces' weight, marked " seedk oul}'," and affix
a two cent stamp, directing the packages J. W. Chambers, American Insti-
tute, New York, and entrust them to Uncle Sam's mail.

The Rev. Samuel Griswold, Saybrook, Conn., says tliat durWig several
years of ill-health he has devoted his attention to the cultivation of flowers,
and has annually distributed from 1,OUO to 1,800 papers of seeds. lie novr
forwards his whole stock to this Club for distribution, including the fol-
lowing:

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 279

" Di'lpliiiiiiini — florc pi. variep,-., blno iuul purple; Delpliiniuni — flore pi.,
pale red; Diiuitiins BiU-batiis — var.; Diaiitiis l^arbatus — fl. pi. var., sells.;
Diaiitlms- Chiiieii.sis lledowegii — var.; Diaiithus Chiiiensia Breddewegii —
varieg"., fine; lleliclirysum inonstrosnni' — yellow; Ipoinopsis — scar., orange
dots; Lytlirnm superbum roseum; Lychnis Clialcedonia — scarlet; Nolana
atriplicifolia — tor haiighig baskets; Viola tricolor— fine pansies ; Gam-
pliruna glolsosa— raised 1803; Zinnia, Jelegans, fl. pi. var. — laised 1863;
wliicli would be desirable if they retain their vitality two years." On the
papers T have generally given the vulgar name, as most acceptable to the
ladies geijerally.

Mrs. M. A. 11. Slade, Acushnet, Afass., in a letter, says she finds health
and happiness in the cultivation of her flower beds with her own hands.
And she finds happiness in multiplying them for distribution among her
neighbors, and has often felt, while engaged in the cultivation of flowers,
that she was an humble co-worker with God in the production of the beau-
tiful, and feels that she is not only healthier and happier for such labor, but
better. And she is glad to see a growing love among her sex for outdoor
labor. ,

The Flax Crop.

Mr. Harry Allen, Grass River, St. Lawrence county. New York, wants
to know what the Club think about making flax growing an exclusive bu-
siness, .seme what as cotton growing is or was at the South. Is there any
probability that cotton for the next two or three years will be grown to
such an extent as to make flax culture unprofitable ?

Mr. Solon Robinson. — The Club would not recommend any Northern
farmer to make flax growing an exclusive business, but with the improved
machinery of Sanford & Mallory, we think the flax crop likely to be for
many years one of the best that will be cultivated, and that its culture will
continue to increase largely in spite of all that can be done with cotton.

Turnips as a Manure Crop.

Mr. Allen has seen it recommended to plow in turnips for manure, and
wants to know what kinds and when to sow them for that purpose.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — The most thrifty-growing kind of common flat
turnips known as " strap-leaf," are what we should recom.meiid, and the
seed may be sown upon well prepai'ed and manured ground any time afte
the middle of June. They should be plowed under when at the strongest
growth.

Sorrel — How to Keep It Out of Land.

Mr. Charles Betts, Purr Oak, St. Joseph county, Michigan, says : " Tell
your correspondent from Wisconsin, who is troubled with sorrel, that
stable manure is death to it. Apply the manure to corn and cultivate
thoroughly. The next year summer fallow, sow to wheat, and seed thickly
to grass, v.ilh red siid white clover added, one-third the quantity of seed
being clover, and I'll pay hiftj 850 a tun for all the sorrel he raises on a
field so treatftd. I know of sorrel farms, and also know of farjns by the
side of them where sorrel dare not grow. The owner of the one is tho-
rough-going, the other shiftless. And Invariably the farmer who com-

280 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

plains of sorrel is not a good farmer — is not thoroiigh ; liis tools are liung-
ling and cut of order, and he is never ready to begin work when he ought
to be. Consequently, weeds grow and go to seed, and tlie winds scatter
them, and he becomes a curse to the neigliborliood. Manuring is the start-
ing-post of all good farming, then thorough culture, and success is certain.
Keep traveling threshing machines off (he premiees, and you are pretty
safe from sorrel, dock, red-root, and all annoyances of the sU)thful farmer."

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter.— I think that this writer must be in error in re-
gard to man;ire being an antidote to sorrel. Some of the best manured
farms in my neighborhood are just as much infested with sorrel as those
■which are never manured, and as for traveling threshing machines, they
are unknown. It is regarded as a fact by all farmers near the sea-coast
that all liclds manured with fisli arc infested with sorrel. The only manure
that I know of that will prevent it is lime used freely.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — I believe salt equally efiHcacious. I believe the
salt and lime mixture would be still more valuable. This is made by
slaking lime with water saturated with salt. The lime should then be ex-
posed to the atmosphere until the surface of the heap becomes a light, dry
powder, wliicli may be applied to the soil, to muck or manure, to assist its
decomposition.

Cultivating Prairies without Fences.

Mr. Daniel F. Rogers, Watham, La Salle county'-, Illinois. — I wish the
Club would continue to keep it before the people and the people before the
Clul), thiit farm fences are one remnant of J)arbarism, and a man who runs
his cattle, hogs, or other stock upon the highways or commons without
herdsmen, is another. I have no faith in legislating reforms, but the press
and other agencies that can reach the ear and intluence the action of public
sentiment, are the tools to work with. The peri(jdical minutes of the Club
are more Avelcomc and are read with a deeper interest than any farming
paper in the land, and their enormous circulation givesthem a power second
to none. Through their means we hope t,o some day rid this praiuie of tlie
two nuisances mentioned, peculiarly troublesome here where lumber is so
high and farm labor so scarce and at j)resent so worthless.

It costs to-day $5,000 to surround and cross-fence into 80 acre lots a
Section (640 acres) of land, saying nothing about dividing into lots for
pasturing, &c., enough to build a good, yes, a fine house and baru upon
every quarter, and nine-tenths of this expense of fencing is a useless waste
of lumber and time', as far as the owner is concerned: only if he don't build
this barrier — this Chinese wall — his Tartar neighbors will turn their cattle
and hogs upon him, and eat up his crops, trample his meadows, rub down
his fruit trees, and howl at his frontdoor for the little he may have inside
the house. And this in a country to which we are proudly inviting those
who arc seeking homes — cheap homes — to come, and find peace and plenty.
Some counties in the State have, by commiui consent, adopted the rule of
uo fences — no law about it, except that sternest of laws — public opinion.
Livingston county is just now the poor man's paradise; for .though he may
be fifty miles from wood, coal, stone, lumber, lime, tree, bush, or stream of
water, and have to burn rosin wood for fuel, he can ride all day of a sum-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 281

mor throuf^h miles of stalwart corn, its tassels almost brushino- him on
oitlior side, or when the road is but a dividing of tlie waters of a sea of
wlicat, ajid all perfectly defenceless, a great peace shall come over him,
and lu! shall realize that millennium when the cattle, and the hogs, and the
corn shall lie down together, and a small boy shall tend them. The subject
is exhaustless. But I have written too much already.

^[r. Solon Robinson. — We don't think so. The subject can never be
written about too much. We wish a hundred men would each write a hun-
dred letters, just such letters, every daj--, until the very weight of their ar-
guments would overwhelm the barbarians who turn their cattle loose to
prey upon honest men who are disposed to dispense with the foolish fashion
of fencing such a country as the Illinois prairie.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary,

March 28, 1865.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Nyce's Fruit Preserving House.

At the request of the Club, Prof. Benj. M. Nyce, Cleveland, Ohio, gave a
description of his Fruit Freserving House. He also brought with him a
quantity of Catawba grapes as fresh and good as when they were stored
last autumn. Also, several varieties of apples quite out of sea; .on. These
are eamples of largs quantities Vv'hich will not be opened for sale until next
Jcne cr July.

Ths house at Cleveland is the sixth which has been built, all of which
, \J7Sr3 ezpcriments, and each an improvement upon others. This one has
piiO^ed entirely successful, and, of course, profitable to the builders.

This house consists of two apartments, -one above the other. The upper
one contains ice, put in every winter, in depth usually five to six feet. This
is separated from the fruit room below it by a floor of galvanized iron, the
sheets of which are closely riveted and soldered, so as to be perfectly wa-
ter tight. The walls atre made of two casings of sheet iron, 3| feet apart.
. The ed^es of these sheets are painted and closely, nailed to upright stud-
ding, the intervening space being filled with chaff, sawdust, or short shav-
ings, or other non-conducting substances. The floor of the fruit room is
also made of galvanized iron. Below this are placed shavings, three feet
thick, on a coating of tar and pitch, spread one inch thick upon the ground,
to prevent the entrance of moisture. One or more wind-wheels are placed
above the roof, geared to fans in the fruit rooms. On the floor of the fruit
room was spread formerly, in its dry state, the chloride of calcium, a sub-
stance which has great power of absorbing moisture; but now the waste
bittern from salt works' (absolutely costless,) after being dried, is found to
be equally as efficient as the former chloride.

The elements of a complete preserving atmosphere are coldness, dr3'ness,
purity, eqnalit}' f»f temperature at all times and in every part, absence of
light, and if possible the exclusion of the great agent of decimtpositionjthc
oxygen of the air. This plan secures all these elements in great perfection.
The thermometer shows a uniform temperature of 34 deg. in all parts of
the room, and is found not to vary a single degree from Bi*^ even from April
till October.

282 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Dryness is its leading- pateiitaMe feature. Vapor is constantly given oif
from dilfcrent kinds of fruit, amounting usually to at least lialf a gallon of
water from one hundred bushels, per week. This vapor is taken up by the
absorbent, which is spread over the floor of the fruit room. It is made to
run out in tubes to the outside, once in about every month. It is then
dried in large pans of sheet iron, and returned to the house in the dried
state as before. The same substance is thus used twenty or thirty times.
The air in a room so completely confined, after tlie fruit is chilled down to
34 deg., becomes very still. The fans are needed to give circulation to the
air, and bring the moisture arising from the fruit in contact with the ab-
sorbent, to be taken up by it.

The air is pure, because every source of impurity is excluded.

In the gradual ripening of fruit, hydrogen and carbon are constantly
given off; the former unites with the oxygen of the air, and forms water;
the latter, carbonic acid.

This process in any confined vessel filled with fruit, consumes all the
oxygen, especially if the fruit be ripe and the air warm, in about 48 liours.
The rooms of this house are gas tight, and when filled with fruit, if closed
up for two days, a candle goes out in them almost instantly.

The fruit is then surrounded by an atmosphere composed of the nitrogen
of the air and carbonic acid. The former is destitute of all active proper-
ties, good or bad. The latter is not suflScicntly acid, unless under heavy
pressure, to produce any action on fruits immersed in it. Hydrogen and
carbon then cease to be evolved from the fruit, as there is now no agent to
unite with them, in the same way that thfey cease to be evolved from a
burning candle when the air is removed. Decomposition ceases in both
cases, and for the same reason. The principle is thus stated by Liebig: —
" Decay is much retarded in the absence of moisture, and by the substance
being surrounded with an atmosphere of carbonic acid, which prevents the
air from coming in contact with decaying matter."

The sources of profit are pears and grapes, kept during the fall and win-
ter months; apples until the months of May, June and July; lemons, oranges,
pine-apples, through the summer season; canned fruit, put up in si'x or ten
gallon cans, and retailed out by measure ; the fruit when taken from the
cans, which are used successively for a number of years is kept fresh in
the house in the open vessel for a number of weeks. Hence this fruit may
be sold by measure without loss in the summer months. Oysters, butter
and eggs, are also sources of f)rofit.

All fruit should be in the hbuse when tree-ripe, that is as soon as it has
received all the virtue the tree or the vine can impart to it. " Rub an ud-
ripe or green apple or pear on a grater to a pulp, wash this with cold
water on a fine sieve, the turbid liquor which -passes through deposits a
fine flour of starch, of which not even a trace can be detected in the ripe
fruit. This after-ripening, as it is called, is purely a chemical process. It
is the starch being transformed into sugar; the more starch the unripe fruit
contains, the sweeter does it become when ripe." — Liebig.

Although after the saccharine change, putrefaction may go on slowly at
34 degrees, yet starch is much more slowly changed into sugar at that
temperature. In strict accordance with this principle, it is found that the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 283

most tender fruits, if put in ininiodiately when made, keep better tljan the
more hardy sorts, if not put in till full ripe. One bushel of apples if fully
ripe, throws off more hydrogen and forms more water than three bushels,
if put in in the proper season.

i\Ir. AVm. S. Carpenter wished to know what success Mr. Nyce has had
with strawberries and peaches.

Prof. Nyce. — No fruit can be preserved by any process to an indefinite
period. Its decay can only be retarded. The law of change is inexorable,
I have kept strawberries sound seven weeks. Peaches I cannot preserve.
Up to the period that delicate pears remain perfectly sound, peaches were
wholly decayed. 1 can keep any fruit that has a good smooth skin. The
more perfect the better. Any fruit with a downy skin cannot be preser\*ecl
for any considerable length of time. Neither can sweet potatoes, pump-
kins, melons, peas, nor green corn, unless previouslj' prepared as for can-
ning. Then there seems to be no period beyond which any substance can
be kept. No person can live a minute in the fruit room when it is in its
best condition as a preservatory. Hence it is necessary to have three or
more apartments to open at different periods, and after the friiit is emptied
it may be refilled ; for instance, the grape-room emptied in April or May,
can be filled with oranges, lemons, pineapples, bananas, &c.

Prof. Tillman said many similar houses have been built, one in Brooklyn,
but were not successful. Mr. Nyce appears to prevent all action by
oxygen, yet in some fruit skins, the peach for instance, the osmose action
cannot be arrested, ; He has accomplished an important step.

Mr. Nyce stated that the burning of charcoal in a close room does not
make an atmosphere so destructive to life as it is in his friiit room after
being'closed two days, for a lamp is instantly extin-guished. Yet the car-
bonic acid gas in which the fruit is immersed has no effect upon its flavor.

Dr. Percy said that he had tried several experiments successfully in pre-
serving fruit in nitrogin gas, and the gas in Prof. Nyce's room can be
easily changed to that by putting phosphorus in the room.

Mr. Nyce answered the question of cost, that a house to lnjld 1,000
bushels would cost $2,500, but one of a large size from 50 cents to $1 per
bushel of capacity. The one at Cincinnati, built of highest cost materials
for S9,000, has a capacity of 10,000 bushels. The company stored last fall
2,000 barrels of apples, at S3. 50 each, for which they have been offered $1,
but expect to realize $10. Tiiis is only part of tlie profits of a single sea-
son, and however profitable such a house may be to the company, it is far
more profitable to the community. I have tried to keep meat, but not with
good success.

On motion of Mr. W, S. Carpenter, a vote of thanks was given to Prof,
Nyce for his interesting exposition of this new method of prolonging the
season of various fruits.

Yeast and Bread Making.

Mrs. C, C. Barrett, Brewer, Maine, sa^'s : " Pare and grate eight good
sized potatoes, make two quarts hop tea, using a small handful of hops and
boiling a few moments, strain on the grated potatoes, sot it over the fire,
and one cup fine salt, one cup brown sugar and sis large spoonsful flour,

284 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

stirred np smoothly in a liitle cold water ; boil, pour into a stone jar, when
cooled to blood-heat add half a pint sweet j^east ; when the whole mass is
light and opening-, cover the jar closely and keep it in a cool, dry cellar."

My receipt for making bread is as follows: Take two quarts tepid water;
mash through a fine cullender into the bread pan six or eight good sized
potatoes, iising part of the water to aid the process; melt and add a large
bread-spoonful of sweet lard and half a pint of yeast; use flour enough to
make a thick batter. Do this at noon, and keep in a room of moderate
temoerature. At night the batter will be thorougidy liglit, when add suf-
ficient flour to make a dough just stifi' enough to admit of molding when
risen. In the morning divide into loaves, mold thoroughly and let them
stand in the baking pans in a warmer place than before, until the dough
feels soft and spongy when pressed with the finger. In baking maintain
an oven at moderate heat for one hour or more, according to the size of the
loaf Great care must be taken that the dough be not too stiff, nor the
oven too hot, nor the room too warm in which the process of rising is going
on. Very nice biscuit may be made of this dough, and it may be kept in
a veiy cold place several days for this purpose; but if something a little
extra be desired proceed as follows: To one pint of the well raised dough
add one pint new milk, one table-spoonful lard or butter, a little salt if the
lard be used, and flour enough to make a dough sufficiently stiff for bread;
let it rise in a moderate temperature till the whole mass is light — that is
full of air-holes — set in a cold place till about an hour before baking. Mold,
roll, and cut into biscuits, and let them remain in the baking pan near the
stove till well risen: bake about fifteen or twenty minutes. Some persons
object to tlie use of lard in bi-ead. It is not necessary with the finest
quality of flour, but in iny opinion is a great improvement when the medium
qualities are used. I have used yeast made as above five or six years, and
have never found any difficulty ih keeping it sweet except for a few months
one season when I lived in a house that had a damp, moldy cellar. As soon
as the latter was properly drained, sour yeast disappeared from my pre-
mises.

Mrs. H. A. W. Marston, Lunenburg, Mass., gives directions similar to
the ab(jve, except in the use of ginger instead of hops. She adds " to four
potatoes after the mash is cool, not cold, one cup of sugar, one of flour, one'
of yeast, one table-spoonful of salt, one of ginger; butter, and keep in a
cool place. This yeast has kept sweet for months."

The Reports of the Club.

Mr. John B. Wood, Great Falls, N. H., thinks the reports of this Club are
doing more good to tliis country than the Agricultural Department at ^Vash-
ington. He says: " I think that every farmer should have the discussions
of the Farmers' Club to read. It is amusing to seethe facmer's wife glance
hastily over the discussions of the Club till she comes to the flower depart-
ment; then she reads slow and careful. This shows that she feels a deep
interest in the sultject. There are now but few farmers' houses where
flowers are cultivated. But this' state of things is soon to be changed.
AVomen are ambitious, and do not do work up. at the halves like most men,
and the time is not far distant when flowers around the cottage of the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 285

farmer will be the general rule, and not the exception. And a farmer's
wife will feel as much mortilied to have a gentleman pass her house in
suiniiKn- and not have a bed of flowers for him to look at, as she would to
go to clnirch with a visibh; hole in tlie heel of her stocking. Next afti^r
the flowers will come tlk> strawberry bed, tlien the small gaidt'n, and by
and by we may ho])e tlironi;liout tiie whole country to see a paradise of
fruits and llowers, shelters and shades — all brought about by the discus-
sions of the Farmers' Club." ^

Sweet Brier Seeds.

Mrs. J. A. S. Gaskill, Reo, Wisconsin, saj-s: "It is not entirely neces-
sary, that the seeds of sweet brier sh(juld be kept moist until planted. I
have some fine bushes grown from seeds, which were kept in a bureau
drawer eighteen months, before they were planted. In the spring of 1862
I put them dry, around an old stump. I Avatched anxiously for them to
appear above ground, until late in the season, but in vain, and finally' con-
cluded that I was doomed to disappoijitment; but early the next spring I
was agreeably ■surprised to find them up and growing finely.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

April 4, 1805.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Seeds from Peru;

The ITon. E. G. Squier sent to the Club for distribution a package of
seeds, which he brought from Peru, comprising four varieties of corn, some
Lima beans and some qiiinau, which is the great bread grain of the Indians,
growing seeds not much larger than millet. The leaves are also used as
greens, as wo do spinach; also seeds of a Lupin, which bears a beautiful
flower.

Mr. F. W. Collins presented a sample of his Cheddar cheese, made to
imitate English Cheddar, and which has proved a perfect success, and
much more profitable than the old style cheese, as he gets 40 cents per
pound wh(jlesale, and the cost of making is but little more. A full account
of the process of m'anufacture is published in the Transactions of the New
York State Agricultural Society.

Evergreens — How to Grow from Seeds.

]Mr. L. Ilerrick, Blue Grass Grove, Minn., wants to know how to grow
evergreens from seed, as he has tried several times and failed. "Will red
cedar berries gi*bw the first year if taken from the tree and planted like
other seeds in the spring ?"

Mr. Solon Robirfson read an article from The Gardener's Morilhhj for
April, in answer to this. It says that one of the go(jd fruits of this war
and gold speculation is that people have learned that they can grow their
own seedling evergreens better than to import them. Many individuals, as
well as nurserymen, grow their own supply, and the consequence will be
cheap adornment of many a prairie home.

286 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The supposed difficulty in raising; them was tlioug-ht to be the drying* out
of the soil in summer; but tliis is now obviated by early sowing'/wliich
allows of the roots penetrating- to the cool subsoil before the hot weather
sets in; they will, however, do very well sown in Jul}^ or any of the sum-
mer months, if sown in a cool moist pla,ce.

' The mode I have seen practiced for early sowing was to have a row of
frames, with sash, and well banked up around to tlirow off the snow and rain
the soil inside raked, and the seed sov/h in drills two inches apart, which
will admit of their being- weeded — which cannot be easily done when they
are sown broadcast. The frame and sash are used more for protection
from birds, cats, chickens, etc., during- germination than from aii}' actual
need for them, although in cases of heavy rains they are useful.

As soon as the seedlings have made a few leaves, the sash is left off alto-
gether. A great advantage of the. sash is, it enables one to thaw out the
soil in the first place, thus getting the seeds sown several weeks earlier
than could be done without them.

For sowing in large quantities, where frames would be thought incon-
venient, a long narrow border, with a slight slope northward, or the north
side of a hedge, to break the sun's rays, would be the most suitable place
for them — sowing the seed as early as possible. They would be strong
enough to stand out the winter if covered with some small litter and
boughs. If the dry season should set in before the plants have made much
root, they should receive a tliorough watering in the evening, with the soil
stirred up around thein the next morning. Some kinds, among tliem the
Taxus and Piuus cembra, cedar, and other kinds, do not always grow the
first year; they should be sown in a place where they can remain two
years without being disturbed. They are usually allowed two years in the
seed beds before planting out.

I, last March, saw a large quantity of seeds sown in frames, in the way
described; and I believe, with few exceptions, the whole of them germin-
ated. Some Norway spruce were afterward lost in the hot season, from
excessive dryness; the ground, I think, had too much slope, causing the
rain to run off easily. Some Austrian and Scotch Pines, sown two years
ago, are perfect models, and will be planted out in the nursery rows this
spring, six inches between the plants, and two feet in the rows.

Sugar Maple — How to Preserve.

Mr. N. Smith, Delplii, Carroll count}^, Indiana, says experiments this year
have proved that two tin tubes made over No. 7 wire, and inserted in gim-
let holes, which do not injure the tree in the least, affords as much sap as
the spile of the half-inch auger hole. Some tubes were inserted in trees
too young to tap in the ordinary way, and in old trees four or five tubes
were inserted. Such tubes cost but a trille and will last for many 3'ears,
and as thc}'^ do no injury, ma[)le trees may be thus preserved.

Stumps — Destroying with Vitriol.

Mr. S. R. Duren, Woburn, Mass., wants to know if destroying stumps
with vitriol has been tried on such an extensive scale as to warrant his

■ PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 287

applyin^^ it to two acres of them, and how iiinch is neccsssvy to put in a
stump two feet across ?

>[r. Solon Robinson. — I w'onld not rccoinmeml trying- it upon an exten-
sive scale until its cnioicncy has been satisfactorily tried upon oije or two
stumps. Bore an aug'er hoh^ in a green stump and put in from one to two
gills, and pin;;* up. It would be well to try the cxi)eiiment upon standing'
trees. If it kills them it will loosen the roots so that by a little Avork'in
dig'ging' around, the tree can be made to pull out its own stump.

Leaves — How to Preserve Colors.

;Mr. Not wotting, Akron, Ohio, wants to know " how to preserve the color
of forest leaves.''

Mr. Solon Kobinson. — They should be placed jmmodiately between folds
of pap(>r ami pressed. Some persons dip them in a solution of gum Arabic.
Glycerine is also recommended.

Mr. I)udgc said that the best plan he had ever seen adr?[3ted for preserv-
ing leaves was to keep them in the shade until wilted, and then press them
with a pretty hot flat-iron.

Bones — How to Dissolve in Sulphuric Acid.

Mr. L. 0. llalleck. Millers Place, Suifolk coulity, L. I., "wants to know
liow much acid it will take to dissolve a ton, and what is the price per gal-
lon; also, if tubs or barrels will hold it, and if it should be covered during-
the process of dissolving. I have heard of bones being placed in a heap of
muck and leaves, in order to receive the acid, but whether it answered the
end sought for was not stated."

Mr. Solon Robinson. — Mix one gallon of acid with five gallons of water.
If this does not prove strong enough add more acid. One of the members
says 340 pounds of acid to twenty-five bushels of fine bones, wet with
eighteen gallons boiling water; after two days mix with two cartloads of
light mold; turn the heap several times, as it will take seven or eight
weeks for the bones to decompose. Another says 500 pounds acid, 300
pounds guano, one ton of bones; each pound of acid requires nine pounds
of water. Wooden vessels will nijt answer. Use a large iron kettle
painted thickly with clay dissolved in skim-milk. Bones may be dissolved
in a heap of anything Ihat'v/ill give a hot fermentation.

Dr. Ward. — What is the comparative value of guano and bones ? Peru-
vian guano at over $100 a ton, is so high that man}' people doubt the
policy of tising it, yet we must have something. Shall we buy superphos-
phate or bone dust at 850 a ton ?

Mr. Solon Robinson.— ^For immediate effect, guano is best. For lasting
efl'ects, bone dust is worth as much or more per ton than guano.

Mr. George liartlett. — For durability it is not necessary that bones should
be converted into superphosphate; that is dissolved in acid. The best ves-
sel to u.se for acid i.s a leaden one. But bones can be easily reduced by the
hammer and fermentation to an economical shape for manure.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter. — I would prefer a ton of bone dust to a ton of
guano, the guano only lasts one season, while bone dust lasts many years.

288 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Onion Worms — How to Kill Them.

Mr. Benjamin Eastman, De Peyster, N. Y., tells how to kill the 'onion
magg'ot. He says:

"Steep or soak the seed twelve to twenty hours before planting' in a
strong decoction of tobacco at a temperature of 100 degrees to 120 degrees
Fahrenheit; I tried it last year and others in town two or three years,
Avhhoiit a failure."

Frozen Potatoes.

Mr. C. H. Bowen, Yankee Springs, Barry county, Mich., gives the fol-
lowing fact about potatoes being injured by freezing: "On the 8th day of
March I noticed in the garden some hills of potatoes. In the first hill I
opened, I found some fifteen as fresh potatoes as I ever saw; yet under the
potatoes the ground was frozen hard. In other hills Ifound the potatoes
bedded in the frozen earth, but no frost in the potatoes; in others, the
potatoes would be all soft like any other frozen, potato; and in sonn; hills,
half of them would be soft and the other half sound; yet there was frost
in the ground under all. These potatoes were a little sweetish when
cooked, bat I have no doubt about their vitality."

Coal Ashes.

Mr. Bowen says he reclaimed a piece of yellowish white clay, which was
almost barren, by a liberal use of bituminous coalashes.

Sugar Corn Preserved for Table Use.

Mr. E. Cronkhite, Marshfield, Warren county', Ind., says lie keeps sweet
C(.)rn the year round in good condition for the table, in the following man-
ner: " Cut the raw corn from the cob with a sharp knife, and pack it in a
stone jar, a layer of corn and a layer of fine salt, as you would pork. It
keeps this way much better than drying it, and it is not half the w6rk. If
it is too salt when wanted to be cooked, soak it in cold water, .or sweet
milk, whicii is better."

Prairie Flowers.

Mrs. Lrwicy Croy, New Philadelphia, Story county, Iowa, says: "Our
prairies furnish many rare and beautiful flowers, .and if au}'^ of the members
of the Club will furnish me with slips of shrubs or flower seed, either of
which are unattainable here, I will be glad to return some of their wild
but not less beautiful sisters. It is a great deprivation to me to be with-
out those blessed gifts of our Creator, the ' stars of earth,' for I so love
them, and home hardly scgras home without their sweet presence."

Receipts of Flower Seeds.

The Secretary reports that he has received flower seeds from the follow-
ing persons: Mrs. L. P. Seaver, Stowe, Lamoille county, Vt.; Mrs. H. A.
Piper, Monroe, Me.; Mrs. C. 0. French, Dnflield, Me.; Mrs. E. D. Willey,
Corunna, Me.; Mrs. Jennie A Remington, Chester, Mass.; Mrs. I>. M. Adams,
East Brookfield, Mass.; Mrs. M. A. Waterhouse, Salisbur}^, Vt., Mrs. S. H.
Symouds, Reading; Mrs. Mary A. Fisher, "Waltham, Mass.; Mr. Panicd

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 289

Willi'ntns, Fly Creek, Otsog-o county, N. Y.; Miss Mary Meatyard, East
Hamburg-, N. Y.; Mrs. Mary W. AVilliams, Palmyra, Wis.; Mrs. A.
R, S., Picture Rocks, Lycoming county, Pennsylvania ; Mrs. M. P.
Keuneily. Perry, Pike county, Pa.; Miss Carrie Barber, Summer Hill,
Cayuga county, N.Y.; Miss Anna Stuart, Dracut, Mass.; Mrs. Mary Treat,
Blairstown, Iowa; Mrs. S. A. Seaman, Bowmansville, N. Y. ; Rev. Samuel
GriswoUl, Say brook, Conn.; Mrs. S. E. Waters, Smith Mills; Mrs. Ja«e
Adams, Weclaunee, Winnebago county, Wis.; Miss E. C. Dixon, Canan-
daig'ua, Ontario county, N. Y.. Horace Thaj'cr, Blackstone, Mass.; Miss C.
L. Peck, Panama, N. Y. ; Mrs. Dr. Wm. Green, Marion, Wayne county, N.
Y.; Mrs. E. J. Ely, Leroy, N. Y.; Mrs. C. W. Craig, Black Jack, Kansas;
Miss Sarah L. Colby, Warner, Mcrrimac county, N. H.

Culture of Small Fruits.

STR.\WBERRy.

Mr. Walter Sigarson, St. Louis, Mo., says: The success attending the
cultivation of this delicious fruit has been varied in the different localities
where it has been grown, inlluenced more or less by climate and soil, and,
perhaps, in a greater degree by a superior cultivation, together with the
judicious selection of varieties well adapted to the particular location.
While only a few have been eminently successful in producing fine fruit, 1
believe that it will be admitted that the many have failed; hence our mar-
kets have been poorly supplied, at least so far as my observation extends.
It is to be regretted that such a state of things, as I have just indicated,
should exist in this age of activity and enlightened progressive improve-
ments. We have depended, perhaps, too much on what superficial observ-
ers have been pleased to call our rich, inexhaustible land. Unfortunately,
however, both the fertility and inexhaustibility of our country has been
made to take the place and subserve the purpose of thorough culture,
titcrefore meagre crops have been the result. There is nothing intricate
involved in the cultivation of the fruit now under consideration. A few
plain, practical hints and diiv?ctions, if followed, will remove every diflS-
culty, and render what has proved a failure a complete success. To insure
large fruit, with remunerative crops, a previous preparation of the land
must be had commensurate with the results to be anticipated. Superficial
agriculture and horticulture is the bane of this country. The time has now
arrived when some positive improvement will or must be developed. The
first prerequisite for a good crop is fertile land well prepared. If the land
is not rich enough, then such fertilizers as are required must be added. I
propose to prepare one or more acres of suitable land as follows: Trench
three feet deep, set out healthy, well grown plants in June or September,
eighteen inches between the i^ows and eight inches in the rows. There
must be no failure; every plant must be there. The ground must be kept
clean and in the most complete condition until fall, so that these plants
will be strong and healthy. Before winter sets in the ground must be
mulched all over four inches deep. This mulching answers several import-
ant purposes, all indispensable in their several places and relations. The
complete protection of the plant against the rigors of our severe and
changeable winters is secured, and, sectmd, mulching protects the plant
[Am. Inst.] S

290 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

against our severe periodical drouths, and dry, parching- atmosphere; it
also prevents the rains from carrying away our light surface soil, and
making a deposit of our fertilizers in the true delta of the Mississippi,
Further, and a very important consideration to the cultivation is, that this
mulching prevents the growth of weeds, when the plant begins to start in
the spring. If the mulching is too much of an obstacle for the buds to
force their way through, then it will be important to remove the material
from off the center of the plant, in order to let the buds grow free from
obstruction. All the runners must be cut off. Each bunch or separate
plant will produce a full crop of large fruit. If all the suggestions be
attended to as here proposed, and you plant the best known variety for
market, you can grow $2,000 worth on one acre. The material for mulch-
ing is abundant inour country', and, therefore, there can be no valid excuse
for neglecting what is of vital importance in consummating the object con-
templated. Partially decomposed wheat straw will answer the purpose, or
if you are in close proximity to the city, you can procure all the old spent
tan, and all the spent manure from the white lead manufactory. Either of
these kinds of mulching will be free from seeds. Our forests furnish ample
resources in tree leaves; therefore, as I have stated, there can bono excuse
for vpant of material to mulch with. If profit is the primary object, then
adopt my plan, as the preparation of the land will only be a small propor-
tion of the expense compared with the value of the product. You will
realize double as much, and frequently four-fold for large or small fruit.

CURRANT, RASPBERRY, GOOSEBERRY AND BLACKBERRY.

All other small fruit grown or indigenous to this climate, will succeed
equally as well as the favorite fruit of which we have been treating, pro-
vided the soil has been prepared as proposed for the first named fruit. The
currant requires a moist soil; this we can only have by deep cultivation
and thorough manuring, with occasional irrigation during the dry season.
The raspberry, gooseberry, and several varieties of the blackberry ripen in
succession and prolong the fruit season for months, thus not only making
the business immensely remunerative to the producer, but also a source of
infinite pleasure and happiness to the consumer.

GRAPE.

The grape has received the fostering care and attention of the Horticul-
tural Society, and must continue to share largely in its enlightened delib-
eration. Tlie grape as a table fruit has no superior, if equal, and can be
kept in great perfection through the winter. The pure juice of the grape
might take the place of coffee and tea on our tables much to the promotion
of health, and as a beverage more pleasant to drink. The use of our native
wines would ultimately be instrumental in promoting temperance, as the
people would dispense with the abominable habit of drinking strong
alcoholic stimulants.

The large production of an article, if it contains any merit worthy of
consideration, does inaugurate consumption commensurate with the amount
produced, therefore no fears need be entertained of overstocking the mar-
kets with small fruits. Our cities and towns have increased in population
80 fast that we find the price of fruits enhanced beyond anything current

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 291

at a former period in the liistory of our country. Fruit growing' olTers
ample remuneration t(j those who will engage in it. Money invested in the
business, cither by an individual, or in the form of associated capital will
yield larger dividends than any of the numerous visionary schemes now
presented to the public, under the oil and mining mania that has seized the
I)ublic mind. It can be easil}"^ demonstrated that not less than fifty per
cent, can be made clear of all expenses, with an additional value given to
the stock in consequence of the enhanced value of the land. The business
proposed is susceptible of easy demonstration, and what constitutes a
valuable feature is that all products of the soil are sold for cash. The
credit system is not known when farm, orchard or garden products are
offered for sale in this market. The country immediately contiguous to St.
Louis is one of the best fruit regions in the United States. The country
north of this offers an indefinite market for all small as well as large fruit,
especially those varieties which mature early. The home market is one of
the best and has never been fully supplied.

Mr. \Vm. S. Carpenter. — I think it entirely useless to mulch strawbeny
vines for the purpose of keeping them from the frost. As to trenching, I
think two feet is enough. I have tried some buds three feet deep, but did
not see any advantage from it. I manure on the surface of the soil.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

April 11, 1865.
Mr. Nathan C. Ely in the chair.

Autumnal Leaves.

The Chairman presented a large collection of leaves. Many of these were
arranged in frames, making really ornamental pictures, and in the center
of one of the pictures, was placed the photograph of the lady who made
the collection. This woi'k of gathering and arranging beautifully colored
autumn leaves was highly commended to all who have leisure as an inno-
cent, useful, pleasant amusement.

Dry Pressed Brick.

Mr. Ellis P. Horner, Denver, Colorado, wants to know how the brick
made at Vineland, N. Y., of lime, sand and gravel, are compounded ? Will
the manufacturer tell him ?

Another wants to know more about the dry-pressed brick spoken of some
lime since in the Club, " which will not crack in burning, and what is the
reason they will not ?"

Mr. Solon Robinson. — I will answer him. Here are specimens of these
bricks, sound and perfect, made of various kinds of clay, and various mix-
tures of clav, gravel, iron-clay, etc., and also fire-brick. There is no dilE-
culiy about cracking, no matter what the material is. Look at these and
you will see the reason. One side of every brick is filled with holes, four-
teen in number, nearly half inch diameter, and extending Jilmost through
to the otlier face. These are made in moulding the brick, which is done by
machinery very rapidly, with great pressure. These holes are thorough

292 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ventilators, which let out the compressed air, and which in all other
attempts to make dry clay brick, have caused them to crack, or explodedur-
ing the process of burning'. As the bricks can g-o direetlj' from the press to
the kiln, the saving- in cost of manufacture will be immense, and the bricks
when finished are almost as true and solid as dressed marble. I under-
stand a machine and right to use it will cost $1,000, and require two
horses' power to operate, making 6,000 bricks a day, with the labor of four
men.

These bricks are made in Buffalo, N. Y.; the President of the company
is Mr. L. C. Woodruff.

A New Forage Plant.

Mr. Solon Eobinson. — I have lately heard a good deal said about a new
forage plant, said to have been taken from this country to France. Mr.
Lwdovic Lechant, Monsey, Rockland county, N. Y., has furnished me with
the fdllovving translation from the Bullelin de la Socieie cf Agriculture de
PonUAse (France,) which I will read to the Club.

" I sincerely thank you for the kind reception you gave to my letter of
January last about beet culture, and ask leave to submit to you or the
American Farmers' Institute the following encomium upon a new grass,
which i find in a French historical journal, with an earnest prayer for your
or their opinion. If half what is said in that paper in regard to that won-
derful grass is true, it would, I think, be very important for the American
farmers to know it, and I feel pretty certain that you would not be back-
ward in commending that new hay to the agricultural community. But, if
instead of being 'a great conquest' it proves only to be 'a grand humbug'
I would feel grateful to you to tell us frankly so, for I think I see an effort
to puff tliat herb on the other side of the ocean (and may be on this side
too), and if it is not worthy of a test, we had better know it, and try to
save brother farmers from being duped and shaved. However, here is the
article referred to:

" ' The Schrader Brome ( Bro'imis Schraderi, Knnih).

" 'Tiiat grassy plant has been almost unknown until now in Europe, and
although it is originally of North America, y\%., the Carolinas, even there
it is seldom used or cultivated.

" ' M. Alphonse Lavallee has made on this gramineous during six years,
several essays, and he has succeeded marvelously.

" 'The Brome of Schrader is a perennial, quite hardy, vegetating vigor-
ously, capable of yielding four and even live crops (when mowed green) of
an excellent forage, peculiarly adapted to milch cows.

" ' Tlic first mowing takes place as early as the month of March, if the
last mowing of tlie preceding year has been done early, and in all cases
not later than -the 20th of April, generally before rye is ready to be cut as
green fodder. When dried (cured ?), that Brome makes an excellent hay,
to which horses and cows get used very soon, and what is more astonish-
ing is that, according to M. Lavallee's statement, pigs eat it with relish.
Though it is a little tough (coarse ?), it is always eaten without chopping
by those animals, that always prefer it to wheat or oat straw.

" ' The cows find in that grass a food specially favorable tcx the produo-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 293

tion uf milk, which augments sensibly and becomes of a superior quality.'

"Says M. Lavallce:

" ' The milk of cows for a whole month on good regain de Luzerne (second
mowing of Luzerne) was accurately measured, and the quantity of cream
per cent, taken with a galactometer. Three consecutive days did I take
the figures, which were iiientically the same. Then we put the cows to
the Briuno diet. I found the very first day of the change an augmentation
of eighteen per cent., but the following days that went down to ten per
cent. It must be borne iu mind that the rations of Luzerne and the rations
of Brome were of the same weight, I have had no sensible difference in
the quantity of cream, but with the dese-lait (milk v;eigher) I found that
the density of the milk was greater,

"^It seems, too, that the butter made out of the milk of cows fed on
Brome is firmer, finer, better looking, of a better taste, and that it is made
quicker.

" * This grass does not cost much to cultivate. It covers v/ell the ground,
tallying so thick that no other culturo can be so admirably clean. It accom-
modates itself with almost any soil that is not absolutely dry, aad can live
several years, perhaps six or eight. After being five years on the same
field, M. Lavalee did not see any diminution in the yield.

" ' A peculiarity of the Brome of Schrader is that it presents at every
morning and on every bunch several epis (heads ?) where the grain altliough
tiot quite ripe is well formed and already consistent, oSering the ver\- rare
example of a plant perfectly green, bearing grain almost ripe. Mr. La-
vallee believes that this is one of the chief ca?ise« if the nutritious value of
this plant.

" ' The yield in grain is very large, and gives at the first mowing a num-
ber of hectolitres superior to that of the handsomest oats.

" * The Brome of Schrader yielded at the first mowing 17,300 kilos to the
hectare ^about sixteen thousand six hundred pounds to the acre) in a field
where a previous seeding to grass had not succeeded* tlie yield of the three
subsequent mowings has been 18,970 kilos, that is to say, the hectare has
yielded a total weight of 56,200 kilos. That product is the result of
fifteen m.onths^ culture, as the Brome keeps growing in autumn, and even
in winter,

"'An hectare (about two arid a half acres) has yielded, at the second
mowing, sixty-five hectrolites (about 200 bushels, or eighty bushels per
acre !!3 Rather heavy crop ! — Tr. ) Supposing the first yield as heavy,
it Vv'ould make one hundred and thirty hectolitres harvested in one year ou
the same soil.

" * To keep that crop in order requires very little trouble-, one rolling in
the spring, and that is all. To areate it is very simple; a good plowing,
preferably deep, then sow, harrow and roll over strongly twelve or fifteen
•days after, it grows up, and from that vegetates quite rapidly. One can
harvest a first crop in t'vo nionths, if sown in March or April. As S(ton as
that Brome has been mowed, one can j?ee disappear all the other plants,
cither annual or perennial, that had grown up with it. It is an essentially
choking plant, leaving after it no thistles, no jolleii, no chiendent (please,
sir, excuse my ignorance, but I don't know the English names of these two

294 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

latter herbs,) nor any other invading plant, hence its green appearance is
splendid, owing to its great compactness and nniformity/ "

Professor Mapes. — Tiiere is one remark in that paper which conveys an
error in regard to milk. It is not the heaviest milk which is most valuable
for bntter-makers, whatever it may be to those who sell it in the city. Thi»
has been proved in a series of experiments with the hydrometer and lac-
tometer. The lightest milk gave the greatest yield of cream. The more
watery the feed given to cows, the heavier will be the milk.

Maple Sugar.

Mr. Jona. Martin, Candia, N. H., sends us a beautiful "sample of rock
maple sugar, which we made from the sap of a tree that stan-ds in our doar-
yard. The sap was caught in a pine bucket^ and boiled in an iron boiler
over the &tove, down to sugar; there was no process of cleaning or drain-
ing or whitening whatever."

Prafessor Mapes. — The secret of thia is that the sugar was boiled at
what is called lew proof. The same result takes place when cane sugar
is boiled in a vacuum. The quicker sap can be boiled and the less it ia
exposed to the atmosphere the better. That is what is requisite in all
8Ugar-boiling, great rapidity of action from the time the juice is expressed
until the boiling is finished.

The Cankerworm in Iowa.

Mr. J. H. Hilton, Batavia, Jefferson county, Iowa, sends specimens of
insects which are infesting their apple trees.

Dr. Trimble. — These worms have the same characteristics, as those which
are now crawling up the apple trees of New England, and will produce the
cankerworm. The only remedy is to keep them from crawling «p,, as the
females have no wings.

Black Knot.

Mr. Levi Clark, De Peyster, St. Lawrence county, N. Y,, sends speci-
mens of the black knot from plum trees, which is making its appearance i»
that section.

Dr. Trimble. — It is produced by an insect, but not the curcnlio. The only
remedy for it is excision as fast as it makes its appearance.

Carbonized Shingles.

Messrs. Tenny & Bennett, Hubbardston, Mass., present specimens of
shingles which are carbonized by passing them between red hot iron rollers,
which, it is said, protects them from decay.

Professor Mapes. — These shingles will last longer than the ordinary shin-
gle, or even painted shingles. I understand the cost of carbonizing is about
cue dollar per thousand,

A New Hay Press.

Mr. J. D. Wilbur, Pleasant Plains, Dutchess county, N. Y., presented a
working model of a horizontal hay press lately invented by him. It i»
double acting, the hay being placed in the center and a follower constantly
working carries the forkfuU's back and forth to bales forming at each end.

TROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 295

Tlio plan lias not boon tried upon a full sized press, but the inventor is very
sanguine of success. If so, it will bo a very valuable machine for farmers.

Receipts of Flower Seeds.

The Secretary reports a further receipt of flower seeds from the follow-
ing persons: Mrs. Elizabeth P. Footc, North Franklin, N. Y.; Mr. Lyman
Maylien, Worlhingtoii, Mass.; Miss Emma Bakers, Standish, Me.; Mr. A.
^y. Pratt, Faiilield, Mich.; Mr. C. C. Barrett, Cedar Spring-, Me.; Mrs. M.
Finch, Jackson, Mich.; Mrs. Dell A. Bradford, Crown Point Center, N. Y.;
Mrs. Dr. "Wm. S. Bassett, Mount Vernon, Otseg-o county, N. Y. ; Mr. Edward
K. Sperry, Fleming', Cayug-a county, N. Y.; Mr. James Barnett, East De-
Kalb, St. Lawrence county, N. Y. ; Miss Maria D. White, Kent, Portage
county, Ohio, and a quantity from others, names not given. These seeds
will continue to be distributed in the envelopes already received as fast as
it is possible to put them up.

Dr. Trimble has also sent in a further supply of his sweet corn, which
will be furnished to applicants in larger quantities than, heretofore.

Adjourned. John W. Chamberr, Secretary.

In consequence of the great National bereavemen=t in the death of
Abrah.\m Lincoln, President of the United States, and of the funeral cere-
monies extending through the following week. The Farmers' Club did not
meet on the 18th and 25th of April,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIA-
TION.

ORGANIZED UNDER THE NAME OF THE MECHANICS' CLUB,
MARCH 2, 1854, WHICH NAME WAS CHANGED TO THE POLY-
TECHNIC ASSOCIATION, MARCH 16, 1859.

EDLES ESTABLISHED FOR ITS GOVERNMENT BY THE BOARD 07 SCIENCE AND ART,

1. A Club for the promotion of manufactures, arts, and for the discussion
of mechanical subjects, is created under the name of the Polytechnic Asso-
ciation.

2. The Polytechnic Association is an agent of the committee of arts and
sciences, and is under its entire control, in the same manner as the Farmers'
Club is of the committee of agriculture. The transactions of the Associa-
tion are in the name of the American Institute.

3. The committee of arts and sciences appoint, annually, the chairman
and secretary of the Polytechnic Association. In the absence of the chair-
man and secretary, persons to supply their places will be chosen at the
meetings of the Club.

4. Every member of the American Institute shall become a member of
the Polytechnic Association, by signifying his intention to the chairman
thereof

5. The name of any person eminent in practical mechanics, engineering,
mathematics, astronom}^ chemistry, natural philosopliy, social philosophy,
geology, mineralogy, practical mining, meteorology, natural histcjry, manu-
factures or the arts, n)ay be proposed by the members of the Association
(by ballot, five-sixths of those present voting affirmatively) to be an hon-
orary member of tlie Polytechnic Association of tiie American Institute;
and when so proposed, if approved by the cojr;mittee of manufactures,
science and arts, of the American Institute, a certificate of membership
shall be issued by said committee.

6. The chairman of the Polytechnic Association is authorized to arrange
sections, or standing committees, embracing all the physical and exact
sciences, particularly those named in section second of those rules, and to
appoint a committee for each section, who shall report the doings of the
secticms to the Association, Members, and honorary members, shall be
entitled to seats in those sections.

1. Su(;h papers read at the Polj'techiiic Association as are accepted for
that i)ur|)ose, will be printed under the direction, and at the expense of
the American Institute, which also provides a place of meeting, lights and
fires. No other expenses are to be iTicurred, except by special appropria-
tion of the American Institute, according to the rules and by-laws; nor any
liability incurred by the In.st.ilu(e, except on special resolution.

8. The me«'tings of the Polytechnic Association are free of all expense to
those who attend them.

y. The Polytechnic Association shall select, in advance, a subject for
discussion at each of its meetings, which subject shall bo announced in the
■call of the meetings.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 297

10. Written communications to the Association arc to be read by tlie
secretary, unless objection is made; and if objected to, will be read if it
be ordered by a majority of the members present.

1 1. The I'olytechnic Association will recommend what papers read before
them, or what part of other transactions they judg-e wortli}^ of publication,
to the committee of arts and sciences, by which the publ cations may bo
ordered in its discretion.

12. No person altciidin<j;- the meetinccs of tlie Association shall speak
more than once on any one subject, nor shall occupy, in such speech, more
than fifteen minutes, except by j)ermission of the Association.

13. The chairman may invite any person to address the meetiiifr "i" to
participate in the deliberations, but such person not a nsember, sliall be
announced as a visitor.

14. Topics presented for consideration, or the announcement of a dis-
covery or invention, improvement or novelty, or the exhibition of any
machine or part thereof, or any manufacture or article, n\ust be preceded
by a statement setting forth the point, in writing, to be deliberated upon,

15. Any peison desiring to put on record any supposed or real discovery
in science, manufacture, or arts, may address a communication to the chair-
man of the Association, under seal and properly indorsed, which shall be
preserved in the archives of the American Institute as evidence for the
jiarty depositing the same.

16. Ill all cases not provided for by the rules, Jefferson's Manual shall
be t;iken as a standard.

17. The official reports of the meetings of tlie Association shall lie upon
the desk of the recording secretary until 11 o'clock of the day following
the meetings, for ihe inspection of members, and such corrections as are
necessary before going to the public press.

18. The n)inntes of the i)revious meeting shall be read at the opening in
order for correction, unless otherwise directed by the meeting*.

19. No argument is allowed between members. Facts alone are to be
stated.

20. All questions of order are decided without appeal by the presiding
officer.

OPENING ADDRESS BEFORE THE POLYTECHNIC

ASSOCIATION.

By THE Chairman, Peof. Samuel D. Tillman.

[Delivered at the commencemeDt of the Fall Scesion, September 8, 1864.]

ADDKESS.

Genllemcn : It gives me great plcasun; to greet you at our first autumnal
meeting. Our time is again to be agretjably occupied in listening to
accounts of new discoveries, examining new inventions and comparing
opinions respecting their merits. It siiould be widely known that this
branch of the Institute is especially designed tor trie benefit of all who are
interested in the progress of Science and Art; that our Platform is free to
all who have anything of importance, relating to these subjects, to commu-
nicate, and that no fee or formal initiation is required from those who come
to listen or to speak. This plan of proceeding has been successfully fol-
lowed for several years. One of its beneficial results is the colIectii)n for
pul)lication of interesting facts, experiments, and suggestions which other-
wise might escape general attention. Another is the means here afibrded

298 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

to persons who desire scientific assistance in some new branch of art, of
conimunicatin<j with those who are capable of giving it.

TECHNOLOGY.

Few are aware of the vast amount of labor lost from ignorance of experi-
ments and demonstrations previously made. A single incident between
two late members of the Institute will illustrate this point. Henry Fitz^
the celebrated optician, when a young man, stated to Prof. Renwick some
of the difSculties he had encountered in manufacturing lenses. The Pro-
fessor lent him a work relating to the modifications of light in passing
through different media, and on returning it Fitz remarked "the early
reading of that book would have saved me years of toil."

The importance of Technology in developing the resources of a compara-
tively new country is now beginning to be appreciated. The march of
improvement has often been retarded for want of competent pioneers.
While on the one hand visionary schemes have been pursued with reckless-
ness, on the other, enterprises of great promise have been abandoned for
want of scientific knowledge. Thus everywhere throughout our vast terri-
tory, in projects of melioration, conception outruns performance. It is
hoped that in future our colleges and higher seminaries of learning will
furnish scholars who are thorough!}'- versed in the application of science to
the arts. Formerly the course of studies in these institutions was specially
adapted to those who intend to follow the professions which aid but indi-
rectly in material progress. On questions relating to Motors, Mechanics,
Civil Engineering, Architecture, Navigation, Agriculture, Botany, Chem-
istry, Mineralogy and Mining, the scholars of so called liberal education
were not expected to throw much light. Yet such questions were con-
stantly presented for solution. At an early day in the history of this
country self-educated mon met the emergency and were often rewarded by
fortune and reputation.

In order to show the kind of knowledge required, it will be interesting
briefly to review the progress of material improvements on this Continent
which, from the wonderful changes effected, must be regarded as forming
the most remarkable era in the history of civilization. With the exception
of the trapper and fowler, Surveyors were the first white men who \yene-
trated in every direction the primeval forest. In general these pioneers
performed their arduous tasks with fidelity and accuracy, yet their errors —
owing chiefly to the want of correct measuring instruments — have been the
source of illimitable litigation. The history of the location of the pre-emp-
tion line in Western New York, running North to Sodus Bay on Lake
Ontario, illustrates how wide a gore may arise by the slightest deviation
from an original direction.

By the labors of these men territory greater in extent than all Europe,
excluding Russia, has been divided into towns and sections, and repre-
sented by maps; yet the work thus far does not embrace more than one
half of the lands within the limits of the United States. The hardy settlers
at first followed in the wake of the theodolite; latterly the tide of emigra-
tion has been more rapid, and the squatter is now far in advance of the
surveyor.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 299

ROADS AND MAII, ROUTES.

Among' tlic early wants of the settler were means of intercommunieation
Although to facilitate their meetings Indian trails were widened into wagon
ways, and swamps were made passable by means of log foundations, com-
motdy called corduroy roads, the services of the Civil Engineer were soon
reijuired to lay out highways anVl construct bridg(!s. Subsequently, turn-
pike companies were chartered in every State. Permanent roads, having
a stone substructure reachiug below the point affected by frost, were first
commenced by the General Government, upon the admission of the State
of Ohio in the Union. The Great National road leading from both Wash-
ington and Baltimore westward is more than 600 miles in extent, and cost
$3,500,000. The amount expended by the (jOTcrnment in public improve-
ments up to the time of General Jackson's Administration was ,S30, 000,000.
Til most cases the work was accomplished under the direction of the War
Department, the roads in the new States being constructed by the army.

Owing to improvements in locomotion, which will be noticed presently,
the means of intercommunication by mail have been inci:eased beyond pre-
cedent. In 1791, there were in the United States but 89 postofBces; in
18G0, the number exceeded 28,000. During this interval post roads were
extended more than 258,000 miles. The total distance over which mails
were transported during the last mentioned year exceeded 258 millions of
miles.

MOTORS.

In reverting to the histor}^ of the early settlement of the Eastern States,
it will be found that a vast amount of work was accomplished by the
use of water power, derived from the numerous rapid streams. The con-
structing of dams and water courses, the erecting of mills, and the improve-
ment of water-wheels, required the exercise of more than ordinary skill and
ingenuity. Disastrous consequences not nnfrequently Ibllowed a want of
knowledge of the laws of hydrodynamics. Tlie sawmill greatly expedited
the conversion of forests into materials for immediate use; and after the
invention of an American machine which could cut, from a wrought-iron
plate, a nail, and head it at one operation, hj which nails were supplied in
abundance, buildings of all kinds were erected with great rapidity and at
comparativel}' small expense.

The next important use to which water-power was applied, was in the
grinding of grain. By the ingenious improvements of Oliver Evans, invented
about the close of the Revolution, the flourmill was made automatic; thus
dispensing with the labor of every man except one in the ordinary Grist-
mill. The saving effected by this single invention in this country during
the last fifty years, will be admitted to be immense, when we take into
consideration the statement in the last census report, that the value of the
product of flour and grist mills for the year 1860 exceeded 223 millions of
dollars.

The world is indebted to the genius of tlic same Oliver Evans for the
plan of using the direct pressure of steam as a motor; steam having been"
previously used in the Scotch Enp-ine to produce a vacuum beneath a pis-
ton, in order to render effective the pressure of the atmosphere above it.
The High Pressure Steam Engine was invented by Evans in 1780, but was

300 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

not bronglit into practical use until 1801. He constructed his locomotive
in 1804.

The history of these two grand Motors, Water power and High Pressure
steam, in their numerous applications for the development of every branch
of manufactures in this country, are daily and nightly performing work
which would require the manual power of millions of men, cannot now be
given. J^eithor will any description be attempted of the many mechanical
devices which, originating lierc, have attained world-wide celebrity.

STEAM-VESSELS.

The plans of Evans for locomotion upon land made no impression on the
public, after its attention had been arrested by the brilliant achievements
of Fulton upon water.' After a long series of attempts to propel vessels
by steam power, first made by John Fitch in 1784, and continued by vari-
ous inventors for twenty years, Robert Fulton launched his successful
steamboat, the "Clermont," in 1807, and the problem was solved. Frovi
thai time and for fine years, the Hudson River loas the only river in the world
on which steamboats were used. In 1811, Fulton built at Pittsburgh the
first steamboat which floated on the waters of the Ohio. In 1860 the ton-
nage of the steamboats on the waters flowing in the valley of the ^Missis-
eippi was 250,000 tons. It is needless to add more than the fact, that the
number of steamboats navigating the rivers of the United Slates far
exceeds those found within all Europe.

The successful voyage of the first steamship, the " Savannah," across
the Atlantic, in 1819, directed attention to the feasibility of navigating the
ocean by steam. Some 3'ears afterwards, it was demonstrated that a
steamer could carry coal sufficient to cross the Atlantic, v^'ithout the use
of sails; and from that time Commerce was greatly facilitated by the expe-
dition, regularity, and safety of steamships. It would be interesting to
trace the action of individual enterprise in this countr^^ from the opening
of the Panama Route, up to the time when the investments of a single
American, Cornelius Vanderbilt, in ocean steamers vastly exceeded those
of any other man in either hemisphere.

CANALS.

The subject of inland navigation very early occupied the attention of Gen.
Washington. Jnst after the close of the War for Independence, in 1784,
he presided at a commission which met for the purpose of taking into con-
sideration the best means of improving the navigation of the Potomac
River. This was the preliminary step which resulted in the construction
of a canal from the Potomac to the Ohio at Pittsburgh. The Western
Navigation Company, chartered by the State of New York in 1796, con-
structed a series of locks and short canals, uniting the headwaters of the
Mohawk with Oneida Lake, Oswego and Seneca rivers, also with Cayuga j
and Seneca lakes; thus allowing boats to pass from Schenectady 250 miles
westward, into the interior of the State. The success of this project, and
the peculiar formation of the land bordering on Lake Ontario, induced the
Legislature of this State to pass an Act for the construction of a canal
from the navigable headwaters of the Hudson River to Lake Erie. The
excavation was commenced in 1819, and the canal was completed in 1825.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 301

In the mount ime, and soon after, similar works were completed in otlier
States, amountinj^' in tlio agg-regate to about two thousand miles. Tho
Grand Erie Canal was subsequently enlarged to about twice its original
capacity. Its numerous aqueducts, double locks, viaducts, and bridges, of
cut stone, have never been equalled by any similar structures. This mag-
nilicent work, with its branches forming a water communication for boata
extending within this State over 1,000 miles, must be regarded as one of
the modem wonders of the Avorld.

R.\ILROADS.

The excitement which followed the first opening of the Eric Canal had
scarcely subsided, when public attention was directed to a more expedi-
tious mode of transportation.

Railroad companies were chartered in several States in 1828; two years
before! the English railway from Manchester to Liverpool was opened,
twelve miles of the Baltimore and Ohio Railremd was completed and in use.
In 1831 the railway between Albany and Schenectady was in successful
operation. The tide of public sentiment was by this time strongly in favor
of the new mode of travelling. Railways were projected in every direc-
tion, and completed with astonishiug rapidity. The invention of tlie T
rail by Robert L. Stevens, of Hoboken, who devised the form of rollers for
making it, and the adoption of the American plan of cross-ties, gave the
railway tlie essential qualities of stability, smoothness, and security. In
1860 the railroads of the United States exceeded in extent the combined
roads of the Old World. The demand for Civil Engineers, in the prosecu-
tion of the works already- mentioned, has been incessant from the beginning*.
It is needless to add that our Colleges have furnished but a small portion
of ihe suppl3\ Some of the most eminent of this profession were educated
at West Point; but, in general, the Engineers who have acquired the great-
est celebrity in planning and superintending important works, attained
their skill while acting previously as assistants on similar structures.

THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.

By the side of nearly all railways, and on many common roads, may be
seen the wires of either the writing telegraph of Morse, or the printing
telegraph of House, making an aggregate length far exceeding in extent
the combined telegraphic lines of Europe and Asia.

COAL MINES.

The development of the natural resources of our country, forms another
interesting chapter in the history of the period under consideration. The
supply of wood from the native forests had scarcely began to diminish,
when it was discovered that hard coal could be used as a fuel, by means
of fire places and stoves especially adapted for it. The first cargo of coal
365 tons, was sent to Philadelphia in 1820 ; tho amount consumed in 1856
was 3,000,000 of tons. A survey of the coal fields of the United States
has revealed the astonishing fact, that in extent they far excefid the sum
total of all other coal formations, as far as known, on the face of the globe.

METALLIC ORES.

Not less remarkable are the metalliferous deposits thus far discovered.
Iron ores of superior quality arc widely diffused, especially on the eastex'n

302 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

slope of the Appalachian Range. Minerals containing Lead, Zinc, Copper,
and other metals of minor importance, are found in numerous localities and
in abundance. The southern shore of Lake Superior pi'esents the anomaly
of lodes of pure copper. For many valuable mineral discoveries we are
indebted to Geologists, bj' whoso early explorations the position and rela-
tion of the metal-bearing strata were determined. The opening of the
numerous ore beds, and the establishing of furnaces and smelting works,
have been facilitated by the scientific services of the mineralogist, the
chemist, and the mining engineer.

The discoverer of Gold in California marks a new epoch, and has already
resulted in peopling the shores of the Pacific. Concerning this auriferous
region nothing need be stated, except that the value of the precious metal
annually produced exceeds fifty tnillions of dollars.

Mercurial ore is found in abundance not far from San Francisco, and
silver ore of Remarkable richness in Nevada. Revelations of hidden wealth
are now too frequent to excite surprise. They are not made, however,
without the labor of those experienced miners who have had iheir percep-
tions quickened by many failures.

PETROLEUM.

The discover}'- that the means of illumination could be supplied by the
distillatioji of rosin and of cannel coal, promised to lead to important
results ; but the very recent disclosure of immense reservoirs of oil, dis-
tilled by Nature, has thwarted previous plans for manufacturing oleaginous
fluids. In the purification of petroleum, another product is obtained, which
is found to be a substitute for turpentine in the preparation of paints. Tlie
immense yield of the oil wells is now attracting the attention of large
capitalists. Already the amount exported entitles Petroleum to a place
among the principal products exchanged for foreign manufactures. The
composition of the crude material is not yet accurat-ely ascertained.
Doubtless, many new uses will be found for the various hydro-carbons into
which it may be separated. Tlie subject affords the chemist a rare oppor-
tunity for experimental research.

NEED OF HEN OF SCIENCE.

From the brief review of progress thus presented, it will be apparent
that in the development of the resources of this country, and in the advance-
ment of tiie peaceful arts, there has been a constant need of more scientific
men. Fortunately for us, our Government has taken the precaution to
educate men in the art of war, at the public expense. Th6 great interests
at stake in the present Rebellion have not been left to the guardianship of
undisciplined soldiers. Those in higiiest command have received a military
education. The same principle, applied to our seminaries of learning,
would require tiiat every scholar sent forth should be thoroughly versed in
science and its application to the arts, because, whatever may be his future
position or occupation, there will necessarily be emergencies when such
knowledge only can extricate him from difficulties.

NEED FOR COLLEGE REFORMS.

It is proper, therefore, to encourage a habit for such studies, and to
favorably notice every innovation that tcjids to adapt the system of educa*

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 303

tiou to tlic wants of a progressive ago. The example set by Prof. Joy in
addressing tlie Chemical Society of Union College, at its last anniversary^
should be followed b}^ other scientific teachers. If societies devoted to
Chemistrj', Botany, Zoology, Geology and Astronomy, could be addressed
by those who are competent to present a digest of all the prominent dis-
coveries made during the year, a new interest would be given to College
Commencements, not only by lending the charm of variety to the proceed-
ings, but also by enlightening in science a large class of annual visitors,
who would appreciate its importance. The rapid strides of discovery are
not realized by those who ought to be most benefited. A college graduate
of twenty years' standing, wIhj has failed to inform himself of the forward
movements in science, will be found to-day, in practical knowledge, behind
some of the scholars of our Common Schools. The absence of evidence of
genuine preparation for the duties of life has occasionally raised doubts
regarding the beneficial tendency of College Commencements. Amid all the
glitter and show of these anniversaries, there is no assurance, in some
cases, that the acquirements of the graduate about to assume the responsi-
bilities of citizenship are of ^he practical kind fitting him to fill the post
to which duty maj' assign hi . It is with satisfaction conceded that our
leading universities have provided a special course of scientific study, and
that many who have taken advantage of it have already acquired distinc-
tion and wealth. Still, the scientific course is regarded as rather subordi-
nate, than superior, to the classical. It is confidently hoped that the domi-
nating influence of Science will soon effect the improvements suggested,
and that as an incentive to those who are making observations in fields
which promise no lucrative return, our universities will confer on them
high degrees of honor, for enlarging the domain of Physics and Chemistry,
thus distinguishing them from those who have acquired literary distinction.

SCTEXCE ESSENTIALLY MODERN.

We cannot, however, consistently complain that the claims of Science
are not fully recognized, when vv^e reflect upon its comparatively recent
origin. Since the invention of the telescope, the microscope, the ther-
mometer, the barometer, and many delicate measuring instruments, Nature
has been faithfully interrogated by thousands of observers, and their reports
have been properly classified and arranged. Thus order has arisen out of
seeming conflict and confusion, and every new law announced has con-
firmed tlie general belief in a unity of Power and Design The Science of
to-day therefore differs radically from the meager and unsystematized
knowledge possessed by the ancients. The principal discoveries relating
to the position and composition of matter, and the demonstration of the
absolute fi.xity of its properties, under like conditions, have all been made
within a comparatively recent period. We shall be more fully impressed
with the truth of this statement by a brief allusion to scientific revelations
since the formation of our Republic.

Chemistry, as a science, had its origin with the discovery, in 1774, of
Oxygen, the element of which more than one-half of the earth, by weight,
is CDmposed. Its discoverer. Dr. Priestly, died in this country in 1804.
Lavoisier, his cotcmporary, who first comprehended its properties, and

304 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

gave to Chemistry its nomenclature, died by the guillotine during the
French Revolution. A large majcn-ity of the chemical elements were dis-
covered during the present century. The list of eminent experimental
chemists is too long to be repeated here. In Inorganic Chemistry the name
of Berzeliiis stands most prominent; in Organic, that of Liebig.

The history of Electricity commences with the discoveries of Benjamin
Franklin. The law of electric force was demonstrated by Coulomb in 1185.
The same philosopher investigated the forces of magnetism. In 1824,
Poisson found the formulas for expressing the attractions and repulsions
of bodies of any form magnetized by influence on a given point. Galvanism
originated in 1791. Volta discovered, in 1794, that the force manifested
in Galvani's celebrated experiment was not animal electricity. In 1800 he
constructed the Voltaic pile.

The sciences of Electro-Magnetism had its origin with the discovery of
Oersted of Copenhagen, in 1820; and in the same year Ampere solved the
general problem of electro-dynamic action. Diamagnetic action was dis-
covered by M. le Baillie in 1829. The brilliant experiments of Henry,
Saxton, and Farada}', of our own time, are well known.

To Acoustics LapUice made tlie most important addition in 1816, by the
true solution of the problem of the propagation of sound.

In 1808, Mains discovered the polarization of light. In 1821, Fresnel
confirmed the undulatory theory first propounded by Hu^^gens, but went
further and demonstrated that light is produced by the transverse vibra-
tions of an ethereal medium. The emission tiieory of Newton was finally
disproved bj'' the experiments of Fizeau and Foucault, in 1850.

Benjamin Thompson, an Am(!rican, better known as Count Rumford,
proved by experiments at Munich, towards the close of the last century,
that heat was the result of motion. In 1817, Dulong and Petit corrected
the assumption of Newt<jn, by discovering the true law of cooling. They
afterwards made known the relation between the specific heat of elements
and their equivalent weight. In 1830, Melloni and Nobilli constructed the
thermomultiplier, by means of which the refraction and polarization of
heat were demonstrated. The mechanical equivalent of heat was correctly
ascertained and announced in 1842, by Dr. J. R. Meyer.

In Zoology, the methods of Cuvier and Bichat have been followed with
brilliant results. The most remarkable discovery, after the commence-
ment of the present century', was that of Oken in 1807 — the resolution of
the skull into vertebrae. Thirty years later, Agassiz, by a study of tissues,
made valuable contributions to the department of Ichthyology.

In Botati}'^, a very important generalization was made by Jusseieu, in
1789, connecting the cotyledon with the endogenous and exogenous gr(nvth
of a plant, and its fruit and leaves. A year later Goethe announced the
discovery of the law relating the flower to the leaf by arrested develop-
ment. At the time of Linnaaus, only 8,000 species were known. In 1849,
Balfour states the number then known at about 100,000. During the latter
part of the last century, Ilauy established the d(jctrine of decrements in
Crystallography, In 1822, the law of Isomorphism was demonstrated by
Mitscherlich.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 305

The most important contribution to Meteorology was mtide in 1831, by
Redfield, of New York, in his theory of storms.

Tlic worl 1 is indebted to Werner for first giving- systematic form to
Descriptive Geol<)g3^ His arrangement of strata lias, however, been
greatly modified by the discoveries of the present century. The laborers
in this vast field of observation are too numerous to be specially noted.
Great advances were made in Palteontology bj' Cuvier. Among the more
recent valuable additions to it are those of Owen and Agassiz, made between
1835 and 1845. It should be acknowledged here that American Geologists,
by minute and extended observations in a connected series, have contributed
their full portion to these branches of knowledge.

This cursory view is sufficient to show that Science has made greatest
progress within a comparatively short period; and that recency of discovery
is the yji'incipal reason for its not commanding general credence. Another
impediment is found in its copiousness. It is quite impossible for any indi-
vidual t(j master all the minuti<e of every branch of science. This will be
made apparent by alluding to a single work, "The Natural History of New
York," in twenty-one quarto volumes, acknowledged by European savans
to be the most valuable contribution to science made by any Government.
How many teachers even are familiar with all its details? Yet this work
opens to view quite an inconsiderable portion of our planet. It is not, how-
ever essential that every man should comprehend the details of discovery,
but only those grand deductions and generalizations to which master spir-
its are led by proper methods of observation and experiment. You, gen-
tlemen, are well aware of the importance of inventions to the material well
being of our race; and of their dependence upon the immutable laws by
which the Creator governs all forms and forces. Invention is the hand-
maid of Science and of Art. She furnishes both with the implements by
whicii they achieve success. The circle of knowledge is not and never
will be complete. Chemistry has thus far determined no law for the move-
ments of either end of the material chain. The mute mineral has a secret,
and is as much a mystery as man. But while we admit tliat Science has
not yet found the Ilosett^i stone which is the key to the earliest records of
the globe, let us not fail to acknowledge our great indebtedness to her for
what she has already vouchsafed, and to bear in mind that her gifts are the
richest legacy which can be left to future generations. Amid all the fluc-
tuations of time they will remain to enlighten and guide the countless
hosts who are to follow us.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, ]

May 12, 1864. )

Chairman, Prof. S. D. Tillman; Secretaiy, Mr. B. Garvey.

Thallium.

Dr. D. D. Parmelee presented for inspection a specimen of the new metal,
Thallium. It is a bluish white metal, very soft, easily tarnished, resemb-
ling slightly both lead and silver. Its specific gravity is 11.8.

[Am. Inst. J T

306 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Prof. Joy, of Columbia College, expressed the opinion that thallium would
be prepared shortly in sufiicient quantities for ordinary purposes. It is
found in crude sulphur, pyrites, and in mineral waters. There are two
oxyds of thallium, the pratoxyd and teroxyd. He had prepared eight
ounces of the chloryd for the purpose of spectral analysis. Thallium is
readily detected when in combination with other elements by its character-
istic, single, bright green line, coincident with B, a, delta. Its position
among the chemical elements is not definitely determined. A thallium-
alum has been made which would seem to indicate that it should be classed
among the metals forming alkalies. The brilliant color produced by thal-
lium may be of service in making combinations of colored lights and for
signal purposes.

Mr. Ryan addressed the meeting on the Theory of Parallels, which has
long been a vexed question among geometers, and, with the aid of dia-
grams, attempted to deduce the properties which it is admitted Euclid
assumed in his thirty-second proposition under the guise of an axiom.

Mr. Garvey briefly presented grave objections to Mr. P.'s positions, land
as the subject was one involving only abstractions which have long bafiled
the logical power of the most profound thinkers, the further discussion of
it was indefinitely postponed.

The following interesting summary of scientific intelligence was presented
by the Chairman.

Oxygen Gas as a Medicine.

The use of oxygen gas as a medicine has been generally condemned by
the medical profession, on account of its affinities which often produce inter-
nal inflammation; but MM. Demarquay and Leconte advocated, before the
Academy of Science, Paris, its use in diphtheritis, diabetes, and other
exhausting maladies, when counter indications are absent. In some cases
the appetite returns with great intensity, the circulation is improved, lips
reddened and nervous affections disappear. Still no absolute cures were
announced by these gentlemen. The gas should be absolutely pure, and
administered only by those who understand all its effects.

Influence of Ozone and other Gases on Vegetation.

Recent experiments made by M. Ciirej^ Lee, of Philadelphia, prove that
the presence of ozone in the atmosphere hab the etfect of retarding the
growth of plants. The germination of seeds under the ordinary bell-glass
was not retarded by the removal of the carbonic acid from the inclosed
atmosphere; while in an atmosphere composed entirely of ca-rbonic acid, or
containing ether or nitrate of niethyle, germination was entirely prevented.

The Mont Cenis Tunnel.

Tliis tunnel, which is to connect the railways of France with those of
Italy, will be about 7| miles long. At Modane, on the French side of the
mountains, the tunnel is of the following dimensions: 25 feet 3| inches
wide at the base, 26 feet 2| inches wide in the broadest part, and 24 feet
7 inches in height in the middle, the arch being nearly a semi-circle. At
Bardonneche, on the Italian side, the height is 24 feet 10| inches, and the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 307

base is 434 feet above that at Modane. From the middle, toward Modane,
the gradient will be I in 45^, and toward Rardonneche, 1 in 2,000, suffi-
cient to allow the water to escape. At Modane, the entrance to the tunnel
is 328 feet above the valley, and the walls of the tunnel are entirely of
stone. At Bardonneche, the side walls are of stone, and the remainder of
brick.

The boring' machines are driven by compressed air, used at 75 inches
pressure per square inch, which is conveyed to the " forehead " of the
advanced gallery by a pipe"7| inches in diameter. Two machines are used
for compressing the air; one on the hydraulic ram principle, has an air ves-
sel 14 feet high, and 2 feet in diameter. Into tliis, water, from a column
85 feet high, is admitted; the air thus compressed is forced through a valve
into a reservoir. When this valve closes, the water is discharged, air
admitted into the air chamber, and the operation of compression is repeated.
The machine makes about five strokes in two minutes. The other machine
resembles a pump. On one side of the piston, the water presses, and on
the other side, the air is compressed.

To complete the tunnel by hand labor it would require twenty-five years.
In June last the advance at Modane was at the rate of 47 meters per day.
M. Sommeiller expects by his system to advance the tunnel three meters
at each end per day. At this rate the work would be completed in the
year 1868.

Vapor of Water with Fuel.

The selected subject was the same as discussed at the last meeting. To
show that this combination was not of recent origin, a communication from
Mr. Joseph Dixon, of Jersey City, was read, from which it appeared that
as early as 1826, when anthracite coal was but little used, he put up, in a
woolen factory at Canton, Mass., a boiler and attachments for heating pur-
poses. Supposing a flame would be more effective for making steam, he
tapped the boiler head near the top and inserted one end of a pipe having
in it a regulating cock; the other end entered the ash pit, so that the steam
discharged would pass through the grate bars, be decomposed on contact
contact with anthracite and thus increase the flame; but the great incon-
venience from the sulphide of hydrogen which escaped into the factory
from a want of draft in the stack, caused it to be discontinued. Again in
1845 or 1846, he tried the burning of steam for melting- iron in a cupola
furnace, erected at the expense of I. Savary & Son, in Jersey City, at their
foundery, but the boiler being sixty feet from the cupola it was after the
first melting laid aside, until a boiler could be made expressly for the pur-
pose and placed near by; that was never done. The idea of the burning of
the vapor of water is a very old one, as will be seen on examining the fol-
lowing dates of patents granted in this country: The American water-
burner was patented by Capt. Samuel Morey, of Oxford, N. H., December
11, 1817. An improvement on More^'^'s water-burner was patented by L.
L. Sullivan, of Boston, Mass., December 10, 1818, and another by him De-
cember 19, 1818.

Mr. Stetson remarked that in the presence of the vapor of water, during
combustion, there may be a catalytic action, by which a more perfect union

308 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

of the burning elements is effected. If this is so, there can be no doubt of
its utilit}'. In the ordinary combustion ot fuel, it is ascertained that a
large proportion of the oxyg-en of the air escapes uncombined. If the use
of steam will facilitate the utilizing of this oxygen, it would be a decided
advantage. This was the only light in which he could view any benefit
arising from the use of the vapor of water in connection with fuel.

Mr. Dibben thought the amount of uncombined oxygen wliich escaped
up the chimney was not g-rcat; according to chemical tests made with the
waste products of melting-furnaces, it is shown that only five or six per
cent, of the oxygen thus escapes.

Mr. Root remarked that the escape of uncombined oxygen is much greater
from the fires which heat boilers than from furnaces.

Dr. Rowell drew a diagram of the furnaces used for burning wet tan-
bark, which he had seen in operation during the last week. When the
furnaces were first put up iron grate bars were used; but they were soon
warped so as to be useless. The grates are now made of fire-brick. The
ovens are about four feet wide and eight feet long; the fire is first started
with, wood, and the whole interior is made nearly red hot before the spent
tan is putin , The flame is conducted from this oven through a passage-
way under the boiler; There seemed to be no great draft, as proved by
holding the hand before the damper, but he accounted for this by a con-
densation of vapor in the chimney. There is probably two or three per
cent, of the tan that is not burned. The same quantity of fire made of coal
would have produced a great draft.

Mr. Bartlett said the vocation of water in combination with fuel was to
expose a fresh surface of coal to the action of oxygen; there was no chem-
ical action whatever. We find that dry tan, through which the air very
slowly permeates, makes a smoldering fire, but not a bright one. In burn-
ing tar, at Old City, the furnaces are two feet long and one foot wide, but
the smooth surface of the tar prevents it from burning fast; therefore water
is put into it, which causes the tar to bubble, and in this way a greater
surface is exposed to the action of oxygen in the process of combustion.
So when a jet of steam is let into a mass of coal in a furnace it loosens the
pellicles of the coal and agitates the mass generally; but in all these cases
there is a greater quantity of fuel consumed, and therefore a greater heat
is produced in the same furnace than there would be without the use of
steam.

Mr. Stetson read from Prof. Renwick's work on the Steam Engine ia
i-elation to the advantages claimed by water in the ash-pan of a boiler
furnace.

Mr. Mather remarked that in some potteries in England it was the inva-
"riable rule to use a certain quantity of water along with the coal, while in
Vermont, where wood is burned in potteries, they went to the other extreme
and would never use green wood.

Prof. Joy stated that some sixty patents had been issued within the last
forty years for burning water and decomposing water for the purpose of
making illuminating gas — an able pamphlet on the subject had been pre-
pared for the Manhattan Gas Company of this city by Mr. Henry Watts.

PRaCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 303

The subject was further discussed by Messrs. Seeley, Roosevelt and Enos
Stevens.

A desire having' been expressed to examine the question of combustion
in all its bcaringcs, the subject of " Fuel" was selected for the next meeting.

Adjourned to Thursday, May 19.

..-VSlliKlCAN liNSTirUit; ruL

May I9th, 1864
Chairman, Prof. S. D. Tillman; Secretary, Mr. B. Garvey

Americ.w Institute Polytechnic Association, )

Prizes for Roof Constructions of Wood and Iron.

The Secretary read a communication from the Austrian Engineers' Union,
at Vienna^ containing an offer of prizes for the best and second best treatise
on the most useful " roof constructions of wood and iron," to be illustrated
with the necessary drawings, nil on the same scale. For estimating the
stability of each structure, under varied contingent weights, all the
requisite scientific rules and formulas are to be set forth. There should
also be given the results of calculations and comparisons, in convenient
tables, so placed together that the architect or engineer can find the neces-
sary data for making the estimates for each roof construction separately.
The competitors will have until September 30, 1865, to send in their works.
The successful authors, in addition to the prizes, will be entitled to the
copyright of their works, provided they publish them within six months.
After that time, should they decline to publish, the Austrian Engineers'
Union charges itself with the publication of the two treatises in a suitable
manner. Further information concerning this offer of prizes may be
obtained by applying to the Secretary of the American Institute.

The presiding oflScer presented the following interesting summary of
scientific experiments and discoveries :

Meg ASS a Disinfectant.

Dv. II. G. Dalton, of Demerara, has proved by experiment that megass
or begasse — the dried stem of tire sugar-cane after its saccharine juice has
been extracted by pressure — has the property of absorbing or destroying
the noxious elHuvia arising from animal decomposition. He has used it as
a disinfectant in a hospital where, except in the immediate neighborhood
of the worst cases of ulcers, there was no unpleasant odor, and even there
the disagreeable smell was greatly modified.

The Most Volatile Constituents of Petroleum.

Mr. Edmund Ronolds lately stated before the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh that the gases dissolved in Pennsylvania petrohium, and which give
it such a high degree of inflammability, were composed of the lower ni'ira-
bers of the marsh gas series. Gases taken from the surface of the liquid,
as imported in casks from America, were shown by endiometrical analysis
to contain a mixture of nearly equal proportions of the hydrides of ethyl
and propyl. The same compounds were found in the gases evolved on

310 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

warming the volatile liquid ; after these succeeded the hydrides of propyl
and butyl, and finally there was evolved nearly pure hydride of butyL
This liquid has a spec. gr. of 0.600 at the melting poi))t of ice, and is con-
sequently the lightest liquid known. Its vapor density is 2.11. It is
colorless, and has a sweet, agreeable odor. Alcohol at 98 p. c. dissolves
between 11 and 12 times its volume of this vapor. It is not perceptibly
aifected by sulphuric or nitric acid, nor by bromine. With tvyice its volume
of chlorine, mixed in diffused daylight, the liquid dbloride of butyl is
formed.

Allots of Silver and Zinc.

The French Government is about to lower the standard of the silver
coinage, in consequence of the increasing scarcity of silver money, by an
addition of about seven per cent, more of copper, thus making* the per
cent, of copper 165. M. Peligot, cheujist to the French mint, has made
experiments to ascertain how the introduction of some zinc, or the complete
substitution of zinc for the copper, would affect the alloy. He reports to
the Academy of Sciences that the substitution of zinc for the copper forms
an alio}' remarkably malleable and perfectly homogeneous. Equal equiva-
lents of silver and zinc, or two equivalents of silver to one of zinc, gave
malleable alloys, while one equivalent of silver with two equivalents of
zinc, also two of silver with three of zinc, form compounds too brittle to
be rolled. The present price of zinc is only one-fifth that of copper, and
as a matter of economj the Government should use zinc. The fact that the
zinc alloy is less discolored by sulphuretted hydrogen than the copper com-
pound is in its favor. An alloy of 800 parts of silver to 200 of zinc Avill
keep its whiteness in a polysulphide which would rapidly blacken the legal
alloy of silver and copper. The absence of verdigris, under the action of
acid liquors, is another advantage. The French copper money contains
one per cent, of zinc; the small Swiss coins are alloys of zinc, silver and
nickel.

Effects of Light on Honey.

M. Scheibler has proved that sirupy honey, exposed to light, crystallizes
and ultimately becomes a solid mass of sugar, while that kept in the dark
remains perfectly liquid. This may account for the fact that bees cover
with wax that part of their hive made of glass, so as to exclude the liglit.
The existence of their young depends on the liquidity of their saccharine
food.

Respiration of Fruits.

At a late meeting of the Academy of Sciences, Paris, M. Cahours read a
paper on this subject, from which it appears that apples, oranges, and
lemons, in a state of perfect maturitj'^, when placed under bell glasses con-
taining either pure oxygen, or a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, or com-
mon air, respire by consuming a portion of the oxygen and giving off car-
bonic acid gas — the proportion of the latter compound being greater in
diffused light tlian in obscurity. He proposed to continue his investiga-
tions regarding changes in fruit from development to maturity.

M. Fremy then made some remarks on the maturation of fruits, and
referred to experiments made by him and M. De Caisne some time ago.

TROCEEDTNGS OP THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 311

They found that fruit passed through three stages. In the first stage the
fruit is green, and behaves to the atmosphere like a leaf, in decomposing
carbonic acid and giving oil oxygen In the second stage, that of ripen-
ing, tin's action is reversed — oxygen is absorbed and carbonic acid exhaled
from tiie cellules of the pericarp, in consequence of a series of slow com-
bustion, in which the immediate soluble principles disappear. Taunin goes
first, then acids, and afterwards sugar. In the third stage, that of decom-
position, the effect of which is the liberation of the seed, air enters the
cellules, sets up alcoholic fermentation, and the acids of the fruit give birth
to true ethers. Finally, it not only decomposes the cellules, but oxidizes
certain constituents which have resisted the changes in ripening ; thus
certain fruits, like the medlar, very acid and astringent, only become eata-
ble when they arc mellow.

Condensation on the Surface of all Solids.

Prof. Magnus describes in Peggendorf's Annalen a series of delicate
experiments made by him, from which he concludes that all substances,
however different they may be, are raised in temperature when air comes
in contact with them which is moister than that surrounding them; and
that they are depressed in temperature when they are exposed to air which
is drier than that by which they are surrounded. The most various vapors
condense on the surface of solid bodies in such quantity as to cause an
appreciable elevation of temperature ; and from this it follows that at all
times there is at the surface of bodies a laj^er of condensed vapor, which
is larger or smaller according to the hygrometric state of the atmosphere.

A Bridge over the Straits of Messina.

The Italian journals announce that it is in contemplation to unite Sicily
with Italy by a bridge, to be constructed on a new S3^stem. The chains
will be made of cast steel, and strong enough to support the weight of
several railwa}'- trains.

New Maritime Sounding Apparatus.

M. Gouezel has invented an apparatus in which the suspension line is
dispensed with. It consists of a rod of iron, furnished with nippers at the
extremity, which supports cylindrical weight capable of being detached
from the rod; above the weight a float of hollow metal is fixed, which con-
tains a small clock so arranged as to stop by concussion ; a bell is also
attached, and above the whole a signal. The time of dropping the appa-
ratus is noted; on striking the bottom the clock is stopped, and the float is
detached and rises to the surface; the depth, is calculated from the time of
the descent. The objection to long lines in deep-sea-soundings, which are
bent by under-currents, seems to be obviated by this invention.

Silk-Worms.

M. Oncsti has found that wood-soot, if sprinkled over diseased silk-
worms, effects an almost certain cuie, or at all events prolongs their lives
until the cocoons are finished. The Minister of Agriculture of France has

312 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

requested that a commission bo formed to report on the value of this dis-
coveA-y.

M. Simon, commissioned to bring from China to France the best breed of
silk-worms, has sent home a box of eggs to be distributed. Some of these
are now being experimented upon at the Imperial farm at Vincennes,

Fuel.

Mr. J. A. Miller made some remarks preliminary to the regular discus-
sion, on the economical use of fuel. The subject of combustion was second
to no other, because it was the mainspring of both animal and mechanical
power, when such power is derived from heat. It is admitted that the
principles governing combustion are understood by scientific men; at the
same time it will not be denied that the proper application of these princi-
pies is seldom made. Coal is the source of most of the power used in
manufactures and locomotion as well as our chief defense against cold.
We should always aim to produce the best results with a given amount of
material, yet in no department of the useful arts is waste so disastrous as
in combustion. Nearly all other waste products are or can be utilized, but
the miconsumed gases when they escape from the chimney are beyond the
reach of man. The annual consumption of coal in this country is more
than 15,000,000 tons, which, at an average of $5 per ton, is worth $75,-
000,000. If, of this amount, 20 per cent, can be saved, the sum added to
the wealth of the country is $15,000,000— -the interest at 6 per cent, on a
capital of $250,000,000.

The resultants of the perfect combustion of carbon and hydrcgen by
combining with the oxygen of the air are carbonic acid and water. Per-
fect combustion can onlj' be obtained by insunng to the fuel a full supply
cf oxygen, and the most economical use of the heat is made when only the
amount required foi' draft escapes from the chimney. The speaker illus-
trated by diagrams some improvements he had introduced for economizing
the heat under boilers, relating to the size and form of the furnace, grate
bars, and bridges — the latter, instead of allowing the heat to pass ever
them, were brought into contact with the boiler, and contained a number
of openings, having a slight descent from the front to the back ; there
should be at least two of these bridges under an ordinary horizontal boiler.
The object of these bridges, designated as lungs, is to facilitate perfect
combustion, to abstract the heat from the passing gaseous products, and to
give it to the boiler by conduction through the parts in contact and by
radiation. Mr. Miller was convinced that in the few furnaces built on this
plan there was a saving of heat, but he was not then prepared to furnish
any comparative statements. According to experiments made in England,
in regard to the regulation of the admission of air to feed the fire, it had
been shoAvn that there was a saving of about three per cent, of fuel by the
use of self-regulating dampers.

Mr. T. D. Stetson said he believed most of the automatic arrangements
for regulating the draft und(u- boilers have been abandoned. Tliere is, ^
doul)tless, in the ordinary construction of furnaces, much heat wasted. We
know that, in theory, the greatest possible evaporation of water, by a given

PROCEEDINGS OFj iHE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 313

quantity of coal, is nearly double that usually realized by the common pro.
cesses. The flame is allowed to pass to the chimney too rapidly ; if more
time was given for the gases to be intermingled and reverberated, the pro-
ducts of combustion could be secured, and very few would be allowed to
escape up the chimney. The smoke which escapes is mostly carbon oxide
and line particles of coal. If these could be consumed, there would be much
additional heat. To consume the smoke, it is essential that ox^'geu should
be supplied very freely, and that the heat should be intense enough for
proper ignition. Accqrdiag to Beurne, Prideaux, and other authors, nearly
half of the oxygen passes through our cumiiion furnac(;s without being com-
bined with the fuel. This is owing to the rapid draft.

The Chairman remarked that no subject had been discussed before this
Association of more importance than the disengaging of heat by chemical
combination. Heat as a motor, as a chemical agent, and as the source of
artificial temperature, is indispensable, and every person is directly or indi-
rectly benefited by the most economical generation of it. It is not essential
to speak of all the combinations which will produce heat, for it is settled,
beyond all question, that of the sixty-odd elements, only three can be
used with safety, economy and convenience. These are Oxygen, Carbon
and Hydrogen. The chemical change which produces heat is the combi-
nation of oxygen with carbon or with hj'drogen. About one -fifth of the
common air, by measure, is oxygen. This element always presents itself
at our bidding in any desired quantity ; the actual cost of the fire, there-
fore, is the cost of the carbon or hydrogen consumed. In some kinds of
fuel — in wood, for example — we find a certain portion of oxygen already
conil)ined with these elements. This portion has already done its heat-
work, and is of no service during the process of burning such fuel. Now
the plain but most important question to be settled is, what is the exact
quantity of heat generated by substances composed chiefly of carbon and
hydrogen? The experiments of MM. Fabre and Silbermann, conducted with
great care and accuracy, and corresponding in the main with those made
by Dulong and Petit, will furnish us the desired answer. The tables of
these experimenters include a great range of combinations, but only those
relating to the union of oxygen with substances containing carbon or hy-
drogen are selected. Taking as the thermal unit the quantity of heat re-
quired to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 0*^ to 1*^ C, we
have in the following table the units of heat generated from the union of
one pound of the several substances mentioned with all the oxygen required
for perfect combustion.

ITydrogcn, .34,462

Marsh Gas 13,0(53

OleGant Gas 11,858

Ainylene ,. 11,491

Oil or Turpentine 10,852

Olive Oil 9,800

Ether 9,0.30

Anthracite Coal 8,400

Charcoal 8,080

Bituminous Coal 8,000

Tallow 8,000

Diamond 7,700

Absolute Alcohol 7,180

Coke 7,000

314 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

"Wood Spirit 5,307

Dry Wood 4,025

Moist Wood 3,100

Carbonic Oxide 2,400

The gases and oils mentioned are too expensive to be used. It will be
noticed that at the same price per ton, anthracite would be a cheaper fuel
than charcoal, bituminous coal, or coke. It is very compact, brilliant, and
comparatively clean. Fortunatel}'' for us, it is the most abundant fuel in
our market. These experiments were made before the discovery of Ameri-
can petroleum. Judging' from analogy, its place in the table would proba-
bly be next to the oil of turpentine.

Mr. L. B. Page presented the report of Chief-Engineers Wood, Whipple
and Stimers to the Secretary of the Navy, of experiments they had made
in burning crude petroleum, in an apparatus invented for the purpose, con-
sisting of a series of corrugated recesses upon a vertical cone of cast-iroa
placed in the furnace of the boiler, the base of which formed a semicircular
disc or annular reservoir, and the depth of v/hich in section was about half
its diameter, and served to contain such heavier and less inflammable por-
tions of the oils as were not consumed or vaporized in passing over these
smaller corrugated recesses. The results gave for crude petr6leum an
evaporation of 10.36 pounds of watei for one pound of oil, and for anthra-
cite 5.1 pounds of water per pound of coal.

Mr. W. Sewell said a ton of anthracite coal ought to evaporate from 8 to
9 tons of water. Some reports have been made giving the amount of water
evaporated by one pound of coal as high as 11.062 lbs. Several members
coincided with the opinion expressed b}^ Mr. Sewell.

Mr. Dibben inquired why, in the table presented, coal containing both
carbon and hydrogen was shown to have less heating effect than carbon
alone, when the effect of hydrogen alone is given at more than three times
that of anthracite ?

Mr. Geo. Bartlett explained this apparent anomaly. Hydrogen, as a gas,
has great heating power when uniting with eight times its weight of
oxygen, and forming water; but hydrogen in a solid form, which it takes in
combination with carbon, has scarcely any heating power. This is fully
accounted for by D. K. Clarke, of England, in his work on railway machin-
ery. His deductions from experiments were that the bituminous coal which
contained the least gas — that is, contained the most carbon and the least
flame, was the most effective. In the locomotive boiler, he found that soft
coal is capable of about two-thirds, or sixtj^-six per cent., of the duty of an
equal weight of coke. This conclusion is not aflccted by the very superior
heating power of hydrogen gas, when burnt with ox^'gen, amounting to
several times that of carbon, and the apparent value of an excess of hydro-
gen in coal. The hydrogen in coal being in a solid form, it must^be brought
to the state of gas before combustion. This conversion absorbs more heat
than in the case of carbon, because two volumes of iiydrogen gas are re-
quired to unite with one volume of oxj'gen.

The Chairman alluded to the erroneous view of those who hoped to in-
crease the quantity of heat by dividing the process of combustion into two
stages: that is, b}'^ first uniting carbon with one atom of oxygen, forming
carbonic oxide gas, and then by combining the carbonic oxide with another

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 315

atom of oxyg^en, forming- carbonic acid g-as. According to the experiments
of Dulong-, Despretz, and Iless, tlie quantity of heat developed is precisely
the same, whether the carbon is converted into carbonic acid at once, or bj'^
the intervention of carbonic oxide. In the table given, the heat developed
by burning carbonic oxide is apparently too low, but it must be borne in
mind that the amount of carbon employed is only six-lourteenths' of the
weight of thivS fuel.

Mr. Garvey spoke of the constJinption of fuel in marine boilers, and the
waste resulting from the excessive stirring of the fires, by which valuable
uncombined products are carried off by the strong- draft.

In the course of the evening, J. Wyatt Reid called attention to some cal-
culations he had made in relation to the use of steam cxpaiisively. As the
subject is one of general interest, it was decided to discuss it at the next
meeting.

Adjourned to May 26.

Americ.\n Institute Folytecitxic Association, )

May 26, 1864. )

Chairman, Prof. S. D. Tillman; Secrctaiy, Mr. B. Garvey,

Screw-Threads and Bolts.

It is now the practice of each manufactory in this country to follow its
own patterns without any reference to those of other establishments. The
evils growing out of a want of uniform system are numerous. The most
serious attend the repairing of machinery when the orig'inal patterns of the
screws used cannot be obtained. The following extracts from an able com-
munication lately made to the Franklin Institute, of Philadelphia, by Wm.
Sellers, were read:

"The importance of a uniform system of screw-threads and nuts is so
generally acknowledged by the engineering profession, that it needs no
arguments to set forth its advantages; and in offering any plan for their
acceptance it remains only to demonstrate its practicability and its supe-
riority over any of the numerous proportions now used by the different
manufacturers. In this country, no organized attempt has yet been made
to establish any system, each manufacturer having adopted whatever his
judgment may have dictated as the best, or the most convenient for him-
self; but the importance of the works now in progress, and the extent to
which manufacturing has attained, admonish us that so radical a defect
should be allowed to exist no longer. The importance of this subject was
long ago recognized in England, and the engineers of that country, by
mutual agreement, adopted the proportions now in universal u'^e there.
Our standard of length being the same as theirs, it would seem desirable
that the system wfiich they have adopted shcnild also be employed by us,
unless grave objections can be urged against it, and a better one substi-
tuted. The form of curve adopted by the English engineers is one with
flat sides at an angle with each other of 55 deg., with a rounded top and
bottom. The proportions for the rounded top and bottom are obtained by
dividing the depth of a sharp thread having sides at an angle of 55 deg.,

318 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

into six parts, and within the lines formed hj the sides of the thread and
the top and bottom dividing' lines, inscribing a circle which determines the
form of top and bottom of thread. Judging from the practice in this coun-
try, the English form of thread has not met with the same favor that has
been accorded to their pitches. Its advantages over the sharp thread arc
increased strength to the screw from the absence of acute corners, and the
greater security from accidejital injury which the rounded top possesses.
Its objectionable features are, first, that the angle of 55 deg. is a difficult
one to verify; it is probable, no gauges to this angle, made independently
of each other and without special tools, would correspond with sufficient
accuracy. Secondly'-, the curve at the top and bottom of the thread of the
screw will not fit tlie corresponding curve in the nut, and the wearing sur-
face on the thread will be thus reduced to the straight sides merely. It is
not to be inferred from this that these curves cannot be made to fit, but
only that the diflSculties in producing contact are so much increased by the
peculiar form, that in practice it will not be accomplished. Thirdly, the
increased cost and complication of cutting tools required to form this kind
of thread in a lathe, it being requisite that this tool shall have at least
three cutting sides, in order to form the round top between the two of them.
The English practice for small work, is to rough out in a slide-lathe with a
single point tool having sides of the proper angle, and finish in a hafd
lathe with a comb-chaser, which has been dressed to the proper form upon
a hob kept for that purpose, requiring three kinds of cutters and two lathes
to perform what with our practice requires but one cutter and one lathe.
On large work, the screw is finished in the slide lathe, with a chasing tool
dressed to the proper form upon a hob; and as these hobs are necessarily
the standards of form until worn out, it is fair to suppose the shape must
be undergoing a continual change. The necessity of guarding the edge of
the thread from accidental injury, becomes more and more apparent as the
size of the bolt is increased, and we have recognized this by finishing- such
bolts with a small flat upon the top of the thread; but no plan has been
proposed for general adoption upon all screws, nor have any proportions
been suggested where a flat is desired, or wheru from tlie size of the bolt it
would seem to be necessary. As it is very desirable that some uniform
rule should be observed in the formation of all threads, and as the sharp
top is objectionable upon large screws, this form must be abandoned if we
would accomplish our object. It being conceded that the flat angular sides
are necessary, we have only to choose between the rounded and flat top;
and having examined the former, it only remains to notice whether the fla.t
will be found free from the objections urged againsr the round. As the
sides of the thread are the only parts required to be fitted, and as these are
of the same shape as the sharp thresid, the one will be as easily made as
the other. The width of the flat top will be determined by the depth to
•which the thread is cut, so that the same tool can be used in both cases.
The flat on the top of the thread being required to protect it from injury, it
is evident a simdar shape at the bottom would give increased strength to
the bolt as well as improve its appearance. To give this form requires
only that the point of the cutting tool shall be taken off, and then it is evi-
dent this thread can be cut in a lathe with the same tool and in the same

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 317

manner as tlie sharp tliroad. The width of tlie flat in the bottom of thread
being- dependent upon the amount taken oflF the point of the tool, it becomes
necessary not only to determine what amount this shall be, but also pro-
vide a «ueans of measuring it. The angle of the proposed thread is fixed
at 60 deg\, the same as the sharp thread, it being more readily obtained
than 55 deg. and more in accordance with the general practice of the coun-
try. Divide the pitch, or, which is the same thing, the side of the thread,
into eight equal parts, take off one part from the top and fill in one part in
the bottom of the thread; then the flat top and bottom will equal one-eighth
of the pitch, and the wearing surface will be three-quarters of the pitch.
These i)roportions will give the depth of the thread almost precisely the
same as the English; and as the wearing surface on all screws will be con-
fined practically to the flat sides, we shall see that upon the proposed plaa
this will be 3G per cent, greater than on the English."

Mr. Seller's article contains all the formulas and diagrams essential to a
complete comprehension of the subject. He also proposes a system of uni-
form dimensions for bolt-heads and nuts, ar:d gives the formula and tables
requisite to secure this desirable end.

The proposition of Mr. Sellers seemed to meet the cordial approval of the
members generally.

Mr. J. Wyatt Reid said some idea of the evil now sought to be avoided
might be had, Avhen he stated that at his establishment there were used six
difierent taps for the same sized bolts.

Natural Weather Indicator.

Mr. L. B. Page exhibited a very sensitive hygrometer, made by connect-
ing a rotating index hand with a curious and beautiful exotic, which grows
in the Desert of Arabia, and is called by the Arab the talisman or prognos-
ticator. A mercurial thermometer is attached to the hygrometer, and the
whole does not exceed ten inches in length. The plant used is very sus-
ceptible to weather changes, and coils or uncoils according to the dampness
of the atmosphere. It was found that the moisture in the human breath
was sufficient to give instantaneous motion to the index.

The Chairman remarked that the Association have not tested the accuracy
of this instrument, but, from the number of certificates shown from scien-
tific gentlemen, there seems to be no question as to its practical value ia
the hands of the farmer or gardener. Prof. Henry, of the Smithsonian In-
stitute, says, in a letter written several years since: "It appears to be
peculiarly sensitive, and gives a greater range of motion than either the
animated oat or ordinai-y catgut." The wet bulb and hair hygrometers are
too delicate instruments for general use. This little instrument requires
no attention after it has once been properly adjusted; and, as it is said to
indicate a change in the weather several hours before the change will take
place, the farmer will have less difficulty in anticipating rain or sunshine
than with the ordinary barometer.

Tlie following interesting items of scientific progress were presented by
the Chairman:

318 transactions of the american institute

Rain Water.

M. Bobierre reports to the French Academy of Sciences his researches
on the chemical composition of rain water, collected at different heights,
made at the Observatory of Nantes; from which it appears that more am-
monia was found in the water wliich fell to the ground than in that collected
on the tower of the Observatory; on the other hand, more nitric acid was
found in the water caught on the tower than in that gathered below. The
chemical examination of rain water is an easy method of proving the viti-
ation of the atmosphere.

New Anaesthetic.

Dr. Georges reports to the French Academy of Sciences his experiments
proving that pinified kerosene, obtained from petroleum, when inhaled pro-
duces insensibility to pain, but the aid of heat is required. He recommends
the brom-hydric etiier as a safer anajslhetic than chloriform. It has an
exquisite odor, and is not easily inflamed.

Ozone.

M. C. Sainspierre informs the French Academy that ozone is developed by
blowing-machines or by ventilators producing str ng currents. This fact
may be one of the causes producing the health}'- action of winds.

Oxide of Silver.

M. Boettger states that this compound yields its oxygen quite readily to
combustible matter. A diy mixture of two parts of oxide of silver with
one of sulphur will ignite by friction in a mortar, or even between folds of
paper. A drop of plienic acid or creosote poured on to the dr}'- oxide causes
instantaneous flame.

French Cement.

This cement, for glass, &c., very convenient in the laboratory, is made
by melting India rubber scraps and adding thereto, from time to time, small
quantities of lime. The mixture is well stirred, and, when moderately
thick, it is removed from the fiie and moulded b.y the hand to about the con-
sistency of putty. Coloring matter may be added.

Coating for Stone.

Various preparations are now being applied to. different portions of the
Parliament buildings, L(;ndon, for the purpose of arresting the decomposi-
tion of the calcareous stone of which they are built.

Births in Cuba.

It appears, by a communication to the French Academy, that the climate
of Cuba is exceedingly favorable to fecundity. Very often twelve, and
sometimes more than double that number of children, are found in one
family. Many Cuban beauties become mothers at thirteen, and reappear in
that character up to the age of fifty.

proceedings of the polytechnic association. 319

Hearing Hairs in Crustacea.

M. Hensen states that, in the Decapod class of shell-fish, different sounds
cause different hairs connected with the auditory cavity to vibrate.
One hair will vibrate while all its neighbors remain quiet. The sense of
hearing- in these creatures is very acute.

The Desert of Sahara.

According to M. Martin, this desert embraces three distinct kinds — 1st,
the desert of the polateaux, consisting of large surfaces covered with gyp-
sum or plaster of paris; 2d, that of erosion; 3d, that of sand, resembling
waves of the sea rendered suddenly inmiovable. These waves are covered
in some places with a thin vegetation of shrubs and grass, which often
rapidly disappears under the drifting sands. The oasis is a plantation of
palms. The number of oases have greatly increased since the introduction
of Artesian wells.

Geological.

Dr. R. Stevens said the recent explorations in the Desert of Saliara by
M. Desor would lead us to infer that its geological age was about the same
as that of the sands of the Atlantic coast, beginning at the east end of
Long Island and extending to the capes of Florida. This has been ascer-
tained by recent discoveries in the desert of edible shell-fish, like the clam,
muscles, etc., such as are now found in the Mediterranean Sea, and this
settles the question among those acquainted with conchol5gy. The doctor
then directed attention to the primitive rocks, such as granite; some thirty
years ago it was supposed that these rocks were not truly primitive, but
that they had undergone a change. The cause of this cliange was a ques-
tion very much mooted. Before that time it was supposed that these rocks
had been thrown up by fire; afterward, that the change was of a purely
chemical nature. The query was as to the cause of the heat. Was it the
result of chemical action or from internal fires. A very prominent school
of geologists now aver that it was spontaneous, and that in fact the sedi-
mentary rocks were changed by action that took place within themselves.
Dr. Emmons, who made the geological survey of the north-eastern part of
the State of New York, expressed the opinion several years ago that the
primitive rocks of that period held fossils; and, in the Canadian survey,
similar indications ware soon discovered. Within the past year it has been
shown these were true fossils; these rocks which were termed "primitive"
are now regarded as sedimentary rocks, which have undergone a change
such as may be instanced in the quartz. He would boldly assert that there
is not a cabinet in the world which contains a specimen of quartz that has
been acted upon by fire. Such would show an entirely different density.
Tlie specific gravity of heated quartz is much lighter than any native quartz
we now have. The fossils alluded to are the same as those discovered in
the Adirondac mountains, and are known as infusoria, or, more commonly,
as rhizapods, a name given to that class which throw out from the shell
feet resembling rootlets; these are so small tliat they can hardly be seen
by the naked eye in the present seas. The speaker then illustrated upon

320 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

the black-board the form of the rhizapod, and proceeded to say that 'this
animal is found in many of our waters. The fossil is found in tiie palaeozoic
rocks on tlie Mississippi, and is as large as one foot in diameter. In the
tertiary formation of the valley of the Nile, and at Thebes, it sometimes
attains the size of a twenty-live cent piece. But the rhizapods of the
primitive rock formations are from two to three feet in diameter. He had
seen them of that size. It is the law of the lower animal kingdom that
they begin life, at the minimum points, both as to size and as to number;
that they go on increasing in successive ages until they arrive at their
maximum Having attained their greatest extent all over the world, they
begin to decrease, and ultimately disappear from among the animals known
to man. This is the case with the rhizapods, which are now a mere micros-
copical infusoria; and, in following out this general law, we are carried
back in our imagination to that period in the earth's history, anterior to the
formation of rocks, when these animals were but a mere speck, and forward
to tlie time when they attained the size of those he had represented on the
black-board.

The Best Mode of Using Steam Expansively.

This question, discussed quite thoroughly not lo))g since, was again
brought up, mainly for the purpose of hearing Mr. J. Wyatt Reid, who took
the floor, and, with the aid of figures and diagrams, attempted to prove
that there was a great advantage gained bj' first using the steam at high
pressure in one cylinder, and using it again in a more expanded state in
another cylinder of greatly increased diameter. In conclusion, he stated
that he had presented these views to several practical engineers, and they
can present no valid objections to his views.

The Chair observed that the plan of Mr Reid was that of Hornblower
and of Wolf, who first practically applied the principle of expansion about
the year 1782.

Mr. D. Blanchard remarked that he failed to see the benefit of using two
cylinders when the whole gain by expansion could be secured in one cylin-
der by using a cut-off. When the cylinder is properly^ clothed with non-
conductors the cut-off may be very short. There was an engine running in
Waterbur}', Conn., in which the steam was cut off at one-eighth of the stroke,
— the piston being carried the other seven-eighths by the expansive power
of the steam which at first filled oidy one-eighth.

Mr. John B. Root said the late Mr. Barrow, a well known inventor of
this city, had used a large and small cylinder, and the only benefit he had
found was that the stroke was more even throughout, but there was no
economy whatever. Mr. Root gave several instances where two cylinders
had been used, and aftcrv/ard one had been removed, and the remaining
one was found to do all the work which had been done by two previously.

Mr. Watson alluded to several constructions which had lately been made
embracing this double cylinder idea, and the extravagant claims made re-
garding saving of fuel.

Dr. W. Rowell gave the argument against short cut-off which has already

been reported in the volume of transactions of the Institute. He concluded

ng some novel experiments arc now being made in the Metropolitan

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 321

Flonrinj^ Mills, at tlic expense of the owner, Mr. Ilecker, in which steam
is used in a steel cylinder which is kept hot by a steam jacket — the gain
by the cut-off thus far is 25 per cent; he would not then enter into details,
as the members of this association were to be invited to witness the prac-
tical operation of this engine.

Dr. K. S. Newton, after giving an account of some experiments made
with double cylinders on Western waters, which were all unsuccessful, di-
rected attention to the cause of explosions of boilers, and alluded to the
disaster on the United States steamer Chenango.

Mv. Watson made a diagram on the black-board illustrating the manner
in which tlie boilers on the Chenango were braced, as adduced from the
evidence before the Coroner's Jury. It was very evident that explosion
was caused bj- a defi'^iency in the bracing. A sfi'ain of nearly ten tons was
brought upon each iron strap, having only five-eighths of an inch sectional
area, to which the braces between the arches of the fire-box and the flat
shell of the boiler were connected, and they naturally gave way in conse-
quence. There were but 32 of these straps instead of G4; just half the
number called for in the specifications, and the disaster which occurred is
the result of the omission. By the acceptance of the boilers by the Govern-
ment agent, the contractors are relieved from all responsibility in the
matter.

After some further desultory debate upon boiler explosions, on motion of
Mr. Bartlett, "The best mode of producing heat" was selected for discus-
sion at the next meeting. Adjourned to June 2.

Americax Institute Polytechxic Associ.\tiox, )
Jime 2d, 1864. j

Chairman, Prof. S. D. Tillman; Secretary, Mr. B. Garvey.

Improvement of Broadway.

The Chairman offered some considerations on the feasibility of improving
the grade of Broadway. The steepest grade on this great thoroughfare,
after Ipaving Bowling Green, is between Leonard and Canal streets. It
was considered unsafe to put down the Russ pavement over this portion of
the street, and the smaller trap-rock block known as the Belgian was sub-
stituted. These small stones, about six inches square on the surface, give
the horse a better foothold, but they do not prevent his slipping and fall-
ing. Such blocks are objectionable, because they cannot resist the pound-
ing they receive from heavy vehicles; they are thrown out of place; their
edges are chipped off, and the surface is as rouuded as that of a cobble-
stone. The poorest pavement on Broadway is, without doubt, the Belgian,
but it is used because larger blocks cannot be made safe on so steep a
grade.

To the query now presented. Can this evil be obviated ? this reply may

be made. From Leonard street to Duane there is a descent of several t'net.

Let this summit on either side of Leonard street be cut dcnvn so that

there shall be no higher line than Duane street, or let the grade be a gr:idual

[Am. Inst.] U

322 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

descent from Duane to Canal street, and an obvious defect on the great
thoroug-hfare will be remedied. The proposed improvement can be made
without injury to private rights, for it is a remarkable fact that higli base-
ments on Broadway command in many instacces almost as high rent as the
next story above. The demand for high basements has of late been so
great that fine brown stone buildings built in the old style have been taken
down during the past year, and edifices have been erected in their places
which have two floors equal 1}'' accessible from the street. It seems that
the increased rent received from such basements will more than pay the
interest on the cost of a new building. The lowering of the grade as now
proposed, will secure to the buildings on either side of the street, and on
either side of the cross-streets for the distance of one block from Broad-
way, high basements which can be finished in the usual style without alter-
ing the main structure. Thus all the desired benefits will be gained and
the necessity of rebuilding obviated. The increased rents from the high
basements would pay the interest on $2,000,000 ; this sum may therefore
express the increased value of the real estate in the vicinity of the pro-
posed improvement.

Mr. J. Bull observed that however advantageous a change in the grade
of Broadwa}'', so far as regards the more general introduction of high base-
ments to the buildings already erected is concerned, Ihere appeared to him
some strong, objections to the proposition. No one who is at all familiar
with the present style of new buildings on the lower part of Broadway can
for a moment doubt that high basements are regarded with great favor,
especially' by the landlords, influenced perhaps in some degree by the fabu-
lous prices which those basements now command. In illustrai;ion of his
ideas, he referred to that beautiful structure erected, somewhat recently,
by Dr. Parmley, at the corner of Maiden lane, and others in that vicinity
now in the process of erection. But the widening of Worth street and the
establishment of a grade in that street east of Broadway, based upon the
present establislipd grade of that over-crowded thoroughfare, presented
practical objections to the proposition that. seemed to him insurmountable,
for the present at least.

The subject elicited some further discussion, after which the following
notes on recent scientific observations and experiments were read by the
Chairman, in which we have added some of the comments made by members:

Conical Hailstones.

Hailstones fell at Paris on the 29th of March last, having an absolutely
conical form. The base of the cone was slightly concave, and the sides
were roughened by minute six-sided transparent pyramids inclined toward
the base. Some pyramids also emerged from the base. The weight of
these cones varied from 180 to 250 milligrams. The diameter of the base
varied from 8 to 10 millimeters, and the hight from 10 to 13 millimeters.
The minimum temperature of the day was 32° Fah. Rain, hail and snow
ha# fallen during the morning, and at three o'clock p. m. fell the cone-formed
hailstones.

Mr. Maj'uard spoke of a severe hail storm which occurred at this city in
August, 18G2; it extended as far south as Grand street; he picked up half

PROCEEDINGS OF THE TOLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 323

a dozcMi stones in the form of a boy's marble, and he distinctly recoUecled
tliat otliers gatliered by him liad a conical shape.

Dr. W. Kowell rcineinbered the storm alluded to ; the shape of some of
the hailstones which fell in Bleecker street was peculiar, resembling some-
what a rough oyster shell.

Mr. J. M. Root remarked that he had witnessed the most severe hail-
storm probably on record. It occurred about the 10th of June, 1849, on
the groat plains, some 50 miles east of Fort Laramie, Nebraska Territory.
Some of the stones which fell measured fourteen inches in circumference.
They were composed of solid ice, about the size of a hen's egg, with
smaller portions adiiering to them. He noticed that some of these hail-
stones were of conical form and onl}^ about three inches in circumference.
Several persons in this party were injured in this storm. One man had his
skull fractured, another his arm broken. The skins of animals exposed
were cut through. The covers of their wagons, sustained by hickory
frame-work two inches thick, could not resist the force. The hail-storni
lasted from ten to fifteen minutes.

It would be inferred from the further debate, that hailstones of a conical
form were not a novelty in this country.

Cooling of Solids by Tension.

Mr. James Croell, in the May number of Tlie Philosophical Magazine,^
directs attention to the experiments of Dr. Joule, which proved tht^t the
quantity of cold produced by the application of tension to solids was sensi-
bly equal to tjie heat evolved by its removal; and further, that the thermal
effects were proportional to the weight employed. The probable explana-
tion given by Mr. Croell is this: If the molecules of a body are held together
by any force, of whatever nature it may be, which prevents any further
separation taking place, then the entirejieat of such a body will appear as
temperature; but if this binding force become lessened, so as to allow fur-
ther expansion, then a portion of the heat will be lost in producing expan-
sion. All solids, at any given temperature, expand until the expansive
fijrce of their heat exactly balances the cohesive force of their molecules;
after which no further expansion at the same temperature can possibly
take place while the cohesive force remains unchanged. But if by some
means or other the cohesive force of the molecules becomes reduced, then
instantly the body will expand under the heat which it possesses, and of
course a portion of the heat will be consumed in expansion, and a cooling
effect will result.

Actinism from Different Parts of the Sun's Disc.

Sacchi having shown that the heat radiated from the center of tiie sun is
nearly double that from its borders, and that the equatorial regions are
somewhat hotter than the polar, and various observers having noticed a
great difference in luminosity between the center and the edge of the disc,
Mr. II. E. Roscoe now reports to the Royal Society some experiments made
by means of photographic paj)er relative to tlie chemical action of rays from
various parts of the sun's disc. From the results of one day, it appears

dl:4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

that the chemically active rays at the center hav^e from three to five times
the intensity of those at the edge. This difiereuce, being- greater than the
difference in heat from the same portions, is accounted for by the greater
absorption effected b}^ the solar atmosphere on the more refrangible rays.
It also appeared that the chemical brightness of the south polar regions
was considerubly greater than that of the north polar region, while about
the equator the brightness was between that of the poles. Mr. Eoscoe, in
connection with Mr. Baxendell, proposes to carry out, upon the same meth-
ods a series of observations relative to the amount of chemical brightness
of the sun's disc, and hopes before long to furnish further details to the
Society.

Indium.

Prof. Eoscoe, in his lecture before the Royal Institution, London, on the
6th of May, said the new metal, indium, is distinguished by two splendid
indigo-blue lines in its spectrum. In its chemical relations it resembles
zinc. It was first found in the Freiberg zincblende. It can be reduced by
the blowpipe to a malleable bead. It is detected in its compounds by the
deep purple it imparts to the flames.

New Use of the Spectroscope.

Prof. Roscoe alluded in the same lecture to the remarkable application o f
the spectroscope to the exact and very important moment when the blowing
of cold air into the molten iron should cease in the Bessamer process, by
which, in about fifteen minutes, the iron is said to be converted into steel.
In relation to this item, Prof. Joy remarked that in Europe, the workmen
having charge of the furnace department of the steel mannfactories are
very expert in determining the proper length of exposure to heat; they
have a quick eye for distinguishing the peculiar color of the flame required
for making good iron. This art is only acquired after long practice. With
the spectroscope, sulphur and all other substances which would render the
steel impure would be readily detectc^d by the characteristic color belong-
ing to each.

Dr. Howell inquired whether the lines of color could all be distinguished
at once.

Prof. Joy replied that this would depend on the number of prisms era-
ployed, and the time in which they were turned.

Production of Monsters.

M. Barthelemy has been experimenting on artificial and natural mon-
strosities among the butterfly and moth order of insects. He endeavored
to cause modifications in the chrysalis similar to those obtained by cover-
ing the eggs of birds with varnish. The use of oil was fatal, but on cover-
ing the head, throat, and abdomen with wax. the development of these
parts was much retarded. The nervous system of other portions seemed
to be developed as usual, yet the power of reproduction was destroyed.

I

i

proceedings of the polytechnic association. 325

Vigor of Pollen.

According to expofiments by M. Belhomnie, reported to the Academy of
Sciences at Faris, it is proved that the pollen of flowers will retain its
fecundating power for at least three years.

Benzole.

M, E. Kopp, having converted the heavy tar oils into lighting gas and
volatile oils rich in benzole by means of the superheating process, and separ
rated the gas and lighter products by the ordinary refrigerator, takes
advantage of the fact that benzole solidifies in the form of flakes, grouped
like fern leaves, or in crystalline masses like camphor, which melt at 8*^.5
above 0 centigrade, and for the purpose of purification he cools the rough
benzole or benzine down to — 15^ in Carre's refrigerator, then strongly and
rapidly presses the crystals, still impregnated with other hydrocarbides.
The cr^'stalized benzine thus obtained is again melted, and once more sui)-
initted to the same treatment, and the product is benzole almost chemically
pure.

Mr. L. B. Page said this item on benzole rem.inded him that recently at a
petroleum refinery in Williamsburgh, he noticed in one place where there
were about fifty barrels of benzole that the barrels were partly covered
with a frost-work which he supposed was frozen benzole. This was during
hottest weather in the latter part of last month. He took a portion in his
hand and it immediately melted. It was cold to the touch.

Prof. Joy had noticed similar crystals on the ground in the establishment
at Hunter's Point, and had supposed they were napthaline or parafBne,
which is a white solid.

Mr. Page said that paraffine would not melt in his hand as the substance
from the outside of naptha barrels did.

Dr. Parmelee expressed the opinion that the snow found by Mr. Page
was produced by the rapid evaporation of the bisulphide of carbon. This
snow or ice is largely impregnated with the odor of benzine. If benzine is
passed through the chloride of calcium considerable water may be obtained.

The Chairman remarked that the benzine or benzole spoken of is a mix-
ture of several hydrocarbon compounds- but the pure benzine of the books
consists of 12 equivalents of carbon and 6 of hydrogen ; or, doubling the
equivalent of carbon as recommended by Gerhardt, the com.pound would
contain an equal number of atoms of carbon and hydrogen.

Motion of Musical Reeds.

Mr. Watson said his attention had been attracted to the velocity of mu-
sical reeds in the melodeon and common accordeon. The vibrations of air
required to produce the pitch of the middle C of the musical scale is 512;
this niunber is doubled for every octave C above it. By calculation he has
found that some reeds move at the rate of 480 feet per second. These reeds
of brass are now made so accurately that when planned and finished by
machinery they are nearly in proper tune before being touched by the file.

Dr. Rovvell said that it makes no difference about the width of the musical
toAgue of brass — the thickness and length detcrinines its pitch.

S2G TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMEHICAN INSTITUTE.

The Chairman added that for strings and pipes the law is the same.
When homogeneous and of the same diameter, the pitch of octaves is di-
rectly the same as the length. A string oi a given pitch, if halved, will
give a sound an octave higher — or if doubled in length a sovmd an octave
lower.

The Best Mode of Producing Heat,

The discussion of this subject was opened by Mr. Bartlett. There were
many ways of producing heat, by friction, compression, percussion, &c., but
there is only one approved mode, and that is b}^ burning carbon and hydro-
gen. After giving the comparative amount of heat from various combusti-
bles, corresponding with tables we have already published, he proceeded
to speak of the advantage of Sieman's furnace, particularly as used in the
manufacture of steel. He takes bituminous coal and sets fire to it with a
limited supply of air, which drives off a great amount of gas in the form of
hydrocarbons and carbonic oxide, which are carried away in a heated state,
and afterward brought into contact with air that has been heated by its
passage over hot brick work.

The Chairman said, in burning- anthracite coal (the best known fuel),
there was no gain in the round-about prrocess of Siernan, provided there was
at first such a supply of air as to form carbonic acid gas. The saving of
the waste heat which would escape throug-h the chimney has been effected
by a variety of apparatus. Mr. S. may have succeeded in securing a great-
er intensity of heat at a given point, but he has not increased the amount
produced by ordinary combustion.

Mr. Hagan desired to present the advantages derived by using the vapor
of water, as practiced by him. He did not claim that there was any greater
amount of heat produced with than without steam, but he claimed that the
intervening of steam between the particles of air made it a rapid conductor
as well as generator of heat. He repeated several statements regarding
water burning, which have already been reported in the previous examina-
tion of this subject.

Tlie debate was continued by Prof. J03', Dr. Rowelf, Mr. Watson, Mr,
Disturnell, and Dr. Richards, but the most interesting views elicited were
almost identical with those presented at a previous meeting.

The subject presented for the next discussion is "The utilization of waste
products." Adjourned to June 9.

1

American Institute Folyteghnic Association,
June 9(hr 1864.
Chairman, Prof. S. D. Tillman; Secretary, Mr. B. Garvey.

Colorado Gold Ores.

A communication was read from Mr. Henry Garbanati, a member of the
Institute, now residing in Central City, Colorado Territory. Accompany-
ing the letter were twelve interesting mineral specimens.

Dr. R. P. Stevens remarked that the particular locality from which these
specimens were taken is not stated. They are a portion of the gold bear-
ing ores of Colorado. The ores of this territory differ from those of Call-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 327

fornia, inasmuch as these arc pyritons ores, that is, ores formed by the mix-
ture of sulphur, either chemically or mechanically, with copper, iron, and
gold. The ores of California are native gold in veins of quartz. The first
specimen now presented is pyrites without any gxld in sight, although the
ore is of yeHow color, and might be mistaken iur the precious metal. The
next specimen is crystallized (piartz, having pyrites inclosed in the quartz,
showing that tiie gold was formed first, and was afterward enveloped by
quartz. Some of these crystals are very beautiful. Another specimen is
what is known as porous quartz, or quartz in which the pyrites have been
decomposed, and have disappeared, leaving behind the gold that was in com-
bination with it. Sometimes the g(jld in this variety of ore is visible to the
naked eye, and sometimes it exists as a thin film, staining the surface,
Avhich can only be seen with a magnifying glass. This variety, when in
sudicient abundance, is very profitable to work, because a part of the pro-
cess, that is, the decomposition of the pyrites, has already been performed
by nature. The third variety — and it may be remarked here that the twelve
specimens shown are all included in three varieties — is quartz ore having
pyrites and a portion of the wall rock of the vein attached. There were,
undoubted!}', many in the audience who had never seen a quartz vein. If
they have any curiosity in this direction, they can be gratified without
leaving Manhattan Islaiid. In the deep cut on First avenue, which is now
being graded at about Forty-second street, may be seen the gneiss rock
cut by a vein of quartz about a foot wide, descending at an angle of about
seventy degrees. The pure quartz is attached to the walls of gneiss on
either side; approaching the center are seen crystals of mica; still neare'r
the center are garnets, hornblenda and felspar. In some instances the
center is left open, in others it is closed, showing that the crystallization
proceeded from the tcalls toward the center, it being understood that this
deposit was made in a vent in the gneiss. To return to the Colorado speci-
mens, some were evidently formed in the same way. The veins of the Col-
orado resemble the veins of the Atlantic slope. The same kind of pyrites
veins are found in the gold bearing rocks of the Apalachian range.

A few words may be added regarding the economy of mining or winning
gold. The question to be solved, is, how shall we separate the gold from
the iron, copper, sulphur and quartz 1 The sulphur may be driven off to a
certain extent by heat, that element being volatile. The quartz requires
crushing and grinding, after which it can be washed from the pyrites. The
gold is obtained from the quartz and all the other metals by means of
quicksilver, with which it amalgamates very readily. The quicksilver is
afterward distilled, and the gold is left as a solid. All this is easy to
describe, but, in practice, there stands your quartz, hard enough to cut
glass, and there your pyrites, harder than the quartz, and gold with the
whole in a variable quantity; s(jmetimes rich enough to repay you for your
great labor, alas! more often only in such appreciable quantities as to lure
the infatuated miner to greater expenditures of labor, time and money.

The Law of Mariotte.

Dr. W. Rowell read a paper on this law and its application in the steam
engine, from which the following important extracts are taken:

328 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

"The well-known law of pneumatics is simply this: If you take a ves-
sel holding one cubic foot of air, and with sufficient pressure you diminish
the volume of air to one-half a cubic foot, you have two quantities of air
in one space; or, as it is usually expressed, you have a pressure of two
atmospheres, if you take tha mercury colinrm in a barometer as the measure
of pressure. The atmosphere supports a column thirty inches high, a)id two
atmospheres occupying one space will support a column of mercury sixty
inches high, and so on for three, four, or more quantities. Hence the axiom,
'double the pressure is half the volume;' but, should the air be quickly
compressed, there would be an increase of temperature from the compres-
sion of the heat (or molecular action) contained in one volume of air, and,
consequently, that would be a little more than one-half the volume for
double the pressure until the temperature was tlie same as the original vol-
ume that was compressed. Now take this quantity of compressed air and
suddenly remove the pressure, and it would not quite be double the volume;
but, after the temperature had been acquired of the original quantity, it
would be exactly double the volume.

"The foregoing statement is the complete definition of the much-talked-
of 'Mariotte law.' The only plausible way that this law can be applied to
steam is as follows: One cubic inch of water will make one cubic foot of
steam at the pressure of one atmosphere, or it will make one-half a cubic
foot of steam at the pressui'e of two atmospheres— and so on, by doubling
the pressure it will make half the volume nearly,

"The actual proportions of volume and pressure, according to the tables
published by Pambour, Lardner, Brande, and others, are one cubic inch of
water at one atmosphere pressure makes 1,669 cubic inches steam ; two
atmosphere pressures make 881 cubic inches steam ; four atmosphere
pressures make 461 cubic inches steam ; eight atmosphere pressures n:»ake
249 cubic inches of steam. Whereas, if the Mariotte law perfectly applied
to steam the volumes would bo for one cubic inch of water at one atmo-
sphere 1,669 cubic inches steam; two atmosphere 834.5 cubic inches steam;
four atmosphere 417.25 cubic inches steam; eight atmosphere 208.125 cultic
inches st«am. So that 417 cubic inches steam at four atmosphere pressures
does not have water enough to make 1,669 cubic inches of steam at one
atmosphere by ]2| per cent., nor 208 cubic inches steam at eight atmo-
sphere by nearly 25 per cent.

" That 457 cubic inches steam, at four atmosphere pressures would, on
gradually removing the pressure to one atmosphere, enlarge itself to 1,669
cubic inches, had not, as far as it was possible to learn, been determined
experimentally up to the year 1860. During that year it was tried in an
apparatus suggested by myself, the tables of which I may furnish in a
future paper."

After quoting from Bourne's Treatise on the Steam Engine, on the appli-
cation of this law to the use of steam expansively, and the statements of
Eegnault of the motive power of elastic vapors, Dr. Kowell continued:

"Herein is the difference between air and steam: If a cubic foot of air
at two atmospheres pressure, be contained in a tight vessel for a thousand
years, it will give out its elastic force on removing the pressure, while a
cubic foot of steam must give out its force in a few seconds, or else its

PROGEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 329

force is entirely lost. Also the relative volume of air at different
pressures, of which the Mariotte law is the exponent, depends on the same
temperatur^; whereas the different pressures of steam depends wholly on
different temperatures ; for instance, steam at the pressure of ore atmo-
sphere is Sri*^ F.; two atmospheres, 250* F.; three atmospheres, 274'' F.

" Now, the slightest increase of pressure at these temperatures, or
slightest decrease of temperature at these pressures, will turn the wliole of
the steam to water; while an increase of pressure on the air will only
diminish its volume to the amount due to that pressure.

"Tlie modern received opinion promulgated by Joule, that heat is con-
verted into force in the steam engine, is in accordance with the statement
made by Regnault, tfiat the amount of power developed by the expansion
of any elastic fluid is always in proportion to the loss of heat undergone
by this fluid in the part of the machine where the power is produced. Tiie
quantity of heat, or, as it is expressed, the 'total heat,' as ascertained by
M. Kegnault from actual experiment, in a cubic inch of water in steam at
one atmosphere pressure is Ijl^S*^ F.; two atmospheres pressure, 1,190° F.;
four atmospherics pressure, 1,203" F.; eigtt atmospheres pressure, 1,218" F.

" If the force is all a heat force, and it is properly applied in moving the
piston of a steam engine, and as it is not possible to increase this 'heat by
expanding the steam, it would seem as if some of the modern theorists are
endeavoring to make out that the steam can work three or four times over,
or, as some of the most enthusiastic saj-, ' expand a thousand times.' The
experinu-nts of Regnault, to determine the theoretical motive power of
expansion, being 'extremely delicate and difficult, are not applicable to so
rude a machine as a steam engine;' they of course furnish no rule to calcu-
late the motive power produced by expansion in a steam engine.

" We are finally left to recent experiments on the steam engine itself,
and these, so far as they have seen them fairly tried, show that the ' noto-
rious' multiplying of its performances by expansion is founded upon 'hypo-
thesis' of no great probability."

Tiie following interesting scientific intelligence was presented from the
Chair:

Glasses for Viewing the Sun.

Sir John Herschel, in a late number of the Quarterly Journal of Science,
says: "To use the full aperture of the telescope is of paramount neces-
sity, either in viewing the sun or the planets. If the extinction of light is
effected by colored glasses, the best combinations I yet have found are, first,
that of two plane glasses, of a shade between brown and violet, with one
of grass green hue interposed; or, second, that of two green glasses with
a blue one colored with cobalt between them. They allow scarcely any
rays of the spectrum to pass but the yellow and less refrangible green; and
they cut off about all the heat. The perfection of vision is obtained by
using only the extreme red rays; but glasses which transmit these cannot
be used, on account of the heat wiiich they allow to pass. Whatever com-
bination of glasses be used, they are, however, apt to crack and fly to
pieces, through the heat they intercept.

330 transactions of the american institute.

China Grass.

The report of M. Cordier, of the Chamber of Commerce, first broi]{:^ht this
article into notice, and the manufacturers of Rouen, France, *dre turhing
their attention to its use. Specimens in all stages of its preparation are
shown, and recently samples of its tissue mixed with wool and cotton have
been exhibited.

Mr. Bartlctt stated that tlie grass alluded to had been manufactured into
cloth in Massachusetts more than a j'ear ago.

Explosive Compounds. -

Mr. Scott Russell has repeated before the Royal Institution, London, the
opinions expressed by him at the last meeting of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science, regarding the force, cleanliness, and com-
parative safety of Baron Lenk's gun cotton. He spoke also of the uncer-
tainty, as a chemical composition, of gunpowder, and expressed his convic-
tion that 68 per cent (solid matter) of its ingredients were useless, and
encumbered the action of the remaining 32 gaseous parts.

In relation to this item, Mr. Samuel H. Maynard remarked that the ex-
periments with gun cotton in this country had not been as successful as
was expected. Baron Lenk's compound is woven into ropes or fine threads
in order that the whole product will be isochronal in its explosion, but this
regularity in the time of explosion does not seem to have been accomplished.
If gun-cotton is rammed down into a gun it may at first work well, but if,
again, it is rammed down too hard it will explode and burst ttie gun. The
difficulty is that, in getting the ball down it may often be necessary to give
the ball an extra ram, and this will cause a premature explosion. Gun-
cotton possesses many good qualities; one of the best is that it does not
absorb moisture; it is also very light. Perhaps the danger of premature
explosions might be avoided by making it into cartridges. For blasting-
purposes it is valuable, but for guns it is too quick in its action. Dr. Do-
remus, of tliis city, was the first to make two charges of gunpowder into
one, and have them burn the same length of time as one charge.

Mr. Bartlctt said that the chemical peculiarity of Baron Lenk's gun-cot-
ton was that it contained more oxygen than the ordinary kind. He inquired
whether Dr. Doremus' gunpowder was still used in the army.

Mr. Maynard knew it had been very largely used in the six-pound batte-
ries. Officers connected with them have expressed a preference for it, as
it leaves nothing in the gun that requires swabbing out. Therefore it is
not necessary to cover the touchhole with the finger while re-loading. This
pressed or cake powder, invented by Doremus, is highly prized in France
and Austria.

Mr. Page said that the 68 per cent of gunpowder, the solid part spoken
of as useless, was a large amount to.be transported, but is not the solid
matter really essential to hold the gases resulting from the explosion in a
solid form before they are used ?

Mr. Maynard stated that interesting experiments are now being made
regarding the feasibility of dispensing with some of the solid constituents,
by parties in this country.

PROCEEDINQS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 331

Mr. Enos Stevens desired to correct an impression made ref^arding- the
value of g'un-cotton in blnsting. Its action is violent, and it crumbles the
stone in its immediate vicinity. Where it is desirable to separate rock in
regular sixes, it is better to use gunpowder in the series of holes drilled in
the same right line.

Diamonds.

Dr. Percy, in a lecture reported at length in the London Chemical News,
describes the various localities where diauionds have been found, and the
chief rocks constituting such districts. The quartzite is a silicious rock to
which the name of itacolumnite has been given, from Itacolumni, the name
of a town. It is found in some cases to be flexible ; this is owing to the
interposition of little micaceous scales. Geologists s^ate that it is, beyond
doubt, a metamorphic rock; that is, a rock which has been changed mate-
rially subsequent to jts deposition. No fossils have been found in it. The
itacolumnite alternates with metamorphic schist. The latter is very easily
disintegrated or softened to a great deptli. It is said the softening is due
to heavy rains, reported to contain nitric acid after storms. In tiie pro-
ducts of disintegration of these rocks, numerous rare minerals, besides the
diamond, were found.

In the Ural district, diamonds have been found since Humboldt's visit in
1829. He suggested the probable existence of diamonds there from the
geological similarity of the district to that of Brazil. A few diamonds have
been found in the itacolumnite, occurring in North Carolina and Georgia.

Now comes the question, and it is a question which has not yet received
solution — if this itacolumnite be, as there is no doubt it is, a rock of sedi-
mentary origin, have the diamonds been developed in this rock subsequent
to its deposition; or derived from the preexisting rock, out of which this
sedimentary rock has been made?

"With regard to the possibility of making diamonds, scarcely a chemist
is to be found who doubts that, one day or other, diamonds will be made.
Various attempts have been made with the bisulphide of carbon. We
were informed, a good many years ago, that some French chemist had suc-
ceeded in making diamonds by plunging phosphorus into this liquid, com-
posed of sulphur and carbon, which has a high refractive power. It was
said that in this way the diamond might be produced, the sulphur being
taken away from the compound by the phosphorus and the carbon being
set free in a crystalline form. Then again it has been attempted to decom-
pose the sulphide of carbon by means of silver. He, the lecturer, had kept
a piece of silver in that liquid for ten or twelve years. The silver became
blackened on the surface, which seemed to be an indication of decomposi-
tion, as though the sulphur were taken away so as to allow the gradual
elimination of the carbon. Unfortunately, it happened that this bisulphide
of carbon operated upon had not been entirely free from sulphur, and all
that the silver did was to take out the sulphur which had been contained
in a state of solution in the sulphide. At presenr, truth compelled him to
say that we have no clue whatever, so far as he knew, as to the mode in
which diamonds have been produced by nature. Most certain it is that a
high temperature has not been employed, because it loses its character at a

332 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

high temperature. There are many unstable compounds of carbon not
known, which may possibly be reduced one day by electrolytic action, and
then we may be able to generate the precious mineral — the diamond.

Labels for Poison Bottles.

To prevent accidents arising from careless or sleepy nurses giving medi-
cines out of wrong bottles, Mr. Tiioiiger proposes using a label having a
sand paper border, thus appealing strongly to the sense of touch, which it
is presumed will warn the holder that danger is near.

Fine Earthenware in France.

The French Government are about establishing a school at Nevers for
instruction in modeling, drawing, and painting cereous and terreous mate-
rials.

Fatty Acids for Soap and Candles.

M. Mouries, in a memoir to the French Academy of Sciences, suggests a
cheap and easy method of separating stearic and oleic acids and glycerine.
In the ordinary state tallow is saponified with difhculty. By melting the
tallow in water, containing a little soap in solution, the tallow assumes a
globular state, and is then readily attacked by a small quantity of alkali.
When the mixture is raised to GO" C, the alkali and glycerine quickly sepa-
rate. The fatty acids are separated by placing the soap in water acidu-
lated with sulphuric acid. The stearic acid will then crystalize, and the
oleic acid can be obtained, almost colorless, with the sulphate of soda, and
can then be made into soap. M. Chevreul commended this process, before
the Academy, as ingenious and simple.

Dangerous Lightning Rods.

A defective lightning rod is dangerous, because it draws toward the
house a force which it cannot conduct away from it. A death occurred on
the 17th of last month at Rensselaer, Indiana, by lightning, in a house two
and a half stories high, situated in a grove of tall timber. The lightning
rod designed to protect the building was made of two kinds of metal — the
first three upper sections were of octagonal copper, the remainder was an
iron rod. Copper is a much better conductor of electricity than iron. The
copper rod received more than the iron rod could instantly carry away, and
the consequence was tliat a portion sought its path to the ground tiirough
the house. A human body was the bridge by which it crossed a bed, and
a life was swept off in its passage. Touching this item,

Mr. Page said he formerly had considerable practical experience in the
arrangement of lightning rods, and thought most of the accidents from
lightning were the result of imperfect insulation. Tiie rods are not prop-
erly fastened with ncm-conductors, and do not always enter into the ground
far enough to reach the moisture.

Dr. Rowell spoke of an instance where a hou'^e was struck, and the whole
was instantly one mass of Ilame.

Mr. Bartlett thought it singular that cases occur every season when a
person is struck while in the street, the lightning not seeking the roofs of the
surrounding high buildings, but going directly to the ground.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 333

Mr. E. Stevens was of opinion that insurance companies had no faith in
liglitning-roths, as he never knew them to make any deduction in their rates
of insurance on houses wliich were supplied with rods.

The Chairman remarked tliat this greatest invention of Dr. Benjamin
Franklin was not designed to draw the lightning from a great distance.
Tiie bolt, when discharged, takes its direction, which is changed somewhat
by good conductors. A house in its path is saved, if it has upon it a good
metallic conductor of electricity, extending into the earth to a point where
it is ahvays moist, because the fluid, so called, takes the route which will
allow it to reach the earth in the shortest possible time, and thus restore
the equilibrium. That portion of a roof which is regarded as absolutely
protected is a circle whose radius is equal to the height to which the rod
extends above the roof; hence it is a common practice to have several ter-
minations or branches of the main rod, projecting from the highest part of
the roof and from the corners of the building.

Mr. Maynard said that houses having metallic roofs, with gutters and
leaders I'unning to the ground, when wet, are perfect conductors.

Mr. Bull inquired whether any one present remembered an instance of a
steamboat being struck with lightning. He had never heard of such an
occurrence.

The Chairman said accounts of sailing vessels being struck are not un-
common. He was not aware that steamboats have been; but he believed
locomotives were not as lucky. Hardware stores, although filled with
metal, are seldom, if ever, injured by lightning. The cm-rent does not
always descend from the sky to the earth. The earth is generally negative
and the clcud positive; but, if the earth was positive and the cloud nega-
tive, the direction of the electric force would be reversed.

Utilization of Waste Products.

Prof. Joy, of Columbia College, opened the discussion of the subject by
saying this vast subject embraces almost every material employed by man.
There are more things wasted than used in many departments of manufact-
ures. A few of the more remarkable instances where methods have been
lately introduced for utilizing the waste materials will be mentioned —
first:

Soup from Brine.

The brine in which flesh has been preserved contains, according to Leibig,
the r^.ost nutritive portion of the meat. The brine containing the extract
has usually been thrown away. Mr. Whitelaw of Glascow had applied the
action known as Dialysis to the separation of the salt from those contain-
ing sustenance. He says when fresh meat has been sprinkled for a few
days with salt, it was found swimming in brine. Fresh meat contained
more than three-fourths of itft weight of water, M'hich was retained in it as
in a sponga. But the fle-sh had not the power to retain the brine to that
extent, and in similar circumstances it absorbed only about one-half as
much saturated brine as water, so that under the action of salt flesh
allowed a portion of its water to flow out. This expelled water as might
naturally be expected, was saturated with the soluble ingredients of the

334 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

flesh ; it was in fact juice of tlic flesh ; soup, witli all its valuable and
restorative properties. The brine is filtered to free it from any particles
of meat or mechanical impurities, and then pinired into bladders, or into
boxes made of skins or parchment paper, which are suspended in fresh
water in a suitable tank. The water in the tank must be changed every
24 hours. All salt and saltpeter will pass by what is called osmetic force,
through the pores of the bladder or other septum in the course of two or
three days, and the pure juice of the flesh, fresh and Avholesome, will be
retained. This can be concentrated by evaporation, and prepared for use.

Prof. Joy then exhibited several specimens of parchment paper, which
is a cheap material for accomplishing the separation by dyalisis. It is
made by subjecting' common paper to the action of sulphuric acid of a
certain density. All substances arc now classified as crystalloids and col-
loids, which are separated by this process of dialysis. In the application
made by Whittelaw, the crystalloid, common salt, passes through the mem-
brane, and the colloids, containing animal extract, remain behind. It was
Liebig's opinion that the scurvy and other diseases afflicting those whose
principal diet is salt meat, arise from the absence of these animal extracts
which are retained in the brine.

Mr. Nash remarked that the exposition now made was a strong' argu-
ment against preserving meat by means of salt.

Waste Sewerage.

Prof. Joy said when he was last in Europe he had frequent conversations
with Liebig on an excursion to Lake Geneva, Switzerland. Liebig has
contributed more than any other man to the utilization of waste products;
it has been the principal labor of his life; he has invented many processes
himself, and has directed tlie attention of the world to the subject. His
great grief is the waste of fertilizing material in the sewers. He spoke
repeatedly of the loss of this material which is going on in the city of New
York.

Waste Bones.

Bones are not now as much wasted as heretofore ; they are made into
handles and button,s; and when bone is decomposed, its phosphate of lime
is a valuable manure, and it is also the source of the phosphorus used in
our matches.

Waste Vulcanized Rubber. ,

There seems to be a want of some ready method of devulcanizing old
India rubber. Several patents have been issued for this purpose, but the
fact that there is no d(Mnand for worn-out articles of rubber, would lead us
to conclude that this material is not utilized to an}' great extent.

Slag in Iron Furnaces.

Prof. Joy also visited Mantsel, where Luther Avent to school 300 years
ago, and saw the iron mines in which Luther's father worked. At this
place the slag has accumulated in mountains. People are constantly at
work, you may be sure, at plans for extracting something of value from

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 335

the waste slags. At ^fantsel tlic slag is now run into molds of about a
cubic foot eacli, and distributed to workmen. Each man takes his share
of the blocks in an iron wiieolbarrow and wheels them home, when they
still contain heat enough to cook the meal for the family. After tliey arc
cooled these rectangular blocks are an excellent material for building walls.

ZiNC Wasted in Galvanizing Iron.

A large portion of the zinc nsed for coating iron is evaporated and lost.
PlaTis for preventing this loss are worthy of the attention of inventors.
The whole history of zinc is that of a waste product. It was first found
in chimneys where ores of other metals were being smelted, and people
were thus led to seek for it in its own ores.*

Waste from Gas-Works. v

Constant progress has been made in the utilization of the waste sub-
stances produced in the manufacture of illuminating gas. At one time the
companies paid persons for carting away the lime used for purifying the
gas. The lime absorbs bisulphide of carbon, sulphuretted hydrogen and
sulphur, coming from the distillation of the coal, and when exposed for a
long time to the atmosphere it absorbs oxygen and becomes the sulphate
of lime or plaster. This is now understood by a sufficient number of
farmers to make a demand for the waste lime at a moderate price.

Mr. Cleland, the Director of the Liverpool Gas Works, states that he has
largely reduced the cost of purifying gas by using oxide of iron, and
saving the sulphur and ammonia. The material from the purifiers is heated
to about 1,000 deg. Fah. in a close iron retort. A portion of the sulphur
combines chemically with the iron, while the balance is distilled over. As
soon as the sulphur ceases to come over, the contents of the retort are
drawn and moistened, and in this state exposed to the action of the atmo-
sphere. The oxidation is rapid, and the mass glows until frequently wet
and stirred. In a few weeks a sulphate of iron is produced, containing 30
to 40 per cent, sulphuric acid. The salt is decomposed by passing the
vapor of ammonia from the waste waters of the hydraulic mains through
it. In this way sulphate of ammonia and an oxide of iron are obtained.
The oxide of iron can be used again. The sulphate of ammonia is purified
by crystallization. Mr. Clelland says that he has obtained 100 tons of
sulphur in this way.

Preparation of Sal Ammoniac.

About two per cent, of ammoniacal gas water goes over with the tarry
products and is collected at the end of the hydraulic main in cisterns. This
was formerly a waste product; it is now saved and the greater- portion of
sal ammoniac of commerce is prepared from it. In London alone 840,000
tons of coal are c(jnsumed every year in the manufacture of gas. This
yields about 37,000,000 pounds of gas water. The water is subjected to
distillation in two retorts, the first of which is heated directly by the fire,
and the second by the latent heat of the steam from the first. The steam
and gas are passed througii a worm to be condensed, and tlow into a large
leaden tank containing muriatic acid. Uncondensable gases pass out of

336 TRANSACTIONS OE THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

the tank and are conducted tlirough the fire, where the sulphuretcd hydro-
gen is coiisuraed, into the chimney. The muriatic acid is saturated to neu-
trah'ty, and requires very little furtlier treatment for the formation of beau-
tiful wliite cr^'stals of sal ammoniac. This sal ammoniac is the starting
point in the manufacture of the salts of ammonia, and can now be obtained
in great abundance by the above method.

Oil AisiD Fat from Refuse Cotton, Glue, &c.

Edward Toynbee digests the refuse material in about half its weight of
concentrated sulphuric acid contained in leaden vessels and warmed by
steam. They are thus dissolved and the fat separated. After standing,
the fatty acids collect on the tc^, and can be removed and further purified
by distillation. To the residual solution sufficient finely-divided phosphate
of lime is added to neutralize the sulphuric acid, and a valuable compost
containing phosphates and nitrogenous matter obtained.

Oil of AYool Wasted.

There is a great waste in our woolen manufactories of a valuable sub-
stance; that is, the oil of the wool. When wool has been thoroughly
cleansed, it is found to have lost thirty, forty, or in some cases as high as
sixty per cent, of its weight, and the most of this is oil — an excellent oil
for some purposes, and especially for soap. There is an establishment in
England that takes wool to cleanse for the oil, making no other charge for
the work.

The oil can be extracted bj- means of the bisulphide of carbon, which is
a cheap article. It is also used for extracting oil from the rape seed
instead of pressing the seed. It is also used for extracting the alkaloids
and the essential oils of plants. It has been stated that it leaves no odor.

Hydrochloric Acid.

This acid, commonly known as muriatic acid, was formerly wasted in
immense quantities in the manufacture of soda compounds. At one time
it was a nuisance to the neighborhood of such factories.

Muspratt, the father of the chemist of that name, built at his soda works
near Liverpool a chimney of great hight, at a cost of $200,000, to carry off
the hydrochloric acid fumes, but this had the eifect of distributing it over
a greater extent of country, and it was soon abandoned. The acid,. being
valuable, is now condensed by means of towers filled with pebbles and
rounded flints, but usually coke is preferred. A stream of water is made
to flow in at the top and percolate the mass. The acid fumes pass up
through the towers and meeting with the water it is condensed and flows
out of an aperture at the bottom.

Prof. Joy made some further remarks on glycerine, straw, and shavings,
for paper, and petroleum. After pertinent remarks from Messrs. Nash,
Bartlett, and E. Stevens, it was decided to continue the discussion of the
utilization of waste products at the next meeting.

Adjourned.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION.

American Institute Polytechnic Association,
June IQth 1864.

Chairman, Prof. S. D. Tillman; Secretary, Mr. B. Garvey.

Hydraulics.

Mr. J. B. Root explained, with the aid of diagrams an experiment made
hy him in relation to the flow of water through irregular tubes. He con-
istructed a tube of tin SO inches long, and 2| inches in diameter. Within
this tube were soldered 11 diaphragms or discs, at regular distances from
^ach oth-er. In €ach circular disc there was a hole five-eighths of an inch
in diameter, the center of which was the center of the disc. Half way
from each disc the tube was perforated on the upper side by a very small
hole. One end of this tube was inserted into a bulkhead about nine feet
below the surface of the water. The object of this apparatus was to
measure the retardation of the water, in passing through the discs, by
means of the hight of the jets sent through the small holes on the top of
the tube. The jet from the first hole was about two feet high ; the next
jet was lower, and so on to the last hole, from which the water barely oozed
■out. The rate in decrease in hight was directly as the number of discs
inserted — that is, the water after passing ten diacs gave a jet only one-
ninth as high as after passing one.

How Change in Direction Affects the Flow of Water.

The Chairman remarked that the principle of retardation, here illustrated,
liad been applied to the pistons of pumps, by cutting around the piston a
series of grooves, close to each other, thus forming what is called a water
packing. It was said, however, not to work as well as was at first expec-
ted. There is need of more light on the action of water in tubes« The old
experiments of Venturi reappear in all new works on hydraulics,, with but
little additional information in the same direction. Not long since, a case
occurred at the Jersey City Water Works relating to the subject now
under discussion. It became necessary to lay down, under the Hackensack
river, for the distance of 1,000 feet, another main pipe of 36 inches internal
diameter. Mayor Cleveland of Jersey City, then a Water Commissioner,
made some important experiments to prove that water was greatly retarded
whenever turned from a right line, even if the pipe be enlarged on the
curves. Doubtless the member from Jersey now present could enlighten
the association on this subject-
Mr. Diron said the proposition was to lay under the river a pipe which
would adjust itself to the bottom by means of from 14 to 18 movable
joints. The position of the pipes, on either side of a joint, may be illus-
trated by supposing two common clay smoking pipes to be laid down in
opposite directions, so that the mouths of their bowls would come together;
these being fastened by a collar, they would be free to move up or down,
and thus such pipes would adjust themselves to the bed of the river. Mr.
Cleveland objected to this plan on the ground that the pipes so laid would
not deliver the quantity required, because the curves would impede the flow
of the water. In order to remedy this, the contractor proposed to enlarge
[Am. I>;st-] V

338 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE,

the pipe at the curves, from 36 to 46 inches in diameter, the pipe being'
broug'ht down to its original size between each curve. This proposition
was approved by several prominent eng-inecrs. Mr. Cleveland objected to
these enlargements; he believed they would increase rather than diminish
the evil complained of In order to demonstrate his statement, he made
the following' experiments: First, he constructed a straight pipe of lead,
36 inches long and one and a half inches internal diameter; second, he
made another pipe extending the same distance, and containing two curves,
so as to carry the water in a direction perpendicular to its first course, then
again in first course thus turning two right angles. The diameter of the
ends of the pipe was l^ inches, and that of the curved part was 1 11-12
inches. Parallel lines drawn through the centre of the two ends were just
2| inches apart. Third, he constructed another pipe containing four curves,
the two curves additional to those in the second pipe, were to bring the
Avater back, so that its entrance and discharg-e were in the same right line.
The curves, in the third pipe, were of the same diameter with those in the
second pipe. The pipe between each two curves, as well as at each end,
was 1| inches in diameter. These pipes were constructed with the greatest
care; the curves were fitted in halves over wooden forms, and soldered on
the outside, the inside being made so smooth as to leave no crease at the
joints. A tank of water was prepared 5 feet 2| inches in diameter at the
top, and two feet deep. A hole was made on the side at the bottom, into
which each of the pipes was in turn fitted. The object being to discharge
precisely the same quantity of water through each pipe, two marks were
made on the inside of the tank, the upper one being the height of the water
at the commencement of the discharge, and the lower one the hight at the
close. The pipe on being inserted was closed at the end, bj"^ clay placed
on the hand, which could be instantly removed on the signal being given;
and instantly restored when the surface of the water in the tank had
reached the lower mark. The experiments of discharging through the
several tubes were made with great care, and afterward repeated, to verify
their accuracy, and the following is the result:

The same quantity of water passed through the straight pipe in 218
seconds; through the one joint pipe in 314 seconds; through the two joint
pipe in 371 seconds.

From this it appears that the increased time required for the f?ow through
the second pipe was over 40 per cent, through the third pipe over 70 per
cent. These experiments decided the question and the proposed plan was
abandoned.

A New Loom.

Mr. Overton stated that a new loom was in operation in this city in
which the ordinary beater was dispensed with. A motion is produced in
which the shuttle is carried backward and forward by a circjilar beater
placed between each thread, so that the transverse thread, forming the
woof or filling, is pressed up by a spring as fast as the shuttle moves.
The objection to the ordinary loom is the concussion made by the beater.
These concussions are so great that where many looms are placed in one
building they have the effect of a concentrated blow, thus shaking the

I

PROCEEDINQS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 66))

whole structure. Buildings containing weaving apparatus must therefore
be made with unusually strong foundations and heavy walls. Tlie object
of the new invention is to remedy the eflect of the boater, which presses
the filling only after the shuttle has passed beyond the warp, by a beater
which o|)erates continuously with the shuttle, thus accomplishing by a
series of pressures what was formerly done by a blow. The new machine
seemed to operate with great precision. The speaker invited the members
to inspect the loom in practical operation. If it has the merits claimed
for it, an entire change in the system of weaving will be effected.

New Steam Experiments.

Dr. Rowell exhibited some indicator cards, made by the new experi-
mental steam engine, at the Metropolitan Mills, and said the members of
the Association would soon be invited to witness its practical operation.

The following interesting items of scientific intelligence were read by
the Chairman:

On Vegetation in Darkness.

M. Boussingault, in a communication to the French Academy of Sciences,
read on ilay 18, gives an account of experiments which prove that the
growth of a plant in the dark is supported entirely at the expense of the
seed.

Phosphorus and Sulphur.

M. Lemoine, in a memoir to the French Academy, gives the chemical
characteristics of a compound made by heating phosphorus and sulphur,
and dissolving them in the bisulphide of carbon. The compound separated
has the formula of 2 P 3 S, which is invariably produced, whatever may
be the quantity of each element employed.

Bromide of Potassium.

Henry Behrend gives, in The London Lancet, several cases in which the
Bromide of Potassium was used, as first recommended to him by Dr. Brown
Sequard, for the purpose of producing drowsiness. It seems to be bene-
ficial in those cases in which the nervous element predominates, and where
opium and its preparations fail to produce any good results.

Imphee.

This Northern sugar cane has been cultivated in Cayuga county, in this
State The yield per acre was from 121 to 180 gallons of sirup.

Ratan Splints

These splints have been invented and used in England for the treatment
of fractures, and other injuries where the use of such appliances are indi-
cated. The}' are constructed of from four to seven pieces of cane cut of
equal lengtli and fixed parallel to each other by means of copper wires
passing through th(; sides at given distances. The advantages of these
splints are their lightness and flexibility, admitting air between the rods,
and thus favoring the functions of the skin.

340 transactions of the american institute.

Coal in Minnesota.

Cannol coal has been found on the Cottonwood river, about 100 miles
from St. Paul. The vein is 88 feet below the surface, and is six feet in
thickness. This discovery is of very great importance to the manufactur-
ing" interests of Minnesota.

A Movable Island.

A party of Eng-lish scientists are stationed in the Mediterranean Sea,
near the coast of Italj'', to watch the nriovements of an island supposed to
be of volcanic origin, which rises almost to the surface, and again sinks
out of sight. >

Rescue of the Apparently Drowned.

The person taken from, the water should be immediately placed horizon-
tally, with the face downward, and one arm brought up so that the fore-
head may rest on it. The tongue should be drawn out so as to leave a free
entrance to the windpipe. If breathing is not soon perceptible the body
should be gently rolled from the position, with the face downward, until it
rests on one side, then back again, this may be repeated once in four or
five seconds. Dr. Sylvester's method of imitating breathing may then be
tried, viz., place the patient on the back on a flat surface, inclined a little
downward; raise and support the liead by a folded dress; let the tongue
be kept out by bringing the teeth of the under jaw against it ; stand at
the patient's head, grasp the arms above the elbows, and draw them gently
above tlie head; keep them there for two or three seconds; by this means
air is drawn into the lungs ; then turn the arms down against the chest
for the same time ; thus the air will be pressed out of the lungs. This
should be repeated about fifteen times in a minute, until a spontaneous
effort to respire is perceived, immediately upon which cease to imitate
the movements of breathing, and proceed to induce circulation and warmth.
Rub the limbs upward, so as to send the blood in the veins to the heart.
Avoid rough usage. Do not allow the body to remain on the back unless
the tongue is out. Never hold the body by the feet. As soon as the power
of swallowing has rciturned, small quantities of wine, brandy and water,
or cofiee may be administered.

Shooting Stars.

Mr. Alexander Herschel, in his first lecture on shooting stars before the
Royal Institution of London on the 2 1st ult., stated tliat ancient philoso-
phers attributed them to inflamed vapors rising from the earth. This
opinion prevailed until the>rise of chemistry. In 1762 Muschcnbrook
ascribed them to exhalations of sulphur. In 1184 Dr. Blagden said a
meteor, which resembled Mars, was produced by the discharge of elec-
tricity. Chiadni was the first to describe these falling stars as cosmical
dust existing in the stellar and solar spaces, and coming occasionally
in contact with the planets. In 1198, lirandes and Brenzenburg, two
students of Gottingen, began the accurate determination ot the hight of
meteors, which was found to vary from 20 to 100 miles above the earth's

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 341

surface. TIic limits of velocity were from 15 to 20 seconds. These mca-
siiromcnts coincide with those of more recent observers. By diagrams
and apparatus the lecturer illustrated the light, color, duration, length,
position and direction of shooting stars.

New Mode of Moving Organ Keys.

In the organ for the Church of St. Augustin, Paris, a substitute is to be
used for the present cumbrous mechanism, which communicates motion
from the ke^'s to the pipes. Electricity is to be employed, and probably iu
a manner somewhat sin7ilar to that applied in looms for weaving.

Coal.

Prof Henry D. Rogers, now of the University of Glasgow, has lately
published a paper on coal and coal mining, from which it appears tliat the
extent of the coal fields of the United States is fifty times that of the coal
fields of Great Britain. According to Mr. E. Hull, about one-half of the
amount in the British coal fields has alreadj'' been consumed. That which
remains is the most inaccessible. Prof. Rogers, after quoting the state-
ment of Sir William Arstrong, that at the present rate of increase in the
annual consumption of coal, the entire quantity of available coal existing
in the British Islands will only last 212 3^ears- and alluding to the fact that
the temperature of the earth increases 1'^ Fahrenheit for every 60 feet of
progress downward, while for every 300 feet there is an increase in the
heat of the air of 1° he proceeds to show that it is possible towork mines
even to the depth of 4,000 feet by forcing into them condensed air, whicli
on expansion will absorb heat and pass rapidly upward through the shafts.
A modification of the French boring machine, which is operated by atmo'
spheric pressure, has been introduced into the mines. By this means the
compressed air forced into the mine is first made to perform the duty of
cutting coal, before it is used for ventilating purposes. Many of the veins
hardly exceed three feet in thickness. Thej'' are worked by the miner
when lying on his side in a very cramped position. In such veins this
ooal-cutting machine will be of great service. But Prof. Roger's, hopeful
statement does not relieve apprehensions with regard to the fate of England,
In his estimates of the present resources, coal to the depth of 4,000 feet is
included, yet at half that depth there is an increase of 40^ in the tempera-
ture, and labor could not be performed there without a supply of colder air.
Ad(| to this the increased cost of pumping water from the mine, the
increased danger of fire-damp, and we see obstacles sufficient to prevent
the working of coal mines below 2,000 feet.

Mr. Joseph Dixon remarked, in rcdation to the feasibility of using atmo-
spheric power at great depths, that l^e remembered reading an account of
an attempt to work a cylinder-bellows at an iron furnace in Wales, by
means of a powerful waterfall one mile and a half distant. The conducting
pipe was of great diameter, air-tight, and smooth within, yet the air forced
through it would hardly blow out a candle. An account of this experiment
may be ft^und in the Franklin Journal, Vol. IX., p. 147.

342 transactions of the american institute.

The Utilization of Waste Products.

The discussion of this subject was resumed this evening' by Mr. Wat soTsv
who presented a number of specimens of writing, drawing, and printing-
paper manufactured from the husks of Indian corn at the Imperial paper
mills, near Vienna. The specimens came directly from the Austrian Consul
in this city, Chas. F. Loosey, Esq., and all the facts relating to the process
of the manufacture were furnished by him. Paper had been made from the
corn plant as early as 1772, but from its cost it could not compete with
paper made from rags. The process now employed at the Imperial mills is
claimed to be near perfection. For some purposes this paper is superior
to that made from rags. Specimens of cloth wer^e also exhibited, manu-
factured from the fibre of the corn husks. It is coarse, but of remarkable
strength. The enameled oil cloth made from this material appeared to be
well adapted to a variety of purposes.

He, Mr. Watson, had seen rolls of a thousand yards in length. The
whole product of the husk is utilized by the Austrian process; that not
used in paper and cloth is fed to cattle. The gluten and starch is pressed
into brick-like cakes which have the desirable property of keeping- fresh
for a long time. They are sometimes used in making bread. Thus we see
there are three distinct articles of use made from the corn husk.

To return to the paper, the first query would be with regard to its cost.
It is cheaper than rag paper, and is constantly sold in competition even at
the great rag depot at Trieste. It has been manufactured at the Imperial
mills since 1860, and is a source of revenue to the Austrian Government.
This fact is sufficient evidence that its manufacture is profitable. The
speaker saw no reason why this paper should not be made in this country
as well as in Austria. As the raw material is here much cheaper and more
abundant, while the price of paper is much higher than in Europe, there
would seem to be no great risk in the experiment. This raw material can
be worked in an ordinary paper mill.

Mr. A. Nash remarked that the strength of the husk was greatest before
the corn was ripe, and in proportion as the corn ripened the streng-th of
the husk was reduced.

Mr. Blanchard said that the strength of flax was diminished in the same
way. The best linen was made from unripe flax. So, too, tlie best tow
cloth is made from unripe hemp.

It was stated in reply that machinery had been perfected for utilizing
the flax, after the seed had been gathered.

Professor Joy remarked that the best evidence of the use of the husk,
after the corn had ripened, is the fact that corn is now the principal food
of the people where the paper is maiiufactmed. He was impressed with
the vast extent of its ctdtivation during his recent visit to Europe. The
moment you cross the boundary line into Switzerland you will find inmiense
corn fields. He had noticed in passing, that the morning, noon and even-
ing repast of the oeasants was a preparation of cornmeal, and he had eaten
it himself, when in fact nothing else could be obtained. Of course, they
allow it to grow until it is perfectly ripe. It would be absurd to think

I
PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 343

ollierwi?e, and tlu? question whether this paper is made from the green
nusk is hurdly wortliy of consideration. Indian corn was sent from this
country into the soutli of Europe in the IGtli century. It is now known
there as the American corn. There was at first the same prejudice against
it that prevailed in Enghmd against oatmeal. It will be remembered that
Dr. Johnson, in giving the definition of oatmeal, said "it was food for men
in Scotland and hor^trs in England." Such prejudices have, however, long
since disappeared. The true home of the American corn is between 20^
south and 35"^ north latitude, but it will grow in some places as far north
as 40", the climate being modified by the oceacj and by altitude. In the
United States the auiount of Indian corn raised in 1859 was over 830,000,-
000 bushfls. Of course, connected with all this, there must be a vast
quantity of refuse matter, which could doubtless be utilized if paper was
manufactured from the husks. The expense of erecting an establishment
as ("Xtensive as the Imperial mills at Vienna would be about $300,00i>.
Prof. Joy closed by iilluding to the use made in this country of straw and
shavings in the manufacture of paper.

Mr. Bartlett said — At present it is found profitable to mix a portion of
straw and wood with the rag stock. He had seen some beautiful
specimens of this kind of paper,

Dr Parmelee said he had lately visited a paper mill which supplied lead-
ing daily newspapers in this city; a large portion of the stock there used
was obtained from straw.

The Chairman remarked that there was no danger of overestimating the
importance of improvements in the manufacture of paper. To the Ameri-
can the newspaper was a necessity. Theie were many among us who could
forego a morning meal, but not a morning paper.

Dr. Richards gave some interesting reminiscences of the late Dr. vSamuel
Mitchell of this city. One of his sayings was that the evidence of a
nation's advancement in civiligation was to be found in the number of rags
consumed by it. In this country the demand for rags is far greater than
the h<»me supply ; we are obliged to import them from Europe in large
(juantities. When Dr. Mitchell was in Congress, many years since, he
labored diligently for tlie repeal of the duty on foreign rags, and was suc-
cessful. Afterward he alluded tothis as the most important act of his life.

The Association being about to take its usual summer vacation. Prof.
Joy moved a vote of thanks to the Chairman for the faithful manner in
which he had performed his duties, which was seconded by Mr. Bull, the
Secretary of tl*e lostiiute, with complinjentary remarks. The motion was
put by Mr. Dixon, and carried unanimously.

Mr. Nash spoke of tlie importance of the complete reports which had
lattcrl}' been made of the meetings of this Association. It was stated that
full reports had appeared in Ihe Neio York Tribune. As the Daily, Semi-
Weekly, and Weekly have a combined circulation of over 200,000 copies,
it was fair t<j conclude that all the scientific intelligence of general interest,
in both the Old and New World, for some months past read before this
Association, has thus been presented to nearly a million of readers.

344 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

On motion of Mr. Adriance, tlie Association adjourned to the secoasl
Thursday of September next, at 7| o'clock p. m.

American Institute PoLYTEcnNic Association, )
Thursday evening, Sept. Sth, 1864. )

Prof. S. D. Tillman in the chair; Benjamin Garvey, Secretary,

Miscellaneous BusinesSc

Mr. J. Bull exhibited a series of photographic Views of prominent places
in Central Citj^, Colorado Territory, made by Mr. Henry Garbanati, of that
place, and presented to the American In-titnte. These views give ns a
better idea of that city than could be obtained from any written descrip-
tion. Mr. B. alluded to other gifts from Mr. Garbanati, and to his letters,
which describe in glowing terms the mineral richness of the conntry and
its future prospects.

Dr. Rowell exhibited a curiosity in the shape of what miglit be called a
bogus California nugget. It was an artificial composition well calculated
to deceive. It had formerly a place in the office of a dealer in mining
stocks.

The following items of scientifie news were then read and elucidated by
the Chairman:

Improvement of the Daniel Battery.

Father Secchi advises the use of fine sand or powdered sulphur in the
porous cell; its constancy is thus increased by preventing the liability to
local action taking place on the zinc. When large porous cells cannot be
easily obtained, he proposes as a substitute bags made of coarse linen
cloth well anointed with a luting of flour and lime.

A Mineral Containing Cgesium.

M. Pisani has discovered that the Elban mineral Pollux contains about
34 per cent, of the new metal Ccesium, It was previously supposed to
contain either potassium or sodium.

New Chromic Salt.

M. E. Kopp announces the discovery of the double chromate of potash
and ammonia, which promises, from the facility with which it is decom-
posed by light, to be of service in photography.

Improvement of Mining Powder.

M. Nobel says, by damping mining powder with nitroglycerin its explo-
sive power is trebled, and the noise of explos^ion is much less tlian when
ordinary powder is used.

proceedings of the polytechnic association. s45
Substitute for Lucifer Matches.

M. Pcltzer proposes, as a substitute for compouuds containing- phos--
phorus, a violet powder, made by mixing a solution of sulphate of copper
saturated with ammonia and an equal volume of the solution of sulphate
of copper saturated with liA'posulpliate of soda. Tiiis powder mixed with
the chlorate of potash will take iire by percussion or rubbing,

Preservation of Chloroform.

V

M. Boeltger finds that fragments of caustic soda in a bottle containing"
chloroform will prevent its decomposition by exposure to sunlight.

New European Uailway.

Tiic railway connecting the capitals of France and Spain has just been
completed. The distance between Paris and Madrid is 840 miles; the time
of passage is 35 hours; the price in a first-class car 165 francs, or about $32,

The Maximum Pressure on Car Wheels Changed by Direction,

Mr. (r. l^artlett asked a question regarding the relative power of the
crank directly above and below the axle in the locomotive, which led to the
discussion of another interesting point b}- the Chairman, proving that the
driving wheels of a locomotive would have the greatest adhesion to the
rail, when under motion, if they were placed forward, so as to sustain the
entire weight of the front end of the locomotive. To further explain his
position, the Chairman drew a diagram on the blackboard, illustrating a
car-brake patented a fjw j'ears ago; there was an action about it mj'ste*
rious at first to the invcntcn', which he would explain. The brake con-*
sists of two similar cone-wliecls, which are pressed into the two wheels of
the truck on the same side. When pressed in far enough the friction will
make the cone-wheels revolve with the ti'uck wheels. These two cone-»
wheels if geared together, would run in opposite direction; but as they are
as far from each othfr as the two truck wheels, two intermediate wheels
were placed between, gearing into the main cone-wheels, so as to compel
them to move in opposite directions; thus arranged they are pressed
against the truck-wheels, and one -or the other wheel would be reversed
instantly. If unning in either direction the hind wheel would always reverse.
To t.-xplain this he drew a parallelogram— the line a b representing the
lower .side, and the line ah the upper. Let the line a b represent the rail
and the point of contact between the rail and the two wheels of the truck
by A and r respectively. Draw the diagonal lines Ab and sa; if ab repre-
sent the momentum of the truck going in either direction, and the perpen-
dicular line AU the weight sustained, the diagonal line represents the sum
of these two forces. When the truck moves in the direction a, the diagonal
A& represents the direction of the united forces; there is, therefore, a

S46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

greater pressure on a than b, and when the direction is from a to B, then
the diagonal a b represents direction of the forces, and the pressure is
greatest at the point b. When the brake is applied sufficiently strong to
cause a reversal, it is evident if the truck-wheels are both of the same size
and weight, that the wheel which would reverse must sustain the least
weight, or, in other words, be held to the track by the least friction.-—
Therefore, in the direction n, the wheel at B would reverse, and in the direc-
tion b, the wheel at a would reverse. This brake was found to be useless
in practice on account of its violent action, but it illustrates verj'^ aptly the
change in the distribution of force with each change of direction.

Oil Wells.

Mr. Overton said he had just returned from the oil region of Pennsyl-
vania, and among the various contrivances used there for raising the oil,
one was novel to him. It consisted of a small iron tube which is passed
down the wells beside another larger tube, and has its lower end bent up
and inserted in the open end of the large tube, leaving a space between the
tubes. Air is forced down the small tube, and rises into the large tube,
the end of which is in the oil. As it rises, it carries with it to the surface
the oil or water. This contrivance was being extensively used; he would be
glad to know whether it w^as a practical and economical plan.

The Chairman said there was a great loss of power in this apparatus;
first, in the power required to condense the air so as to overcome the pres'
sure, increasing with every 80 feet in descent about 16 lbs., this loss is
principally by friction ; second, in the use of this compressed air on the
principle of exciting' motion by parallel currents. Numerous experiments
on record show how much power is wasted by this application of this prin-
ciple of parallel currents. There may be cases where the contrivance
spoken of would be convenient ; and if the cost of power was small, con-
venience might be consulted.

Mr. Bartlett agreed with the chairman in the opinion that there was a
a loss of power in this blowing apparatus.

Mr. Parmalee said that beside the ordinar^^ pump, he has noticed in his
visit to the oil region, a kind of bucket about five feet long, which was
used to raise oil in wells wlien the flow was slov/ and never quite to the
surface.

Mr. Overton stated that on the first opening of some of the wells the
flow of gas was very violent; in some cases the water around the surface
was frozen by the rapid absorption of heat by the liberated gas. Another
singular phenomenon is the reverse of this: the suction sometimes is vio-
lently downwards.

Mr. Garvey was not disposed to believe that the action of the oil wells
was due entirely to gas. The same principle that produced the flow of
water in the artesian well must operate here. The pressure of gas must
be immense to raise water to the height described.

The time for adjournment having arrived, it was agreed to select the
subject of "Petroleum Wells" for the next discussion. Adjourned.

Elccti'o-ITIa^ruei.

347

Electro -poioii Battery.

347

proceedings of the polytechnic association. 347
Great Electro-Magnet.

Tlie Cliainnan illustrated on the blackboard this magnet of which the
following' is a description:

The engraving represents a large magnet constructed for the Free
Academy of this city, by Charles T. and J. W. Chester. Connected with
it are attachments for exhibiting diarnagnetic effects, but the magnet
itself can be easily removed from these attachments, ancf its moveable base,
and can be suspended by a ring, so aa to exhibit its enormous lifting
capacity. The magnet is built in the same manner as small electro-
magnets, by securing straight round bars into a cross flat bar, and if con-
structed by simply bending a round bar into the horse-shoe form, it would
measure five feet in length. The core is of the purest soft iron four inches
in diameter, and is covered with a winding of insulated copper wire, eight
number thirteen wires, being carefully wound on at once. Two hundred
])ounds were used to complete tlie magnet. The armature weighs 80
pounds, and no weight applied to this, thus far, has been able to detach it
during a charge of the magnet.

In the engraving, the magnet is placed upright, and two blocks of iron
(a. a.) are placed upon the magnet faces, and adjusted in position by the
screws (n. i>.) so that the magnet poles can at pleasure be placed at any
required separation, and assume either a flat or pointed shape. The turn
table (c.) is made to drive the copper tube (e.) with great speed. By dia^
magnetic laws, copper placed between the magnetic poles, during a strong
magnetic charge, resists motion and acts as if placed in a demi medium.

The copper tube (e.), rotating freely while the magnet is inactive, becomes
suddenly fixed upon charging the magnet, and if in defiance to the resistance
to motion thus occasioned, sufficient force is applied to rotate the tube it
becomes gradually warmer, and finally so hot aa to boil water and blow
out a cork used tc close the end of the tube. To demonstrate this dia-
rnagnetic influence, in another way, the tube is now removed and the
copper disk, shown just behind it, is brought into the same magnetic
influence. By the wheels (f.) the cord suspending the pyramidal system
of mirrors 13 is twisted, and recovering itself from this torsion imparts
rotation to 13 and at the same time to the copper disk. A beam of light
thrown upon the mirrors is, during their rapid rotation, reflected upon the
walls of the lecture room in an apparent circle. But the instant that the
magnetic influence arrests the rotation of the copper disk, the mirror stops
as if served by the hand, and the arc of light is as suddenly converted
into a stationary spot.

Chester's Electropoin Battery.

This battery consists of gas carbon, artificially prepared, in rods, and
connected with platina wires or platina buttons, and zinc, for the metalic
elements. Chromic acid and sulphuric acid dilute, compose the fluid ele-
ments. It was introduced by Charles T. and J. N. Chester, first experi*
mentally, in Canada, January, 1861, and afterwards in this country, where
it has been almost universally adopted. About 3,000 cups are in use in
this city for telegraph purposes, at a saving of at least one-half the price

348

TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

for batteries formerly'- expended. The following is from tlic report of the
Engineer of the American Telegraph Company, of trials made of this
battery :

" It was subjected to a competition with three other powerful battery
combinations, during GO days, alternating it by using on different lines,
each about 250 miles. Estimate of amount of labor, weights of acici, zinc
and mercury consumed, and galvauometric tests were daily made to estab-
lish uniformity of power.

The experiments, embracing altogether the use of about 320 cells, and
thoroughly carried out under the direction of the engineer of the American
Telegrapli Co., resulted in the following figures:

Consumption of

—

BATTERIES.

Mercury.

Zinc.

Sulph. acid.

Nitric acid.

Elec. fluid.

lbs. oz.

2 9

11 8^

lbs. oz.

1 8

54 8

lbs. oz.
27 8
7.3 6

lbs. oz.

lbs. oz.
52 64

146 113

The original form of the battei'y is still preserved, the only change being
in the mode of making the platina connections. Imitators have endeavored
to nuike up the battery by driving copper wires into the carbon, or by
using a clamp covered with lead, but these connections all became oxidized
and worthless, and have been abandoned. Besides the saving of expense,
the abandonment of nitric acid has preserved the health of operators, and
prevented the fatal corrosion of connecting wires.

On motion adjourned to Thursday evening next.

Amekican Institute Polytechnic Association, )

September 15, 1864. )

Chairman, Prof. S. D. Tillman; Secretary, B. Grarvey.

During the hour devoted to the examination of new inventions and dis-

. I . . .

coveries, the Chairman presented the following interesting items of scientific

nev;s;

Elongation of Electro-Magnets.

A bar of pure wrought iron, within a helix of insulated copper wire, is
very slightly elongated while a current of electricity is passing through the
wire. The instant the current is broken, the bar returns to its original
length. The difference in the length of the bar is too small to be perceived
by the eye, but is made apparent by connecting the bar with a system of
levers. Prof. Tyndal, of the Royal Institution, London, has lately arranged
an apparatus by which this singular phenomenon can be witnessed by a
largo assembly. To the end of the lever of gi-eatest .action he fastens a
small mirror. A powerful light is so placed that a portion of it will be
thrown by the mirror upon an elevated white surface some twenty feet in
diameter. The motion of the light upon it indicates the action of the bar
when the circuit is closed or broken.

proceedings of the polytecnnic association. 349

Harmonies of the Solar System.

Prof. Kirkwood, of the Indiiuia State University, in a paper with this
title, published in the American Journal of Science and Art, has given his
latest deductions on the following subjects:

I. ROTATION OF THE PLANETS.

Under this head he presents views confirmatory of his celebrated "Analo-
gy," announced in 1849, that the square of the number of days in each
planet's year is as the cube of the diameter of its sphere of attraction, in
the nebular hypothesis.

II. PLANETARY DISTANCES.

After showing that Bode's law, so called, fails to represent even approx-
imately the relative distances of Mercury and Neptune, he repeats a state"
ment previously made by him, that the primary planets are arranged in
pairs, the members of which are nearly equal in diameter. Neptnne and
Uranus constitute the first pair; Saturn and Jupiter the second; the Aste-
roids and Mars the third; the Earth and Venus the fourth; finally Mercury
is without a known companion. In each of the three complete pairs, the
first, second and fourth, the densities of the members are very nearly as
their volumes. These facts seem to indicate a similarity in the original
constitution of the members of each pair, and an intimate mutual depend"
ence or connection in their primitive condition. It appeared not improbable
that in the first stages of their history, Neptune (ind Uranus constituted a
system of closely associated rings; Saturn and Jupiter another, &c., and
that the law of planetary distances might be found in the relative situations
of the centers of gyration of those binary rings. In short, his researches
on the subject led to the hypothesis that fhe differences of the radii of gyra-
tion of the jirimitive rngs form a geometrical series.

After examining this hypothesis in relation to the planets, the author
proceeds to apply it to the secondary systems, the satellites of Saturn and
Jupiter.

Relation of the Periodic Comets to the Solar System.

After pointing out the relation of the mean distances of some of the com-
ets with the planets. Prof. Kii'kwood thus concludes: "May not the
exterior secondary rings, thrown off by the planets, have been at too great
a distance to form stable satellites ? and in such case would not detached
portions of the matter revolve around the sun in very eccentric orbits, the
degree of eccentricity depending on the direction of their motion at the
epochs of separation from the secondary system ? If so, the approximate
coincidence between the periods of planets and comets would follow as a
consequence."

On the Distribution of the Dark Lines of the Spectrum.

Prof. Henricks, of the Iowa State University, has studied the distribution
of these lines in elementary bodies, for the purpose of finding the laws
regulating them. Ilis investigations have led him to announce —

I. That the mutual distances of different lines in each separate group are
the multiples of the smallest distance in such group.

350 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

II. The intervals in the different groups may be expressed in very simple
numbers, as I, 2, 3.

III. The difference in the wave-length between the corresponding lines
in a group is the same throughout the whole spectrum.

IV. The principal corresponding lines or groups of lines are equi-distant
in regard to the wave-lengths.

These lines can only have one of the two following sources. They are
either produced by the dimensions of the solid particles, or by the intervals
between them, i. e. their distances. The latter is impossible, for these lines
remain absolutely the same under such different circumstances as cannot
but, to some extent, change the mutual distances of particles. Hence the
lines must be produced by the bulk of the particles or atoms themselves,
and an exact knowledge of these laws and distances must lead us to a
knowledge of the relative dimensions of atoms.

Absinthe.

Concerning this liquid — a decoction of wormwood — used more in Europe
than this country, M. E. Decairne recently made the following statement
before the Academy of Sciences at Paris:

1. In equal doses of the same degree of strength as brandy, absinthe
produces more injurious effects on the animal economy.

2. It causes iutoxication more rapidly, and its influence upon the nervous
system resembles more that of an acrid narcotic poison than that of intoxi-
cation by alcohol.

Color of Emerald.

Several of the Paris Academicians have expressed the opinion that the
color of the Emerald is due to the oxide of Chrome, and not to organic mat-
ter, as had been previously suggested.

Diathermic Compound.

Prof. Tyndall has found that a solution of iodine in the bisulphide of
carbon entirely intercepts the light of the most brilliant flame, yet the heat
of the ultra red ray of the spectrum passes freely through it.

The Electrical Valve.

This is the name of a new apparatus made by Mr. P. lleiss, for obtaining a
deflection of the magnetic needle by the secondary current of the Leyden
battery, which has never before been accomplished.

Petroleum Wells.

The discussion of the subject was opened by Dr. Rowell, who presented
at length the views of Prof. E. W. Evans, of Marietta College, Oliio, regard-
ing the various phenomena observed at petroleum wells in Western Ohio
and Northern Virginia, published in Sllliman's Journal for September, of
which the following is an abridgement:

"The principal supplies of petroleum are not diffused between planes of
stratification, but are collected in cavities where it is loss liable to be car-
ried away by running water. It is common to find large quantities iu

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 351

places whore there are marks of disturbance and displacement of rocks.
The cavities have probably been caused sometimes by uplifts, and some-
times by erosion and the dissolving' action of water; but, wliatevcr maybe
their origin, tliey are not usually of g'reat horizontal extent.

The Wells Vary in Depth.

It is seldom that the neig'hboring wells strike oil at the same depth,
whether the strata be horizontal or dipping. It is one chance out of many
to strike oil at all, even in the neighborhoods where it exists in abundance.
The drill, as it enters the cavity, sinks variously, from four or five inches
to as many feet, sometimes sticking fast, as if between the oblique sides of
a narrow fissure. But there are facts connected with the history of oil
wells, particularl}^ in their intermittent action, and their interference with
one another which serve to show the existence, in many cases, of systems
of cavities connected together by channels cf communication more or
less free, running' sometimes along- the strata and sometimes across them.
The productiveness of a well depends on its entering either one of the main
reservoirs, or some of its important connections.

Isolated Oil Cavities.

Let us begin with the most simple case, that of single or isolated oil
cavity running obliquely upward. Every collection of oil is accompanied
with varying quantities of gas and water, the gas occupying of course the
top of the cavity, and the water the bottom, according to the order of spe-
cific gravities.

1. Suppose a well is bored to enter the top of the cavity. The gas being
in a high state of tension escapes, sometimes with explosive violence, car-
rying out with it whatever water may be collected in the boring. If the
water flows in rapidly, as is usually the case, the oil on its surface is driven
into the lower end of the tube, and may be pumped out until the water
reaches the tube, when mixed oil and water will be drawn. It often hap-
pens that the water rises faster than it can be thus exhausted, and the oil,
dri%'en into tlie very top of the cavity, is lost until the water can be reduced
by machinery of great working power. But as it cannot be driven below
the mouth of the tube, unmixed oil cannot be obtained from the well. In
all wells from whicli the gas has escaped there is, ultimately, a saving of
oil, if the oil is pumped out as rapidly as possible before the intrusion of
water.

2. Suppose the boring enters the cavity at a lower point than where the
gas is held, and enters the oil. In this case the oil enters first in the tube
to a height depending on the tension of the gas above it, a mode of action
which is illustrated by the familiar apparatus called the fountain with con-
densed air. Sometimes it is thrown into the air to the distance of thirty or
forty feet, and large quantities are wasted. If the oil continues to be
ejected till its surface in the cavity descends to the mouth of the tube, the
fact first becomes known by a gurgling sound and a spurting action, and
the gas, or a greater portion of it, escapes, after which the pump becomes
necessary, and the same series of actions take place as in the first case.

do 2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

But if the gas reaches its equilibrium with the hydrostatic pressure before
the oil is reduced so low, we may theu pump out oil till the water rises in
the mouth of the tube, after which mixed oil and water will be obtained
until the supply is exhausted, provided the pump is of sufficient power to
paevent interruptions from the too rapid rise of the water.

3. Suppose the boring strikes the cavity at a still lower point and enters
the water. If the gas has sufficient tension, water is raised until its level,
in the cavity, is below the end of the tube; then mixed oil and water is
obtained, and afterwards pure oil, when the same conditions follow as in
the second case. Sometimes the pressure of the gas will raise the water
only a part of the way up the boring, and yet the well will be found pro-
ductive. The Shattuck well, on the Little Kanawha river, had to be
drained of water, with a steam pump for two weeks before oil was obtained,
but afterwards it yielded abundantly.

Some varieties of action are to be accounted for on the supposition that
there are in the same cavity different collections of gas separated by a
partition from the top.

Intermittent or Replenished Wells.

This class exhibit the same phenomena as the first, but as often as they
are exhausted are replenished again and repeat a certain series of actions
indefinitely, and with considerable regularity of tiuie. This is to be ex-
plained by supposing they are connected with other reservoirs, b}'' slight
channels of communication whose capacity for replenishing is less than that
of the tube for exhausting. The Newton well, on a branch of the Little
Muskingum, a few miles from Marietta, belongs to this class. It repeats
its process, at regular intervals of about a half an hour, expelling about a
barrel of oil each time. When the well stops, it is necessary to pump out
a little water, in order to start it again; then the oil rises spontaneously.
A column of oil will be raised, by a given pressure, so much higher than
the column of water as its specific gravity is less. In this case, the specific
gravity of water being to that of oil as 1000 to 816, the coluum of oil will
be about one-fourth higher than the column of water. This difiercucc is
•sufficient to make it flow over the top of the tube.

Wells on Oil Creek, Pennsylvania.

Here the greatest quantity of oil is found in the same horizontal stratum
of limestone. It would seem that this rock is very porous and penetrated,
like a honey comb, with numerous cells and fissures containing petroleum.
In most of the wells here there is an increase and diminishing of the force
of gas at regular intervals, but without any cessation of force for a long
time. These variations are called the "breathing of the earth." The
regular alterations vary in different wells, from four or five times a day to
as many times an hour. The intervals gradually increase in length as the
supply of oil diminishes; unless, as sometimes happens, new communica-
tions arc forced, and the well, deriving new supplies, starts off again with
a new period. It often happens that some wells has two periods-; one of
variation in the flow, and another of cessation, consequent upon the escape
of gas. It is not an uncommon thing for an intermittent well to throw

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 353

onl, at first, 300 or 400 barrels a day, or to yield in all 20,000 barrels. —
They sometimes run two or three years before exhaustion. The produc-
tiveness (tf the Lewellya well, on the Little Kanawha, greatly exceeded
these figures.

Wells Connected by Free Channels.

Ill this class the passage from one cavity to another being free, where
the eciuilibrium between tliem is disturb(Kl, it is immediately restored. —
Sometimes in the sinking of a new well, in the neighborhood of others, a
fissure in the rock is met with, which carries a. flow of water from the new
well into the others. This evil is remedied by stopping up tigiitly the
space outside of the tube by lowering a bag filled with dry seed to a point
below where the current of water enters; as this water penetrates it, the
seeds swell and close up the passage.

In the eases spoken of thus far, the quantity of gas is supposed to be
considerable; but in many instances it is so slight as to require the con-
stant use of the pump. Yet wells of this character are, t(j some (extent,
intermittent. As it is not usual to work these wells at night, they begin
each day with a new accumulation, which gives them a certain regularity
of daily action, often considered mysterious. There is a well a few miles from
Marietta which yields oil onl^^for a short time in the morning; when neglected
till that time has passed, it is unproductive for the dsiy. This is owing to the
proximity of another well whicli drains its water in the daytime, but, by
resting at night, allows it to bo replenished. In wells of small supply the
quanty of oil is not increased by extending the intervals of cessation of
work beyond a certain time.

General Observations.

Oil wells commonly vary in depth from 100 to 800 feet. The deepest are
as apt to raise water to the surface as the shallowest. This indicates a
greater compression of gases at the greater depth ; owing, doubtless, to
its connection with higher columns of water. The activity of some wells
is increased by rains; that of others, with less gas, is thus retarded. It
nuist not be assumed, however, that their connection with subterranean
currents is immediate and unobstructed. Prof Evans knows of no instance
where there is reason to suppose that the oil is raised to the surface by the
direct pressure of a stream of water, whose head is higher than the issue,
as the jets of the Artesian wells are said to be produced. In spouting
wells, the pressure of the gas, as the immediate agent, becomes known not
only from their variable action, but also from the actual escape of gas, and
consequent cessation of flow whenever tiie oil is reduced to a certain level.
If collections of oil had direct and free connection with strong currents of
water, the mechanical agency of these ciurents would bear them rapidly
away. As it is, minute quantities come to the surface with the springs,
showing a very slow process of drainage. As an index of the location of
oil cavities this sign is not reliable; for that which issues may have been
carried by the streamlets, for miles from its source. Gas springs are less
deceptive signs; for the gas, being more buoyant than the oil, and not
[Am. Inst.] W

354 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

liable to be cari-ied along- by the descending' ciirrents, is not likely to wander
so far before it issues. But the "show of oil*' increases in value, as a sign,
with the depth at which it is found. Especially is the finding of large
quantities of imprisoned gas, though no oil may be present, regarded as a
good indication that there is oil near.

First Use of Petroleum.

Mr. L. B. Page thought the subject of petroleum of so much importance
it might be well to preserve the history of its first introduction into New-
York. Up to 1861 the largest manufactories of coal oil were in the
neighborhood of this city. During that year several thousand barrels of
crude petroleum or rock oil arrived on the opposite side of the North river,
consigned to Messrs. Schieti'elin Brothers & Co. It was not then known
what could be done with this article, but a member of that firm was very
persevering in his endeavors to induce some of the manufacturers of coal
oil to use petroleum in combination with coal in the distillation of oil. He
succeeded in having a trial made with twenty-five per cent, of petroleum
and seventy-five of coal. The result was so satisfactory that the manufac-
turers ventured to try a half and half mixture; then to use 15 percent, of
rock oil to 25 of coal, and finally to discard coal altogether, and distil only
crude petroleum, from which an oil was obtained that answered all the
purposes of coal oil. The products which came from petroleum differed in
proportion from those of coal oil, and the first serious difficulty encountered
was in obtaining an oil in the use of which there was no danger of explo-
sion, by improper mixture of the more volatile portions. This oil, or any
other giving oif vapors, or the ordinary illuminating gas, will cause an
explosion, when the vapors of the oil or when common burning gas is mixed
with from eight to ten times its bulk of atmospheric air. x\s this vapor
would pass off" unseen into the air, many deplorable accidents followed the
exposure of the oil to heat. But this evil was remedied by the dealers in
oil requiring of the manufacturers a heavier oil, and now none is used for
burning except it has been tested by the Baume scale, and found to be below
a certain specific gravity. The low price of this oil at first induced many
to try it, and now its use is very general, in places not supplied with illu-
minating gas.

The Germans should have the credit of being the first in Europe to recog-
nize the economy of using this oil. The largest amount now exported goes
to their country, although its use is being rapidly extended to all parts of
the world. During the present year we have thus far exported twenty mil-
lions of gallons, worth about sixty-three cents per gallon. It will be seen
that at the present rate of exchange this oil can be afforded so low in Eu-
rope as to drive every other oil, or source of light, except coal, out of their
markets.

When it was first found to answer for burning, and that it gave a more
brilliant light than any other fluid, there was great anxiety felt as to the
prospect of a permanent supply; but it was soon demonstrated that this oil,
which in its crude state had long been used as a medicine (that from Bur"
mall under the name of British oil, that from the West as Seneca oil), could
be obtained in any desired quantities, the only condition being to bore for it

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 355

In Canada he liad soon wells whicli produced from three to four thousand
barrels a day, but this oil was found to contain too mucli sulphur for our
refining- establishments. The only kind used for light is from the wells of
Pennsylvania, Ohio and Virginia. New discoveries of it are being' made
almost daily. A well on the shores of Lake Erie gives already about ten
barrels per hour. In some places very pure oil is found. There is a well
called the " Smith Ferris," which produces an oil that can be burned with-
out being subjected to the refining" process. There are many uses to which
the refuse products of the refiners are now put. The principal use of the
naptha or benzine is for making paints and for dissolving India-rubber. An
oil is prepared from petroleum which is employed by curriers in finishing
leather, which is said to be superior to the fish and neat's-foot oil generally
used. The naptha is also used for exti-acting grease from cloth, and in the
process of annealing glass.

The variety of qualities of the oil from different wells is remarkable. He
had in his possessi(jn a heavy oil of only about twenty-five degrees Baume
scale, which has an aromatic odor; it cannot be used for burning, but would
make a valuable lubricating oil. He had witnessed many of the singular
changes in wells described by Prof. Evans. For instance, the Hammond
well discharged five hundred barrels per day, but it soon began to give less
and less proportion of water until it ceased to flow altogether.

In the State of Pennsylvania he had seen more than two thousand aban-
doned wells, but in some the pumps had been again put in operatioij. New
wells were constantly being bored, and the supply was increasing. The
business is now being conducted by a diflTei'ent class of men from those who
commenced it. Tlie great capitalists of the country are making large
investments and buying up the interests of the small dealers.

Mr. G. Bartlett stated that one company were completing a building of
eight hundred feet front, and everything connected with this refinery was
to be on the most gigantic scale. The annual government tax which this
concern will pay will be one million two hundred thousand dollars.

Dr. "W. Rowell exhibited an arraiigen)ent of tubes to illustrate the method
of raising oil described at the last meeting. It consisted of a glass tube
opened at both ends, a smaller tube of glass beside it, had its lower end
bent so as to enter the other tube quite loosely. On placing these tubes
in the water and blowing into the upper end of the small tube, the air
brought up with it the liquid. It seemed to work prettily on a small scale,
but it did not determine the power required to raise a given quantity of
water.

^[r. T. C. Smith remarked, in reference to the apparatus for raising liquids
spoken of, that he had occasion to make inquiries about its cost, and found
that after paying the fee required by the patentee, it would be far more
expensive than the ordinary piston pump.

The conq)arative cost of working this pump was discussed at the last
meeting

Mr. Page alluded to a singular phenomenon which occurred in Rich
count}', twenty-thre(! miles from Parkersburg ; an excavation a few feet
deep was made, and the d:iy sifter oil was found in it. Stones were thrown
up from this opening and afterwards the surface soil in the inmiediato

35G TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

vicinity was found saturatod with oil. From tliis statement it would be
infened that tlie upward force of the oil was nearly strong enough at tliat
point to form a natural spring, and only required the removal of a certain
quantity of the soil to set it in motion.

With regard to the process of distilling the oil, he wished to add that the
specific gravity of crude petroleum is usually about 90deg, Baume; the oil
refined has not quite half that gravit3^ In addition to the lighter products
expelled by heat, there is a heavy residuiun which will, by re-distillation,
produce paraffine, a white substance used in the manufacture of candles,
which are harder than spermaceti and can be used in the warmest climates-
Mr. T. D. Stetson explained a method which had been recently patented
for preventing the oil from evaporating through the pores of wooden casks.
This is done by coating the inside of the barrel with an alkaline solution,
such as hot soap suds; and to prevent the evaporation of this alkaline
preparation, the outside of the l>arrel is covered with a lixed oil. This is
said to remedy a very serious difficulty in the transportation of petroleum.
After remarks b}' Mr. Minthorne and several other gentlemen, the Asso-
ciation selected "Preservation of Fruits" as the subject for the next regu-
lar discussion, and adjourned to Thuisday evening next.

American Institute PoLVTEcnxic Association, )
Sepfember 2'2d, 1864. )

Chairman, Prof. S. D. Tillman; Secretary, B. Garvey.
The following interesting items of scientific news were read by the
chairman:

Esculent Nests.

Dr. Calvert, of London, in a recent lecture on "Chemistry applied to the
Arts," says these curious gelatinous products are not only cinsidered great
delicacies in China and India, but even in Europe, where they realize from
'fifteen to thirty-five dollars per pound. It has long been consideied a
disputed question what is the chemical nature of the substances composing
these nests, which are the product of a peculiar kind of swallow; but Mr.
Payen, by his recent researches, has left no doubt in the minds of Chemists
that it is animal, not vegetable, matter. In fact, it is a peculiar mucous
substance secreted by the bird, and composed of carbon, hydrogen, ox'ygt!»»
nitrogen, and sulphur. P'urther, it is inscduble in ccld water, but soluble
in boiling, and difiers from gelatine and isinglass in that it does not gela-
tinize as it cools.

Respiration of Flowers.

M. Cahours gives in the Complcs Rendus tiie following summary of the
results of his researches:

1. Every flower having odor or not, in a limited space of normal air,
inhales oxygen and exhales carbonic acid gas in variable proportions.

2. Under like circumstances, the proportion of carbonic acid increases
with the temperature.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 357

3 Similar flowers p^onerally produce somewhat more carbonic acid in the
light than in tlie darkneSvS ; nevertheless, in certain cases, the amount is
the same in each of these conditions.

4. WluMi oxyg'en gas is substituted in place of normal air, the diiTerence
is more marked.

5. The pr()p(nlion of carbonic acid is greatest when the development of
the flower is coMimeiicing.

6. Every flower, UA'l in an inert gas, disengages small quantiti(;s of car-
bonic acid.

7. Of the various elements constituting the flower, the parts in which
the greatest vitality resides — the pistil and stamina — are those which cbn-
6ume the most oxygen and produce the greatest quantity of carbonic acid.

Magnus on the Sun.

From recent experiments, M. Magnus concludes that as solid bodies
radiate much more heat than gaseous bodies, solar heat cannot reside in a
photosphere composed of gas or vapors.

Action of Light on Santonin.

M. Scstini states that Santonin crystals, when reduced to powder and
exposed to light, are changed to formic acid and an uncrystallizable sub.
Btance, very soluble in alcohol and ether, also a red resinous substance.

Restoring Nerves.

M. Sangier reports in the Com2^te.^ Rendus the particulars of the suc-
cessful suture of the median nerve of the hand. He believes the same
operation may be performed on the nerves of considerable size.

Destruction of Tumors by Galvanic Action.

M. Nelaton, a surgeon of great celebrity, has reported to the Paris
Academ}' of Sciences the cure of one of the most painful forms of disease
wiiich afllicts human nature. It has long been known that when two needles
cnnnrcted with the poles of a galvanic battery are placed in contact with
the human body, a slight destruction of the tissue occurs; but little import-
ance was attached to the fiict. M. Nelaton, however, conceived the idea
of attempting to destroy tumors by inserting needles in the parasitic mass
and placing them in communication with a powerful voltaic pile. His first
experiment was on a dog. His success led him to try his electro-puncturo
process, as he terms it, on a young man who was a tutor in his own family.
A large vascular tumor, in the roof of the mouth, had resisted the usual
ap|)liances. The needles were first inserted for ten minutes, and a white
frothiness soon made its appearance. The wire was afterwards applied
daily from three to five minutes. Tiie tumor began to diminish, and at the
end of four months the patient was cured without the loss of blood,

A Cheap Carpet.
The Cosrr.os contains a letter from M. D. Thoreau, relating to a pattera
taken from a large tapis entirely due to the work of a group of spiders.

85S TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

in a state of captivity. He thinks it quite possible to produco, by snch
help and without expense, soft and warm carpets. To accomplish this a
number of these working' spiden^ should be confined over a space propor-
tionate to the extent of the work desired.

Preservation of Fruits.

The discussion of this subject was commenced by reading' the following
conununication to the Po^^/('cA?!i6' from Prof. Mapes, "On Preserving and
Ripening Fruits."

At from five to eight degrees Fahrenheit above the freezing' point, fruits
do not lose their peculiar aroma, taste, etc. Below that temperature they
become neutral, turnip-like to the taste ; and much above it they change
flavor and mechanical structure, forming mealy instead of juicy fiesh.

Every fruit, and each of its varieties, has a separate and distinct date at
■which they should be ripened, by being placed in a dark room or closet at
104° Fahrenheit of heat ; when they will change color, varying in their
kinds, being very juicy, sugary, and highly aromatic.

When ripened in the light, or in a partial light, they have less i^avor j
form less sugar — the starchy prf)ximates remaining unaltered ; have less
color, no blush, and are hard at the core.

For dates in ripening, see the catalogues of Villmorin, Andreau & Co.,
Paris, and of Le Pioy & Co., Angers, France ; both, printed in English,
are procurable in this city.

To illustrate the importance of dates in ripening, the following single
example is given. The Duchess D'Angonleme pear, if ripened at the proper
date, is tender-fleshed, luscious und highly aromatic; if at any other time,
it is in a degree turnip-like and tasteless.

FRUITS FOR EXPORT.

Fruit must be gathered from the tree, wrapped in paper, and placed in
the detention house by or before sunrise. If the sun shines on then) for an
hour in the morning, and they are then boxed, while raised in temperature
one or two degrees by the sun's heat, some kinds will ripen at the core and
others at the surface, thus engendering decay ; whereas, if picked and
taken care of, as above directed, the ripening will be even throughout the
mass.

Fruit should be picked on the day the steamer sails by which they are to
be sent, and should be kept in an ice-house until the hour belbre the steamer
starts. The boxes in which they are packed should be peforated on all sides
with holes, and, when carried to tiie vessel, should be covered with damp
cloths, so that the evaporation of the upi)er surface will keep the lower side
cold. Thus fruit can be safely carried four or five days, and be delivered
Bound, even in such mark(;ts as Bermuda.

FRUITS FOR DOMESTIC USE.

Apples, instead of being taken from the cellar for consumption, should be
removed in small lots to a closet alongside of a chimney-stack, kept at 104
deg. of heat, and dark. In a few days they will turn to a bright yellow.
Cool them before eating, and th(^y have many times the value of those dif-
ferently treated.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 359

GATHERING FRUITS.

The shaking of apples and other frnits from trees renders them unfit for
fixport, and indeed for an}' except immediate use. For hmg' keeping and
for export they should be gathered hy hand; pro[ierIy dried so as to part
with six per cent of their water; separately moved by hand, in packing and
unpacking, and never rolled over in barrels; but carefull}' handled so as not
to cause the apex of contact to make sliglit bruises, as all fruit so bruised
is sure to decay in degree if not entirely.

MODES OF PRESERVING.

Free circulation, dry air and low temperatures, such as referred to in the
first part of this article, is tiic best mode of preserving fruits in their natu-
ral statv. They will lessen slightly in weight, but not in bulk. The exos-
tnose action is always periodically active, while the endosmo.se action is
nciirly or quite inactive. Thus an apple immersed in water, instead of
receiving water through the skin, will actually lessen in weight bj' exoa-
mose action. 8ome fruiis, such as cranberries, are preserved by immersion
in water. This is true of goosebea'ies and currants in a degree, particu-
larly of the former.

Dessication.

Within the last few 3'eavs large quantities of vegetables have teen pre-
served for thb use of armies and navii^s. This is done simply by drying
«nder rapid liot blasts of uir. Cabbage will lose 93 per cent ot its weight
by this drying process, and may be pressed into a very gmail space, where
it will keep for years. If thrown into water over night each seven pounds
Avill take \ip ninety-three pounds of water, and again become fit for cooking.
The same operation may be applied to minceil carrots, turnips, beets, pars-
nips, and other vegetables and fruits. With the vegetables the change is
very slight. With fruits it is greater; although not as great as the change
vccurring in the slow snn-drying of apples and peaches.

Potatoes, while being dried during the passage over long belts, under
liot blasts, also i-eceive pressure occasionally from rollers, and when finished
for-n fine flour which may be dusted into boiling water at any time, when
it will take up seventeen times its weight in water, representing mashed
potatoes of superior quality. This potato flour will keep longer, and in
better condition than the ordinary flour from wheat.

Family Receipts for Preserving Fruits and Vegetables.

If the cure of an apple is removed by a tin tube pushed tlirough it, and
the upper and lower ends cut off and re- used as stoppers, th(; space between
them being filled with triple refined sugar, a number of these may be placed
in a tin kettle, covere<J; tliis is immersed for half its depth in another ket-
tle filled with boiling water, which must be placed on the fire and boiled
actively for twenty-five minutes. Then place the apples in a jar, raise its
temperature by immersion in boiling water, so as to drive out the atmos-
phere, K'aving itself filled with vapor, and then seak While so conditioned
tin- fruit will keep well so long as the atmosphere is excluded, or, in other
word.s, while the fruit remains in vacuo. This method is applicable to
quinces, pears, lemons, limes, oranges, and many other kinds of fruit The

3G0 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

snji^ar will pervade all the llesh}^ portions of the fruits, and will not injure
tlieir flavor; and tliey will have more the taste of fruits freshly cut up in
sugar.

All other modes of preserving- are dependent upon one of two conditions;
being cooked with large amounts of sugar like ordinary sweetmeats; or,
being put up with very small portions of sugar, forming weak syrups, and
simmered in jars, so as to enable their being sealed in a vacuum. These
two consiitntc the entire category of methods, varying but slightly.

Preserving Vegetables for Winter Use.

Siring Beans. — String them, break them into short pieces, lay them into-
a barrel in alternaic layers of half an inch Ihick, with Turk's island salt or
any hard crystalline salt, such as is preferred for butter-making and free
from bittern. Fut on the top the head of a barrel covered with a flat stone.
A liquid will exude from the beans, but no water must be added. During
winter place these on a sieve, permit the fluid to run off, soak them over
night in fresh water, and cook them the next day in the usual way. They
cannot be told from freshly grown beans. This process will not do for
Lima or other shell beans.

Oreen Corn. — For preserving, the Stowell's evergreen and the Buckland
mammoth are the best. Suspejid the ears in a net, immersed in boiling
water, long enough to stiiHen the milk of the corn — cooking the albumen;
then lake them out, husk them, shave the corn from the cob with a very
sharp knife, and place it in cans or jars, immerse these jars to two-thirds
their depth in boiling water, and seal while hot, so as to insure a vacuum.

Many vegetables may be preserved in this manner; indeed, almost all
the entire line of kitchen vegetables, including shell beans, peas, etc. All
vegetables for preserving should be young. The petit pois of France are
imported here in cans, and are a good example of the superiority of younger
vegetables.

Many vegetables, including mushrooms, may be preserved by placing
them in cans with water and inti'oducing a sing-le crystal of citric acid,
heating the mass slightly aiul sealing in a vacuum. When removed from
the cans during Avinter, the water with the acid may be thrown away, and
the slight quantity of citric acid remaining in the vegetable will be entirely
removed by boilir)g.

All preserved fruit and vegetables should be kept where the temperature
is most equable, not subject to sudden changes; hanging shelves in cellars
are api)r(;priale.

Ahuison Nash, Esq., said that as far as his experience went he found the
best way to pi-eserve all kinds of fruit was to keep them at a very low
temperature, but not low enough to destroy the ciystalixation of tlie fruit.
The best plan for preserving is to keep them under the ground just below
■where the frost reaches. lie had picked up apples from the ground after
snow had fallen, and placed them in straw during freezing weather, and ho
found they made the best of cider.

Mr. Nathan C. Ely remarked, with regard to cider, he had observed that
made from apples gathered in December partook of the character of crab-

PROCEEDINGS OF THS POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATIRN. 361

apple cider. He had practiced the nictliods vecomnicnded by Professor
Mtipcs for ripeniiij? fruit: he placed tliein in a larp^e room, liaviDg- its
blinds closed, in rows npon blankets on tlie floor, and gave tliem a coverinj^
of blankets. Tiiey are turned over once a week, and as they ripen are
taken out. The instrument spoken of by Prof. Mapes for corin;>- the apple
is just larg-c enough to take out all the seed, and can be bought for a trifle.

Mr. James Ilogg, florist, gave some of the results of his large; exp(Mience.
The things he had labored to accomplish was to preserve the fruit m its
natural state, wiih its fresh flavor imimpaired, but ho had not succeeded,
and he did not believe it ever would be done. Apples and pears we may
have fresh by selecting varieties that will ripen at dill'eient periods, ..the
latest kinds lasting till the earliest of the succeeding year !)egin to ripen.
Hut the mon^ perishable fruits, such as strawberries and cliei'ries, can bo
can be kept only by methods which to a great extent destroy their flavor.

The plan of keeping fruits at tlie particular temperature spoken of by
Prof. Mapes was patented some time ago, and the patent for this vicinity
was sold for $0,000. The purchasers erected a large establishment on
Brooklyn Heights, in which ice kept the temperature at a proper degree.
The first season a cargo of pineapples was placed in the cellar; but they
were so warm the ice melted and the fruit rotted Tiie next season they
cooled the fruit before depositing it in the cellars, and pineapples and
lemons were kept in a sound state throughout the season. Tliey lacked
flavor, however and the plan was soon abandoned.

He had tried the air-tight can, but the flavor of the fresh fruit is not so
retained, and tiie fruit becomes tough. Fermentation goes on slowly in
the can — indeed, it commences while the fruit is on the tree. If cui'rants
become what we call over ripe they do not rot, but dry on the Imshes with-
out decaying; yet a fermentation takes place which converts the sugar into
acid, and they become excessively sour. Grapes are IVcquently soured in
the same way, from having their roofs surrounded with stagnant water. —
Many persons have noticed on boxes of imported grapes the word "Elixir;"
it means they have been dipped in a preparation of lye for preserving
them; they are the second (juality of grapes. In France there is a pear
called the Crassane, which they put on an iron disk and into an oven, and,
when about half d(,ne, they are placed on a board and pressed, and after-
wards dried. When these are thrown into hot water lliey swell up and
make a very delicious dish. In Chicago an experiment is being tried on a
large scale for preserving fruit in separate iron apartments, resembling
boilers, into which the fruit is put through man-holes. The air is to be
exhausted and the moisture absorbed by chemicals.

The difficulty in preserving fruit is that the essential oils which are the
source (jf flavor act upon each other, and there is always oxygen enough
left to start this action. When the oxygen is removed the change is less,
but the fruit, although whole, will be tough and tasteless.

John M. Heed remarked, that potatoes are kept on board of a ship during
a three years' whaling voyage by immersing them in molasses.

Mr. Hogg, said, in England they expose potatoes to the fumes of sulphur,
and in this way they will keep two or three years. The object in placing
potatoes in molasses is to keep them where they cannot be acted on by

362 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

acids. In drying fruits they should never be exposed to the direct rays of
the sun. In his opinion dried peaches were preferable to those preserved
in cans.

Dr. Rowell stated that some time ag'o he purchased a bunch of. dried
peaches having the precise flavor of freshly picked fruit — they were pared,
quartered, and strung on threads so as not to touch each other. Heexhibi'
ted a self-sealing can Vvhich he had used for the past fourteen years — it
was made of earthernwarc and lined with glass. The cover was ground
to fit the top, and was tightened by turning it.

Mr. AVatson exhibited a small jar of fruit which he said would keep fv.r
two years. He did not believe there was so great a change in the flavor of
canned fruit as had been previously stated.

The Chairman said great improvement had been made in glass jars by
casting a thread in the glass. Such jars arc used for fruit. The pepper
cruet of an ordinary table caster, haviiig its cover held on b}' a glass thread,
cannot discharge its whole contents at once on the dinner plate.

Mr. T. D. Stetson described minutely the manner of filling and scaling
these cans for preserving fruit.

Dr. D. D. Parmelee gave an interesting account of experiments he had
tried in covering fruit with a thin coating of India rubber; decay was not
prevented by tin's process. If india rubber rings are used to keep cans
air-tight, they should be made with as little sulphur as possible in the pro-
cess of vulcanization.

After selecting "The Manufacture of Gloves" as the subject for the next
discussion, the association adjourned to next Thursday evening.

Amepjcan Institute Polytf.ciixic Association', )
Oclubej- 6, 18 64. )

Chairman, Prof. S. D. Tillman; Secretary, B. Garve}-.
The Chairman presented the following interesting scientific memoranda:

Revelations of the Spectrum.

Father Secchi, of Rome, in a memoir to the Paris Academy of Science
gives the results of his observations on the atmosphere of the planet Jupiter
by the spectrum apparatus. The lines differ from those found in our own
atmosphere, and he infers that the two atmospheres are essentially different
in their chemical constitution

Velocity of Electricity.

M. Peliei, of Pisa, has measured with his new apparatus the velocity of
electricity, and finds it to be 2Gt),000 kilometers per second. A kilometer
is .0213 of an American mile.

New Polarizing Prism.

This contrivance, made under the direction of Prof. Dove, consists of an
isosceles right-angled pridin of calc-spar, one of whose sides is perpendicu-
lar and the other parallel to the optic axis of the crystal, and therefore the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 363

liypothemise side is at an angle of 45** with it. This rhombohcdron surface
occupies the axis of the poUirizing' apparatus instead of the Nicol prism.
The light thus snfTers two refractions at the equal surfaces, and one reflec-
tion at the hypothenuse surface.

This instrument is said to be well adapted for experiments in the polar-
ization of heat as well as ligiit.

Molecular Structure.

M. D. Gernez describes experiments made by him on the rotary polarizing
power of the essences of turpeiiliiie and camph(jr, from wliich he concludes
that when these liquids vaporize, their molecular structure undergoes no
change.

Potash from the Jersey Green Sand.

i[r. G. J. Scattergood has described a process for extracting 10 or 12 per
cent, of potash from the marl or green sand of New Jersey; but this source
of potash is not as available as common wood ashes.

Saltpetre.

Jf. Boussingault, in describing before the Paris Acadcmj-- of Sciences the
Saltpctn; works of Tacunga, remarks that nitrate of potash or saltpetre is
spread throughout Nature with astonishing profusion. It is found in rain,
snow, hail, dew, fog, and in fresh and salt water. Wherever a body is
burnt in the atmosphere, the oxidation of nitrogen and the formation of a
nitrate generally takes place. Nevertheless, Nitre is present everywhere
only in very small quantities. The places where it is found in abundance
are very rare, the only known spot where it attains the proportions of a
nn"neral stratum being the Province of Zarapaca in Peru. Whenever it
ajipears spontaneously, the diverse circumstances all denote the interven-
tion of organic matters. A dry air and long periods with rain are indis-
pensable to its formation, also the presence of decomposed feldspar, yield-
ing the requisite potash.

Soda in Coal Gas.

Prof. Vogal, of Munich, has examined with the spectroscope the coal gaa
supplied in that city, and found in tlie spectrum the p«le soda lime, which
was not ol)served after the gas had been passed through sulphuric acid.
On examining a copper burner which had been in use a year, he detected
the sulphate of soda.

Action of Marsh Gas on Metallic Oxides.

Jf. Midler has submitted the oxides of Iron, Manganese, Cobalt and Lead
to the action of a stream of niarsii gas, which is a combination of two cqm'v-
alents of carbon with three of hydrogen. lie found the action of tiie gas
was in all cases reducing. As carbon could not be detected in the sub-
stances formed, he concludes that at a red iieat the affinity of the metula
for liie carbon of the gas is inconsiderable.

364 transactions of the american institute.

Ozone.

M. R. Beettgcr has obtained a continuous source of ozone by combining
in a capsule of porcelain at ordinary temperature, by means of a glass rod,
two parts, troy weiyht, of perfectly dry permanganate of potash with tliree
parts of hydratcd sulphuric acid. When the mixture is introduced into a
large flask with a glass stoiiper, Ozone is continuously produced by the
decomposition of the permanganate of potash.

In reply to a query regarding the nature of ozone, the Chairman said it
is now believed to be an allotropic condition of oxygen. It is much denser
than ordinary oxygen, and is distinguished by a peculiar odor. Schonboin,
its discoverer, supposes ox^'^gen to exist in two forms, ozone and antozoiie,
having opposite polarities.

Miscellaneous business being still in order, the following queetions were
discussed:

Paper Collars.

Mr. Jireh Bull stated that, during a recent visit to Ballston Spa, he was
politely invited by Mr. I. M. Crane, an intelligent and enterprising citizen
of that place, to visit a paper mill owned and operated by him. It is one
of a great number v/liich in manufacturing different fabrics utilize the
liydraulic power of a stream or creek retaining the Indian name of Kayad-
er(jsseras. It takes its vise in the high lands of the town of Corinth, Sara-
toga county, about ten miles north of Ballston Spa, and empties into
Saratoga Lake. Its length in a straight line is about twenty-five miles.
On this stream are located eight paper mills, three of wliich manufacture
printing paper, using principally as raw material straw, combined with
other fibrous substances found in junk shops in this city, such as worn out
cordage and decayed sails of vessels. These three mills make in the aggre-
gate from five to six tons of paper daily, and from one of which the New
York Sun is supplied. But the paper manufactured by Mr. Crane is for a
very different purpose. Mr. Bull exhibited some specimens of collars for
men and woinens' wear made from the paper manufactured at this mill,
which attracted considerable attention. It is made of the thickness of fine
linen, and is a pure white. It leaves the mill in sheets of uniform size, and
is sent to the city of Troy, where, by means of nicely adjusted machinery,
it is manufactured into collars, with requisite button holes, and indentations
resembling fine stitching well calculated to deceive all but critical eyes.
It is not perhaps generally knov/n that these collars arc regarded with
great favor by the economical classes, and arc also greatly in use by our
brave soldiers, and gallant sailors of the navy. Two of these collars fre-
quently last a week. They are sold at retail in this market, under the
present high price of paper at thirty cents a dozen. 'Mv. Crane's mill con-
tains two engines, and he manufactures of this paper a half a ton per diem.

The Rachette Furnace.

Mr. A. L. Fleury illustrated on the black-board and described the Uni-
versal blast and Smelting furnace invented by Major General W. Rachette^
of Russia. A number of these furnaces were built under the superintendence

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 3G5

of tlio Minin^i^ Engineer, Mr. Charles Aubel, at the Iron and Copper Smelt-
ing- Works of Prince Dcniidoft', in Nishnc Tagiisk, at the foot of the Ural
Mtiuntains. After three years of suecessful practice, the same engineer
introduced the furnace into Germany, where it has been liighly approved.
It Ins been patented in this country, as well as in the prominent kingdoms
of Europe. It is called tlie "universal" furnace because with but slight
nitHlilications it can be succ(\^.sfully used in smelting iron, copper, nickel,
tin, lead, silver, gold, and other ores. Also, for the direct production of
caststeel, and the liquefaction of metals in general.

The tranverse section of this furnace is a parallelogram. The hearth is
usually three feet by eighteen in extent, and the width of the chamber
gradually increases to the top, where it is seven feet. The height is about
thirty feet. There arc twelve tuyeres, six on each side, alternating at
regular intervals of about two feet. It is claimed that this arrangement
gives a more perfect melting zone tlian is found in the ordinary furnace,
and that there is a great saving of fuel and time in the reduction of ores, as
well as expense, in erecting such a furnace.

Dr. D. D. Parmelee thought the material saved in not building the furnace
so high as those now used, would not make np for the increased amount
required to give the same capacity as the circular furnace, because of all
figures of the same dimensions the circle includes the greatest area.

The Chairman remarked it would require more power to drive the same
quantity of air through twelve tuyeres than through four, as is usually
done; still this increase of power to produce the blast need not be taken
into serious consideration if there is a saving of time and coal in the
reduction of the ore. He hoped there would be soon such a practical
application of the method in this country as would test its efficiency and
economy.

New Gold Separatee.

5Ir. Floury also presented illustrations of Dr. A. W. Hall's qnartz-crusli-
ing and amalgamating machinery. After reducing the ore to an impalpa-
ble povvder it is united in the trough with the (|nicksilver, but to complete
the work, by gathering the invisible golden scales that accurately float in
the water, the liquid is drawn out of the trough by means of a syphon, the
bottom of which is bent upwards and contains mercury ; the pressure on
the column of water in the syphon causes it to pass through the mercury,
which, it is claimed, will arrest the remaining particles of gold. Mr.
Fleury illustrated, with a glass syphon, water, and mercury, this part of
the apparatus.

In discussing its efficacy, the Chairman said there must be considerable
dittereiice between the height of the bottom of the trough and the place of
final discharge to make it eifectivo; and were it reciuisite to again lift the
water, to discharge it from the building, it would be more economical to
force the gold-bearing water, in fine jets, through the mercury, by other
means than the syphon.

Mr. Clinton Rosovelt, Mr. Fleury, and others, offered suggestions touch-
ing the cause which allows water to suspend in it a metal having nineteen
times its specific graviiy.

366 transactions of the american institute.

The Manufacture of Gloves.

The discussion of this question was opened with the following remarks
from tlie Chairman:

Glovt.^ originated in comparatively modern times. Tlie word Glove is
from tlie -Saxon, Glof. It has no synonym. Lexicons of dead languages
contain no corresi)onding term; and on no relic of ancient art is found a
represeiitalion of this article of dress. Among the Greeks of the Ilonierian
ao^e a covering to protect the hand while doing certain kinds of labor was
us.-d. A passage in the 2ith hook of the " Odyssey" contains an allusion
to it in the description of the dress of the father of Ulysses, as he appeared
in his garden. Cowper thus renders it:

" In that utnbragcoiis spot he found alono
Laertes, with his hoe clearing a plant;
Sordid his tunic was, with many a patch
Mended unseemly; leathern were his greaves
Thong-tied and also patched, a frail defence
Against sharp thorns, while gloves secured his hands
From brier-points, and on his head he bore
A goat-skin casque; nourishing hopeless woo."

The glove of Laertes was similar to our mitten, and probably the Per-
sians, whom Xenophon speaks of as effeminate, wore the same in winter.

The ceslus, used by the; boxers of Greece and Rome, consisted of thongs
of ox-hide of leather, wound around the hand and arm, and extending to
the elbow. Flin}' the younger mentions manicoe — mittens — worn b}' the
Komans to protect their hauda against the cold. For the performance of
certain manual operations these were made with digitalia — fingers.

It is not unlikely mittens came into general use in the colder climates of
Northern Europe, and that the first improvement on them was a separate
sheath for the Jbrefinger as well as the thumb. Similar lialt-mittens are
now sometimes worn by those engaged in out-door work which requires
the quick action of a single finger.

The complete glove was worn by the dignitaries of the Church subse-
quent to the dark ages, and thereafter it played an important part in all
notable events, from the coronation of a king to the offering of a challenge.
It was used as a pledge in the conclusion of a contract, and in the transfer
of land it implied full and undisputed possession.

In the days of chivalry, the lady gave the faithful knight her glo's-e to
wear in his helmet as a token of her favor. And ever since those times it
has been an indisi)ensable article of her dress.

The coverings for the hand now used may bo classified as follows:

1. Mils, which cover only the palm and back of the hand, thus allowing
the free use of the fingers in tlie most delicate manual operations.

2. Mittens, worn in the coldest weather, and then preferable because the
direct contact of all the fingers tends to equalize the circulation of the
blood.

3. Gloves, covering each finger and the hand to the wrist.

4. Ilalf-gauntlets, covering the hand and wrist.

5. Gauntlets, covering the hands, wrists and a portion of the arm.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 367

TIio materials used in tlio inaiuifacturc of these h:\nd-coverings uro
leatlief, silk, cotton, wool, i'nv and India-rubber. The first step to be con-
eidered is

THE PREPARATION OF SKINS.

Skins for the glover's use arc prepared b}' compounds quite diDTerent from
those employed in the ordinary' process of tanning*. In the place of tannic
acid a niixttire of alum and common salt is substituted, and the skins thus
prepared are said to be tawed. The old process for removing the hair from
the .skin, previous to tawing, was to use a solution of lime — by some manu-
facturers the sulphide of arsenic was added to the solution; but as the
use of this j)oisonous compound, commonly known as orpiment, was only
to form the sulphide of calcium, to which the rapid_ unhairing is due, the
following substitute has been proposed, viz : three parts of sulphide of
sodium, ten parts of slacked lime and ten parts of starch. The sulphide
of lime may be used in place of the sodium com|)ound. To remove any
lime remaining on the skijis after being subjected to this process, they are
placed in a bran bath or in a weak solution of snl[jhnric acid, after which
they are ready for the alnm and salt solution. According to Berzelius, the
chloride of alumnium, resulting from this solution, is the preservative
agent. A similar solution, containing also rye flour and cgga, is subse-
quenlly used for a few hours, after which the skins are removed and dried.
They arc softened by means of an iron tool and whitened by rubbing them,
while stretched on a frame, with pumice stone.

There is another process to which the Chamoise skin may be subjected
for the purpose of preventing putrefaction. After the skins have been
properly fulled the}' are placed on a table and covered with an animal oil —
generally sperm — rolled together and again subjected to the action of the
falling mill. The whole process is again repeated, after which the skins
are hung in a moderately heated room, when a slight fermentation takes
place, and the organic matter, thus modified, unites more readily with tl'.e
oil, and forms a permanent combination. It has been proposed to modify
this process by mixing r^'o tlour with the fatty matter which, after under-
going slight fermentation, seems to unite more readil}' with the gelatin
than neutral fats.

To render this leather soft and' fit for the glove-maker it is rubbed with a
solution of soap and water, rape-seed oil and eggs, A pulp made of
animals' branis may be advantageously substituted for the eggs. This
wash imparts to the leather the peculiar properties belonging to this class
alone. When dried it is subjected to the coloring process. The common
process for bleaching skins for the glover's use was, until recently, to sub-
mit them to the fumes of burning sulphur. The object is more completely
accomplished by placing them for two days in a weak solution of neutral
hypochlorite of soda; after being cleaned and dr^'ed, a wash of soap and
oil is again applied.

Another method is to dip the skins into a solution of permanganate of pot-
ash; after being washed they are placed in a solution of sulphurous acid
— sulphuric acid is formed, which unites with the oxide of manganese
remaining in the skin, forming a soluble compound readily removed.

The goat and kid skins used for gloves are imported from South Ameri ca

368 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mcxicf), the West Indies, India, and the Islands of the Pacific. The sheep
of Cape of Good Hope fni'tiish a skin nearly equal to the kid. The deer
skins used here are mostly obtained on this continent.

CUTTING THE SKIN.

After the skin passes into the hands of the glove-maker, it is stretched
on a piece of marble and rendered uniform with a blunt knife. The skin is
then dampened and sounded with a view of discovei-ing faults and blemishes,
60 tiiat they may be avoided in cutting' out, or placed in the least promi-
nent parts o' the glove. There are regular scales of sizes for inen'f and
women's gloves, and for the width of the thumb pieces, which are cut out
at the same time. When the skin is spread out to the utmost the cutting
is commenced. The patterns arc so placed that the width of the glove may
be taken across the narrow part of the skin. The French workman is
exceedingly expert in cutting skins to the best advantage. Obtaining even
one pair extra, in a dozen skins by adroitly using the patterns, effects a
great saving in the aggregate. For instance, in France, where the number
of skins of all kinds us(;d annually is about 400,000 dozen.

In cutting, not only the shape of the glove to be made, but the color of
it, must be taken into consideration. The details of the cutting operation
may be enumerated in the following steps:

1. To cut the skin longitudinally in two parts.

2. To divide each half into pieces of proper width and length for the
hand.

3. To double the parts for the front and back of the glove; allowing a
little more width to the back than the front.

4. To make the slits for the fingers.

5. To form the gussets to be used between the fingers.
G. To form the thumb piece.

7. T(j cut the hole into which the thumb piece is to be fitted. This re-
quires great skill in order to prevent a fullness or puckering in this part
of the glove. These holes vary in shape, in different masiul'acttn'ies, but
they are all varieties of the rhomboid.

'J'he sewing of the gloves is connnenced by carefully inserting the thumb
piece, after which the two parts are brought accurately together, and the
long seam, running from the wrist to the tip ot the little finger, is com-
pleted. The outside seam of each gusset is in turn then made, the whole
being contiiUKuis to the forefinger, from which pouit, after properl}' shaping
the lingers, tlie seam on the inside is made, and the little triangular pieces,
which give greater freedom to the fingers, are inserted; the wrist is then
hemmed and the button hole made, if required.

The French manufacturers of kid gloves use an ingenious machine in the
BBwing operation. It consists of a vice of iron, having the upper edges of
each jaw lined with strips of brass, cut into teeth like a comb, which are
of equal width and only ono-twclfth ol' an inch in hmgth. One of the jaws
is stationary, and the other moves on a hinge at its base, and is so ar-
ranged that it is closed by sjjrings, and opened when the foot of the sewer
presses a lever. Into this vice the two parts of the glove are placed, and
the sewer passes the needle rapidly between the teeth of the brass plate,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 369

ami when the work is conipli'tcd tlif stitelios are found to bo uniform. Tlie
top of the vice may be displaced and parts substitut(Hl conforming in out-
line with the direction of the seam to be mudc After tlie sewing is linished
tile glove is stretched, then placed in a dump linen cloth and beaten, to
render it soft. The (inal t)peration is pressing.

TUo gloves manufactured in this country are designed more for comfort
than ornament. A' hirge uiajority of them are made in Fulton county, in
tlie Slate of New York, in several villages nortii of the Mohawk valley.
Thert> are also largo glove establishments in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts
and Connecticut. The sewing machine has been used to a considei-able
e.Ktent in this manufacture. Some of the glove makers of large capital, it
is said, are about commencing the manufacture of fine kids, in competition
with the Fri-nch and Germans, who have thus far supplied our market.

On conchuling his remarks, the Chairman asked for information as to
the mode of making knit gloves.

Dr. Joseph W. Richards, in reply to the query whether there was a ma-
chine for knitting gloves whole, said a lady sitting at his side requested
him to state there was such a machine, which she had seen working in
Rensselaer county, in this State; and while on the floor he would add that
he had investigated the subject of peltry, and had visited the large glove
making establishments in Fulton county^ The business is thoroughly
understood there, and that is the secret of their success. Attempts have
been made, in what seemed more favorable localities, to compete wutli
them, but without success.

Glove making originated in Johnstown, and was owing to the fact that
Sir ^Yilliam Johnson, the Indian Agent of the British Government, resided
then' before the Revolution. Skins of all kinds, particularly deer skins,
were brought there by the Indians. The first article manufactured there
wius the deer skin mitten. From this small beginning arose tR(; glove trade
and several thriving villages devoted to it. The amount annually manu-
fjfctured n'<w exceeds a million of dollars. The sewing of the gloves is
done in the families of farmers throughout the whole county. The cheap
labor there, as well as in many other parts of our countr}', is owing to the
fact that the work is done by a class who Jiave already their support at
home, and take up this to furnish themselves with what is technically
called pin money.

The nature of the skin fit for gloves involves some interesting points.
The best ghjves ore made from the skins of animals which are covered with
hair, as distinguished from those covered with fur or wool. The deer skins
used are mostly from this continent, and those preferred are from the
northern part of it. All hairy skins are not fit for gloves; for instance, the
skin of the hog, used in the manufacture of saddles, is not included among
the class used by glove makers. On the other hand, the skin of the horse
and the dog make a very fair article. A skin tanned with the hair on is
more nearl}' water proof than when the hair has been removed. The best
skins used by tanners arc from the finest breed of cattle.

There are other features of the skin bearing upon its fitness for gloves
besides its pilous covering. One of these is the relative thickness of the

LAm. Inst.] X

370 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

diffeient portions of the same skin. Whole stocks of animals, whether
wild or tame, are distino-uished by this characteristic. The relative thick-
ness of dilferent parts of the skin will also vary in the different ag-es of the
same animal. The immense stock of small animals in this country will
doubtless be devoted to this branch of manufacture. Formerly, it was the
custom in Fulton county to use the thicker portions of skins not suited for
gloves in the manufacture of moccasins.

The use of gloves is one sign of civilization, and where they are most
common, civilization is highesi. There are more gloves used in this coun-
try than any other. There is a very prevalent opinion that they are mere
articles of fashion, but it might be shown that during the greater part of
the year they are of real service to all classes, and particularly to the medi-
cal profession, whose sense of touch cannot be too delicate.

Mr. Nieman, a glove manufacturer, said the skins of the animals which
accompany civilization are preferred to those of wild animals; and the more
domesticated the animal is, the better the skin. Those of greatest agility,
as a general rule, have the toiighest skin. There is a strict law connecting
the age of the animal with the texture of the skin. The kid, after he has
comnienced eating grass, is not worth one-quarter as much as before for
our purpose. This depreciation is instantly detected by dealers in skins.
In regard to the prevailing idea that rat skins are used in the manufacture
of fine gloves, he would say he had imported some, but could not dispose
of them.

Mr. Nathan C. Ely stated he had read that a large sum of money had
been paid to the authorities of Paris for the privilege of catching the rats
in the great sewers of that city, and it was understood their skins are used
by glove-makers. The finest kind of ladies' gloves is made from the skin
of the unborn kid.

Dr. J. B. Rich remarked that he had, some years ago, visited some of the
glove establishments in Paris. He did Hot learn that the rat skin was then
used. To make a good glove the wh(de skin used should be equal in tex-
ture, and we know that of the rat does not possess this quality. When the
skin is larger this evenness is more readily obtained. To make a glove to
satisfy the fastidious taste of .a Paris lady requires great skill and labor.
Some establishments have such a reputation for making gloves of fashiona-
ble shape and color, they seldom supply the demand. The labor used for
this work in Paris is vcrj'^ cheap, and he concluded it would be long before
we would be able to compete with them in this particular branch of manu-
facture.

Mr. Garvey, the secretary, said the finest gloves he had ever seen were
made in Limerick, Ireland. They were so thin and delicate that they were
packed in walnut shells. They were always bought up rapidl}^, and he
had never seen them in the Dnblin market. The French government has
made many experiments in utilizing refuse matter, and among the rest, rat
skins; but he did not learn that they had been successful with them.

Dr. D. D. Parmelee exhibited some beautiful specimens of gloves of dog
skin and of India rubber, manufactured in this country. The latter ai e used
by chemists and others who wish to protect their hands in the use of cer-
tain fluids. Ladies also find them serviceable in performing household

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 371

duties. Tlie Doctor also spoke of tlie gloves used by chemists, uiado from
the iniiuM-al asbestos. It lias the appearauce of a iibrous substance; it is
woven with cotton thread, and after the glove is made the thread is burnt
out and the fire-proof material remains.

Mr. G. Bartlett thought the impression that line gloves were not made in
this country should be corrected. He understood that a leading tirm of
this city manufactured all tlieir own gloves, which ai/e said to be equal to
tliosc made in Paris.

After selecting "The New Pneumatic Railway" as the subject for the
next discussion, the Association adjourned to Thursda}' evening next.

American Lvstitcte Polytechnic Association, )
October 13, 18(34. j
Chairman, Prof. S. D. Tillman; Secretary, Mr. B. Garvey.
The following interesting scicntiiic items were presented by the Chair-
man:

\ Poisoning from Tobacco Leaves.

^f. Gallavardin, in a jiaper " On poisoning by the application of tobacco
leaves to the skin," recites several cases, not fatal, however, in which seri-
ous illness followed the carrying of large quantities of tobacco next to the
skin Tliis item gave rise to a warm discussion.

New Pi'ROMETER.
Messrs. Deville and Troost have used, in recent experiments, a porcelain
apparatus hj which the}' measured a temperature as high as 2786 degrees
I*\\hrenheit. At that point copper and silver seemed to be vaporized, and
feldspar ^-as fused, but wrought-iron showed no signs of fusion.

Influence of Alcohol on the Human System.

M. Perrin, in his experiments on the effect of alcohol taken in moderate
quantities, finds that less carbonic acid was exhaled from the lungs when
wine was taken. The amount of urea generated was about the same as
when wine was not used. He believes, with other prominent chemists, that
alcohol is not assimilated, but it aff(;cts nutrition by lessening the expendi-
ture <jf material. ,

Chinese Wax. ,

This is a compact substance, imported from China, and said to be the
product of an insect called coccus pdasijiensis. It melts, at 181 deg , while
pure beeswax melts at 149 deg. Both contain cerotic acid.

Lactoproteine.

This is the provisional name given by Messrs. Milton and Commaille, of
France, for a new albumenoid found in cow's milk. They separated the
casein by means of acetic acid, filtered the liquor, heated it, and then ob-
tained a substance having the characteristics of albumen, and containing
the same quantity of nitrogen. The amount of this substance is small, but
may be precipitated by the careful adcjitiou of acid nitrate of mercury.

372 transactions of the american institute.

Aniline, Green,

This compound was first made by M. Eiis(>l)o. It is now readily pvo-
diux'd by dissolving ir)0 grainos of crystallizod snlpliato of rosaniliiie in 450
granics of cold, diluted sulplinric aeid (three parts acid to one of water).
When the solution is complete, 225 grames of aldehyde are added. The
mixture, after being stirred, is heated in a water bath. From time to time
a drop of the mixture is taken up with a stirring-rod and dropped into
slightly acidulated water, and as soon as a deep green solution is obtained
the reaction is stopped. The solution is then pourecf into 30 litres of boil-
ing- water, and 450 grames of hyposulphite of soda dissolved in the smallest
possible quantity of water, is gradually added, The whole is now boiled
for some minutes. All the grcjen remains in the aolution, which may be
applied to dye silk. The green is very beautiful, especially in artificial
light, which distinguishes it from all other shades of the same color.

Variation and Transmutaton of Species.

Mr. A. R. Wallace read before the Anthropological Society a paper con-
taining the following statements :

1. Peculiarities of every kind are more or less liereditary.

2. The offspring of every animal vary more or less in all parts of their
organization.

3. The universe in which these animals live is not absolutely invariable.

4. The animals in any country (those at least which are not dying out)
must at each successive period be brought into harmony with the surround-
ing conditions.

These are all the elements required for change of form and structure in
animals, keeping in exact pace with changes of whatever nature in the sur-
rouiiding universe. Such changes must be slow, for the changes in the
universe must be very slow; but just as these slow changes become import-
ant, when we look at the results after long periods of action, as we do
when we perceive the alteration of the earth's surface during' geological
epochs; so the parallel changes in the animal form become more and more
striking, according as the time they have been going on is great, as we see
when we compare our living animals with those which we disentomb
from each successively older geological formation,

Relation of Periodic Times.

Mr. Finlaysou, of Dover, has found that the period of the rotation of the
earth on its axis is in the same proportion to the time of the revolution of
the moon around it, as the rotation of the sun on its axis is to the year of
the planet Mars.

Testing Chain Cables.

Mr. F. A. Paget, C. E., London, states that the average tenacity of those
bars of which the links were made was twenty-four tons per square inch;
of this, 28.15 per cent is lost in the finished link, (Twing to the form of the
link, the stress on the inside of the crowns, the bending and the welds.
The government hydraulic test is 11.46 tons per square inch, and the per-
manent set resulting thereof is from 1-22 to 1-15 its length This he be-

I!

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 373

liovcs does not injure the chain, but he deprecates any attempt to make the
test mure severe.

Welding Iron by Hydraulic Pressure.

Mr. Duportiiil, an eng-ineer in the Western Railway Workshops, Paris,
lias succcsst'ully applied hydrauHc pressure for welding of wrought iron.
^Vhen two bars of iron arc brought 1o a welding heat, the pressure is
applied continuously, until th(\Y i^ie reduced to the proper thickn(!ss, when
the pressure is suspended, and the parts are found to be ftvmly knit together.
To test it, one of the halves of the bar was placed under a hammer weigh-
ing 1,SU0 kilogrammes — about 3,971 pounds — and not until the third stroke
was the welding discovered.

Mr G. Hartlett expressed doubts whether the welding process is ever
completely done. He was informed tliat those targets made of welded iron,
tried in the guu experiments a€ Washington, were always fractured at the
welded parts.

Mr. J. K. Fisher said continuous pressure had been often applied — for
instance, in the manufacture of large guns. In these instances, however,
the hydraulic'press was not applied. It is much better to use a slow and
heavy pressure than a series of lighter blows. On small work, however,
it is the practice of locomotive works to perform the welding by strokes of
the hammer.

i[r. 1). 1). Parmelee said it was common to weld by means of rollers, and
this plan was adopted by Mr. W. K. Marvin, in making his burglar-proof
wrotight iron for safes, which consists of emery between fluted plates
welded together by rolling. By great pressure the emery is forced into
the iron. No drill can penetrate this compound plate.

The Pneumatic Railway.

Mr. Secretary' Garvey opened the discussion of the subject by reading
the following description, from the London Railway Neios, of a tunnel con-
structed in the grounds of the Cr3'stal Palace, rather more than a quarter
of a mile in length, and the method of propelling cars through it by atmos-
])heric pressure :

There is nothing new, of course, in the application of the mechanical
action of air to locomotion. The atmospheric system which, in the early
days of the railways, was adopted at Croydon, on the South Devon Railway,
at Dalkey and other places, was founded upon well established laws of
pneumatics, and it failed only in consequence of practical diflSculties in the
way of carrying it out.

A second step in the development of the atmospheric sj'stem is that
which has Ijeen carried out by the Pneumatic Dispatch Company, and by
which the mail bags are daily dispatched from the N. W. District Post
Office to the Euston Station; but it remained to be shown by actual experi-
' ment that the principle may be most successfully applied f(jr passenger
traffic.

In the old atmospheric system the train of carriages was propelled by
the ordinary pressure of atmospheric air acting upon a piston moving in a
tube, the air before it being more or less exhausted. The tube was, how-

I

374 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ever, laid upon the ground, and the carriages passed over it, a longitudinal
or continuous valve openiiig at the top, along which a rod connecting the
piston with the carriages passed, tlie valve closing as the rod moved for-
ward. The area of" this tube was necessarily small, and the pressure
required to be exerted was proportionate. All the attempts to prevent the
Avaste of power by leakage were useless, and the attempt has been univer-
sally abandoned on account of the great expense of working such lines of
railway.

In the case of the pneumatic railwaj^, the carriages themselves, and not
the small piston, travel througli the tiibe. The area upon \vhi(;h the atmos-
phere has to act is at least lifty times greater than tliat offered by tiie
smaller tube, and leakage or waste of power is {)ractically altogetiier
obviated. Tlie tunnel is large enough to admit the broad-gauge carriages
of the Great Western Railway. The carriage, which is like an elongated
omnibus, ha:s at one end a framework of the %iune form and nearly the same
dimensions as the sectional area of the tunned. On the outer edge of this
frame a fringe of bristles forming a thick brush is placed, and as the car-
riage passes on its way through the tunnel the brushes come nearly into
contact with the brickvv'ork and prevent, though of course not entirely, the
passage of the air. The carriage, with its collar of bristles, forms in fact
a loosely-fitting piston.

The power which propels the piston carriage proceeds from a rotary
machine, or "ejector," concave in surface, and 22 feet in diameter. This
is made to I'evolve by a small steam engine at such velocity as may be
required, the pressure of air increasing, according, to the greater or less
A^elocity. Nothing can be more simple than this mode of accumulating
power. To the engineer, accustomed to the complicated movements of a
steam engine necessary to applj' mechanical power to any given object, it
appears almost ludicrously simple to see an enormous disc moving at high
velocity on its axis, and producing all the force that is necessary to carry
a heavy carriage, Avith some 30 or 40 passengers, up an incline more steep
than that upon any railway in the kingdom. The "ejector" revolves iu
an iron case something like that of a huge paddle wheel above the ground,
but there is no crank, or axle, or shaft to which it gives motion.

When driving the air into the tunnel there rise fresh breezes to the sur-
face of the disc to supply the partial vacuum caused by the air sent below;
on the other hand, when exhausting the tunnel and when tlie escape valvea
are opened the air rushes out in a gale, or a hurricane, according to the
rate at which the disc is moving. When at full speed the gale of wind
makes the branches of the trees near the engine house sway to and fro
violently, and many an earnest searcher after scientific truth will see his
hat spinning round in the whirlwind, and feel some difficulty in standing
quietly upon his legs in the gale which suddenly springs up. A small
amount of force is sufficient to set the disc in motion, and, when once
moving, it rapidly accumulates power, so much so that its own unaided
revolutions are sufficient to bring the carriage through a large portion of
the tunnel.

The power thus obtained is applied in a very simple manner. The down
train, the carriage from the higher to the lower station, is " blown " through

1

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. O/O

tlio tiiimol. AVlicMi it is required to make the down journey tlie breaks are
taken oft' the wheels, and the carriag'e passes by its momentum a few yards
into the tunnel, where it travels over a vault or air-well covered with an
open iron •grating', from which, as soon as it has passed, a gale of wind
rusiies, and a pair of iron doors, hung like lock gates, close firmly over the
mouth of the tunnel, and the train is lost to the sight of tiie outside spec-
tator. With every revolution of the eject(jr — it makes from 120 to 150 a
minute — the strength of the gale increases, and the carriage flies more
(jiiiekly along its dark iron roadway.

Down the steep gradient no pressure behind the carriage is needed, as it
travels by its own momenluni, and it is brought up at the other end by the
application of the ordinary break power.

The return voyage is made by the exhausting process, just as one would
draw water through a straw. At a signal given by electric telegraph a
valve is openc^d, the doors of the iron case are thrown back, and the air
sucking discs are again in full swing. Near the upper end of the tunnel
and in its side there is a vaulted passage, eight feet in height, built of
brick, and which communicates with the well near the engine house.
Through this side vault the throat of the tube, the air from the tube is
inhaled, the iron doors at the upper end still remaining closed. Instantly
the carriage, which is at the mouth of the tunnel at the lower end, feels
the effect of the air rushing into this suction vault, the external atmosphere
acts upon the carriage from behind with its ordinarj^ pressure of some
fourteen pounds to the inch, and being relieved of a portion of the pressure
in front, the carriage is forced forward on its return journey. The iron
doors at the upper station open as the pressure increases and the advancing
carriage emerges into daylight.

There is this important point of difference between the pea-shoveller of
our school days, and the pneumatic tube, that in the former the pea or
pellet is projected violently from the mouth o^ the tube, while in the latter
the carriage glides gently along, gradually slackening till the destroyed
ecpnlibrium of the atmosphere is restored. Compared with the old atmo-
spheric principle, when a pressure of from seven to ten pounds was required,
one cannot fail to be convinced of the mnny advantages which the present
system possesses over its predecessor, AVith a view of making the experi-
ment as complete as possible, and of testing the sj'stem under the disad-
vantages to which it would be subject in its more extended application,
one portion of the tunnel has a gradient of one in fifteen, or one-sixth
greater than that of Holborn-hill, while another is upon a curve of not
more than eight chains radius. These difficulties are, however, overcome
in a manner which proves that the system could be adopted upon any line,
however crooked or steep in its ascent.

The tunnel is dark, it is true, as all tunnels must be, but the carriage is
well lighted, and tJjere is no reason why gas should not be employed, as is
the case in the carriages of the Metropolitan Railway. There are luxu-
riously cushioned seats placed along each side of the carriage, as in an
omnibus. There is a glass door at each end, and lamps are carried in front
and behind the carriage, so that the tunnel is really illuminated as the
train pa.sses through. The motiop of the carriage is so smooth aod easy,

376

TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

there is such a complete absence of vibration, tliat it is totally unlike
traveling- upon luiy existing- line, and is more like the motion of a well
made broughiun. Add to this that tliere is no sufTocaling- smell (jf the sul-
phur and smoke from the locomotive, no escape of steam, no stag-naiit, pol-
luted, and poisonous air to breathe, such as that of the ordinary tuiniel.
Every train which passes through must carry with it its own supply of
fresh air, and must drive ont before it any i'oul air. This purity of the
atmospher(! is still further secured by a cimstant stream of the external air
which passes tiii'ongh openings at the bottom of the tunnel, so that the air
in every part of the tunnel is as pure and sweet as in the sunshine above
ground

Another of the advantages of the system is that collisions, and casualties
arising from them, are impossible. No two trains can by any conceivable
possibility be in the tube or tunnel at the same time. The worst that can
possibly ha].^pen to the traveler is 1,liat the train may be set fast, or unable
to move, owing to some accident to the machinery. In the event of such
an occurrence the passengers have simply to open the door at either end
of the carriage and walk out to the nearest mouth of the tunnel.

The question of working expense is one upon which we are at present
unable to express any opinion, aS we have no data to judge from. So much
as this is, however, clear, that as the old atmospheric systemfailed entirely
in consequence of the enormous leakage and the high pressure at which it
was worked; and as the present plan works at a low pressure and avoids
the waste (jf leakage, it would appear that in the matter of cost of working,
the pneumatic principle must possess great advantages over its abandoned
predecessor.

The directors of the Crystal Palace have established another claim on
the gratitude of the public for the facilities which they have afforded for
making this most interesting and important experiment. The carriage has
continued to run upon the railway during the whole of this week, and visit-
ors have had an opportunity of testing for themselves the new mode of
traveling.

Mr. Clinton Rosevelt followed, strongl}' advocating the use of the pro-
posed plan in passing under rivers.

Mr. Garvey explained the Croydon atmospheric railwaj^ and the causes
of its failure. The oidy feasible way of using atmospheric pressure is to
exhaust the air in front of the carriage, as now done at the Crystal Palace,
which is in fact a system of sailing on l(^nd.

Mr. Fisher read the remarks of the London correspondent of the New
York Herald in relation to this new railway, and the practicability of using
it under Broadway. lie (Mr. F.) believed the plan would again come before
the Legislature of the State for tunneling Broadway, but he did not regard
this atmospheric plan as feasible. The cost of running a train with a
locomotive averages six cents per mile when coal is used. Frequent stop-
pages add materially to the expenses of running. On the Hudson River
Railway the cost of stopping and starting a train is one dollar and twenty-
five cents. The momentum of a train having a speed of sixty miles an
hour is sufficient to carry it three miles after the locomotive is detached.
The use of steam in tunnels is objectionable on account of carbonic acid

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 377

gas generated by the burning' fuel. Several substitutes had been pro-
posed— such as springs, compressed air, iiot water for making steam to be
used on sliort routes.

It was stated that the great(.'st power yet obtained from a spring would
not raise its own weigiit higher than sixty feet.

The Chairman desired to direct attention to the question now before the
meeting. Tiie average pressure derived fVoni a partial exhaustion of the
air in the tiiiuiel is said to be two and a half ounces per sijuare inch ; the
exact size of the tunnol is not given in the articles read, but supposing it
to be ten feet iiigli and ten widi', the area of the car and the surrounding
ring, which is virtually a piston, would be one hundred square feet. A
pressure of two ounces and a half on the inch would Do about twenty-two
pounds per s(juare foot, or two thousand two hundred pounds fur the total
pressure on tiio piston. To obtain this pressure the whole cohuiiu of air in
the tiinnel is partially raritied by means of a fan, which is not as economi-
cal as an air-pump having a reciprocating piston. The length of the tun-
nel is 1,800 foet, and the bulU of air within it is equal to 180,000 cubic
feet; just in proportion to amount of air pumped out is the pressure on the
car. The removal of half the air in the tunnel before the car is started
would give it a pressure of seven and a half pounds per square inch ; this
wujuld be about fifty times more than is said to be required for moving a
single car. The pumping must be continued during the passage of the car,
because it is constantly pressing the remaining air into a smaller space.
If we take into consideration tlie friction of the air pump and of the whole
column of air moving in the tunnel, as well as the friction and leakage of
the car piston, it would appear that the proposed plan is far more expen-
sive than the ordinary method of railway locoiuotion. The mode of pack-
ing the piston, by means of bristles, is doubtless quite effective where the
pressure per square inch is so small.

Dr. D. D. Parmelee said the ball of the air-gun used in shooting galleries
is ptacked by a (ibrous appendage against which the air acts.

Dr. W. Rowell alluded to an article in the London Mechanics' Magazine,
which states that the plan of locomotion now under discussion was pro-
posed fifty-four 3'ears ago.

Mr. J. B. Hoot said he had made some calculations from the data given
and found that the power required is far greater than by the ordinary loco-
motive. The friction becomes a very serious objection when the tunnel is
several miles in length. Indeed, it may be safely averred that more than
five times the usual power would be used in this new method of propulsion,

Mr. Fisher estimated the weight of the air to be removed in a tunnel one
mile long, at 44,000 pounds, the whole of which must pass through the fan
or pvjmj) before tlie car reaches its destination.

The Chairman added that where the power of stationary steam engines
had beerr applied, in the most economical way, to moving cars, the practice
was finally abandoned. Formerly the Albany and Schenectady Kailway
had an inclined plane at each end, one leading to the valley of the Hudson
Kiver, and the other to the valley of the Mohawk. Cars were drawn up by
means of a stationary engine at the top of eacii plane. After years of trial^

378 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

it was decided to make the road several miles longer by constructing such
grades at each end as the ordinary locomotive could overcome.

The pneumatic tulie for tlie conveyance of packages is the invention of
Mr. Richardson, of Boston. It is now used in London for the transpf)rta-
tion of mail«». over a sliort route, and is said to be a success. But when
passengers are substituted for packages, and brick tunnels for iron tubes,
the problem is so changed as to require a new solution.

After selecting " The Manufacture and Use of Furs," as the next topic
for discussion, the Association adjourned to next Thursday evening.

American Institute Polytkchnig Associ.\tion,
October 20, 18t)4.
Chairman, Prof. S. J). Tillman; Secretary, Mr. B. Garvey.
The first subject presented was the

Steam Plow.

Mr. Anson P. Thayer, of Syracuse, exhibited a beautiful brass model of
his patented steam plow, and explained its operation. The novel feature
in this plow is the mode of turning the soil by means of spades placed ob-
liquely across a (-ylinder, which, in entering the ground, tend to move the
machine forward. The cylinder, by being elevated or lowered, regulates
the depth of the cut. It makes several revolutions to one revolution of the
driving wheels. The boiler is similar to that of the ordinary locomotive,
its front end being inclined downward and resting between the steering
wheels. The driving wheels are made very broad, and move slowly so as
to carry the machine forward at the rate of about one mile an hour, while
the pistons of the two steam cylinders move five or six hundred feet per
minute. The inventor believes he has by this method remedied the diffi-
culties which have attended other locomotive steam plows. Mr. J. K.
Fisher thought this machine the best of the five or six which have been
exhibited at this Institute. The Fawkes steam plow which was put in
practical operation at Hamilton paik, in this city, and received the great
premium of the Institute, several years ago, was so geared that the piston
moved considerably faster than the periphery of the driving wheels.

Plowing by Steam in England.

Mr. W. Lee remarked that he had spent the last year and a half in ex-
amining and witnessing the trials of steam plows in England. A great
many experiments have been made in that country with locomotive plows,
in which more than $500,000 have been expended. There are two difScul-
ties to be met; one is the power required to move the machine over the soft
ground, and the other is the pressure of the wheels on the soil owing to the
great weight of tlie machine. The lightest he saw weighed ten tons, and
the heaviest fifteen. He had seen a field plowed by steam four years before
that retained the impression made by the wheels, and the crop was lightest
on these tracks. The English method now used is traction — that is, the
engine is stationary, and the plows are moved across the field by means of
wire ropes passing around drums on opposite sides of the field. Sometimes

/

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 379

two stationaiy entwines are used, opposite eacli other, for tlie purpose of
g-iviiic: motion to tlie iron wire ropes to wiiicli iire attached a gang of plows
attended by one man. They often cut totiiedeptli of eig-liteen inches. The
grounil there is, generally speaking, heavier than ours, and being clayey
is more dillioult to [)low. It is found that, by using tlui stationary engine,
between eight and nine bushels more of grain can be raised per acre. This
n)ore than pays I'or the plowing by steam

These stationary engines are arranged to be moved from -one (ield to
another. Tliey are owned by companies of large capital devoted to this
business alone. The price asked for plowing an acre is five English shil-
lings. There is one company which charges as high as fifteen shillings.
This plowing is done when the soil is in such bondition tliat it could not be
accomplished by horses. The deep cut, which turns up soil not before
brought into use, is the cause of the increased crop. The cost of these sta-
tionary engines is from six hundred and fifty to fifteen hundred pounds;
they are of about fovty-five horse power. Mr. Lee did not wish to be under-
stood as condemning the locomotive plow which was now presented in
model. He was in favor of locomotion by steam wh(>never it can be made
practicable.

New Method of Strengthening Cast Iron.

Mr. A. L. Floury presented specimens of iron made by the patented pro-
cess of Mr. Win. M. .\rnold, of this city, and remarked that the increase of
strength in cast iron, is of great importance, and the invention of Mr.
Arnold deserves our full attention. He has succeeded after many years of
experiment, in obtaining the valuable alloy, samples of which are now
shown. It has been tested at the Wiard Ordnance works Trenton, at the
West Point Foundry and at the Morgan Iron Works. Acording to the cer-
tificate of Mr. P. P. Parrott of West Point Foundry, the tensile strength
of one bar was 19,248 lbs., per square inch, and of another 15,443 lbs. —
According to experiments made at Trenton and at the Brooklyn Navy Yard,
the strength of ordinar}' Scotch Pig Iron was increased about one hundred
per cent. l)y Mr. Arnold's process. ,

The strengthening of iron so as to reduce the weight or quantity required
in the construction of locomotive carwheels, rail road machinery, bridges
and ships, involves the question of safety as well as economy. All machine
builders and workers in iron appreciate the importance of increasing the
toughness of the principal material used by them.

The texture of the improved iron is uniform throughout the mass, and
very different from ordinary cast iron, which is generally coarser grained
and weaker near its centre. Another interesting feature of Mr. Arnold's"
iron, is that acids and salts have little action upon it. The metal receives
a high polish and can be drilled and worked into anj' shape with facility.

The process of preparing the iron is very simple. It consists in adding
a certain proportion of melted copper, zinc and tin to the iron, when in the
liquid state and as it ie poured into the mould. The arrangement of the
flask for this purpose, constitutes one part of Mr. Arnold's invention. He
states that the cost of strengthening iron according to his plan will not
cost over fifty dollars per ton.

380 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. B. Giirvcy thong'lit the inventor sliould state the reasons wliicli led
him to use tlie metals of his combination. He could not have fixed the
Ijroportions used, by accident or gniess work.

Mr. Arnold replied that he was led to his discovery while attempting. to
make a metallic can for the preservation of fruit, that would be entirely
impervious to air.

The Chairman remarked, that it was the practice of the association not
to entertain any new plan or method that was not fully explained. The
reason g'iven, for not stating the proportions of the metals used in this
alloy, are that the European patents have not yet been secured. Copper,
zinc and tin, have been previous!}' used in combination with ir(in. A mem-
ber of the Institute was quite enthusiastic over ex].)eriments he made several
years ago in wliicii a small portion of copper was mixed with cast iron but
for some good reason doubtless, tiie plan was abandoned. It will be remem-
bered that Franklinite iron, containing botli mangaiiese and zinc, was
highly recommended before this society on account of the increased strength
accruing from this alloy. The iron of commerce is never pure. It may
be strengthened in three ways, by removing certain impurities, by turning
it into steel or by adding small proportions of other metals. We hope Mr,
Arnold has made a real advance; but practice alone must determine the
value of his invention.

Feed Water Heater.

This heater, the invention of Lamon & Gaskill, is designed for keeping
the supply water of the high pressure at or near the boiling point, and for
saving a portion of the condensed steam. The model exhibited was taken
apart to show its construction. It consists of a series of disks, the first
having a pair of raised projections winding from the centre outwards,
covered by a plate, and connected by a pipe with the second disk, which
has projections winding from the outside to the centre. Several pairs of
disks are thus connected bj' a pipe at the centre, so as to complete a pas-
sage from the top to the bottom. The wliole is enclosed in a drum.
The main advantivge of heating the feed water is, that nearly all the mine-
ral substances in the water are deposited in the heater instead of the boiler,
from which the scale can be readily removed. Messrs Lee, Fisher and
other gentlemen concurred in the opinion that the arrangement secures the
object intended and is simple and cheap in construction.

The following is an explanation of the accompanying illustration :

The exhaust enters the pipe E at the bottom of the heater. The steam
first acting upon the bottom of the lowest channel plate and the water below
the plate, theii passing upwards between the outer cylinder and the border
of this cliaimel plate, it next comes in contact with the water flowing
through the channels of said plate and the bottom of the plate next above,
then through an opening in the centre of this plate, and so on alternately
until it finds its exit through the pipe D.

These steam passages being large no obstruction is offered to the passage
of steam, consequently there is no back action.

The cold water enters through a pipe in the dome (not represented) and
flowing through the channels to the circumference of the scroll, it passes

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 381

to the next plate below b}' the pipe C, and then flows to the centre of this
plate, passini^ throug'h a similar pipe to the next plate and so on to the
bottom, and has its exit by a \)\\w (not represented) near the bottom of the
heater and connected with the supply pump.

The lowest, third and tup clKinncl plates are of less diameter than the
inside of the encasing- cylinder, to allow the steam to pass around them.
The second and fourth chaniud plates fit close so that the steam may pass
through the tube in their centres.

The efficietic}' of this heater is due to the large surface of water exposed
which being in rapid motion constantly brings new surfaces to the action
of the steam. (

Its efficiency, ease of detaching and cleansing, and the sediment and
scale b(M'ng deposited in it and saved from injuring the boiler, and economy
attending its use, give it very great value.

It should be placed a foot or more higher than the pump, so that the pres-
sure will raise the pump valve.

The Hermetical Barrel.

One of Robbins' non-leaking, non-evaporating barrels was exhibited, con-
cerning which Dr. AV. H. Dwindle desired to say a few words. It is a well
settled fact, that with all our improvements in the arts, we have not before,
had a wooden vessel constructed in which fluids could be transmitted from
place to place, without a great loss by evaporation through the pores of the
wood. The loss of all fluids thus kept is considerable, but of petroleum
and naphtha, because of their permeating qualities, the annual loss is esti-
mated by millions. There is an absolute leakage, distillation and sweating
of these fluids through such barrels, of from eight to thirty per cent.

The idea of constructing a barrel that would prevent all this loss was
suggested to Mr. Robbins by nature. Why is it that the trees, especially
those of tropical climates, retain their volatile constituents? It is because
the bark and the inner portion of the tree contain oily substances and that
one of the constituents of the tree is potash. Mr. Robbins in experiment-
ing found a barrel would take up a pint of ordinary- water in twenty-four
hours, while in the same time a similar barrel would absorb nineteen pints
of a solution of potash. To restore to the wood some of its original power
was the aim of Mr. Robbins, which resulted in the discovery and invention
which he has patented. His process is to give the exterior of the barrel a
coating of hot linseed oil, and the inside an alkaline covering, such as hot
soap suds. A barrel thus prepared, forms a complete barrier to all evapo-
ration or leakage through the pores of the wood, so that it might be said
not a drop of petroleum confined in it can escape. Numerous barrels treated
in this manner have been filled at the oil wells in Pennsylvania and trans-
ported to this city, where on examination it was found they had not lost
the least of their contents, while other barrels filled and brought to the city
at the same time had lost from three to four gallons each.

3S2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The chairman presented the following' memoranda of science and art :

The Chinenti Pictdres.

These pictures were made by I. Chinenti before the year 1640. Dr.- A.
C. Brown saw them in the Muse-jm at Lille, in 1859, and first announced
them to be stereoscopic. Sir David Brewster asserts that Baptista Porta
published in 1593 the true principle of the stereoscope, and that Chinenti
executed drawings from the binocular principle of Porta and was the inven-
tor of stereoscopic pictures. Mr. Wheatsime obtained photographs of the
Chinenti pictures and declared they were not stereoscoj>ic. Prof. Enierson
of Troy, published his cor elusions from an investigation of the subject,
which were controverted by Sir David Brewster in a letter to the Philo-
sophical Magazine, for January. 1804. As the point in dispute could only
be settled by the testimc-ny of those persons skilled in stereoscopic investi-
gations, at the request of Prof. Emerson, some pains has been taken to
collect the opinions of several scientific gentlemen in this country. These
are embraced in an article by Prof. Charles A. Joy, in the last number of
Silliman's Journal, and are all opposed to the position taken by Sir David
Brewster.

Inductive Electric Currents.

M. Soret has reported to the Paris Academy of Sciences the results of his
researches in relation to the exterior action of an electric current. He finds
that whether the inductive current is continuous, or is broken by the Rulmi.
KorflF coil, the electrolytic law is tlie same, and that the deposit of copper
in the voltajueter is directly as the intensity of the current.

New Process of Engraving.

A recent invention of M. Dulos is described in the Moititeur Srientifique
as follows: A copper plate, on which a design has been traced, in litho-
graphic ink, receives, by the action of galvanism, a deposit of iron on the
parts untouched by the ink. The ink having been removed by benzine, the
white portions of the design are represented by the layer of iron, and the
black by the copper itself. The plate is then plunged into a bath of cya-
nide of silver under a galvanic current, and the silver is deposited on the
copper onl3^ In this condition mercury is poured over the plate, which
attaches itself to the silver only, appearing in relief and taking the place
of the lithographic ink. A plaster or wax mould is then taken, and by
metalizing it bj' electrotyping, a matrix is obtained from which impressions
on paper may be produced by the ordinary copper plate press. For typo-
graphic engraving, in which the design is in relief, the plate of copper
should receive, on leaving the hands of the designer, a layer of silver, de-
posited only on the parts untouched by lithographic ink. The ink is
removed by benzine, and those parts of the plate that were inked are
iodized and the above treatment is continued. In this way the raised de-
sign is produced. Several improven)euts on the process are said to have
been since made by M. Dulos, one of which is to substitute for mercury a
fusible amalgam of copper.

Photographical.

M. Regnault states that a plate of copper dipped into a solution of bich-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 3S3

loride of copper, perchluride of iron, dilute aqua regia, or any solutioti which
parts easily with chlorine, becomes covered with a greyish layer of cuprous
chloride, which is very sensitive to liffht. A negative placed ou apiate so
sensitivised gives a positive picture of great beauty.

Manufacture and Use of Furs.

The discussion of this subject was opened by Dr. D. D. Parmelee, who
said:

In the prepared state the skins are called fur; but without preparation,
they go by the commercial name of peitry.

In Russia, Poland, East Prussia, Iluiigary, Bohemia, and Saxony, lambs'
skins constitute an essential part of the dress of thousands among the
lower classes, and the skins of various other animals may be considered as
articles of absolute necessity

So early as the sixth century, the skins of sables formed an article of
fashionable attire at Pome, and were brought from the confines of the Arc-
tic Ocean, at great cost, to supply the demand of that wealthy cayjital.

The traders of Italy brought a considerable supply uf furs to England in
the time of Edward III., so much so that this monarch prohibited their use
except among the wealthy classes.

The Canadian fur trade was commenced by the French, soon after their
settlement on the St. Lawrence.

The company formed in London, and called the Hudson's Bay Company,
was charterc-d by Cliarles II. in 1670. This prosperous company founded
many establishments, and carried on its trade for more than a century,
when it met with a powerful competitor in the form of a new company
composed of wealthy and influential British settlers in Canada. This second
company was called the Northwest Ci>mpany, and its chief establishment
was at Montreal, though trading upwards of 4,000 miles further to the
northwest. After long dissention the two companies united into one, under
the name of the Hudson's Bay Fur, Company. .

The Indian trade of the great lakes, upper Mississippi, etc., was enjoyed
by the Nurth American Fur Company, — having its chief establishment at
New York.

Important as is the trade of these companies, yet the most costly and
highly esteemed furs are furnished by the trade carried on by Russia: The
ermine is one of these, a fur which is produced in many countries, but only
in perfection in Russia, Sweden, and Norway.

The colder the climate, the finer and warmer "is the fur of animals. The
finest furs are iln^refore brought from the colder regions. The effect uf
cold on the Hudson's Bay lemming was made the subject of an experiment
during Ross's voyage. The little creature was kept in a warm cabin dur-
ing several months. It retained its summer fur. It was then exposed on
deck at night, to a temperature of 30 degrees below zero. After one night's
exposure, the fur on the cheeks, and a patch on each shoulder, had become
perfectly white. On the second day those patches had extended, and the
posterior part of the body and flanks had turned to a dirty white. During
the next four days the changes continued, and at the end of a week the
animal was entirely white. On examining the skin it was found that all

384 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

the white parts of the fur were longer than the unchanged portion, and
that the ends of the fur only were white so far as they exceeded in length the
dark colored fur. By removing these white tips with a pair of scissors,
the original dark summer (h-ess appeared.

The fur of the ermine ranks iirst in value; and the older animals furnish
the best. Tliese little animals are caught either in snares and traps or by
sliooting with blunt arrows. Tlie skins are sold in lots ol' 40, called tlie
timber.

Next in value are Rusisian sables. The length of the animal is from 18
to 20 inches. The darkest in color are considered the most valuable. The
produce of Russia in these skins is about 25,000 annually.

A great quantity of mink skins are sold to the inexperienced as real
Eussian sable.

There is also an inferior sable called Kolinski or Tartar sable, procured
from Russia. This fur, when lly-ed, is sold among the cheaper sables.

Next to the sable in rarity and cost comes the fur of the silver fox, which
is a native of the country behnv the falls of the Columbia river in Wash-
ington and Oregon, Territories.

The softest and most delicate fur is that of a little animal called the
chinchilla, about the size of a small squirrel, which inhabits Peru and the
northern parts of Chili.

The sea otter has a very fine, close, soft fur; jet black in wint%j', with a
silken gloss. That of the young animal is a beautiful brown.

The Persian lamb-skins have a soft, compact and elastic wool, which is
formed naturally into elegant curls or waves. When killed immediately
after birth, or taken from the mother, they are still more beautiful and
expensive. These skins have been considerabl}' used in Europe, but not
yet in this country. A few have been very recently imported. The most
pi;ized of these skins are the fine black.

The sloth has a beautiful fur of a high luster.

Mr. Lasak, of this city, an elderly and intelligent merchant in furs, in-
forms us that the Germans excel all others in dressing and manufacturing
furs, in a general regard. But furs, he adds, are put u)) in New York which
are not excelled by any in Europe.

The Chinese possess arts connected with the dyeing of furs, as well as in
the preparation of skins, which would command a large price if they could
be transferred to European or American artizans.

The dyeing of furs may be considered the most difficult part of their pre-
paration. It requires the most careful and skillful manipulation. Mr. Ap-
hold, of London, England, has gained much repute for his skill in dyeing
brown, which is a difficult shade to attain.

Otter fur has been dyed in New York better than in Europe.

Muskrat is dyed to imitate mink ; also to imitate the German fitches.
Opossum is likewise thus dyed.

Sable fur is frequently dyed to improve its shade.

The fur of the grey fox and of the wolf are difficult to dye.

An objection to the fur of the Norwegian and Lapland dog is a peculiar
odor that always attends it.

The skins of hares and rabbits are used iu common with beaver and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 385

many other skins for felting- purposes. And this branch of the manufacture
of furs is a very interesting one.

The introduction of silk plush hats as a substitute for beaver, has brought
about some curious changes in the fur market; for example, in 1827, 1828,
and 1829, mink skins were worth in New York from 3*Ic. to 40c. each. Now
these skins are worth from $S to $d. Muskrat skins were then worth 50c.
each, and are now worth about the same.

The first process in dressing furs for use belongs to the hunter, who, on
capturing the animal, strips ofi' the skin and hangs it up to dry in the open
air without a fire. If it is well dried and carefully packed, it reaches its
destination, however distant, in good condition; but if any moisture be left,
or if it be packed with otiiers imperfectly dried, so that the slightest putre-
faction takes place, then the far is unfit for use, so far as the furrier is
concerned. A minute examination of the skin is therefore his first business.
The next step is to cleanse them from greasiness. This is accomplished by
the use of water, bran, alum and salt.

A kind of oil which is found in the fur itself is not wholly removed by the
first treatment, so that it is necessary to afterwards wash it with a solution
of soda and soap. Finally the skin is well washed in clear water and dried;
the previous treatment having converted the skin into a kind of leather.

The cutting up of the skins requires much judgment to avoid waste. The
refuse cuttings, if not cut to waste, are available for making articles of the
less costly description. And it has been remarked that many a lady, on
having her furs fresh-lined under her own superintendence, has viewed
with surprise approaching to dismay, the elaborate patchwork which the
skins present on their inner side.

Skins to be used in felting undergo a longer process; and by means of
ingenious machinery the fur and hair is not only separated from the skin
perfectly, but the hairs are separated from the lighter fur; and even the fur
itself is assorted into quantities of like specific gravity.

The. use of fur in an economical and sanitary point of view, is a subject
on which there would probably be a great diversit}' of opinion.

It is remarkable that in some countries the custom respecting clothing
differs materially from ours. We. dress warmer when we go out than when
we sit in doors; the Turks, who seldom have fires in their apartments, use
warmer clothing than when they go out, considering the exercise of moving
about as a source of warmth. The Chinese are said to practice the same
custom.

The Chairman stated that the leading man in the fur trade in the country
fur many years was the late John Jacob Astor. lie commenced the busi-
ness in 1784. lie had many stations for the purchase of furs on this side of
the Rocky Mountains; on the other side the principal station was at Astoria,
the history of which was given by Washington Irving, in a work bearing
that tith?. Soon after the commencement of the war with Great Britain,
in 1813, the interest of Mr. Astor, at that station, was sold to the North-
west Fur Company. Among those with whom Mr. Astor had business
relations was Peter Smith, then of Schenectady, the father of Garret Smith
of Peterboro. These two men invested a considerable portion of their sur-
[Am. In-st.] Y

386 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

plus capital in land. Mr. Astor became the richest proprietor of real estate
on Manhattan Island, and Mr. Smith the greatest landholder in the State
of New York. Tliere are many prominent names connected with the fur
trade in this country. The extent of the trade here cannot be accmately
stated, but some idea may be gained of its importance, in the Old World,
by tlie following statement of the fur skins imported into Great Britain in
the year 1851, which is given in detail to show variety of furs used and
their relative abundance:

Sea otter, 100; otter, 17,500; seal, 15,000; lynx, 55,000; Kolinski, or
Tartar sable, 53,000; beaver, 60,000; Chinchilla, 85,000; stone and pine
martin, 120,000; minks, 245,000; rabbit, 120,000; red, cross, white, gray
and silver fox, 71,000; ermine, 181,000; Racoon, 525,000; musquash, or
muskrat, 1,000,000; squirrel, 3,000,000; fitch, or polecat, 66,200; wolf,
15,000; wolverine, 1,200. The whole number imported was about five
million, of which one million were exported.

Mr. Emmet remarked that Leipsic was the European centre of the fur
trade; to this point furs are brought from all quarters to be disposed of at
the annual sale. '

The hour for adjournment having arrived, it was decided to continue the
discussion of this subject at the next meeting. Adjourned to Thursday
evening next.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, )
October 21th, 1864. j

Chairman, Prof. S. D. Tillman; Secretary, Mr, B. Garvey.
The first subject discussed, during the hour devoted to miscellaneous
subjects, was

Super-Heated Steam.
Mr. T. D Stetson wished to direct attention for a few moments to the use
of super-heated steam in engines. It was generally admitted by engineers
that there is no gain in heating steam beyond a certain point. The princi-
pal object in its use being to keep the proper temperature in the cylinder.
In the best engines jackets enclose the C3''linder and steam islet in between
to prevent the cooling of the cjdinder. Mr. Erastus W. Smith, a well
known engineer of this city, took out a patent for providing the steam for
heating the cylinder by means of a separate small boiler, such as is used
with donkey engines. A gentleman now proposes to super-heat the steam
to perhaps 150'^, and then to convey this steam first into the jacket and
then into the cylinder to be used upon the piston. His idea is, that the
steam in its passage between the cylinder and jacket will lose its surplus
• heat, and will enter the cylinder at about the temperature of the steam in
the boiler.

. Dr. W. Rowell remarked, that Waterman tried this plan several years
agoi He found the steam was reduced in temperature about twenty-five
degrees below thai in the boiler. Ilis present plan was to make the cylin-
der of steel plate one-tenth of an inch thick; this is braced by another plate
of the same thickness. Between the two plates are thin stays, about an

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 387

inch apart, all arouiul, to which the pljites arc riveted. The object of tliis
arrangement is to allow the heat to pass inward more rapidly than it could
throug-h the ordinary thick cylinder. The cylinders used in the Metropolitan
mills are thus constructed. None of the steam which goes into the casing
is used in the cylinder. It passes into the jacket on the upper side and
drips out in the form of water through a small hole on the under side.

The chairman remarked that the most effective way of using steam was
through Avide and straight channels leading from the boiler to the cylinder,
Narrow and tortuous channels have the eflect of throttling the steam. The
plan explained by Mr. Stetson is 0{)en to this objection.

The Great Rodman Gun.

Mr. Secretary Garvey read, from a New York paper, an account of the
first firing of this gun at Fort Ilamiltou on Wednesday. It was first
charged with 50 pounds of powder and a blank cartriTlge. At the second
and third discharges the gun was shotted. The amount of powder used
was 100 lbs., and the weight of the ball nearly eleven hundred. This trial
was satisfactory. Another is to take place in the course of a few
weeks.

Mr. Stetson described the Rodman gun, and the peculiar mode of casting
it, and of cooling the casting from the inside by means of a water tube in
the core. The trial made, he did not regard as a test, for the amount of
powder used was comparatively small. In the ordinary service charge, the
weight of powder is one third of that of the shot.

Mr. Garvey thought it might be readily demonstrated that the larger the
gun, the less would be the proportion of powder rf^quired. There have
been many erroneous statements made with regard to the long range of
guns. From calculations he had made he was convinced that to carry a
ball ten miles was an utter impossibility^

The Chairman then read the following notes of scientific progress:

Electricity of Metals.

M. Gaugain stated before the Paris Academy of Sciences that he had
experimented with metals to ascertain the order in wliich they are charged
by frictiou with positive or negative electricity, and by means of sulphur
with which nearly all the metals are negative, and gutta percha with
which they are positive, he has succeeded in forming the following list
where each metal is positive to those following it and negative to those
which precede. Those enclosed in brackets behave in nearly the same
manner.

Aluminum. — [Zinc, Cadmium, Lead], [Iron, Tin], [Copper, Bismuth], [An-
timony, Silver], [Mercury, Gold, Palladium].

Analysis of the Human Breath.

A new and extremely delicate instrument has been made, under the direc-
tion of Prof. Tyndal, by Mr. Barrett, an assistant teacher in the Royal
Institute, London, for determining the amount of carbonic acid gas exhaled
by the lungs under different conditions. The contents of a bag, filled with
human breath deprived of its moisture, enters an exhausted brass cylinder

388 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

the ends of which are made air-tight. by means of plates of rock salt which
do not intercept rays of heat. More than one-half of the heat from a
flame made by carbonic oxide is instantly cut off by the small quantitj' of
carbonic acid in the pxpired air. The amount of heat thus intercepted is
measured by a delicate thermo-multiplier. The air used in several experi-
ments was afterwards analyzed by Dr. Frankland, and found to agree very
nearly with the physical analysis, as wnll be seen by the following state
ment of the per cent of carbonic acid in the breath of a person under difler-
ent conditions. The first column is the result of the physical, and the
second of the chemical analysis :

Breath before breakfast 4.00 4.31

Breath after breakfast 4.66 4.66

Breath after severe exercise i 5.33 5.22

Hot Springs.

The British Association for the Advancement of Science met at Bath on
September 14th. The President, Sir Charles Lyell, in his admirable inau*
gural address, referred to the thermal springs which, from the time of the
Eomans, have made Bath so celebrated, and stated that such springs usu-
ally occur where volcanic agency has caused a " fault ;" they are more
frequent where volcanoes are either active or have been so at a late geolo-
gical period. The quantity of solid matter in the hot springs alluded to, if
solidified, would form in one year a square column not less than nine feet
in diameter and 140 feet high. Although the waters of hot springs are, as
a rule, destitute of the common metals, such as iron, &c., there is strong
presumption that there exists some relationship between the action of ther-
mal waters and the filling of rents with metallic ores. The component
elements of metallic ores may, in the first instance, rise from great depths
in a state of sublimation, or of solution in intensely heated water, and may
then be precipitated in the water of a fissure as soon as the ascending
vapors or fluids begin to part with some of their heat. It is possible that
the metamorphism of sedimentary rocks may also be owing to the influence
of hot springs. The thermal waters of Plombieres in the Vosges were
conveyed by the Romans to baths through long aqueducts. In this case,
hot water, percolating through masonry, has given rise to various zeolites —
to calcareous spar, arragonite, fluor spar, and even opal. It is possible that
the consolidation of granite may have taken place at a less high tempera-
ture than was formerly supposed; and the manner in which volcanoes have
shifted their position throughout a vast series of geological epochs may,
perhaps, explain the increase of heat as., we descend to the interior of the
earth, without the necessity of our appealing to an original central heat,
or the igneous fluidity of the earth's nucleus.

The Delta of the Amazon.

This is the title of a paper read before the Geological Section of the
British Association, by Mr. Bates. He states that the delta is of a vastness
commensurate with the size of the river itself. It forms a triangle, each
side of which is about 180 miles, the mouth of the river being thus 180
miles in width. Within this gulf the island Marajo (as large as Sicily)
divides the river into two channels; the northern or Marie is 40 miles wide,.

f

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 389

etudded with islands, and the southern or Pura clear in its course and
about 35 miles in width. The Amazon delta is not, as miglit be supposed,
an unhealthy region of swamps. It consists mostly of a sandy soil with a
rocky substratum. The mean temperature of three years observation is
81 deg. Fah., which is lower than that of portions of the country further
from the ecpiator. Singularly enough a district extending from the west
end of Marajo, about 80 miles in length and in breadth, presents all the
characteristics of a true delta, being composed of mud and sediment, inter-
cepted by deep channels. This district, now 140 miles from the sea, was
doubtless at no very distant period the true delta, and the seaward portion
constituted a series of islands lying oil' the mouth of the river.

Mr. Stetson said that the amount of solid matter carried down by the
Mississippi river has been estimated by taking the mean of a series of
observations, and he had found that it was equal to a discharge at the
mouth of four cart loads every second of time. .r

New Method of Extracting Gold.

Dr. C. Calvert read a paper before the Chemical Section of the British
Association, in M'hich he proposed to dispense with mercury in the extract-
ing of gold from auriferous rocks, as many other inventors before him have
proposed. The agent employed in his method is nascent chlorine gas,
evolved from a mixture of common salt and the binoxide of manganese
ground up with auriferous quartz, in the proportion of two or three per
cent. "When sulphuric acid is added the liberated chlorine will attack the
gold, and upon allowing water to percolate through the mass it would dis-
solve out all the gold, as well as the copper and silver, which could be pre-
cipitated in the metallic state. The process is said to yield good results,
even when working very poor quartz.

Fog Horn.

Mr. DaboU, the inventor of this instrument, "designed to give warning to
ships enveloped in fog, has received an order from the British Govern-
ment for one to be used at Dungeness. It will consist of two twenty-
four inch caloric engines, placed side by side on an iron bed plate, on
wln'ch are also two iron air tanks or receivers, into which will be condensed
the air for blowing. But one engine will be in use at a time, the other
being a reserve in case of accident. The trumpet is intended to revolve
half way around and back in about a minute, and blow its blasts as it
moves around.

New Printing Process.

An invention has just been patented in Paris by means of which printing
can be done without the employment of ink. The process consists in the
introduction between the paper and the type of a sheet of some fabric, on
wliich is deposited lampblack and glycerine.

Spectrum of Comet II, 1864.

Prof. Donati, of Florence, has furnished a sketch of the spectrum made
by this comet. It resembles that produced by metals, the black bands
being broader than the luminous.

390 transactions of the american institute.

Supposed Satellite of Jupiter.

M, De Gasparis, of Naples, saw on the 22d of July last, at 1:59 p. m., a
bjack, well defined point on the planet's disk. In a quarter of an hour the
point, moving in the direction of the planet's rotation, passed its margin
and disappeared. M. Flaininanon, in commenting onthis phenomenon in the
Cosmos, says it could not have been a little planet in conjunction with
Jupiter, for in that case its motion would have been in an opposite direc-
tion, and as the four known moons of that planet were all visible at the
time, he suggests that the new body may be a fifth satellite, very much
smaller than its companions.

Uniformity in Screw Threads.

Mr. J. K. Fisher directed attention to the importance of having uniform
standards for the sizes of screws, it being well known that at present in
this country each manufacturer has his own peculiar dies. The Franklin
Institute of Philadelphia had moved in this matter, and wished the co-
operation of this Institute in endeavoring to introduce a iiniform system.

The Chairman remarked that he had several months since read a com-
munication on this subject, and then endeavored to show the importance
of this reform. He was glad to find others now present agreeing with
him.

On motion of Dr. Rich a committee was appointed to examine the sub-
ject. J. B. Rich, J. K. Fisher, and W. Rowell were named as such com-
mittee, and by general request the name of the Chairman was added to it.

The selected subject for discussion was then taken up.

The Manufacture and Use of Furs.

Dr. J. B. Rich opened the discussion of this subject by saying the mode
of preparing furs for general use is very complex. One is really astonished
to learn by what simple processes such beautiful results are obtained. The
ordinary method of preparing fur skins is first to rid them of their fleshy
matter. This is done by passing them over very sharp knives, which are
set so as to shave close to the skin. They are next anointed with butter.
After remaining in this condition long enough to allow the butter to pene-
trate, they are placed in a vessel having a bottom shaped like a reverted
cone, and after receiving layers of sawdust are thoroughly worked together
by treading. Afterwards they are placed in a smaller cone and worked
over by mahogany sawdust, by which means the oily matter is abstracted
from the fur, and the skin made soft and flexible. There is some deviation
in this mode when applied to skins intended to imitate each other; in which
case the preservative qualities are imparted to the skin by means of alum
and salt. The sable, silver fox, ermine, and all the martins are prepared
in this manner. Various persons have claimed to have peculiar methods
of preparing skins. A manufacturer had informed him that thirty j'ears
ago there was a workman in this city who could produce more " life" in
the fur, as it is termed, than others. His process was a secret, and he died
without revealing it. By a strange coincidence he (the Doctor) knew this
man, for he occupied an apartment in a building belonging to a relative.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ^ASSOCIATION. 391

In visiting this place his boyish ciuiosity had led him to observe that the
grcase was abstracted from the fnr by means of calcined plaster of paris,
' placed in a large iron pan, under which was a flame which kept it at a cer-
tain point of heat. After the plaster was removed by shaking the skins,
they were sent directly to the stores. The chinchilla furs were all done in
this way.

Instead of the treading operation, sometimes the skins and sawdust ai'e
placed in a slowly revolving drum, which is claimed to be an improvement.
All the little clippings from tlic skin are carefully gathered, and are sold
at from three to four dollars a pound. They eventually are exported. The
very smallest strips find their way to China, where they are sewed together
so neatly as not to be distinguished on the fur side from a whole skin. The
very low price of lal>or in that country enables th<; furrier to accomplish
this at a profit.

The furs which arc used for felting purposes, in hat making, are the
beaver, ott«r, nutria, wolf, and miaskrats

The fur of the sable is now from five to six times mor« costly than the
<^rmine, which derived its value from being used in the difiorent courts of
Europe and by the nobility. But the most valuable fur is the silver fox.
So rare is it that only 471 skins of this animal were sold by the Hudson
Bay Company during the past year, Threoof these skins brought ^170 each.

The skin of the Persian black lamb is coming into quite general use both
here and in Europe. Its fine wool is black, but it is dyed the same color
to give it a gloss. The mode of prepari-ng it is the same as that described
at a previous meeting, when speaking of the skins used by glove makers.

The Chairman remarked that but little was generally known concerning
furs, even in this coyntrj', where they have been gathered in greatest
tjuantities.

It would be gratifying to us to' recei've and publish all the information
which can be obtained concerning fur producing animals.

The Russian sable has long been regai'ded as one of the most valuable
of furs. About 25,000 are annually collected in Russian Possessions, and
but few are sent from the country. The fur is very fine mid beautiful; the
color is brown, with some gray spots about the head. The average value
is from §10 to $15, but the darker variety is the most valuable, A single
skin will often coeamand from $40 to $50. This sable resembles the Stone
and Pine Martin and the Hudson Bay Sable, and some writers believe they
•are varieties of the same species.

The Pine Martin is distinguished from the Stone Martin by the yellow
x;olor of tlje throat. Other parts of tlie skin are brown, and are dyed by
the farrier a dark color to s«it the prevailing taste. As the Frencij exce 1
in dyeing this fur, it is sometin>os called the French sable.

The skin of iftte little minx or mink has a fur resembling that of tXi^e sable
in color, but it is shorter and more glossy.

The ermine somewhat resembles the weasel, and in Russia when he is
found during winter he wears (the whitest of all furs.

The fitch or pole-cat resembles the skunk, and has a fur which is mucJa
«8ed. A skin of Uie Jatter will bring $1,

392 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The Kolinski or Tartar Sable fur is of a bright yellow color, and is some-
times used on ladies' dresses in the natural state.

The beaver was formerly in general use for hats. It has a fine wool
ubderneath its fur, which is in great demand for ladies' dresses.

The skin of the bear and the buffalo, or more properly the bison, are in
very general use in colder climates as sleigh coverings.

The fur of the Pea Otter is very thick and soft, and is most highly prized
by the Russians and Chinese. The annual production is about 1,000 skins.
They are found on the western coast of the American continent, and on the
Asiatic coast.

Underneath the coarse hair of the seal is found a very fine and silky fui'.
The roots of the coarse hair are very deeply seated, while the fiar does not
penetrate the skin half as far. By shaving down the skin on the inside to half
its thickness, the long hairs can be readily removed without injury to the fur.
It is generally dj-ed a deep brown, and then resembles a rich velvet.

The squirrels' fur is much used in Russia, where it is said 15,000,000 are
killed annually. The Siberian squirrel is gray;, the under part is white,
and is used for coat linings. The tails are made into boas for the foreign
markets. They are also used for artists' pencils.

Furs, for felting purposes, in the manufacture of hats, the principal skins
used are those of the hare, rabbit, beaver, and the nutria, Tlie latter is
about half way between the muskrat and beaver, and its fur resembles
both in some respects.

The skins are divided into seasoned and unseasoned. The seasoned are
taken, off in the winter, when the fur has its full growth, and is the finest.
The unseasoned are obtained at other seasons of the year. It is coai'se
and short, and not worth more than one-third of the value of fur from the
best seasoned skins.

The mechanical operation of taking the fur from skins is first to comb it,
and after careful pressing to cut it from the skin. Two kinds of shears are
used for this purpose; one resembling that used in clipping wool from
sheep, and the other the tailors' shears, the bows of which are made large
enough to admit the whole hand. The same operation if} now done more
rapidly by knives moved by mechanical power.

Mr. Nieman noticed several furs in the following order;

THE KUSSIAN SABLE.

The scarceness of this fur enhances its value; and the reason of its being
so hard to obtain is, th^it the main source from whence it comes — Siberia —
is -controlled by the Emperor of Russia. The' exiles to that region are
oblig'ed to furnish for the Czar a certain aggregate number of the best and
finest specimens every year; they are to furnish so many and no more. —
These are never sent to the fur-market unless obtained surreptitiously, but
are distributed by the Court as gifts among the Courts of Europe and the
noblesse generally.

HUDSON BAY SABLE.

These are prime, in all cases; for the reason that the company follow out
the restriction of never taking any s-kins from the natives, but at the proper
season of the year, when they are in the best condition, and when the least

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECnNIC ASSOCIATION. 393

danfj^er exists of interfering* with clue propagation of the species; the male
being- the best, the natives avoid catching- the females; only about one skin
of tlie latter to 500 of the former comes into the market.

THE MINK.

This fur greatly abounds in the United States, and, were it properly
managed, would vie with that of the sable; there is want of due protection
in tlie collection of the skins; no such regulations, as in the case of the
sable, being made. The animal is shot, when it ought to be trapped; and
not at the proper age. The evil of this will be, eventually, the animal will
either become extinct or so initiated as to be no longer a marketable article.

THE FOX.

This fur is not appreciated in this country, where a great deal is collec-
ted; but it goes to the European market. The Greeks, Turks, Persians, &c.,
use it much, and give it the preference over others. There appears to be
no reasonable idea for this depreciation here inasmuch as it is heavy and
warm and just suitable to the climate of these regions.

THE BADGER SKIN.

This fur is used in Germany, or was in the olden time of stage and team
travelling, for the collars of the animals thus employed; the best team-
ster and smartest driver, would invariably provide them for his horses. —
The reason for the use, especially of the Badger skin, was that the rats
worried the horses at the way-side tavern stables, where the teamsters put
up f(/c the night. The rat is partial to the Badger skin; and when the col-
lar is hung up in the stable, the rats are attracted towards it and do not
molest or annoy the anim,als when at rest. Now we see a misapplication
of this ornament for the horse, in the prevalent use of Bear and other skins
which tend to frighten passing horses, and have no beneficial effect as in
the case of the Badger.

The sacred tabernacle of the wandering Israelites was covered with skin
and fur, made from the Badger. The sheep skin should not be forgotten as
one most used in various ways.

The English Rabbit is exported to this country for its fur, and the skin
of tlie Ostend rabbit is used as a covering; the carcase being exported to
the British Isles without the skin, where it is a favorite article of food. —
Some people have started the idea that the use of furs could be dispensed
with, and that on the other hand, an object in collecting the skins is to
endeavor to render the various specimens that give the fur extinct as ver-
min; but who that knows the value of the article, for wearing apparel,
would entertain this mistaken notion.

The required amount killed for human clothing is but a small minimum,
compared with the amount that would be collected if needed. It provides a
sufficiency of labor, in inclement seasons and in sterile regions, to those
who would otherwise either want the necessities of life, or have to seek
other employment in distant countries. And the research, arising from the
hunt after skins, carries the white and civilized man far into the recesses
of the forest and of those inhospitable tracts of country, which would other-
wise remain unexplored; and as the Anglo Saxon, Celtic and Caucassian

39 i TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

races invariably carrv their faith and knowlcdg-e with thei^i, so they like*
wise leave it behind them, in the fur off reg'ions they explore for the benefit
of the benighted inhabitants who would otherwise die perhaps in ignorance
of a great Creator, Christianity and its consequent civilization in all its
various phases of Coninierce, Trades and Agriculture. The Fur traders
may therefore be classed among the chief pioneers of civilization.

Mr. Xieman stated that he had an improved process for combining felt
"with cloth.

After selecting " The Manufacture of Straw Goods '' as the subject of
the next discussion, the Association adjourned to Nov. lOlli.

Americ.w Ixstitvte PoLYtecbxic Association, \
November 10, lS84. j

Chairman, Prof. S, D, Tillman ; Secretary, Mr. B. Garvey.

Calcareous Spar.

Dr. D. D. Parmelee presented to the Institute two very lai-ge specimens
of calcareous spar, and on exhibiting them to the members of the Polytech-
nic, made the following observations :

First specimen of Carbonate of Calcium, known as Iceland Spar, or Cal-
careous Spar, from Franklin, Xew Jersey.

Second specimen from near Mount Hecla, Iceland, recently brought here,
a week ago, with a number of other specimens, by an American captain.

Specimens sufficiently clear for NichoVs pi'i.vns are quite valuable. The
sample is a good one for this purpose. The former it will be observed is
comparativelv quite murky and its fibrous character qflite marked.

The small Nichors p?'i's»)is are worth about 65 each — a half cubic inch in
size. Others, clearer, are worth as much as §25 each.

A Hamburg merchant, about ten years since, hearing of the great value -
of Iceland Spar, was induced to import a whole ship load, but on its arri-
val it was found to be a murky lot, not only, but it was in a finely crushed
state, and had been so exposed to the heat of the volcano that it was use-
ful only as a caustic lime.

The composition of this spar, it will be remembered, is lime 56.15, car-
bonic acid 43. T.

The colored varieties contain traces of iron, silica, magnesia, alumina,
bitumen, etc.

Fine transparent rhombohedrons, of two inches or m.ore in each of their
dimensions, have befen found at Oxbow, St. Lawrence Co., X. Y., in con-
nection with veins of lead.

Calcareous Spar is the principal source of our polished marble.

A peculiar fine grained, compact variety is employed in lithography.
The best for this purpose occurs at Papperheim and Sohlemhofer, in Bavaria.

Artificial Leg.
Mr. Joshua Monroe exhibited several models of his invention recently
patented. Its principal novelty ie the material from which it is manufac-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 395

tiircd, raw hide, prepared and shaped like the human \eg. It is very light
and strong. The knee joint is a double lap joint. The whole leg weighs
■when finished, four pounds. The hide is first baked in an oven to take out
the surplus animal matter, and then receives several coats of paint. The
old way of fa.'itcning these limbs was by a strap over the shoulder, but
with this appendage a person having only an inch of stump can have it
fastened as firm as though the stump M-ere six inches in length. It is not
as heavy as a gutta percha limb ; there is probably not over three quarters
of a pound of wood in the whole. Instead of softening the skin, perspira-
tion made it harder. Willow wood is dispensed with in this leg. The cost
all complete is about one hundred dollars.

Paper from "Wood.

Dr. W. Rowell presented specimens of paper from wood made by Mr.
Antonio Meucci, of Staten Island, and explained the process of manufacture.

It was stated that the process would be referred to the standing commit-
tee of manufactures science and art of the Institute, for a report.

The Chairman presented the following interesting summary of scientific
news:

A New Gas Engine.

The Gazomoteur of M. Belon is in successful operation near Paris, and
has been favorably reported upon by the French Academy of Sciences. An
economy equal to 60 or TO per cent, is claimed for it. The principal parts
are an air-pump, a smoke consuming furnace and a motive cylinder. The
furnace, when the engine is at work, remains closed, except at the orifice
by which the air-pump opens on it and at the one by which the heated air
sets the cj'linder in motion. It is ao arranged that a quantity of combusti-
ble matter, equal to that which it consumes, falls constantly into it. A
state of combustion is kept up by the air-pump. Part of the air passing
from this rushes into the furnace, the rest combines with the coal-gas,
forming a gaseous mixture, the volume of which is far greater than that
of the air previous to its introduction into the furnace. This mixed air
acts on the piston with a force proportionate to the increased volume pro-
duced by the temperature.

"V^ATER FOR Paris.

Paris, at last, is to have a reservoir capable of supplying 40,000 cubic
feet of pure water every 24 hours. The water is to be brought from the
Marne. The coat of the work will be forty millions of francs.

Specific Heat.

Dr. Kopp has communicated to the Royal Society his important investi-
gations in this branch of science. An immense number of liquid and solid
bodies had been experimented upon, he arrived at the conclusion that each
element in the solid state, and at an adequate distance from its melting
point, has one specific or atomic heat; aud that for each element it is to be
assumed that it has essentially the same specific or atomic heat in the free

396 TRA>'SACTIOXS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

state and in compounds. The law of Dulong and Petit — that the specific
heat of elements is directly proportional . to their atomic weight — is not
nniversally applicable.

Iodide of Silver.

That modification of Iodide of Silver, which is insensitive to the action
of light, has been rendered sensitive by M. Kaiser of Leipzig, who submits
the iodide to the action of the vapor of benzol, which develops ozone in
the air. Ozonized air produced by electricity has the same action.

The TVoethltttpe.

This new photographic process recently invented in Germany, by
Worthly, is exciting great interest. It substitutes a double salt of uranium
for the nitrate of silver, and collodion for albumen in the preparation of
the paper on which the picture is taken. The paper is so affected that the
action or light penetrates entirely through it, and the picture is therefore
unfading. Cheapness, precision, permanence, and ease in working, are the
chief advantages of the new process.

The Emew.

Mr. W. Bennett has been making experiments at Surrey in breeding this
species of large bird which cannot fly. The number of eggs laid by the
female is large, but she takes no part in the incubation This duty is per-
formed by the male who finds the eggs in various sheltered places and
collects them. The normal period of incubation is about sixty days.

The Great Auk.

Mr. A. Xewton has secured from Penguin Island, 170 miles north of St.
Johns, Newfoundland, a natural rmimmy of this remarkable bird, which
has excited as much interest among geologists as the Do/io. Although
numerous .skins are in the museums of natural history, this skeleton, now
in the hands of Prof. Owen, with one other, are the only specimens now in
Europe.

Light of the Cucuyos.

M. Pasteur, in a communication to the Paris Academy of Science, states
that the Cucuyos, an insect having wings protected by a shell like the
beetle, is very common in Mexico. It emits a phosphorescent light so
intense as to enable a person to read by it at night. Its light, like that of
the glow-worm, gives through the spectroscope merely a beautiful continu-
ous spectrum, but without lines. Mexican ladies keep these insects by
feeding them on sugar and giving them a bath once or twice a day. They
are used as ornaments at evening parties.

Ero3ion of Lead by Insects.

Tne Chemical Kev;8 cites a number of cases. In 1858 Marshal Vaillant
exhibited to the French Academy leaden bullets brought back from the
Crimea, in some of which the larvae of insects had excavated circular pa.s-
sages three or four millimeters in diameter. The insects were from the
wood of the cases in which the bullets were packed. In 1844 cartridges

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 397

from the arsenal at Turin were found to be damaged in the same way. In
1S33 Audonin exhibited sheet lead from the roof of a building which had
been grooved by insects. la 1843 a case was reported in which it was
shown they will attack stereotype metal. The insects live in the larva
state in the interior of old trees, and after metamorphosis, quit their retreat
for the purpose of reproduction. They do not eat the lead, but simply bore
it out to make their escape from the wood with which it is in contact.

V Billiard Balls.

It will be remembered that a large premium was offered in this country
for an artificial substance having the properties of ivory required in bil-
liard balls M. Dupre, of Paris, has produced a material from paper pulp,
sulphate of baryta and gelatine, which is highly commended by some of
the leading billiard players in that city.

The Dinornis.

The bones of this gigantic bird were exiiibited to the Linnivan Society
by Mr. Allis. The remains of one adult and a young brood of live were
discovered lately in New Zealand. It is tliought, on examining portionv>«
of feathers still remaining, that they died within ten years. If any of the
species are still living, it is not strange that they should have eluded for
mer searches for them. Explorations are now being made by Dr. Haast,
through the center of New Zealand, to ascertain whether the animal is
extinct.

Great Photographic Feat.

Dr. H. Draper, of this city, has succeeded in making a photograph of the
moon more than four feet in diameter, by means of his glass reflector in his
observatory at Hastings.

The selected subject for discussion,

The Manufacture of Straw Goods,

was then taken up, when Mr. B. Garvey made the following remarks:

J/r. President and Gentlemen — I.shall not examine the subject of straw
hat manufacture with regard to its historical interest, nor consider it as a
source of national wealtli. To give an idea of its importance, it will be
enough to advert to the fact that straw hats are worn to some extent by
men, women and children in every civilized country of the world; and, al-
though ihe manufacture of the coarser kinds of hats is almost eo-extensive
with the market, yet for the finer kinds, which embody elegance of design
with perfection of finish, there is an extensive market in wiucii to compete
with England, which now enjoys an almost exclusive monopoly of the mar-
kets of the world.

In the rude form of the manufacture, from the sowing of the seed to the
trimming of the finished hat, the work was performed by the farmer or his
family; but perfection of manufacture demands division of labor, and ac-
cordingly we find that this manufacture now^ives employment to no less
than ten different trades, each more or less independent of all the others,
viz.: 1, the farmer; 2, the merchant; 3, the dyer; 4, the bleacher; 5, tho

398 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

braider or plaiter; G, tlic straw sewer; 7, tlie stiifener and shaper; 8, the
presser; 9, the wirer and trimmer; 10, the manufacturer— besides several
others indirectly employed, as box-makers, &c.

The farmer grows, cures, cuts and bundles the straw.
The straw must be very pliant and thin; and, if white, must be free from
spots, or if yellow, must be of a uniform tint, the pipes being small. To
produce the white, thin, pliant straw, the farmer sows the white lamas
'wheat very thick, in a chalky soil, if possible, so that no wheat will be pro-
duced, but instead, long white straw. To produce the yellow straw, a pe-
culiar kind of bearded wheat is used in Italy, and is sown also very close
or thick upon light soils, so as to have the straws as small in diameter as
possible. Great care is required in harvesting the straw so as not to break
the pipes. It is cut down carefully. It is then divided at the joints and
put into bundles, each bundle being composed of straws of uniform length,
and of nearly uniform diameter. These bundles are of the average length
of the joints when made of yellow straw or of that which is to be dyed; but
for the white straw more care is required and all colored or spotted pieces
are cut off, so that these bundles are much shorter than the yellow or col-
ored ones. The first joint is used for coarse split straw braid, and for
the whole-straw braid known as rough-and-ready. The second joint is the
finest; it is used for the finest split straw, and is the choicest part of the
straw. The third joint is used for very fine Dunstable braid. The last
joint is the longest and the yellowest, and is used for Canton braid. The
bundles of straw are boiled in clean water to extract all sap or vegetable
coloring matter from them, after which they are carefully' dried in th6^ sun,
and when perfectly dried, they are again tied up, boxed or packed in crates
and sent to market.

The merchant buy^ the straw, gets it dj'^ed for fancy braids, gives it out
to be braided, buys the braid, gets it bleached or dj-ed, as the case may be,
and then either sells the fiuished braid or gives it out to the manufacturers
to be made into hats.

In this country there is but little braid manufactured, for labor is too
expensive to compete with the cheap labor of England and Italy. Braid
is principally imported from the two countries named, but particularly from
England.

Tlie braid may be classified according to the number of straws woven
together to make each kind, the varieties depending on the peculiar weft
of the braid, the size of the straw, its color, both natural and dyed.

2-Straw braid is used only for trimming.

3-Straw braid is used also for trimming.

4-Straw rustic, with scolloped edges, is made of either split straw or
whole straw. It is used principally by the peasantry of England, hence
its name.

5-Straw braid is called hair braid, being woven as ladies hair is some-
times braided. It is made of split straws.

6-Straw rustic is like the four straw, but is wider, of closer weft, and
better looking.

7-Straw braid admits of many varieties.

Fine split straw has seven straws in the weft, the fifth side being out.

PROCEEDINGS OF- THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 399

This braid is not more than onc-cighth of an incli in widtli. It is made of
the finest part of the straw, and is the most expensive in manufacture of
any kind made in Ejigland. Devon and Suton braids arc in every respect
the same as split straw, but being wider and liaving' peculiar qualities due
to the kind of straw employed in the places from which the names are
derived. Dunstable is a whole straw braid, having seven straws in the
weft, and differing in the weft in no respect from Devon or Suton braid.
Canton braid is also made of whole straws, but the straw being of the top
joint it is 3'ellow and harsh. Bird-eye braid is made by weaving two fine
split straw braids together, like the two straw trimming. Purl edged braid
is so called because of an edge formed upon it by the use of a knitting needle
at one side of the braid while it is being braided, the knitting needle being
withdrawn leaves an edge or purl of loops along the side.

9-Straw braid is called lustre because the lustrous or glossy side of the
cplit straw is exposed along the middle of the braid. There are different
kind and patterns of this braid made by sliowing the lustre side of the
straw in different patterns and proportions.

10-Straw braid is generally fancy, being composed of colored and
bleached straws woven into fancj' patterns.

11 -Straws are employed in Tuscan.

12-Straw brai'd is a kind of lustre.

1-4-Straw braid is either split straw or whole straw. Pedele braid is
made of whole straw or of double straw, and is of various qualities. Rut-
land is also made of 14 straws used double, and is a finer and more costly
braid than Pedele. Italian is a split straw braid, liaving fourteen straws,
and showing alternately the pith side and lustre side of the straw.

16-Straw braid is known as mitred lustre, the lustrous side of the straw
showing mitres along the edge.

18-Straw braid is called diamond lustre, as the lustrous sides of the

straw show in diann'nds along the weft.

\

BR.VIDING OR PLAITING.

For braiding whole straw braids the pipes are assorted into sizes as only
those of nearly uniform size can be used together.

For split straw or double straw braid the straws are also assorted in
little lots in front of the braider. They are then split into slender splits
by passing them one by one through a tube with a number of cutting
points inside, the spaces between the cutting points corresponding to the
size of the splints required, there being several cutters to give various
sizes of splints. The straws are next scraped on the pith side to thin
them and give a uniform surface. Another mode in general use is to split
the pipe along one side with the thumb nail, open it out flat, scrape it thin,
and then split it into splints on a comb splinter. There must be a cup of
water always near to keep the straws moist, or they will become brittle
and cannot be worked.

The number of straws to be woven together are grasped firmly in one
liand, while the other hand begins the weft, and when a sufficient lengtli
is woven, both hands are employed in passing the straws one over the.
other. All discolored pieces of straw must be rejected, and the ends must

400 _ TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

not be worked too close in, as their color is uot always pure white. The
braid, as formed, is wound up, or reeled, until a score yards, or a piece of
sixty yards is completed. The ends are then clipped off and the braid is
washed, dried and bleached. The bleaching is generally effected with
chloride of soda, followed by a fumigation with sulphur vapor for ten or
twelve hours. This bleached braid must be kept perfectly dry until it is
to be worked up. It is in this state when it is imported into this country.

The New York merchant generally contracts with the manufacturer for
a certain number of hats of a given pattern and finish, and supplies him
with the requisite braid in boxes and thread in packages, the manufacturer
finding his own bh>cks, &c. The manufacturer genqrally employs from 200
to 300 straw sewers, who are usually set to work in poorlj' ventilated and
lighted roooras. He pays them by the piece of braid, or by the hat for
sewing. He knows how many hats of a given style he can get out of a
piece of braid, and how much thread it will take; he accordingly gives to
each girl braid and thread in proportion to the work she can perform. The
thread used is either wire cotton, soft cotton, spool, or unbleached linen
according to the style of work to be done. The sewing girls earn from
three to five dollars a week when work is good. Occasionally one will
earn seven or eight dollars a week. The needles emploj'ed are long and
slender so that the puncture may be as small as possible. Each girl is pro-
vided with a tape measure to measure the round of the hat at every stage.

Tlie first operation of the sewer is to mill the braid, that is to pass it be-
tween two wooden rollers, pressed tightly together b}^ screws. She then
begins at the crown of the hat, which she forms by making a button of the
braid as a nucleus, around which she stitches row after row until she gets
the crown large enough. She then bends down the outer row by moisten-
ing and pressing on it, until it forms an angle, when she proceeds with the
side, crown, and so on to the rim. She must constantly apply the hat to
the pattern block, to be sure that it fits aTid is correct in shape. There are
two ways of getting the shape, but they must be employed together. One
is to wet the braid and strain it into shape. This admits of only little
modification of form. The other way is by inserting slopes or gores ; that
is, pieces of braid in lieu of whole rows. These two ways of modifying the
shape are leanied only b}' practice, but they enable the sewer to get all
desired shapes for hats.

The straw-sewing season in New York begins in the latter part of No-
vember and lasts till the end of April, During the summer months nothing
is done at this work. There is sometimes a little business in September.

The next process after sewing, in New York, is the bleaching of the
finished hat, for washing is dispensed with, as the work must be done with
scrupulously clean hands, and a hat will be ripped up if a single thread be
dirty. The bleaching process is simply a steeping of the hat for a short
time in a solution of chloride of soda, a drying and then a fumigating with
sulphur for about ten hours in the smoke house or steam box as the apart-
ment is called, where the hats are arranged on wooden pegs, no iron
being used as it would stain the hats with iron-mould if allowed to touch
them.

After bleaching, the hats arc next stiffened by being dipped into a thin

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 401

sf)liiti()n of line white g'lne, and thcMi dried, Fonnorly tlic white of eggs
WHS employed as a stifTening, but it was too expensive and too easily acted
upon by heat and moisture, so tliat hats so6n became yeUow and mouldy,
even when kept with great care. The gelatine obtained from ivory dust
or bone dust, by boiling in water, was long in vogue as a stiffening, but it
was also found too expensive and to have no quality superior to those of
good glue, which accordingly has become the general stiffening for straw
hats.

The next process is that of shaping. To effect this the hat is moistened
with water to make it pliant. It is then applied to a block of the pattern
to which it was made, and by pulling and straining it is brought to its
proper position, and is pinned there until it dries.

Tlie hat is next presspd. This process is precisely analogous to the
ironing of under-clothes. A wet cloth is laid upon the hat and b}' pressing
with a hot iron the finished surface is given. Hats made of bird-eye or
pearl- braid are not pressed nor are those braids milled, as either opera-
tion would destroy the embossed appearance which these braids are intended
to give.

There are several forms of pressing tables and of pressing irons employed
together with many ingenious devices for enhancing the power of the pres-
sor and for altering the position of the hat while being pressed, but it
would be useless to attempt to describe them. They must be seen to be
understood.

To preserve the shape of ladies' hats they are wired at the rim and crown.
Bonnet wire is covered with cotton thread to protect it from rust and take
away the appearance of iron.

The wiring is done by girls who also trim the crowns of ladies hats with
tissue paper to prevent their sticking together when packed for exporta-
tion. The girls do not wire men's hats, but on the other hand they trim
them wi h a simple band, or with band and edge binding as they are to be
worn ; so that men's hats leave their hands fit for wear.

In this hasty view of an in'teresting manufacture, I have purposely
avoided any extended remarks upon the bleaching and drying of straw
goods, as there are experienced chemists in our Association whose remarks
on these branches must necessarily be more valuable than anything I could
say. The manufacture of Leghorn and Panama hats too, though a branch
of the subject, has been purposely omitted to give gentlemen who have
seen the process of manufacture an opportunity of describing it ; for their
information will be more correct and far more interesting than that which
is got from reading or from hearsay.

Mr. Jireh Bnll said : Doubtless there are those present who well remem-
ber that the women of this country were dependent upon foreign nations
for their " straw bonnets." Italy and Switzerland furnished the raw mate-
rial as well as the manufactured article. From the 3'ear 1820 and during
a period of ten years tliereafter, the port of Leghorn furnished the greater
]iart of the bonnets made of straw worn in this country.

Ji)hn Tappan, a high-minded merchant of Boston, now living, embarked
largely in that trade, and the public for a time was almost entirely supplied
[Am Inst.J Z

402 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

by his importatjoDs. They yielded to him a large fortune which has
been and still is used for benevolent purposes by this aged philanthropic
citizen.

The idea which has been suggested that England monopolizes the straw
business will hardly be accredited by those who are familiar with what the
peop.-e of Xew England have done, and are still doing in that line of busi-
ness. The masses of the American women were unable, by reason of the
high prices which foreign manufactured straws commanded to possess
themselves of a treasure however greatly coveted. To supply this class,
the insrenuity of a Xew England woman was brought into requisition. It
so far succeeded, that before the year 1S30, a few boxes of American Manu-
factured straw bonnets, made from native growth straw, found their way
into the Xew York market through the agency of Eastern itinerating mer-
chants. These bonnets although neglected at first, gradually overcame the
prejudice which at that time attached itself to most articles of American
fabrication until their demand as an article of commerce was fully recog-
nized, and the itinerant dealer was compelled to give place to the estab-
lished merchant. As a consequence large fields in New England were
appropriated fur the exclusive culture of the raw material. Manufactories
gradually came into existence, enriching entire communities by industrious
labor.

Passing through my own native place, Milford Conn., lying on the shore
of L>ng Island Sound, a few weeks ago I found that a large straw factory
had been established there employing seven hundred operatives. Upon
enqrrlry I ascertained it had been in existence about ten years. The
thrifty appearance of the town gave unmistakable evidence of the industry
of the people. It has been stated by competent authority, that in the
southern part of the State of Massachusetts alone, 12,000 persons are
employed in straw bonnet factories, and nearly 8,000,000 of bonnets and
hats are sent away annually. The Leghorn Bonnet now is as great a
curiosity in this country as the American straw bonnet was, during the
adminstration of John Quincy Adams.

Dr. W. Rowell gave an amusing account of the great Leghorn hats worn
thirty years ago in this country.

Dr. E. P. St-'vens said he belonged to a fa-nily who had been connected
with the business for more than sixty years. Latterly less was done
because they could not compete with the foreign braid. The custom was
for the boys and girls of the neighborhood to assemble in the evening and
braid straw. Lights were not necessary, as all were expert to braid in the
dark by the sense of touch. We used the oat straw. He remembered
when the Leghorn hat was introduced. It was thought, on account of its
peculiar sewing, that it could not be done in this country. But it is not
sewed; it is laced together by a long thread. Mrs. Randall, of Cortland
county, X. T., had the credit of first discovering the manner of making
this kind of hat. She had some Timothy seed sown for this purpose. The
amount now manufactured in Massachusetts is very large. A sloop loaded
with straw goods from one establishment departs with great regularity
every week. The styles of next year's bonnets are all made up tliis fall.
All large establishments have their "style clerks," whose business is to

PBOCEEDINGS OF THS POLYTECHNIC ASSCCIAT[KS. 403

study and perfect the styles. These Clerks meet in convention once a year,
and decide what shall be the fashion for the ensuing Spring. Their 'busi-
ness is to arrange the general contour of the hat.

After further remarks from Messrs. Fisher, Bartlett and Johnson, it was.
decided to continue the discussion of this subject, at the next meeting. —
Adjuurned.

American' lySTiiiiE, Polttechnttc Associatio>', )
Xovember IT, 1864. J

Chairman, Professor S. D. Tillman: Secretary, Mr. Benj. Garvey.
The proceedings were opened by the Chairman, who read the following
summary of recent progress in science and art.

Reduction of Silver Oezs.

M. Poumarcde, in a communication to the French Academy, considers
that the loss complained of in reducing the rich ores of Mexico, is due to
an imperfect chloridization of the silver and the consequent irregularity of
action. If finely powdered quartz be mixed with one per cent of salt, and
heated for half an hour to redness in a covered crucible, all the silver will
be found to have passed into the form of chloride soluble in ammonia. If
the silver is in the form of a sulphide or any other compound, the result is
the same. The conversion into chloride takes place also when instead of
quartz, felspar is used either with or without earthy carbonates, oxide of
f iron or other constituents of the vein stone.

Tee Electric Discharge.

Experiments on the discharge of the Leyden jar have been made recently
by Mr. Fedderson of Leipsic. For analyzing the light, he employed a revol-
ving concave mirror silvered by Liebig's* process having a radius of curva-
ture of 500 millimeters. The rates of revolution are from 30 to 100 times
per second. With a short conducting circuit he found the discharge was
oscillatory — that is the current did not move in one direction but alternated
to and fro. As the resistance was increased the oscillaMon was diminished
and finally the current became continuous. If resistance- was still increased
from tlie point where the oscillations ceased, the duration of the discharge
was increased to i second point when the equilibrium is restored by means
jf partial sparks. The resistance in the last case was effected by means of
small tubes filled with (ftstilled water. The discharge from a short metallic
circuit he found lasted nearly one ten thousandth part of a second or about
one hundred times longer than the estimation made by Wheatstone.

Light From the Pixed Stars.

Dr. Miller and Mr. Huggins have presented to the Royal Society the
result of their examination of the light of some of the fixed stars by means
of the spectroscope. They found lines corresponding with them in the
?pectrum of nine elementary bodies. They regard the difference in the

/

404 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

colors of stars as the effect of the stellar atmosphere whicli absorbs dif-
ferent portions of light, originally cjf the same quality.

On the Temperature of the Sexes.

Dr. Davy, in a communication to the British association for the advance-
ment of science, stated that by recent observation he found the tempera-
ture of the body in tlie case of men varied between 99 and d9h^ that of
women between 97| and 98*^. The average showed the relative tempera-
ture of males and females v/as as 1058 to 1013.

Uniform System of Weights and Measures.

The British Association at their last meeting adopted unanimously the
report of a committee in favor of adopting the metric system of France;
and recommending that in scientific communications, and in books of edu-
cation all statements of weights and measures be accompanied by their
equivalents in the French system and that all scales of temperature be
divided according to the Centigrade as well as Farenheit graduation.

China Grass.

The experiments with the fibre of this species of nettle-weed in France,
already reported to this Association; are attracting great attention in that
country. It is now declared without reservation that none of the qualities
of cotton are wanting. The Minister of the Interior is furnishing seed,
obtained from China, to Agriculturists, and the speculation will assume
gigantic proportions.

This fibre had previously been used by manufacturers in our own coun-
try; but for some reasons unknown to us its use was not approved. Pos-
sibly new methods of preparation may have obviated the objections found
to it in Americiin Factories.

Casualties in 'British Coal Mines.

The following is a summary of the accidental deaths in coal mines of
Great Britain for 1863:

By explosion of fire damp 163

^ By falls of roof and coals &c., 407

By accidents in shafts 147

By miscellaneous accidents I'JO

Total .». 907

Machine for Sawing Ship Timber.

This ingenious arrangement of saws was explained by the inventor, Mr.
Vance, who was introduced by Mr. Flury. The audience on learning that
Mr. Vance had lost an arm in the service of his country, received him with
great favor and listened with marked attention to his minute description of
his apparatus. Its novelty consists in tlie metliotl of changing the position of
the saws even while running, so as to cut the timber which is stationary to
the best advontagc. Tiuis the enormous waste by chopping is saved, and
the whole timber is utilized.

proceedings of the polytechnic associatiojji. 405
Stevens' New Carbine.

ilr. "W. II. Stcvciis exhibited his new carbine, and spoke as follows:
Gentlemen, in accepting- an invitation to appear before you, I did not
anticipate meeting- such a g-athering- as this; and I do not come with any
expectation of profit to myself, but because I take some pride in showing
my invention to scientific men, whose appreciative faces seem to offer a
gleam of sympathy with my long and laborious struggle in perfecting this
gun. My purpose was to make a gun that might be loaded and fired with
one hand. Not with the intention of sending back to the, war, the one
armed heroes, such as our friend who has addressed you; but that the horse-
man may liavc one hand to control his animal and fire with the other. I
commenced my study by laying down certain controlling principles as a
guide to my course. The breech should be opened and cleared for another
cliarge at one easy movement. After putting in a charge the gun should
by securely closed by one opposite movement. The working parts to acom-
plish this should be as few as is compatible Avith present security and per-
manent durability in severe use. The breech-loading should not interfere
with any improvements of bore, rifling or ammunition which ma}' give long
and accurate range. By much handling of a gun I find that the shortest
route to the cartridge box for the hand, is to draw it back in a line parallel
with the lock. I make use of the first inch of this motion to slide back a
guaz-d on which the middle finger rested at the time of firing. This guard
is a part of a sliding rod which wedges down the breech block, containing
the lock, then pulls by a single other piece of great power, the cartridge
shell both at the same movement. After the cartridge is inserted the
breech is securely closed by the forward slip of the hand, as the gun is
brought up to the shoulder; or both movements may be made with one
hand as the piece hangs at the side in the horseman's sling. By pressing
in a certain stop-pin, the lock may be swung down and its side plate opened
like a lid exposing the lock for cleaning, oiling or to be taken out, and this
is done without screw-driver or other tool.

The sporting piece is furnished with a percussion cap cone so arranged
as to fire the regular cartridge or loose powder loaded at the muzzle with
a patched ball; or the frontiersman may refill the old cartridge shells with
as much or little powder as he fancies, and fire with common caps, and
this without altering- his piece in any way. The simplicity, compactness
and durability'' secured in this construction can only be appreciated by exami-
nation and use.

Arrangements are being made to manufacture this arm in cavalry,
infantry and sporting form at Worcester, Mass.

Plumbago.

Mr. J. Johnson exhibited a large specimen of graphite from the State of
Maine.

Grease Balls from Steam Exhaust Pipes. '

Mr. AVatson exhibited two black hard balls, nearly two inches in diameter.
They were taken, with seventeen others, from the exhaust pipe of a steam
' iigine. The dirt and sand accumulates with grease and particles of iron,

406 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

and by tlie intermediate action of the exhaust, they are thrown into con-
stant motion, and thus beco;ne perfectly round and hard.

Manufacture of Straw Goods.

The discussion of this subject was continued from the last meeting-. Dr,
D. D. Parmelee read the following paper:

HISTORY OF STRAW.

The native country of wheat is unknown, but is supposed to have been
Central Asia.

The original locality of oats has not been satisfactorily ascertained. It
grows wild in Sicily, and is said to have been seen by Anson in the island
of Juan Fernandez, on the coast of Chili.

Syria, Armenia and the southern provinces of Russia have been severally
indicated as the native country of rye.

The original country of the cultivated barley is unknown. It grows wild
in Sicily.

There are a -variety of species of each of these, which are interesting to
the botanist, but not directly so in connection with the subject of this
evening.

C0MP0SITI9N OF STRAW.

In 1,000 lbs. of perfectly dry straw we have, by analysis, the following
constituents:

Constituenta. Wheat straw. Rye straw. Barley straw. Oat straw.

Organic substances 9G0 970 955 950

Nitrogen therein 4 .S .3 3

Inorganic substances 40 30 45 60

Potash and soda 6 5^ 12 14

Lime and magnesia 3 3^ 6 5

Phosphoric acid 2 1^ 2 1^

Silica 27 18 23 25

The remaining minute inorganic constituents (for example, common salt,
sulphuric acid, salts, etc.,) have not been specified, for the sake of sim-
plicity.

Silica constitutes an important proportion of the constituents of straw.
And there have been those of sufficient leisure who have made globules of
glass from this silica.

In this connection it may be mentioned that silica is found in the joints
of the bamboos, in the form of small round globules, which have received
the name of Tabashhee?; aud are distinguished by their remarkable optical
properties.

For industrial purposes ,we regard straw simply as Lignin, encased in an
armor of Silica to protect it from destructive influences and give firmness
to the stalk; while the other ingredi'ents serve as a kind of cement, adding
tenacity and flexibility to the whole.

Therefore what is true of lignin generally, as hemp, linen, cotton, etc., in
respect to bleaching, in a chemical regard, is applicable to straw, due re-
ference to their physical conditions being in mind, and hence some altera-
tions in the mechanical parts of the processes.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 407

BLEACHING.

The oldest modc*of bleaching, ■V7hich is technically termed croflwg, con-
sists in exposing- the straw to the action of dew and light by spreading it
out in meadows and frequently turning it while the process is going on.

It is next gathered, assorted and submitted to. the action of steam for
the purpose of extracting its color, and then a fumigation of sulphur to
complete the bleaching. The straws arc then in a condition to be plaited
or woven.

Where and when the practice of bleaching first began, we have no ac-
count. But we know that it is of very ancient origin, mention being made
of it in the oldest books extant.

And from the earliest description to the close of the last century it is
quite clear that no other process was known, than what has already been
alluded to ; and in case of cloth, alternate boiling and exposure to the
atmosphere — a process requiring many months to complete, but since the
application of chlorine to this purpose the process is completed in a few
days, and for most of dyeing operations in a few minutes.

Professor Graham observes of the application of chlorine to this purpose
as one of the most valuable which chemistry has presented to the arts.

Phlorine was discovered by Scheele, in 1114, and was called by him
dephlogisficated muriatic acid.

About eleven years after this, Berthollet considered that he had found it
to be a compound of muriatic acid with oxygen, and hence called it oxyge-
nized muriatic acid. This was afterwards contracted into oxymuriatic acid.

In 1811 Sir Humphrey Davy discovered it to be a simple or elemeiitary
substance, and gave it the name of chlorine, from the fact af its having a
greenish yellow color.

Scheele described its peculiar property of destroying vegetable coloring
matters ; but Berthollet was the first to call the attention of the public to
its value as a bleaching agent in 1185. iVbout the time this chemist was
investigating the nature of this substance, he was visited by the celebrated
James Watt, to whom Berthollet related the results of his experiment upon
bleaching,* and from this circumstance the inventor of a steam engine
became also the introducer'of the new process of bleaching into Great
Britain.

Some give this honor to Professor Copeland, of Aberdeen; but Professor
Napier gives it as his opinion, from the evidence he has seen, that it belongs
to Watt, although there was little difference of time.

Tiie first method of using chlorin^ was by saturating cold water with the
gas, the water taking up about twice its volume of it. The goods were
put into this water, after which it was heated to drive off the chlorine or
set it free, that it might act upon the coloring matter. But the goods
were impaired by this process, and more diluted solutions were employed
and found to bleach equally well, ai\d the goods were preserved.

But a defect of the goods becoming yellow after a few days, suggested
alternate boilyigs with alkaline lyes ; and the difficulty of the workmen,
being unable to endure the effects of the escaping gas, led to the discovery
that alkalies not only absorb a greater quantity of chlorine than water,

408 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

but that they hold it with greater affinity, not allowing- the gas to escape
and affect the atmosphere, at the same time parting- with it more regularly
«.nd effectively to the goods. The alkalies used were soda and potash.

In 1798 Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, patented a process for using a solution
of lime for absorbing tlie chlorine.

Shortly after, the hydrate of lime (slacked' lime) was substituted for
lime water. And this is the preparation now used for bleaching, under the
name of chloride of lime.

The best bleaching powder of commerce seldom contains over 30 per
cent, of chlorine available in bleaching.

To prepare chloride of lime for bleaching, an aqueous solution is requi-
site. For this purpose a quantity is put into a large vessel filled with
water, well stirred, and allowed to settle. This is called the stock liquor.
'There are no definite proportions. Every bleacher makes up his stock-vat
to a certain sti-ength indicated by his hydrometer.

■Care is taken that this liquor is protected from the air as much as possi-
ble, as the lime absorbs carbonic acid, and the chlorine being set at liberty,
•occasions a loss.

The goods to be bleached are cleansed from adhering dirt or grease, in.
some cases by boiling in alkaline solutions, in others by simply washing.
'They are then laid loosely as possible in the bleaching liquor.

The vessels which 'Contain this liquor are large, made either of wood or
:stone, and are termed bleaching-vats, or troughs. To prepare this liquor,
these vats are filled with water, and a quantity of the stock liquor added
iintil the required strength is attained, which is indicated by its action on
.sulphate of indigo, in what is called the test glass.

This is a cylindrical glass measure, with marks or gradations on its
side. It is filled, for example, to tlie lowest mark with the sulphate of indi-
go; the liquor is added drop by drop until the color of the indigo is de-
:stroyed. The quantity taken to effect this is denoted by the graduations
above; the weaker the liquor, the greater number of the graduations re-
quired. Each of these graduations is termed its degree.

The goods are allowed to steep in this liquor for several hourg| vai^ying
.according to the nature of the goods. •

. The bleaching properties of ozone have excited considerable attention
during a few years, and enough is known of it to induce the opinion
that when easy methods of producing and applying it arc discovered,
it will be of great value in the arts.

Next to bleaching comes dyeing. Straw is colored blue by a boiling
bot solution of indigo in sulphuric acid, called saxon blue, diluted to the
desired shade^ yellow by decoction of tumeric; red by cochineal, salt of
tin, and tartar. Brazil wood is also used for dyeing straw. And what
may be said of dyeing fabrics generally will apply to straw.

Straw has been used to some extent as a material for white paper for
many years; but the loss of material, from its brittle nature, during the
processes of manufacture, and other circumstances, more than counterbal-
lanced the advantage gained from the abundance of the supply, until quite
recently, when the very high price of linen and cotton rags, and improve-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 409

mcnfs in the modes of prep;iring' tlic pulp, have brought about wliat seems
to bo, hereafter, a permanent manufacture.

There are two of three recent improvements which may ong'ag'c our atten-
tion for a moment. Mr. II. H. Collycr patented in England an improved
process which consisted essentially in first boiling the straw in water to
render it soft, then subjecting it to a cutting action and also to a grinding
maciiiue. The straw is rubbed between grinding surfaces until every knot
is crushed and made into an impalpable pulp. In this finely divided state
the pulp is boiled in strong caustic alkali, which dissolves the silica and
reduces the pulp to a finer condition. It is next bleached, and treated in
the usual way. The grinding operation of this process seems to constitute
the improved feature.

Another improvement for rendc'^ring the fibre of straw profitably availa-
ble for the production of white paper, and which has attracted more gene-
ral attention, consists in boiling the straw in an alkaline lye, in a rotary
boiler, under steam pressure of from 100 lbs. to 140 lbs. per square inch.
Under such a pressure and temperature, the silica and other constituents
of the straw, which render its fibre brittle and difficult to bleach, entirely
give way, and separate to such an extent tliat they can be almost entirely
removed by simple w-ashing, leaving its fibre soft and in condition t« bleach
most readily and economically. This has been regarded ns a very import-
ant improvement, and one which will render the manufacture of white
paper from straw a permanent business.

This Association has already been made aware to what extent straw
fibre enters into the printing papers of this country.

The old yellow wrapping paper which is made almost wholly of straw,
and the straw board for book binding and boxes, have constituted staple
articles of manufacture for many years. The manufacturing of quality
is carried on by smaller establishments in vicinities where the straw is
more abundant and cheap.

The conditions of its manufacturing are so simple and generally under-
stood that we need not, perhaps, dwell upon them here.

The fullywing article from the WaUingford Circular may now be inte-
resting:

Paper Buttons.

Everybody knows that buttons are made from metal, horn, shell, glasp,
whale-bone, jet, mother-of-pearl, India rubber and wood; but how many
know that millions are yearly made from common pasteboard, or, as it ia
technically termed, " strawboard ?" Thousands of vests, pants, under-
coats and overcoats are to-day buttoned with paper; and in most instances
the owners thereof no doubt fancy their buttons are made of horn, wood or
india rubber, or some more aristocratic material.

ORIGIN OF PAPER BUTTONS.

"WaUingford claims the honor, so far as this country is concerned, of
having first successfully used paper in the manufacture of buttons. Chas.
D. Yale, an Englishman, first essayed to make paper buttons here, but was
not very successful, and soon sold out his interest in the project. lie

410 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

attempted to make an eye or shank button, and imported his ideas on the
subject, it is said, from across the Atlantic. Though he partially failed,
that kind of button is now successfully made at the two button factories
located in this town. Several persons followed Mr. Yale with varied for-
tunes; but to Judj^e E. M. Pomeroy is av/arded the praise of success in this
department of industry. Tliis man, recently deceased, is described as
remarkable for originality, independence and persevering purpose. He
would never throughout his life, his friends say, take advantage of other
men's inventions; but depend for success on his own powers. Twenty-nine
years ago he conceived the idea of making common suspender or four-
hole buttons from paper; and the purpose then formed was successfully
executed, although he encountered obstacles which would have discouraged
most men. His experiments involved much loss of time and money — he
was several times burnt: out; but perseverance finall}' brought him com-
plete success, and he was repaid fOr all his losses, aad found himself at one
time worth some forty thousand dollars. We are told what rude hand
implements wore us'^ed by him at first — how he invested improved power
machines — how he wrought day and night — how his funds were exhausted
in experiments; but his hope and courage never abated.

THE TWO FACTORIES AND WHAT THEY MAKE.

The first factory visited is carried on by Humiston & Pomeroy. They
employ ordinarily not more than half a dozen hands. They make paper
buttons varying from twenty line to forty line, or from vest button size to
overcoat size. They make some small buttons with eyes or shanks, but
mostly holed buttons. They also manufacture '* nail heads " of different
sizes, used in trimming carriages, trunks, etc.

The other factory is a much larger establishment, and is carried on by
Hall, Miller & Co., whose goods are stamped " Pomeroy Manufacturing
Co.," after the style of the original firm. Here are emploj'ed at present
twenty-eight hands, of whom the greater portion are women and girls.
Here are made a great variety of paper buttons, and also several kinds of
metal faced buttons; also gun wadding. The sales of this establishment
the present year are estimated at twenty-five thousand dollars. On an
average one hundred great gross of paper buttons, twenty-five of metal
face, and ten gross of gilt face are made daily. About fifty tons of straw-
board will be used the present year; 150 gallons a month of linseed oil;
and two barrels per month of benzine. Both establishments manufacture
their own boxes.

HOW PAPER KUTTONS ARE MADE.

The buttons are first cut out of common coarse strawboard of the proper
thickness by power punches, which do the work witii surprising rapidity,
each cutting from five to eight hundred per minute. The buttons thus sim-
ply cut are placed in the hopper of a power press, which is ingeniously
contrived to f(!ed itself; a pipe leads from the iioppef perpendicularly —
revolving fingers keep this pipe filled — a single button is taken from the
bottom of the pipe ere it reaches the bed of the press, and carried under a
punch which presses it into the desired form, punches the required number
of holes, and if desired stamps it with the name of the manufacturing firm

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 411

By the same opera'^ion the fibrous substance of the button is so compressed
as to render it quite hard. The button then rises a few inches to meet a
sprinj:: which throws it on a little shovel, which sliovels it out of the way.
All this is done with greiit rapidity. A single person will fill the hoppers,
and tend half a dozen of these machines. The buttons are now made, and
yet thoy can scarcely be called buttons — they still strike the eye as little
circular pasteboards. They then receive a dry " tumbling" or " tomming,"
wliicli separates the dust and smooths tlie rough edges. They are then
further hardened, and at the same time colored, by being tumbled in a com-
pound, of which linseed oil, benzine and lamp black are the main ingredi-
ents. ("Tumbling" is simply the process of revolving in a horizontal
cylinder.) After becoming tlius well saturated with the compounds, they
are placed in a baking room and subjected to a high degree of temperature
for at least twenty-four hours. In this operation there is great liability
to fire. Only a few months ago Humiston & POmeroy had several hun-
dred dollars worth of buttons burned with the dry house; and the other firm
lias sufl'ered several times in a similar manner. The tumbling and baking
processes are repeated again and again. At the last tumbling the buttons
are put into a Japan compound and come out well varnished.

Tlie buttons are now completed and are ready for boxing and the mar-
ket; and as they now appear, in shining brown or lustrous black, few of
the uninitiated would ever guess they were made of plebian strawboard.

One of the tumbling machines in the factory first visited I must not omit
to mention. In the first process of puncliing the strawboard often splits.
These split buttons were formerly picked out by hand — a tedious opera-
tion. A "tumbler" invented by Mr. Humiston is so contrived as to sift
out the split buttons, leaving the complete buttons by themselves. The
buttons sometimes adhere to each other; and the same machine is made to
separate the compound buttons from the single ones. This " tumbler" is
so contrived tliat the planks of which it is made may be separated at any
required distance, thus letting pass out of the cylinder dust, split buttons
or single buttons, at the pleasure of the operator.

These paper buttons are said to be quite durable. Boiling in hot water,
the manufacturers said, only made them harder. The demand for them is
good, and their manufacture remunerative. Some difficulty is however ex-
perienced at present in obtaining material, and on this account the first
named factory has had to stop a short time the present season.

The metal face buttons are composed of paper and tin, paper and iron,
paper and brass, and bring higher prices, as the process of their manufac-
ture is somewhat more complicated. Most of these metal face buttons have
one-half the surface of metal; but sometimes the entire surface is metal,
while the interior portion is of paper.

The manufacturers had not accurate statistics on hand, but both firms
agreed in estimating that a ton of stravt'board will make about 750 great
gross of 27 line or suspender buttons, and as one firm stated used about
50 tons of strawboard per year, and the other 25 tons, I conclude that if
their buttons average 27 line, they would together turn out annually ninety-
seven millions and two hundred thousand (97,200,000) of these indispensa-
ble articles.

412 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

. If we were to consider all the useful applications of straw, and enter
into the details of the manufacture of each, although interesting- it would
consume more time than would be willingly given to the subject this
evening.

Such would involve tlie manufacture o^ papier mache.

The substitution of grass for bristles in the manufacture of brushes to a
limited extent.

Of straw mats for testing tjie chemist's retorts.

Paper box manufacture from straw boards.

And a variety of ornamental fancy articles constituting quite an import-
ant trade in the aggregate.

Simply to show the importance of some of those little thingB which are
hardly ever noticed, considering them too insignificant in value to estimate
commercially, it may he mentioned that a former superintendent of the bar
saloon at the Astor House, estimated tiiat during five months of the year,
three bunches a week of straws are consumed. These bunches contain
100 each, and cost 25 cents each. For 22 weeks 66 bunches would amount
to $16. One thousand dollars a year would be a small estimate for the
city of New York expended in one year for these straws.

Some one more curious may estimate the number of gallons which pass
through these straws, and the amount of physical force, in horse powers,
required to operate these pneumatic contrivances so as to elevate such a
quaptity of fluid the required height.

Dr. R. P. Stevens gave an interesting desci'iption of the curiosities he had
met with during a late trip in Pennsylvania. lie saw three vessels made
of straw which were used to wash dislies in, and straw pans used in mix-
ing bread ; straw mats at the duors and straw roof on dwellings and barn's.
He was forcibly struck with the fact that these manufactures of straw con-
tinue almost unchanged from one age to another. Our Saxon forefathers made
the same things that are made to-day by the Grermans of Pennsylvana.

The follo.wing interesting article from Harpers Magazine was then
presented :

STRAW BONNETS.

Among the minor branches of New England industry, one of the most
interesting is the manufacture of straw bonnets. A distinguishing feature
cf this is, that it is to a great extent a "domestic manufacture'' in the
strictest sense of the phrase, a large part of the work being done by
families at their own homes, and only the finishing part performed in largo
factories.

Straw bonnets and hats were originally made in Italy. The Italian, or,
as they are more commonly called, the "Leghorn" hats, are made of
slender straws from a species of bearded wheat, which is grown expressly
for the hat manufacture. The straw is prepared in a manner similiar to
that which will be described further on in this article. The making of
these Leghorn hats gives employment to large numbers of the Italian pea-
santry, and an old convent, now and then, has to suffer transformation into
a straw-hat establishment. It was not long before the Italian hat was
adopted by the French, and a little over a hundred years ago it was intro-

PROCEEDINdS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 413

duced into England. This hat consisted of nothing more than an enormous
circle of straw with a central skull-cap of the same material. It was, there-
fore, better litted to receive the changes in foi'm through which it was
destined to pass than would have been the case if it had consisted of a
more elaborate design. Many a chase after a blown-av/ay hat induced the
ladies to put their wits to work in order that they might put an end to the
vexations which were caused them by their broad and flapping hat-brims.
These they soon learned to fasten down upon the side with ribbons, thus
forming the so-called "gipsy hat," and making the first approach to a bon-
net. Various successful attempts were made to modify the native ugliness
of this form of hat, but no radical changOi took place until about the year
1790, when, the hinder part of the brim proving troublesome, some v/oman
of fashion in a fit of spleen cut it off. Tiius a second advance was made
toward the modern bonnet. As if this had been a signal for the overthrow
of the then reigning fashions, numerous new shapes of hats or bonnets
began to appear. From all these changes the legitimate bonnet came out
triumphant, and, notwithstanding its protean character, despite its nume-
rous alterations in size and shape, has retained the same essential charac-
teristics ever since.

Let us commence our investigations of the straw bonnet manufacture
among us by taking a glance at the manner of preparing the straw. By
the time that day dedicated to All-Fools arrives, the rye, which has been
sown, and even commenced its growth the fall before, covers the hill slopes
with its verdure, in place of the just departed whiteness of the snow, and
in June, being nearly out of the blossom, its slender stalks are ready for
the sickle. The reaper is very careful to cut his straw at just the right
time, for he has learned that a too early gathering produces shrivelled
stalks, and a tardy reaping, brittle ones. Having been cut, tied in small
bundles, and the loose straws shaken out, the stalks are laid upon a block,
and loose their heads by the axe. The largest boiler to be obtained, the
one used for scalding hogs the year before maybe, is now brought into
requisition, set up perhaps in the field, filled with water, and a hot fire
built under it. To this boiler the headless trunks are now brought. After
a thorough scalding has removed much of their green sap, the bundles are
undone, and the stalks are laid upon a grassy slope to dry, the butts being
placed uppermost, in order that the moisture may not collect under the
husks that spring up from every joint. Now the straw-maker is called
upon to exercise even more watchfulness than the maker of hay; he
observes every shower-betoken cloud, and carefully shields his straw from
a particle of the rain, which \vould destroy its much prized clearness.
After having turned it several times, and allowed it to lie out for about
forty-eight hours, the straw is for the last time bundled up and placed under
cover.

When it is desired to braid the straw, children are employed to cut it at
the joints, and to take off the easily removed hulls which grow up from
these. The smooth lengths of straw between these. joints, are put into a
boiler, and a second time submitted to the action of hot water. Even now
the tortures of the poor disjointed and scalding straw are by no means
ended, but, passing from bad to worse, it has to be placed in a basket, and

414 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

exposed to that suffocating ovdeal of brimstone smoke, which again and
again, oven after having been made into bonnets, it is doomed to pass
through. It comes from the barrel or cupboard in which it has been fumi-
gated far whiter than it went in, and is now ready, so far as color is con-
cerned, for the braiding. The above is the process used if it is wished that
the straw should be white; but if, on account of having been damaged in
the drying perhaps, it is wished to color it, a kettle of dye stuff is substi-
tuted lor the hot water and the bleaching is dispensed with.

After having been dampened, slit from end to end, and flattened out by
being drawn over the back of the scissors, each straw is ready for what
is technical!}' termed "machining." The " machine" is rather a primitive
affair, but little deserving the dignified name which it has received. Tiie
essential part of it is a series of sharp steel teeth inserted at regular dis-
tances on a slip of wood, over which the flattened straw is' drawn. These
•teeth split the straw into a series of "splints," wider or narrower accord-
ing to the distance between the teeth. Tliere is a separate machine for
each "number."

Much of the work heretofore has been done by children, and in the plant-
ing of the straw they continue to find scope for their industry. In this
pursuit they were more especially employed to advantage in the early days
of straw braiding, when to have a large family was rather a blessing than
otherwise, since, with the high prices then given for braid, the children
could frequently show as the results of their labor, many of th^ comforts
and luxuries of the farmer's house. The braid may be formed of either
single straws or of double ones, i. e., of two with their inner surfaces laid
together. In the first instance, the polished outer face of the straw will
alternate with the dull inner surface, forming the so-called "split straw"
braid, and in the second case the braid will have the uniform, glossy
appearance which characterizes the " Patent English Dunstable." We
are speaking of domestic braids. There are foreign braids, as the " Canton,"
"Panama" and "Leghorn," which are made up of unsplit straws. From
the number of strands used, the braid receives the names "seven,"
"eleven," "fifteen," etc., being the finer of course, for any definite width,
in proportion as the strands are more numerous,

The braid is by no means yet ready for the sewer, but, having been
bought up in its rough state by the braid collectors, it is turned over to
those whom we ma}' call the finishers. Having been tied in bundles, the
braid is placed in a barrel and thoroughly washed. After having been
partiaHy dried, it is reeled, in order lo bring it into loose and open skeins
convenient for bleaching. The skeins are hung up while yet damp, in the
Bmoke-house, and allowed to remain there during one "smoke." On the
floor of the smoke-cupboard is placed a shallow vessel filled with pulverized
brimstone. This is set on fire, and the cupboard tightly closed. The fumes
of the burning sulphur (sulphurous acid) ascend to where the straw is
hung, and bleach it. The cupboard is kept closed for ten hours or so, the
fire, either from lack of fuel or air, goes out, and the straw has passed
through one " smoke." After having been smoked, the braid is hung in
the air, in order that the action of the sun may "take the yellow out" to
a further extent. In a few hours it arrives at the desired whiteness and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 415

is ready for the trimming. Tliis process was formerly performed by hand,
and the poor and unbraided cuds of straw were tiresomely cut off with
shears. A slig-ht improvement was mada upon this manner of doing the
business when a razor was used in the same operation, the blade being
fixed, and the braid drawn under it. Of late years, however, a machine
has been perfected by which one man can trim nearly four thousand yards
of medium (quality braid in a single day — an amount of work which it
formerly required a good share of a week to perform. The braid, in pass-
ing through the machine, has been measured, and is now ready for being
tied into the long flattish bundles, in which it remains until ready for use.
These bundles contain braid of uniform style; for thus early in bonnet-
making has the system of numbering goods commenced, and during nil
the processes described, the different qualities of braid are kept entirely
distinct. The braid is now ready for the sewing.

There was a time when the manufactuie of bonnets was a purely domes-
tic affair. The straw was grown, prepared, braided, and sewed by the
same family, and the bonnet stiffened with common starch, and ironed with
a common flat. But as the days of homespun have passed away, so have
these days of home-made bonnets. Although no great invention has been
produced to mark a progressive leap in the manufacture of straw bonnets —
although the machinery now used is simple, and not large in quantity, yet
improvements have been gradually taking place, until now every operation
has been so systematized that we have boftnet factories as truly as cotton
factories — factories containing a great living machine, each portion of
which has peculiar functions, and is fitted for certain parts of the work.
These factories have particular localities where they are most fully devel-
oped, or perhaps it would be better to say, have a particular locality; for,
aside from two establishments in Connecticut, and two or three in New
York city, they are all confined to South-eastern Massachusetts. Here we
find a dozen tov/ns relying upon not quite a score of bonnet factories for
their principal means of support — towns in which straw is queen as truly
as cotton is king in many other of our manufacturing villages. Twelve
thousand persons would be a fair estimate of the number employed by
these establishments, and from these are sent away annually nearly eight
million bonnets and hats.

The manufacture of straw bonnets is confined to this section of New
England, because it was here that the American branch of the business
originated. In 1798. Miss Betsey Metcalf of Providence, Rhode Island,
now Mrs. Baker of West Dedham, Massachusetts, saw an imported Dun-
stable bo«net in a Providence store, and straightway wished one like it.
Taking some oat stubble from a field where Ijer father's laborers had been
reaping, she split the straws with her thumb-nail, and made her first
attempts at plaiting. After several failures she succeeded in imitating the
braid of the admired affair in the shop, and made herself a bonnet. Thus
the ingenious girl, only twelve years of age, acquired the honor of being
the first American manufacturer of straw bonnets. She is now an old lady
of seventy-eight, and still braids, having presented us with a specimen of
her handiwork, a beautiful straw ornament, on a late visit to her. Many
persons urged her to get a patent on her process of braiding; but being

416 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

then, as now, quite tenacious of her reputation as a christian, slie said her
name should never go to Congress. A facsimile of Mrs. Baker's first
bonnet is preserved in the rooms of the Rhode Island Society for the
Encouragement of Domestic Industry.

After braiding was once commenced, it rapidly developed itself. Mrs.
Baker taught her friends, and they taught theirs. The ladies were
deligritcd that they had found an art by means of which they might I'urther
adorn themselves. Braiding was carried to the school-room; the meetings
of church sowing circles were transformed into braiding bees; ladies had
their little straw bundles with them almost every where, and straw plait-
ing became, as it were, the crochet work' of the day. The new invention
suffered the common lot of all improvements, and was not without its
enemies. By some it was thought to induce pride, and by others to be the
precursor of famine, because it occasioned the cutting of the straw before
the grain was ripe. Even as late as 1825, a Dr. Stanley wrote an "Essay
on the Manufacture of Straw Bonnets," in which he laid all kinds of evil
results at the door of straw braid, closing with soma " moral, political,
miscellaneous and concluding remarks." JJotwithstanding so great an
opposition to it, the majority of the ladies were in favor of the new art,
and, of course, straw braiding daily increased in importance *s a branch
of manufacture. At first Mrs. Baker was a monopolist in the business,
having orders sent her from fort}' miles away; afterward it became cus-
tomary for the straw braiders to take the bonnets they had made to the
village along with butter, eggs, etc., and exchange them for the various
articles to be obtained at a country store. As the busijiess increased, straw
bonnet merchants became an institution; later still "sewing halls" were
established, and these last have gradually grown into the large establish-
ments of to-day.

Among all the "straw towns" of Massachusetts is a not very large yet
quite enterprising one, in which straw bonnets are made to a far greater
extent than in any other. Foxborough is a beautiful town, situated on the
highlands between Massachusetts and Narraganset bays, twenty-four miles
from Boston, and less than twenty miles from the original seatof the straw
bonnet manufacture. There were formerly several bonnet factories here,
but they,^are now all united in the "Union Straw Works," which were
established by the Messrs. 0. & E. P. Carpenter in 1853, and which consti-
tute the largest manufactory of the kind in either this country or Europe.
Some idea of its magnitude may be formed, when it is stated that the
number employed in it (exclusive of braiders), is more than 3,000 (800
within and 2,500 outside the factory building), and that the value of its
goods annually manufactured is two million dollars. Inasmuch as the
immense business done here requires that every operation should be strictly
systematized, we cannot better get an idea of the processes through which
the braid goes in order to become a bonnet than by tracing its progress
through this establishment.

Consider the writer as your guide, if you please — for it would not be
easy to traverse this three and four story acre of rooms without one — and
he will endeavor to answer all questions. The numerous " No Admit-
tances" placed upon the doors of the establishment arc not in this case

rROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 417

mcaning'lcss, but ■with a permit from the office avc may safely begin our
perambulations -without fear of ejectment.

We will commence our tour at the stock room. The counters along its
sides are covered with piles of braid, nincteen-twentieths of which is
imported. Here is some from Italy, here a lot from Switzerland, and near
it some frcmi Germany • France and England have their straw delegates
here ; South America sends her representatives to this congress of straws;
and even the Chinaman introduces his member from the celestial empire.
We hear the workmen who are arranging the braid use a mixture of geo-
graphical and other names as they talk of "Pedale," "Fancy Hair,"
"Manilla Split," "Patent," "Luton," "Argovia," "Florence," "Canton,'^
" Alilan," etc., and conjecture rightly that they are speaking of the mem-
bers of this international assemblagp of straws. A portion of the Canton
braid is imported from China in the shape of large, ungainly hats, the flat
sides of the braid being sewed together, and each hat containing material
enough for several bonnets.

We will then pass to the nost, the manufacturer's room. Here we are
confronted by a long row of latticed bins, in which the braid is arranged,
ready for tlie use of the "manufacturer;" or, in other words, the one who
carries out the stock. In order to understand- wliat is meant by "carrying
out" as here used, it must be noticed that the building in which we have
supposed ourselves to be is used for hardly anything else save the finishing
up of the Avork, which is made ready for the finishing process in many a
family throughout the region within twenty miles of the factory. To these
families the braid is carried out, and after a week or so brought back in
the shape of bonnets. Each "manufacturer " or stock-deliverer lias in the
room we are visiting his bin of braid ; here he supplies himself with the
little cloth tickets, or " numbers," to be used by the sewer, and with large
skeins of a peculiar thread, which is made of Sea Island cotton expressly
for the bonnet manufacture. Having loaded his covered wagon with all
articles needed, and fastened a large bag for bonnets to the rack behind,
he is ready for his departure for Attleborough, Dedham, Taunton, or some
other one of the eighteen or twenty towns visited by the stock deliverers
of the Union Straw Works, whither we will accompany him.

Arriving, after a few hours, at the scene of operations, the carriage is
stopped at one of those story and a half houses so common in Alassachusetts,
and we alight. Entering the cottage, we find a home scene peculiar to this
part of the country. From the youngest to the oldest all are engaged in the
straw businers. To be sure, the little one is not of much help, as she puts
the straws in disorder, watches every motion of her sister, and bothers
lier with questions; but said sister, the girl of ten years, is quite useful as
she sits on her cricket and braids her daily stint. The mother plies the
needle merril}-- as she, with flying fingers, forms the t\\), laps braid upon
braid as she sews spirally arcumd it, and makes a splice when necessary ;
while the old grandmother, nearly seventy, a somewhat slower worker,
manages to make a boonet in no way inferior to that of her young- com-
petit<jrs. In the laps of the sewers sit plaster of Paris model blocks, the
quite convenient substitutes for the paper patterns formerly used for regu-
lating the sliape of the growing bonnet. Upon these blocks the partially

IAM. I.NST.l A*

418 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

completed bonnet is frequentlj- fitted, in order to see if it comes to tlie pro-
per marks, and if it is " made" in the right shape without requiring to be
pulled into it.

The driving up of the "straw cart," with its coat of arms, a bundle of
rje painted upon the panel, has been the signal for the sewer to bring out
her bonnets from their receptacle, and when we enter she has them all
ready for delivery to our companion. He inspects them to see if the num-
bers denoting the size, style of braid and sewer, have been properly placed
at the tip, having an eye also to the workmanship; gives credit on his book
■for the work done, and retires with his load to the cart for more stock. He
^oes not effect his retreat, however, without being urged by the lady to
give her the best and finest straw he has ; for not only can she generally
make more in sewing this, but with a lady's taste, she finds it much
pleasanter to work on a fine article, which shall look nice when done, than
upon a coarse affair which she would be ashamed to wear herself. Of
course our friend, the stock deliverer, is bound to comply with her request,
or at least to seem to do so, and to have all of his sewers for special favor-
ites. Bringing in a few pieces of braid of twenty or sixty yards each, with
a sufBcient quantity of thread to sew it and numbers to match, he charges
the same upon her book and starts for the door.

We have already reached the carriage, but he is not with us. Ah ! he
has turned back to pnt his head into the room and give the usual injunc-
tion, " Be sure and have the stitches short on the outside !" Thus he leaves
the sewer, who will be in a continual worry until he makes his next
appearance for fear that amidst the ever-changing fashions she shall next
week have to commence work on a new block, just as she has become
accustomed to the one in accordance with which she now makes her bonnets.

As we ride along with the stock deliverer on his visits to his " lady
friends," he gives us some particulars concerning the sewing of the braid,
"We learn that it takes about three hours to sew twenty-five yards of me-
dium width braid, the quantity required for a bonnet, but that the sewer is
paid according to the number of yards she sews, without special reference
to the number of bonnets made. By reference to a copy of the " Rules,"
which he has the kindness to show us, we find that the braid must not be
sewed wet or damp (often transgressed), that the thread must be un waxed
and tiglitlj^ drawn, tliat "back stitches" not exceeding half an inch in
length are to be taken, and that clean hands while at work are insisted
upon.

"We have imagined ourselves to be in company with the stock deliverer.
We have obtained a glimpse of the manner in which the straw is sewed,
and since our purpose has thus been accomplished, let us avoid the tedious
all-day ride, with its frequent halts, to which the stock deliverer is doomed,
and, reversing the course of our journey, consider ourselves back again at
the Union Straw Works.

We are in the receiving room, the place where the bonnets are deposited
after coming from the hands of our late companion. Here let us take heed
to our steps lest we trample upon the bonnets and hats which lie about
loosely upon the floor seemingly in the greatest confusion. Bonnets of
various colors, wholly regardless of general notions with regard to keeping

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 419

the races distinct, seem to mingle in almost perfect disorder, while the
white, black and copper-colored join hands in brotherly love. Workmea
are engaged in sorting and registering the bonnets and placing them ia
racks. Order having thus been brought out of confusion, a part, of the
bonnets are sent to the dye-house, while yet another portion is forwarded
by fiirnilies and detachments over the miniature railway which connects
this part of the factory with the rear, and are disembarked at the bleach

Tiic passage way to the smoke house has its unpainted wooden walls
strangely discolored, and the further we proceed the more intensely comes
the smell of brimstone to our nostrils, but on entering the precincts we find
merely several long alley-ways, with their sides made up to a great extent
of doors opening into large smoke closets. Bleaching having been tempo-
rarily suspended, some of these closets are open: let us look into them. On
the floor are shallow pots oC brimstone; above these, and on both sides of
the apartment, are six tiers of rope-bottomed, berth-like fixtures, which
serve to give to these closets the appearance of double stafe-rooms on a
steamer. The bleachers are quite likely fellows in white aprons, and quite
obliging as thej' show us around and describe the modus ojjerandi of their
department. And yet, after they have full}" described the process which
the bonnet here goes througn, a certain air of mystery still surrounds it.
That the bonnets are smoked for several hours once at least, and often
twice, is quite evident, but when we come to inquire what is done to them
in a room near by where we notice certain dipping operations going on, we
are put off with some talk about whitening the bonnets, ' acids,' ' alkalies,'
etc., which leaves us as much in the dark on the subject as ever. Ques-
tioning still further as to the operations here performed, and the materials
used, we are frankly told by the mystic mixture-man that he^and his brother
workmen alone understand the process; that the Union Straw Works can-
not just yet afford to part with one of the secrets which renders their work
famous; and that, furthermore, he has been placed under heavy bonds not
to reveal it.

Having taken a hasty glance at the drying yard, where thousands of
bonnets sun and air themselves on long rows of upright pegs, we will pro-
ceed " by rail," if we like, to the sizing room. We- will not delay long at
this point, for it will take us but a moment to comprehend the operation
performed here, to notice the stiffening of the bonnets with a thin solution
of glue. While one workman, the " dipper," baptizes bonnet after bonnet
in the galvanized iron " f'.>nt" before him, his official assistants wipe lightly
off the glue drops which have collected, and the bonnets are passed through
a receiving room to the blocking room above.

Up to this time, save perhaps when first coming from the hands of the
sewers, the bonnets have been characterized by a shapelessness far removed
from their final beauty. The mysterious dipping, the day's rest in the
berths of the brimstone closet, and the gluey baptism have combinedly left
them in sudi a condition that no one but a " straw man" would ever sup-
pose it possible to transform such affairs into any sort of an article of dress,
much less into a head covering for a lady.

420 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

But in the blocking room, wliich we now visit, the bonnet commences a
steady approach towards its final shape. Beside the coiniter whicb sur-
rounds the room stand numerous workmen, each with several plaster model
blocks before him. On these blocks the still damp bonnets are fitted, not
a little pullincr and judicious pounding being sometimes requireS to get
them into shape, this being especially the case when the sewer, in disobe-
dience to her rules, has allowed a carelessly formed bonnet to pass. Hay-
ing been made to come up to the prescribed mark upon the block, the bon-
Dets are pinned there and set away upon numerous racks, placed over
steam pipes, to, dry. Afterward they are taken from the blocks and are
ready for the next operation. This room being so uncomfortably warm,
the thermon)eter standing at nearly 80 deg., we are quiie willing to quit it'
and seek another.

Tiie next in order is the press room. On entering this we find that we
have, figuratively speaking, jun)ped out of the frying-pan into the fire, for
if the blocking room was hot this is hotter. Coats and vests are discarded
as burdensome, and, it being a fair day, every window is thrown open. If
we investigate the cause of this heat we shall find that it proceeds princi-
pall}'' from the hot flats used by the many workmen here engaged in press-
ing bonnets. " But where are the bonnets V the reader exclaims, as he
examines the partial vicAv of one of the press' rooms given above. In an-
swer to this very natural question it may be well to notice here that the
establishment which we are visiting, manufactures, in its triple set of
apartments, not only bonnets but both ladies' and gentlemen's hats. Save
that a different sliaped block is used in each case, these three forms of head-
covering are made in very similar manners. To such an extent, indeed, is
this true that we have not hesitated to present engravings of rooms in the
hatdepart_ments, when we could thus more conveniently and better illustrate
our subject than by prohibiting our artist's camera from entering any apart-
ments save those devoted to bonnets. In the press room we are called
upon to particularly observe the minute division of labor which is made a
specialty by the proprietors of this establishment, and \7hich is everywhere
noticeable in it. We see the bonnet, during the simple operation of press-
ing, passing through three different hands, the tip, head and front being
pressed by different persons. So thoroughly, indeed, are these three pro-
cesses separated that the "tip man" could no more perform the labor of
those coming after him than the printer's imp could fill with dignity the
editorial chair. In each operation the bonnet is placed upon a special
wooden block, and pressed by means of a peculiar machine. The machines
are similar, however, inasmuch as they all consist of a kind of turn-table,
upon which the block is placed, and which moves under a flat of several
pounds weight. This flat is pressed down upon the bonnet by t'le appli-
cation of the foot to a lever, connecting by a rod with the top of the ma-
chine. This is the usual manner; heavy hand flats, with handles at each
end, are sometimes substituted, howeve^, and the bonnets pressed upon
blocks which allow of but little turning. With surprising rapidity the
experienced pressor places the bonnet upon the block of his machine, lays
the damp cloth over it to prevent scorching, stands upon one foot, brings
his flat to bear with the other, with one hand gives a few revolutions to

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 421

tKc turn-table, with the other g-uides the flat as it smoothes the bonnet, and
then, with his portion of tjie work performed upon it, passes it on to under-
go the next operation. Opening out of the press room, and separated from
it by iron doors, is yet a hotter hicality, the heating room, containing' large
furnaces in which numerous cubical pieces of iron are transformed into the
red-hot cores used in tlie hollow pressing-flats.

We will follow the bonnet, now smooth and shining, to the wiring hall.
This is the pleasantest ro<*m we have yet visited, not only from its situa-
tion, but also on account of its occupants. Heretofore, in our journey
through the factory, we have met only with men, but in the wiring hull v/e
are to find the other sex. Even before reaching it we know this to be the
case, for throv:gh the halls leading to it we hear the music of female voices,
and as we draw nearer recognize the patriotic strains of "Hail Columbia"
Yes, the "girls" (as the female operatives are always called) are really
singing! Let none of our precise crusty old manufacturers be horrified at
the idea, and assert that the work cannot be half done when the mind is
diverted from it by such "carryings on," Let anyone of them examine
the workmanship and see if it is not quite as good in quality as that which-
comes from the drudges under his supervision — those rightly-called "poor
factory girls," v/ho are by him debarred from thinking of anything from
morning till night save the toilsouie labor in which they are engaged.
Having found, -as he certainly will, that light heartedness and good work
are not mortal enemies, let him relax the oppressive rules wiiich have pre-
viously crushed out the vivacious spirit of his operatives, and hereafter act
upon the principle that the knight of St. Crispin v/ho whistles will make
the best shoe. But this is no place for moralizing. The ''girls" are
seated in couples at peculiar work tables, upon which are stands for bon-
nets, and in which are drawers for wire, thread, &c. In this room the
thread-covered wire is sewn, as a stiffening, around the edge of the bonnetj
the paper lining, to prevent the goods from sticking together when packed,
is stitched into the cro\x''n; and a fancy ticket for price marks, with "Su-
perfine" at the top and the wirer's number at the bottom, is placed upon
one side. During these processes, which are rai)idlj gone through with,
the bonnet gets much out of shape, and has to be sent to another room for
the purpose of receiving the final touch. Here, in the shaping room, it is
placed upon a block, by a pinch heji-e and a pull there ha-s its symuietry
restored to it, and is finally complete.

We now" proceed to the packing room. Here it might be supposed that
■considerable assorting would be required before the price could be fixed to
the goods, and they be made ready for sale and for shipment; but such is
far I'rora tlie truth. During the various processes of manufacture, from
the braid to the bonnet, one grade of goods has been kept entirely distinct
fron» the other; and as the completf^d bonnets come by hundreds and thou-
sands into the packing room, '* Lot 999 " is just as distinct from " Lot
lOOQ" as if one ha'd been made in Boston, the other in New York. Every-
thing, in fact, with regard to the manufacture of the goods, has been so
systematized, through subdivisions of labor and through systems of ac-
counts, that not only can the final cost of any class o'f goods be readily
'determined, but the cost of each individual bonnet can at once be.ascer-

422 TKANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

tained to the fraction of a cent in any department where it may he found.
But little else is required, then, in the packing- room, than to show custom-
ers the goods, slip the bonnets into boxes from the large pile always in
readiness, and send them off.

While in the packing room the sight-seeing reader could not but have
been tempted to ask where so many boxes came from. Should he walk a
short distance across the Common he would find, nearly buried in logs and
boards, an old church, one in which the writer, many years ago, listened
with childish impatience to long sermons, eat caraway, and slept. Having
been more than doubled in size this old church is now a box manufactory,
or, in the town parlance, the "steam mill." The congregation daily at-
tending here consists of about thirty persons. Through the agency of tliese
about a million feet of lumber is annually converted into forty thousand
cases, and from seventy-five to a hundred tons of straw board meet with a
change into bandboxes, all for the use of this single straw bonnet factory.
Such are a part of the results that have grown out of little Betsy Metcalf s
First American Straw Bonnet.

After selecting "-the manufacture of salt" as the subject for the next dis-
cussion, the Association adjourned to December 1st.

American Institute Pmatechnic Association,

Dec. iHt, 1864.

Chairman, Prof S. D. Tillman; Secretary, Mr. B. Garvey.

Dr. Parmalee exhibited a piece of Chinese wax used by shoemakers there.
Its composition was carbon, 30; hydrog-en, 36; oxygen 2. It melts at 160
degrees.

Dr. Parmalee also burnt a piece of magnesium wire, which gave an
intensely brilliant light.

Mr. Jireh Bull said, since the last meeting, a distinguished inventor
and a member of our Institute has died, and I have thought it prope^r that
this Association should take some notice of that event, and I therefore ofler
the following resolution:

Besolved, That this Association deeply deplore the recent demise of C. C.
Harrison, a member of the American Institute, and an eminent mechani-
cian, whose labors and genius have been exclusively devoted to improve-
ments in optical instruments.

After appropriate remarks regarding the character and services of Mr,
Harrison, the resolution was unanimously adopted.

The Chairman read the following items of scientific intelligence;

Indium.

Reich and Ricliter, the discoverers of this new metal, have been engaged
i*n determining its atomic weight. Tlie mean of their experiments gives
37 as its number on the hydrogen scale.

Prize for Analyses.

The Imperial Society of Agriculture of France has offered a prize of
2,000 francs, to be given in 18G7, for the best analyses of the following

I

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 423

woods : Oak (heartwood), of the age of at least forty years; Asli, of the
age of at least twenty-five years, the whole of the wood except the liber
and the bark; Pine of the same age, and Poplar of the age of twenty years.
Analyses of the same trees, five jiears old, are also to be made, with the
view of comparing the composition of the wood at different ages. Speci-
mens of the wood and of the principles obtained from them must be sent
with each paper.

Mineral Waters.

Mr. Scoutetten, in a memoir to the French Academy of Sciences, " On
Kesearches on mineral waters and the cause of their active properties," says
these waters, on coming in contact v\'ith the electro-magnetic currents in
the bosom of the earth, undergo a sort of allotropic condition, which does
not last, unfortunately, when the water comes to the surface, but is gone
in three days at most.

EXTRACTING AND PRESERVING AROMA.

Mr. C. R. C. Tichborne states in the Chemical News he has successfully
used glycerine, not only for pv6serving flowers but for extracting their
aromatic properties. Flowers preserved for two years in glycerine have
yielded on distillation perfume equal to the most recent product. In cases
where the aroma of the flower is so delicate as to be much injured or
entirely destroyed by the application of heat, it may be macerated with
glycerine, which should be expressed and again treated with flowers, until
the recipient is thoroughly saturated v.ith ottar. The extraction is perfect
as evidently the glycerine has a great affinity for volatile oils. Fresh mint
suspended over a thin stratum of glycerine imparts its odor in a short tim€>
to the fluid. The glycerine saturated with ottaris diluted with water and
shaken with a small quantity of choloroform. After well agitating the
latter subsides, carrying with it nearly' the whole essential oil ; it should
be separated, filtered and allowed to evaporate spontaneously. In working
on a large scale evaporation by artificial heat may be resorted to, the boil-
ing point of the fluid being very low; the last portion, however, should be
separated by spontaneous evaporation. The glycerine to be used should
be odorless and have a specific gravity of 1 24 at 60 deg. F. .The same
glycerine may be employed over and over again by diluting aad pass-
ing it through charcoal, and" afterwards evaporating it to the desired
gravity.

Haloid Salts of Copper.

Regnault has presented another paper to the French academy on these
salts, in which he describes their photographic properties. The bromide
of copper is the most sensitive to light, and the picture may be fixed by
employing the ordinary hyposulphite with care. Iodide of copper is less
sensitive to light, and the fluoride is the least so, of the series.

Alcohol from Coal Gas.

Berthelot, in his new work on Organic Synthesis, demolishes the pro-
position to make alcohol from coal gas. The process is shown to be very
expensive and the arti-f:]e produced very impure.

424 transactions of the american institute.

Photosculpture.

This invention of Mr. Willeme, a celebrated French sculator, was
explained at the recent meeting of the British, association for the advance-
ment of science, and a bust of the president, Sir Charles Lyell, n)ade by
the process, was exhibited. Photography furnishes a pattern by placing- -the
sitter in the centre of 24 cameras, when 24 profiles are taken at once. The
outlines thus secured are copied in clay in regular succession; the model
being turned one-twenty-fourth part of a circle for each profile. The
artist, having thus secured proportions true to nature, has still verge and
scope enough for h s genius in giving to the model the proper expression
and finish. The saving of time, both to the sitter and the artist, is the chief
advantage of this process.

Electro-Ballistic Apparatus.

This apparatus, invented by Major Navez, of the Belgium Artillery, is now
in use in England for determining the velocity of a projectile, or the rate at
which a shot proceeds from the muzzle of a gun. The novelty of Major Navez
consists in measuring, by means of electricity, the minute portion of the arc
described by a pendulum during the passage of the projectile through a
given space.

Directly in front of the gun to be fired, and ninety feet from it, is placed a
screen, and in the same range, one hundred and fifty feet distant, is placed
another screen, the two being sixty feet apart. In each of these screens are
placed two wires, connected with a voltaic battery, so arranged that when the
gun is discharged the wires will be cut and the electric current broken. The
wires extend three or four hundred yards to the place where the measurement
is to be made. The wires from the screen nearest to the gun make an electro-
magnet of wrought iron, which attracts a piece of soft iron on the pendulum,
and holds it at the extremity of its arc of oscillation. To this pendulum is
connected another pendulum, or needle of soft iron, and, when free, swinging
over a finely graduated are, which is also of iron, and capable of being changed
to a magnet. The wires of the second or most distant screen are connected
with what the inventor calls "a conjunctor," and holds a weight which falls
the instant the current is broken, and, by means of a cup of mercury, imme-
diately completes another electric current which magnetizes the graduated arc.
When the gun is fired the projectile cuts the fii'st wire, and the pendulum pro-
per drops, carrying with it the index pendulum or needle. The projectile cuts
the second wire, and the arc becomes a magnet and instantly clamps the index
needle to the scale. The operator then reads from the scale the distance
traversed by the needle. A table has been prepared showing the time required
for the pendulum to move through any distance to one hundred and fifty
degrees. The time thus ascertained is divided into the distance between the
two screens, and the result is the velocity of the projectile. By means of this
ingenious contrivance a skillful operator is able to measure pretty accurately
one three-thousandth part of a second.

proceedings of the polytechnic association. 425
Enormous Casting.

"" Messrs. J. 31. Stanley & Co., of Midland works, Sheffield, have just cast
an anvil twelve feet square and eleven feet, six inches deep, weighing
358,400 pounds; an anvil of the same dimensions was cast by thcni in
July last.

Animal Manures.

Mr. Karral, in the t7o»/';(«/ uf Practical Agricullure, France, states that
the manufactory at Aubervilliers consumes annually 8,000 horses, 200 don-
keys, oOO cows, 300 pigs, 9,000 cats and dogs, G,000 kilogranies of meat unfit
for food, 500,000 kilogranies of other refuse animal matter, such as skins,
horns, kc. The raw material is first boiled to extract the grease. The flesh
is separated from the bones, pressed, dried, and ground into powder; the
bones are also ground and mixed with it, forming a manure containing thirty-
five per cent of nitrogen and fii'ty-five per cent of phosphate of lime. The
blood and the liquor obtained in boiling, together with a certain amount of
mineral phosphates, are mixed with organic matter, such as wood-shavings
and the parings of hoofs and horns, when fermentation takes place. During
this process various phosphoric compounds and salts of ammonia are formed, and
the whole is transformed into an excellent manure.

Extracting Must.

Mr. Richter, of Stutgard, has applied the principle, long in use here, for
drying clothes recently washed, to. the extraction of the juice from grapes.
He puts them into a suitable strainer, rotating at the rate of 1,000 or 1,.500
times per minute, and by centrifugal force the must is separated. By this
proce^^s the time of extracting the juice from one hundred weight of grapes is
only five minutes, and the quality is increased five or six per cent. " Stalk-
ing " is thus obviated, and the juice is so thoroughly mixed with air that fer-
mentation takes place sooner than after the old process.

Preservation of Fruit.

At the Russian court fruit is preserved by being packed in crc-osotized lime.
The lime is slaked in water in which a little creosote has been dissolved, and
is allowed to fall to powder. The bottom of a plain deal box is covered with
it one inch high, and' over it is a sheet of paper. Upon this the fruit, well
selected and cleansed, is arranged; over this another sheet of paper, and on
top of this another such stratum of prepared lime ; in the corners a little finely
powdered charcoal is put. The whole box is then filled in this manner, and
the woll-fitting lid nailed down. Fruit thus kept will remain intact at least
one year.

Smedley & Justice's Indicator Funnell.

The peculiarity of this fuiuud is that it is so constructed as to prevent
the wa.ste usually made on filling barrels with liquids. It has been found
of great service in pouring petroleum. In order to guide the workman the
escaping air is made to operate a whistle. Thus the noise is always a
guide as to what is going on within. Besides preventing all waste by its

426 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

alarm wliistle and float, which indicates that the barrel is filled to the
required gauge, it is said one man can do the work of three men with the
ordinary tunnel.

The Geology of Petroleum.

Dr. E. P. Stevens said the subject of petroleum is becoming' of such vast
importance that we can liardiy dwell upon the subject too long, or bring
it too often before the community. It is the AUadiu lamp, destined to
illuminate the world.

In a few preliminary remarks I wish to correct some of the errors that
occasionally find their way into the newspapers. In the first place, there
are no Alleghan}' mountains in the State of New York nor in Ohio. The
great Alleghany range of mountains pass through the State of Pennsyl-
vania and cross the west branch of the Susquehanna river, and are then
deflected northward. The eastern ridge dies out before it reaches the Hud-
son river.

If we travel westward in a direct line from the Hudson river, we go up
and down a dozen or more rills and valleys, some of them 800 feet deep;
at times we ascend from a valley, and the top of the hill looks like a moun-
tain, but it is not. On the contrary, the ridges of land from Lake Ontario
are but plateaus, and these plateaus extend from the Catskill mountains to
the Tennesee river, in Georgia. On the north and northwest, streams cut
through from the summit of the plateaus doWfji to the level of the St. Law-
rence. And here, on these plateaus, are the oil regions. All of these val-
leys are valleys of erosion. There are no upthrows, no downthrows, but
throughout that great extent in every direction, as far as the eye can see
when standing upon the summit, it appears to be still a vast plateau. In
McKean county there is the longest remnant of the preserved plateau. It
is 20 miles long, and 1| miles nearly a dead level. The rocks lay in a suc-
cession of gentle waves. Writers in the sensation papers speak of this
appearance as due to volcanic action. Such an idea simplj' shows that
these writers do not know what they are talking about.

Some 15 years ago a geologist of Cleveland tabled all the rocks that con-
tained petroleum^ Only a few, of these have been worked, and I will only
speak of those that are a commercial success. Tlie upper Helderberg lime-
stone, which is seen at Kingston, appears on the upper surface of the soil
in Madison county, and goes clear through New York, Canada, Wiscon-
sin into Illinois. These rocks show petroleum, and as we come to Chicago
it increases, so much so that it oozes out of the houses that are built with
this material. The limestone is merely composed of granules of lime and
sea shells 'and corals. The petroleum is in the cavities of the corals and
shells, and from this fact some theorists have arrived at the conclusion that
all petroleum is the result of a change in the coral animal. If they had
taken the pains to examine that limestone a little further, they would find
other shells there also. Now,' I do not thint that a coral animal is capa-
ble of making petroleum. I cannot conceive how a mere animal gluten
can be made into an animal oil. This may be true, but I cannot compre-
hepd it. Another rock seen here is the Marccllus shale, and the Oieory is

that all the petroleum in the United States is derived from this bituminous

cilu
deri

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 427

shale, and when fractured this oil comes through it at Oil Creek and
elsewhere throughout the United States. My objection to this tlieory is
that the coat is too short for the person it is intended to fit, as this shale
does not extend all over the United States. It is not found in Ohio nor in
Kentucky, Illinois and West Virginia. The Helderberg is from 40 to 200
feet thick; the Marcellus about 200 feet, and the Hamilton group is about
1,000 feet thick, and tliere are no bituminous shales in it. It is full of fos-
sils, and the sea must have been lull of animal life at that period when it
was formed. There are certain strata commencing with the Catskill moun-
tains, and which pass across the State of New York, containing the same
species of shell which can be detected at once. This is so clear that a man
might be let out of a balloon and he would immediately detect them at
sight. I have myself been astonished to discover them in places where I
would hardly expect to find then), sometimes 40 and 50 miles apart. The
oil lately discovered at Rushville and at Seneca lake, and along Mud creek
in Ontario county, are all of this group. They are undoubtedly of the
Hamilton group. The Hamilton group goes down as far as Schoharie
county and passes through about the centre of the inland lakes and through
Canada over to the edge of Lake Michigan. The wells of Canada are also
in the Hamilton or Marcellus group. Probably the well that has lately
been discovered, at Zanesville, Ohio, is of this group. The mountains at
Catskill are over 2,000 feet thick b^' actual measurement, and we are not
able to determine where the Hamilton group changes into the r.ext group
or the Portage. This is about 1,700 feet thick. Any one who has traveled
on the Buffalo and Erie railroad, and looked out while crossing the high
bridge at the clilfs and falls at Portage, on the Genesee river, has seen the
Portage group of rocks. This group has no great number of gas or oil
springs; but at Cuba there is an oil spring that has been known since the
earliest settlement of our countr}-.

The Chemung group comes next in order. (Here the Dr. made a trans-
verse section on the blackboard, which represented the abrasion made by
the waters of Oil Creek flowing southward.) Now at Oil Creek they bore
400 or 500 feet, and strike the third series of sand stone, and that sand
stone must be near the junction of the Chemung and Portage groups.
Somewhere near the upper portion of the rock upon the Chemung, in the
State of Pennsylvania, comes in the Catskill group. This group of rocks
is 5,000 feet thick. Those who have travelled on tlie central railroad west
of Altoona by day, may have noticed the rocks turned up edgeways.
These are the Chemung and Catskill groups. We next, on the south of the
Appalachian mountains, come to the sub-carboniferous group, which is
3,300 feet thick, and on the top of this comes the true coal, 15,000 feet
thick. From the limestone to the top of the coal, every portion of it is
really a petroleum-bearing rock ; and I have no doubt but that throughout
the whole extent of the geological group alluded to oil will be found in
abundance, so that we can go to other places besides Oil Creek to buy oil
lands. At Oil Creek there have been some 2,000 vvells sunk, and the region
has been better developed than any other, and that is all the advantage
which it possesses. Suppose that the first well sunk there had been a
failure, no one would think of sinking another.

428 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

And now as to the theory ©f oil. I have had considerable experience
with coal, and I can say that I never detected the least smell of petrc^leiim
in any coal mine. A theory has been advanced that oil is derived frorn the
combination of the atoms of hydrogen and carbon in the higher forms of
vegetable organisms that lived in. previous ages of the world and flourished
when these rocks were deposited ; and I believe this to be the true thcor3%
For instance, we can go into the coal mines of Ohio and there find fishes
without a fin ov scale wanting, and all the bones and skin will be petrified,
but all the animal parts are bituminized. I brought down with me from
Oil Creek a specimen of one of these series of rocks that extend across t!ie
great basin of the United States, and which is composed of what I suppose
to be tlM3 organic part of plants. I have seen trees of this kind of plant,
many hundred specimens of them. I have sent some to the State collection
at Albany this summer. Our scientific men have already examined some
fifty species of animals, plants, insects and reptiles.

Another theory has lately been broached and which has much plausi-
bility, and that is, that the vast amount of limestone of the Silurian and
lower Devonian systems throws off carbonic acid gas, which ascending,
meets with water percolating from, above, tlie gas parts with a definite
proportion of its carbon, Avhich unites with a definite proportion of hydro-
gen from the water, and consequently we have a hydro-carbon ov petroleum.

To this theory there are the following physical objections : Between the
limestone series of rocks and the most prolific of the oil-bearing rocks
there are many hundred feet, nay thousands of feet of clay deposits, or
shale rocks, which are impermeable to gas ; and we have yet to see how
gases can come up at least 6 or 6,000 feet, 'and finally meet with' water
at the surface and make that hydrocarbon we call. rock oil. I am inclined
to the opinion that the oil was formed about the time that these rocks were
laid down, probably a little later, through all the series of oil strata. We
have the Permian series, succeeding the coal formation, which also bears
oil ; then succeeds the red sand stone of New Jersey, and on the top of this
comes in the cretaceous, and on the top of this comes the tertiary in which
petroleum is found in California, but in otlier places it is found in the creta-
ceous. I have here also S(mie specimens collected during the summer.
This is a slate that is bitumenized, so much so as to burn (Dr. Stevens
here lighted a piece of this slate). When this bitumenized slate is distilled
it yields an oil. I do not think there is anything mysterious in the origin
of rock oil. Whenever animals and vegetables began to live, in the sea or
on the land, or both, the elements of oil were then combined in higher
forms by the power of vital chemistry, than simple atoms of carL-on and
hydrogen. When these combinations were broken up by the deatii and
decay of the animal or plant, the ever-varying and inconstant atoms could
then come together in other proportions, forming, as the case might be,
coal, peat, bog-butter, bitumen, petroleum or gas.

Oil, then, is not confined to any one series of rocks, nor any specific
strata, but may be found in aiiy rock whicli had the necessary conditions
at the time of its formation.

Prof. Fleury read a short paper on petroleum, after which it was decided
to commence the discussion of " the m;>.nufacture of salt " at the next
meeting. Adjourned.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 429

American InI^itute Polytechnic Assoclvtion,
Dec. 8th 18G4.

Prof. S. IX Tilljiian pK^sidiiig-. Mr. B. Garvoy, Secretary.

F. W. (Jeisscnhainer, Esq., cxliibited a specimen of silver ore from Tego
mine, at llosario, in the State of Sinola, Mexico, about sixty miles in the
interior from Mazatlan. The analysis shows over 1,900 dollars to the ton.
This mine has been worked over 130 years, and has, during that time, pro-
duced over thirty millions of dollars. It is now producing over thirty thou-
sand dollars per month, although worked with old and very imperfect machinery.
The ore is a mixture of limestone, quartz, ana the chloride of silver, with
small portions of antimony and arsenic.

The Manufacture of Salt.

The Chairman said, as an appropriate introduction of the subject to be dis-
cussed, he Avould direct attention to an immense specimen of rock salt from
the island of St. Domingo. It was token from a large salt deposit found in a
mountain. The right to mine for salt has been purchased by an American
company. They have recently issued a pamphlet containing interesting
statements regarding the locality.

TURKS ISLAND SALT.

Mr. eTireh Bull desired to make a few remarks in reference to Turks Island.
He recently met an old friend who, many years ago, was supercargo of a ves-
sel trading to various parts of the West Indies. In one of his voyages he
went to Turks Island, and he described to me the manner in which the salt is
made. It is the common impression that the salt is made from the sea water,
and that advantage was taken of the flow of the tides, &c., for this purpose.
But their method of making salt at that time was very different. It was done
by exeavatioKs. The land there is very flat, and they dig down and put boards
at the sides. When this is completed the water rises in the opening, which,
after remaining some time, crystalizes, and the salt is then raked out and car-
ried to the shore, where it is piled in immense heaps, some containingsixty and
eighty thousand bushels. A large leaf grown on the island is placed over the
heai'S, and the salt remains there until exported. 'The manner in which the
salt is placed on ship board is peculiar. The natives of the island carry it in
small boats to the vessels, as they have no docks there, and so the vessel has
to lay out from the shore. The salt was, at that time, sold for eight cents a
bushel.

Mr. Bull then read, from the Neiv Yoi-k Evening Post, the following
account of the

Salt Springs of New York.

TIIKIR HISTORY AND PRESENT CONDITION.

Tlie Onondaga Salines belong to a geological formation extending through
western New York and probably into Upper Canada. Salt can be obtained
from springs here and there in different counties, but in the Onondaga valley
it appears to be most abundant. This is apparently due to the formation of
the valley. A stratum of rock cropping out at the north of Onondaga lake
underlies the valley, making a tight floor for retaining the water. Above is

430 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

drift liiglily charged with salt, and roofed over with an aluminous marl. It is
probable that the deposit of salt exists also in the neighboring hills, and is
dissolved by subterranean currents of water and conveyed into the valley.

The question has been mooted whether there was a liability of failure in the
supply of water, or of deterioration in quality. So far as experiments demon-
strate there is none. Mr. Clark, author of the " History of Onondaga
County," asserts that the strength of the brine has actually increased about
twenty-five per cent. It is supposed that all the salt wells which have been
dug in the Salt Reservation communicate with each other, and measurements
have been made, year by year, to ascertain the reduction, made in the volume
or depth of water by pumping. The result has shown that in those years
when most water had been taken out and most salt manufactured, the water
in the salt wells exhibited no more signs of having been lowered in depth,
volume or quantity, than, when less water was used. It is a fair inference)
therefore, that more salt can be produced here for market in any year than has
ever been manufactured from these reservoirs.

REGULATIONS OP THE SALINES.

The salt water*-on the Onondaga Reservation in and about Syracuse is the
property of the State. Prior to the year 1797 any person was free to take it
for manufacturing purposes. But the squabbles about the right of first occu-
pation operated prejudicially ; those persons who had " squatted " on the
grounds immediately circumjacent would not permit new comers to cross over
them to obtain water from the springs. Mr. James Geddes, afterwards so
well known in connection with the history of the Erie canal, was obliged, to
avoid quarrel, to establish his works elsewhere.

In 1797 a law was passed creating the office of superintendent of the Salt
Springs, and imposing a tax of three cents on every bushel of salt manufac-
tured and sold. The reservation was laid out in lots, and the manufacturers
permitted to occupy theju free of rent. Those salt works first in operation
had the prior right to the water, and the other manufacturers after them in
turn. Subsequently, in 1808, the owners of salt works at Geddes were per-
mitted, on the same conditions, to convey salt water from Salina to that vil-
lage. Syracuse, at that time, existed only in the vivid imagination of such,
men as Joshua Forman, then member of Congress, who foresaw a city in the
almost impassable swamp, and an immense commerce to be carried on there by
means of an aqueduct or trench.

The tax on salt was raised to twelve and a half cents per bushel in 1817,
and the revenue derived from it was placed in the canal fund. In 1836 it was
reduced to six cents, and in 1846 to one cent per bushel.

In 1825 further legislation was had upon the subject of priority of right to
the salt water; and it was finally adjudicated by Judge E. T. Throop, by
including the manufacturers in twenty-three classes, and allowing them the
water in the order of their numbers, from one to twenty-three.

In 1841 the Legislature passed an act to prevent combinations or conspi-
racies for the purpose of limiting the production of salt or enhancing its
price. The penalty was forfeiture of right to the use of the water. This
has since been repealed, and all efforts to procure its re-enactment have
failed. From 1852 till 1857 a salt-buying company was formed outside of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 431

the manufacturing companies, t6 purchase the salt and forward it to market.
During thcso j'cars salt rose from one dollar to one dollar and forty cents a
bushel.

In 1857 the suporintcMidcnt was directed by a resolution of the Leg-isla-
ture to prepare a bill which should embrace all the provisions of the laws
in existence relative to the management of the salt springs, <which were
deoincd necessary for tlie encouragement of tlio manufacture, etc. Such a
bill was drafted, and in 1859 was duly enacted by the Legislature. It
abolit;hod " priority of right," so far as the manufactories in operation
were concerned, applying it only to those who might erect works at a future
period.

THE ONONDAGA SALT COMPANY.

Tlie Onondaga Salt Company was then organized for ten years under the
provisions of the general manufi\cturing law, for the purpose of i-educing
the business of manufacturing salt to a system, and producing it in quan-
tities equivalent to the demand for it in tlio market.

Tiie manufacturers desirous of combining their interests, began by ap-
pointing persons to appraise their property emploj^ed in the business. The
aggregate valuation was 63,200,000. On this amount an assessment of
five per cent, was levied, making a capital of $160, 000, for the operations
of tlie Salt Company. The manufacturers were allowed to take the stock
in the ratio of the valuation of their salt property. Most of them did so,
but Mr. George Geddes and one or two otherw, nut considering tlie CLter-
prise a safe one, c.id not take part in it.

The Onondaga Salt Company engaged to pay each proprietor of salt
works twelve and a half per cent, annually on the valuation of his prop-
erty, making in all §400,000; also to faruish fuel at cost prices for the
manufacturer, and a market for what salt he makes. Each manufacturer
only runs such of his works as the Salt Company may direct, year by j'car;
it being the object to accumulate no more salt than can be sold at a profit.

Tli'c company proceeded to invest 8100,000 in real estate in Chicago, and
about 830,000 more at BuUalo, for the purpcjse of store houses and docks
it those places. This investment has been successful; the salt manufac-
turers of Michigan never having, been able since that time to obtain afoot-
hold in Chicago, there to share or monopolize the trade of the West. The
6um of 840,000 was also expended for the purchase of an interest in one of
the mines belonging to the Morris Coal Company in Pennsylvania, and for
buildings, roads, shutes and trestle-work for mining purposes. The capital
of the Salt Company having thus been exhausted, a resolution was adopted
some months since to increase it to $320,000, which went into eifect in
April last.

In March, iSfiO, the company began business, having on hand a large
stock (tf unsold salt which had been made the previous year. This had to
be disposed of before new salt, in any remunerative quantities, cf)uld get
into the market. When the company, at the close of the season, balanced
its accounts, it found itself unable to meet its engagements to pay the
$400,000 — twelve and a half per cent. — to the owners of salt manufac-
tories.

In 1861 the company reaped a golden liarvest. The salt works of West

432 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Virginia were destroj^ed, g'iving Nevv- York their market. The salt then
inspected amounted to 7,200,391 busliels. The liabilities of 18G0 were paid
off, $400,000 divided among- the manufacturers, and a dividend of 40 per
cent, on- the capital of $IG0,000.

The next jear prices were still higher, and 9,053,874 bushels w^ere sold.
The Salt Company paid $400,000 to the owners of the manufactories, and
divided 231^ per cent, upon the capital of $160,000.

In 18G3, apprehending- tliat salt from West Virginia, Michigan, and other
sources might come upon the market, the company directed the manufac-
turers to reduce the quantit_Y of salt for the season. But this order was
subsequently modified, and 7,942,383 bushels of salt were inspected. The
company, after paying $400,000 to the proprietors, divided $304,000 — 190
per cent, upon their capital.

Thus, during the last three years the enormous amount of 24,196,648
bushels of salt has been manufactured at the Onondaga Reservation; for
which the manufacturers have received$61,200,000; and then again, in the
capacity of stockholders in the Salt Company, have realized in addition
$748,000.

The following quantities of salt have been received at this povt from
Syracuse during the present year:

RETURNED BY WEEKS.

2d week in May, pounds 3,316,300

3d " " " 871,000

4th " " " 1,277,100

1st " June, " 420,300

2d " " " , 1,703,400

3d ■ " " " ; 1,997,700

4th " July, " 874,200

Making 196,240 bushels.

The revenue derived by the State from these springs — one cent per
bushel — amounted, for the last three years, to $241,966.48, of which about
$125,000 has been expended for salaries of officers at the springs and car-
rying on the works. There were efforts made in the Legislature in IS60,
1862, 1863 and 1864 to procure an increase of the duty, but they were
unavailing.

The salt manufacturers assert before tlie legislative committees that
their recent prosperity has been due to their control of the market by the
destruction of the Kanawha salt works, and tlieir facilities by their combi-
nation to procure fuel at lower prices, to be employed in their manufacttre.
Tiiey insist, further, that when the rebellion shall have been suppressed,
West Virginia and the salt works of Sontliern Oliio must obtain the market
in tlie valley of the Ohio> and that the manufacturers of Michigan will be
able to divide if not to monopolize the north-western trade. It should be
remarked, however, that proposals from Hocking Valley in Ohio, and Sagi-
naw in Michigan, to divide the Western States into districts, one for each
company to occupy witiiout competition, were refused. Whetlier the appre-
liension of losing the western market Vv'ill induce the Onondaga manu-
facturers, at a future day, to accede to such an arrangement, we cannot
tell.

proceedings of the polytechnic association. 433
Analysis and Manufacture of Salt.

Prof. Joy, of Columbia college, exhibited the constituents ol' common f
salt, sodium aild chlorine. He said, to make 100 parts of common salt, it re-
quires 39.32 of the metal sodium and G0.G8 of chlorine gas. Sodium is
lighter than Avate.'- and swims on it. It has a metallic lustre, and rusts
very rapidly, so that it has to be kept under naptha. If water was used,
it would take the oxygen from the water. In reference to the manufacture
of salt, there are three different methods employed. The first is by evapo-
ration of the salt water of the ocean. This method is pursued priucipally
in France. There are some thirty of these manufactories there. The gus-
tom is to take the water from the salt marshes at high tide and overflow
some thousands of acres, and then allow the evaporation to take place in
the open air. Of course the evaporation is delayed by rain, which, when
excessive, they draw the water off and evaporate by fire. Although the
water of the ocean contains but two and a iialf per cent, of salt, yet there
are other products arising from its manufacture that makes the process
economical. The same process is pursued in Germany.

The second method of making salt is that adopted near the city of
Cracow. The salt mines there were discovered in 1251. The mines have
been traced twelve miles in length, and 1,200 feet thick. The salt in the
mines is not pure, so they dissolve it and pump it up. The same process is
pursued at Haller, where a peculiar tribe called " Wens," have the monopoly
of working the mines. At these mines you enter them on the top of a moun-
tain and come up in a valley, and you are ferried over several salt lakes,
which are found here and there flowing over their crystal beds. They have
a very curious way of going into the mines; it is very characteristic. When
you wish to descend you enter a building at the top of the mines, where yoxx
are furnished with a leather apron, which you proceed to put on, as a black-
smith would, before you, but that is not the way, as you are told to put the
apron behind, and you slide with this under you down an inclined plain into
the mine, holding on to a rope, while your hands are covered with gloves
to prevent the skin from being torn off.

The third method of making salt is from brine, and that is the method
jnirsued in this country. The water is put into large pans, and allowed to
evaporate; the salt is then formed in small crystals, which are raked out,
and the pans filled again.

The method adopted for evaporating the salt water in Germany is called
graduati(jn, which consists of an immense pUe of twigs hundreds of feet
high. The water is pumped to the top of this and let trick|e down, which
evaporates the water very rapidly. If the wind is strong the evaporation ^
is increased from three to four per cent. In time, however, these twigs
become coated with gypsum.

Soda ash is largely manufactured from salt. In 1852 England produced
3,000 tons. Tiiey also manufacture 400 tons of bleaching soda every week.
There are at least 10,000 workmen engaged in that manufacture there. In
the manufacture of sulphuric acid thej'^ now obtain their sulphur from Iron

[Am. In-st.] B*

434 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

pyrites, while in this country we make it from sulphur. The manufacture
of soda ash from salt, in England, is ver}' extensive, but here, owing to the
higher price obtained for the salt, very little is made into soda ash.
, Prof. Englehardt, of St. Xavier College, said the new method adopted for
evaporating the brine is to put it into large kettles, in the centre of which
an iron handle is placed, and the sulphate of lime in the brine settles on
this iron. When the brine is evaporated, the bromide of calcium, chlo-
rid,e of magnesium, &c., adulterate the salt. The manufactory where the
salt is made has two rows of kettles, 50 on each side, and these 100 kettles
are all heated by the one fire; formerly wood was used but they now buFn
coal. Those nearest the fire are evaporated first; when the solution is
suflBciently conceiitrated it is removed to a large wooden building and kept
there. This salt will always become nujist oii exposure to the atmosphere,'
because it contains chlorides of calcium and magnesium, To remove these
some thirty or forty bushels of the salt is put into a vat, and to which is
added a saturated solution of salt and water; the whole is then stirred up,
after which the carbonate of soda is mixed through it, when the chlorine
will unite with the sodium of the carbonate and f\)rm chloride of sodium,
thus increasing the quantity of salt, while the chlorides of magnesium, &c.,
called bitterns are converted into carbonates.

The iron is removed from the salt before it is put into the kettles. The
brine is placed into large wooden vats, and allowed to stand for several days;
a certain amount of lime is added to it, when tlie lime precipitates the iron.
If there is too much lime the chloride of lime will be formed.

Solar salt is much purer than that made by evaporating by fire. The
tanks for solar evaporation are from eight to twelve feet square and six
inches deep. They are filled with brine during the winter and allowed to
stand covered till Spring, when they are uncovered and evaporation takes
place by solar heat.

Prof. Englehardt illustrated his remarks by a series of formulas on the
blackboard, giving in detail the constituents of the salts in their various
combinations. •

The Chairman said it might be interesting to know the comparative
strength of the brines found in various parts of the United States. The
following table was prepared by the late Dr. Beck of Albany. To make
one bushel (56 lbs.) of salt requires

Of sea water from 300 to 350 gallons.

Connemaugh, Penn. brine 300 do

Shawneetown, 111. brine 280 do

Jackson, 0. brine 213 do

Lockhart, Miss, brine 180 do

Zanesville, 0 95 do

Grand River, Ark 80 do '

Kanawha, Ya , 15 do

Montezuma, 0 10 do

Grand Rapids, Mich s . . . 50 do

Muskingum, 0 50 do

Montezuma, N. Y 50 do

Onondaga, old wells „ 45 do

Onondaga, new wells 35 do

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 435

The new Avclls on Sag-inaw bay are said to yield as strong brine as tliose
of Onondag-a.

Dr.- Kicliards remarked that the salt works on Saginaw bay which
promised so niuch, are not now in operation. During a late visit to that
section of" the country he had made inquiries as to the causes which led to
closing of these salt manufactories. He was informed that the high price
of labor, and the high price of lumber had effected the change. It was
found more profitable now to cut down the immense pine forests around
Saginaw bay, and saw the timber for the markets on Lake Michigan, and
to supply these markets required uU the manual labor that could be
obtained.

The Dew-point.

The Chairman said he was about to introduce to the audience Prof.
"William Baer of Maryland, who would speak on the influence of the Dew-
point. As that gentleman's remarks will be made -on the assumption that
tiie subject in its general bearings- is understood, and as there may be some
present who have not made themselves familiar with this branch of Mete-
orology, he would ptesent a few preliminar}'^ facts.

The atmosphere has the power of holding a certain amount of the vapor
of water, ■which is proportioned to the temperature of the air. The warmer
the air, the more vapor it ma}' contain. But for each degree of temperature
there is a limit beyond wliich tlie amount of vapor in the air cannot be
increased. Tlie air being saturated with moisture at a given temperature
cannot be cooled without parting with a portion of this vapor in the form
of dew. This point of saturation for a given temperature is called the
Dew-point.

The capacity of air for holding moisture may be seen by the following
table:

A cubic foot of air weighs 538.1 grains

At 100 degrees Fahrenheit it will hold, of water. ,

90 do do do

80 do do do

70 do do do

60 do do do

50 do do do

40 do do do

32 do do do

From this table it will be seen that the air at GO degrees will hold a
little more than twice as much vapor of water as it will at 32 degrees, the
melting point of ice. Air at 80 degrees \vill hold nearly twice as much
vapor as air at 60 degrees. Air at 100 degrees will hold nearly twice as
much vapor as at 80 degrees, and eight times as much vapor when at 32
degrees.

Estimating by bulk, the vapor contained in a given quantity of air at 32
deg. F. is 1-160; ut 59 deg. 1-80; at 86 deg. 1-40; at 113 deg. 1-20. The
tension of aqueous vapor computed from the experiments ofKegnault, and
expressed in inches of mercury is at 32 deg. Fah. 0.181; at 40 deg. 0.2475;
at 50 deg. O.Si'.OT; at 60 deg. 0.5178; at 70 deg. 0.7327; at 80 dog. 1.0227;
at 90 deg, 1.4088; at 100 deg. 1.917 inches. By means of a complete table

19.12

do

14.38

do

10.73

do

7.94

do

5.82

do

4.24

do

3.06

do

2.35

do

436 TRANSACtlONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

of this kind, the degree of atmospheric saturation at the time of an observa-
tion may be calculated. Suppose the teiiT^jeratuve of the air is at 80 deg".
Fah., and the dew-point, that is, the point at which the air is saturat,ed and
dew begins to be formed is 10 deg'., and that the saturating point .at 80
deg. be called 1000. Then as the quantity of vapor is directly as the ten-
sion, we have by proportion — 1.0221 : 0.1321 : : 1000 : ^, or ,t=116.

Practically, however, it is easier to find the dew point by oieasuring the
rate of evaporation at the time of the observation of tempei^ature. This is
done by means of the wet bulb hygrometer, which consists of two ther-
mometers, both of which are covered with muslin and one is kept constantly
moist by means of capillary attraction — a few cotton fibers being connected
with the muslin and water in a separate vessel. The rate of evaporation
and consequejitly the depression of temperature of the moistened bulb will
be greater in proportion as the atmosphere is further removed from its
point of saturation. By means of prepared tables the dew point is calcu-
lated from these observations.

The gentleman to address us this evening is a man of great experience,
having reached his seventy-eighth year. He has for more than thirty years
made regular meteorological observations, and he is one of the valuable
corps of observers who furnish reports of the weather for the Smithsonian
Institute at Washington. His views may be regarded by some as ultra,
but they will doubtless have the effect of directing our attention to really
important points which have hitherto been overlooked.

Prof. Baer remarked, — There was no law in nature v/hich is more impor-
tant than that belonging to the dew point. What is meant by the dew
point is the relative amount of water, or moisture, in the atmosphere. No
manufacturer of iron can make a uniform quality without taking into con-
sideration the dew point; in fact evei-y branch of manufacture is affected
by it. Oxygen being a supporter of life, it becomes necessary that we
should know its purity, that is when the atoms of the air which consists of
oxygen and nitrogen in the proportion of about 21 volumes of oxygen to 19
of nitrogen. When these g-ases are disseminated, or fill up the interstices
of vapor, of water, in breathing which a large amount of vapor is taken
into the lungs that requires considerable effort w the system to get rid of,
and air thus saturated with moisture is rendered impure. And in the case
of the bloom-maker or blacksmith who wishes to make iron of a certain
quality, and as a certain amount of oxygen is required for the f?res, a south-
east wind coming up laden with moisture, and which holds the oxygen in
solution,' a very great amount of heat will be needed to get this oxygen
out of the moist atmosphere; and a No. 1 iron cannot be made ; it wiil
range somewhere about the quality of No. 4, or grey iron. As no more air
than the bellows is capable of furnishing can pass into the lire; and this
air being largely saturated with moisture which a large part of the heat is
employed in dispelling, an irtdifiei'ent "quality of iron will necessarily be the
result. We see here how important the d(^w point becomes in this exten-
sive branch of manufacture. He had watched this matter very closely
where he lived, as the "iron furnaces were about a mile from his residence.
He found that the month of June is generally a time when the dew point
is high, and during that month three bellows are required where with a

PROCEEDINGS OP THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 437

((Jiffercnt atmosphere but one would be necessary. It was an impossibility
to make good iron wlien the thermometer is at 90 degrees and the dew
point at 80. At the Glass works where wood is used, which absorbs
moisture, and witli a northeast or a southeast wind, good glass could not
be made, but it would have all the colors of the rainbow in it. When jel-
lies are made at a high dew point, in 99 cases out of 100 they will become
sour or mildew. So in breathing a moist atmosphere, instead of inhalin"*
527 cubic inches of air, but 421 an; received, and in that moist atmosphere
there is heat that must be got rid of by the lungs. To preserve health
during th-o prevalence of such an atmosphere, a less quantity of food should
be eaten. The bi-carl)onate of soda would neutralize much of the ill-effects
arising from this cause. Acetic acid is also very valuable. He rubbed
down the legs of dogs with this acid when they were very tired after being
out hunting, and its effect was such that the, animals would immediately
revive and continue on in the chase for hours after.

In the case of sun-stroke, he^ believed that the dew point was more the
cause of it than the heat. He noticed that with the thermometer at 112
degrees and the dew point at 15, there would be no sun-stroke cases re-
corded; but if on the next day the thermometer should fall to 90 degrees
and the dew point at 80, sun-strokes would be very frequent. When the
dew point is high, vegetation will thrive, but man will sink. The stomach
is the same as a furnace. If a steam boiler is out of order, the whole
machinery will be the same. So in breathing an atmosphere that requires
a strong effort of nature to obtain from it what is essential to support life,
and in this effort heat is evolved to such an extent as to produce general-
lassitude, then the boiler is out of order. Much excitement prevailed at
one time in this city in regard to what was termed swill-milk. Considera-
ble of the evil, in this case, might be traced at times to the hygrometric
state of the atmosphere, as, with the ^thermometer at 80 and a high dew
point, the milk would be found to be in a state of putrefaction. It would
not make butter; the cow is then unhealthy; as the dew point goes up,
down goes the stomach.

At New Orleans the dew point ' rises highest, but let it go down to 60
and cliolera will instantly disappear. If flowers are planted on a hill, some
facing the southea.st and others the northwest, it will be found that those
flowers facing the southeasit will bloom ten to fourteen days before the
others. Fruit will also be found best on that part of the tree facing the
southeast. When bread is made with the dew point at 80 and the tem-
perature at 90 degrees, an acid is produced which prevents the bread being-
baked in the center; the water will not be evaporated; complaint will be
made of the oven, yeast, fire, &c., but the true cause is the dew point.
Flour should be ground, every grain, and not mashed; if it is not properly
ground, it will ferment.,

Prof. Baer continued his remarks to a late hour, and no time remained
for a reply to some of his questionabk' deductions. The audience, how-
ever, were agreeably entertained, and at the close a resolution of thanks
to speaker was passed.

" The cause of the impurity of our city atmosphere," was selected as the
subject for the next meeting. Adjourned.

438 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, ?
December 15, 1864. \
Prof. S. D. Tillman, presiding ; B. Garvey, secretary.
The Chairman read the following- interesting- items relating to science
and art : , -

Production of Ice.

A description of Mr. A. C. Kirke's machine for producing cold by the
expansion of air, was read before the Chemical Section of the British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science, The method employed is to alter-
nately compress and expand air in receivers ; that holding the expanded
air being surrounded by the liquid to be cooled ; the other containing com-
pressed air being surrounded with flowing water for the purpose of keep-
ing it cool. The same air is used over and over again, a wire gauze respi-
rator or regenerator being employed to ec|ualize the temperature in its
passage downward and backward between the two cylinders. The machines
move day and night without intermission, and with the power from one
ton of coal one ton of ice is made. It is superior to the ether machine in
which there is an unavoidable loss from the escape of ether.

This item reminded Mr. Bartlett that a friend of his in Washington had
used compressed air for cooling water, but not understanding the difference
between the intensity and the quantity of heat, he failed in operating on a
large scale. He found how easy it was to cool the mercury in his thermo-
meter, but how more difficult to cool a large quantity of water.

Mr. T. D. Stetson said there was a fine machine in this city for freezing
water, but it was found not to be economical.

No Nitrogen in Steel.

At the November meeting of the London Chemical Society it was stated
that Messrs. Stuart and Baker have repeated 'the investigations of Premj^
using however the well known brands of English steel, also the Spiegelisen
largely used in making steel Tliey found no nitrogen in these varieties
of steel, but they suggest the possible existence of the nitride of titanium,
which might under special circumstances account for the appearance of
nitrogen.

Protection of Iron Plates.

M. Bequerel announced some time since before the French Academy of
Sciences, that iron-plated vessels could be preserved from oxidation by
fixing bands of zinc on the plates at given intervals. At a later meeting
of the academy he stated tliat the protection was not so complete in soft
water owing to the fact that the electric current generated at the line of
contact between these metals diminished in intensity more rapidly in pure
water. The remedy is to use a proportionably larger number of zinc
bands. Bequerel found that 9,381 cannon balls, twelve centimeters diame-
ter under soft water, require for protection two square meters of zinc
surface.

Dye for Feathers.

Beautiful shades of red, violet and blue, are obtained with aniline colors
which adhere to feathers with as much brilliancy as to wool and silk. The

PROCEEDINGS OF THE rOLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 439

Cv)1ovs are dissolved iu alcohol and diluted with water, not too hot. into
which tlie feathers are plnng'ed. After being- completely dyed they are
removed from the batli, washed and dried. Tliej' are then curled by
means t)f a well polished bone knife.

Anti-corrosive Mixture.

A solution of beeswax in benzole will prevent steel from rusting. A
thin coating of wa.x will stick to the object imbued witl^it, while the ben-
zol(> evaiiorates.

Destruction of Bookworms.

In {he Hodleian Library the insects belonging to the peinida? species —
small-sized beetles of whicli there are three species— are found not oidy to
attack books but to burrow in the wood carvings. They have been effec-
tually destroyed by means of the vapor of benzine or benzole. It is essen-
tial that the rooms in which saucers of benzole are placed should be as
nearly air-tight as possible. The application shotdd be made in the spring,
and as the ova of these insects are not all developed within one year, it is
necessary' to repeat the operation during the next spring to ensure their
extermination.

Development of Wheat.

M. Pierre is continuing his investigations of the development of corn.
During nineteen days of observation extending from July 6th to July 25th
of the present year, he found the whole ear gained eighty per cent in
weight, while the stalks and husks were undergoing a dinunution in weight.
The mineral substances in grain during this term decreased in weight
nearly one-fifth, while nitrogen increased nearly one-seventh. M. Pierre
believes the grain is nourished at the expense of the upper portions of the
stem.

Dr. Rowell remarked that a lady had noticed that one grain of rye pro-
duced twelve hundred grains.

Refuse Corks.

The scavengers of Paris gather from the sewers corks which have been
used and thrown away, and sell them to persons who make it their busi-
ness to tcvivtJ them. Some are recut, others retaining their original shape
are CQvered with a powder which gives them the color of new cork. The
holes in them arc filled with mastic. Formerly these corks were sold only
to makers of ink and blacking, but lately they have been used by the re-
tailers of bottled beverages, such corks being bought for about one dollar
and thirty cents per thousand.

The question has been raised whether there is not danger in this prac-
tice, as ."some of these second hand corks may hold poisonous salts which
are soluble in the ordinary flu'ds used as beverages.

Dr. Kicii said refuse corks were not extensively collected in this country
for the purpose of being used again in bottles.

The Dis Fibre.

M. Lafon dc Candevalhas made both paper and yarns from the plant called
by the Arabs dis. ItgrowsinAlgcriaover an extcntof 2501cagucs. Ityields

440 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

84 per cent, of fibre, 6^ per cent, of gluten, which may be used like tupicca
as food, and 9^ per cent, of herbaceous elements and water. The fibre is
not attacked by insects. Its average length is nearly five feet, and the
cost of preparation about 42 cents per cwt.

New Discovery in Pompeii.

Recent excavations have brought to light a square block of marble near
the Isis gate, on tfee sides of which the Roman calendar is engraved. Each
side contains the days of three months in three columns, above wliich are
the zodiacal sfgns. Interesting and important notices are- placed opposite
certain days, relating to astronomy, agriculture and the religion of the
Romans. It has been placed in the museum of Naples.

Ancient Mining Machinery.

An ancient wheel found in a Portugese mine has been recently exhibited
to the antiquarians of Paris. It is 20 feet in diameter and 1| broad. Eight
of these wheels have been discovered in mines supposed to have been
worked by tiie Romans at least 1450 years ago. They have been preserved
by immersion in water charged with salts of iron and copper. They are
supposed to have been worked as treadmills by men with naked feet on one
side. The water was raised by one wheel into a basin, from which it was
elevated another stage by a second wheel, and so on through eight levels,

Mr. Whittell said the old method for lifting water from the river Nile for
irrigation was by means of pots fastened to the arms of a wheel.

Mr. Bartlett said the v-'ater was raised from Lake Michigan for'supply-
iijg the summit level of the Illinois canal leading from Chicago to the M s
sissippi river, by means of buckets on a breast wheel. Water can be raised
economically in this way six or eight feet.

Steam Power in Mines.

In the celebrated Gould and Curry mine steam generated in a boiler on
the outside is carried 400 feet below the surface, and 1,100 feet to the
engine. The steam pipe is carried along the bottom of the adit iii a v/ooden
case tightly packed with'ashes. The difference in the pressure of the steam
at the boiler and at the engine is only five pounds per square inch.* At the
Almadan silver mine the steam is carried along the roof of the mine in pipes
protected by ropes of straw for the distance of 1,300 feet, and with a loss
in pressure of 14 pounds per square inch. At the Gould and Cin-ry mine
superheated steam is soon to be used. The steam, pipes are provided at
certain intervals with expansion joints, like those of the telescope, to pro-
■ vide for the contraction and expansion of the nictals resulting from changes
in temperature.

Dr. Rowell stated steam on the Great Eastern was carried some three hun-
dred feet to drive the propellor, the pipe conveying it was at first about
two feet in diameter, but it did not work well, and pipe wf.s iiArroased to
three feet in order to maintain the original pressure.

Mr. Stetson said in our Crystal Palace steam was carried across 42d
street in a ten inch pipe enclosed in a box filled with tan. It was found

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 441

that but one pound per square inch pressure was lost by this plan. If tlic
pipe were made still larger there would be less loss of pressure, although
there might be a great loss of heat. '

A Four Legged Hen.

Dr. Rowell exhibited a lusui^ natnrcc jn the form of a live hen having four
legs. T!ie pair of legs not used were nearly full size, and were drawn up
under the tail uf the animal. This freak of nature wasadouhtless the pro-
duct of a 'double yolked egg. It is said to be tlie general habit of the hen ■
to throw out of the nest eggs of this description.

The regular subject for discussion Avas then taken up.

The Cause of the Impurity of our City Atmosphere.

The Chairman said those present were doubtless aware that we were
often annoyed by a noxious odor or stench which passes away as suddenly
as it comes. Prof. Mapes had informed him that the cause did not originate
in the sewers, for he had taken pains to examine the openings to thenj
during the time the stench was strongest, and detected no odor arising
from that quarter; He had noted the position of the wind vanes visible
from his residence in Bleecker street, and had found that during the prdva-
lence of these odors the vanes always pointed in a northeast direction, or
in other words towards the gas works situated on tlie East river.

Dr. Rich thought it impossible that the stench should arise from the
sewers. Prof. Everett had informed him that when certain changes \>ere
made in the gas works in the night tliis odor came so strong into his sum-
mer residence up town, that he was compelled to get up and close the
windows.

Mr. Charles A. Seelye said this question of odors was well understood
up town. The stench from the gas works was quite distinct from that
arising from the bone boiling establishments. There is angtiier kind of
odor prevalent down town which is generated by decaj-ed vegetable matter.

Gen. Hall said he had noticed that in the part of the city where the odor
comphiined of is the strongest, the children are remarkably plump and
healthy. , ,

Dr. D. D. Parmclce remarked that he had been, formerly, engaged in the
manufacture of a chemical coujpound which required the generatien of large
quantities of the unpleasant smelling gas coming from gas factories, but nio
complaint was ever made by his neighbors because he caused all the gas to be
absorbed by water, lime and other means. On Murray hill, where he livedo
he and his neighbors weYe obliged to stop using illuminating gas on account
of the sulphuretted hydrogen in it.

Gen. Hall said thia might be accounted for by the fapt that the new com-
pany supply families abo^'e Thirty-fourth street, and they are not as success-
ful as the old donqmnies in arresting and destroying the gas complained of.

The Chairman presented to the audience on the black board albthc formula
representing the impurities found in common air. Our atmosphere is called
a mixture of gases and not a true chemical compound. The great mass of it
consists of about four parts of nitrogen to one part of oxygen, by measure or
bulk. The water present varies in quantity with the temperature of the air.

442 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMEPJCAN INSTITUTE.

Carbonic acid gas is always present in very small quantity, togetlier with a
trace'of ammonia. In cities the air is also tainted with sulphurous acid and
sulphuretted hydrogen. This last, like nearly all the compounds of hydrogen,
except water, is very detrimental to the human constitution.

Sulphuretted hydrogen, or hydrosulphuric acid as it is sometimes called, is
formed on the water type, sulphur being substituted for oxygen. It is a color-
less gas, having a disgusting odor resembling rotten eggs. Even when mixed
with a thousand times its bulk of common air it can not be breathed by the
lower animals without fatal results. It is heavier than common air, 100 cubic
inches weighing a little over 38 grains, while the same bult of air weighs 31
grains. Under a pressure of 250 pounds per square inch, sulphuretted hydro-
gen is reduced to a colorless liquid, and at 122'' Fahr. below zero it is frozen
into a transparent solid. The gas is formed spontaneously. For instance,
where a soluble sulphate,, by contact with decaying' animal or vegetable mat-
ter, loses oxygen and becomes a metallic sulphide, which, in turn, is easily
decomposed, even by the little carbonic acid always present in the air, the
result being a metallic carbonate and sulphuretted hydrogen.

The average composition of the atmosjihere is now given by the best autho-
rities as follows: Every 100 parts, by volume, contains

Of oxygen gas 20.61

Of nitrogen gas 77.95

Of carbonic acid gas - .04

Of water- vapor 1.40

Of nitric acid and ammonia traces.

Of sulphuretted hydrogen, in large towns traces.

Of sulphurous acid, do do traces.

Mr. T. D. Stetson admitted that noxious odors and gases frequently were
generated in some of the manufacturing establishments of the city, but he
dissented from the view of some that therefore these establishments should be
suppressed. They were here, as in many other cities, one of the causes of
our prosperity.

Mr. Enos Stevens did not kn(jw M'here we should stop if we began to
exclude bad smells, and did not believe we should agree as to what smells
were bad. Some paid a great deal for smells that others thought bad. He
thought musk bad, and tobacco excessively nasty ; but others thought them
agreeable. There were others that -were offensive to those who cultivated a
dislike for smells that they believed to be bad, but were indifferent or imper-
ceptible to those who did not attend to them. It was all imagination ; they
don't care about smells,, except fancy smells that they pay for. Only the arti-
ficial people, who cultivate artificial miseries, are troubled by them, and they
enjoy their troubles. So no harm is done.

Tlie subject was further examined by several speakers, and the conclusion
seemed to be that the most objectionable odor, that having a slight creosote
smell, was from the gas houses, and must arise at the time of discharging from
their purifying apparatus the lime saturated with various impurities.

Dr. Parmelee made an interesting experiment with phosphorus dissolved in
turpentine. He explained how the phosphoric acid, generated in burning
phosphorus, acted as a protection against further combustion, and showed why
the general incendiary attempt on our principal hotels failed. After which he
o-ave the following account of:

proceedings of tde rolytechnic association. 443
Phosphorus.

Phosphorus was discovered by Brande in 1669. It is never met in nature
in an unconibined state, but occurs in small propoi'tion in phosphate of lime.

The portion of phosphate of lime in oones varies with the source from
which they are obtained. The solidity and fineness of the bones of man- and
quadrupeds is owing to a considerable portion of phosphate of lime which
they contain.

One hundred parts of ox bones contain 51 solid gelatin, 37.7 phosphate of
lime, 10 carbonate of lime, and one-third of pho.sphate of magnesia.

In one hundred parts of man's bones there are 81.9 of phosphate of lime.

Phosphate of lime occurs in small proportion in or is a constituent of the
primitive and volcanic rocks, by the gradual decay of which it passes into the
soil; from this it is extracted by plants, which accumulate it, particularly in
(heir seeds. Phosphorus is a never-failing ingredient, in the substances of
which the brain and nei-ves are composed. It is likewise contained in albumen
and in filrin, and is present in the form of phosphates of the earths and of
the alkalies in the urine and solid excrements uf animals.

Phosphorus was originally attained from the salts contained in urine, but is
now obtained almost exclusively from bones.

The symbol of phosphorus is P., its eq. 32 ; density «f vapor 4327. (The
density of carbonic acid is 1529, not quite one-half of that of vapor of P.)

Preparation.

The earth of bones is decomposed by two-thirds its weight of sulj^huric
acid, and the insoluble sulphate of lime separated by filtration from the solu-
ble phosphoric acid, which passes- through with a quantity of phosphate of
lime in solution. The acid liquor is then evaporated to the consistence of a
syrup, and mixed with charcoal to form a soft paste, which is rubbed well in a
morter and then dried in an iron pot, with constant stirring, till the mass
begins to be red hot. It is allowed to cool, and introduced as rapidly as pos-
sible into a stoneware retort, previously covered with a coating of fire-clay.
The beak of the retort is inserted into a wide copper tube of a few feet in
length, the free end of which is bent downward a few inches from its extrem-
ity, and the descending portion introduced into a wide mouthed bottle con-
taining water enough to just cover the extremity of the tube.

The heat of the furnace in which the retort is placed is slowly raised for
three or four hours, and then urged vigorously till the phosphorus has passed
over. The presence of certain gaseous substances, even in minute quantity, .
has a remarkable effect in preventing the slow combustion of sulphur ; thus
at 66 degrees it is entirely prevented by the presence o

1 vol. olefiant gas in 450 vols, air,

1 vol. vapor of sulphuric ether in 150 vols. air.

1 vol. vapor of naphtha in 1820 vols. air.

1 vol. vajjor oil of turpentine in 4444 vols. air.
And the influence of these gases is not confined to low temperatures, a certain
mixture of all of them defending phosphorus from oxidation even at two hun-
dred de;irccs.

444 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

An explanation given of this is tliat tlie gases which exert this influence
have an attraction for oxygen, and are themselves undergoing a slow oxidation
at the same time.

When two oxrdable bodies are in ^contact, one of them often takes prece-
dence in combining with oxygen, to the entire exclusion of the other.

Phosphorus matches are usually made by melting phosphorus in water at 120
degrees, and adding a requisite proportion of chlorate or nitrate of potassa,
which is dissolved in this water, and if metallic oxides are used, or binoxide
of manganese or sesquioxide of lead, these are added, and then enough gum
to thicken the liquid. The whole is well triturated till the globules of phos-
phorus cease to 'be visible, and the mass is colored with Prussian blue or red
with sesquioxide of lead. The points of the sticks already sulphured are
dipped into this paste, and then cautiously dried in a warm chamber. The
object of the chlorate, nitrate or oxides is to promote the combustion of the
phosphorus, and that of the sulphur to ignite the stick, and the gum to form
a varnish which defends the phosphorus from oxidation till the surface i^
abraded.

Phosphorus is susceptible of four different degrees of oxidation, the high-
est of which is a powerful acid, while the acid property is not absent in the
lowest. These compounds are :

Oxide of phosphorus . 2 P.-j-O.

Hypophosphorus acid P.-}-0.

Phosphorus acid P.-)-oO.

Phosphoric acid. P.-|-50.

Amorphous phosphorus ,may be obtained by several processes. A ready
one consists in heating phosphorus with a small quantity of iodine. The
amorphous phosphorus is separated from phosphorus in its ordinary condition
by treatment with bisulphide of carbon, which dissolves the latter and not
the former.

After selecting "The Manufacture of Sugar" as the subject for the next
discussion, the Association adjourned.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, I
December 22d, 1864. j

Prof. Samucd D. Tillman, Chairin;in; Benjamin Garvey, Secretary^

Roasting Coffee.

The first article exhibited was an automatic coffee roaster. Mr. S. B.
Ward stated that it was the invention of a physician who saw the necessity
of g'iviiig uniformity and expedition to the operation of roasting- coiFee.
The machine now presented, consisted of a wire gauze cylinder, tvhich
revolved in a cast iron frame, the whole, wdien placed on tup of a cast
iron cooking stove or range, was enclosed in a tin cover. When the coffee
is i)laced in the cylinder, by moving a stop-key, the cylinder begins to
rotate, and continues until the loasting is completed. The effect of this
rotary motion is to present ever}' berry to the beating surface for about
the same length of time. The power used is a spring which is connected

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 445

by small brass gearing with the cj^linder. The fly-wheel serves the double
purpose of regulating the movement and cooling the spring and machinery,
Avhicli otherwise would be injured by the heat. The present cost of the
smallest size is five dollars.

Dr. J. B. Kich remarked that the excellence of the coffee made in Turkey,
consisted in the fact that everj'' imperfect or over-burnt berry was removed.
It is roasted and crushed, and immediately served up. It is crushed
between two flat stones, or sometimes with a rude mortar and pestle. He
did not remember ever to have had a bad cup of coffee during his stay in
that country. ,

Pri»f Fleury said he had j'cceutly learnt the means of preserving the
aroma in coffee; it was by adding sugar which absorbed the volatile por-
tion which passes off in roasting. His own father had been a large man-
ufacturer at Vienna of ground or prepared coffee, made entirely of figs,
which were nearly all exported to Turkey. The advantage of this coffee
is, that it does not require as much sugar as the real berry. It is, how-
ever, far less stimulating than pure coffee. *"

Dr. Rowell said that the high price of the coffee berry had induced many
to use a mixture of different kinds of grain.

Mr. Ward exhibited a round, small dark bean well adapted as a substi-
tute for coffee. It is called the coffee bean.

The Chairman remarked that nearly all the ground coffee sold iS adulte-
rated with chicory, carrots, etc. It is the common practice of farmers and
others in the country, to mix burnt grain with the real coffee, or to use it
without the addition of any coffee berries. He would discourage the use
of rye, but believed that barley, wheat, and especially the bean now
exhibited, would make a very agreeable, and certainly a very healthy
beverage.

The peculiar effects of coffee on the nervous system cannot be obtained
from any of the substitutes named. Coffee acts very differently on diffe-
rent constitutions. It may be regarded as injurious to some, but it must
be admitted to be highly beneficial to others. He had known many aged
persons who claimed to be sustained almost entirely by coffee.- Talleyrand
and other statesmen who have attained great age, used this beverage very
freely. AVhile the drinking of strong coffee by the young should be -dis-
couraged, its use among those who have passed the meridian of life should
not be objected to, because it tends to check the destructive processes that
are constantly in operation in the human system, and the recuperative
processes are therefore not required to be so powerful, in other words the
body is constantly being rebuilt b}'- means of a less quantity of food.

Testing Illuminating Gas.

Dr. Parmelee said the discussion of the previous meeting had prompted
him to make a test before the audience of the gas now being used in the
lecture room. He had before him a bottle of Crotou water, and he pro-
posed to place in it acetate of lead. He would saturate a piece of white
paper with the salt, and expose it to a stream of the gas, and if there was
any appreciable quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen in it, the paper would
be blackened. He would also turn a stream of the gas into the solution.

44G TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

These tests were made by the speaker, which proved that the gas iu use
was nearly fret, from sulphuretted hydrogen.

Re-Cutting Files.

Mr. Watson said some persons were claiming that old files could be
renewed by means of sulphuric acid, he would enquire whether any one
present had tried the experiment.

Dr. Rowell said that many years ago he had seen it tried, but there was
no value in the process.

Mr. J. B. Root remarked the process had been tried bj' workmen in the
same establishment with him, and it was found that although the file was
bright and apparently sharpened, the edge did not remain five minutes
after it was put in use.

The Chairman then presented the following interesting items of scientific
news:

Indestructible Writing.

M. Lucas proposes for this purpo'^e an ink composed of 20 grains of
sugar dissolved in 30 grains of water, to which is added a few drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid. By heat the sugar becomes carbonized and
when applied to paper cannot be washed off, the stain being made more
permanent by the decomposing action of the acid. After the writing is
dry the paper should be passed through a weak alkaline solution to remove
any excess of acid.

Manufacture of Aluminum.

M. Basset, of Paris, has discovered several substitutes for the alkaline
metals used to decompose chloride of aluminum, which consist of those
metalloids and metals forming by double decomposition chlorides more
fusible and volatile than the chlorides of aluminum. Arsenic, borax,
cyanogen, zinc, antimony, mercur}', tin and the amalgams of autiinon}^,
zinc and tin may be used for this purpose.

Mr. Watson said this item of news reminded him of the great value of
aluminum bronze; a mixture of tin with from eight to ten per cent, of
aluminum, as a journal box where rapid rotation Avas required. It would
heat but very little. He had seen a wheel revolving *I,100 times a minute
which had journals quite cool to the touch. The wheel which he alluded
to was in the melodeon establishment of Carhart & Needham. He would
recommend this alloy for the journals of fan blowers which are driven at
very high velocity.

Rubidium.
Prof Bunsen, in his last account of experiments on this new metal of
the alkaline class, states it is more electro-positive than potassium. It
exhibits a flame similar to the latter metal when combining with the oxygen
of water, but it inflames much quicker in the air. Its specific gravity is
about 1.52, At 1-4 deg. P. it is soft as wax; at I0I-3 deg. F. it becomes
liquid, and at a red heat is transformed into bluish gray vapor. Its name
has reference to the peculiar red line found in its spectrum.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 447

A New Hydro-Carbon.

M. Bechamp lately announced to the French academy a new hydro-carbon
in coal-tar, liaving a boiling- point midway between that of Xylol and
Cuinol. If it is not a mixture of these it cannot belong to the same series,
for Xylol is CigHio and Cumol is CisHio. The first boils at 263 deg. ; the
second at 299 deg-. F.

The chairman added that there \f no link wanting in the series between
Xylul and Cumol, the increase being (aCH) he was, therefore, inclined to
believe the compound was a mixture of hydro-carbons already known.

Metallic Coatings.

M. AVeil explained before the French Academy of Sciences, bis prg-
cessess for covering metals with firmly adherent and bright layers of other
metals. The method C(msists in dipping the metal to be coated in a saline
solution of the metal to be deposited, rendered 'distinctly alkaline with
potash or soda, and mixed with organic matter, such as tartaric acid or
glycerine. In some cases it is necessary to set up, at the same time, a
weak Voltaic current by keeping a piece of zinc or lead in contact with the
metal. In this way iron or steel may be coated with copper, silver, nickel
and other metals. A curious fact mentioned is that a clean surface of cop-
per may be .coated with zinc by placing the two metals in contact in a
weak solution of caustic soda or potash. In the cold the deposit of zinc
takes place slowly, but at 100*' of heat very rapidly.

Hardening Cast Iron.

A patent has been issued for hardening the surface of iron castings.
When the piece is filed up and finished it is brought to a cherrj red heat,
and then immersed till quite cold in a solution composed of 1,080 grames
of sulphuric acid and 65 grames of nitric acid to 10 litres of water. The
iron is said to suffer no distortion.

Mechanism of the Watch.

A prize of one hundred and fifty dollars is offered by the British Horo-
logical Institute for the best " treatise on the detatched lever escapement
and its varieties." The essay must treat of the subject generally, giving
tables of the proportions of the various parts of the ordinary constructions,
and explain the effects of variations in these proportions, and the means of
retifying any discovered error. Various tools for effecting measurements
and for completing the escapement are also to be described. The essays
must be sent in before the 3d of March next.

Ink Used by Arabs.

M. Giiyon presented to the French academy a vegetable product used
by the African Arabs and called by them Semag. It is a resinous matter
exuded from the decayed parts of an arborescent species of Lentiscus, and
is doubtless some form of uhiin mixed with the gum resin of the plant.
This substance becomes intensely black after exposure to the light. When
mixed with mucilage it flows and works well, and resists almost every
agent that will not destroy paper.

448 transactions of the american institute.

Gunpowder as a Motor.

Ml'. Ewbaiik, late Commissioner of Patents, communicates to the Frank-
lin Journal his objections to compressed air and gunpowder as traveling'
forces. His remarks on gunpowder deserve especial attention. After
noticing the conflicting statements of tlie amount of force generated, he
says :

To whatever cause the discrepancies are to be ascribed, to variations in
the quantities of the powder, its filling or only partly filling the exploding
chamber, &c., there is enough in all conscience in the lowest estiniates to
lead mechanicians to inquire if this amazing agent, resistless as an ex-
ploding force, may not be converted into a quiet and efiicient working one'.
Hautefille, Huygens, and Papin attempted this in the seventeenth century,
and many more in the succeeding and the present one. Numerous notices
may be found in the Mechanical Journals, but I do not remember any par-
ticular description of the testing apparatus,- or any definite item of results.
Desirous of ascertaining if the force could be introduced as a substitute for
animals in rail cars at a moderate cost, I consulted my friend, Mr. James
Bogardus, whose mechanical knowledge and inventive resource have rarely
if ever been surpassed. The apparatus adopted was designed by him. It
is only necessary to refer to a part of it here.

Instead of receiving the explosive impulse on air, the most elastic and
durably elastic of ageiits, as suggested in the Patent Office Report of ISiQ,
the piston driven by the powder conlpressed a steel spring formed by bend-
ing to and fro, a bar, twenty feet long, two inches wide, and one-quarter
of an inch thick, into a series of short turns. The compressing force was
determined directly by a weight passing over a pulley and making addi-
tions to it as the compression proceeded along a finely graduated scale.
There could, therefore, be little or no mistake made in the amount of force
thus received and given out to the revolving mechanism. The cylinder,
or gun, was two inches bore and sixteen and a half inches long. The pis-
ton and rod were of one piece of metal, the latter one .and a half inches
square.

The experiments were interrupted by the death of ifr. Pornbach, killed
while packing a case of gun cotton. "VVe had tried ivhile powder and pre-
ferring it, were waiting a further supply from him. The delay in resuming
them is moreover due to the fact that the magic power ascribed to powder
in the books, and mining and military engineering, vanishes in the work-
shop.

The power of a single horse is commonly estimated at 33,000 lbs. raised
one foot per minute.

We found ten grains of powder only raised 250 lbs. one foot, hence 132
such charges, or 1,320 grains, were required to bring it up to horse power.
A pound contains 7,000, and they could hardly keep the engine going five
and one-third minutes. Eleven pounds and a half would be consumed in an
hour, and that at twenty cents per pound would amount to over §22 for a
working day of ten hours.

It should however be understood that from the construction of the testing
macliiu!?, a feeding channel and a small receptacle for the residuum were

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 449

exposed to tlie explosive impulse; and tlioug-h the small quantity of air
tliey contained gave back by expansion the compression received, there is
little doubt that the cifect on the piston would have been greater if there
had been no communication with tliese — that is, if the force had been solely
and strictly concentrated on the end of the piston. It was not intended to
give any statements respecting the experiments till they were concluded,
but on closing the remarks on Compressed Air, the opportunity seemed
appropriate fur a brief reference to them.

Mr. G. Hartlett said there appeared to be some miscalculations about the
power of gunpowder in the article read. He believed gun cotton to be
more expansive than gunpowder.

The Manufacture of Sugar.

The Chairman remarked that this subject had been lately very full^f dis-
cussed in its chemical bearings, a report of which will be found in the last
volume of our transactions. On the present occasion he hoped more time
would be given to explanations of the mechanism used in sugar manufac-
tories. He proposed to say a few words on

SACCIIARIMETRy.

The saccharometer used to determine the quantity of saccharine matter
in a fluid is the common hydrometer having a graduation suited to the
purpose. It is however essential to discover the quality or variety of the
sugar under examination. This was first successfully accomplished by M.
Soleil by means of polarized light. Many inorganic substances have the
power of rotating the plane of vibration of the polarized ray. The angle of
deviation is in proportion to the length of a column of the same solution of
cane sugar, and it follows that by using a column of the same length, any
variations in the plane of vibrations must be due to a difference in the
structure of the compound. Taking advantage of this fact, Soleil con-
structed a glass tube surrounded with a case to exclude the light and
closed at both ends with plate glass discs ground to fit water-tight and
pressed against the tube by means of screw caps. This tube he completely
filled with the saccharine liquid and placed it on supports between two
Kichol's prisms, one serving as a polarizer through which the ray passes
into the liquid, the other being the eye-piece through which the observa-
tion was made, and to this was attached a graduated circle having a ver-
nier which moved in a vertical plane. The most exact measurements are
made by noting the disappearance of what is known as the transition tint,
the purple, because the change of this to the red on one hand or the violet
on the other is very sudden. This tint is pi'oduced by interposing quartz
3.75 millimeters thick, a double plate is used, one-half being composed of
right-handed and the other half of left handed quartz. When the rotary
power of the liquid under examination is considerable, an error arises
which is obviated by what is called a compensator. In order to determine
the strength of a solution, it is necessary that the solution contain only one
substance, and that the quantity present be proportioned to the angle of
rotation ; that rotation of the red ray be known for one degree of concen-
tratiitn. Some substances rotate the plane of polarization to the right,
[Am. Inst.] C*

450 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

others to the left ; the first are called right-handed and the second left-
handed.

With this brief description let us examine a few of the results obtained
in relation to sugars and some allied bodies :

1. Suc7'ose or Cane Sugar. — C12 Hn Oii — It crystalizes in four or six-
sided rhomboidal prisms and fuses at about 320° F. It produces right-
handed rotation=to 73° 8.

2. Inverted Cane Sugar — from many recent fruits-formula, C12 Hia O12.
It is not crystalizable and produces left-handed rotation =: 26" at 59° F.

3. Glucose or Grape Sugar, C12 H12 O12 -f 2 IIO, is obtained from dried fruits
or from starch altered by acids. It produces right-handed rotation = 51''
4. It crystalizes in cubes or square tables.

4. Lacto.se, or sugar of milk, C24 Hiq O19 + 5 IIO. It crystalizes in four-
sided prisms and produces right rotation, equal to 56° 4.

5. Trehaloze or Turkish manna, the product of an insect — formula, C12H11
Oil -|- 2 HO. Crystalizes in brilliant rectangular octohedra and produces
right-handed rotation = 220°.

6. Mgcose, from the ergot of rye, C12II11O11 -f 2 IIO. Crystalizes in
rhombic prisms and produces right-handed rotation = 266°.

7. Melezitose, from larch manna; C12 Hii On -\- aq. Crystalizes in short
rhomboidal prisms; produces right-handed rotation = 94° 1.

8. Melitoae, from the Eucalyptus (of the myrtle family), C24II24O24 -\- 4 HO.
Crystalizes in slender p^i-isms and produces right-handed rotation = 102°.

9. Sorbin, from berries of service tree; C12 H12 O12. Crystalizes in octo-
hedra with rectangular base; exerts left-handed rotation == 49° 9.

10. Inosin, from muscular tissue; C12 H12 O12 -f.4 HO. Crystalizes in
radiated tufts and has no power on polarized light.

Sugar-Making in Cuba.

Mr. Brewster, who had been engaged for several years in manufacturing
sugar on the island of Cuba, gave an interesting description of the process.

THE CANE.

There are two kirids of cane, the sweet and the crystaline. The sweet
contains the most juice and the crystaline the most sugar. Tlie cutting
commences about this time of year. There is a dry season in Cuba of two
or three months, beginning about the first of January, and if this dry sea-
son did not occur sugar could not be made on a large scale. However
perfect the cane may be, if two or three rains fall upon it the sugar all goes
down into the roots, and the cane must be left over till the next season.
After the cane is cut the roots remain alive, and throw up sprouts the next
year, so that the planting has to be done only once in several years. Some
fields are planted once in three or fourj^ears, but the average is about once
in seven years. I have been in a field that had not been planted in 28
years, and the canes were an inch and a half in diameter and twenty feet
high.

THE MILLS.

The juice is expressed by passing the cane between iron rollers driven
by steam engines. Three rollers are employed, making two spaces through

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 451

■which the cane passes; the first of these spaces is about five-eighths of an
inch in thickness, while the second is not thicker than a case-knife. In the
larg'e mills the rollers are some six feet in length; the longest that I ever
saw wore seven feet six inches. A trough, of a width equal to the length
of the rollers, extends back from the mill 100 feet, and into this the cane is
thrown to the depth of about eight inches by a gang of negroes standing
along on each side. The mill takes out from 15 to 85 per cent of the weight
of the cane; the juice running off in quite a brook. The woody matter
remaining, the begasse, as it is called, is used after being dried in the sun,
as fuel for driving the engine. Some of the sugar mills in Cuba have cost
$250,000 each.

THE BOILING.

Four boilers are used for evaporating the water from sugar. The first
holds 600 gallons, the second 400, and the other two 300 gallons each. As
the juice is boiled down, a scum rises on the surface, and is skimmed oif.
After the liquor reaches a certain density, as measured by a saccharometer,
it is dipped out by ladles into the next boiler, where the process is repeated.
In the last boiler it is concentrated to the granulating point.

THE GRANULATING.^

When properly condensed the syrup is poured into conical moulds simi-
lar to those used in the refineries of this city, only larger. The molasses
drains ou<t at the bottom of the mould, leaving the sugar. It is customary
to cover the sugar in the moulds with a layer of moist clay, the weight of
which aids in forcing out the molasses and purifying the sugar.

THE PRODUCT.

Many estates in Cuba now turn out an article of really refined sugar, the
mills being supplied with everything to be found in a New York refinery.

MAKING SUGAR FI#M MOLASSES.

Dr. Rich. — I am told that a good deal of sugar is now made in this city
from molasses. The molasses yields some 30 or 40 per cent of a second
quality sugar, leaving a very inferior quality of molasses.

CENTRIFUGAL EXTRACTERS.

Dr. Rowell. — In some of the refineries the molasses is separated from the
sugar by centrifugal force. A drum, the periphery of which is formed of
fine wire cloth, is caused to rotate with great velocity, and on placing the
concentrated syrup in this drum, the molasses is thrown out through the
meshes of the cloth, while the sugar is retained within the drum.

Mr. Brewster. — These machines are in general use, both in our city re-
fineries and on the Cuba plantations. It is the common method of remov-
ing the molasses. Some of the large mills have a dozen centrifugals. I
have seen one that would hold 600 pounds of sugar, and the molasses was
completely removed from this mass in fifteen minutes.

Sugar from Grain.

Mr. Bartlett. — Considerable excitement has been raised in relation to the
new process for obtaining a large quantity of sugar from corn. It is well
known that starch, when treated with sulphuric acid, yields grape sugar.

452 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The new process as patented is siraply the mixing of cane sugar with the
glucose or grape sugar.

Improvements in the manufacture of Glucose Sugar.

The following article from the London Mechanic's Magazine describes
the process patented by Mr. A. Maubre, of London :

Glucose sugar is now commonly produced by boiling starch or fecula
diluted in water acidulated with sulphuric acid. Open lead and wooden
vessels are generally employed in this process. Close vessels provided
■with open escaping steam pipes are, however, used for the purpose of
hastening the saccharification of starch by heating the mixture to a few
degrees higher than 212 deg. Fah., and also to turn the steam into account
by making use of it for other purposes. When the starch or fecula is found
to be saccharified, sulphuric acid is neutralized by carbonate of lime diluted
in water; the saccharified liquid is then drawn off and conveyed through
bag and charcoal filters, and evaporated until it has acquired the proper
degree of consistency required for obtaining sugar in a state of syrup or
in a hard state. It is then cooled and supplied to the trade. In malyng
glucose sugar in the above manner, a quantity varying from 20 to 50 per
cent, of gummy matter is produced, which lessens the value of the sugar
when it is to be used for producing brandy, alcohol, vinegar, or for fer-
menting purposes, whilst the essential oil and empyreumatic fatty matters
which have been dissolved during the operation of saccharification, remain
combined with the glucose, imparting to it a bitter and empyreumatic
taste, which empyreumatic taste is also imparted to the alcohol, brandy,
vinegar, beer and other beverages, when manufactured and produced from
such sugar, either used alone or jointly with malt or other matter.

NoAv, according to this invention, glucose sugar is produced, commer-
cially called grape and starch su^r, free from gum, also from bitter and
empyreumatic tastes, by treating and submitting starch or fecula diluted
in water acidulated with sulphuric acid to the action of a high degree of
heat, the minimum temperature employed being not less than 215 deg. Fah.,
but 320 deg. Fah. being preferable, as the process is thereby quickened, by
which means the whole conversion or transformation of gum into sugar is
obtained; and the essential oil and empyreumatic fatty matters are vapo-
rized and eliminated, which are distilled off out of the converting or sac-
charifying apparatus. The apparatus preferable to use for getting up the
high degree of heat required to perform the improved process, is a kind of
boiler called a converter — its shape and form are similar to a high pressure
steam boiler. It is made of strong wrought iron, capable of resisting a
pressure of 90 pounds to the square inch (six atmospheres), and is lined
inside with lead to prevent corrosion, and outside is covered with a jacket,
a space of four inches being left between the jacket and the converter,
which interval is filled up with sand or any other non-conducting matter to
prevent radiation of heat. The converter is further provided inside with a
perforated lead steam pipe, through which steam passes and blows up into
the mixture for heating it. It is also provided at its top with a pipe fur-
nished with a cock, through which diluted starch may gradually be intro-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 453

ducod into the converter; also with safety valves, steam gauge, water
gauge, thermometer, pipe for escape of steam, exit cock at bottom, and a
worm or distilling pipe, through which the high pressure steam is allowed
to blow off out of the converter, carrying with it the essential oil and em-
pyreiimatic fatty matters vaporized ai^d gasified by the action of the high
temperature to whicli the mixture is submitted.

In carrying out the process of converting starch or fecula into glucose
sugar, according to this invention, it is preferable to employ the starch
or fecula, sulphuric acid and carbonate of lime in the following proportions:
2,240 lbs. (one ton) of starch or fecula; 1,120 gallons of water, being five
times the weight of starch or fecula; 112 lbs. of sulphuric acid, being five
per cent, of the weight of the starch; 168 lbs. of purified carbonate of lime,
being 7i per cent, of the weight of the starch.

The manner in which the process is conducted is as follows: Place in
the converter above described 56 lbs, of sulphuric acid of 156 deg. density,
diluted with 560 gallons of water- the mixture is then to be heated up to
212 deg, Fah. During the heating of the acidulated water in the converter,
place into an open wood vessel, which ma}' be called a diluting vat, pro-
vided with steam pipe, let-out cock, and with stirring apparatus, the other
660 gallons of water, in which is aiso to be diluted the other 56 lbs. of sul-
phuric acid, which acidulated water is also heated up to S5 deg. Fah.; as
8oon as this temperature of 85 deg. Fah. is attained, gradually pour into
the said diluting vat the 2,240 lbs. (one ton) of starch or fecula, stirring
the mixture well, and raise the temperature to 100 deg. Fah., the stirring
maintHined the whole time. Then gradually pour the diluted starch heated
at 100 deg. into the converter, in which the acidulated water is kept boil-
ing, continuing to blow in steam in order to keep the temperature in the
mixture throughout this part of the process to its original heat of 212 deg.
Fah.

Wiien the whole of the diluted starch is introduced into the converter
shut off the cock of tlie pipe through which the diluted starch has been
conveyed into the converter, and then continue to blow in steam so as to
raise the temperature in the mixture up to 320 deg. Fahrenheit, equivalent
to a pressure of six atmospheres,, or 90 lbs. per square inch. When this
temperature of 320 deg. Faiirenheit is attained, open the cock of the worm
or distilling pipe through which the steam escapes, carrying away out of
the converter the essential and empyrcumatic fatty matters which vaporize
and gasify at about 270 deg. Fahrenheit; hence by heating and maintain-
ing the temperature in the mixture to the higher degree of 320 deg. Fah-
renheit, not only are the said vaporized and gasified essential oil and empy-
rcumatic fatty matters readily distilled off, separated and got rid of, but also
the whole of the gum converted into glucose sugar is obtained, which con-
version takes place at th(^eraperature of about 2T5 deg. Fahrenheit. Con-
tinue to heat and maintain the temperature of 320 deg. Fahrenheit in the
mixture, until by testing with iodine all the starch is found to be converted,
and further, until by testing with silicate of potash or acetate of lead, it
is found that there is no dextrine or gum in the saccharified liquid. For
the purpose of testing proceed as follows: Draw off out of the converter
a sample of the mixture, then neutralize the sulphuric acid, pass it through

454 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

a small hag of charcoal filter, and when cool, submit it to the test of the
above described re-agents. The process of conversion or saccharification
lasts from two to four hours, according to quality and purity of the starch
or fecula. When the whole of the starch and gum is found to be thoroughly
saccharified or converted into sugar, then draw the mixture into another
open wood vessel, which is called a neutralizing vat, provided with stirring
apparatus and let-out cock, and proceed to the neutralization of the sul-
phuric acid by gradually pouring into the said neutralizing vat the 168
lbs. of purified carbonate of lime diluted in 50 gallons of watei', stirring
the liquid to hasten the neutralization and the escape of carbonic acid pro-
duced during the operation. The neutralized saccharified liquid is then
permitted to settle for from two to four hours, during which period almost
all the sulphate of lime is deposited at the bottom of the neutralizing vat.
The saccharified liquid, is then drawn off and received into an open iron
copper, called a precipitating pan, to proceed to the precipitation of the
sulphate of lime, which remains in solution, and combined with the sac-
charified liquid. For that purpose introduce carbonic acid gas or oxalate
of ammonia into the said liquid, and the sulphate of lime is pi'ecipitated
and separated as carbonate or oxalate. Then pass the saccharified liquid
through bag filters and receive it into an evaporating pan in which it is
evaporated until it gets the consistency of syrup, viz., a density of 20 deg.
of Baume's saccharometer; then draw the said syimp into a clarifying
pan, called a blow-up pan, to be purified. For that purpose pour in and
mix with the syrup a more or less quantity of calcined blood and charcoal
powder, according to the impurity of the syrup, when by heating it up to
about 180 deg. Fahrenheit, foreign matters will coagulate and deposit at
the bottom. Then convey the said clarified syrup through bag filters, then
through charcoal, and receive into a baking pan, in which it is evaporated
and concentrated until it gets a density of 38 deg. Baume's saccharometer
for producing glucose sugar in a state of syrup, and until it gets a density
of 38 deg. Baume, for producing glucose sugar in a state of solidity or
hardness. Then cool the glucose sugar and put it into any kind of cask,
or otherwise for the use of the trade. Glucose sugar produced by the
above improved process, is quite pure, free from gum, acid, sulphate of
lime, and from bitter and empyreumatic tastes. Its properties and chemi-
cal composition are identical to those of grape and malt sugars. It will,
therefore, be found economical and advantageous in producing beer, ale,
porter, alcohol, brar.dy, gin, cider, vinegar, wine, ginger beer, liquors, &c.
After selecting as the subjects for the next discussion " The Manufacture
of Bisulphide of Carbon, Ether and Chloroform," the Association adjourned.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, )

Dec. 29, 1864. )
Prof. S. D. Tillman, Chairman; B. Garvey, Secretary.

Railroad Screw Spike.

Prof. C. Mason exhibited a model of a railroad screw spike which elicited
some debate, after which the Chairman read the following memoranda of
science and art;

proceedings of the polytechnic association. 455

Soda Salts.

The reactions wliicli take place in the celebrated process of Leblanc for
manufacturing' soda have never been fully and satisfactorily explained. M.
Scheurin Keshner now states that the reactions in the formation of black
ash or impure carbonate of soda, pass through three phases. In the first,
sulphate of soda is reduced to sulphide of sodium, carbonic acid being
given oil' — 10 atoms of sulphate and 20 of carbon, giving 10 of the sulphide
and 20 of carbonic acid; then a double decomposition takes place between
the sulphide of sodium and carbonate of lime; and lastly a partial decom-
position of the carbonate of lime employed iu excess is effected by carbon,
carbonic oxide being- disengaged. Tliis reduction is arrested by the cool-
ing of the mass. The quantity of carbon required is nearly 20 to 100
parts of sulphate of sodium, but an addition of excess of chalk is a,lways
desirable.

Crystalline Pictures.

M. Kuhlman, in a communication to the French Academy, refers to the
crj'stalization on glass of saline solutions thickened with gum. Barbers
and others ornament their windows by the use of sulphate of magnesia,
but the most beautiful effects are obtained twith the sulphate of zinc, and
the appearance, is improved bj'' painting over the crystalization with an
alcoholic solution of some coloring matter such as fuchsine. As these pic-
tures are very instable he has applied photography in copying them. He
also tried the galvano-plastic method for reproducing them so as to be able
to print them on paper or fabrics. He obtained the crystalization upon a
thin plate of copper, and copied it by pressing this plate on another by
means of powerful rollers. He suggests pressing gutta percha on glass
plates covered with crystals and electrotyping the mold. He exhibited
also a specimen of ornamentation iu gold and silver which is proposed as a
substitute for the ordinary chasing used on ornaments made of these metals.
The author stated that no two crystalizations were precisely alike. They
can only be copied by photography, for the fineness of the designs would
defy the burin of the most skillful engraver. He therefore proposes that
designs obtained in the waj- described on copper plates be used for bank
notes. If printed with pale blue' ink on a bright yellow ground, the photo-
grapher and the engraver would both fail to produce a counterfeit.

An Iron Letter.

The Birmingham (England) Journal announces the reception of a letter
by the last American mail, remarkable both as a documentary curiosity,
and as a specimen of manufacturing skill. It is written on iron rolled so
thin that the sheet is onl}- twice the weight of a similar sheet of ordinary
note paper. The letter is dated " South Pittsburg (Pennsylvania), Novem-
ber 6, 1864," and says: "In the number of your paper dated October 1,
J 864, there is an article setting forth that John Brown & Co., of the Atlas
Works, iSlieflield, had succeded in rolling a plate of iron 13| inches thick.
I believe that to be the thickest plate ever rolled. I send you this speci-
men of iron made at the Sligo Ironworks, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, as the
thinnest iron ever rolled in the world up to this time, which iron I challenge

456 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

all England to surpass for strength and tenuity. This, I believe, will bo
the first iron letter that ever crossed the Atlantic Ocean. Yours, &c., John
C. Evans." The Journal says: The iron is said to be of exceedingly fine
quality', and the sheet is by far the thinnest ever seen in this country. The
letter will be deposited in tlie museum of tlie Midland Institute. Tested
by one of Holtzappfel's gauges the thickness of the sheet is found to be the
one-thonsandth part of an inch. A sheet of Belgian iron, supposed hitherto
to be the thinnest yet rolled, is the 666th part of an inch thick, and the
thickness of an ordinary sheet of notepaper is about the 400th of an inch.

Sunshine in Scotland.

The meteorological returns from various stations in Scotland from the
year 1857 to 1863, inclusive, show that the average hours of sunshine per
diem was a little mere than four and a half hours. The sunniest month of
the year in three instances was May, in three instances June, and in two
instances July,

The African Scorpion.

Dr. Guyon, in a communication to the French Academy of Sciences, says
the sting of this insect (the Androetonus funestus) is not so fatal as many
suppose. Of grown persons scarcely one in a hundred die from the sting.
Children are more liable to die than adults. Those stung on or near the
head are in the greatest danger.

The Long Bridge at Washington.

This bridge, 4,046 in length, has just been completed. It has two draws
of 75 feet long each, so constructed as to be opened and closed in two
minutes. The cost of this bridge is only about $150,000.

Gold in Connecticut.

Dr. Keith, the mineralogist, has discovered a vein of gold on a tract of
land owned by him in Greenwich, Conn., which he is now working. One
piece of the precious metal taken out is valued at $600. The same piece
of land was formerly mined for copper.

Great Bridge over the Seine.

The Western France Railway Company are constructing a bridge over
the Seine 933 feet long and 45 feet wide. It will rest on five cast iron
piers 166 feet apart.

Storage for Explosive Materials.

At St. Ouen, near Paris, a large iron floating-duck or boat has been
launched on the canal. It is divided into 100 compartments in which are
to be stored dangerous volatile fluids. It is 210 feet long, 36 feet wide,
and 18 feet high. Ten similar floating-docks are to be built immediately.

The Great Pyramid.

Prof Smith, tlie astronomer royal of Scotland, is about to investigate
the metrology of this remarkable structure. He will take with him mag-

PROCiEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 457

nesium wire for the produ'etion of light in the interior by whicli to plioto-
graph the mysterious inner chamber and coffer.

Anthracite for Locomotives.

On the Pennsylvania and Heading Railroad a great number of experi-
ments prove that a locomotive drawing an average train of six cars, weight
80 tons, over a road 95 miles long, having an average grade of 6.16 feet
per mile, at an average speed of nearly 26 niiles an hour, will consume in
the trip only 23 lbs. per mile of anthracite coal. Twenty-two stoppages
were made in each trip, with the " exhaust" and " throttle" wide open ;
the speed of the engine being regulated by the reverse lever. By slight
modifications almost any engine can be made into a coal-burner, and thus
the smoke nuisance can be entirely abated.

Mr. E, Stevens said the higli price of coal at the present time has driven
railroad companies in New England to the use of wood. The census
reports show a large increase in the amount of wood grown in Xew England.

The selected subjects were then taken up.

The Manufacture of Bisulphide of Carbon.

Dr. Parmelee stated that about 850.000 worth of bisulphide of carbon ia
used annually in the United States. It is a powerful solvent of India rub-
ber and other gums, and being very volatile, is easily removed from the
solution. It is remarkably transparent, and has extraordinary powers of
refracting light; these two properties have recommended its use for lenses
in optical instruments.

It is a chemical compound of carbon and sulphur, in the proportion of
two equivalents of sulphur to one of carbon, C Ss, which is in the propor-
tion of 6 pounds of carbon to 32 of sulphur ; the atomic weight of carbon
being 6 and of sulphur 16. To effect the combination it is only necessary
to bring the two elements in contact at a bright red heat, the atmospheric
air and other matters being excluded. Charcoal is heated in a close vessel,
and brimstone in small lumps is dropped in upon it. The sulphur is evapo-
rated, and as the vapor comes in contact with the incandescent coal,
chemical combination takes place in the proportion stated.

As the bisulphide of carbon boils at 110°, it is of course in the state of
vap(jr in the heated vessel where it is formed, but it' is reduced to tlie liquid
state by passHig it through c<jndensers. When first formed it is mingled
with the vapor of sulphur and with sulphuretted hydrogen, but may be
purified from these.

Tiie .speaker then made drawings on the blackboard of the apparatus
which he had employed on a large scale in manufacturing the bisulphide
of carbon, but these could be reproduced only by elaborate engravings.

Manufacture of Chloroform.

The Chairman gave a short description of the mode of making chloroform,
and stated that he was pleased to learn thatthe first that was ever pro-
duced in the world was made in this country, thus completing our claim to
the discovery of anaesthesia — the greatest discovery in medicine that has
ever been made. It iti admitted that nitrous oxide and ether were first

458 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

employed in this country as antesthctics, but as Dr. Simpson, of Edinburgh,
substituted chloroform for ctlier in 1847, the English and Scotch lay claim
to the discovery. But Samuel Guthrie, of Sackett's Harbor, in this State,
discovered chloroform in 1831. Professor Ives, of New Haven, first admin-
istered it by inhalation in January, 1832, as a curative agent.

It is a compound of carbon, hj'drogen and chlorine, in the proportion
C2, II CI3. Guthrie obtained it by distilling a miKturc of alcohol and chlo-
ride of lime, and subsequently rectifying the product.

Ether.

The Chairman said ether is now usually made by mixing together equal
weights of alcohol of sp. gr. 830 and concentrated sulphuric acid. On sub-
jecting it to distillation in a large retort and a suitable condenser, the
ether passes over mixed with water and a small portion of alcohol. By
keeping the retort filled to the proper level by pouring in alcohol, the pro-
cess may go on until thirty times the quantity of alcohol originally mixed
has been converted into ether. The fact of using sulphuric acid in this
process has given rise to the misnomer, sulphuric ether. It is more pro-
perly called ethylic ether, because it is a formed on the water tj'pe by sub-
stituting two atoms of ethyl for two of hj-drogen — water and ether being

represented thus : tt ( O2 : /-1'* rr"' [ 0?

As a small quantity of sulphuric acid is sufficient to convert a very large
quantity of alcohol into ether, many explanations have been offered as to
the cause of this change. Liebig divides the conversion into two stages,
by the first sulphcthylic acid is formed ; by the second, this sulphethylic
acid, when brought in combination with more alcohol, is converted into
sulphuric acid and ether. The last reaction returns the original sulphuric
acid to the mixture, when it is prepared to undergo the first change. The
theory of Liebig is now generally received by chemists ; although Berzelius
and others, finding the sulphethylic acid formed and decomposed under the
same conditions, prefer to explain the change by the action of what is
called the catalytic force of sulphuric acid, thus keeping us reall}' still in
the dark, as no one can yet throw light upon the nature of this contact-
action

Tlie combinations of ether and etln'l with many chemical elements and
compounds are too extensive to be embraced within the limits allotted to
this discussion. Many interesting experiments have recently been made
with ethyl in combination with a metal which are worthy of the study of
those who aim to keep pace with the great chemical advances made in our
own da3^ On motion adjourned.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, )
January 5th, 18G4. )

Prof. S. D. Tillman, presiding; Mr. B. Garve}', Secretary.

Frosting Glass.

Mr. Maddock presented a specimen of glass covered with an artificial
frost work, produced by the use of Epsom salts and sugar.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION.

459

A Specimen of Microscopic Engraving.

The chairman oxhibiLed an cng-raving of the Declaration of Independence
of precisely the size of a silver dime. It was engraved on steel by au
Irish artist, then in the employ of (lie Bank Note Company, but since
deceased. Kfac aimile of the signatures of the committee who drafted the
instrument was api)ended by means of a pantograph. To read the instru-
ment required the aid of a very strong magnifying glass.

The Chairman, instead of his usual scientific summary, presented the
following statistical tables, made up to the close of the year 1864.

Railroads of the United States, Jan. 18G5.

Recapitulation of Annual Statement of thfi American Railroad Journal, Jan. 7, 18C5.

States, etc.

Maine 64ii,69

New Ilampsliire 687,7.'{

Vermont 5S(>,17

Massachusetts 1,'.'AH,bo

Khode Island 151,74

Connecticut 7 1 5,07

New York .",,570,92

New Jersey 1,001,25

Pennsylvania 4,32.3,01

Delaware 182,59

Maryland and District of Columbia 099,40

West Virginia .301,. 00

Kentucky 898,40

Ohio .3,954,3.3

Michigan 1,614,50

Indiana 2,482,50

Illinois 3,000,70

"Wisconsin 1,44.9,70

Minnesota 1,584,00

Iowa 2,037,10

Missouri 1,412,39

Kansas 360,00

California 028,98

Oregon 19,50

Mileage-
Total. Completed.
509,37

Total in Loyal States.

34,310,62

Virginia 2,054,48

North C.-iroiina 1,352,42

South Carolina 1,072,93

Georgia 1,635, 23

Florida 586,50

Alabama 1,434,70

Mis.-issippi 1, 072, 12

Tennessee 1,392,49

Arkansas 701,33

Louisiana 838,00

Texas 2,787,00

Total in Rebel States 14,927,20

Grand Total 49,237,82

659,32
580,17

1,280,93
119.24
635,07

2,869,47
836,27

3,610,29
126,90
467,30
361,50
564,20

3,389,65
874,22

2,199,40

3,119,40

1,045,20
161,00
804,80
925,75
40,00
147,.39
19,50

25,372,25

1,378,70
977,30
988,93

1,421,22
401,50
891,16
867,12

1,317,78

38,50

.335,75

451,50

9,069,46

34,411,71

Cost of Road

and Equipment.

$18,297,035

22,572,830

23,841,120

68,979,200

4,571,496

22,097,496

135,023,240

38,904,372

169,184,691

4,548,850

23,847,123

22,120,393

20,877,180

121,147,588

36,130,307

71,318,673

117,375,523

41,880,302

7,700,000

27,715,052

51,187,275

1,400,000

7,870,000

500,000

$1,050,356,406

§45,146,843
19,308,018
22,423,690
29,169,513

8,628,000
21,351,102
24,112,507
33,967,478

5,800,000
13,527,664
16,509,772

$237,054,587

$1,287,310,993

Tears.

1820.
1827.
1828.
1829.
1830.
1831.
1832.
1833 .
1834.
1835.

PROGRESS OP RAILROADS.

Table showing the mileage of railroads iu operation near the 1st January yearly.

Miles.

3

3

3

28

41

64

131

576

762

918

Years.

1836.

1 837 .

1838.

1839.

1840.

1841.

1842.

1H43.

1844,

1845.

Miles. Years. Miles. Years. Milea.

1,102[1846 4,870 1856 19,251

1,421 I 1847 5,336 1857 22,625

1,843 1848 5,682 1858 26,090

1,920 1849 6,350 1859 26,755

2,19711850 7,475 1860 23,771

3,319 1851 8,589 1861 30,493

3,87711852 11,02711862 31,769

4,174 I 1853 13,497 1 1863 32,471

4,311 1854 15,672|1864 3.3,800

4,i22|l855 17,398 1865 33,442

460 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The total mileag-e of city passengers railroads is about 180 inilea, with
about 1,000 miles of track. Including these, the aggregate length of rail-
roads in the United States is upwards of 35,000 miles, or one mile to every
1,000 inhabitants.

1864. Railroad Accidents.

During the year 1864 there have been 140 accidents; 404 persons killed,
and 1,283 wounded. This list does not include accidents to individuals,
caused by their own carelessness or design. Compared with the preceding
year the casualties have nearly doubled.

1864. Steamboat Accidents.

Number of accidents on steamboats, exclusive of those persons killed in
naval engagements or by their own carelessness, for thft year 1864, is 26,
The number of wounded, 143; of killed, 358, being an increase of more
than twenty-five per cent over the accidents in 1863,

Imports at New York.

Total imports of woolen goods for 1864, $31,411,965 ; of cotton goods,
$8,405,946; of silk, $16,194,080; of flax, $11,621,831; of miscellaneous dry
goods, $3,956,630; the sum total being $71,589,752, and in round numbers
exceeding by $4,000,000 the imports of 1863. The total imports of foreign
merchandise at New York, for the year 1864, is $214,604,238, being an
increase over the total of 1863,

Losses by Fire in the Loyal States.

The following table shows tlie losses b}^ fires during each month, com-
pared with those of the year 1863:

/ 1863, , , 1864, >

Months. Fires. Losses. Fires. Losses.

January 8 $490,000 21 $1,050,000

February 18 1,203,000 35 4,240.000

March 11 1,150,000 20 1,985,000

April 11 786,000 20 1,536,000

May 13 1,333,000 19 1,947,000

June « 8 668,000 23 1,856,000

July 8 1.461,000 37 7,060,000

August •• 8 1,065,000 17 1,105,000

September 18 1,423,000 28 2,235,000

October 13 1,060,000 23 2,080,000

November 7 646,000 . -21 1,230.000

December 24 2,997,000 20 1,600,000

Total 150 $14,000,000 294 $28,622,000

The following table gives the losses by fire in the United States from the

year 1854 to 1863 inclusive:

Year. Losses. Year. Losses.

1854 $20,578,000 1859 $16,058,000

1855 13,040,000 1860 , 16,597,000

1856 21,159,000 1861 18,020,000

1857 15,792,000 1802 17,640,000

1853 11,661,000 1363 14,060,000

Total $163,505,000

proceedings of the polytechnic association. 461
Commerce of New York.

ARRIVALS AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK DURING 18G4.

We do not g-ive the nationalities of the vessels arriving- during 1864, for
the reason tliat a large number of Americans are temporarily sailing under
foreign flags:

Vessels. 1863. 1864.

Steamships 364 402

Ships 774 588

Barks 1,238 1,143

Brigs 1,695 1,578

Schooners ! 1,011 1,098

Total 5,082 4,809

The number of passengers arriving during 1854, was 198,342

Transactions in Gold at New York.

The receipts of gold at this port for the last ten years, compare as
follows:

1S61 $12,952,967

1863 11,847,286

1862 24,882,846

1861 34,379,647

18G0 33,499,400

1S59 39,975,750

1858 31,179.344

1857 34,222,903

1856 40,319,929

1855 41,682,524

The monthly receipts of gold at the New York Custom House in 1864,
were as follows:

1864. 1863.

January $6,180,536 $4,127,607

February 7,474,228 3,590,714

March 5,659.771 4,554,461

April.. 13,982,666 3,857.198

May 3,885,187 3,873,866

June 3,311,148 3,738,934

July 3.585.848 4,912,718

August 6,2:i7,364 6,332,334

September 4,084,492 7,270,543

October ; 3,670,188 6,2:i8,943

November 3,456,156 5,075,846

December 3,467,368 5,248,189

Total ; $66,993,842 $58,921,638

Increase $8,072,204

It will be observed that while the receipts of the early months were
largely in excess of those of tlie business year, the amount for the closing
months were much below the same periods of 1863. For the last four
months of 1863, the receipts were S23,833,52i; for the same months of
last year, the aggregate was only 614^677,204, or at the rate of $42,000,-
000 per annum.

The export of specie from New York for the past and twelve preceding
years, has been as follows:

1864 $50,113,809 1857 $44,.360,174

1863 49,754,066 1856 37,326,297

1862.. 59,437,021 1855 27,671,813

1861 4,216,250 1854 37,157,288

I860 42,161,909 1853 26,753,356

1859 G9,64S,528 1852 24,912,345

1858 25,973,006

462 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The following amounts of gold have been paid at the Sub-Treasury in
this city as interest upon tiie funded debt of the United States during
1864:

January $3,156,904 July , $l,881,n00

Februry ],n4-,602 August 2,103,784:

March 253,116 September 3,113,699

April 5,195,731 October 1,895,006

May 4,951.898 November 4,032,956

June 2,261,772 December 3,163,406

Total at New York $33,126,874

Gold interest not called for 5,231,726

Paid and appropriated at New York $38,358,600

Canals of New York.

TIDE WATER RECEIPTS OF PRODUCE.

The quantity of flour, wheat, corn and barley left at tide water, from the
commencement of navigation to the 8th of December, close thereof, during
the years 1863. and 1864, was as follows:

Flour, bu. AVheat, bu. Corn, bu. Barley, bu.

1863 1,560,000 22,206,900 20,603,600 3,190,500

1864 1,184,300 15,465,600 10,352,400 3,045,900

376,500 6,741,300 10,251,200 144,000

By reducing the wheat to flour, the quantity of the latter left at tide
water this year, compared with the corresponding period last year, shows
a deficiency equal to 1,724,160 bbls. flour.

The following comparative table shows the -quantity of some of the
principal articles of produce at tide water from the commencement of
navigation to the close thereof, in the years indicated:

1862. 1863. 1864.

Canal opened .• May 1. May 1. April 30.

Flour bbls , 1,828,500 1,560,800 1,184,300

AVheat, bu 32,669,900 22,207,900 15,465,600

Corn 23,709,800 20,613,600 10,352,000

Barley 2,662,700 3,190,500 8,401,900

Oats 5, 941), 000 12,437,500 12,177,509

Rye 7,000,000 470,500 620,300

Beef,bbls ,.. 71,900 87,200 75,700

Pork 169,800 232,200 53,300

Bacon, lbs 6,732.000 3,711,500 579,600

Butter 6.028,000 5,171,500 1,327,800

Lard 10,200,000 20,776,100 2,614,800

Cheese 13,700,000 9,614,000 4,298,900

Wool 1,760,000 429,200 1,226,100

R. G. Dun §- Co.'s Statistical Table, showing the Estimated
Wealth of the Merchants, Manufacturers and Traders
Throughout the Northern States.

states and Principal Cities. Business Houses. Wealth.

Connecticut 5,832 $145,588,000

Delaware 1,150 . 24,701,000

District of Columbia 1,282 17,448,000

Illinois 12,215 207,568,000

Indiana 8,512 134,240,000

Iowa 6,052 38,532,000

•Kansas 433 3,357,000

♦Kentucky 1,528 39,559,000

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 463

States and Principal Citic?. Business Houses. WeaUh.

•Louisiana (New Orleans only) 802 SO, 794, 000

Maine 4,982 99,298,000

Maryland 3,665 102,359,000

Massachusetts 17,302 868,81 5,000

Micliigan 5,934 83,943,000

•Missouri 3.263- 81,334,000

Minnesota , 979 7,602.000

New Hampshire •. . . 2,851 38,085,000

New Jersey 5,910 90,250,000

New York 36,932 1,677,204,000

Ohio 17,005 310,725,000

Pcnn.sylvania 22,941 , 733,296,000

Rhode Island 2,487 115.704,000

Vermont 2,494 19,989,000

WiscoDsia 5,369 53,775,000

Total , 168,925 $4,944,766,000

Export of Petroleum in 1864.

Tho following statement shows tlio export of petroleum to all parts of
the world :

1864. 1863.

From New York galls. 21,288,499 19,547,604

The following is the quantity exported from other ports, Jan. 1 to Dec. 31 :

1864. 1863.

From Boston galls. 1,696,307 2,049,431

From Thiliulelphia 7,760,148 5,595,738

From Bnltimore 929,971 915,866

From Portland 70,762 342,082

Total galls. 10,457,188 8,703,117

Total export from United States 31,745,687 28,250,721

Same time 1862 galls. 10,887,701

Petroleum is now sent in considerable quantities to almost every foreign
port with which we have commercial relations. Great Britain is the largest
consumer of the product, the export from New York thither during last
year being 6,275,000 gallons. France is next in importance, her import
from this port having been 4,625,000 gallons, a large increase upon the
receipts of 1863. The shipments hence to Antwerp have also been large,
amounting to 4,149,000 gallons, against 2,692,000 gallons in 1863. Bre-
men has imported n'early one million gallons; Hamburg 1,186,000 gallons,
and Rotterdam 5S3,000 gallons. The shipments to Cronstadt indicate a
large growth in the demand in Russia, the export thither having increased
from 88,000 gallons in 1863 to 400,000 gallons in 1864. The export to
Genoa, Leghorn, Trieste, Lisbon and Australia are also of considerable
importance.

As yet the trade in this article with South America and^the West India
islands has not grown to such an extent as might have been expected from
our intimate trading relations with those countries. It may be safely
asserted that the general demand for petroleum is yet in its infancy. Next
to gas, petroleum is the best and cheapest illuminating agent yet discov-
ered, and it appears to be destined to become the illuminator of the world.
In Asia, in many parts of Europe, and in South America, it requires time
for a new commodity, however desirable it may be, to create a demand.
But each year the consumption must become more generally diffused in all

• These States, in consequence of the disorganized state of trade caused by the rebellion, are
not fully represented.

464 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

countries. If the supply can be kept up to the demand, it would not be
surprising to find the export of petroleum, five years hence, three or four
limes its present amount, placing this product among the foremost of our
articles of commerce.

[From the Shipping and Commercial List.]

Our Maritime Commerce.

We have received a volume of statistics of the Foreign and Domestic
Commerce of the United States, communicated by the Secretary of tlie
Treasury in answer to a resolution of the Senate, which contains matter for
grave consideration — especially that portion relating to our maritime in-
terests. Commerce is shown to have lagged and shrunk away because of
piracies aggravated by the stagnation of the mercantile interests. Our
wonderful increase in the brief period of our national life, which raised our
tonnage from almost nothing when the nation had established its freedom
to superiority over that of the greatest commercial counti'y, it is well
known, caused fear as well as jealousy abroad, and any method was hailed
by our enemies which promised to destroy or cripple it. Much has been
done to that end. Many of our best ships have been burned, while a much
larger number have been driven to seek shelter under foreign flags; and
thus, not only our foreign commerce, but mucl^ of our domestic, has been
broken up and destroyed.

In 1857, the aggregate commercial tonnage of the world was estimated
at about 15,500,000 tons. This was distributed as follows : The United
States 5,661,416 tons; Great Britain 5,043,270 tons; France 716,130; Ital-
ian States 546,021; Holland 456,462; Spain 379,421; Prussia 368,729; Nor-
way 368,632; Austria 324,447; Greece 264,981; Denmark 208,109; Mexico
and South America 192,735; Turkey 182,000; Bremen 160,000; Sweden
147,828; Hamburg 119,884; Russia 105,509. This estimate excludes Chi-
na, Japan, and the East generally, where no definite data are procurable.
It yielded an excess of about ten per cent to the commercial tonnage of the
United States over that of Great Britain, and an excess over all European
nations, excluding Great Britain, of over one hundred thousand tons.

The aggregate of tonnage entering the ports of the United States from
foreign countries in 1857 was 7,186,316, of which 2,464,946, or 34.3, was
foreign; in 1860, 8,275,196, of which 2,358,911, or 28.4, was foreign; in
1861, 7,261,471, of which 2,217,554, or 30.6, was foreign; in 1862, 7, 362,-
953, of which 2,245,278, or 30.5, was foreign; and in 1863, 7,255,076, of
which 2,640,378, or 36.4, was foreign. The facts thus presented show to
bow great an extent we are a commercial and maritime people; and though
our present tonnage can hardl}' compare with that of a quarter of a century
ago, it is not probable that the present deplorable state of things will con-
tinue beyond the close of the war. With peace and unity restored to the
country we shall soon rally, and the lapse of many years is not likely to
occur before we shall have recovered our lost ground. We are rich in all
the essentials for maritime supremacy, We have the raw materials for
exchange which prompt such enterprise, and the taste for commercial en-
terprise which improves such possibility. Then again, we raise in excess
and excellence everything for shipbuilding, and have, moreover, the me-

PROCEEDINGS OF. THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 465

chunioal aptitude ami the ktiowlcdg-c wliicli utilizes tlieni. These facts have
worked out tlie great results of previous years, and it is fair to assume they
will work out greater in coming years, and their product will distribute
among us a steady stream bf wealth to nourjsh ev^ery important industrj'.

In this connection much could be urged in favor of a greater proportion
of steam tonnage, whicli should, and doubtless will in due time, be far in
advance of what it has been. We touch the beginning of the end as to the
war, and we are therc^fore in a condition to consult our prospective wellare.
Let us be prepared for the activities and responsibilities, the profits and
omo1nmeuts.of peace, by CKtending our steamship comniunication whenever
it is practicable, and it is to be hoped that Congress will lend its aid to
any enterprise which looks to inter-comniunication with foreign commercial
nations. It may be remarked that the custom and commercial interests of
England have induced her to subsidize ocean steamship lines in every di-
rection, and to an amount which has been considered appalling by other
nations. The custom has increased her tonnage, expanded her commerce,
her manufactures, her exports of every variety, and proved so profitable
generally as to have become usual. If we intend to compete for the com-
mercial advantages of Europe, South America and Asia, we must employ
the instrumentalities which arc used against us. Nor has there ever been
a time, perhaps, in our national history, when we were so pushed to expend
the penny in order to secure the pound as]atthis moment. The wisest econ-
omy consists, occasional!}', in a very lavish expenditure.

The Chairman next called on Mr. Watson to open the regular subject of
the evening —

The Manufacture of Thread.

Mr. Watson — To the people of this country at large, the importance of a
good sewing thread is very great. Until a few years, almost from the com-
meneement of the war, English thread controlled the mai-ket, but within the
time spoken of a va.st trade has sprung up, involving tens of thousands of dol-
lars of capital, and giving support to hundreds of persons. There are, at this
time, in this country, many thread manufacturers, and the aggregate value of
the manufactured products amount^ to 84,000,000 annually. The number of
yards made is incalculable.

The necessary qualities in a good sewing thread are strength, smo6thness
of finish, regularity in size, rotundity, freedom from knots, and uniformity in
the quality. All these are obtained in our best American threads. I have
been at some pains to obtain the loading threads in the market, and I have
I'foujrht here, for your inspection, the Willimantic thread ; the Green & Dan-
Is thread and the Stafford Bros, thread. In addition to these there are
other threads made. Perry's Water-twist, Samoset, Shaker's, and Circassian,
are well known brands.

I have here also an English thread of Coats, and another one whose name
I shall not give ; the latter I submit for your examination. (The speaker here
handed around an English thread which was very inferior.) Coats English
thread is justly celebrated. It has been in the market twenty-five years, and
!« uniform in quality. I think, however, that our domestic thread is, in all
[Am. I.NST.] D*

466 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

respects, superior. In the matter of strength I will make a simple test. I
have here a spool of Coats' six-cord cotton and one of the Willimantic Linen
Con)pany. They are both of the same number — twelve — and both are taken
indiscriminately from a dealer's stock in a store. I have but little faith in
public experiments, for like spoiled children, they' seldom show to advantage,
nevertheless I will tie both together at the same length and see which will
break first. (The speaker here tried the experiment, which resulted in the
breaking of the English thread.) This accords with private experiments to
determine the same thing. I took weights and applied them to a suspended
Coats thread. When it broke I took the same weights and applied them to an
American thread, which not only sustained them, but twenty-five per cent addi-
tional weight, without breaking.

I have heard it asserted that a glazed tliread will lose its strength after the
size has been washed off. I tried an experiment to determine this also, and
saw no difference whatever, although I think it is possible to wash any glazed
or unfinished thread for sinister purposes, so that the fibers will be dissolved
or torn apart, and the strength destroyed.

I have here an American thread made by Messrs. Green & Daniels, and one
made by Stafford Brothers. That of Messrs. Green & Daniels is styled " ivory
finish ;" that of Stafford Brothers " enalmeled thread." Both of these threads
are first class goods. They are 200 yards spools, four-cord threads and war-
ranted to be as represented. They are now widely used, and manufacturers
have told me that they used American black glazed thread in making silk
cloaks, it being cheaper and as durable for their purposes as silk thread itself.
I am also informed that three-fourths of the thread now in use is American
thread, and our manufacturers are putting up extensive works to enable them
to supply the demand.

The Willimantic Linen Company have erected a mill in Connecticut, over
400 feet long, at a cost of 11,000,000, in which they will make a six-cord
soft-finish cotton. Very little soft-finish cotton has heretofore been made in
this country, for the reason that our makers have had from 75,000 to 80,000
dozen glazed thread ordered in advance of their ability to supply it, so they
were unable to make other kinds.

There are many persons who dislike glazed thread, and the introduction of
it was attended with difficulties. It was asserted that the cloth was cut by
it ; that it ran stiffly through the needle, and was liable to kink. These
defects are apparent where thread is glazed too much, and experience has
shown our makers that a little or medium sizing is preferable to a greater
amount.

For sewing machine use glazed thread is much liked. I have questioned
many sewing-machine operators, and they assure me that what I have stated
to this meeting previously is correct. In my own family I have been in the
habit of using the Willimantic Linen Company's thread, and I may here say
that I was led to examine the subject from the excellence of that article. I
therefore do not speak from casual acquaintance but from actual test.

Our American cottons, at least that variety last named, are four-cord.
From No. 40, up, the Willimantic cotton, and, I presume, the others also, is
made from Sea Island cotton, which is the finest in the world for that partic-

J

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 467

ular service. The lower numbers are long staple, Gulf, or Texas cotton.
Some cotton, from Pernambuco, South America, has been tried by the Willi-
mantic Company, but they were unable to use it, and suffered loss from the
experiment.

The sizing of thread is commonly supposed to be starch. It is not. What
it really is the manufacturers know best. That is one secret which I can not
disclose. I am able to inform you, however, that one firm used an article
called salep, procured from Turkey, I have never seen any salep, but am
told that it is exceedingly hard and almost vitreous in its nature, and one of
the most difficult substances to grind known to man. It will destroy a French
burr mill stone, and is, if my informant did not tax his imagination too
highly, a most remarkable article. Jn the place of this salep, five ingre-
dients are used, but of the nature and proportions of them I am ignorant.
A sized thread is more costly and troublesome to make than soft finish.

English manufiicturers are now putting up a mill in New Jersey, which they
intend to stock with English operatives, for the purpose of competing with
American makers.

From what I have said it will be seen that American thread is, in all
respects, equal to the imported. I am unable to see why it is .not better ; for
my own use I prefer it to English. It is certainly cheaper, for the best
American threads can be bought for $1.10 to $1.15 per dozen, where the
foreign-made costs $1.50. If it be urged that the duty on the latter is great,
I present for your consideration the war tax of our makers, which is, I am sure,
quite as onerous.

If it be a fact that American thread enjoys a monopoly of 75 per cent of
the trade, I hope the time is not far distant when it will absorb the remaining
25 per cent, and retain the home trade for home makers.

The hour for adjournment having arrived, " Heat " was selected as the sub-
ject for the next discussion.

Adjourned.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, )
Jan. 12, 1865. j

Prof. S. D. Tillman in the chair; Mr. Benjamin Garvey, Secretary.

Paper made from Sugar Cane.

ilr. Bartlett exhibited paper made from cane brake, and remarked that
the process of Mr. Lyman for disintegrating or slivering: vpood by explod-
ing the material from a steam gun, was at first found to be impracticable,
because the wood had to be properly shaped to be packed in the gun; but
as it was supposed that cane could be used, a gentleman, Mr. Sellers, pur-
chased the right to use the machine in the southern States, and gave it a
practical trial. The machine was found to be of no service, and the same
gentleman had prepared paper stock from the brake by a process of liis own,
the silica in the cane being removed by alkalies and acids. The only spe-
cimen shown to the meeting was a brown paper, which seemed to have the
requisite strength for wrapping paper.

468 transactions of the american institute.

The Metal Palladium.

Dr. Parmelee exhibited a coil of palladium wire weighing about four
ounces, Troy, and valued at about $600. He states the sample was manu-
factured by Messieurs Desmontes, Morin & Chapuis, of Paris, and that the
specimen is more interesting from the fact of its being chemically pure,
while others are generally alloyed with from 40 to 60 per cent, of silver.
Its general characters are like those of platinum; but, while it is infusible
in an ordinary wind furnace, it melts at a lower temperature than that
metal. Its specific gravity is 1 1.5; atomic weight, 52.24. It occurs chiefly
in the ore of platinum, in the proportion of about one per cent.; it is ex-
tracted by dissolving this ore in aquaregia, and precipitating the palladium
from the solution by chloride of ammonium. After filtration the palladium
is separated by cyanide of mercury as cyanide of palladium. This is usually
converted into a sulphide by heating it with sulphur; and afterward the
sulphur is expelled by repeated heatings. There are other processes of a
more complicated character and probably less valuable. Palladium has
been applied in a few cases to the construction of graduated scales of
astronomical instruments. Porcelain manufacturers employ it in some
instances to produce a fine silver gilt on ornamental wares. It is also used
in bronzing brass for ornamental purposes. Photographers also employ
the chloride to some extent for toning their pictures. The scarcity of the
metal has limited the application of it to few uses. This wire is the one-
thirty-eighth of an inch in diameter, and is worth about $40 per foot.

Prof. Seely remarked that a few years ago, at a meeting of the Photo-
graphical Society, Dr. Draper suggested that palladium might be used to
advantage for toning photographs. When photographs are made the darks
are silver, and the color of this metal is not pleasing to the eye; photogra-
phers therefore dip their pictures into a solution of gold, which gives them
a beautiful purple color. Dr. Draper's suggestions attracted a good deal
of attention, and palladium was probably inquired for at every place in
the city where there was any reason for supposing that it might be found.
There was none to be had, and the speaker applied to Dr. Draper, who said
that a few years before there was plenty in the market at $10 per ounce.
The, supply had been exhausted by makers of gas fixtures and othei's, who
used the metal for giving a beautiful bronze finish to their work.

Prof. Everett stated that a few years since he obtained about four ounces
of palladium from some platinum ore that he was analyzing, and he made
it into a solution of chloride of palladium, to be used for bronzing. After
selling three bottles it was discovered that the supply in the market was
running short, und when we sold the first lot from the fourth bottle, my
partner filled up the bottle with water. The solution seemed to work just
as well till it became very weak, so that we got as much for the fourth
bottle as we did for the other three.

Mr. Maddock stated that the bronzing- of porcelain is now effected with
a preparation of iron.

Thread.

Dr. Rowell illustrated by a piece of tape that if a thread or other string
is wound on a card with the right hand, holding the card in the left, a twist

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 469

is put in the string- at every revolution around the card; but if the card is
shifted to the right hand and the winding continued with the left, the
twists arc taken out, or the thread is twisted in the opposite direction.
The same action takes place in ordinary sewing by hand, a twist being
put into the thread or taken out at every stitch. It is for this reason that
girls are taught to work button holes always in the same direction, going
from left to right along the lower edge, and from right to left above when
"twist" is used. The twisting is avoided in winding thread by adopting
the method usually practiced by boys in winding their kite strings. To
avoid kinking or spoiling the thread from the twisting in sewing, thread is
cabled, as it is called; that is, it is first spun into thread, and then these
are twisted together. In sewing on sewing machines, no twisting of the
thread takes place, it is therefore not necessary to cable the cotton for this
use.

The Chairman pi'esentcd the following interesting compendium of late
scientific investigations:

Action of Ozone on Silver Haloids.

Statements in foreign journals that ozone generated by electricity is
capable of giving sensitiveness to insensitive iodide of silver, led Mr. Carey
Lee, of Philadelphia, to make experiments in this direction with ozone
generated by chemical means, by phosphorus, and by the action of sul-
phuric acid on the cameleon mineral. The result of a great variety of ex-
periments described in the January number of the Americun Journal of
Science and Art appears to show pretty clearly that ozone has no power of
giving sensibility to insensitive iodide or bromide of silver, formed in the
presence of excess of alkaline iodide, when such excess is removed, or when
the excess be left present, as was the case with the alkaline bromide.

On the Separation of Metals.

Dr. Wolcott Gibbs, Rumford professor in Harvard University, has con-
tributed to the January number of Silliman's Journal very valuable pro-
cesses: First, for the separation of chromium from metals belonging- to the
group analogous to iron. Second, for the separation of aluminum and iron
from other bases by means of acetate of sodium. Tiiird, for the separation
of manganese from cobalt, nickel and zinc. Fourth, for separating cobalt
from nickel. Fifth, for separating uranium from zinc, cobalt, and nickel.
Sixth, on analysing copper and nickel by means of their electrolytic precip-
itation.

Petroleum Wells,

The borings for oil in Western Pennsylvania are made through three
strata of sandstone. The oil found immediately below the first stratum is
thick and heavy; that just below the second stratum is lighter, and that
from the greatest depth, forming the flowing wells, is clear, limpid, and
lightest. Such is the testimony of Mr. Ira Sayles, in Silliman's Journal.

Prizes for Meteorological Observations.

The Frencli association for the advancement of meteorology, now under
the presidency of Le Verricr, offer a prize of 4,000 francs for an extended

470 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

series of observations made on the Atlantic Ocean. Three thousand francs
will be divided between authors of the best observations made at sea or at
points but little known to meteorologists. Two prizes, of 500 and 300
francs each, are offered for the best memoirs upon the application of me-
teorology to agricultural questions. All meteorologists are admitted to
competition without distinction of nationality. Memoirs must be delivered
to the Secretary of the Society before the 31st of December, 1865.

A New Mordant.

M. Shultz has discovered a new mordant for silks and other dyes, con-
sisting of acetate of alumina and arseniate of soda, which he believes will
take the place of albumen, gluten, tannin and other matters now employed
for that purpose. He mixes at the ordinary temperature four grammes of
ordinary aniline violet in powder with a quarter of a litre of acetate of
alumina and twenty grammes of arseniate of soda, thickening it with starch
boiled in -water, the quantity of starch to be diminished in proportion to
the darkness of the color to be fixed. In the case of prints it is recom-
mended to mix the arseniate of soda and the acetate of alumina with the
coloring matter, and to steam the fabric or yarns over the mixture. For
dyeing it is said to be better to treat the tissue or yarns in the first place
with the mixture of the two salts and afterwards to dip them in the color
vat in the ordinary way. Salts or compounds of tin, combined with alu-
mina, may be substituted for arseniacal acid.

California Silk.

California is better adapted than any part of Europe to the growth of
the mulberry and the breeding of silkworms. The fertility of its soil and
the dryness of the climate give a peculiarly rich and nutritive character
to the leaves, which imparts a higher, finer, and more delicate quality to
the silk produced from them. Certificates from the highest authorities in
Europe show that California silk, after being tested, carefully analyzed,
and compared with European silk, proves to be of a very superior quality.

Imperial Tokay.

The village of Tokay, which gives to this wine its name, is situated in
Hungary, on the top of a hill, at the confluence of the rivers Rodvog and
Theiss. The vineyards from which this peculiar wine is made are in ex-
tent but little over three miles square, about ten square miles. The earth
is a yellow chalk mixed with large pebbles. The wine is white. There
are four different kinds. That which is generally exported is made by
placing sound grapes in a wooden vat with a double bottom, the upper one
being pierced with small holes. The vat, when carefully filled with grapes,
is covered with boards. After a few hours the grapes become heated to
80'' Fah., when fermentation begins. This destroys the tartaric acid, and
the weight of the grapes forces the juice below the false bottom. After-
wards, the grapes are trodden by foot. The wine is poured into casks, and
after fermenting for two days, is exposed to the air for a month. The best
wine has a silvery, oily color, a sweet and mellow taste, with a peculiar

TROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 471

earthy flavor. It is highly astringent and aror^atic, but is not drinkable
until it is three years old. The Emperor of Russia has of this wine forty
or fifty casks per annum.

Iron Plates and Rivets.

At a late mooting of the London Societ}' of Arts, the Duke of Somerset
first lord of the admiralty, presiding, William Fairbain, the well known
mechanician, read a paper " on the application of iron to the purposes of
naval construction." He spoke first on the strength of plates when torn
asunder by a direct tensile strain in the direction of tiieir fibre, and then
torn across it. Second. On the strength of plates when united by rivets,
us compared with the plates themselves. Third. On the resistance of
plates, in varied forms of construction, to the force of compression ; and
Fourth. On the distribution, strength and value of wrought iron plates and
frames as applied to ships and other vessels

His views cannot be even condensed here except on a single subject,
the relative strength of riveted plates. Taking the strength of a plate at
100, the strength of the double riveted plate will be '70, and the strength of
the single riveted 50.

In the discussion which followed the reading of the paper, Mr, Henshaw
begged to differ from the opinions expressed by Mr. Fairbain regarding the
use of punched instead of riveted holes. The speaker had advocated the
old-fashioned method of punching, but he (Mr. H.) had for yesivs practiced
the system of drilling the holes for the rivets, and was convinced of the
superiority of this method. He had no hesitation in saying, if the Brittan-
nia tubular bridge had been put together by drilled instead of punched
holes, the result would have been twenty or ;twenty-five per cent better.
He had used a machine which drilled thirty, fifty and even eighty holes at
once, and the work obtained was superior. On examining plates put
together by drilling and those by punching, the difference will be apparent
on sawing the plates asunder, it will be found that the line of demarcation
between the rivet and the plate in the first case will be scarcely visible,
while in the second case numerous interstices not filled up could be seen.

Mr. J. Grantham thought in bridge building and in plain, straight work
where drilling could be easilj' done, it was preferable ; but Mr. Fairbain's
paper was devoted to ship-building, in which entirely different conditions
arose, and he agreed with the position taken in that paper.

^Ir. Fairbain, in reply, said punching was the best test of the quality of
the iron. He had found that in drilling, the holes were not always found
coincident.

Improved Water Communications.

Mr. J. Nickles writes to the American Journal of Science and Arts, that
the almost certain success of the canal across the Isthmus of Suez fixes
attention more than ever upon other projects of the kind. The cutting
of the Isthmus of Malacca and of Darien awaits only the completion of the
Suez ship, canal. In France they are talking of uniting the Atlantic Ocean
with the Mediterranean by a ship canal, which would borrow part of its
route from the old Southern canal. In Holland a society is incorporated,

472 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

under the title of a company, for the cutting of tlie Isthmus of Ilolhind, i(y
establish a canal joining Amsterdam and the North Sea by a direct route,
while at the same time the Dutch government has undertaken to establish
another navigable route from Rotterdam to the sea.

A new project is presented which, if realized, will complete a series of
maratime communications in the north of Europe. It is proposed to estab-
lish a canal, navigable for ships of war and commerce, between the North
•Sea and the Baltic, to avoid making the passage of the Danish Islands,
This project, often thought of, is now very seriously considered.

Finally, they are speaking of cutting one other isthmus, and this time it
is Spain which has the honor. It is proposed to pierce the Spanish isth-
mus in such a way that Gibralter will be an island. The canal is to start
from Trafalgar and end at xindalusia. The canal which would cost hardly
a hundred millions of francs, has for its object to prevent more than 4,000
vessels every year from " lying to " before the strait of Gibralter without
power to get out.

Heat,

The regular discussion was opened by Dr. Kowcll, with ren:iarks upon
heat as a mode of motion.

The Chairman remarked that the discussion of the abstract question of
"heat, as a mode of motion," opened a very wide field. The subject has
been fully and clearly presented in the work of Prof. Tyndall, of the Ro^^al
Institution, London. To understand why heat cannot be matter, but must
be the eft'ect of the undulating motion of a very attenuated, imponderable
fluid, it is necessary to study the phenomena known as the polarization of
heat. There are many phenomena connected with liglit which have their
counterpart in the action of heat. That light is not the result of the emis-
sion of matter, has been as absolutely settled as any other question upon
which experiment can give us positive knowledge. The plain inference in
the absence of direct proof would be that light is a mode of motion. But
there are many phenomena which can be repeated at pleasure, confirming
the view that the effects of heat and light are the result not only of motion
but of a particular kind of motion which seems to be exhibited only in con-
nection with them and actinism. The chair suggested the propriety of
confining our discussion at present to the best modes of generating heat,
and of applying it to useful ends. It should be stated however tl>at this
association is always desirous of witnessing new experiments which may
illustrate the operation of any physical law.

Mr. Fisher said: "According to the new theory of heat, which has been
stated by Dr. Rowell, it niiakes little diflerence what agent it acts upon,
whether water, ether, air, gas or steam. But though the power evoked
may be the same, there may be a difference in the proportion of it which is
utilized, and there is a difierence in the cost of material and in the dura-
bility of metal under different temperatures. Steam boilers last sixty years
in cases of slow combustion and low pressure, six years in other cases, and
six months if the firing is violent and the water spaces narrow. Air
engines last for months, or weeks, or days, according to the fii'ing. Ether,
carbonic acid, sulphuret of carbon, and such agents, are costly and unplea-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 473

Bant, and, of ccuirso, not to be used if the new theory dispels the idea that
because they are vaporized at low temperatures they require little fuel.
Skam is cheap, but to superheat it much requires a temperature that is
destructive to any apparatus yet constructed. Five hundred deg. F. is the
highest temperature that has been recommended; and as this involves GOO
deg. or more for the metal, the durability has been much less than that of
apparatus in which water is present. Some years ago I had occasion to
iiuiuire what economy there might be in superheating. As'suming 500 deg.
as the iiighest temperature allowable, and the specific heat of steam to be
4T5/ieg., as found by Regnuult, and the dilatation to be l-480lh for 1 deg.,
I found that the cftect of fuel might be a little more than doubled by super-
heating steam of 100 pounds pressure to 500 deg., and that the total heat-
ing surface might be a little less than that of a boiler alone for equal power.
This seems a contradiction of the new theory. But it must be observed
that iT) making steam we change the state of water; and it cannot be said
that no power is required t>> change its state. Nor am I aware that it is
proved that heat will give the same mechanical power through liquids as
through gases. Moreover, if there be such a general law of heat, it changes
at the maximum density of water, or at 40 deg.; thus, if we apply heat to
water at 32 deg., instead of expanding it and lifting weight, we contract it
and the weight sinks, until the temperature has risen to 40 deg., and above
that, as the temperature increases, the weight is lifted. And in the change
of state from liquid to solid, mechanical power is not given out; on the
contrary, there is an expansion that bursts the strongest vessels, and at
tlie same time 140 deg. of heat are given out. More investigation is needed
as to th(! convertibility of heat into power, into liquids, and tlieir conversion
into solids and into vapors. But these familiar facts are sufficient to war-
rant us in the application of this law of heat to aeriform fluids, and it is
even disputed whether there is not a change of law, similar to the change
in water, at 40 deg., in steam a little above the temperature of vaporiza-
tion. Fourteen years ago Dr. Haycraft, of GreenwJch, England, reported
some results of experiments which he thought indicated the existence of
such a law; and the disagreement as to the economy of superheating war-
rants a suspicion that tliere is something to qualify the calculations we
niakf. What I have said as to the possibility of doubling the effect of fuel
by superheating, will, therefore, be taken with this qualification,"

Dr. Rowell explained tiiat, according to Dr. Tyndall, there is in each gas
or other fluid a zero point, analogous to the point in water below which
heat will contract it, and above which expand it. The meaning of the
conversion of heat into power was this: that to change the volume of gas
or vapor required more or less heat according to the resistance; 10 grains
of fuel will double the pressure of a cubic foot of air, the volume being con-
stant; or it will double the volume of it if the space be enlarged by exter-
nal force, and yet make the pressure ecjual to what it was at first; but if
the air as it is heated has to lift tlie weight that confines it, then it requires
14^ grains of fuel; and the temperature of the air, also the pressure, are at
tiie end (jf the experiment exactly as they were in the case when only ten
grains were burnt. The extra 4i grains arc presumed to have been con-
verted into tiie power that raised the weight; and from this it has been

474 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

concluded that the heat which will raise the temperature of a pound of
water 1", will lift 772 lbs. a foot high.

Mr Fisher hoped that the effect of heat, in changing- the state of water
from solid to liquid and to vapor, and in changing its temperature when in
these states, would be further investigated. Some had argued from the
new theory of heat that there could be no gain from expansion in steam
engines; others argued from the same theory that there was no gain from
sui)erlieating. These views were not held by Dr. Katikine, wlio is a sup-
porter of the theory; but men who claim to be practical, and have influence
for much good if they be right, or much harm if wrong, select certain re-
sults of experiments that accord with this construction of the theory, and
doubt the truth of the reports of other experiments and observations that,
if true, '^refute their views. Unluckily these doctrinaires have the sole and
secret management of the experiments now being made to settle these
questions; and hovt'ever sincere they may be, it is scarcely to be expected
that they will not deceive themselves.

Mr. Bartlett alluded to the fact that the scientific world were agreed in
the opinion that Heat, Light, Electricity and Magnetism were convertible
forces, and may therefore be regarded as having the same or similar media
of action.

After selecting the subject of "Pumps" for the next discussion, the
Association adjourned.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, |
January \Wi, 18135, j

Prof. S. D. Tillman in the chair; Benjamin (xarvey. Secretary.

New Pump.

Dr. AVillard exhibited a naw pump. It is a double acting force pump,
with a heavy double acting valve substantially within the piston, which
is wnter-packed. The whole apparatus being of cast iron, is made cheaper
than ordinary pumps. The piston rod is hollow and forms the pipe through
which the w,ater is conveyed to the height required; when not in action
the water is discharged at the bottom, so that fresh water is always drawn
when this pump^s used in wells.

The pump called forth considerable criticism, which was generally
favorable; the principal objection presented being that the water passed
through a circuitous route to reach the pipe above the piston, thereby
causing increased fiction.

Emery.

The Chairman said Silliman's Journal for Jannuary contained an account
of the discovery of a mine of emery in the town of Chester, Mass., written
by Prof. Charles T. Jackson, of Boston, that gentleman is now present and
the association would be gratified to hear from him regarding location and
extent of this mine.

Prof. Jackson said he did not expect to say anything hero upon the sub-
ject of emery, but he would briefly give the facts regarding the discovery.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE rOLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 475

In the town of Chester, 27 miles from Springfield, and near the railway
leading- to Albanj'-, is an immense bed of emery equal to that of Naxos.
Tiic emery trade had been monopoli/.ed by two houses in Liverpool. In
this country there is a great deniand for emery on account of the large
number of liru arms manufactured here. The emery of Chester is situated
in the very heart of the arms-manufacturing establishments. It is found
in tV\'o mountains, north and south mountain. It is found 750 feet ab#ve
the Westfield river. The widest part of the vein is from ten to fourteen feet
thick, but the average is seven. It has been traced about four miles. It
will doubtless in time supercede the great monopoly of Asia minor and
control the market. The supply may be regarded as cxhaustless.

Dr. Jackson illustrated the geological formation by a drawing on tlie
blackbt)ard. On the upper side is first mica slate, then soap-stone, below
that talcose rock, talc, crystaline talc, talcose slate, chlorite slate, then
emery. On the opposite side of the emery is very beautiful hornblend, the
handsomest he had ever seen. The effects of segregation are seen here
distinctly. There are immense masses of round fine emery surrounded by
a mineral called margarite. Pure emery is crystalized alumina and iron.
Sapphire is pure alumina and ranks in hardness next to the dTamond. The
chemical analysis of the emery of the south mountain is:

Alumina .- 4.5.50

Protoxide of iron 43.00

Silica and titanic acid 11.50

100.00

It was discovered by means of margarite. This is called useless, but it
was the guide board which led to this discovery, as it is always associated
with emery. When he first saw it he supposed it was a bed of magnetic
iron ore, but when he found the margarite he at once declared it to be
emery. Emery is very diflScult to break with the aid of heat, but it is
crushed or separated under pressure quite readily. At the present time
emery is sold at Naxos at $140 per ton, and here at $300 per ton.
The emery is of different grades; the flour emery is made by mixing
it with water several times and separating the finer particles. The largest
kind, used at the Springfield armory, is about tiie size of a grain of wheat.
Emery wheels are made by mixing emery with valcanized india rubber.
They are the most powerful wheels known for cutting metals. Emery is
largely used in polishing granite and porphyry columns. The ancient
columns of Greece are as perfect to-day as when first erected. There are
no mosses or other disfigurements growing on them because there is no
chance for the water to enter the pores of the stone. There are numerous
places in this country where porphyry can be obtained. And in the course
of time we shall have in use tables of Porphyry which cannot be scratched
and tombstones that can never be covered with moss. Solid sapphire and
crystals of corundum have been found in the state of New Jersey, but
emery in (quantity has never been found in this country before the recent
discovery at Chester.

Dr. R. P. Stevens cquired whether the Professor had any theory as to the
manner in which these metamorphic rocks associated emery were cryscalized.

476 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Prof. Jackson replied, there was no difference in opinion among geolo-
gists in regard to the stratified rocks ; they were deposited at the bottom
of lakes and oceans. BiJt some of these, since their deposit, have been
raetamorpliozed or changed to a crystaline structure, and there has been
much discussion in relation to the agencies by which this metamorphism
was efiFected. Tt seems to me that M. Daubree has cut the Gordian knot,
aii3 has shown that the crystalization was produced mainly by the action
of superheated water, that is, water heated above the boiling point. This
can be done, as you arc aware, by confining water under pressure. M,
Daubree enclosed various substances in strong iron tubes, filled the tubes
with water, closed them tightly with screw plugs, and had them built in
the brick work of gas furnaces, where they were exposed constantly to a
high temperature for several weeks or months. Wood thus enclosed was
first melted and compressed into a globular mass, and if longer exposed,
was finally converted into anthracite coal. Glass was decomposed and its
silex formed into beautifid quartz cr^^stals. M. Daubree found that if
sufficient time was allowed, it was not necessary even that the water
should be superheated. The warm springs of Plombiers were used for
baths by the llomans, who led the water through aqueducts constructed of
brick or cement. On examining the materials of these aqueducts, which
have been subjected to the action of warm water for 2,000 years, it was
found to be transformed into the same crystaline minerals that occur in the
metaniorphic- rocks.

Air AND Steam Engine.

Mr. A. L. Murdock, of Boston, exhibited diagrams illustrating the com-
binations used in P. Shaw's patent union air engine. In this arrangement
the products of combustion are used as a motor in combination with steam.
The air which feeds the fire is forced in and after combining with the car-
bon and hydrogen of the fuel is made to move a piston in a similar method
to that employed in the Roper air engine. After the air has passed from
the piston, it expends its heat upon a boiler containing water, and the
steam thus produced passes into combination with the products of combus-
tion and assists in moving the piston. Mr. Murdock stated that this engine
had been favorably noticed by the Boston Academy of Science and Art.
and they had given several hundred dollars to enable him to complete his
engine.

RuMFORD Prize Fund.

The Chairman requested Dr. Jackson to give a history of the Rumford
Prize Fund.

Dr. Jackson— Count Rumford, formerly Benjamin Thompson, of New
England, left a bequest to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences of
Boston, the oldest scientific association in the country, to be- devoted to
improvements in light and heat, especially such as should be useful to the
mid41e classes of the people. The academy unfortunately has not displayed
proper activity in discharging the duties of this trust. For forty years the
only prizes bestowed were the gold and silver medal awarded to Dr.
Robert Ilare, the distinguished American chemist, for the invention of the
ox3'-hydrogcn or compound blow-pipe, in which hydrogen and oxygen com-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 477

bino, forming' water and at the same time gene;fating- the most intense lieat
known, and by which platinum and rock crystal (quartz) are not only
melted but sublimed; and for the invention of the intenselj^ brilliant calcium
light, now commonly but improperly known as the Drummond light, which
consists in burning the same gases in the presence of the oxide of calcium
or lime. This prize fund of the Boston academy has now increased to
830,000, and recentl}' the members of the academy have been demanding
more energy on the part of the Rumford committee. Capt. Ericson, of
New York, applied for the prize for the invention of an air-engine, and the
prize was awarded to him, not because he had constructed the best air-
engine, but because his inventions and exertions had given such an impe-
tus to efforts in this department, that they might be considered as having
led the way to all subsequent improvements.

Air Engines.

A committee of the Academj^, by careful trials, found that Ericson's air
engine yielded one horse power by the consumption of fourteen pounds per
hour. Roper's engine, in which the products of combustion are used,
yielded one horse power by the combustion of five pounds of coal per hour,
and that air and steam engine of Shaw required but two and a half pounds
of coal per hour to produce one horse power. He believed the latter is the
best engine in which air is used that has yet been made, but he did not
claim to be a mechanician, and would be glad to hear the views of other
gentlemen present regarding this engine.

Prof. Charles A. Seeley said the great diflSculty which Mr. Ericson had to
encounter was the heating of a large quantity of air very rapidly. A small
quantity could be heated readily, but then at the risk of burning out or
consuming the iron which surrounded the air to be heated. The trne
principle of heating air is to make it go through the fire. Capt. Bennett
and others had long ago tried the plan of using the gases generated in the
furnace, but they had met with difiiculties which have been surmounted by
ilr. Shaw.

Mr. Murdock stated that the Boston Academy Committee experimented
with Mr. Shaw's engine, using first only air and afterwards mixing steam
with the air, and found by the latter method the economy for this engine,
which has already been stated.

The Chairman suggested that if by using the heat of the gaseous pro-
ducts of combustion which have done their work on the air piston, bypass-
ing such products under a steam boiler, more than double the power was
produced by the engine than when air alone was used, it might be more
economical to dispense with the air engine apparatus, and use all the heat
in generating steam. It appeared to him that the addition of steam power
to caloric engines was a step in the right direction.

Pumps.

The regular subject of the evening was opened by Dr. Jos. W. Richards,
who occupied nearly all the remaining time of the evening in describing
the various kinds of sucking and forcing pumps now in use. They are all
too well known to require full descriptions here. One of the most simple

478 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

yet efficient pumps is used by tanners in raising the tanning liquor from
tan vats In this " lifting" pump the direction of the water is not changed
by the operation of the valve, which is a leather cone surrounding the
pump rod, the smallest end being fastened to the end of the rod. When
the cone is lifting the water it presses against tiie sides of the pipe, and
when descending the water passes between the cone and the pipe.

The subject of " pumps " was continued for the next discussion.

Adjourned.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, )
January 20, 18G5. )

Prof. S. D. Tillman in the chair; Mr. B. Garvey, Secretary.

Stillometer.

Mr. Griswold exhibited an invention by him for graduating the size and
number of drops issuing from a vial. The name he had given it was
founded on the Spanish word sliUa, a drop. The principle used was that a
fluid will only pass out by its own weight, as air passes into a bottle, but
it may be pressed out by means of a small India rubber tube. This tube
and the small eduction pipe are fastened into the cork of the vial. When
it is filled with liquid and inverted, the India rubber tube is also filled, and
by squeezing it the drops are forced out.

Dr. Parmelee and others expressed doubts as to the practicability of using
this machine in administering medicines.

Rubber-valve Faucet.

Mr. Albert Fuller exhibited a faucet having a valve lined with rubber
which was closed and held to its place by an eccentric. It is a simple and
durable contrivance, and can be used for all liquids but oil. It is also used
as a gauge cock on steam boilers.

Carbolic Acid.

Dr. D. D. Parmelee exhibited a beautiful specimen of crystalized carbolic
acid. This compound is one of the products from coal gas manufactories,
for wliich not much use has been found. It is also known by the naiiie of
pheni'c acid. It is composed of C12 Us O2. It is ver}^ i)ungent and cor-
rodes the skin. It boils at 250*^ Fah. Wlien carbolic acid is mixed with
anmonia it is converted into analine, the compound from which the new
and beautiful colors are made. Carbolic acid is used to adulterate creo-
sote, which it very nearly resembles.

The Chairman then presented the following interesting notes of progress
in science and art:

Flora and Fauna of the Oil Age.

The plants and animals wliich flourished preceding the coal age, whose
remains are found in the Upper Devonian system, are thus summed up by
our associate, Dr. Robt. P. Stevens: Plants, genera, 42, of which three are

PROCEEDINaS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 479

sea weeds; species, 100, of which five are sea weeds. Corals, g-enera, 16;
species, 2'.). Bryozoa, genera, G; species, 10. Echinoderms, genera, 25;
species, 11. Molluscs, genera, 106; species, 419. Crustacea, genera, 25;
species, 31. Fish, genera, 8; species, 16. Reptiles, genera,!; species, I.

Gamboge.

M. I), llanbury stated before the London Pharmaceutical Society that the
exact botanical origin of gamboge had remained in obscurity until recently.
It was known to be a plant of the genus garcinia, but the species had not been
determined. The garcinia gambogia of Ceylon, it is said, does not yield a
good form of the drug, but the garcinia morella does. Gamboge is not
exported from Ceylon, but is produced in Siam. It is now- believed that the
two mentioned arc varieties of the same tree, depending on soil and cultiva-
tion. Messrs. D 'Almeida, of Ceylon, have twenty-eight; trees on, their plan-
tation. They are from thirty-five to fifty feet high, the largest being three
feet in circumference. They grow luxuriantly on the side of a hill without
any attention. Gamboge has been extracted from them from time to time,
but only as a matter of curiosity.

Paris International Exhibition for 1867.

It is reported that the building for the next great exhibition will be a crys-
tal palace in the new boulevard, extending from the arc de Trionipe, at the
head of the Champs Elysees, to the river Seine. It is to occupy the central
part of the boulevard, leaving on one side a space for carriages and pedes-
trians, and on the other room for a street railway, on the American plan.

Tea from India.

Forty years have not elapsed since the announcement of the discovery of
the tea plant in Assam. The sales of Assam teas were only 144,161 pounds
in 1847. The immense increase in th!s production will be realized when it is
stated that for the last year, ending in October, the sales of these teas at Cal-
cutta amounted to 3,348,663 pounds. It is believed the increase for the pre-
sent year will be at least twenty-five per cent. The amount of production is
only dependant of the kind of labor required. It is said that the various
failures to cultivate tea successfully are the result of a want of intelligence
among the only clas.s of laborers which low wages can command.

Coal in France.

In a recent railway excavation made, only fifteen miles from the city of
Lyons, a seam of good coal has been discovered which, it is said, indicates a
large depo.sit of coal at no great distance from the soil. No nation would put
coal to a better use than the French.

A New Thermograph.

One of the new instruments furnished for the French scientific exhibition
to Mexico is the self-registering thermometer of M. Marcy, of Paris. It is a
modification of the air thermometer, consisting of a metallic bulb attached to
a metallic tube only 0.0079 of an inch in diameter. The indicator of tern-

480 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

peratuve Is a glass tube bent in the form of a semi-cii-cle, one extremity being
closed and attached to the circumference of a metallic wheel resting on knife
edges and counterpoised. A mercurial index is attached to the glass tube,
which divides it into two chambers, one closed, the other open to the air. The
metallic tube is passed through the mercury into the closed chamber of the
glass tube. On the axis of the wheel is an arm carrying a tracing point
which marks the variations on the registering cylinder. When the bulb is
heated the air passes into the closed portion of the glass tube, forces back the
mercury, and of course disturbs the equilibrium of the apparatus to an extent
marked by the tracing point on the cylinder. The metal air tube is furnished
with a valve near the bulb, so that the interior may be placed in communica-
tion with the exterior, in order to set the apparatus to zero.

Influence of Odor on Silkworms.

•

M. E. Fairre read a paper before the French Academy, in which it appears
that, although the silkworms are inconvenienced and many are destroyed in
consequt nee of the presence of certain aromatic leaves beneath their ordinary
food, those which survive arc impelled to spin up sooner, and to produce finer
cocoons than those which have not been subjected to this exceptional
treatment.

Gas in Egypt.

The city of Alexandria was lighted by gas for the first time on the 23d of
December last. The lamplighter is nightly followed in his rounds by a crowd
of wandering Arabs, who insist that the marvellous blaze following his touch
must be provoked by the will of genii. The improvement has made great
changes in the habits of the place. The municipal order requiring everybody
going abroad after dark to carry his own lantern has been rescinded.

HlPPOPSAGOUS.

The brilliant Paris correspondent of the New York Tribune gives, in the
following, some interesting statistics relating to animal food :

Economical bucolic readers of The Tribune may be interested in this bit of
Prussian statistics : " From the first of October, 1863, to like date 1864,
there were slaughtered in Berlin 1,552 horses, the flesh of which was sold at
from five to six cents the pound." Some years ago the lamented Geoffrey St.
Hilaire, enthusiastic propagator of the sound doctrine of Hippophagy, set out
a table at his residence by the Jardin des Plantes with baked, and broiled,
and stewed, and toasted, and fried, and boiled, and smoked, and roasted horse
meat, and preliminary flesh soup of the same. Doctor Yran, one of a dozen
partakers of that generous horsepitality, gave a toothsome account of the ban- ■
quet in the time of it.

A somewhat similar horsepltable experiment was tried on volunteers, after
a lecture on the subject, at the Garden of Acclimation in the Bois dc Boulogne
last year. All who have eaten are agreed that, prejudice being set aside,
horse-meat is good eating. And there is exclamation of regret over the loss
of 160,000 pounds of nutritious horse-meat ; lost to hungry Frenchmen annu-
ally by their unreasonable prejudices. Of other meat-victuals, meanwhile,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 481

the following statistics seem to promise them tolerable supply. There are in
France to-tlay three million horses, three hundred thousand asses (quadrupeds),
three hundred and sixty thousand mules, ten million two hundred thousand
neat cattle (of which 300,000 bulls, 2,000,000 oxen, 5,800,000 cows— the rest
calves), tliirty-fivc million sheep (of which twenty-six million pure or crossed
merinos), a million four hundred thousand goats, as many adult swine and
.three million tender suckling piglings.

To wash down this meat-victual the French folks have wine, got from
0,250,000 acres of vineyards, whose average product, as this year for exam-
ple, amounts to one thousand three hundred and twenty millions five hundred
and seventy-six thousand gallons — multiply by five for the bottles. Of this
blessed abundance of drink, to be sure some small rivulets run down foreign
throats 4 but that is a detail. The large estimate of exports is only a little
over three million hectolitres, or about one-twentieth part of the whole pro-
duct,; distillation into brandy takes up say twice as much more; the rgst is
drunk in France. And with all that, do you know that we have very good
authority for the woful belief that we here in Paris drink one-third, at least,
more wine than ever crosses the octroi boundary ; that is, one bottle is com-
posed of two parts of grape juice and one part of Seine water, drugs, deviltry
and Mackay mixture generally.

New Steam Omnibus in France.

Nantes was the birth place of the omnibus, and to this day the arrange-
ment of a conductress swinging in a basket at the rear is adhered to. Having
been first to apply horses for moving the million, the busy town seems bent on
setting aside its own former pet in favor of a new one in the shape of a steam
carriage. This invention of M. Latz is said to be a success. It moves at
the rate of nine miles an hour, and turns readily, with two carriages attached,
within a circle of 30 feet in diameter.

Boilding Materials in Ceylon.

Mr. J. AV. Heath stated before the London Institute of Civil Engineers
that, during a residence in Ceylon for seven years, his attention had been
directed to the materials used in the construction^ of permanent buildings.
The habitations of the lower classes are formed of a rude framework of
stout bamboos: the sides and roof consisting of reeds closed in with the
interwoven leaves of the cocoanut palm, the latter being washed over with
the slimy juice of a native fruit which when dr}^ resembles copal varnish.
In the huts built of " wattle and dab," the framework is made of rou<rh
squared jungle trees, the space between being filled, and both the inside
and the outside of the hut being covered with clay and sand, well kneaded,
and afterwards plastered over with earth thrown up by the white ants,
mixed with a powerful binding substance produced by the ants. Superior
houses are built of " cabook," a poft kind of rock found a few feet below
the surface. This material has the appearance of a coarse sponge, the in-
terstices being filled with soft clay. Before being used, the blocks should
be exposed to the rain to allow some of the clay to be washed out. Ca-
|_.\m. Inst.J E*

482 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMEHICAN INSTITUTE.

book requires to be pvoteftcd from the weather; but if covered with a thin
coating- of litne phister, it will last for years. Hard stone i.s not much used
in consequence of th(j expense of working" it. The bricks used are badly
made, and require a covering' of plaster or coating of oil or coal-tar to pre-
vent them I'rom crumbling-. Iron also requires oil or tar to preserve it
from oxidation, but zinc will last many years with little or no decay.

The items read by the Chairman elicited considerable discussion, after
which the regular subject, resumed from the last evening, was taken up.

Pumps.

Mr. E. P. Watson said, perhaps there is no machine for domestic use on
■which there has been so much ingenuity displayed as the pump, the valves
of which, we are aware, have been the cause of much trouble, and pumps
with many valves are looked upon with disfavor. To overcome this objec-
tion pumps have been made without valves, and of different forms, but
only with partial success. The common form of valve in the old-fashioned
pump, is the ordinary box valve, or clapper, opening upward. This style
of valve is objectionable, as, when the water is low, the valve becomes dry
and will not work until water is thrown in. The ball valve, in rising and
falling so rapidly, batters the seat and leaks; it is also difficult to make
"water-tight all around. The spindle valve is now generally used in force
pumps. The flap valve, sometimes called the butterfly valve, is simply a
door with a hinge: they are generally made of brass. The difficulty with
this style of valve is that it is not always tight, as, if it is not hinged
evenly, the seats will not fit so as to be water-tight. There is a mode of
raising water by the admixture of atmospheric air. If a vertical tube be
placed in a reservoir of water, and if a quantity of air be injected into it
at the bottom of the tube by a bellows or force pump, the water in the tube
will immediately rise to a higher level, and remain until the air has es-
caped at the top; and if the tube be of proper height, the water will over-
flow. This mode, however, does not appear to be an economical way of
applying force. There is another style of machine called the bag pump,
made of a bag of leather connected with the piston of a pump and placed
in the cylinder. In this pump there is very little friction, but it is proba-
ble that the want of durability would be its greatest objection. This bag
is alternately extended and contracted, like a bellows, by every stroke of
the piston, and raises the water without much friction in the pump. We
have also the rope pump, which is made of a single rope or a bundle of
ropes passing over a wheel above and a pulley below, moving with great
velocit}', which draws a certain quantit}' of water by its friction. The
water probably ascends with about half the velocity of the rope, and the
cohesion of the water is sufficient to prevent its falling or being scattered
by any accidental inequality of the motion. A pump tlmt was very popu-
lar, and even now much used in the country, is the chain pump. It consists
of an endless chain, moving over two wheels, downward without, and up-
ward within, a barrel. This chain has a number of discs or circular
plates attached at certain lengths, which, on passing through the barrel,
carry the water in a constant stream betbre them. An objection to this

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 483

device, however, is the enormous friction, and there is considerable loss
from the facility with which the water runs back. Tiie velocity with which
some valves work is very great, and they wear out very fast. There is a
pump made in Portland that is used on steam fire engines, which has no
valves, but has a hollow plunger connected to one end of the rod of the
engine, and it is said to work well. (Mr. Watson illustrated his remarks
by diagrams on the blackboard of the various pumps spoken of.)

Mr. T. D. Stetson remarked that many improvements had recently been
made in pumps, owing to the demand for them at the oil regions, where the
value of a good article is appreciated, and hence inventors sire now devot-
ing much attention to this matter; and which would, no doubt, result in
some important advantages.

The Chairman remarked that great improvements in the pump have been
made in this country. The first object was to obtain a cheap pump for
household uses. This was accomplished, some thirty years ago by Mr.
Minor, a very ingenious mechanic of Western New York, who made the
first cheap wooden pump. By means of machinery, he was enabled to
bore the inside, turn the outside of a piece of scantling, and cut a screw
on each end at one operation. The whole time occupied being but little
more than one minute. The stock was also turned from wood. The only
iron parts of the pump, were the cylinder, the valves, and the pump-
liandle. This very cheap pump had an extensive sale. Several persons
retired with fortunes made in its manufacture. It was soon found that the
stock could also be made of iron, with less trouble than of wood, and that by
placing the piston in this stock, which formed the cylinder, there was in
fact a great saving. This kind of pump in various forms has long been
made in large numbers at Seneca Falls in this State. Probably there is
no place in the woi'ld where more pumps are turned out as rapidly as at
this place. Pumps for nearly all uses are made there, and one of the few
good rotary pumps was invented and first made there by Birdsall Holley.
It is a modification of the pump formed by two wheels gearing into each
other, by means of which a continuous stream is furnished. After further re-
marks, "Telegraphs" was selected as the next subject for discussion.

Adjourned to February 9th.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, )
February 9lh, 1865. )

Prof. S. D. Tillman in the Chair.

Sheaves or Rollers for Sliding Doors.

A model of Hatfield's sheaves for sliding doors was exhibited, and
explained by Mr. Capron. By this arrangement the superior advantages
of a roller over those of a wheel are secured in moving a door, or any
other burthen having a reciprocating motion. In the ordinary form the
roller is inapplicable to a sliding door; but, by a modification, as shown
in this sheave where the burthen presses on an axle, instead of the peri-
phery of the roller, the distance traveled by the roller is so much lessened
that its application to the sheave is quite practicable. In common sliding

484 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

door sheaves, it lias been found diflScult to lubricate the working parts,
and in consequence, it is found after a year or two that the axle is ground
away. This is so serious that the door settles gradually until it comes in
contact with the floor, or with the track, and thereby prevents the moving
■of the door, except bj?- great exertion. The roller sheave most effectually
prevents the occurrence of this evil, and herein is its principal advantage;
for, their being no friction between the axle and the plane upon v«^hich it
rolls, neither of them can wear away, hence the door must remain at the
height at which it was first placed, and continue to move with ease for any
length of time. This article illustrated by the accompanying engraving
is manufactured by Newman, Onderdonk & Capron, No. 1112 Broadway.
Mr. J. K. Fisher presented the following paper:

Petroleum as a Steam Fuel.

Mr. J. C. Ptichardson, C. E., has made experiments at Woolwich, the result
of which the London Times states to be that one ton of petroleum is " equal
for steam purposes to five tons of coal," and will occupy less room, and
will require fewer stokers, and so on.

Mr. B. H. Paul controverts this. He concludes that there cannot be a
saving while petroleum is near its present price.

Mr. Kichardson replies, claiming that Avith petroleum at £1^ per ton, and
coal at 15.S., and freight at.£1 per ton, "a return of £14. 15s. is made in favor
of petroleum."

The Mechanics' Magazine reviews the discussion, and concludes that Mr.
Richardson has miscalculated — that it follows from his own data that the
balance will he £2.118. per ton against petroleum ; and it says that " while
the Woolwich authorities ma}^ possibly have good grounds for their alleged
report in favor of petroleum as fuel for ships, it is certain that Mr. Richard-
son has not shown such grounds to the public." The report of the engi-
neers appointed some months ago by our navy department was favorable
to the view that petrolenm may in some cases be used with advantage.

When petroleum cost ten cents per gallon I proposed a plan for using it
to aid the combustion of smoke 'in locomotives. I read a paper on it before
this club, and published it in the Railway Review, which I then edited. But
the price soon rose so high that it seemed to me that it would not be econo-
mical, and I therefore did not pursue the subject. But since the explana-
tion of the geological relations of petroleum, by Dr. Stevens, it seems as if
the price of it cannot remain high, and may be expected to decline until it
can be used for steam fuel, at least in the cases I'eferred to in the reports.

The method of combustion which I propose is an extension of what I
published two years ago. It is to vaporize the petroleum in a boiler, under
a pressure of about 150 lbs. per square inch. From the boiler it is to go to
the furnace in pipes perforated with minute holes, and to blow in jets into
the air, so as to be mixed and perfectly burned. The direction of the jets
may be such as to draw air into the furnace, as in D. K. Clark's method.
But for this present plan I propose to pump in the air under a pressure of
about 130 lbs. per inch, and to make the air enter in directions correspond-
ing to the petroleum vapor jets in order to cause perfect mixture and com-
bustion. Now I expect there will be no solid matter resulting from the

HatflclUS Micav<>M or Rollers.

484

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 485

combustion — no soot or ashes — nothing but g-as and water. If this perfec-
tion of coinbusti(jn is attained, it will probabi}'' be by an excess of air; but
that is a part of my plan, which is to make an engine in which hot air is
one of the agents, as in Bennett's, Roper's, and others. The other agent
is steam. The products of combustion arc to go from the furnace, through
proper valves, into the water; and to pass through proper screens of wire
gauze, or other devices to cause the heat to be given to the water — such,
perhaps, as spraying the water. The condition I desire is, that there shall
be a mixture of hot gases and superheated steam, of about 130 lbs. pressure,
and of a temperature not over 500'^, or not too hot for the working parts.

This idea of forcing air through the fire into the boiler, through the water
and through the engine, was carried out by Capt. Bennett in the old steam-
boat Nuvelty, in 1835 or 1836 ; but he was troubled by ashes and unburnt
fuel. The improvement now seemingly attainable will consist in perfect
gasification, and avoidance of all that can grind the cylinders and valves,
and foul the water in the boiler.

It is doubtful whether we can retain the condenser. But perhaps we
may send the products of combustion in the usual way through a boiler,
and make pure stearn, and temper the gases with a little steam ou Mr.
Wethered's plan, and use the pure steam in a condensing engine, and the
mixed air and steam in a non-condensing engine. This practice may be
well for a long voj-age vessel, in which the freight-room occupied by fuel
is of buch value as to warrant the expense and complication of a condenser.

The uses to which this method is most likely to be applied are for small
engines in buildings, and for steam rail-cars and carriages. The boilers
will be without tubes and very small, and safer than common boilers ; and
insurance premiums will not be much increased by them; and the consump-
tion of fuel can be economized or stopped at any instant. When the jets
of petroleum vapor are shut off, the generation of steam instantly ceases ;
and when the jets are throttled it is instantly diminished; and an automatic
safeguard may be made to operate on the throttle, so as to lessen the heat
as the steam pressure increases.

As the advantages of this fuel, and this method of utilizing all the heat,
so as to use as little fuel as possible, and especially as little water as pos-
sible, are not all apparent, it may be well to indicate one of them. There
is now a new demand : underground railways are on the increase ; Mr.
Bazalgetttc, chief engineer of the English Board of Trade, reports that 258
new lines are already projected, their aggregate length to be 4n| miles,
and their estimated cost £70,000,000. These railways require engines that
use the best fuel and water, and make the least dust and sulphurous gas.
Now an ordinary locomotive wastes from 33 to 43 per cent of its fuel
through its chimney; that is, it pollutes the air with a hundred measures of
gas instead of 57 or 67 measures. And as to water, by superheating the
steam, and substituting air for it as far as may be without injuriously
heating the apparatus, it is probable that we may work with a third of the
water now used in locomotives. We can save a third of the gases, and
two-thirds of the vapor, that now pollute the air in tunnels. To meet this
new demand we have this new fuel — this essence of coal — which 1 hope is
to become cheap.

486 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Several members replied to the statements of Mr. Fisher, the prevailing
opinion being that petroleum could not, unless very much cheaper, be
brought into competition with anthracite coal,

Arnold's Twist Drills.

Mr. Watson brought to the notice of the association some very beautiful
samples of twist drills used by machinists in boring holes in metals, and hi
alluding to them said:

The perfection to which we have attained in metal- working is one of the.
miracles of modern times. In all of our large machine shops iron is planed
and turned in large masses with a speed and accuracy unknown in former
times. I have here one of the modern tools used for working metal, which
is as may be seen, not only externally beautiful, but constructed on sound
principles. I have here also a common flat drill, such as is ordinarily used,
and I deem it unnecessary to more than to show you the two, side by side.
The advantages resi;lting from the use of such drills as this twisted one,
are that the work can be done in less than half the time. To say nothing
of the first cost of the two tools — which is largely in favor of the twisted
(ji-ill — it commends itself to mechanics by reason of its perfect accuracy in
all that affects size, uniformity of quality and temper. These are standard
tools and as such have a great value even beyond their intrinsic worth,
-When. I say standard 1 wish to convey the impression that they are all
alike. A hole drilled by a thirteen-thirty-second drill to-day will be the
same as one drilled last year by any other drill of that size from the same
factory, so that work which is laid off and executed by them can be recon-
structed in case of breakage with the certainty that the bolts or other fix-
tures belonging to the job will fit. Beyond this mechanical advantage
there is the very great additional moral one of having in daily use tools
that are calculated to excite emulation and stimulate mechanics to do good
work instead of poor.

These drills are of all sizes, from three-eights, varying by thirtj^ seconds
of an inch up to one inch and a quarter, with turned taper shanks and
sockets to match with straight shanks, made of Stubb's wire, from three-
eighths down to a sixty-fourth of an inch, or from No. I wire to No. 60
wire.

I can easily conceive what an immense advantage these drills will be to
all metal workers. I have always thought that twist drills should be sold
in the stores as cheaply as augers for carpenters; and when I speak of the
price it is almost incredible to see how they can be sold for it. Why, sirs,
this splendid inch and a quarter drill, turned from end to end with a taper
shank, accurately ground and tempered, sold ready to drill a hole with on
the spot, costs but five dollars. No man could go to work and make one
like it for three times the money. The four sockets cost but ten dollars. I
know something of metal working, and these tools could not be afforded at
anything like the sum, unless the company worked upon a regular system
and had ingenious machines constructed for this very purpose.

It was not my intention, when I came here, to occupy too much time in
the discussion of this tool, but I have felt it important to metal workers
that the fact of such drills as these being offered at such moderate prices

Twist Dilllii.

4 §6

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 487

should be made known. The Manhattan Firearms Co., of Newark, N. J.,
the manufacturers, spared no pains or expense to make a perfect tool, and
I would advise every one interested in metal working to send for samples.

The best fine tools we have in this country are not made here but abroad.
I mean by this, small riinnu'rs, screw plates and similar wares; and I think
that, as members of this association, we should take pains to make the
facts I have previously stated widely known.

Mr. Arnold, the inventor of machinery for making- the drill, was piesent
and gave some interesting information as to the manufacture of the tool.

S. H. Maynard. — I should like to have the inventor state how he tempers
the drills. Does he mean to say that he does not lose any of them, and
that they do not buckle or twist in hardening ?

Mr. Arnold. — I can answer that question by sajnng that we harden them
by plunging the shank end in the water first and draw the temper after-
wards to the right color. The taper on the length of the drill, 12 inches,
is barely the sixty-fourth of an inch and we rarely find any so bent that
they are useless; a little deviation can easily be corrected by a hammer.
Mr. Arnold stated that the drill was never touched by a hammer to be
forged from the time the steel was drawn, and was therefore homogeneous
throughout., ^

Telegraphs.

The subject for the evening, " Telegraphs," was taken up, when Mr. T.
D. Stetson gave a detailed account of the various submerged cables that
have been laid, and the methods adopted to overcome the difficulties
experienced in their working. A large part of those submerged on the
Eastern continent have ceased to work well, without any well defined
cause being given. The practical working of a cable coiled in a tank filled
with water, such as the new Atlantic cable is being subjected to, does not
argue the same result as when placed at the bottom of the ocean, as there
difi'erent influences are at work. He had considerable doubt in his mind,
notwithstanding all that had been said on the subject by what may be called
good authority, whether there has ever been a dispatch sent through the
first Atlantic cable after it was laid; although we have credible accounts
of dispatches being sent through one line in the Mediterranean 1,700 miles
long, most of which was submerged. Mr. Stetson here exhibited a speci-
men of the new Atlantic cable, now being finished in England, which is
made on nearly the same principle as the first one, only being about twice
the size of the old one.

Dr. R. P. Stevens said there appeared to be some radical defects in the
plan of telegraphing across the Atlantic ocean. If unfortunately the cable
should break, it would be a very difficult matter to mend it, and a continu-
ous wire of some 2,300 miles at the bottom of the ocean, where no defect
can be seen, is hardly to be expected. The next question is, how long will
the material last of which the cable is composed. I feel convinced that it
will decay at the bottom of the ocean. At the present time the ocean con-
tains salts of copper and acids that will affect the metal covering of the
wire, and the vegetable matter, such as the hemp and gutta percha used in
its construction must sooner or latter be destroyed. There are scavengers

488 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

in the sea, as well as on the land, and these animals in the ocean will cat
every kind of vegetable matter. Tliere appeai-s to be no provision mad<i to
overcome this difficulty in the new cable about being laid, a piece of wliich
we have before us. The only route tliat was destined to succeed, was in
his view, that now being- built overland across this continent by way of
Behring Straits. E.xtending in a northwest direction from the Red Eiver
of the North there is a route entirely across the British possessions, which
is free from mountain ranges, broad rivers, and other serious obstruction.
It is inhabited by half breed Indians wlio have been trained to labor by
the Hudson's Bay Company, and who could be easily employed to put up
the line and keep it in repair. By this route a line of telegraph can be
constructed from New York city to the Russian pos8(!Ssions without
encountering a sigle mountain in the vidiole distance. This is a fact that
those who publish our school geographies do not seem to be aware of. The
objection he had heard against this route was the fear of its being des-
troyed by the hostile tribes wh(j inliabit the region through which the wire
must pass, but he apprehended very little dangm- from this source, as it
could be easily made to the interest of these tribe^ to take care of and not
destroy it. He was informed by a gentleman of experience engaged in
the telegraph business, that there has always been more fear of damage to
the wires from the " bulls and bears" of Wall street, than from the savages
alon"" the route through which the line passed. He was told that on the
arrival of a steamer, or when important news was at hand, the utmost
vigilance of the company was exercised to ke(>p the wires from being cut
by interested parties who could claim no relationship to savages. In a
very short time the Californians will have a line that will reach Russia.
And although they have great obstacles tc^ contend with, still there is that
enterprise on the western coast thai eventuuUy must succeed. But as he
said the best route is that northwest from St Pauls, clear to and across
Kamtschatka, by which we avoid the n)ountains and the great storms that
Bweep over the plains. And through this valley there will be found phmty
of timber for posts. And from the time it strikes the Red River, probably
550 miles from St. Pauls, clear thiough to the British possessions, the line
can be under the control of the .Hudson's Bay Company.

Mr. Benjamin P. Finnell exhibited a piece of the first Atlantic cable from
on board the steamship "Niagara," and since kept in a damp place; the gutta
percha was fV)und to be shrunk haif an inch in the piece eight inches lung,
■while the outer iron wires and the hemp remained the same as when made.
He said thnt the outer irr)n wires which C(n'ered the gutta percha was
wound over it in a spiral form, whicii of course was elastic, while the cop-
per wires in the centre being laid lenglhwiiys could not yield in the least.
The effects of this on a cable of some miles in length was obvious.

Mr. Johnson said he observed the size (<f the wire, which formed the core
of the new cable, was very small. In his experience in telegraphy he
found that with two of Groves batteries wire like this would become very
brittle and is easily broken. Now it is a question of some iinportance,
what will be the effect of several batteries of intensity sufficient to send
electricity 2,000 miles. We know that such batteries must generate a great
amount of heat, sufficient to melt a wire of such fineness. When the line

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 489

between New York and Boston was first laid, the wires were covered with
guttapercha, and it was found that this substance impeded the velocity
of the current. However much inclined to see the Atlantic project suc-
ceed, he had very serious doubts of its becoming practical. He had seen
wire eight miles long unwound from a coil and it was twisted in such
shapes that on straiglitening it out it broke in several places. Would not
the new Atlantic cable be. subject to the same trouble? At Crawfords-
ville, Indiana, he had seen a local magnet break after three months use.

The Pacific Telegraph was selected as the subject for the next discus-
sion. Adjourned.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, )
February I6//1, 18G5. )

Prof. S. D. Tillman in the Chair.

Automatic Fan.

Mr. Chipman exhibited a model of his oscillating fan, for keeping flies
and other winged insects from alighting on and injuring articles. It was
worked by clock gearing. Tlie advantage of this machine over others,
the inventor claimed was the small power used to operate it, the fans being
counterbalanced. This fan was also designed to be used for hospitals, and
for keeping off mosquitoes. The price was from eight to ten dollars.

Mr. Jireh Bull remarked that some few years ago he was in an estab-
lishment on Broadway, where a steam engine was employed to operate
large fans, and the proprietor told him that he was more than repaid for
the expense he incurred, by the saving of his goods from damage by flies
and insects generally.

The Chairman read hip summary of scientific news.

The Chimes in the Church of St. Germain, L'Auxerrois.

The new chimes will consist of forty bells. M. Colin has invented a
cheap form of barrel, by which a large number of airs can be supplied,
thus breakihg the monotony usually belonging to chimes. One of those
barrels will cost about fifty dollars, whereas not less than Si 2, 000 was
paid for a single barrel belonging to the celebrated chimes of Bruges.

Mr. William H. Butler said that some ten years ago the chimes in Trinity
Church, in this citj, were worked by keys, the same as a piano.

Japanese Matches.

Dr. A. N. Hoffman exhibited before the London Chemical Socioty some
matches or fuzes brought from Japan by the Prussian expedition. Beauti-
ful arborescent scintillations were thrown off during their combustion. The
nature of the composition was the point of interest, some persons having
supposed the peculiar light must be the effect of st^el filings, but analysis
had shown the composition consisted of two parts wood charcoal, three
parts of sulphur, and six and a half parts of nitre. The paper covering
was of the finest description, and known as Chinese paper. About forty
milligrams of the mixture was folded up with each match.

490 transactions of the american institute.

Zinc Relief.

Bocttger described at Giessen, a method of writing on zinc with a solu-
tion consisting of one part of chloride of platinum, one part of gum Arabic,
and ten parts of water, by which black characters are produced. When
the plate is placed in dilute nitric acid, the parts not written upon are
eaten away, and the writing stands out in relief.

On Drops.

Prof. Guthrie of Mauritius, in an elaborate paper, read before the Koyal
Society on drops. After detailing the numerous experiments made by the
author, to ascertain the sizes of drops obtained from various liquids under
different conditions, he gives the following laws governing a liquid dropping
from a solid through a gas.

1. The drop size depends upon the rate of dropping. Generally the
quicker the succession of drops, the greater the drop; the slower the rate
the more strictly is this the case. This law depends upon the difference, at
different rates, of the thickness of the film from which the drop falls.

2. The drop size depends upon the nature and quantity of the solid,
which the dropping liquid holds in solution. If the liquid stands in no
chemical relation to the solid, in general, the drop-size diminishes as the
quantity of solid contained in the liquid increases. The cause of this seems
to be, that the stubborn cohesion of the liquid is diminished by the solid
in solution. When one or more combinations between the liquid and solid
are possible, the drop-size depends upon indeterminate data. For example
certain varieties of the drop-size of solutions of chloride of calcium of dif-
ferent strengths, point to the existence of definite hydrates; while the regu-
larity of the variation of drop-size in the case of nitrate of potash, points to
the absence of hydrates.

3. The drop-size depends upon the chemical nature of the dropping liquid,
and little or nothing upon its density. Of all liquids examined, water has
the greatest, and acetic acid the least drop size. It is remarkable that
butyric acid, which has sensible the same specific gravity as water, gives
a drop le^s than half the size of the water drop.

4. The drop-size depends upon the geometric relation between the solid and
the liquid. If the solid be spherical, the largest drops fall from the largest
spheres. Absolute difference in radii, takes a greater effect upon drops
formed from smaller, than upon those formed from larger spheres. Of cir-
cular horizontal planes, within certain limits, the size of the drop varies
directly with the size of the plane.

The fact that the drop increases in size according to the increasing radius
of the sphere from which the drop falls, and that tlie difference from
this cause may amount to half the largest drop-size, the author regards as
important to dispensers of medicines. The lip of a bottle from which a
drop falls is usually ring-shaped. The amount of solid in contact with the
dropping liquid is determined by the size of the two diameters, one measur-
ing the width of the rim of the neck, the other its thickness. In most
cases the curvature and massing of the solid at the point whence the liquid
drops, is so irregular as not to admit of any mathematical expression.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 491

5. The drop size depends upon the chemical nature of the solid, from
■which tlie drop falls, and little or nothing upon its density. Of all the
solids examined, antimony delivers the smallest, and tin the larg-cst drops.

6. The drop-size depends upon the temperature generally, the higher the
temperature the smaller the drop. With water the effect of a change of
temperature of 20^ to 30* centigrade is very small.

The nature or tension of the gaseous medium has little or no effect upon
the drop size.

The Barberry.

if. Boutin communicated a note to the Academy of Sciences, Paris, on
the advantage to be gained by cultivating the Mahonia Ilicifolia. The
juice of the barberry will yield eight per cent of alcohol of agreeable
tlavor. The wine made from it is too acid. The seeds when roasted make
a drink very like coffee in taste and appearance.

Photographs of Natural Colors.

This subject is still under investigation by M. Niepce de St. Victor. He
finds that the chlorides which give colored flames reproduce objects of the
same color as the flame. Chlorine, chloride of copper and perchloride of
iron appear to be the best agents, and by varying the dose of chlorine and
chloride he obtains certain colors in a marked manner. They are, however,
not permanent. But this gentleman has been completely distanced by M.
Chambray, of Mauritius, if the newspaper report be true. The 'portraits
made by M. Chambray are incredible resemblances of the originals- life
circulates under the skin, and the color is unchangable. These wonders
have not yet reached Paris. Americans, who have had some experience in
this particular " sensation," are not impatient to hear the particulars re-
garding these discoveries.

Sugar from Palms.

Dr. De Vey exhibited to the Scientific Congress at Giessen a specimen of
sugar made from the juice of certain palms growing in Ceylon and Java,
and stated that it was producible in large quantities.

Electro-Magnetic Locomotive.

The model of the invention of Messrs. Bellett and De Roavre has been
exhibited at Versailles, France. The driving power is attached to a single
pair of wheels in the rear. A number of magnets are arranged radially on
these wheels, one pole being at the circumference. The Voltaic current is
sent from the center of each wheel to all the magnets in succession, and
these latter act directly on the rail itself. The inventors propose besides
the large locomotive to make a small one for carrying packages at the rate
of 120 miles per hour. The great expense of this kind of engine has been
fully proved in this country. The only advantage it possesses as a motor
for locomotives is that no injurious gas is formed by the products of com-
bustion.

Vaccination.

The smallpox is rather prevalent in Paris, and it is recommended to fcl-

492 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

low the practice of vaccinatirtg directly from tlie cow to insure safety
against taking' aiiy otlier contagion with the smallpox. A new idea haa
been started — to drink the milk of tlie infected cow. The doctor has found
it effectual, and now recommends that young ladies who are afraid of the
lancet should drink a glass of this kind of milk every three or four years.

Dr. Vander Weyde, formerly one of the active members of the Polytech-
nic, makes the following connnunication to the N. Y. Herald.

Photography as a Detective.

As a matter of information to your many readers, I wish to remark that
as the dark retina of the eye lies in the interior, and is entirely invisible,
so any image seen in the eye is due to the reflection of the outer surface or
cornea, and that when taking an enlarged photograph of it these images
may always be seen in the print. These are simply the images of the ob-
jects reflected at the time and place when and where the picture is taken.
1 had once the image of myself and apparatus visible in an enlarged da-
guerreot3'pe of a living eye, and it is indeed difficult to photograph an eye
at all without obtaining such reflected images.

The human face seen in the photographed eye of the murdered woman in
Florence was (if really a human face), undoubtedly the image of the artist's ^
own face when he took the picture. In a living eye the image is a perfect
likeness. In a dead eye this image is, by the collapse of the cornea, either
destroyed or at least distorted and inipe;fect, and caiuiot be recognized.

Wlien we take into account all the conditions necessary to produce a
permanent image of any object, it appears surprising that persons are found
who have any laith in such a fable as that the eye of a dead person could
possibly contain an}^ permanent visible picture. Probably the poetry of
the idea strikes and pleases the imagination of many; but all belief in it is
destro^'ed when tested by the true philosophy of facts and experience.

P. H. Vander Weyde, iM. D.,
Professor of Industrial Science.

GiRARD College, Philadelphia, Feb. 6, 1865.

GoTTscHALK, in his " Notes of a Pianist," in the February number of the
Atlantic Montldy, thus discourses:

Music as a Physical Agent.

" It communicates to the body shocks which agitate the members to their
base. In churches the flame of the candles oscillates to the quake of the
organ. A powerful orchestra near a sheet of water ruffles its surface. A
learned traveler speaks of an iron ring which swings to and fro to the mur-
mur of the Tivoli Falls. In Switzerland I excited at will, in a poor child
afflicted with a frightful nervous malady, lysterical and catalyptic crises,
by playing in the minor key of E flat. The celebrated Doctor Bertier asserts
that the sound of a drum gives him the colic. Certain medical men state
that the notes of the trumpet quicken the pulse and induce slight perspira-
tion. The sound of the bassoon is cold; the notes of the Frenc'i horn at a
distance, and of the harp, are voluptious. The flute played softly in the
middle register calms the nervesl The low notes of the piano frighten
children. I once had a dog who would generally sleep on hearing music,
but the moment I played in the minor key he would ba>-k pitcously Tho

PROCEEDINGS OP THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 493

dog" of a celebrated singei- wliom I knew would moan bitterly and g'ive
sig'ns of violent suffering' the instant tli:it his mistress clianted a chromatic
gamut. A certain chord produces on my sense of hearing the same effect
as the heliotrope on iny sense of smell and the pineapple on my sense of
taste. Rachel's voice delighted the ear by its ring before one had time to
seize- the sense of what was said, or appreciate the purity of h(!r diction.

"We may affirm, then, that musical sound, rhythmical or not, agitates
the whi)le physical economy — quickens the pulse, incites perspiration, and
produces a pleasant momentary irritatittn of the nervous s^'stem."

Alter speaking of music as a moral agent, he thus treats of

MUSIC AS A COMPLEX AGENT.

It acts at once on the instinct, the forces, the organism. It has a psycho-
logical action. Tlie negroes charm serpents by whistling to them. It is
said that fawns are captivated by a melodious voice; the bear'is aroused
with tiie fife; canaries an sparrows enjoy the flageolet; in tlie Antilles,
lizards are enticed from their retreats by the whistle. Spiders have an af-
fection for fiddlers; in Switzerland the herdsmen attach to the neck of the
handsomest cows a large bell of which they are so proud that while they
are allowed to wear it they walk at the head of the herd; in Andalusia tlie
mules lose their spirit and power of endurance if deprived of the numer(jus
bells with which it is customary to deck these intelligent animals; in the
mountains of Scotland and Switzerland the herds pasture best to the sound
of the bagpipe; and in tlie Oberlaud, cattle strayed from the herd are re-
called by the trumpet.

"Music being a phijsical agent, that is to say, acting on the individual
without the aid of his intelligence; a moral agent, that is to say, reviving
his memory, exciting his imagination, developing his sentiment ; and a
complex agent, that is to say, having a physiological action on the instincts,
the organism, the forces of the man — I deduce from tliis that it is one of
the most powerful means for ennobling the mind, elevating the morals, and
above all, refining the manners."

Silvering Mirrors.

At the Giessen congress Bothe's process for silvering glass was given. The
inventor uses oxytartrate of silver, in a solution of ammoniacal nitrate of sil-
ver, and produces beautiful results.

Sound from Muscles.

At the same congress Helmholtz presented a paper on the production of
sound from the contraction of muscle by which he is enabled to determine the
number of vibrations in the muscle.

Pacific Telegraph.

The regular discussion was opened by Dr. I. B. Rich, who exhibited maps
and diagrams of the Pacific railroad, and explained very clearly and minutely
its course. Ilis remarks, promised by him for this report, have not been
furnished. This debate naturally led to

Electro-magnetism.

The Chairman said it was important to remember the manner in whicti the
poles of an electro-magnet were changed by direction of the electric current.

494 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERTCAN INSTITUTE.

The wire surrounding an electro-magnet is arranged spirally, but the wires
carry the electric force around a magnetic needle are necessarily parallel with
each other above and below it. To fix in the memory the manner in which
the poles of a magnetic needle are changed, let a person imagine his spine to
be the wire and the electric current to pass from the head toward the feet ; his
extended arms will represent a needle above the wire ; his right hand will
represent the north pole, and left hand the south pole. By a simple mnemon-
ical rule this position may be remembered. S will stand for the south pole
and the sinister or left hand. If the current pass from the feet to the head
the poles are reversed.

The Chairman then directed attention to

Ohm's Law.

Prof. Ohm, after investigation, announced the following law : The inten-
sity of the Voltaic current is equal to the electro-motive force divided by the
resistance. If I represent the intensity, E the electro-motive force, and R
the resistance, the law is expressed by the following formula :

R

The resistance of a conductor depends on three properties : 1st. Its con-
ductibility, which is a constant for each conductor. 2d. Its section; and 3d.
Its length.

The resistance is inversely, as the section, and directly, as the length of the
conducting wire. In the case of a metallic wire, the greater the conducting
power of the metal, and the greater its diameter, the less the resistance, but
the greater the length of the wire the greater the resistance. If c represent
the conductibility of the wire, s the area of its transverse section, and I its

length : then R = — •. Substituting this value of R in the first equation,

we have, when £ is a constant,

- E _ EXcs

T — ~r" '

cs

In a Voltaic battery, composed of different elements, the intensity of the
current is equal to the sum of the electro-motive forces of all the elements
divided by the resistance. The elements of a battery are usually of the
same kind, and the resistances are two : 1st. That ofi'ered by the liquid con-
ductor, called the internal or essential resistance ; and 2d. That ofiei'ed by
the wire connecting the plates outside of the liquid, called the external or
non-essential resistance.

Upon the conclusion of his remarks, the Chairman announced the selected
subject for discussion, " The Manufacture of I3ells " Adjourned.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, )
February 2'dd, 1865. j

Prof. D. L, Tillman presiding.

Fine Chinese Carving.

During the miscellaneous busiuess. Dr. Ilich exhibited a string of olive
pits, on which were some very fiue specimens of Chinese carving. He said

PRCfCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 495

there were Ihrec places in China noted for different kinds of carving. At
Ningpo they carve exclusively in wood, and at Amoy they are celebrated for
fine pit carving, such as those exhibited. They are really beautiful, the very
small figures and the various character of each pit is remarkable, every pit
having an entirely diff rent subject engraved on it. There is one that has
GOO faces carved on it. This is all done with three or four small steel gouges
and a bow-saw, such as watchmakers use. The work is done in the open
street ; twt) or three Chinese carvers will sit around a small table and make
these fine figures without using magnifying glasses. At Canton they work
in ivory only.

Velocity of the Pistons of Steam Engines.

Mr. "Watson said he had seen it stated in the English journals that they
were about constructing engines that would have a speed of 350 feet per min-
ute. That speed might be something new in England, but we have engines
in this country the pistons of which travel 750 feet per minute. Most of the
engines on the boats running on Long Island Sound make 500 feet.

Tlic Chairniun read the fulluwing- items of scientific news.-

A New Electro-Magnet.

M. Cavlier, of Paris, has made an eUctro-magnet by means of a helix of
uncovered wire, which is stated by trustworthy experimenters to have
nearly three times the attractive power found in a magnet of similar size
in a coil of covered wire of equal length. The requisite condition to be
observed to obtain this eflect is that the different coats of wire shall be
separated by a sheet of paper, and that the exterior of the bobbins, whether
in wood or copper, shall be covered also with an isolating substance.

Mr. Bartlett stated that Dr, John Bradley, of this city, some years ago
made helixes of uncovered wire. His magnets are so much sought after
that he cannot now supply his orders

Suspended Magnetic Action.

M. Plateau has treated, mathematically, the question of the suspending
of a magnetic needle in the air by ^he contrary action of two magnets, and
concludes that it is quite impossible to obtain such equilibrium, whatever
may be the number and distribution of the magnets. Thus the legend of
Mahocnet's coffin falls to the ground.

On the Cause and Cure of Cataract.

Sir David Brewster, while presiding at the late meeting of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, stated that many years ago his attention had been
directed to this subject in consequence of having experienced an incipient
attack of this disease. Luminous bodies appeared surrounded by imper-
fectly triangular lines of light, some parts of which were deeply tinged
wi;h prismatic colors. He traced the cause of this disease to a deficiency
in the supply of the liquor morcjani in the crystaline lens, and its conse-
quent separation into laminse. The cure was effected in eight months by
copious and continuous 'doses of pulvis salinum compositum. He supposed
the supply of fluid to the crystaline lens might be derived from the aqueous

496 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

•

Immor, and tlie cataract might result from too iarg-e a percentage of albu-
men in that secretion. The cure might be effected, first by injecting water
into the aqueous huinor, or, second, by tapping the, aqueous cjiaiuber in
the hope that the new secretion would contain less albumen than the old.
The cure of the soft cataract, on the other hand, would be effected by intro-
ducing albumen into the aqueous humour. These views have since re-
ceived confirmation from various researches of physiologists.

Metamorphoses in Fishes.

Prof. Agassiz, of Harvard College, in a communication to the Paris
Academy of- Sciences, states that he has lately observed certain fishes un-
dergo metamorphoses quite as marked as that of the tadpole to the frog,
and he expresses the opinion that a natural classification of fishes can be
founded on the correspondence which exists between the embryonic de-
velopments and the complication of their structure in the developed state.

Iron and Steel Shavings.

The long spirals resulting from turning iron or steel in a lathe have been
found by M. Greiss to possess very decided and permanent magnetic pi'op-
erties. This is particularly the case with shavings from soft iron. The
pnd of the turning first made is found to be invariably the south pole, and
the last end made the north pole. Mr. Greiss also observed that the shav-
ing whose revolutions were made in an opposite direction to those of the
hands of a watch, the observer being the south pole, were more magnetic
than those corresponding with the motions of the watch hands.

Elasticity of Steel Wires.

Prof. J. C. Maxwell thus writes to Dr. Tyndall, of the Royal Institution,
London: I have been swinging discs, &c., by torsion a good deal, and I ,
find that after a steel wire has been twisted until it takes a slight set, and
so has a new position of equilibrium, it gradually entwists itself with a
ver}' slow motion, so that after four hours it is still creeping back to its
position before it was twisted. A wire twisted and allowed to untwist
back to its first position, undergoing a slow molecular change, is therefore
not only a reservoir of energy, like the wound up spring of a watch at rest,
but a moving agent like a watch going, because it gradually uncoils itself.
I suppose the strained state of the external parts is gradually overcome
by the constant torsion force arising from the inner parts of the wire, which
are never overstrained. I find that the set produced by very slight torsion
is as the -square of the angle of torsion; just as in the case of very slight
magnetization the resident magnetism is as the square of the maximum.

Manufacturing and Use of Bells.

This being the subject for the evening, Mr. Watson made some diagrams
on the black-board, illustrating tiie meth<;d of making the moulds for cast-
ing large bells. Ho said, it was remarkable that the largest casting we
have, was made by people that we look upon as semi-barbarians. The
great bell of Moscow, which was cast a little before the year 1600 and
weighing 400,000 pounds, excites our admiration. The mere money value

I

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 497

of this bell is estimated at 300,000 dollars. Wiien it was cast, it was left
for a long' time in the pit, on account of not having- a lifting apparatus
capable of removing it, but a method wms at last devised, and it was
placed in the chapel of the Tzar. In a short time the bell was cracked,
when it was taken down. In Moscow there are more large bells than in
any other city on the contineiit. They have 1190 bells there, and a chime
of 32 bells in one tower. The largest casting in modern times is that of
an anvil block weighing 1-10 tons.

Mr. James Harrison said, we were indebted to a member of this Institute
for taking a photograph of the bell of Moscow, which gives us an exact
view of it and its present position. When it was raised from the pit and
placed in the chapel, it was struck one or two blows, when it cracked. It
now stands on a stone-wall; the peice that was broken out, is used as a
door to enter the bell. It is impossible to conceive how so massive a work
cnuld be executed, particularly in that age of the world. 400,000 pounds
of metal, poured into one mass at the same time, is very remarkable. The
inscriptions around the bell are exceedingly beautiful, and altogether it
fi)rms one of the most wonderful pieces of workmanship known.

For hundreds of years until quite recently, all bells have been made of
a composition of copper and tin. Indeed, so identical was this compo-
sition with bells that it has been and is now known as bell-metal. While
the inventive genius of the people had been applied to the improvement of
all other articles of manufacture, that of bells has escaped their notice.
Perhaps one reason for this was that it seemed impossible to make them of
any other material than the old bronze metal. But in 1855 a discover}^ was
made in Prussia that bells could be made of cast steel, and their introduc.
tion has reduced their costs very considerably, and at the same time
awakened a spirit of inquiry which has led to many improvements. But
the question is raised, will bells made of steel and its compositions be
durable? Will they not break ? A little reflection will show that steel is
much the strongest metal, and experience has proved that steel bells are
durable. They are not as likely to break as bells of other metdls. Of
course, bells will be broken, no matter what kind of metal they are
made uf, if they are struck violently in one place for any great length of
time.

The key of a bell should be adapted to its weight, as the tone naturally
becomes deeper with the increase of weight, and vice versa. There are
some peculiarities about the distance that bells can be heard that is not
yet fully understood. There are some bells of 250 pounds that have been
heard in clear weather four miles off, and some of 500 pounds that are
heard 8 miles; while there are others of equal size and weight that cannot
be heard more than half those distances.

The opinion seems to be that a great deal depends upon the location
as well as upon the manner in which the bell-room is built. It has been
found that bells are heard much farther in those towers where the bell-
room is left open witJKjut blinds, and with the top ceiled immediately above
the windows. The largest bells are not always heard at the greatest dis-
tance— for instance, the bell in our City Hall park, weighing 22,000 pounds,
[Am. Inst.] F*

498 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

cannot be heard as far as one located in the upper part of the cWy weighing
only 11,000 pounds. Bells of the higher keys can be heard farther than
those of lower k(;ys, but deep-toned bells are the more pleasant. Church
and alarm bells are expensive luxuries, or necessities, and a fragile kind of
property. They are frequently put to very hard use; and the metal of
which they are made, will not always bear with safety the severe pounding
they receive. A church bell while ringing, will receive about 1,000 blows
every hour, struck with a clapper or hammer weighing from 50 to 80 lbs.,
and each blow striking in the same place, that part becomes heated, and in
cold weather that portion is expanded, and operates like a wedge upon
other parts of the bell. Improvements have been made of late, by which
a bell can be turned round, so that the clapper will strike a different place
at each blow.

On motion it was decided to continue this discussion at the next meeting.
Adjourned.

American Institute Polytechnic Assocr.\TioN
llarch 2d, 1865

'■}

Prof. S. D. Tillman, presiding.

The Chairman introduced to the audience Mr. David Christy, who has
traveled extensively in the Middle and Western States and made many
observations which will be found of great interest.

Serpent Fascination.

The power of serpents to charm the smaller classes of animals, which
they capture for food, has long been held as an undoubted fact. It has
also been believed that they could fascifiate the larger orders of animals,
so as to bring them within range of their deadly fangs ; and that- even the
intellect of man is not exempt from their influence. The common theory
upon this subject gives to the serpent, having the power of fascination, an
ability to gain the attention of its victims, to paralyze them as if by an
electrical influence, and to attract them toward itself as if by magnetism.

Birds, more generally, are supposed to be the victims of these charms.
They have been seen moving around serpents in such a manner as to indi-
cate, in the opinion of the observers, that they were under the power of
fascination. The testimony upon this point describes the bird as moving
in a circle, or a semicircle, around the serpent. If upon the ground, they
run with extended wings, gradually narrowing their circle of motion, but
never stopping for an instant, till within a foot or two of the serpent.
Then, as if conscious of their peril, and just at the moment they are about
to be seized, they fling themselves backward on the wing, so as to be out
of the reach of their terrible enemy. The birds, thus escaping for the
moment, stop and survey the foe from their distant position. This seems
to be a fatal dallying with danger. The serpent's eye, quick as the light-
ning's flash, again darts its mysterious magic into theirs ; and again and
again they advance and recede, as if drawn irresistibl}^ toward the ]ioint
which has become the all-absorbing centre of attraction. If the serpent is

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 499

upon a tree, tho bird flutters around it, advancing- anrl rctrcatinr^ as wlien
upon the ^^round,

The popular interpretation of these movements of the birds is this : the
serpent establishes a connection between itself and them, by which it con-
trols their wills, and draws them within its reach. In accomplishing- this
object, it docs not g-o iu pursuit of them, but lies in coil, witli head erect,
awaiting their approach. It appears, however, that the serpent's power
has its well-defined limits, and its own ppculiar philosophical phenomena.

If the movements of birds toward it are due to the. attractive powers
Employed b}' the serpent, then the law of attraction in this case is a posi-
tive reversion of the laws of magnetic attraction. The attractive power of
the magnet is greatest, wlicn tlie body acted upon is in contact with it, and
it loses its force in proportion to the distance to wliich that body may be
removed. That is to say, it requires more force to remove a piece of iron
when in contact with a magnet, than is required for its removal, when at
a distance of several inches from it. But such is not the case with the
serpent's power of attraction. In the supposed fascination, the birds,
though unable, while at tlie distance of ten or a dozen feet, to resist its
attractive powers, are able, nevertheless, at" the last moment, when the
devourer is in the act of striking, to break the charm, and, by a reverse
movement, to fling themselves instantly out of danger's way. Thus it
appears, that when the birds are at a distance, the serpent can draw them
within its reach ; but that when they come in close contract, its attractive
power is lost, and they can retreat without hindrance.

Such is the theory of fascination, as based upon occurrences that have
been witnessed by many observers. Its philosophical defects may be
inferred from the hints already given ; but whether such transactions
prove that serpents possess the power of fascination, or that the observers
have been mistaken in their deductions, will be better understood when a
case is stated which was witnessed by myself.

Business led me to cross the Chilhowee Mountain in Tennessee, on the
27th of June, 185T. When near Montvale Springs, two birds were noticed
at a couple of rods distance from the road, which were acting in a manner
new and strange to me. They were in an open space, near the stump of
a fallen tree, but did not take fright at my approach, as under ordinary
circumstances they would have done. On reaching a point opposite to
them, it was noticed that they were tlie brown mocking bird or tln-ush, and
that a very large black snake lay coiled at the side of the stump. On
seeing me, it suddenly began to uncoil itself, and move otF as if to make
its escape; the birds at the same time pausing a moment in their move-
ments. But before it had stretched itself to more than half its length,
thoy were again in motion, and flew at it in a most energetic manner.
Instantly, the snake once more whirled itself into coil in its former posi-
tion. The male bird then commenced to run and skip with great activity
in a semi-circle, the serpent being the centre, and gradually closed in until
within a foot or two of its coils, when, with a sudden dart forward, the
bird thrust its head toward that of the snake, and, in the same instant,
threw itself backward, alighting on the ground at the distance of about
ten feet. Before the male had closed this feat, the female had commenced

500 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

a similar set of actions. All the movements of the birds were made
with extended wings, as if ready to fly in a moment. By the time
the female had thrown itself back from the snake, the' male was in
position again, repeating the same movement as at first. In the meantime
my horse had carried me some four or five rods into a thicket of bushes,
whilhor my hand had guided him, and where I dismounted and secured
him. All this took place in a minute or two; and as onl3'' an indistinct
view had been gained of the action of the birds in passing, a favorable
position for observation was taken, so that all that occurred could be noted.
The first movement of the male bird, in thrusting its head forward into
close contact with the snake, impressed me with the conviction that a case
of the so-called fascination was enacting before me, and I determined to
observe it in a philosophical manner.

It was half-past one o'clock p. m. The birds were still eagerly at work,
when I turned my eye upon them after the interruption of hitching ray
horse. They were panting, as if greatly fatigued by long exertion, but
manifested not the least disposition to remit their efforts. If not fascina-
ted, they were at least so earnestly enlisted in the affair on hand as to dis-
regard every thing else around them. The snake lay in its coil, with head
erect and drawn back, so as to be in the best possible position to strike and
seize the birds as thej advanced. The many convolutions of its lengtlicned
body moved in graceful curves, as its glittering head followed their motions.
Its eye sparkled in the sunlight like the polished diamond, while its move-
ments gave to its ever-shifting scales the brilliant hues of the rainbow.
Again and again, as the birds approached, it would strike at them, with
open mouth, exhibiting a malignity of disposition that portended death to
them, had they been seized in its jaws.

A few minutes sufficed to show that a battle, and not a scene of fascina-
tion, was presented before me. The birds at each approach, struck the
snake with their beaks, or with their talons, when generally, but not
always, it darted forward at them, only to find that it was aiming at a
moveable target. This can be easily explained. The snake in striking,
could never project itself more than about two-thirds of its length, but its
defense was made with determined courage. Its position by the stump
protected it in the rear, so that the birds could only approach it in the
front. They were as adroit in their attacks as it was resolute in its
defense. In attempting to seize them, it could not curve to either side
after starting, so as to follow their motions, but invariably shot forward
in a straight line to the point the^^ occupied when it made its spring. The
birds in advancing to the attack by a circular movement, were certain of
being away from the spot at which it aimed, and when its teeth smacked
together where it expected its prey, it had nothing in its grasp.

The warfare lasted after I had reached the spot, about twenty-five
minutes by the watch. Once or twice during the contest, the reptile
made a movement to escape up the hillside, but the birds, as at its first
attempt, immediately brought it into position again. At last, seeming to
despair of success in securing a dinner in that locality, it darted oft" down
the hill toward a grove of trees and bushes, nor turned to the right or
left, The birds swept after it, pecking, scratching and striking it with

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 501

their wings, as if inspired with the consciousness that victory was
theirs.

At this moment I rushed forward, and after some difficulty, killed the
snake and cut it open. Tlierc was not a particle of food from one end to
the other of the intestinal canal. It must, thevefore, have been hungry;
and if it possessed the faculty of charming, it would undoubtedly have
employed its powers on audi a delicacy as these birds.

When the dissection of the snake was finished, the birds were not to be
seen. It was the season when their young were in the nest; and doubtless,
the contiict which had just terminated, had been waged for the protection
of their oftspring. Less active birds, venturing as close as they did to
their enemy, must have been captured.

Remaining most of the summer in the mountains of North Carolina, fre-
quent opportunities were afforded of inquiring of hunters and others, what
they knew about birds being charmed by serpents. All believed in. the
theory of fascination, and several had witnessed encounters such as I have
described; but none had ever seen the snake seize the bird. Thej' had
looked on until the bird as they supposed, was attempting to thrust its
head, under the influence of the charm, into the serpent's mouth, when they
had rushed forward and killed the serpent to save the bird from destruc-
tion. In all the inquiries made, no instance has been related where there
was au}-^ more evidence of fascination than in the one observed by myself.
In all cases, however, there was a singular uniformity in the descriptions
of the manner in which the birds fluttered around the snakes. So nearly
did their accounts correspond with what I had witnessed, that I was con-
vinced of the truthfulness of their statements.

A few additional facts having an important bearing upon the subject of
fascination, came under my own notice during 1859. In the summer of
that year, some amusing incident led me to secure a number of serpents of
diflereut species, and amongst them a couple of fine specimens of the rat-
tlesnake. This serpent is somewhat sluggish in its movements, and unlike
many other species of its order, is not an active climber. While many
of the others can with ease ascend bushes, trees and precipices, to rob the
nests of birds of their eggs or young ones, the rattlesnake, less agile, has
to find its prey in a more limited range. For this reason, it has been sup-
posed that the rattlesnake must possess the power of fascination; other-
wise, it could not secure, as it does, such active animals as mice, rats,
squirrels, rabbits and birds; for, as has been plausibly asserted, this ser-
pent assuredly will not use poisoned food; will not first strike the animals
it designs to eat; and then, some of these animals are combatants of no
trifling power, and could easily kill the snake or escape from it; so that
unless the rattlesnake is endowed with the ability to fascinate, it is averred
it could itvt possibly capture the food upon which it subsists.

The opinion that venomous serpents do not eat the animals they kill by
the poison of their fangs, like many other popular notions, turned out to be
an error. This I know from my own personal observation; and for the
satisfaction of naturalists a few particulars are given. My specimens were
placed in a box covered with glass, and having a wooden lid secured by
lock and key. A few small holes, for ventilation, were made in the sides

502 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

of the box, but too small to allow the escape of even a mouse. Birds,
when put into the box, in the division including- the rattlesnake, would
often hop around and over it for hours unmolested; but, at leng-th, when in
a favorable position, the snake would strike the fatal blow, and death ensue
in a few minutes. One instance only need be noticed; a l>alf grown bird,
when struck, at once commenced screaming' with wings outstretched,, and,
turning'. round once or twice, seemed to droop aud^icken rapidly. In three
or four minutes from the moment it was bitten, it fell forward toward the
mouth of the rattlesnake and expired. Tlie movements of this bird were
in accordance with such actions as have been observed in cases where fas-
cination alone was supposed to be employed. In this case the charm was
a fatal one, truly, being nothing- less than the poison of the serpent cours-
ing through its veins.

The birds placed in the box were not swallowed by the rattlesnake seem-
ingly, as afterwards appeared, because it would not encumber its jaws so
as to be unprepared for defence while the human eye rested upon it. In
experimenting on the non-venomous species, it was found that they also
would not take their food when any person was present; but that when
alone and secure they would eat ravenously; one of them, the common bull
snake, having eaten nine young birds in a few hours. Profiting- by this
discovery, a rat, two-thirds grown, was thrown to the rattlesnake, when it
immediately struck it twice. The victim soon exhibited signs of dying,
and the box was closed and locked. Upon examination, fifteen minutes,
afterward, the rat had been swallowed and the serpent's thickness propor-
tionably increased.

By this experiment and others similar, it was ascertained that the rattle-
snake does eat food which has been poisoned by its own venom; and that
it is probable that it always captures its victims by striking them, as, un-
conscious of danger, they pass its place of concealment; the poison of its
fangs being a much more efiScient agency than the fascination of its eyes.

It may be remarked, in explanation, that although the poison of serpents
infused into the veins and arteries, is always fatal to the smaller animals,
yet it may be received into the stomach without injury, as it is easily
digested and exerts no prejudicial influence upon the system. In the
smaller animals killed by the bite of the snake, no inflammation, no swell-
ing of the body, takes place as in the case of the larger animals, for the
reason that the extinction of life occurs too soon to allow of any such effects.

If, then, the veriomous serpents eat the food killed by their own poison,
and ti\ii non-venomous species can climb almost everywhere that birds
build their nests, where is the necessity of any of these reptiles being
endowed with the powers of fascination ? They possess the means of
attack and defence, independent of the power of charming, in a degree fully
equal to the necessities of their existence, and, in this respect, are not
behind any other order in the animal kingdom. Why, then, should they
be given such an advantage, as fascination would confer, over the other
orders of the irrational creatur<?s ?

proceedings of the polytechnic association. 503

Earthquake of 1811 — Sandplows — Fissures — Production of

Lakes.

Truy, Obion county, Tennessee, is situated witliin tlie vanj^e of the great
cartlujuuke of 1811, which destroyed New Madrid, on the Mississippi rivel".
There arc two lakes in the neiffhborhood of Trov, which were formed durinjr
this earthquake. One of these lakes, visited during my journeyings, is
called Reel-foot Lake, and is from one to four miles wide, and forty miles
long. It runs parallel with the Mississippi, but owing to the serpentine
course of that stream, it variea in distance from it at some points one mile,
at others eight- Reel-foot river, which supplies this lake, had its outlet
formerly into the Mississippi, forty or fifty miles above its present mouth,
which is into the Obion riv(!r.

The general opinion has been that this lake, as well as the less extensive
one formed by the Obion river, were both produced by the sinking of the
earth; but an intelligent gentleman of that vicinity atsured me that this
theory of their origin was erroneous.

The first question, of course, was wliether these lakes were formed by the
earthquake. An affirmative answer was soon given. Military land war-
rants had been laid upon the lands now covered by the lakes, some time
previous to their immersion, and the surveys made and recorded; and bills
for the relief of those who had lost their lands by the earthquake, allowing
them to lift their warrants and locate elsewhere, had passed the National
Legislature. Before the passage of tliis relief law, one man had sold his
tract as first rate land; but tiie purchaser finding himself in possession of
only a ''water right," lesorted to lynch law and shot down the seller. For-
tunately he recovered from his wounds, but with the loss of his left eye— a
misfortune that turned to his advantage afterwards, as surveyor, enabling
him to use his instruments, in sighting, without the trouble of shutting an
eye. These facts are conclusive as to the earth(^uake origin of the lakes.

Bat other testiraonj^, of more importance to science, and equally conclu-
sive, still exists. Trees of the largest class, which grow only upon dry
grounds, were yet standing in the lakes at the time of my visit in 18-16,
but were all dead. The trunks of tlic cypress trees, wliich grow only in
swamps, partially covered by water, were submerged to the height of four-
teen or fifteen feet. The walnut, oak and other dry land trees, were but
slightly sunk in the water, sometimes only a few inches. There were also
points in the lakes where the trees are still growing, the grounds being
higher than the surface of the lake, and not covered by water.

It v,'ould appear from these facts that drj' land has existed on the spot
now occupied by the lake, and that the period when the water attained its
present elevation is so recent that green trees then submerged, so as to kill
them, have not yet had time to rot down; and that the rise of the water
must have been at least sixteen feet, because the cypress swamps are,
generally, at least two or three feet above the level of the water in the
streams, while the cypress trees in the lakes have their trunks covered to
the height of fourteen or fifteen feet.

These lakes, being of recent origin, the question remaining to be an-
swered is, how were they produced

504 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Close observation presented these facts: For the distance of twenty or
thirty miles back from the Mississippi river, and more than forty miles
south of Troy, the surface of the country here and there presents numerous
" sand-blows," as they are called by the people of that region. These are
mounds of sand, differing in size from a few bushels to many wagon loads,
and often only a few rods apart. They are principally in the valleys, but
sometimes exteiid to the higher grounds. The sand, in these " blows," is
very fine grained and light colored along Obion valley. They increase in
size in the direction of the Mississippi river and of these lakes. On the
western side of the Eeel-foot Lake, near the former outlet of that river,
some of these sand-blows are said to be half the height of a house, even
now, when they are all greatly flattened by time; and that places which
seem once to have been much lower, have been filled up by them.

Connected with these sand-blows are numerous fissures or chasms in the
earth. These are known to have been produced at the time of the earth-
quake; and as they abound in the region of the lakes, and some of them
are very large and occur oh hill sides, where the dislocated portions have
tumbled off, or slid down, the conclusion drawn by many was that the lakes
had been formed by the sinking of the earth. This opinion is sti'engtheued.
by the appearance of the extensive forest, before described, miles in length,
standing in fifteen feet water. Were this conclusion correct, then these
fissures ought to extend entirely around the margin of the lakes, which is
not the case; and all the streams emptying into the lakes from their old
levels, would have some fall at their mouths. But, instead of falls, there
is back-water in all such streams for several miles, and in the Reel-foot
"riv^er itself for ten miles.

The conclusion to which such facts lead, is that these lakes have not been
formed by the sinking of their beds, but that the waters have been raised
so as to overflow all the grounds of less elevation than fifteen feet above
the original level of Reel-foot river; and that this rise was caused by the
daunning up of its chanjiel by the sand-blows.

That these mounds of sand have not been formed by surface currents of
water, drifting the sand along the hills and valleys, seems certain, because
they are uniformly pure white sand, without any intermixture of clay or
leaves, or branches of trees, or gravel, or other surface substances.

But there is still another fact which more fully demonstrates that Reel-
foot Lake has been formed by its channel having been dammed up by
the sand-blows. At the foot of the lake, this river, leaving its old channel
towards tlie Mississippi, which has become an embankment of sand, starts
from the lake with a fall of fifteen feet, carrying it to the ordinary level of
the main Mississippi valley. From thence it reaches the Obion River, dis-
tant twenty miles, in a divided condition, forming several smaller streams.
This fall of fifteen feet, is produced by the passage of the waters of the
lake over a depression in tlie dividing ridge, or elevateds grounds, originally
midway between the two rivers. When the waters have fallen the fifteen
feet, on the southern slope, they reach the roots of the cypress trees, grow-
ing in the swamps on the soutli side of the dividing ridge. On the north
side, the cypress trees are standing fifteen feet in the water of the lake.
This proves tliat the roots of these trees stand in grounds of the same

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 505

level, and tliat, tlierefdvo, instead of the eartli having snnk and carried the
trees down with it, the water must have risen upon the trees to that eleva-
tion, by the danuning of the old channel of Keel-fi^ot River.

But how could the earthquake throw up this sand to the surface ? Hei*e
a little geology is demanded. In the future, I may describe the Artesian
wells of the countr}'^, a little south of the section under consideration.
These wells arc supplied with water, from a water-bearing bed of sand,
underlying, at a depth of several hundred fe(?t,' the chalk formation of that
region. This water-bearing sand-bed underlies the region disturbed by
the enrth(|uake; and is here overlaid by a bed of compact, tenacious clay,
in which the sides of o.rdinary wells, dug in it, will remain for years with-
out curbing. A fissure produced in this clay, would present smooth sides
to the bottom, and permit any fluid or gas to rush up to the surface, on the
application of force from beneath.

A description of these two deposits will be more apprepriate, as I have
said, in connectwn with a notice of the Artesian wells further southward.
Here, in the area disturbed by the earthquake, it need only be remarked,
that we have a surface deposit of compact clay, of considerable thickness
underlaid by a deposit of sand, measuring a hundred feet in thickness, at
distant points where it crops out at the surface. Tliis bed of sand is com-
pletely saturated with water; so much so, indeed, that a well dug tlirough
the clay into it, at certain points, is inexhaustible, and cannot be dipped
dry — the sand being liable to flow, like any other quicksand.

The maimer in which the sand-biows were produced, may now be under-
stood. The expulsion of water from the earth, is no unusual thing, during an
earthquake. When tlie undulations of the earthquake rent the clay bed, -in
the district under consideration, the tremendous upward pressure seems to
have been amply sufficient to force the water of the sand-bed, together with
much of the sand itself, to the surface, and thus, as the supply from below
was ample, the amount of sand in the mounds could have easily been borne
by the uprising water through the fissures.

It is true that the sand-blows, as they now appear, are not always
accompanied by fissures, nor the fissures by sand-blows. But as the latter
do not exist, excepting in the vicinity of the former, which are known to be
the product of the earthquake', it is probable that both had their origin at
the same moment. A bed of gravel, in some localities, in the sand deposit,
may have prevented any sand from rising; or the fissure may not have
extended downward to the quicksand, so as to form an open seam ibr the
water to rise; or, in some cases, after the rush of \Vater and sand to the
surface, a fissure may have again closed up; and, thus, we find sand blows
without fissures, and fissures without sand-blows.

A word as to the character of the fissures. In the vicinity of Reel-foot
Lake, twenty-five years ago, eye-witnesses say that some of the fissures,
now partially filled up, were as much as fifteen feet in width, and two
miles in length. In passing from Troy to Covington, Tennessee, in a
southern direction, I had ample means of examining the fissures upon the
route. They were first noticed a mile and a half north of Obion River, and
were from six inches to three or four feet in width, and from one to forty
rods long. On the southern side of Obion River, the sand-blows and

506 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE. '

fissures were continued, eight or ten of the latter being in sight at one
time. In a small hill, two miles south of Merriweather'B Ferry, the fissures
were so numerous that the hill was literally i-ent to pieces. Some of them
were four feet wide and four or five feet deep, though thirty-five years had
elapsed since their formation. Twelve miles south of Obion River, where
I crossed Forked Deer River, and five miles farther, at the south fork of the
river, the fissures continued in abundance, and the sand-blows were also
numerous. But here, as elsewhere, they were all above high-water mark;
those at a lower level, if any, having been obliterated by the overflowings
of the rivers.

These fissures sometimes pursue a straight line, and run parallel with
each other. Others of them describe an irregular segment of a circle.
Others, again, after running in a straightline for some distance, divide into
branches, and form acute .or obtuse angles, in the form of the letter -<,
while others, after taking this form, have their branches again united, as
if two of these letters were joined at the top, thus -<>-, leaving the
inclosed portion separated from the surrounding grounds, like an island in
a river. Occasionally, these fissures are directly beneath the centre of
some lai"ge tree, and it is found riven in two, by the firm adhesion of its
roots in the clay, to an extent corresponding with the width of the fissure,
sometimes the split extending up the trunk as much as fifteen feet.

In relation to the origin of the sand-blows, Solon Robinson informed me
that, on his visit to the region of New Madrid, he found that sand, in small
quantities, continues, in places, to be forced up by gases from below. I
had adopted at first, the theory of the gaseous origin of these hillocks of
sand; but upon more extended research into the geology of that country,
I found a more natural solution of the facts above described, in their
aqueous origin.

Fog AND Rain in the Mountains of North Carolina.

The dwellers in the lowlands, who see no mountains towering up in the
embraces of the clouds, have but a faint idea of the manner in which their
rains are brewed The first indication they have of approaching storms,
usually, is in seeing the dark clouds arise from the distant horizon, or in
hearing the rumbling sound of tlie thiinder from the point Avhere the earth
and sky are blended. It is far diflerent, however, in mountain regions.
There the eye often sees the sky overcast at the zenith, while the horizon
remains quite clear, or the ear is at once stunned by the loudest peals of
thunder immediately overhead.

A sojourn of a few months in the mountains of the south-west AUegha-
nies, afforded me an opportunity of witnessing some of the interesting
scenes, constantly occurring, in which fog and rain play their part. Take
a few examples:

One morning about seven o'clock, while awaiting breakfast, I seated my-
self in front of the log cabin of Edward Delozier, with whom I had tarried
over night. The house is located in Tuskegee Cove, Cherokee county.
North Carolina, and is surrounded on three sides by mountains, one of
which ascends in a peak fourteen hundred and fifty feet, and another eigh-
teen hundred and fifty feet above the Tuskegee creek, which runs in sight

PROCEEDINGS OP THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 507

of the door--the highest one having an altitude of about four thousand feet
above the sea level. The mountains range along the north, the west, and
the south of tire cove. Cheoah river runs on the farther side of the west
mountain, and Stecoah creek on the farther side of the south mountain. To
the eastward runs the Little Tennessee river, and in this direction there is
a wide opening in which hills of moderate ehivatiou only are interposed.
On the south, a gap in the mountain atlurds an outlet to the horseman, and
on the west a deep notch serves a like purpose. This notch is intermediate
between the two peaks, and is not more than one-third their height.

Suddenly a few misty flakes of fog came moving slowly through the
notch, from the Cheoah Valley on the west. Presently larger masses fol-
lowed, and these, again, were succeeded by still more extensive volumes,
Breakfirst over, we resumed our seats, Mr. Delozier warning me not to set
out upon m^'' journey. The fog was now rolling through the notch tumul-
tuousl}^ and filing off gracefully to the right and left, like soldiers passing
a defile, and preparing to attack an eneni}' by extending their wings.

The rising sun was shining brightly. The foliage of the forest trees had
all the maturity and richness of verdure which the earlier springs of that
latitude afford. Among the flowering bushes, beneath tlie lofty trees, were
the azalias, decked in their blossoms of white, yellow, orange, and crimson;
and the rhodendrons and kalmia, in their white and pink. The lilies and
the lady-slippers, with a hundred other plants, in full bloom, lent their
gaudy flowers to complete a landBcape of surpassing beaut3^

From our position, the fog wore the appearance of gigantic fleeces of the
whitest wool. Onward, and still onward; its masses rolled along, the fore-
most seeming to be impelled forward, not by the winds, for it was calm,
but by the fog in the rear; or rather, perhaps, by the attraction of the
mountains, or the force of an upper current in the atmosphere, or the
changing condition of the air, from the warming influence of the sun's rays,
now shining fully into Stecoah Valley, over the eastern hilltops.

It was a beautiful scene, to witness these bearers of fertilizing showers,
as tiiey gathered along the flanks of the mountains, leaving the summits uu-
dimmcd in the sunbeams, while they gave a refreshing coolness to the cres-
cent-like area whicii they overshadowed. The sun was yet low in the east,
so that, though his empire was thus rapidly invaded, he could still shoot
his beams far up the slope, beneath the fog, which had now advanced its
front, so as to appear, from our stand-point, one broad mass of darkening
clouds. The morning dews had not yet been dissipated, and the sun's rays,
illuminating the vast amphitheatre not shaded by the clouds, caused every
dew drop on leaf and flower to glitter like diamonds. The circles of light
and shade, standing in strong contrast before us, with their beautiful floral
ornaments, produced a scene that was gorgeous in the extreme.

But the clouds accumulating faster and faster, soon covered not onl}^ the
mounthiu sides, but overspread the whole area of the Cove; and advancing
eastward, covered the face of the sun as with a curtain, shutting (jut his
rays from the landscape around. We were now startled by a sudden flush
of lightning, succeeded instantly by the roll of thunder, which reverbera-
ting among the mountains, prolonged its tones to a duration unknown to
the dwellers among the low lands. The raiu which for a few minutes had

508 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

fallen in a feeble drizzle, now descended at once in a copious shower, as
though it had been awaiting' the signal of the electrical flash to do its
errand of mercy.

A word here about the form of these mountains, before proceeding, with
further descriptions. Like all mountains composed of stratified rocks,
those of North Carolina run in lengthened ranges, mainly from north-east
to south-west. In countries where the unstratified rocks prevail, the
mountains are often thrown up into dome-shaped forms. Here and there,
however, in North Carolina, there are points which rise dome-like, a thousand
feet above the ordinary elevation of tlie surrounding portions of the moun-
tains; but they differ in nothing except altitude, from the geology of the
country at large. These domes in the section of the country under con-
sideration, attain a height of three thousand feet above the beds of the
rivers, and about five thousand four hundred feot above the sea level.
Some of them reach an elevation of two hundred or three hundred feet
above the line at which the ordinary forest trees can grow, and are desti-
tute of timber, though covered with grasses and flowers. Here and there
a group of briers, laurels, azalias, and other shrubs add their presence to
vary the scenery of these celestial prairies.

These elevated domes have much to do with the formation of clouds and
the production of rain. They are locally called balls, from their round
appearance and naked surface. In the clearest days often, the clouds can
be seen forming around them at a greater or less distance above or below
their summits. At times the rain-fall is limited to the area around the
ball, where the cloud spends itself, so that its remaining vapor is drifted
off or dissolved again in the atmosphere. At other times the clouds accu-
mulate largely, and either from the influence of currents of wind, or from
electrical action, they move off so as to water the surrounding mountains
and intervening valleys. It is not unusual for two balls, or for the sum-
mits of the lower mountains, to be forming wreaths of clouds around their
brows at the same moment. These clouds, not unfrequently, are attracted
towards each other, and thus the vegetation of the intervening districts has
an additional chance of receiving new life and vigor from the rains yielded
by this means.

It is these occasional showers^ which serve to keep up the mountain
springs and streams in perpetual flow, and which supply to the animal
kingdom the water it demands, in a purity almost equal to the dews of
heaven. The general rains of this region, as distinguished from those of
local origin, come usually from the west and south-west in broad sheets of
clouds overspreading the whole sky.

On the Itth^July, 1857, I set out from the head of Valley river, a branch
of the Hiwassee river, to measure the height of the ball upon Valley river
mountain. Making the measurement with " Locke's level," I could at least
gain a close approximation to the true height. The distance from the "river's
bed to the top of the ball was about five miles, and the elevation two thou-
sand nine hundred and eighty-seven feet ; or about three thousand feet
above the bed of tlie Hiwassee at Murphy, Nortii Carolina.

Before reaching the top of the main ball, a cloud came sweeping along,
from the direction of the Tusquitta mountain, to the southwest, and poured

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 509

down its rain as it progressed. It reached us, in our elevated position, in
the form of a dense fog, as all clouds appear when we are in their midst.
It first struck our mountain at a point about five hundred feet below its
smnmit, and then rolled along amidst the trees to the top of the ball.
While hovering- there, as a hen over her brood, it sent an arm down the
eastern side of the mountain, above the tree-tops, to a distance of several
hundred feet; and then, as if reluctant to lose any portion of its mass, this
arm was drawn up ag-ain into the bosom of the cloud. Rendered lig-ht and
airy, from tlie loss of its rain, the cloud soon swept off to the eastward, so
that our measurements could be completed.

Nearly all the balls in sig^ht, more than a half-dozen in number, and many
of the liig'her portions of the lower ranges of these mountains were repeat-
edly covered by rain-clouds during the day, which were either formed T7pon
them, or floated to them from one or another of the surronnding elevated
points. Four or five of these clouds passed up Valley river toward us, but
were generally exhausted of their rain before reaching our positions. The
valle\' is narrow, being little more than a mile in width, and runs in a
southwest direction to the Hiwassee river.

' These showers presented varied appearances as they succeeded each
other. The first was from a cloud, the margins of which were equal in
depth and density to the main part of its body. Its breadth was net-.rly
equal to the width of the valley. There being little wind, the rain fell
vertically, and presented the appearance of a large curtain of semi-trans-
parent gauze, suspended from the cloud to the earth, having a length of
two thousand feet. A second shower fell, an hour afterward, from a cloud
with attenuafed margins but dense centre. Tlie sheet of water whicli fell
from it, presented the appearance of a semi-transparent fog in its centre,
but it gradually shaded off toward the margins into a misty haze, scarcely
obscuring the objects in the back-ground. A third, which occurred during
our descent, was from a dense black cloud that overshadowed the valley
and half the adjacent mountains. It had also great length to the west-
ward. The bod}' of water which it afforded was so dense, and the distance
through which the eye had to penetrate so great, that every object in the
back-ground was as completely obscured as though the pall of midnight
had been drawn across the valley.

We had reached a position two thousand feet below the summit, and one
thousand above the base of the mountain, when this shower had so far
passed over as to allow the sun to shine out brilliantly from the clear sky
in the west. Immediately a rainbow of the greatest beauty was produced.
The top of its arch reached a little above the top of the ball, which we had
just measured, thus throwing the main part of the bow below its level, and
giving it a back-ground of the richest green Which the foliage of the moun-
tain could afford. Two mountains of unequal height intervened between
us and the ball. The nearest one was much the lowest, while the other
rose half-way to the summit of the ball. Upon the entire slope, the lines
of the rainbow were presented in a richness of color far excelling any
thing of the kind I had ever witnesssd before ; the accompanying secon-
ondary bow being about as brilliant as the ordinary rainbows of the low-
lands.

510 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Clayton, Georgia, is located not far from Rabun Gap — a low depression
in tlie Blue Ridge. Tliis depression consists of some swampy lands in
which the head watcr-< of the Little Tennessee and the Savannah Rivers
take their rise. Tiie mountains on oflch side of this gap rise to the height ~
of fifteen hundred [eet. On the morning after my arrival at this town, my
travelling companion awoke me to call my attention to a wonder.

The sun was just rising. On looking out at the window toward the
north, I beheld a vast volume of fog, filling Rabun Gap from base to sum-
mit, and occasionally extending even above the highest parts of the moun-
tains. It was as white as snow, and resembled a vast deluge of cotton as
it falls loosely from tlie gin. In front of the main gap, and between it and
the town, there stacds a small mountain, detac|ied from the principal range,
with a gap upon each side. The fog as it rolled through the main gap,
deflected into the smaller gap, to the east of the little mountain.

On viewing it for a few minutes, I was soon startled by noticing, that
though the whole immense volume of the fog was rolling forward at quite
an observable rate of speed, yet it never passed much beyond the southern
side of the little mountain. Onward it came with a sufficient force, and
bulk sufficient to overwhelm in jts darkness, the whole southern side of the
Blue JRidge. But beyond the line named it could never pass. A barrier
existed there, in the different conditions of the atmosphere, which at once
dissolved the fug, and left the air beyond as transparent as ever. Once in
a while a small portion of the fog would whirl forward, a few hundred
feet beyond the main mass, like a bold leader in front of an army, as if to
encourage the forces behind to move onward with greater daring. But all
was in vain, as leader and follower were quickly involved in a similar fate.
The law which controlled the movements of the fog, said to it emphatically,
"Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further."

Turning to my friend who had patiently watched me while I was absorbed
in contemplating this wonderful phenomenon, I asked him if it had ever
occurred before. " Yes sir," he answered, " it occurs every clear morning
from spring to fall. Beginning to roll through a little before, the sun
appears above the horizon, it continues till eight o'clock sometimes, and as
late as ten at others; and this it repeats every clear morning, and has
repeated, doubtless ever since the dry land appeared, and the mountains
and the rivers were formed."

Again I turned to view the fog, and found it coming on to its fate, as
regardless of consequences apparently, as we poor thoughtless mortals
are when treading upon the very verge of destruction.

As explanatory of the phenomena at Clayton, and of the production of
clouds and rain in the mountains, a few general principles in natural phi-
losophy must be stated:

At all temperatures, moisture exists in the atmosphere in an invisible
state. It sustains itself there in the intervals that exist between the par-
ticles of air. These intervals are either partially or wholly filled with
vapor constantly arising from the earth. When they are wholly filled with
vapor, the atn)osphere is said to be saturated. An increase of temperature
by dilating the air, increases its capacity for moisture ; while a diminution
of temperature is followed by contrary elTects. But the capacity increases

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 511

at a faster rate than tlie temperature, so tliat while the air at thirty-two
degrees Fahrenheit, can contain only the one hundrfid and sixtieth part of
its own weight of vapor, at one hundred and thirteen degrees it c^n con-
tain the twentieth part of its weight. Thus it appears that while the tem-
perature advances in an arithmetical scries, the capacity is accelerated in
a geometrical progression. A considerable increase of temperature, tliere-
fore will enable even a saturated atmosphere to receive a greatly augmen-
ted amount of vppor, and as it were, to swallow the clouds that may pass
into it, without any diminution of its own transparency. On the contrary,
when the temperature is di.minislied by the rapid union of two currents
of air saturated with yapor, the one being warm and the other cool, the
average temperature is so reduced that an excess of vapor exists, which
is incapable of sustaining itscH in the diminished capacity of the air, and
is necessarily precipitated in tlie form of rain. But when two currents of
air not fully saturated with vapor, are brought into contact, the precipita-
tion of moisture is slight, and mists only are produced. When the mists
thus precipitated are near the earth, they are called fogs, but when high
in the air they take the name of clouds.

Saussure and Kratzenstein have investigated the nature of fogs and
mists. The vapor, in this condition, is found to consist of minute globules,
ujion which rings of prismatic colors were discovered, like those seen upon
suap -bubbles, but which are never observed upon drops of water. From
this discovery it was concluded tliat the globules are hollow, and filled
with air or gas. The size of these globules is greatest when the atmosphere
is very humid, and least when it is dry.

Another fact must be noted. The temperature of the air diminishes with
the altitude, but the law of decrease is very irregular, beirg affected by
latitude, seasons, hours of the day, and a diversity of local circumstances.
It may, however, be assumed as a general rule, that a loss of beat occurs
to the extent of one degree, Fahrenheit, for every three hundred and forty-
three feet of elevation. But this is an average result, for the rate of de-
crease is very rapid near the earth, after which it proceeds more slowly,
and at the loftiest heights is again accelerated.*

From this brief statement of the general principles governing the pro-
duction of fogs and clouds, it will be apparent that the higher portions of
the mountains of North Carolina must be refreshed by frequent rains. The
elevated balls, ever clad in mantles of cool air, stand as so many custom-
house officers to exact tribute from all the currents of air laden with vapor,
from the warm regions below, which attempt to sail over their summits.
These currents of air cannot but pause, when richly freighted, to divide
their treasures with the thirsty soils and mountain-springs. And even
when they are lightly burdened with vapor, and no rain can be condensed
from them, these passing currents often yield copious clouds of fog', cover-
ing the vegetation, by contact, with moisture, and promoting its more
vigorous growth.

Nor are the mountain summits alone in the exactions they make upon
the moving atmosphere for its vapors. The mountain bases, all along tho

• These brief statcmcDts are from Brocklcsby's Meteorology.

512 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

rivers and larger creeks, cool the surrounding atniospherc during- the night,
while the waters of the streams, retaining their warmth, send upward a
plentiful evaporation. The vapor which is thus formed, rising into contact
with the overhanging colder air, is condensed into fog and floats above the
streams till the morning sun sets it in motion, m- dissipates it by increas-
ing the temperature of the air along the mountain sides.

The phenomena of the fog at Olayton can now be easily explained. The
Little Tennessee River takes its rise in Rabun Gap, and runs northwest.
By the junction of several large creeks, heading in the Blue Ridge, the
river, soon after emerging from that mountain, becomes quite a considera-
ble stream. It is walled in on each side by other mountains, of fifteen
hundred to twenty-five hundred feet in height, which extend northward, as
cross-ties, from the Blue Ridge to the Great Smoky Mountain. These
mountains are covered with forest-trees from the base to the summit. The
sun, during the hottest hours of the day, teems down its rays into the val-
ley, and imparts a great amount of heat to the waters of the river, as well
as to the rocks among which it runs. The temperature of the water is
thus kept up during the night, while at the same time, the surrounding
mountains cool the overhanging air. The vapor which rises rapidly from
the heated water coming into contact with the cold atmosphere above, is
converted into fog. As the sun rises in the morning his rays at once act
upon the air south of the Blue ridge, where no obstruction exists; but his
heat cannot affect that of the narrow valley of the Tennessee, till the sun
attains a sufficient elevation to overcome the altitude of the mountain upon
its eastern side. The rarefaction of the atmosphere on the south side of
the Blue Ridge, while that of the Tennessee valley remains at a lower
temperature, produces a current of air from north to south that bears the *
fog along with it through Rabun Gap. But here the increased heat expand-
ing the air or gas, in the globules of vapor composing the fog, bursts the
bubbles, and the fog is dissolved by absorption into the warmer atmos-
phere, as transparent vapor.

The fog which rolled through the notch into Tuskegee Cove, had, no
doubt, formed the night previous in the valley of Cheoah River, lying to
the west and running northward. Overshadowed by high mountains, the
atmosphere of that river must have been cooler than that of the Cove into
which the sun was brightly shining. Two masses of air, both of which
must have been saturated with vapor, being thus brought into contact,
the temperature was diminished and the e.vcess of moisture precipitated.

Tellulah Creek taking its rise southward, near Nantahala River, is the
main branch of the Cheoah River. Big Snow-bird, Little" S no w-Bird and
other considerable streams are its tributaries. The Lidiaa names are of
Cherokee origin.

Water Spouts.

In this connection another meteorological phenomenon, occurring in the
mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee, may bo noticed. It is not
one of the peaceful nature of the fog and rain, but, though limited in its
range, must be terrific bej'ond conception. An eye witness describing one
of these scenes to the writer, conveyed a most vivid impression of the ,

I

PROCEEDINGS OF THE rOLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 513

fearful character of the elemental strife accompanying the descent o^ water-
spouts upon the land; if water-spouts they may be called.

Once in a g-encration or two, perhaps, a wartcr spout bursts upon some
elevated point of a mountain. Previijusly to its descent, the clouds are
seen movin<^ to and fro, and commingling' in a confused manner, somewhat
as the circling eddies of a vast whirlpool. When concentrated above or
around the mountain's summit, the cloud acquires such a density as to
wear the appearance of the blackness of darkness. The roll of the accom-
panying thunder is deafening, and almost continuous, shaking the eternal
hills to their base; while the flashes of lightning following each other in
quick succession, afford a glare of glimmering light nearly as luminous as
that of the sun. Then comes a river of waters dashjng down the moun-
tain-side, and tearing up in its resistless progress earth, rocks and tree?,
so as to create in its course a deep canal. The amount of water at times
discharged from such clouds is immense, swelling inconsiderable streams
into great rivers.

Many years since, a water-spout burst upon the North Mountain, to the
westward of Newville, Pennsylvania, carrying destruction in its course.
Many cattle and hogs were drowned at the foot of the mountain, where
they were confined within inclosures preventing escape. The largest rocks
were torn from their beds, and a deep chasm excavated from the top of the
mountain to the valley. Its course can now be traced by the difference in
the trees wMthin the channel from those on either side — a growth of pines
now occupying it, instead of the oaks and hickories of the surrounding
forest.

Another water-spout fell upon the western end of the Chilhowee Moun-
tain, where it faces the Little Tennessee Ptiver, about the date of the first
settlement of the country. Its course is marked, like the one at Newville,
by a large growth of evergreen trees. Again, on the west side of the
same mountain, not far from Tuckalechee Cove, and near Little River, a
water-spout fell, not many years since, carrying away a distillery, around
which, the day previous, being the Sabbath, the 3"oung men of the vicinity
had met, in a frolic, and perpetrated some enormous blasphemies — in their
drunken revels undertaking to make a mock of religion, by the administra-
tion of its sacraments. Monday was ushered in by as clear a sun as ever
shone. In the course of the day, however, the thunder pealed forth a sig-
nal, startling the neighborhood into fixed attention: there they beheld,
gatheri ig upon the mountain's brow, the ominous cloud, that soon burst
out into one vast deluge of water, which, descending down the mountain
side, lai<! desolate the very spot where the profanation of Heaven's ordi-
nances 1; d occurred. The terror created by this celestial phenomenon was
such as to produce a religious revival, accompanied by the conversion of
many of the thoughtless fellows who had taken a part in the iniquities of
the preceding Sabbath.

Having seen the traces of all the water-spouts noticed, and having heard

the descriptions of eye-witnesses, to the accumulation of the cloud which

produced the rain-fall, in one case so furious in its descent, I concluded, as

Bsual, that there had been a concentration, to one point, of nearly all the

[Am. LvsT.j G*

514 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

water 3'iclded by the cloud, through the ag-ency, prol^ably, of a whirlwind
motion of the air controlling it; but this theory had to be abandoned, aa
soon as I completed for myself, the investigation of the facts connected
with the great fall of water-spout.«, upon Tusquitta Mountain, ou July
8th, 1847.

An intelligent professional gentleman, who visited the scene soon after
its occurrence, described the chasm, excavated in the earth, as having a
depth of several feet, with its sides cut out as vertical as if dug with the
spade. The roots of the trees and plants, beneath the surface, were cut off
as squarely as if done with the knife. At the surface, close up to the sides
of the chasm, nothing seemed to be disturbed. The shrubs and grass, and
even the fallen leaves upon the ground, remained unmoved, as though no
running water had come into contact with them. This was the conditioa
of things where the water-spout first struck the earth; and as the excava-
tion, at the point of origin had a width of but a few yards, the whole
volume of the descending water he concluded, must have been concentrated
within that space, and continued thus contracted till the contents of the
cloud were exhausted. In descending the mountain, along the line of the
widening chasm, evidences existed that the torrent in places, had attained
a depth of fifty or sixty feet, uprooting in its course the largest trees, and
removing immense rocks from the avenue created in its descent to the val-
ley below.

In all the descriptions given, I had inferred that but a single water-spout
bad falleij at the same time, from any one cloud. Such had been the case
in the old ones grown up with evergreens. But very different indeed had
been the results on Tusquitta Mountain

In the month of May, 1859, I called upon Robert Martin, Esq., who
resides in the Tusquitta valley near the spurs of the Tusquitta Mountain.
He had resided there in 184T, when the water-spouts fell upon that moun-
tain July eighth. From his statement and that of Mr. Pierce, his neighbor,
who also noticed the whole of the movements of the clouds, during the
space of three hours, or from first to last, I make up my statement:

The clouds were some two hours in forming. One group gathered in the
soutli-east, another in the south-west, and a third in the south. The unusual
commotion among them as they were forming, attracted the attention of
these gentlemen, and riveted them to the spot where each one stood, near
their own doors a half-mile apart. '

When nearly fully formed, the clouds commenced moving rapidly in
eddies of many whorls, toward Tusquitta Ball. Salutations of thunder,
from the first, passed between them, as though cloud called to cloud, in
organizing for the coming conflict. The play of the lightning at first occa-
sional, became almost continuous as the, constantly 'accumulating masses
^began to move swiftly toward a common centre; while the thunder increas-
ing also in frequency, soon became terrific. In addition to the thunder,
and just before the rain began to fall, there came a succession of sharp
keen cracking sounds, lasting for ten or fifteen minutes which resembled
the sharp crack of the electric spark; and then came a crash as if ten
thousand pieces of artillery had been discharged. The earth fairly trembled
with the concussion. There was also a loud roaring sound, independent

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 515

of all tlic other sounds, for some minutes before the clouds came into con-
tact^ and when they did meet they shot instantly upward with great velocity
like an arrow shot from a bow. The forests, a few rods distant, became so
dark that nothing could be seen.

The rain now began to fall in torrents. In a few minutes the small spring
branch at Mr. Martin's, having its rise a mile or so farther up the mountain
was swollen into a river. In an hour the rain was over and the sun again
appeared as bright as ever,

Tlic gentlemen named then commenced an examination of results. About
three hundred feet above the head of the spring branch, a water spout had
fallen excavating a canal ten feet deep, and seventy-five feet wide at its
head. The side-walls at this point were perpendicular, while farther down
it varied both as to depth and width; the vast body of water, of course,
obeying the general laws controlling the descent of that fluid down a steep
inclination. This torrent in rushing down toward the spring branch at an
angle with the line of that stream, could not make a sudden turn but dashed
across, rising on the opposite side to the top of a spur of the hill thirty
feet high, when from the farther side it naturally fell into the channel of
the branch, swelling it into the proportions of a river.

Upon more extensive examination, the water-spouts, if these rain-falls
may be so called, were found to be very numerous; nearly a hundred canals
existing within a regular area, not exceeding three miles in length. The
largest one was eighty feet in width, and others not more than eight or ten
feet.

But these excavations were not the only effects produced during this
Lour of awful sublimity. Many forest trees had been struck by the light-
ning and explosions of electricity from the earth, had thrown out large
masses of clay and rock, in many places, producing excavations of suffi-
cient depth and width often, to bury a common hogshead; the vegetation
all around these spots being scorched and withered by the electric fluid.

The seat of these water-spouts lay about four miles from the Tusquitta
Ball. Two gentlemen were upon the top of the ball when the cloud reached
that point. One of them, Mr. William R. Martin, described the rainfall as
so dense as to almost suffocate him. The sensation was such as is expe-
rienced when under water; and the only remedy was to lean the body over
so as to have a little space of air to breathe from beneath the breast.

The volume of water discharged froni these combined clouds was such
as to raise the Hiwassce River very much higher than it had ever been
before or has been since. Here, too, the contest between cold water and
alcohol was repeated, a little mill and distillery having been swept away,
and the mill-stones forever lost in the depths of the Hiwassce.

On the twenty-third of May 1859, I commenced a personal examination
of the area, upon which the so-called water-spouts had fallen. I was
accompanied by Dr. G. G. McCoy, of Fort Hembre.

In ascending the mountain we could see at one time, more than a dozen
of the excavations. The first one measured was about twenty-five feet
wide at its head, and must have been some six or eight feet deep. It was
only about twenty yards from the top of the mountain-spur, upon which
the water had fallen. The torrent bad passed down into a trough-like

51G TilANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

depression in the mountain-side, cutting out its channel as it progressed; but
there was only a very slight dishing where the spout first fell, insufficient
wholly, to accumulate sufficient water to make such a canal within the space
of twenty yards. Then as there has been no washing away of the surface
rubbish above the point of excavation, it would appear, that the agency
which produced the cutting must liave begun its work at that spot.

The next excavation examined, was where two spouts had fallen close to
each other, being separated at the head by about three rods of unbroken
•ground. Each of these canals measured forty feet in width, and when
united a few rods below, the channel was sixty feet in width. These two
are not in a trough or concave portion of the mountain, but fall into one
some distance below their junction. The heads of both are about twenty
yards from the top of the mountain spur.

The same general features were present in the other excavations, and
additional descriptions are therefore not necessary.

One remark only need be ventured, in relation to the agency which cut
out these channels. That it was water, none can doubt. But that the
water was concentrated to one point by a whirwind-like action of tbe cloud,
compressing its falling rain-drops into one compact sheet, capable of cut-
ting away all the mere clays and fragmentary rocks upon which it might
fall, is disproved by the multiplicity of excavations upon Tusquitta Moun-
tain. The only remaining solution of the mystery then, in relation to the
manner in which the rain becomes condensed, in what are called "land-
spouts," is to be found in the statement of philosophical principles upon a
preceding page. When two clouds meet of different temperatures, the
result is a more copious discharge of rain, than either separatel}'' is capable
of yielding. The clouds at Tusquitta upon meeting, were observed at
once to ascend swiftly, as if doubling upon each other. This of course,
brought more cloud-surface into contact, than would have been the case had
the clouds on meeting, blended together at once. May I not suggest there-
fore, that this sudden folding of the clouds upon each other by their upward
motion, might have produced an almost solid sheet of water at the main
points of contact, which, upon descending to the earth, would be capable
of' cutting its way down through any amount of clays and decomposing
rocks, so as to bear them away and leave an open canal as the result ?
That the descending water-sheet remained stationary for a few moments so
as to limit the excavations to the spot first struck, is supposable from the
fact that the motion of the clouds may have been momentarily arrested by
their collision with each other.

But I must leave this whole question to the philosophers.

Bells.

The regular subject was then taken up.

Mr. James Harrison, said a chime of eleven bells in the tower of St,
Anns Church, Lowell, Mass., were suspended from a wooden frame suited
to the tower, cords were attached to the clappers and passed down to the
manuals, arranged as a key-board. This manual read the same as a piano,
melodeon or organ, the lowest notes always to the left hand. Any one tha*
can play on any of these instruments, can learn to ring chimes in one hour"

1

rRQCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 517

With this arrangement very quick music can be played; and a very great
variety. lie ph\yed 105 dillerent tunes and 2,000 changes in one day (a
greater variety than was ever played upon eleven bells before.)

Some years since, a Mr. Dennison was charged by the British Govern-
raent with the commission of providing bells for the new House of Parlia-
ment. In the execution of this trust, he instituted a careful and extended
examination into the whole matter of bell-making, including* of course, the
best material for bells, and arrived at the following conclusions, which he
reported to the government, namely: that simple copper and tin, in propor-
tion of about 4 parts of the former to 1 of the latter, constituting what is
known to us all as bell-metal or bronze, was the best composition for the
purpose, then known. The use of silver, which had been much vaunted as
giving to bells a soft melodious sound, he thought a mere whim, and the
supposed improvements eift^cted by it, almost imaginary. He found that
almost every conceivable alio}' of metals had at one time or another been
tried, but that there had been no departure from the compositions of the
comnjon bell-metal, wherein any positive advantage had been the result.
The sound produced by all other combinations he deemed inferior to this.

But though Mr. Dennison had arrived at a conclusion entirely justified
by what was then known of the possibilities of metal alloys, yet he did not
by any means settle the question for all time. He did not, and necessarily
could not, close the door against future discoveries and inventions. It
remained a fact, as true after his report as before, that to produce a bell
capable of giving forth a loud, deep, pleasant, far-reaching sound, required
a vast weight of bell-metal, and involved a large expenditure of money;
and everj'whcre the additional fact was continued to be recognized, that if
the same sound could be produced with less metal and at less expense, it
would be a consummation devoutly to be wished.

It is believed that this de&irable object has been attained, and if so, the
credit of the discovery belongs to our own country. The foundation of
this new composition is steel, but with it there is mingled som.e other metals
which entirely subdues that sha'rp, tliin, cutting sound peculiar to steel,
and imparts all the softness, depth, and sonorousness of the best bronze.
This composition is also more tough and tenacious than bronze, and it is
not necessary to give bells made of it so great a thickness to render them
secure against fracture, and hence a given weight of this metal will pro-
duce a larger and louder bell than the same weight of bronze. And as
this metal cannot be melted except at a very high heat, and cannot easily be
broken, the bells made of it are not liable to be injured in cases of fire, by
falling from their hangings, or by being struck too hard with the tongue
or hannner, in ringing, they are thus more durable than bronze. Bells
made of this metal, cost less than one third of those made of bronze. The
cost of bronze is 28 cents per pound, while the steel composition can be
obtained for 121 cents per pound, and a 1,000 pound bell of this metal, is
equal in tone and volume to a 1250 pound bell of bronze. To avoid the
danger of breakage, some founders make their bells so soft that they are
little better than chunks of cast-iron. Others again make them so thick
and out of proportion, that the sound is not half so good as it would be if
the bell were made right: for instance a& in the case spoken of at the last

518 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

meeting', where a bell weighing 22,000 pounds, and one of 11,000 poitnds,
this latter bell could be heard farther than one twice its weight. This dif-
ference is owing to the proportion according to which they are made, and
the quality of the metal used. Those who use the best metal and propor-
tions, are compelled under the circumstances to use a much smaller clapper,
than they otherwise would, thus getting but half the volume of tone from
the bell that could be got by using a larger clapper.

To obviate the difficulty of using a large clapper, it has sometimes been
the custom to hang heavy bells in such a way, that they could be unscrewed
at their support at the top, turned around a part of a circle, and fastened
■up again. This method of hanging, though a valuable improvement,
involves great labcr, and does not reach all the difficulty. The danger of
sudden heating and cooling is not provided against, for instance, allowing
the bell-ringer to turn the bell every month, week or day, as the case may
be. Now suppose the bell is rung for one hour during Sunday, it will
receive at least 1,000 blows from a large clapper or hammer, in the same
place. With the bell turning apparatus here exhibited, the bell or clapper
would have gone round on its centre twice, in ringing one hour, and dis-
tributed the blows equally around the bell, so that only two blows would
be struck in the same place on the bell instead of 1,000.

By this apparatus the bell is rotated while ringing without any trouble.
By no other yoke is this done, all other rotary yokes do not rotate the bell,
but ai'e simply arranged so as to enable the ringer to unscrew several nuts,
and then by main strength turn the bell a short distance; the model here
shown, can be turned round without unscrewing a single nut or bolt. The
value of this improvement will be best understood, when it is known that
at least 20,000 dollars worth of bells are broken annually by the old way
of ringing. The proprietors of one of our bell foundries have bought and
melted up over 10,000 dollars worth of broken bells in one year.

The sound of a bell will go one-quarter further, if the mouth of the bell
is turned in a certain direction; that is, if the sound goes in one direction
four miles with the bell stationary, the sound will penetrate five miles in
the direction to which the mouth is turned. The distance at which bells
can be heard also varies with the weather. The barking of dogs and the
sound of bells have been heard by those in a balloon at a distance of five
miles from the earth. M^ idea is, that during a heavy snow storm the
sound cannot penetrate upward, and so passes along the earth, and is heard
further at such times; but in clear weather much of the sound passes upward.
The improvements made in bells in this country have been very great.
Before we began to make steel-composition bells the price was one dollar
and a half a pound; now the bells we make are not only cheaper, but also
much lighter. No other country can produce a bell of b flat with 1,900
pounds. Good bells are put into schoolhouses that can be heard several
miles for twenty cents a pound, and that, too, at the present advanced cost
of everything. The weight of these bells vary from fifty to two hundred
pounds; but the one-hundred pound bell is one mostly used for schools, and
can be heard for two and sometimes four miles.

It seems strange that the combination of two soft metals — such as tin

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 619

and copper — should make a hard metal-like bronze. In experimenting, we
tried wrought iron and Franklinite pig iron, but did not succeed very
well, as we found we had to make them into steel first. The composition
that we mix with the steel is put into the melted mass last. Steel melts
at 3.500 deg., and tin at GOO deg. I put some tin into melted steel lately,
and it immediately fell to the bottom of the mass. If zinc was used thus,
it would be likely to set the building on fire, so when zinc is to be united
with other metals that melt at a higher temperature like steel, it has first
to be combined with copper, in putting it in it makes such a commotion
that it mixes itself thoroughly with the mass; it has the quality also of
making the metals run like water. In mixing tin with steel, about twenty-
five per cent of the tin is lost. We have to be very careful to know the
temperature at which to pour our metals.

Dr. Rich exhibited a photograph of the great bell in Moscow, Russia.

The Chairman described the manner of combining small bells so as to
form a musical scale. They are all of the same shape, being portions of a
hollow sphere; in the top of each is a small hole through which a rod is
passed. The bells are thus all placed on the same rod, there being between
each a washer, to prevent contact with each other. They are in fact .i
nest of bells, so near together that they may be played upon by means of
keys, not farther apart than those of the piano forte.

After selecting "Musical Instruments" as the subject for the next dis
cussion, the Association adjourned.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, )
March 9th, 1865. \

Prof. S. D. Tillman in the Chair; Mr. B. Garvey, Secretary.

Corn-Stalk Paper.

Mr. Dudley Blanchard desired to call attention of the Association to a
manufactured article described here some time ago. He had tested the
paper made from corn stalks according to the Austrian process, and would
bear testimony as to its good qualities. He had used it in making mechani-
cal drawings, and found it to answer the purpose admirably.

Theory of Music.

The Chairman, bj' request, made very complete illustrations and expla-
nations of the theory of music, and of his new system, by which it was
claimed all the mysteries of melody and harmony could be easily compre-
hended and remembered.

The human ear, he said, is too delicately organized internally to convey
the impression of a single contact, but a series of pulsations, however
delicate, will excite the sense of hearing, and produce the sensation of

620 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

sound. Air is the common medium of sound-force, in which waves of
density move outward in all directions from the point of impact or of
original agitation. Air waves moving irregularly, produce the sensation
called noise, hut when regular or isochronal, they generate a musical
sound.

The loudness of sound depends on the density of the wave, which may
increase or diminish without changing the rate of vibration, the same as
the oscillations of a pendulum may vary in extent, but not in number in a
given time.

TJie qualily of sound, which the French call timbre, probably depends on
the order in which the particles of air in each wave are arranged. Waves
of water change their form, as they near the shore, without changing their
velocity; we may, therefore, compare the same note of a trumpet, when
round and full, or when harsh and shrill, to smooth or crested ocean waves.

The pitch of sound depends on the velocity of air waves. The lowest or
gravest sound has the smallest number of waves, and the highest or most
acute sound has the greatest number, in a given time. Any change in
pitch is thereft)re the result of a change in the rate of vibration of a series
of waves. The lowest sound which can be perceived by the most sensitive
human ear is caused by air waves moving at a little less than the rate of
sixteen per second, while the highest sound is the result of a rate of more
than sixteen thousand waves per second.

Music is a combination of sounds varying in pitch, timbre, intensity,
duration and in distances of time between them. Melody is a succession
of single sounds, and harmony a succession of chords, that is, several dif-
ferent sounds at the same time, which harmonize with each other. As the
highest expression is derived from Contrasts, discords and even noise are
introduced to give greater effect to pure harmony.

A musical scale consists of a series of sounds at fixed intervals, in which
the first sound and the eighth sound above it, so nearly resemble each
other, that they are distinguished by the same letter. The cause of this
resemblance arises from the fact that the eighth note is produced by a
series of waves, just double the number of tliose producing the first note.
If the scale be further extended upward, the fifteenth sound will be the
result of four times as many waves as the first, and is consequently dis-
tinguished b}'- the same letter. The distinct series therefore consists of
seven sounds, and any extension. of the scale, above all below, will be the
whole or part of a similar series. Great difficulty has arisen in compre-
hending musical changes by what the speaker regarded as an error in
counting. The notes distinguished by the same letter should also be dis-
tinguished by the same number. The tonic or key note should not be
'called the first, eighth or fifteenth, but always the first of three similar
series of notes.

The greatest complication is involved in changing the pitch of the tonic
or fundamental sound, because the seven sounds of a series are not at equal
intervals, that is, the number of waves producing the so called octave
above, divided by seven, will not give the rate of increase in waves
required for each note in regular succession. The seven sounds of the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 521

scale are fixed so that the rate of the vibrations producing tliem will har-
monize with each to a certain extent and be expressed by ratios. For
instance the waves producing the notes C and the first C above are as 1 to
2; the waves for the first C and for the first Gr above are as 2 to 3; for C
and E as 4 to 5; for C and F as 3 to 4; for 0 and A as 5 to 6; for C and D
as 8 to 9, and for C and B as 8 to 15.

Tlic consequence of 'this arrangement is that two classes of intervals are
formed, called tones and semi-tones, and in the diatonic scale there are five
tones and two semi-tones. In changing the pitch of the tonic, on all keyed
instruments, it is requisite to divide the tone-intervals into semi-tones, so
that this scale may be said to be made up of twelve semi-tones. As the
word semi-tone is a misnomer when applied to intervals, the speaker pro-
posed to call them grades; and as two grades are required for a tone-inter-
val, the intervals of the scale would be represented thus:

Duograde, Duograde, Grade, Duograde, Duograde, Duograde, Grade,

The true scale cannot be made for each key by any keyed instrument,
the sounds are therefore given as near as may be, by what is called tem-
pering. Instruments of the violin and trombone classes, as well as the
human voice, can make the sounds belonging to any key absolutely correct,
but as the tempered system is the only one in common use, what is now
said will be applicable to that only.

Under the old system of counting, the intervals were measured along a
continuous right line, but another system is required to show the similarity
of sounds. The system invented by the speaker, is based on the spiral cr
helix, which measures by distance seven intervals, and returns nearly to
the place of beginning. Ten of these spirals in the same plane arouiid a
given point, would represent ten octaves or series of seven sounds. Each
spiral is divided into twelve equal parts, to represent the semitone or grade
intervals by means of twelve radial lines at equal distances apart. Seven
of these radial lines will mark the notes of the diatonic scale in any of the
twelve kej's, that is, when each of the twelve sounds of the series are in
turn used as the tonic or key note.

These twelve radial lines are numbered like the dial of a watch in order
to readily remember their position. The number 12 is C, and is the tonic
in the natural key, major mode. If the first!*three notes of the diatonic
scale are on even numbers, the remaining four will be on odd numbers; or
if the first three are odd, the remaining four will be even numbers. Thus
12, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, represent C, D, E, F, G, A, B, the notes used in the key
of C, which aie made by the white keys of the piano. In the key of five
sharps 11, 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10 represent the order of the sounds used, distin-
guished in the old system, as B, C sharp, D sharp, E, F sharp, G sharp and
A sharp made by the five black keys and two white keys of the piano. So
the other ten keys might be given ; jet these two are sufficient to prove
the readiness with which the notes belonging to any key can be designated.
To ascertain what would be the order of tonics in a regular modulation by
sharps, the number seven must be added to the last tonic, thus we have 12,
7, 2, 9, 4, 11, C. For the tonics in a regular modulation by flats, add five
to the last tonic, thu^ we have 12, 5, 10, 3, 8, 1, 6. Both modulations end

522 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

on the same key, because on keyed instruments the same note representiS
both F sharp and G flat.

For a full explanation of the tempered and the true systems the speaker
referred tliose interested to a work by him published several years since,
entitled "Musical Treatise and Tonometer" in which the intervals are
measured to the eye, so that even one who has no "ear for music" may
easily comprehend the system.

The speaker also proposed a reform in the solfeggio. The syllables now
used are meaningless, but by a slight change they will be always asso-
ciated with the names of the several chords. Instead of do, re, mi, fa, sol,
la, si, use To, Ke, Mi, Fa, Do, La, Si; then To will always be the Tonic; Re,
the first related tone; Mi, the Mediant; Fa, the falling or sub-dominant;
Do, the Dominant; La, the latent tonic, or tonic of the relative minor mode;
Si, the serial note closing the series. These syllables used in the solfeggio,
may be substituted with great advantage for the figures now employed to
express chords; for instance the only three major common chords, are 1st.
the tonic common chord To, Mi, Do; 2d. The dominant common chord Do,
Si Re; 3d. The sub-dominant common chord Fa, La, To. The first interval
in a major' common chord is always measured by four grades, and the
second interval by three grades, while in a minor common chord the lengths
of the intervals are reversed, the first having three grades and the second
four grades. This statement will explain why there can be only three
minor common chords, viz: La, To, Mi; Re, Fa, La, and Mi, Do, Si. These
with what is called the imperfect fifth. Si, Re, Fa, having two intervals of
three grades each, make up the seven triads of the Septave. If the octave
sound so called, of the first sound of a perfect triad be added to such
triad the last interval will always consist of five grades; but if instead of
a sound forming a five-grade interval, a sound forming an interval of four or
of three grades be added to the triad, four classes of dissonant chords are
formed called Sevenths. The further pursuit of these questions relating to
Thorough-base may be considered too intricate. The Chairman concluded
by expressing the hope that the time was not far distant, when the system
now partially explained will be generally received.

Musical Instruments.

The discussion on this subject was opened by Mr. Samuel C. Swartz, who
devoted his remarks to instruments of the reed class, particularly to those
manufactured by Messrs. Carhart, Needham & Co. This firm submits the
following article, embracing many interesting statements which deserve a
permanent record.

INSTRUMENTS USED BY THE ANCIENTS.

The human voice is the most wonderfully constructed, variable and efli-
cient producer of melodious sounds.* The ingenuity of man has, however,
from the most early periods of time, invented a vast series of instruments
that are constantly nearing perfection. It would take years of time and
volumes of space, to even briefly mention the various apparatus that have
been placed before the world under the appelhition of jnusical instruments.
The Egyptian flute was only a cow horn with three ©r four holes bored in

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 523

it, and their harp, or lyre, had only throe strings; the Grecian lyre had
only seven strings, and was very small, being- held in one hand; the Jew-
ish trumpets, that made the walls of Jericho fall down, were only rams'
horns. Tlieir flute was the same as the Egyptian, They had no other
instrumental music, except by percussion, of which the greatest boast
made was the psaltery, a small triangular harp or lyre, with wire strings,
and struck with an iron needle or stick; tlieir sackbut was something like
a bagpipe; the timbrel was a tambourine, and the dulcimer was a horizon-
tal harp with wire strings, and struck with a stick like the psaltery.

CLASSIFICATlb>f OF MODERN INSTRUMENTS.

The limits of this paper forbid our mentioning even the names of the
many musical instruments now in use.~ Howevei', there are certain broad
distinctions between them, which enable us to classify them, hot with
reference to the mode by which they arc played, but to the manner in
which the sounds are produced. The vibrations of a column of air in a
tube produce the sounds of those which we are accustomed to term wind
instruments; while the vibrations of a stretched cord or wire, are the source
of sounds in the numerous instruments of the violin class, as also of the
piano-forte. But a period of about thirty or forty years has witnessed the
introduction of a great number and variety of instruments in which the
sounding body is a metallic spring, fixed at one end, and free to vibrate at
the other. Thus they have been designated free-7~eed instruments,

HISTORY OF FREE-REED INSTRUMENTS.

Who was the inventor of this free-reed, although we have made diligent
search and inquiry, we are as yet unable to state positively. That some-
thing of the kind had been known for ages to musicians, is evident by the
Jews harp, in which a metallic tongue is struck in a peculiar way by the
finger, and at the same time breathed upon; but in this case one spring is
made to yield several notes by altering the form of the cavity of the mouth.
It is also known that organ-builders had for many years occasionally used
a metal tongue as the vibrating body in those organ-pipes termed reed-
pipes, and M. Grenie, an eminent musical mechanic of France, had adopted
a form of tongue in a measure similar to that now used in the melodeon,
accordeon and instruments of this class. We may also mention the mu-
sical "snuff-box" as an instrument in which the sounds are elicited from
metallic springs. It is probable that other attempts to produce music by
this means could be cited. But it is only since about the year 1825 that a
series of instruments under the names of melodeon, seolian, harmonica, me-
lophene, symphonion, seraphine, accordeon, concertina, reed organ, etc.,
have been brought before the public, and have demonstrated the variety
of ways in which sounds may be educed from metallic springs, or as they
should be properly termed, free-reeds.

In an article in " Tiie Musical World and Times," some years since, the
invention of this class of instruments is claimed for Mr. James U. Bazin, an
ingenious musician and mechanic of Canton, Mass. The account referred
to contains the following: — "Late in the year of 1821 some young men
from a neigiiboring town brought a small, round brass pipe, with the letter
A marked ou it, and a piece of thin brass screwed on one side; which brass

524 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

appeared to have been made to vibrate through an opening- about one-half
the h^ngth of the pipe, but which had been broken oflF near the screw. —
They liad borrowed this pipe from a singing-master in Boston, and wished
to have Mr. Bazin repair it, and make several more like it." Froin this
statement it is evident that Mr. Bazin' s improvement consisted not in first
making a free-reed but in arranging a number of these reeds together so as
to form a complete chromatic scale, and in applying a bellows to operate
them, for it seems that previous to this time the reed had been set into vi-
bration only by means of the human breath.

To illustrate the exact situation of this class of instruments in Europe,
in 1830, we have concluded to present the following from a lecture on the
subject, delivered at the Royal Institute by Professor Faraday, during that
year. He spoke of the desirableness of connecting the springs with the
mechanism of an organ or piano-^^orte, and described such an attempt
nearly as follows: " It was found that the steel springs might be made to
yield any note within the compass of a keyed instrument, while that for
the lowest note was not more than four inches in length, and one in breadth;
so that the mechanism would occupy less space than the smallest cabinet
piano-forte. Some difficult}^ attended the accomplishment of the design,
for the springs, under certain circumstances Avere bent, by the mere vibra-
tion, beyond the elastic strength of the metal of which they were composed;
the consequence was the gradual disintegration of the metal, and an alter-
ation of the tone, which increased until, at length, the springs were actually
broken ofi' by use. Another formidable difficulty arose from the tardiness
with which the vibrations of the spring commenced when the air first acted
on it; so that a note, when struck, did not immediately yield its sound.
Means were, however, adopted that completely obviated both these defects,
and, in 1829, the Society of Arts presented a medal to Dr. Dowler, for an
instrument constructed on this principle with keys. The bellows were
placed underneath and the springs arranged over a continued wind-chest,
furnished with a valve to each note. The springs, or, as they have been
called, the tongues, with the exception of the highest octave, were made of
an alloy called German silver, or electrum, which is composed of a mixture
of copper, zinc and a little nickel. The springs of the remaining octave
were manufactured from extremely thin sheet steel, imported into this
country from Switzerland. This instrument was tolerable of its kind, but
inferior to one that has been made by Mr. Da}'^, an ingenious mathematical
instrument maker, who has considerably improved the manufacture of the
springs." This was about the state, in Europe, in 1830, of an instrument,
which, by subsequent improvements, has attained the name of serapliine,
melodeon, etc., in later times; but, at the period alluded to, there was a
great inequality and harshness of the tones, which caused the lecturer to
doubt whether, without great improvements, it would ever become a popu-
lar and useful instrument. We will here remark, that, in our own minds,
we have no doubt of the fact — which truth, by an extensive rescarcli, could
probably be demonstrated — that the free-reed originated in Germany; but
like many other important inventions we could cite, it owes its thorough
adaptation and value almost solely to the ingenuity and skill of American
mechanics and artisans. And our remarks hereafter will be expressly in

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 525

reference tothe advancement and perfection of the instrument on this side
of the Atlantic.

^ JEREMIAH CAimART's IMPROVEMENTS.

In tlie year, 1839, Mr. Carliart devoted his leisure hours to the manufac-
ture of a seraphine for his own use. It had five octaves, and two sets of
reeds in unison, and was furnislied with tlie old-fashion organ bellows.
The reeds were made of steel springs, fastened on cast metal blocks, but,
during the course of construction, he experimented on a great variety of
materials for the reeds, such as various kinds of wood, horn, ivory, gold,
silver, steel, brass and many other compositions; his object, at that time,
being more to procure softness and sweetness of tone, than with a regard
to the irregularities that might occur by changes of temperature, to which
they would be subject in different seasons and climates. When he put this
instrument together, it was found to be far superior to any similar one that
had been seen or heard of in that section of the country, although his
employers had on sale seraphines, etc., both domestic and foreign, with all
the then latest improvements. Every person, except Carhart liimself, who
came witliin hearing distance, expressed themselves perfectly delighted
wiih it; but to the fastidious ear of its constructor, there wei'e the old
faults; not so perceptible as formerly to be sure, but the sharp, unpleasant
twang, and tardy movement were still distinguishable, and in his opinion,
they were decidedly against it, and must be remedied. Again, the whole
affair was so complicated, that there was a great amount of labor and dif-
ficulty in taking it apart to get at the reeds and valves. In order to facili-
tate his further experiments, he desired to turn the reeds up side down. It
must be stated that in this primary instrument, as in all others up to that
time, the reeds were on the under side, next the opening on the bellows, the
wind passing upward and outward. In order to make the reed " speak,'"
■when turned over, he found it would be necessary for the wind to pass
through the reed from the upper side downward. This circumstance was
the first application of his idea of the suction bellows, and proved to be
the initiatory step to his great invention. He immediately set about con-
structing a bellows that would produce the desired effect, and which he
already foresaw would greatly diminish the impediments in his further
experiments, as thereby the reeds M'ould be accessible from the upper side,
and could be removed and replaced at pleasure, without taking the instru-
ment to pieces. His exertions here were long and tedious, and had he not
been possessed with most indomitable energy and perseverance, he would
have given up in despair a dozen times. In a very few weeks he accom-
plished the musical object; but effort after effort was cast aside as being
too complicated and cumbersome — he being determined that if it ever was
placed before the public, it should have all the valuable qualities desired.
At times he would defer operations on it, and long before it was perfected
he had made three other important inventions; one a planing machine,
another a machine for turning irregular forms, and the third, a brick press;
all of which have since been patented and put into successful operation by
other parties. Finally, after years of patient industry, during which he
not only labored almost incessantly, night and day, but submitted to all the
inconveniences of a light purse and a young family to support, he sue-

526 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ceedcd beyond his most sanguine expectations, and " Cavhart's Suction or
Exhaustion Bellows," now so universallj'^ admired and acknowledged to be
perfection itself, was brought into the world.

During the making of these first six instruments, Mr. Carhart had .the
good fortune to make a discovery, which has been acknowledged by all to
have been one of the greatest improvements in reeds, w'hich has ever been
brought to light. He discovered that bj' bending or curving the point of the
reed, the quality of the tone could be changed at pleasure. To this inven-
tion he applied the name of "voicing." The peculiar advantage derived
from it is the command which a skillful tuner is capable of exercising over
the reed, as by varying the curve, he can produce any quality of tone, from
extreme harshness to the opposite extremity of softness; the volume and
power of the tone can also be graduated at pleasure by means of this
principle. Its universal adoption is convincing proof of the value of this
discovery.

After some time, during which a long succession of difficulties were m^t
and promptly overcome, the half dozen melodeons were finished and sub-
mitted for examination. The last improvements so perfected the tone, that
a soft, sweet strain could be procured at pleasure; the new application of
the bellows was rapid and effective, and in a moment the melodeon had
become a " fast talker," while its beautiful flute-like sounds delighted and
enchanted each hearer. Of course, the public verdict was unanimous in its
favor; and the patent being at once secured, their sale commenced imme-
diately. This was in 1846, and as a most remarkable circumstance we
state the fact, that notwithstanding their facilities, Messrs. Carhart &
Needham were unable to fulfill their orders from that time until late in
1853, when the general financial and commercial depression was felt in
every department of manufacture, trade, etc.

The manufacture was continued in the city of Bufialo, until 1848. In
the meantime, Mr. Carhart's ever active mind had conceived, and by rude
experiments demonstrated, his justly celebrated " theory of the action of
a current of air upon reeds placed in particular positions." He had also
conceived the idea of making a tube-board in one piece, and solely by
macliinery, in which to place the reeds; and after due reflection, it was
determined to dispose of their establishment in Buffalo, and remove to the
great commercial metropolis; and there, after, constructing the most per-
fect machinery and apparatus, and securing suitable premises, to commence
the manufacture of melodeons on the most extended and liberal scale. It
had been about that time discovered that this class of instruments were
affected by changes of the atmosphere. Soon after his arrival in this city,
Mr. Carhart proceeded to an cxtensivs rolling-mill in Connecticut, where,
after a series of experiments of some weeks duration, he produced the
amalgam now known as " reed-metal," which has ever been found to pos-
sess the exact virtues required from it, and since its adoption the manufac-
turers have heard nothing of the " buzzing" sound, that in some cases was
formerly compVained of in melodeons.

The Rivelingr ]TIacIiiiie.

The Slotting Machine. The Block-punching Machine.

527

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 527

REED RIVETING MACHINE.

While constructing the machinery for the ne>v establishment, another
superior contrivance emanated from the prolific bi'aiu tf Carhart A
machine for riveting the frames and reeds together, (see illustration,) and
this perfect and efTective little automaton is certainly one of the most ele-
gant, useful and ingenious pieces of mechanism of the age. It is thus
described in the Ecening Post, about the time the patent w'as secured:

" One machine for riveting the tongue to the frame is a great curiosity.
The former being placed on the latter, they are seized v^^ith a pair of pincers
of peculiar construction, and inserted in the machine, a slight jerk of the
lever and a portion of the frame is driven directly through the tongue,
forming a rivet most complete and ingenious, thereby securing two truly
important qualities, strength and perfect vibration — bringing out a tone
which it is almost impossible to attain in any other way." Although we
have taken some moments to describe the operation of this machine, its
motions are much more expeditious, as its ordinary working speed, it per-
fectly rivets fifteen reeds per minute.

After their removal to New York, the firm was taken by surprise by the
constant orders for reeds that was daily pouring in upon them, from manu-
.facturers and others in all sections of the country. Owing to the filling of
which, and the time required to make their new machinery, they did not
get permanently located until late in the fall of 1849, when they leased a
large establishment in Thirteenth street, and commenced the manufacture
of the mclodeon on a scale never before attempted in this country.

BLOCK MACHINES.

Beside the machine for riveting, described above, there are three others
for forming the blocks and tongues, the whole cf which is performed in the
most expeditious and perfect manner ; in fact, it would be impossible to
secure the same uniformity on any other yet known plan. One machine
(see illustration) punches out the blocks ; another trims and shapes them,
another takes out half the cavity for the tongue, which cavity is finished
complete in the next operation. The tongues are worked out precisely in
the same perfect and expeditious manner. AH the metal turning, filing,
and iron finishing of the whole concern, is done in a room fitted with
lathes, vices, and all the machinery desirable to expedite the operations.

FORM OF MELODEON CASES.

Carhart's Improved Patent Melodeon, may be classified under three
hi'ads, as follows: First. The Folding Scroll Leg, commonly called the
" Portable Style." Second. " The Piano Style." And Third. "The Double
Reed, with Two Stops." All these styles are modified into a great variety
of shapes, as far as the external appearance is concerned. The four-and-a-
half and five-octave Portable Styles are probably the most prominent, inas-
much as from their cheapness, compactness, and the feasibility by which
they are readily transported from place to place, are accessible to parties
in the most distant sections of the country. As will be observed in the
illustration of the "old style" of melodeon, the bellows at that time dropped
down in front of the instrument, it will be readily admitted that this feature
did not improve the outward appearance of the article. In the new style,

528 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

this has been obviated by altering the slope of the bellows, so that the
feeding- or exhausting chamber is icithin the body of the case, and therefore
a disagreeable doformitj is expunged. The cross-piece to which the pedals
are attached, called the "stretcher," is readily removed, when the legs,
which are hinged, fold up beneath the case, the bellows receding at the
same time; and the whole instrument occupies a space the size of the case
alone. The tcp«is hinged at the back — as is also the case in each of the
other styles — and is opened to expose the interior arrangements of the
instrument without diflSculty. The " sounding board," which is a thin strip
placed perpendicularly^ lengthwise the case, a few inches behind the keys,
is removable at pleasure, by which the reeds are exposed to view, and
taken out, tuned and replaced, with the utmost ease and facility. The
extreme simplicity and perfection in the construction of these instruments,
enables a person with the least intelligence to comprehend them at a
glance. Again, if by any unforeseen circumstance, a reed should get
broken or cracked, by just writing to the manufacturers, and mentioning
the name of the note, another is forwarded by mail that is sure to suit the
instrument; such equality in the notes is only arrived at by the superior
machinery with which they are manufactured.

The Piano stylo is made with from five to seven octaves, and in its
internal arrangements is about the same as the above described. In
external appearance they are precisely like a small piano. They are
finished with octagon and fancy-carved legs, panneled, and mouldings to
suit the tastes of the most fastidious.

The "double reed" has two sets of reeds, named the "principal" and
"diapason." They are tuned an octave apart, and may, by means of the
stops, be played together, or separate, producing a pleasing variety.

The Seven Octave Parlor Melodeon is a style unique to this establish-
ment, and either as a superior musical instrument, or an elegant piece of
furniture, it is equally deserving of gracing the drawing-room of the most
distinguished in the land. In regard to the musical qualities of these
melodeons, the best judges in Europe and America have pronounced them
superior to any other in the world.

PARLOR ORGAN.

• Our new Parlor Organ just completed, is the best and most complete
instrument of the kind. The great objection to instruments having double
blowing pedals, has been the want of a swell which would be under com-
plete control of the performer at all times. As both feet are employed to
supply the bellows, various mechanical contrivances have been applied to
produce the crescendo and diminuendo, among which may be named swell
or forte stops, to be drawn with the hand; swell levers, projecting in front
to be operated by the knees; and several devices to operate the swell by
means of the contraction and expansion of the bellows, as in the automatic
swell, &c. It will be readily seen that the appliances named do not place
the swell (upon which depends the finest effects of the instrument), under
complete control of the performer. The forte stop produces no gradation
of power whatever; it is either loud or soft; besides which, the hand of
the player must be removed from the key-board to operate it. The knee

The Harmonium— Double Bank-Piano style of Meiodcon. 6a§

Parlor Organ ITlclodeon.

Double Reed Melodcon.

Improved Porfablc Melodeon.

9*^8

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 529

lever is an improvement on the forte stop, but it is placed in an awkward
position, and cannot be used with ease and effect by a gentleman, much
less by a lady.

The several automatic devices being operated by the contraction and
expansion of the bellows, cannot be under complete control of the player,
inasmuch as when the tone is loudest, the bellows is contracted to its
utmost, and in order to produce the softest tone, sufficient time must elapse
for the bellows to fill, and vice versa. This arrangement differs from the
"forte stop" in this respect; it is all gradation, with no power to make a
quick transition from loud to soft, or soft to loud. The utter impossibility
of phiying music as it is written, by means of this latter contrivance, is
obvious.

These defects have hitherto deterred us from making instruments with
double bellows pedals, until such time as we could make an improvement
wliich would overcome the difficulty.

This we have thoroughly and satisfactorily accomplished in the "com-
bination swell," which is so placed and combined with the bellows pedal
as to rest lightly against the outside of the left foot, and may be operated
with perfect ease while in the act of supplying the bellows It will be
readily seen that by means of this invention the crescendo and diminuendo
may be produced at will, perfect and complete, even with one foot (the bel-
lows having great capacity) ; the wind can be easily supplied and the swell
operated at the same time.

The Parlor Organ has two sets of reeds, two stops (Diapason and Prin-
cipal), and contains all of our best inventions, consisting in part of our
"double exhaust bellows," "pneumatic stop," "combination swell,"
"improved action," &c., &c. The tones are clear and sweet, and when
swelled to their fullest extent acquire a full, round, organ-like character.

The Church Organ Harmonium.

These instruments are adapted to churches and large public rooms. They
contain a variety of stops. For instance, of those now illustrated. No. 2
has four sets of reeds and ten stops, viz: diapason, principal, bassoon,
bourdon, tremolo, flute, principal, hautboy, clarionet, grand organ. No. 4
has two banks of keys, five sets of reeds, twelve stops; a' so one-half and
two octaves of pedal base. The stops are arranged in a row above the
key-board, within convenient reach of the performer, and are so named and
numbered that the various combinations may be quickly made and changed.
The Grand Organ stop commands the full power of t le instrument, when
drawn, and on being closed, the original combination is restored. As a
new feature in this class of instrument, we have introduced the " tremolo"
stop for solos and interludes.

These organs contain the patent pneumatic stop or mute, which always
insures a perfect closing of the stops; also the new action, which simpli-
fies the internal mechanism, so that the reeds, valves, &c., may be easily
and quickly removed.

Is pleasing in its architectural proportions, and in appearance like an
upright or "Boudoir" pianoforte, made of solid kiln-dried black walnut,

1_Am. Inst ] B.*

530 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

finished in oil. They are also made in rosewood, highly ornamented and
polished. The lower part of the case is devoted exclusively to tlie bellows
and sub-base, forming a large resonance or vibratory chamber for the base
reeds, to which fact, in a degree, is attributable their deep, full, sonorous
tones. The upright part contains the reeds, valves, stops and swell, which
are only separated from the external atmosphere by a silk covered fret-
work panel and a perpendicular organ swell, it will be obvious that a
greater amount of power may be obtained (when desired) than could pos-
sibly be had were the reeds enclosed beneath the box of the old style
square case.

Each instrument is provided with a lever or "blow-handle," so that a
second person may supply the bellows if desired. A " tell-tale," or indica-
tor, is placed above the " blow-handle," indicating the amount of air
exhausted and replaced, by observing which the person supplying the bel-
lows will be enabled to do so with ease and uniformity.

Mr. Carhart intends to make still greater improvements in relation to
increasing the number of stops. He finds room behind the representation
of the pipes of tlie church organ to place any number of sets of reeds
desired. In this manner an instrument resembing, in every essential par-
ticular relating to sound, the church organ, has been made which has the
advantage of remaining in tune for a long time.

Not long since the Scientific American contained an interesting explana-
tion of the essential parts of the melodeon, of which the following is a
condensed account.

THE REED.

A melodeon is in all essential points an accordeon upon legs. The sound
is produced in the same way and by the same agents, namely, a current of
air, driven with greater or less velocity through a brass block, having a
brass tongue fitting an opening in the same, as in fig. 2. The reed itself
is a, or the small tongue of brass, and this is set in a block, h, called the
reed-block.

The reed or the tongue in former times was punclied out. Experience
has proved, however, that punched reeds are not durable. The metal is
condensed so much about the base of the reed (where the square shoulder
is) that the cohesion of the particles is destroyed, and the reed breaks at
the place designated. The improved practice is to saw them out by means
of a series of delicate cutters set in a wheel. This process takes more
time than punching, but a much better piece of work is produced.

When the reed is sawed out it is riveted on to the block by another ma-
chine, which, although insignificant in its appearance, has worked a com-
plete revolution in this branch of making melodeons. The appearance of
the rivet head can be noticed by referring to fig. 2. It will be seen
that there are two raised heads, d, crossed with lines. These heads are
portions of metal pushed up out of the reed-block, as at e, in fig. 1 ; there
is no pin or solid rivet in the reed or its block, and the saving of time in
punching holes, cutting off the pins, putting them in and closing them, as
practiced in the old method, is apparent.

After the reed is in its place in the block it is planed on top. The thick-
ness of the reed is less at the base than at the free end, and the tone of the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 631

rcod is dotci-niincd by this plaiiiiiy,-. So accurately does tliis planing- ma-
chine woi'U, that the reed, when delivered finished iVoin the machine, is
within a sixleenth of a true note, and requires only a little adjustment to
make it perfect. When we add that the tuner, in giving the reed its pro-
per pitch before it is finally placed in the instrument, uses a smooth file,
and that one rub of this file is suflicicnt to alter the tone materially, it will
be seen that the machine must be very nicely adjusted to make the reeds
correct, or nearly so, at first.

THE REKD BOARD

is simpl}' a strip of plank, the length of the key-board, full of little cells,
as shown in fig. 3, at A, etc. In the middle cell, as illustrated, will be
seen a rced-block and reed in its place in a cell.

The cells, or tubes as the makers cull them, where the reeds set, are all
made by a most ingenious machine, contrived by Mr. Carhart. This ma-
chine is automatic, and the strip of plank out of which the board is made,
liaving been placed in a certain position, the cutter goes on and produces
all the cells, as at A, and performs its oflice with a regularity and exacti-
tude which is almost human. This machine will rank with the automa-
tic lathe of Blanchard; for it is not oidy capable of executing work in
straight lines, but also carves scrolls for lyres, and similar work with such
nicety and rapidity that no hand work can approach it. ' The cutters revolve
with great velocity, 7, TOO times a minute, and the speed of the driving
belt is just one mile in a minute.

There is another little detail in this rood-board which commands our
attention, and this is the small groove the reed-block^sets in. This groove
is about a tenth of an inch wide and deep, and is made by a swiftly
revolving cutter. Each groove is an exact fac simile of the other, and
those made years ago will fit any reed-block made to-day. One of those
tube boards is cut in five minutes, and the rapidit}' with which the details
are executed is worth}' of notice.

Beneath the tube-board is a series of valves, lined with soft kid-skin, which
close the cells. When either of these valves is raised by depressing a key-
on the finger board of the instrument, the air is admitted to cells in which
the air has been partially exhausted and in passing by the reed or tongue
gives it such vibration as to produce a sound.

In the discussion which followed, many interesting statements were
made by Dr. Rowell and others. The most essential fact elicited was that
the reeds are now made of an alloy consisting of copper, 45, zinc, 45, and
nickel, 10, which is nearly unaffected by the moisture in the air. These
vibrating tongues are all made to a standard pitch so that if one ia
injured an order may be sent for another to go by mail, and it will be sure
to accord.

After deciding to continue the discussion of musical instruments at the
next meeting, the Association adjourned.

532 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Amkkican Institute Polytechnic Association, )
March \Uh, 1865. j

Prof. S. D. Tillman occupied the chair.

The chairman read a communication from Joseph Dixon, Esq., of Jersey
City, relating to an account of Shaw & Justice's Steam Gauge, described
in the last annual volume of Transactions of the American Institute. It
would appear from the description there given that their mode of measur-
ing the pressure of steam by means "of a short mercurial column pressing
on a piston of comparatively large diameter, was new; but he, Mr. D., had
used the same mode for years in his manufacturing establishment. To
prove which he sent to the Institute the identical gauge, now broken, for
the inspection of members. It was a French invention, manufactured how-
ever in this country. The only difference between this and that of Shaw &
Justice is that, in the former, the pressure of the mercury is on the bottom
of a piston and the pressure of steam is on the top of a piston (-f smaller
diameter, the two being separated by a diaphragm of India-rubber, while in
the latter, the application of the pressures is reversed. The arrangement
used by Messrs. Shaw & Justice was admitted to be, on the whole, the
most convenient and desirable.

Hicks' New Steam Engine.

Mr. Wm. Cleveland Hicks, Civil Engineer, and Professor of Mechanical
Engineering in Trinity College, Hartford, exhibited drawings and made
explanations of his newly patented Steam Engine, patented Feb. 21, 1865,
He said the chief f<?ature of this invention is its matchless simplicity. While
retaining the entire principle and action of the best approved reciprocating-
piston engines, and doing no violence to the convictions of our most intel-
ligent engineers that this principle and action cannot be superseded as long
as the present mode of applying steam continues; the details are so far
simplified that the pistons connected directly to the crank, form the only
moving parts, and these with the cylinders compose the whole machine.
This is done by making the pistons of suitable form and arrangement to
enable them to perform also the offices of valves and cut-offs, dispensing
not only with these contrivances, but also with the whole array of valve-
rods, eccentrics, rock-shafts, packing-boxes, slides, levers, cross-heads, and
external attachments of every kind which they necessitate. The action of
the pistons is alike simple and uniform, each being a slide-valve for the
one next preceding it. This invention, therefore, forms the most radical
and entire change in steam engines which has occurred since the days of
Watt, and gives a better machine, simple, compact, light, durable, accu-
rate, and economical in operation beyond all comparison with the past, and
at far less orig-inal cost than tver before attained.

In the arrangement, four cylinders are employed, the pistons in which
receive the pressure of the steam or other fluid in one direction only, or
are what is called single-acting. In the annexed engravings, these are
Bhown as standing at right angles to each other, or in the form of a cross,
the inner ends being open and having a crank in the centre or equidistant
from each of the inner ends and as shown in fig. 1, in which a is the first
cylinder, b the second, c the third, and d the fourth. The cylinders aro

532

533

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 633

t
connected with each other bj' two steam channels e and /, one of which e

is for direct sleani and the other / for the exhaust, although in reversing
the engine e becomes the exhaust and f the steam passage. The pistons
are cylindrical and take up sufficient space to lap over the openings of the
steam channels c and f where those enter the cylinders and are shaped as
shown at g. In the sides of the piston cliannels or recesses are cut, on
opposite sides proper to meet the steam passages, when the piston is
moved along the cylinder, so that they shall stand over their openings. It
is to be understood that the valve does not operate the steam for its own
cylinder, but always for the cylinder next preceding it. Thus the valve
in the cylinder a regulates the flow of steam to and from the cylinder b,
and b for c, c for d, and d for a. There are six steam openings into each
cylinder, viz: e and f leading from b to c, and e' and /' leading from a to
b on the opposite side, and so likewise for the other two cylinders, and
lying in the same plane. The other two openings enter on opposite sides
of the cylinder at a right angle to -those first named and as shown by the
dotted lines h /i' and i i' in cylinders a and b. The openings h and h\ as
also the similar openings in the other cylinder, all lead to one common
receiving pipe for the admission of steam, as shown at k, figs. 1 and 2,
^•' being the branch pipe for connecting all the cylinders with it. The
openings t i' also lead in like manner to one common exit pipe I through
Z' in like manner. The valve j, fig. 2, is shown as closing both pipes, and
the engine is accordingly at rest. The valve on each piston acts precisely
as the D slide valve of ordinary engines. At n m are recesses on one side
of the valve g. One of these n passes round one quarter of the circumfer-
ence of the cylinder on the under side, while m extends in like manner one
quarter on the opposite or upper side. It will be thus seen that when the
piston g has moved along so that the channel n stands opposite e it will
also be over tlie opening h, so that steam will pass at once into the cylinder
e. The same is also true of m, for when that recess is opposite f it will
also stand over the opening i, and the steam can flow out of the cylinder o
as shown. On the opposite side of the jiiston g there is another opening
for receiving and discharging the steam according to the working of the
valve in a. This opening is seen at o and extends through the narrow
channel o' up and through the piston, thus communicating with the steam
space between the piston and the head of the cylinder; as shown, it over-
laps the two ports e' and/', and acts in that respect like an ordinary slide
valve. The crank is placed in the opening in the frame at the inner ends
of the four cylinders as seen at p, that being the crank pin. Four con-
necting r(jds, each attached to one of the four pistons, are joined to the
crank pin. As the cylinders stand at right angles to each other there is
necessarily always one or two pistons in action upon the crank, so that
when any pair of pistons which stand opposite to each other are at the end
of their strokes the other two will be at the half of their stroke. Thus
the piston in a is at half stroke, moving toward the crank, c is also at half
stroke retreating from the crank, and b and d at the extremity of their
respective strokes. Now, it is when the pistons are at half stroke that
the valves begin to operate upon the steam for the preceding cylinder,
either to admit or exhaust the steam as may be required. It will be seen

53 i TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

that the recess n' in the valve in cylinder a is just ready to lap the channel
e' and cover the opening- h\ thus admitting- steam at once to the cylinder 6
above its piston g. This channel will be kept open until the piston in a has
completed its stroke and returned back to the half stroke, for then the
piston g will have completed its stroke and be ready to return ; it must,
therefore, be allov7ed to exhaust its steam. The recess /?i' will now have
come to the opening i^ and channel f\ thus at once exhausting the steam,
for the two half strokes of the piston in a are just equal to the whole
stroke of g. The piston g acts in like manner for the valve for the cylinder
c. The piston in the latter is returning for a new stroke and is accordingly
exhausting its steam; the channel / is accordingly in connection with the
escape passage i through the recess m, as siiown, and the same operation
takes place for the cylinders c and d. Thus it will be understood that in
each cylinder there is contained, beside the piston, a valve operated directly
by the piston to admit and exhaust the steam to and for the next cylinder.
The valve j is for the purpose of starting, stopping, and reversing the
engines. When this valve is drawn so that the steam admitted at k passes
from the top of the valve into k^, the steam will be exhausted through /' by
the under side of the valve, and vice versa, the crank turning according to
the direction the steam takes in these two pipes.

Figs. 3 and 4 are enlarged' views of the crank, showing the manner of
attaching the connecting rods. As the cylinders all lie in one plane, the
ends of the connecting rods all meet and abnt upon the crank pin, some
device must be resorted to to keep them there. The end of each of the
connecting rods terminates in a crosspiece q^ on the connecting rod q and
r' on the opposite rod ?■; each crosspiece on its face is hollowed out to fit
the crank pin and' press against it. These faces are less than a quarter of
a circle, in order to leave room for the vibration of the rods as seen in figs.
1 and 3. The connecting rods are kept pressing np to the crank pin by
means of two rings which embrace the whole four of the cross arms, one
ring being between the crank and the connecting rods, as seen at s, fig. 4,
and the other above the rods aod extending out to the end of the crank pin
as at s', figs. 3 and 4. These Vings are kept in place by a cap t, fig. 4,
screwed to the end of the crank pin p. The operation is as follows: Steam
being admitted throug k, the valve j is drawn, so as to allow it to flow
through k^, whence it will pass by the branch pipes to each of the cylinders,
abed. The piston g is just at the end of its return stroke and in the
position ready to receive steam. The position of the recess n' of the valve
in cylinder a is just at the edge of the port or opening into the channel
e' and likewise at the steam aperture /i'. So soon as the said recess passes
these openings, a continuous ciiarinel is at once formed, and the steam flows
through 0 into the cylinder b above the piston, and accordingly drives the
latter toward the crank. At the same time that the piston in b is receiving
the effect of the steam ac^mitted through the cylinder c, the piston in b is
performing the office of regulating the flow of steam into and from c, the
"piston in this latter cylinder having performed its stroke is exhausting its
steam, and it will be seen by the direction of the arrow flowing back
through f m and i to the final discharge I. The lower face of the narrow
channel o' forms a "cut off" by lapping over the port in e' as soon as the

Figi;are8 4, 5, 6.

535

Figures 7, §.

535

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 535

piston has performed one half of its stroke, in which position it is shown
in cylinder c. This lap may be made adjustable as to lerig'th by a sliding
piece, and therefore reg-nlates the expansion to any degree desired.

Several variations can be made in this engine. It is not necessary that
the channels / and e be separate; they may be, included in one and may
terminate in the cylinders above the pistons, so as to omit the passage o
and 0'; the cylinders need not also stand in the position shown in the
engravings, but may be placed parallel to each other. Steam has been
described as the fluid used for the motive power, but water, gas, or other
fluid may be employed, and the engine also be employed as a pump.

Mr. Hicks then gave a short description of the engine in its horizontal
form, which would be used in locomotives, steamboats, and many purposes
where great economy of steam is desirable, as the passages from cylinder
to cylinder are so reduced as to save nearly all the steam usually lost in
the ports.

Fig. 4 represents an end view of engine D, with tjie caps to the crank-
shaft bearings; all the other parts being removed. A A inside of the
cylinders, show the ports'connecting the cylinders to each other, and to the
steam and exhaust ports.

Fig. 5 represents a side view of the same engine, and the caps to the
bearings, with the other parts removed.

Fig. 6 represents the engine standing on one end, with shaft and pulley
in place; also the steam and exhaust pipes I and H, as attached to the
bottom.

Fig. 1 represents the pistons, crank, shaft, pulley, governor pulley and
connecting rods, disconnected, but in the positions occupied when in the
engine. The pistons show the ports and passages for steam, exhaust and
cut- off.

Fig. 8 represents sectional view through B B, fig. 4; A B being steam
passages in the cylinders; C D being the exhaust.

The exhibition of this new engine elicited an interesting discussion, in
which the novelty and value of the arrangement were fully explained.

Warming Carriages.

Mr. James Campbell illustrated by diagrams on the blackboard his method
of warming carriages. lie proposes placing in the box under the driver's
seat, or beneath the floor of tlie carriage, a tank filled with water, leading
from which are small iron pipes that pass around the interior of the coach.
The water in the tank is heated by a petroleum lamp. Mr. Campbell said
the necessity for such an apparatus in vehicles was very evident. In his
trade of coachmaking, the enquiry was often made by fliose ordering pri-
vate carriages, if some plan could not be devised for warming them, and
hence he was induced to experiment, and of the various plans tried, the
one here shown seemed best calculated to effect the object. . Carriages nov7
made weigh fron\ 1,400 to 1,700 pounds, and the entire weight of this appa-
ratus would not be over 75 pounds.

Mr. Stetson said that this device appeared quite novel for warming car-
riages by hot water pipes, and using petroleum for fuel. The idea of

536 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

j'loxing' the tank under the floor of the carriage seemed to him to be best,
; fc by that means, the water as it gave off' its heat could be made by its
.'Avn gravity, to return to the tank and be used over again.

Musical Instruments.

The subject selected for discussion was taken up. Mr. Albert Weber,
manufacturer of pianos, took the floor, and occupied an hour in describing
the successive steps of improvement which had resulted in the production
of the piano forte in its present form and arrangement. The following ia
a condensed report of his remarks:

The first string instrument, made on the principle of the piano, was con-
structed in the year 1001. It was about four feet square, and was made
with three strings. This was improved upon in Germany until there were
twenty strings used. About the year 1600 keys were applied to these
instruments, such as those in use now, but of course very imperfectly
made. We contend that the Germans are the original inventors of the
piano, and that the first real piano was made by a German named Silber-
man. This was about 1725, Afterwards a Mr. Rutherman, in England,
made one with outside keys. They were painted and inlaid with wood,
and the whole was as handsome as any piano that could be made, and it is
now regarded as a great curiosity. The first seven instruments made
were bought by Frederick the Great, in 1147. The strings of these instru-
ments gave a continual sound when struck, and was a source of much
trouble until an Italian, named Crystophy, invented a method to stop these
vibiations. Various improvements were afterwards made, but it is only
•within the last twenty years that the pianoforte has been brought to its
present perfection. The firm of John Broadwood & Co. has been in the
business since 1780, in London, and have made 132,000 pianos. They now
make about fifty a week. In New York we have about seventy manufac-
turers, and they make from two hundred and fifty to three hundred a week.
The largest part of the pianos on the continent are made in England. We
are now making more pianofortes in this country than any other. Eng-
land comes next. France follows, and Germany the fourth. It is a debata-
ble matter as to which manufacturer makes the most in this city,

Mr. Weber here drew diagrams on the blackboard showing the inside '
construction of the various styles of pianos. An impression prevailed, he
said, that pianos were made of rosewood, but the thickness of that wood
is not greater than an ordinary card. The sounding board is made of
spruce wood, because it is the best conductor of sound. This board is
made to taper, in thickness, from an eighth to one-quarter of an inch,
which is strengtMfened by ribs. Some are made from an eighth to a six-
teenth in thickness. The ribs are an inch thick. In his estimation all the
excellence of the piano depended on the sounding board. The iron frame
to which the strings are attached was introduced about thirty years ago.
Some manufacturers still use the wooden frame. The strings are turned at
an angle to stop all vibration, and the whole sound of the instrument is
thrown into the sounding board. If a piano is not in proper tune through-
out, it is because the wood is of a different character in some places. The

PROCEEDINGS X)F THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 537

spruce wood has little red streaks in it, and some manufacturers think the
larger these streaks the finer the tone, but he thought the smaller the
streaks the better the tone. Some contend that the tone is increased
between these streaks. Various metals have been tried for sounding
boards, and even glass, but it was found that metals always destroyed the
sound or tone. Our main guide is the violin sounding board. The style
most made in this country is the square piano. Ninety-eight out of every
hundred are of this kind. The square piano is used for a large room,
and the upright for a small room. The strings in each are precisely alike,
but the action of striking is different. A greater power can be exerted
upon the horizontal than upon the upright piano strings. The action most
used by makers in New York is called the French grand action.

The piano keys are balanced with lead so as to make each end precisely
of the same weight. If this is not done the key will not respond readily
to the touch. There is no rule laid down for makers to go by. Each
establishment has its own system or scale to which all its pianos conform.
It is surprising, however, to hear the great diversity of opinion expressed
by professors and experts regarding the tone of the same piano. There is
no book to give instruction regarding the manner of producing uniformity
of tone by the arrangement of the woodwork. The art is attained by a
few workmen who, as a general rule, are not piano playei's, and therefore
take the opinion of professors as to the quality of tone produced.

Adjourned to March 23d.

'■}

American Institute Polytechnic Association,
March 23, 1865.

Prof. S. D. Tillman in the Chair; Mr. B. Garvey, Secretary.

The Chairman said he would substitute for his usual budget of scientific
intelligence, an article by him, lately published in Humphrey's Journal of
Photography :

Clydonics — No. 1.

BY PROF. S. D. TILLMAN.

Read before the American Photographical Society.

Under this title, derived from the Greek, Kludon, it is proposed to embrace
those branches of science which treat of waves and undulations; of oscil-
lations, vibrations and pulsations. By grouping in this manner, manifes-
tations of force through to and fro motions, more or less rapid, the student
is enabled to view this class of reactions from a stand-point where com-
parative measurements and estimates greatly assist him in reaching and
retaining correct conchisions. All the notes in Nature's harmony, heard
and unheard, thus become a part of one grand gamut, extending from the
profound sub-base of the great tidal wave, having a single diurnal culmi-
nation, upward through the diapasons of sound and color, to the very
altissimo of the tremulous aith, whose waves — quicker than thoiiglit —
generate a pitch far higher than the violent tone, and, being beyond the

538 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

range of Imman vision, are only known to us by the wonderful effects they
produce in the hands of the skillful photographer.

This paper will be devoted to that subdivision of Clydonics which includes
considerations regarding- the relative action of the most common media of
liglit and sound.

It is very difficult, if not impossible, to form a correct conception of the
extreme attenuation and rapid motion of the ethereal medium which is
termed peth, to distinguish it from the ether of chemistry. In papers pre-
viously presented I have endeavored to show that all the distinct and appa-
rently diverse effects known as heat, light and actinism may be the result of
wave motions of the same fluid varying in velocity. Bearing in mind the broad
distinction between the normal movements of air waves and the transverse
movements of a^th waves, let us by gradual ascent upon the atmospheric
ladder, so to speak, reach the dizzy height at which rapidity of motion is appa-
rently the rule, and rest the exception, in the wonderful economy of nature.

The propagating o!' sound through air, having the temperature of the
melting point of ice, the mercury f the barometer standing at 30 inches,
is about''l,090 feet per second. Its velocity is directly as the square root
of the elasticity and inversely as the square root of the density of the air.
When the temperature is increased one degree on the Fahrenheit scale, any
gas is increased 4', in bulk. The form ila of Newton, with the correction
of Laplace, expressing the ratio of the specific heat of air at a constant
volume, with its specific heat at a constant pressure, has been confirmed
by actual measurements. In gases under the same pressure and of the
same temperature, the velocity of sound is inversely as the square root of
their densities. D along produced tones from organ pipes by means of dif-
ferent gases, and found that sound was propagated in one second through
hydrogen 4,154 feet, through carbonic oxide 1,105 feet, through air 1,093
feet, through oxygen 1,040 feet, through carbonic acid 857 feet. The
density of oxygen being 16 times that of hydrogen, it will be seen that
the velocity of sound thus obtained id these gases correspond very nearly
with the calculated rate.

The elasticity of the atmosphere being directly as its pressure, the
velocity of sound would be the same at all heights through air of the same
temperature. The variations caused by decrease of heat in upward pro-
gress can be calculated from data gathered by Mr. Glaisher during balloon
ascensions to the height of five miles. Without attempting to give even
a near approximation towards the true height of the atmosphere, which
must have a definite boundary at that line wliere gravitation exactly coun-
terbalances the repulsive force of its particles, attention is called to the
following table showing its rarefaction; increasing in geometrical ratio
with each ascent of 3.4 miles.

At 17 miles it is 32 times rarer.

17 1

nailes it is

34

do

51

do

68

do

85

do

102

do

119

do

186

do

1,024

32,708

1,048,576

33,554,432

do
do
do
do

1,073,741,824

34,359,738,368

,099,511,627,776

do
do
do

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 639

This possible attenuation of air will not excite surprise wlicn we con-
sider that a grain of gold may be so expanded as to be divided into 4,900
millions of i)arts, perceptible with the microscope; but astonishment can-
not be repressed upon calculating' the velocity of sound in a fluid vastly
less dense than air thus expanded, provided its elasticity remains the same
as at tlie earth's surface under the standard pressure and temperature. If
we take the comparative rarefaction of such a fluid at only 1,098,304
millions, we find its square root to be 1,048,000, \^hich multiplied by 12,38G,
the number of miles per minute at which sound moves through air, gives
12,980,528 miles per minute as its velocity through such a medium; while
the propagation of light through aith is only at the rate of 11,520,000 miles
per minute.

Assuming that any energy generating wave motions in a fluid, in con-
sequence of its elasticity, follows the same law, we now have the means
of making a comparative estimate of the density of the psth directly envel-
oping our globe; and it may be stated in gen lal terms that such asth does
not exceed the density which a cubic inch of air would have were it
expanded to 1,098,304,000,000 of cubic inches.

Sound would be propagated, with exactly the velocity of light through
a fluid, under the standard pressure, 814,094,104,900 times rarer thalTaiF.
Therefore, if the density of air be 1, the density of eeth is represented by
the decimal. 000000000000114.

It will not be inferred from this view that the aim has been to roach

" The fir t of things, quintessence pure,"

for the elastic quality of eeth involves the hypothesis of a still more subtle
fluid. We have raised one curtain only to find another to be raised. As
the unfathomed vaults of Heaven recede before the sweep of a more power-
ful refractor, and nebulai resolved reveal nebulae beyond, so the most diminu-
tive germ that springs from the Creator's touch, discloses through the lens
of higher power, new signs of more wonderful mechanism within. Each
nucleus has its nuclei! Each entoblast is but the boundary of a micro-
cosm! Each particle, a galaxy of atoms revolving in the all-pervading
asth! Thus before every far reaching human advance, circumference and
centre will forever retreat.

Norman Wiard, Esq., on invitation, presented the following paper, to
which he added explanatory remarks.

Great Guns.

1. Since the battle of Solferino, when^rifled cannon were first actively
put in use, all the nations liable to a state of war have been straining every
nerve to improve their ordnance, and hence their improvements in the
means of defense, and the experi . ents conducted to produce large rifled
guns were cotemporary with the experiments in ironclad ships. Modern
warfare, therefore, with large rifled guns and iron-clad ships, is in its
infancy, although large smooth bores and wooden ships have an earlier
date; their general use in service began with the present rebellion, and, at
this date, the large gun of eitlier class, not liable either to the accident of
enlargement of the bore or bursting has not yet been made; while of rifles
we have none over 30-pounders that have not proved utterly unsafe, except

540 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

a few GO-pounder Parrott's, untried in battle, and some experimental 50-
pounders which have been made, but never put in service.

2. As field rifle guns were successfully used before the rebellion, it ap-
pears that no improvements have been made in large guns during the war,
whilst every other branch of inventive genius has been successfully keep-
ing pace with the march of the revolution in science and mechanics.

3. We can, and we should have guns to answer the purpose of their
creation equally witli agricultural instruments.

4. What farmer would continue to use a plough, if it were liable to burst
and blow him and his team to atoms? Private enterprise overcomes these
diflficulties, why does not the government likewise?

ACCIDENTS WILL HATPEN.

5. At Fort Sumter, in the beginning of the rebellion, the only casualty
was b}^ the bursting of a gun. In the attack on Fort Fisher all the casu-
alties in the fleet resulted from the same cause. At the bursting of every
gun more or less life is lost, beside the sacrifice of property, and owing to
the reticence of the departments but a small percentage of the numbers
that burst, and the losses sustained by the government, are published.
Those we hoar of in the newspapers generally come from some literary,
but unscientific reporter.

, FORT FISHER AND THE NAVAL BOARD.

6. Eighteen large rifles were disabled on Admiral Porter's fleet at Fort
Fisher, yet the Secretary of the Navy reported to Congress but five had
burst; and recently a board convened b}' the Ordnance bureau of the navy
to investigate the cause of the disastrous failures of guns off Fort Fisher,
reported twenty-one burst altogether, out of 703 in service, while their own
tables, accompanying the report, show thirty-four had burst, and the last
report of the chief of the bureau exhibits 1,005 at that time available. ThQ
board likewise suppressed the truth, in not reporting that of the 103, 483
were twenty and thirty pounders, which were not of the classes under con-
templation or liable to burst.

1. I have had twenty-five years' experience in manipulating iron, and
all the talent or inventive faculty I have, resulting from that large expe-
rience, has been for three years entirely devoted to this subject. The chief
of the Ordnance bureau has said that I have great experience, much inven-
tive talent, and am a great mechanic; yet I was not allowed to give any
information to the board. Mr. Horatio Ames was also present in Washing-
ton at the time, who has the reputation of being one of the most extensive
iron manufacturers, with experience in the manufacture of guns, in the
country, and who had made a 50-pounde); wrought iron gun that could not
be burst, yet he was not allowed to testify, nor Mr. Hotchkiss, another
very efficient ordnance mechanic. Only Mr. Parrott was heard. Hence it
can be seen why no improvements are made in guns. The departments
persist in shutting out the light.

THE REASON WHY THERE IS NO IMPROVEMENT.

8. In the navy, some years since, a young lieutenant, of considerable
talent, mucb ambition, with a remarkably fine address, exhibited great

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 541

aptitude for ordnance. The country beiiij^ at peace, lie worked without
rivalry, except in an officer sustaining about the same relation to the
army. They were each more or less successful, owing- to the g-eneral
ignorance on this subject, and at the birth of this rebellion each was the
autocrat of ordnance in their respective branches of >the service, and their
different systems were covered by patents: the one the Dahlgron navy gun,
cast solid in a mass double the weight of the gun, chipped off, and bored
out in the lathe; the other the Rodman army gun, cast hollow, and cooled
from the center with water. It is doubtful if at this period Europe had so
far advanced as we. But they have kept on while we have stood still,
utterly, disgracefully still, so far as the departments are concerned. The
mechanical talent of the country has had no encouragement. '

Private foundries have been employed to make Parrott, Rodman and
Dahlgren guns, but not other or better ones. This being the result, the
influence of these systems became deepl}' rooted in the minds and interests
of those connected with ordnance and the bureau.

A civilian's opinion.

9. Robert Mallet in the preface to his great work on ordnance says:
"There are those who affirm that all that relates to the fabrication or
improvement of artillery belongs properly to the officer of artillery or of
engineers, and that he alone is qualified to treat of or to direct such, and to
these some apology may seem fitting for meddling with matters deemed so
purely professional. To superior knowledge, wherever found, I willingly
defer, and recognize the great ability and brilliant attainments of very
many within the scientific corps of our army, among whom I reckon some
honored frif nds, but I cannot admit the preceding doctrine, nor do I believe
it possible that, under the existing conditions of military education and
life, or perhaps under any others consistent with its primary necessities,
commissioned officers can attain that varied, ccmprehensive, and accurate
scientific and practical knowledge, and that educated phj-sical tact which
long experience in technical matter alone confers, to the extent that civil
life permits, and which the education and occupation of the civil and
mechanical engineer create and empower, ^Non omnia possumus omnes.^
Experience proves it to have been of necessity so always and in all
countries. Who have been the great improvers, if not the creators of the
science of gunnery itself? A long list of illustrious men, in civil life — Tar-
taglia, Galileo, Cassini, Marriotte, Hawksbee, Robins, and Hutton, while
many of the most important practical details applied to the military art
have also come from men such as Forsythe, a country clergyman, the inven-
tor of the percussion lock,'' to which we may add the following names of
Americans: Sharpe, Coli, Tread well, Dickinson, Hotchkiss, Uoremus, Pro-
fessor Barnard, James, &c.

HISTORICAL.

10. The first effort at heavy guns were in wrought iron, and they have,
from a very early period, been tried in every conceivable shape, but alviys
burst. James II, of Scotland, was killed by one of a pair made by in
artist of his day, and the other of the pair burst at a later time. A lai -. ■)
wrought-iron gun burst on board the Princeton, killing Mr. Upshur, a mem-

642 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ber of the cabinet; in fact, they have in every instance failed. After them
came a series of bronze guns; then cast-iron was tried for a wliile, after
which wrought-iron built up guns, fabricated with more skill than had pre-
viously been bestowed upon them; yet they failed, for 1,476 Armstrong
guns, or parts, were returned for repairs up to July, 1862. Then cast-iron
again cast solid, the same as the Dahlgren system, which was in turn aban-
doned for cast-iron banded guns, (Parrott's system.) The English govern-
ment burst or rejected 356 of this kind, and they were abandoned as old
iron in 1862, follov/ing after or coeval with which came guns cast hollow
as by Colonel Rodman. Not one of these systems has stood the test of
battle, and most of them not that of proof

SCUD CAST GUNS.

11. The Dahlgren gun has exhibited better endurance in proof than any
other large gun, yet Dahlgren only allowed limited charges of powder fired
from them, and that behind spherical shells; the^^ could not stand a charge
commensurate with the size of the gun, with a solid shot, especially under
rapid firing. Although the gun is made so as to secure a quality of poro-
sity to the interior metal, which can be heated inside without being expan-
ded to sufficient extent to break the dense surrounding metal, under slow
firing, as used in proving and ordinary practice: for example, the finger
may be inserted into a sponge without rupturing the outside, while a needle
cannot be inserted into a cake of ice without causing radiating cracks.
The effect on this gun under heavy firing would be similar to the effect of
powder in rock blasting. The rock is somewhat compressible and of brittle
texture; the pressure of powder enlarges the diameter of the hole by com-
pressing the material immediately surrounding it; then first, suppose the
bore two inches in diameter to be so enlarged as to start two cracks on
opposite sides to a depth of two inches, the gases of powder enter these
cracks, acting then upon a surface six inches wide. If the pressure in the
bore, two inches in diameter, was before sufficient to induce cracks two
inches wide each side, when the pressure acts upon six inches, the cracks
will be increased six inches in addition on each side, making eighteen
inches width of sui'face upon which the pressure acts to continue the frac-
ture further. (See fig. 1.)

NKCESSITY FOR INITIAL TENSION.

12. " If we make equidistant circular marks on the end of an India-rub-
ber cylinder, and stretch it, we can see plainly how much more the inside
is strained than the outside or even the intermediate parts. Tlie spaces
between the marks will become thinner, each space becoming less thin than
that outside of it, and tlie inner space much thinner than the others, show-
ing that when the inside is strained almost to breaking, the inteimediate
parts ai'e doing much less work, and those far removed almost none.

13. "In the first volume of the 'Transactions' of the Institute of Civil
Engineers, p. 133, there is a paper by I^rofessor Peter Barlow, F. R. S., on
the Strength of Cylinders." The law he deduces is, that "in cylinders of
m-'al the power exerted by different parts varies inversely as the squares
o' tlie distance of the parts from the axis. Thus, in a 10-inch gun, when

-.e inside, which is 5 inches from the axis, is fully strained, the metal 2

PROCEEDINGS OP THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 543

inches from the inside, or *l inches from the axis, can only exert a force
25-49, or little more than half as much; 3 inches further, 10 inches from the
axis, the force exerted diminishes to 25-100, or but a quarter of that exerted
by the inside; and if the gun be 12 inches thick, the outside, which is 17
inches from the axis, can exert but 25-289, or about 1-12 as much power as
the inside. Of course, casting the gun still ihicker would add but very
little to its strength; we cannot, therefore, be astonished that it has been
found in practice that cylinders for hydraulic presses with a thickness equal
to about half the diameter of the piston are very nearly as strong as if ten
times as thick."

14. " In 1855, Pr. llart, of Trinity College, Dublin, investigated the prob-
lem. His calculations (see note W., p. 259 of Mr. R. Mallet's work on the
Construction of Artillery) give the greater strength to the inner parts, but
still less to the outer, than those of Professor Barlow. Both these gentle-
men, as well as Gen. Morin and Dr. Robinson, the astronomer, who have
also studied the question, agree that no possible thickness can pnable a
cylinder fo bear a pressure from within greater on each square inch than
the tensile strength of a square inch bar of the material; that is to say, if
the tensile strength of cast iron be six tons per inch, a cylinder of that
metal, however thick, cannot bear a pressure from within of six tons per
inch." Hence the necessity of shrinking bands one upon another each with
a certain pressure upon what it encloses to get a gun into the state of so-
called "initial tension" necessary to its sustaining the greatest pressure
from within possible to a given thickness of wall, which as applied to a
hydraulic press cylinder is correct, but for a gun it is a fallacy; the effect
of the expansion of the interior by the heat of the powder not being taken
into the account.

THE REQUIREMENTS OF ACTUAL SERVICE.

15. Thus, solid or hollow-cast guns are useless for actual service and
against armored ships, which is now the means of defense to which our
means of offense must be adapted; and no proper preparation is made .for
such a contingency. The Navy Bureau design adopting the Rodman system
of casting hollow and cooling from the center, thereby admitting their want
of confidence in the Dahlgren plan. Yet this will increase their weakness
against the expansive force of heat engendered in battle firing. For it has
been seen that the Dahlgren 11-inch gun is not capable of enduring heavier
charges than 15 pounds of powder and a hollow shot, and that it is only
safe under slow firing, principall}' because of its porosity inside, whereas
if it-is cast hollow as in the Rodman plan, and cooled from the center, al-
though it will stand occasional heavy charges better than the other, and
have more enduring surface to the bore, it must burst when fired rapidly,
even with small charges, thereby rendering it entirely inefficient for actual
service. For the inevitable effect of the system is to produce an initial
tension to the verge of rupturing, rendering them certain to explode by the
force of the metal expanding when quickly heated from the interior; in fact
one of the Rodman guns burst itself on cooling in the foundry at Pittsburg
before it was taken out of the pit.

IG. Of the classes of guiis that have, up to this date, been fabricated,
those of cast-iron are of three kinds: the Dahlgren gun, cast solid, the

544 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Rodman gun, cast hollow, and cast-iron guns band;d round the brooch with
wrought iron.

17. Of wrought iron and steel guns there are three kinds: those made
from solid forged masses, as by Wiard in 18GI, by Krupp of soft steel, and
by Ames of wrought iron. Those that are barrel-banded, as by Armstrong,
Blakele}', Whitworth and Treadwell, and staves with bands, as proposed
by Mallet, and practiced from the most ancient times. Bronze guns are
only used for small calibres. Each kind of material fabricated can be used
with success, in making small guns, but for larger guns, although made in
the same manner, they invariably fail when subjected to the actual condi-
tions of service, and at this time no absolutely safe large gun is to be
found in any service in the world.

THE STRONGEST METAL DOES NOT MAKE THE STRONGEST GUN.

18. That this failure is due to other causes than inability to withstand
the pressure of the gases of the powder, may be found in the fact that a
large calibre steel gun, with a tensile strength of 120,000 pounds to the
inch of section, exhibits lees endurance under rapid firing than a cast-iron
gun of the same calibre, form and size, with a tensile strength of 18,000
pounds. Or 8- inch cast-iron guns made from metal having a strength of
38,000 pounds to the inch of section, have less endurance than a gun of
like calibre and form of which the iron has a tensile strength of only
21,000 pounds.

19. The following extract from Rodman's work on ordnance, pages 137
and 138, (erasing the repetitions of the words solid-cast whenever they
occur,) fully illustrates this principle. It is not deemed out of place here,
in order to show the necessity of further investigation into the properties
of cast-iron, in its ap lication to the manufacture of cannon, to notice some
facts in the history of gun founding in this country since 1849.

20. The very low endurance of the first pair (8-inch) of experimental
guns which were cast in that year, was attrbuted to the inferior quality
of the iron of which they were made. Two years were spent in searching
after a better quality of iron, which was undoobtedly found; and in 1851
another pair of 8-inch guns was cast.

21. The iron in this pair of guns has a tenacit}' of near 38,000 pounds,
while that of tae iron in the first pair was only between 27,000 and 28,000
pounJs. The gun of the first pair burst at the 85th fire, and that of the
second pair at the 73d fire; the superior iron giving the inferior gun.

22. These results did not, however, destroy confidence in strong iron for
guns, and the first pair of 10-inch guns was made from the same lot of
iron; and with a tenacity of iron of 37,000 pounds the gun burst at the
20th fire. This result weakened confidence in very strong iron, and the
tenacity was reduced. In 1857, after guns of good tenacity had failed at
Fort Pitt, South Boston, and West Point foundries, four out of seven guns
offered for inspection at the lust named foundry have burst in the proof.
Mr. Parrott, proprietor of the West Point foundry, one cf our most expe-
rienced gun founders, cast his trial contract guns of iron, having a tenacity
of 30,000 to 32,000 pounds.

23. One of these guns has endured 1,000 service charges of 14 pounds

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 545

powder (800 rounds with shell, and 200 with shot). The iron selected at
that foundry, and from which the last five experimental guns have been
made, was of the same quality, and in the same proportion as in the guns
last above referred to.

24. In 1858, after the failure at the 169th fire of the West Point experi-
mental gun made from this iron, Mr. Parrott condemned it as being too
high for heavy guns.

25. And again, " these facts to my mind are conclusive as to the fact
that we are at present far from possessing a practical knowledge of the
properties of cast-iron in its application to gun foundering; and it is too
much to expect of private enterprise to take up and prosecute so intricate
and expensive an inquiry." Thus we see how recently the author of the
system of casting hollow, acknowledges his ignorance of casting iron, and
I venture to say that neither Bureau knows more to-day. Colonel Rod-
man's plan of hollow casting provides well for the pressure of the powder
in a gun, but the gun that is in the best state to resist the pressure, viz:
by initial tension, is in the worst state to resist the unequal expansion from
the heat of firing; the same holds good in a wrought-iron or steel gun.

FOR PRESSURE.

20. Built up cylinders, i. e. with bands shrunk upon an inner tube of all
kinds are better able to withstand pressure than solid forgings or castings,
as has been her:tofore and will be hereinafter more fully explained; but
must be made of soft ductile iron that will stretch, to thus be disabled and
need repairing, or they will burst by unequal heating if made to be used as
guns. I

EFFECT OF INITIAL STRAINS.

27. The tensile strength of gun metals is usually only tested by simple
extension of length, one of the dimensions undergoing which extension
other dimensions are reduced. It is not known how the tensile strength
of a sample would be. affected if force was applied to extend all its dimen-
sions at the same time. As for instance, take a hollow cylinder of which
the area of cross-section is known and subject it to a pressure of liquid on
the interior, having only the tendency to enlarge its dimensions radially,
while the measured force of the instrument by which its tensile strength
was being measured, was applied to extend its length only. Or, better,
have the forces acting to enlarge the diameter pulling from the outside
instead oi pushing from the inside, it would undoubtedly be found that
while subjected to such additional forces the extension or rupture would be
accomplished with less force. For the attraction of cohesion acts with
greater energy as the faces of crystals or atoms are near or distant, in the
same ratio as the shadow of a screen upon a wall from a point of light in-
creases or diminishes in superficial area as the screen is moved toward or
from the light; hence the more dense the sample of cast-iron from rcmelt-
ing, or greater time in fusion, the greater the tensible strength. When the
initial tensions within the mass of the sample, from unequal cooling or
heating, do not affect the result, the extension of length would require
more force, because the faces of crystals are not all perpendicular to any

[Am. Inst.] *I

546 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

axis. The strength of metals in large masses is much less than in small
ones, owing to initial tensions.

INITIAL STRAIN IN WROUGHT-IRON.

28. "The initial strains of large cylindrical forgings are, to some extent,
deranged by a cause that operates so unfavorably in solid cast-iron guns —
the cooling of the exterior first, and the consequent stretching of the inte-
rior. Mr. Clay acknowledged this difficulty before the defense commis-
sioners, and stated that his new process, hollow forging, overcame it. Such
a result actually occurred in the case of the Horsfall gun; a breech-plug or
false bottom was placed in the chamber to cover a crack arising from this
cause."

29. " One of the illustrations given by Lieut. Col. Clark represents a 12-
inch wrought-iron cylinder, |-inch thick and 9 inches deep, after being
heated to redness, and cooled by immersing its lower half in cold water —
these operations having been repeated twenty times. The upper edge of
the cylinder (in the air) did not alter; the lower edge (in the water) con-
tracted 3-inch in the circumference, and at about one inch above the water-
line the circumference was reduced 5.5 inches.

30. " The general effects noticed in the paper are a maximum contraction
of the metal about one inch above the water-line ; and this is the same
whether the metal be immersed one-half or two-thirds its depth, or whether
it be 9, 6, oi 3 inch deep. With wrought-iron the heatings and coolings
could be repeated from 15 to 20 times before the metal showed any signs
of separation ; but with cast-iron, after the fifth testing, the metal was
cracked, and the hollow cylinder separated all round just below the water-
line after the second heating. Cast-steel stood 20 heatings, but was very-
much cracked all over its surface. (See fig. 2.)

31. " As respects the change of form of cast-iron and steel, the result
was similar to that in wrought-iron, but not nearly so large in amount.
Tin showed no change of form, there being, apparently, no intermediate
state between the melting point and absolute solidity. Brass, gun-metal,
and zinc showed the effect slightly; but instead of a contraction just above
the water-line there was an expansion or bulging." In this example the
hollow cylinder was cooled from the inside and outside surfaces. The fol-
lowing example shows the effect of heating and cooling from one surface
only.

32. If we produce a homogenous ball of wrought-iron, and subject it to
repeated heating and cooling, it becomes larger in dimensions, and may,
by continuing the process, be made distinctly hollow. Upon heating it the
outside receives the heat first, enlarging the interior — the dimensions of
masses of metals may be enlarged or separated by the application of suffi-
cient force, indefinitely; while the dimensions of a mass cannot be mate-
rially reduced, no matter what force is applied — at a later time when the
interior is heated, the outside is enlarged, or receives what has been termed
a '^permanent set." Again, in cooling the outside loses its heat first, being
unable to compress the inner metal, (for the resistance to first increment of
compression is about six times as great as the resistance to first increment
of distention to give a permanent set;) it is by repeating the process ano-
ther enlargement occurs, and so on. And this explains the cause of the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 547

enlargement of the bore of the Ames gun at the 450th round, as mentioned
in the i)ami)hlot " on the inejfficiencxj of heavy ordnance," by Wiard, page 21.

THE EFFECT OF ENLARGEMENT OF THE BORE.

■33. The parallelism of the bore of a wrouglitiron g-nn is continually
changing, alfecting its range and accuracy — both disabling the gvin and
preparing it for an explosive bursting, by communicating to it initial ten-
sion, by enlarging the interior; in which state, if it is afterwards fired
rapidly, it will burst like any other gun.

34. A gun is heated nearly the same with small charges of powder as
with heavy, because, with a heavy charge the shot is ejected somewhat
quicker, and, although the temperature of the gases is highei-, the time of
action is less.

ENDURANCE OF CAST-IRON.

35. Cast-iron lias heretofore exhibited greater endurance of surface to
the. bore in guns than any other -material used. A 30-pounder Parrott fired
on Morris Ii^land endured 4, GOG rounds before it burst, with a minimum
abrasion of surface of bore and enlargement of vent. Its small she, thin-
ness of wall, heated through more uniformly than a gun of thicker walls;
and being fired slowly with intervals of fifteen minutes between the rounds,
it was not exposed to the rupturing principle hereafter to be more particu-
larly described. The only enlargement of bore occurring in a cast-iron
gun being within the limits of its elasticity, it recovers its original size and
form after the force acting upon it has been expended. If the forces acting
upon it are great enough to extend it beyond the limits of its elasticity, it is
ruptured, having but little ductility. It will be shown that these qualities
are most desirable in guns, and that cast iron can be so used as to be
absolutely safe from bursting, whether by heavy charges or by rapid firing,
when of course its endurance of surface and cheapness is so much in its
favor that it must be the material from which heavy guns are to be made
hereafter.

36. All guns of large sizes are subjected to severe strains from unequal
heating or cooling, at two important periods viz: when they are being fab-
ricated and when they are used in service.

DNEQUAi; COOLING OF CAST-IRON.

37. A fifteen-inch Rodman gun, cast hollow, and cooled from the exterior to
get initial tension, at Pittsburg, a few months since, when nearly cold and
ready to be removed from the pit, split from end to end. The inner metal
had been cooled by water passing through the bore while the outside metal
retained a higher temperature. By this means Colonel Rodman attains
initial tension in his gun, as in the hooped guns of Parrott, Armstrong,
Blakcly and Brooke. (See fig. 3.)

The outside metal cooling at a later time shrinks upon the inner metal
like the tire upon a wagon wheel, but in the case referred to the tension
was too great. The cast block was about sixteen feet in length, and the
wall about, sixteen inches in thickness — consequently the area of cross
section ruptured was equal to 3,172 inches. If the tensile strength of the
metal was 30,000 lbs. to the square inch of section, the pressure bearing

548 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Upon the inner metal was about 95,000 of pounds on each side, or a whole
pressure of 190,000,000 of pounds.

38. I acknowledge this to be a somewhat exaggerated statement, if refer-
ring to the finished gun, as the cast block was longer by the length of the
sinking head than the gun, and part of the outside metal in a state of ten-
sion is turned off along the chase.

39. Since the above was written another 15-inch gun has burst sponta-
neously at the Pittsburgh foundry. The fissures were somewhat different
to those in the first, some of them being nearly transverse around the gun,
behind the trunnions, and opened about one- inch wide on the outside,
showing the skin of the gun was too small. The perfection of the state
required by the advocates of the " initial tension" theory. It can be seen
that if these guns should not burst spontaneously before they are used
that but little heat would be necessary, communicated to the inside by the
powder when they are fired rapidly, to insure rupture.

UNEQUAL COOLIXG OF WROUGHT IRON MASSES.

40. The initial strains of large cylindrical forgings are, to some extent,
deranged by a cause that operates so unfavorably in solid cast-iron
guns — the cooling of the exterior first, and the consequent stretching of
the interior.

FISSURES IN THE MONSTER MALLET MORTAR.

41. The masses for this mortar were forged from puddled slabs of man-
ageable size, " by slabbing up two or more large flat pieces, laying these
upon each other, and welding them together into a rude sort of square
prison, which was afterwards partially rounded down, at the corners,
under the hammer. (See figs. 4 and 5.)

42. Mr. Mallet gives the following facts and illustrations as to the cause
of fissure : Two masses, about two and a half feet in diameter and eight
feet long, were forged for two 36-inch mortars, which was constructing
for the British government. They were slightly tapered, and at one end
there was a collar projecting six inches all round, and about twelve inches
wide in the line of the axis, presenting laterally the general form shown
in the cut.

43. These pieces were welded together, apparently, perfectly sound, but
after they had betiome cold they were invariably found, upon borings being
made into the centre, to have large rents internally, with jagged crystal-
line, irregular surfaces * * * * At first it seemed probable that the
rents due to cooling, now to be described, were found in the direction of
the broad planes of the slabs; but more careful and exact examination
proved that in more than one case, at least, these rents had undoubtedly
been found across, or at right angles to those planes. The opposite faces
of those rents were counterparts, and presented distinct evidence of having
been torn asunder by contraction, from the center towards the circumfer-
ence, as the mass cooled."

44. One of these rents are shown in figure 6. " The limits of the
fractures, as seen perpendicularly to their plane, were found to be gene-
rally as shown by figure seven. The ascertainable extent was from
two to three feet along the axis, and usually rather more than half the

PROCEEriNGS OP THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 549

extreme diameter of the mass in breadth, measured across the large end.
The cracks were from a lialf to seven-eigliths of an inch open at the widest
part in the center, and passed ofT, at each extremity, to an indefinitely thin
wedge.

45. In no case was there a trace of bad welding or of defective work-
manship. They were clean fissures, presenting opposite surfaces of solid,
sound metal, though rough by being torn asunder. In this conclusion Mr.
Olay coincided. On consideration, it appeared that the phenomenon was
simply due to contraction on cooling."

46. These silent and insidious effects of heat have to do with all our
practical pursuits; and nothing in the science of natural philosophy is so
little understood, or so necessary to be known, if we would work metals;
we can not* ignore them if we would succeed, for they are the principal
agents, not only during the fabrication of guns, but the effects must also
be considered when we use them. We are not likely to avoid the difficul-
ties in our way occurring through their agency in the fabrication of so
large a mass of metal by chance; and of course less likely to avoid
them also in utilizing the gun after it is made, as a blind man may blun-
der into a labyrinth, but he could not be expected to blunder in and out
again.

AMES GUNS.

4T. Mr. Ames made eight guns before he produced one sound one, and he
informed us that he expended §90,000 to produce his first five SO-pounders.
This is about the experience of every one making the effort, the cause of
which is explained by the failure to comprehend that fissures occur at the
time of fabrication from a cause that cannot be averted. I found them in
all blocks of twelve inches in diameter and upwards, during my early ef-
forts to produce large guns. Upon building up a large mass of forging,
the last welds are the largest planes of weakness, (welds of all areas of
surface being weaknesses). If all the welds are longitudinal, the fissures
will be lengthwise of the block. If transverse, as in the Ames' gun, the
fissures are most likely to occur around the bore. If the block is forged
hollow, and partially cooled from the interior, the fissures will be in the
centre of the mass, equidistant from the cooling surfaces (proportional to
the rate in rapidity of cooling.) This statement will be appreciated best
by practical founders, who well know that the surface of castings may be
sound while the centre is porous. The Dahlgren gun, cast hollow, has its
porosity in the center of the block. The Rodman gun, cast hollow, has an
annular region of porosity, between the inner and outer surface, always
located where the heat leaves the mass last, both in cast and wrought iron.
The policy that only attempts to procure guns from those who do not know
how to make them, will always result in ruin to the contractor, and disap-
pointment to the government. No contractor can long continue to produce
guns when receiving less than 625,000 for a lot of five guns that cost $90,-
000, as shown by an affidavit of Mr. Ames, and which is according to my
experience.

48. Steamboat shafts, that are only examined on the outside, where they
are always dense and perfect, may long continue to be produced and used,
made in a faulty and uncertain manner, as all heavy forgiugs are of neces-

550 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

sity made; but to make a gun that is to be bored out, exposing more snr-
face to critical examination, and to the searching test of powder, is of
questionable propriety, to say the least. The effect of powder upon the best
and most minute welds of even the best quality of wrought iron is shown
in a marked manner by the evidence of Mr. Anderson, superintendent of
the voysil gun factory, for Armstrong guns, before the select ordnance com-
mittee of the English House of Commons, as follows:

49. Question 1G76, by Sir Frederick Smith: Will you be kijid enough to
state to the committee how the failures take place when your guns are
under proof?

50. From what I have already said, you will see the tendency is for us
to wish for a hard metal, in order to avoid indentation; but the harder we
get it, the greater is the liability for non-welding. The chanccffe are, when
the iron is hard, that some portion is unwelded, and then the powder acts
upon that part of it, and very soon makes it appear worse, and renders it
necessary to withdraw the interior of the gun, and put in another lining.

51. 1671. Will you explain to the committee how the unwelding can
take place?

52. If you were to see the process performed, and to see it even in the
turning lathe, you would think it was perfect; but the powder soon shakes
it up, ajd shows the smallest defect.

53. 1680. In what part of the bore is the defect first seen?

Most in the vicinity of the bullet; the pressure of the gas indents the
iron (see paragraphs 33, 34, 35, of this paper.) We always leave the bore
a little smaller, so as to enable us to enlarge it to the proper size by boring
out afterwards.

54. 1690. Do you consider that it is possible to find any iron capable of
resisting a heavier charge than that which has been lately used in the 300-
pound guns?

|f> 65. No; we could not get a better iron for gun material. We could get
it harder (i. e., with greater tensible strength), but still not better as a
whole, at the present time, than what I have ah-eady stated.

56. It will be discovered by a careful study of the subject that this fail-
ure to comprehend the effect of heat upon the gun, when it is being fabri-
cated, as well as when it is used, is the foundation of all the errors and
misapprehensions connected wMth this intricate subject. If it were not for
the unequal heating or cooling, the strongest and most rigid metal would
make the strongest gun.

57. In England, as in this countrj^, the fabrication of guns is intrusted
to a class of men educated in college in the higher sciences, so far above
the ordinary practical pursuits of life, that they have overlooked the real
diflSculty of the subject. Tiiey arrogate to themselves all knowledge on
the subject they have in charge, and all the emoluments growing out of
Buccess. Hence practical men, who might have advanced the science of
ordnance, have been deterred from giving attention to it. For myself, I
find hearty corroboration of my views from the superintendents, foremen,
and workmen in foundries, and have no doubt that I should get certificates
from every skillful worker of metal on an extensive scale in the United
States as to the correctness of my theories, and from each the relation of a

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 551

familiar example that would show that they understood the effects of heat
upon metal as I have been so long endeavoring to illustrate them.

58. The pressure of powder is undoubtedly uniform, and it is a folly to
attribute greater pressure to it at one time than another, unless such acci-
dents occur as not ramming the shot home, when the straining effect on
the gun is said by some to be greater, or by using heavier projectiles, to
overcome the vis inertia of which requires more nearly the entire effort of
the puwder.

69. It is undoubtedly true that the pressure upon a square inch of sur-
face of a chamber filled with powder of one size will be the same as upon a
like size or area of surface of a larger chamber also filled, and cast-iron
chambers have endured charges of powder from which there was no escape
of the gaso^, as well as where the gases escaped slowly, as through a small
vent, which is positive evidence that the full pressure of the gases of pow-
der can be restrained by cast-iron walls, whether the chamber be filled or
portly full.

A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE.

30. When the steamship Great Eastern was launched, Braham or hydrau-
lic presses were used of ten-inch calibre, and with ten inches thickness of
wa'ils of cast-iron, consequently these presses had the usual proportion of
thickness of walls in a ten-inch gun. Ten-inch guns have been fired with
double-shotted charges without bursting. These press cylinders burst as
often as five thousand pounds pressure to the inch was applied on the
occasion alluded to.

ANOTHER EXAMPLE.

Gl. Major Wade and Major Hagner conducted experiments at Springfield
armory, in which water pressure was applied at different points in the
length of musket barrels. Twenty-five hundred pounds to the inch would
permanently enlarge a musket barrel in the "thinnest part, near the muzzle,
and five thousand pounds to the inch would permanently enlarge it in the
strongest part," a result, says the report, never attained by the proof
charges of powder and bullet. In these examples, five thousand pounds
to the inch had a greater effect upon the barrels or cylinder, both of large
and small sizes, and of wrought and cast iron, than the pressure of powder.

62. Having seen that initial strains from unequal cooling, are sufficient
to rupture all kinds of guns, and that the pressure of powder is uniform
under like circumstances, we must conclude that some other force besides
the pressure of the powder, is the cause of bursting. It has been estab-
lished in previous papers, and is undoubted-, that guns are heated unequally
by firing rapidly the very circumstances that attend the bursting. Then
to what else shall we attribute the accidents.

POSITIVE EVIDENCE.

63. One of Blakely's first guns, as exhibited in diagram number 8,
failed by the longitudinal extension of the inner tube, and the bauds between
the trunnion ring and the cascabel. The gun was strengthened longitudi-
nally by four bolts, reaching from the trunnion ring to a cascabel piece
against the breech of the "jrun. '

552 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITTUE.

64. Capt. Blakely says of this accident: " x\.t this round the four bolts
gave way — the four united being equal to a solid bar the size of the bore.
The rest of the gun was uninjured. * * * I had this gun re-made with
four bolts of the best charcoal iron, but they, too, broke without injury to
the tubular part." — Paper read by Capt. Blakely be/ore the United Service
Institxdion, England; vol. Ill, Journal.

65. There is no way to account for this, except by the extension of the
length of that part of the gun sustained by* the bolts, by heat; if the
pressure of tlie powder had broken the bolts, the whole breech would have
been shot away. It is satisfactory to us in this manner to learn that in
England they do not know the cause of the failure of guns; we may thus
now far excel them, if we utilize the knowledge we have.

66. The inner tube of the Whitworth gun shown in General Gilmore's
report, increased in length one inch (shown marked a b on cut 9), by the
heat communicated to it,, and closed the vent. If the bands had been
fastened by screw-threads, as recommended by Prof. Treadwell and hj
General Gilmore, the bands would have parted transversely, as did the
bolts of the Blakely gun.

67. Tliere are two views of this gun in General Gilmore's book, a slight
mark on the reinforce would lead tis to suppose the reinforce had been
cracked transversely. It is strange that the other view should be one of
the opposite side of the gun, and that nothing should be said of the crack.

68. A three hundred pounder Armstrong gun, in which the breech piece
was inserted by screw threads within the principal reinforce band abutting
against the inner tube of steel, was burst by the lengthwise expansion of
the inner tube, pushing out the whole breech, breaking the reinforce band
transvertely (cut number 10.) Compare this example with the Whitworth
gun shown in General Gilmore's report, and with those Parrotts thai have
failed at the breech (see cut eleven), and see the analogy.

69. An Armstrong gun, a banded tube, failed by the breaking of the
outside band. If the pressure of the powder had broken it the parts would
have been thrown off" with projectile force. (See cuts 12 and 13.)

70. Here we have five guns, exhibiting the effect of the expansion of
the inner metal of guns by heat of the powder to the extent of rupturing
them, and the most astute of our ordnance officers will find it difficult to
account for the result in any other manner.

71. In the face of these well attested principles, so thoroughly known
to practical founders, the Ordnance Bureau act on the erroneous idea that
guns burst from the explosive force of the gases only, and give their atten-
tion in the fabrication to counteracting this supposed difficulty; hence the
further they proceed in this direction, the wider they are from the mark.

72. They do not seem to know that the heat engendered from the burning
gases of gunpowder has any effect upon the gun.

73. No little amount of surprise is expressed by inexpert persons that
the acknowledged difficulty of making large guns is not overcome by using
strong materials, as, for instance, wrought-iron or steel in the place of
cast-iron. Ordnance officers excuse this discrepancy on the plea of the
imposibility of perfectly welding large masses, and no other reason is given,
and often speak of the " mysterious force" of gunpowder. Professor Tread-

AVrouglit-iron cylinder after 20 heating* aw^
coolings.

"^M

I^v

/'

s^ ^

CI

1

^^^

\ ^

^1

^p

F

1}i

^fe

JiMl-|ii)UinJt;r Artnslroii'^ jfuii, Ijreccli
pu-tlieil "111 liy exleii-siou of inner
iiil>e

55i2

I<

:>

o

XT

1

}—

a

Parrott gun. breech forced out by exleusion of inner tube.
11

^-^— ^

■

Iq

552

13

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 553

well of Cambridge, ^fassachusetts, shows distinctl}^ how large guns may
be made of these stroDg materials, and triumphantly points out, by calcu-
lations which cannot be disproved, that the pressure of gunpowder can be
resisted by guns made upon his plan, even upon the supposition that the
pressure is enormous; and that there are no fissures or tendency to them,
but the reverse state of initial tension; but his imitators, in carrying out
his theory, have failed as others have done before; an evidence that the
guns fail from some cause not understood, and other than the direct pres-
sure of tlie powder. And liundreds of the heavy rifles of Admiral Dahl-
gren having been abandoned because of the liability to bursting; the large
number of Parrott guns that have failed in service, and during proof; the
spontaneous bursting of Rodman guns; the enlargement and fissures in
solid forged guns; the mysterious and uncertain endurance of all built-up
guns, by whoever made, either by bursting, distortion of the bands, or by
enlargement of the inner tube, and stretcliing the bands if ductile, and
breaking them if sti'ong and hard; points to the absolute necessity that
some new skill and class of ideas should bo engaged upon the subject.

75. It is not a little gratification to American mechanics to believe that
the state of the art in foreign countries has not kept pace with our own,
notwithstanding the greater expenditure upon foreign ordnance, and that
we have so clear a field, which we may enter, and distance all competitions,
if we utilize the energy, genius, and skill of our artizans, not. heretofore
brought into requisition.

THE DAHLGREN GUN.

76. The Dahlgren gun is a shell gun, and is the most beautiful gun in
any service in- the world, but it is believed that more effective guns are
now required for attack on iron-clad ships. The first Monitor was armed
with guns of this class; and great reliance was placed on them in case'
that certain wrought iron solid projectiles, prepared for them, were to be
used in finy encounter with the Merrimac; but it is understood that the
inventor forbade the use of the latter, even with the fifteen pound charge
of p<»wder. Lest his directions should not be obeyed, it is said that lie
caused them to be taken off the Monitor, while she was at anchor in Hamp-
ton Roads, and certain other hwllow shots, covered with bronze, substituted.
ShsUs broke against the aides of the Merrimac, inflicting no injury. Uence
the Merrimac continued to be the terror to our army and navy for a long
critical time. But for this we might have captured Richmond sooner than
we did Yorktown; and who can conceive or estimate the cost of life or
money that has resulted?

77. Other eleven-inch shells have been projected against iron sides without
effect. We must have better guns than these to meet the requirements of
modern naval warfare.

TBE RODMAN GUN.

78. Next we have the Rodman fifteen-inch gun, cast hollow, and cooled
from the interior, the object attained by which is to freeze the metal from
its liquid state immediately surrounding the bore first. As the heat is
nearly all withdrawn from the cast block through the surface of the bore,
successive strata of the iron freeze and contract upon the stratum within

554 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

it, having- the effect to contract or squeeze it into smaller dimensions, both
longitudinally and radially. In this manner the state of "initial tension"
is attained in the g'un, which makes it capable of resisting a greater pres-
sure from within, having a tendency to rupture the wall or enlarge the
bore of the gun ; the necessity for which tension has been beautifully
described and illustrated by Professor Treadwell, of Harvard, and by Cap-
tain Blakely, R. A., England. Although the longitudinal tension might He
considered advantageous in assisting to resist the lengthwise pressure of
the powder against the bottom of the bore or chamber of the gun, there is
another rupturing force to be provided for, viz : the unequal heating when
it is lired ; for then this force has the tendency that cannot bo resisted by
an}'- amount of strength in the gun to increase both the longitudinal and
radial extension, for the part even slightly heated becomes both longer and
larger in diameter.

SPONTANEOUS EXPLOSION LOSS TO THE FOUNDER.

79. The Rodman gun, as cast at the great P^ort Pitt foundry, is strained
in this manner to the extreme limit of the elasticity of the outside metal,
and to the extreme limit of compressibility of the inside metal, which is
proved by the fact that one of them was ruptured at the abovenamed foun-
dry, from end to end, before it was removed from the mould in which it
was cast ; and the fissure, occurring through a wall of iron sixteen inches
thickness and about sixteen feet in length, remained in the close contact
along the bore, while it was gaping along the outside wide enough for the
insertion of the fingers. Like St. Rupert's drops, these guns are liable to
fly into pieces on slight occasions. How wonderful it is that any of them
endure firing at all.

LOSS TO THE NATION,

80. If a tightly-fitting tompion happens to be placed in each of the large
number of Rodman guns mounted in the forts of New York harbor, when'
for some time the weather has been warm, and then changes suddenly to
extreme cold, it is quite possible a number of them may be found bursted.
The tompion would protect the surface of the bore from the change of tem-
perature, which would dangerously contract the outside upon the inner
metal. We have never noticed whether these guns are furnished with
tompion or not. If they are, we would advise that they be not used.

81. Guns with " initial tension" can withstand, more p?-e8.SMre than with-
out. Coihsequently, a single very heavy charge can be fired 'from these
guns without bursting them, while rapid tiring, such as practiced in battle,
will burst them even with small charges. When these guns are proved,
as well as in target practice, they are fired slowly. If we ever have to
resist the entrance to our harbors of a fleet of iron-clads, eacli gun will
have to be fired rapidly. What if they burst at that critical time ? No
fort or works on which these guns are mounted has ever been attacked.
They have never been subjected to the test of actual battle, yet hundreds
of them are being mounted on the works at the entrances to our most
important sea-port, and we rest in fancied security because they look
formidable.

82. Of those mounted in our turret-ships, we believe eight were in the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 555

cnconiitor v>'itli Fort Fislior, and two of tlie eight burst under tlio most
rapid liring they have yet been subjected to. The navj^-cliarge for these
guns is thirty-five pounds of powder, with a shell of three hundred and
fiftj' pounds, or a shot of four hundred and fifty pounds, which is a very
small charge, and usually they are fired once in fifteen minutes. Tiie velo-
city of the shot is so low that the effect is not what was promised or
expected of them. Of the only two shots we know to have hit the sides of
an iron-clad, one struck the pilot-house of the Atlanta, and one struck the
Tennessee, but neither accomplished much.

PARROTT GUNS.

83. Twenty-three large Parrott guns burst on Morris Island in 1863,
under General Gilmore, yet tiiis alarming failure has not hindered tlie con-
tinuance of their supply. Before that time six had burst in the navy,
beside a great number that were disabled, and in 1864 about thirty-three
have burst in the navy, of which eighteen failed in Admiral Porter's fleet;
perhaps there were more, fov the admiral reported that alt the rifled guns
in the fleet liad burst. At the time of the encounter with the iron-ckid
Albermarle, it was reported that one hundred-pound Parrotts were useless
against ])lating with ten pounds of powder. Now it is proposed to reduce
the charge to eight pounds, which must vastly diminish their value.

84. The Parrott gun embodies " initial tension " also under the band.
When fired rapidly the inner metal is expanded lengthwise and radially ;
when so strained a slight shock will break it. The rapid firing off Fort
Fisher was too much for them.

85. On Mori is Island, tlie gtins were fired mostly at high elevations;
under such circumstances the pressure and temperature of the gases is
higher, and the time of the action of the force and heat is longer for each
discharge; consequently less rapid firing bursts the gun.

86. The thirty-pounder that endured four thousand six hundred rounds
■was a small gun, and was heated more nearly uniform throughout because
of the* thinness of the walls, and because of the long intervals between the
rounds, which was fifteen minutes.

ARMSTRONG AND WHITWORTH GUNS.

87. Built up guns, like the Armstrong or Whitworth guns, although
capable of enduring heavy charges, fail with rapid firing ; not always by
au explosive bursting, but by ruptures or enlargements that disable the
guns. More than l,4tJ0 Armstrong guns or parts were returned for repairs
up to 1862, at which time but about 2,000 guns of this kind had been
fabricated.

AMES GUNS.

88. Guns forged solid, like the two guns on the United States steamer
Princeton, and the Ericsson thirteen-inch gun burst because it is impossi-
ble to attain uniformity of fabrication, and because of the unequal expan-
sion. The Ames gun, although somewhat more uniform, cannot be abso-
lutely so, and will either burst or enlarge in the bore.

89. Of wrought-iron guns that at present are most conspicuous is that
of Mr. Ames. He claims three qualities for his guns. First, tha^ it is
made of a superior, strong and tough, or ductile iron, the Salisbury*

556 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

secondly, that it is homogenous ; and thirdly, that it has fibre transverse
around it, in the direction best disposed to resist the pressure of the pow-
der. It is made by welding disks or cross sections together by end blows
of the steam hammer. Guns were made in this manner as long ago as the
year 1716, by M. Villons, of Porte de Marie, France, but they failed, and
the process was abandoned. With regard to the iron it is not as good as
the iron used by Armstrong for his large guns; the quality of toughness or
ductility is the one sought for by English gunmakers, and undoubtedly
obtained. But the Armstrong 110-pounder Avill endure but about forty
rounds before it has to be repaired if fired rapidly, from the distension
caused by unequal heating, although the same gun will stand very heavy
charges without injury, if fired at long intervals so that the heat becomes
uniformly distributed.

90. The Salisbury iron used by Ames cannot compare with Krupp's
steel for ductility, a cylinder of which four inches in length and two in
diameter was pressed down cold in a hydraulic press to a lozenge of half
of its original length, without cracking in the slightest degree. Its tensile
strength is much greater than the Salisbury iron, yet guns made of this
fine Krupp's steel burst when fired rapidly, but do not explode from exces-
sive charges of powder.

91. In large masses of wrought-iron, as in cast-iron, the strongest
metal does not make the strongest gun, as seen from the quotation already
made, from Hodman's work, pages 137 and 138. The reasons being from
want of uniformity in cooling; one part of the mass is straining either to
compress or rupture another part. And the more dense the metal the more
severe the strain.

92. Fibre in wrought-iron is only possible, or is only attainable by
extending a block or bloom to from ten to sixty times its original length,
under pressure as between rolls. If a bloom four inches by four inches,
and twelve inches long were heated to a welding heat, and by the rolling
process drawn out into a half-inch square bar, it would be near sixty feet
in length, and would exhibit well defined fibre. If sufficient quantity of
such bars were provided, cut into lengths of five feet each, and, after being
polished on the surface to remove all oxide, made into a pile eighteen
inches square, being five feet long, for which it would require 1,296 bars,
held together with a strong band shrunk on each end ; upon raising the
temperature of the pile to a welding heat, in a most careful manner, it
would be found firmly united throughout, without a defective weld, with-
out either hammering or pressure, but upon breaking the block so made in
two, it will be found to have no fibre.

93. A new ci'ystalization having taken place, under a law not well
understood, regulated by the size of the mass and the outside forn>, fibre
could be re-established in this metal only by rolling it out again to fifty or
sixty times its original length. Fibre could not be established under the
hammer without extending its length at least twice as much as with rolls.

94. As this is an experiment I have conducted many times, I speak of
the facts with confidence. I have now twelve wrought-iron guns made in
this manner, from bars a hall-inch square, each block liaving been extended
under the hammer, continuing the square form (i. e. without roundiiig the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECnNIC ASSOCIATION. 657

block, the central fissures are usually attributed erroneously to rounding
the block,) to twice its length in the large pile, yet there is no fibre ; in
fact, tlie crystalization closely resembles the crystalization in'other masses
of the same material, made up in the ordinary manner by welding the
original blooms, from which the small bars were made and massed together.

95. The only advantage got by this laborious process is in being assured
of more perfect homogeneity, there being no extensive planes of weakness.
I have also noticed very little difference in the transverse or longitudinal
tensile strength, except at the centre, subjected to the cooling strains that
promote fissures, which can be partiall}' avoided by extremely slow cool-
ing, but by leaving the whole mass porous.

9G. Having tlius shown the fallacy of adhering to the present received
systems, and the difficulties attending the fabrication of large wrought-
iron guns, I will now show how I have endeavored, as a first effort, upon
an entire new system, to make a gun not liable to failure from any of the
foregoing causes, and will give the description a^ found in Ilolley's Work
on Ordnance, page 327.

THE WIARD GUN AS DESCRIBED IN HOLLEY's WORK.

97. Mr. Wiard's Plan. — Mr. Norman Wiai-d, whose ingenious and im-
portant speculations on the bursting of guns by the heat of firing have
been referred to in the foregoing chapter, has received a large order for
heavy cannon, based upon the endurance of either one of two test guns.
The engravings, to be found in the Transactions of the American Institute
for 1862, on pages 430, 431, illustrate the general features of his plan, but
not the exact proportions; these are the subject of extended experiments
and calculations not yet perfected.

98. The gun is said to have the same diameter and length of bore as the
navy 15-inch gun, and about nine inches greater external diameter, and is
to weigh 43,000 pounds. The interior parts may be cooled uniformly by
water passing through the cores between the ribs, and in the bore, upon
Captain Rodman's plan. The exterior part or reinforce being thicker than
the other parts, will cool last after casting, and is by this means intended
to compress the barrel with such force as to bring all parts of the metal
into equal strain at the instant of firing, according to Professor Barlow's
formula. The ribs are curved in both directions, from front to rear, and
from the inner barrel to the outer hoop or reinforce, so that they can spring
enough to allow the .inner bari'el, to expand both longitudinally, and the
intention is, radially, by the heat of firing, without straining the struc-
ture. Tlie ribs also yield, during the process of casting, under unequal
contraction, due either to unequal cooling, or to chemical difference in the
metal. They are proposed to be stifi" enough to resist the pressure of
the powder, and sufficiently flexible to bend under the greater force of
expansion, a force limited only by the ultimate strength of the metal. The
elasticity of the whole structure would be greater than that of guns with-
out ribs.

99. This gun will undoubtedly cool without serious initial rupturing
strains. The whole practice in founding, especially in founding car-wheels,
(which a cross-section of the gun resembles,) warrants this conclusion.
A plain disk wheel, not annealed, can only be stretched or compressed,

558 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

and so broken or greatly strained in cooling, and therefore goes to pieces
under service. A gun, when so corrugated as to bend in cooling at some
thin part intended to be bent, instead of breaking or being severely
strained at some part that cannot be bent, endures more hard service than
Vi^ould be ordinarily expected of cast iron.

100. For the foregoing reasons the strongest iron may be employed. It
has already been shown that a pure,' high iron, of great tenacity, shrinks
too much to make a safe casting by other plans. But car-wheels are cast
as sound from the highest and strongest iron as from a weaker iron, be-
cause ample prov-ision is made for it to change its figure more or less, as
required, without strain.

101. Upon the proper tension and strength of the reinforce as modified by
its large diameter, the heat of firing, and the elasticity of the parts within
it, depends, after all, the chief strength of the gun.

102. Comparing tlie reinforce with an equal thickness of metal on the
exterior of Captain Rodman's gun, the former is cooled on all sides to pre-
vent, as far as possible, unequal shrinkage, and is carried in two directions
to prevent unequal and injurious strain due to what unequal shrinkage
there may be. The latter is cooled (in practice) only from the inside, so
that its exterior surface is strained and weakened. It appears, then, that
the former would be in a better condition to stand the tension, in which
case too the tension can be the better regulated.

103. The official report, already quoted (376), is evidence that the outer
part of the Rodman gun is drawn into compression by the subsequent
shrinkage of the intermediate metal. It can not be put into the desired
tension except by cooling the gun exclusively from within; and this can
only be done by keeping the mould at a temperature of 2,700 degrees —
a process so difficult that it has not been realized in practice. But there
is nothing to draw the corresponding part of the Wiard gun — the rein-
force— into compression. All the parts enclosed by it have already cooled
and set.

104. In other words, the part that cools last regulates the strain of the
rest. The interior and the exterior parts of the walls of the Rodman gun
cool independently, and without any great strain; then the intermediate
metal cools and puts strains into them which are just opposite to those
required. But the reinforce of the Wiard gun cools last, and if it shrinks
most, must compress the inner tube, and be itself drawn into tension — the
required condition.

105. As to the strain due to expansion by the heat of firing, suppose the
reinforce and the barrel to be put under such respective initial tension and
compression that the force of the powder would strain them equally and
as much as they would safely be in service. If the ribs yield under the
pressure of the powder, the barrel may be stretched to the breaking point
before the reinforce is stretched to the same point. If the ribs do not
yield under the pressure of the powder, then they will not 3'ield under an
equal pressure from the expansion of the barrel by heat, up to a pressure
equal to the pressure of the powder, will act directly to stretch the rein-
force, which had already been stretched as much as it will bear. Up to

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 559

this point the case is similar to that of a solid gun; beyond a pressure
equal to that of the powder, the ribs may yield to the pressure by heat
without straining the reinforce as much as it would be strained iu a
solid gun.

106. But the barrel will not be heated as much as the corresponding
part of a solid gun, because it is exposed to the air on both sides, and pre-
sents a large radiating surface. Besides, the longitudinal expansion of
the barrel is the source of the greatest strain, and this, in the Wiard gun,
is provided for by the longitudinal corrugation of the ribs.

107. The largest diameter of the reinforce is not a source of comparative
weakness.

lOS. On the whole, it is probable that the barrel and ribs of Mr. Wiard's
gun can be cast without serious strains; that the reinforce can be shrunk
upon them with some degree of tension; that the strongest iron can be
used; and that the guns will not be seriously strained by haat. The fail-
ure of the first guns, if they should fail, ought to be attributed to the
improper carrj-ing out of the principles; for the present knowledge on the
subject of cast iron, however imperfect it may be, define these principles
with mucli clearness."

109. The experience I have attained in the efforts to produce these large
guns gives me confidence now to state that I can make cast iron guns that
will not enlarge in the bore except as they arc worn out by long con-
tinued use, and that cannot be burst either by heavy charges or rapid firing.
And I can make or re-make such guns from old guns or from the fragments
of old ones, thus reducing the cost materially, while the efficiency is much
increased.

110. The Dahlgren gun, of eight tons weight, requires sixteen tons, or
more, of iron to produce it, because more than one-half of the iron is wasted
by being cut away into chips of little value.

111. It is proved by the preceding argument that Hodman or Dahlgren
cast iron guns can not be made of the strongest iron, consequently such
guns can not be made from fragments of bursted or rejected guns (for iron
is improved by re- melting.) Upon my system the strongest iron will make
the strongest and best gun.

112. Upon my system the walls may be made equally strong with any
other by thickness; I can have the proper initial tension upon it to restrain
the pressure of the powder, and no other detrimental strain, which is not
possible in any other gun ever proposed ; while I provide the necessaiy
elasticity both longitudinally and radially to prevent the unequal expan-
sion from the heat of firing. In fact, I am confident I have discovered the
true and only system upon which guns can be made to endure the strains
of actual service, and I charge the Ordnance department with having prac-
ticed a studied system of oppression to prevent me succeeding in getting
my guns introduced, resulting in incalculable loss of money, life and pres-
tige to the government under which they occupy sinecure positions.

113. I append hereto an extract from a letter from Ed. N.Dickenson,
Esq., of New York, and take the liberty to state that I can procure such or
stronger letters corroborative of the theories and statements affecting the

560 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE

endurance of guns and the efTect of heat upon metals from seven-eighths of
the eminent practical mechanics of the country.

" I believe your views to be entirely correct on the subject of bursting
of guns.

I was much struck by the coincidence of the result at Fort Fisher with
your prophecy to me that the 15-inch guns would burst whenever fired
rapidly. Of course I knew the Pari'ott guns would, and I always have
given them a wide berth when fired in my presence. They are liable to
burst at short notice.

In ordinary machinery we have illustrations of your theory on guns, by
the spontaneous bursting of wheels and other castings:

I believe your large skeleton gun will be successful in preventing these
accidents."

In the course of the debate which followed this paper, Mr. Wiard gave
the following interesting account of the effects of unequal strain:

Explosion of a Pile Hammer.

"Some years since I cast a pile hammer weighing four tons. The man
for whom it was cast arrived at my place just after the mold was filled, and
wanted to take the hammer away that night. I told him that was impos-
sible. He was in a great hurry, and arranged with two of the men to sit
up with him all night to draw the sand away from the casting as it har-
dened, in order to cool it as rapidly as possible. The next day we hoisted
it out and got it upon the deck of a canal boat, the deck being protected
from the heat by two layers of brick. The man started off with his ham-
mer, but before night he came back and ordered another one cast. It
seems that the heat remaining in the casting set fire to the deck, and in
throwing water on the fire a little fell upon the hammer; seeing that this
hastened the cooling, the owner threw on more, when the casting burst
with a report that was heard two miles. One half flew forward, killing a
horse, and the other went towards the stern, falling through the bottom,
and sinking the boat."

Bursting of a Large Plate.

" In making the mold for my large cannon we cast a circular plate ten
feet in diameter, and three inches thick. To hasten the cooling we re-
moved the cope from the mold, when the large surface of hot iron made the
shop intolerably warm. To diminish the heat, the foreman threw sand-upon
the plate around the edge, leaving the middle uncovered. This caused the
middle to harden first, and the outside, cooling afterwards, was, of course,
drawn by its contraction into a state of tension upon the interior mass.

"We had been at work upon this plate several days, drilling a series of
holes through it near the edge, and had it on a drill press over a pit which
communicated by a trench with the outer air. A very warni blast of wind
passed over Trenton, and the next morning when I went to the shop the
watchman said that the shop had been struck by lightning in the night. |I
went in and saw that the great plate had burst in two halves, one crashing
inward among the machinery, and the other flying outward and falling into
a pile of valuable castings.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 561

" I suppose that tlie current of warm air had struck against the center
of the plate, slightly expanding it, and thus increasing the tension of the
rim sufficiently to overcome the tenacity of the metal. This diagram ex-
hibits the form of the crack. When the pieces are in contact in the center
they are considerably separated at the edges."

Effect of Cast Iron on Wrought Iron.

In the course of his remarks, Mr. Wiard said: " It is well known that a
half-inch rod of the most fibrous iron, by being dipped endwise into a ves-
sel of molten cast iron, has its fiber entirely destroyed, while if it is dipped

in sideways the fiber is not injured."

»

Defects of Solid Wrought Iron Guns.

" The contraction of the metal in cooling offers an insurmountable obsta-
cle to the construction of cannon of large caliber by the process of forging
solid. As the outside cools and hardens first it forms an unyielding hoop,
and when the interior cools and shrinks it must be pulled asunder, forming
fissures. These fissures are generally formed at the welds. Where the
welds are across the piece, as in the Ames gun, the fissures will run around
the bore. I saw in Washington the wax mold of the bore of the Ames
gun taken before it had ever been fired, and the grooves around the bore
were as large as my finger."

Hardening Wrought with Cast Iron.

Dr. Parmelee remarked that wrought iron may be case-hardened by dip-
ping it in molten cast iron. Horse shoes are hardened in this way in large
quantities.

Musical Instruments.

In discussing this subject some interesting facts were stated by Mr. May-
nard regarding improvements in the brass instruments used in military
bands. The Chairman having stated that the so-called saxe-horn was first
made and used in this country — the peculiarity of that class of instruments
being the construction <^if the rotary valve, invented by Robert Kerrison,
of New York city, by means of which the passage of the air is lengthened
or diminished, Mr. Maynard said that Mr. Allen Dodworth, of this city, first
turned the mouth or flaring end of the horn backward, so that the sound
would be heard more distinctly by the soldiers who followed.

Tlio following statements were made regarding

THE CYCLOID PIANOFORTE.

There is no article of home luxury to the improvement of whicli such
earnest attention and such costly experiments have been directed as to the
pianoforte. During tlie past twenty years great changes have taken place
in the internal construction of the instrument, especially as regards the
scale, which has been enlarged so as to admit of a greater length of string.
The instrument is now strung with heavier wire, an increase of nearly

[Am. I.vst.] J*

562 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

double over the old style of stringing; the case is also, generally, larger
both in depth and length. It would be useless to chronicle the thousand
small inventions which were claimed positive improvements upon the piano,
but which were radically of but little importance. Sound boards have
been crumpled up on the plea that increased vibratory surface was obtained;
plates have been insulated and completely detached; bottoms have been
taken out, a second sound board has been added; hammers have been made
to strike downward; the case has been half filled with blocks of wood, and
again the case has been left entirely empty; the oblique strain of the
strings is claimed to have been remedied; iron has been substituted for
wood for the cases; the key-board has been arranged with a semi-circular
sweep; tuning forks, or metallic tongues, have been substituted for strings;
but none of these infinitesimal inventions have succeeded in establishing
their claims as permanent improvements. The improvements which have
really been accomplished in the past twenty years are: First, the enlarge-
ment of the scale; second, the increased length of the string; third, the
heavier stringing; fourth, the increased area of the sounding board; fifth,
the increased power of the action and heavier hammers; sixth, the scien-
tific adaptation of the iron plate, combining the utmost poseible strength
with lightness, and seventh, the system of over-strings in the bass.

These accepted and permanent improvements are now adopted by every
maker, and the superiority of any one instrument is dependent upon for-
tuitous circumstances, such as the best seasoned material, the most skillful
artisans in the various departments, and the amount of honest care
bestowed upon the manufacture. The belief that the best instruments (we
speak, of course, of square and upright pianofortes) can only be made by
the largest manufacturers, is a popular fallacy that should be exploded.
There ai'e many small makers in this city, whose instruments are eminently
beautiful and whose work is faithful and sterling in every respect. There
is another fallacy which is rapidly exploding itself, namely, the value of
professional testimonials. So long as professional players and teachers,
whether for a consideration or not is a point between themselves and the
munu/acturers, gave their testimonials, or written opinions, to all good
makers, they were of value to each according to his use of means to adver-
tise the facts to the world; but as soon as certain playei's and teachers
bind themselves to certain houses, and declare that what they have testi-
fied to for other houses before is all fol-de-rol, or a tissue of no-such-things,
their so called testimonials become of less value than the paper on wliich
they are written, and their motives arc left open to very grave suspicion.
The public begins to understand the value of testimonials! Good wine,
they say, " needs no bush," neither does a good piano need testimonials
from professional gentlemen, four-fifths of whom are profoundly ignorant
of the construction of the instrument, or of what constitutes its real merits-

The cycloid piano, made and patented by Lindeman & Sons, of this city,
presents a radical change in the form of the piano, and while adopting all
the improvements which have resulted from past experience, exhil)its a
novelty in construction which adds a value to all that has gone before, and
presents incveascd advantages of such importance that they cannot be
overlooked. The form of the cycloid may be described as a square piano,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 563

with the back corners roundec^ off. The sweep is very graceful, and the
ugly square box is transformed into an elegant piece of furniturti, beauti-
fully finished all round, forming an ornament to the parlor, and taking up
much less space than the ordiTiary square piano.

The object designed to be obtained bj- this change of form is elegance,
compactness and strength. In the square piano the sides and back are
glued together, and to strengthen these weak points heavy blocks of wood
are inserted so that the whole space of the two back corners is utterly
nseless for reverberating purposes. They are simply wasted wood, and
are only valuable inasmuch as the blocking they contain strengthens the
inherent weakness of the square case.

The cycloid piano achieves the form of the arch, which is recognized as
the type of strength, and is in fact a solid case, in one piece, with no weak
spot about it. By the system of constructing the case, more strength is
obtained than could be got from a solid block, either cut out, or bent to
the cycloid form. The case in fact consists of from twenty-four to twentv-
six veneers, one-fourth of an inch thick, of maplewood, glued together;
these are placed in a press of the cycloid form to which are affixed screws
of great power. This force is applied equally to every part, which forces
out the superfluous glue, and, when cold, these veneers come out a solid
mass, having the require'd cycloid form, with all the strength of an arch,
and capable of sustaining any strain of strings that can be applied to it,
without " giving" a hair's breadth. The scale of the instrument follows
the circle of the case, so that not an inch of space is lost; and there is not
an angle in the interior to break the continuous fiow of the soun I. The
theory of acoustics in its general laws, as laid down by Chladui and others
may be looked upon as exact and thorough, but individual cases seem to
defy all rule and set the most well considered theories at defiance. Whether
the cycloid form or the square form is the better in theory is a point for
savans to decide upon, but the result of the two forms is palpable to every
ear, learned or unlearned. The tone of the cycloid is as solid as that of
a grand pianoforte; it is not merely loudness, which is always liable to
impure and loose vibrations, but it is the largest amount of sonority, with
the greatest purity in quality of tone. A powerful player can use it as he
would a, grand, and he cannot break thj tone; he cannot thin it or confuse
it by forced diverging vibrations. Gottschalk tested it in every way to
the utmost, and acknowledged that it triumphed over the test that he had
applied.

After further remarks relating to various musical instruments by several
members, the subject of "Tanning" was selected for the next discussion.
Adjourned.

564 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, )

March 30, 1865. }
Prof. Samuel D.. Tillman in the chair. Benjamin Gurvey, secretary.

Starting Railroad Cars.

Mr. Lawton exhibited a model of his plan for assisting horses to start
cars. The most severe labor and consequent injury to horses on railroads
arises from the violent straining in their efforts to start a heavily loaded
car, particularly on an up grade. This plan consists of a ratchet-wheel
fixed on the center of the axle, into which a lever having a short and long
arm catches when the car is stopped. On starting again, the horses pull
on the long arm of the lever, which turns the wheels a short distance, just
enough to give the car a start. The contrivance is simple, and acts on
well known mechanical principles.

The chairman read the following items of scientific news :

Influence of Soils in the Production of Ammonia from Air

AND Water.

M. Decharme, of France, in order to determine whether arable soil under
ordinary conditions is capable, simply by virtue of its porosity and the in-
fluence of humidity, of transforming part of the atmospheric nitrogen which
penetrates and traverses it, into ammonia or ammoniacal salts, made the '
following among other experiments:

He passed 200 litres of air (at the rate of ten litres per hour) freed from
its natural ammonia, over 250 grammes of ordinary vegetable earth pre-
viously calcined and washed or estimated relatively as to its total of nitro-
gen, then restored to its usual state of humidity, and raised progressively
from lO^'to about 50"* C. He found that part of the nitrogen of this air
had been transformed into ammonia, into carbonate and nitrate of ammonia.
The total amount of ammonia produced by what is distinguished as the
catalytic force of the earth used, averaged 0 139 gr. A small amount, but
relatively large when coniparing the ammonia of the atmosphere to that in
rain water. The result explains the good effect of airy drainage, plowing
and fallowing ; the formation of nitrates in the soil ; cultivation without
manure, and the presence of nitrogen in plants growing in artificial soil,
deprived of nitrogenized matter and watered with pure water. It also
shows how natural causes, winds, rains, temperature and pressure of the
air, assist in bringing about more rapidly the contact of air and soil which
results in the production of ammonia.

Slow Oxidation.

Schonbein has lately given to the public new facts in proof of the exist-
ence of oxygen in two opposite states of chemical polarity, and that in
cases of slow oxidation the ozonized atom and the autozonized atom act
simultaneously. For instance; in the slow oxidation of lead the oxygen is
halved and as much is taken up by the metal as by the water. He finds
the best amalgam to employ in order to get the greatest amount of the
peroxide of hydrogen is composed of 200 parts of mercury to one part of
lead. Rich amalgams give too little of the peroxide. The water used

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 565

should contain one five-hundredth part of sulphuric acid. 100 grammes of
this should be shaken with 200 grammes of the amalgam and pure oxj^gen
in a flask holding two litres. It is impossible to obtain a full equivalent of
peroxide of hydrogen for the sulphate of lead formed, but it will be found
that when the shaking lasts ten seconds the amount will be sensibly nearer
the theoretical quantity. The peroxide is not found in the water in the
presence of coal dust or spongy platinum, owing to their decomposing
action, lie has observed lately that there are man}' bodies in the animal
and vegetable kingdoms which like platinum, coal and blood corpuscles,
have the power of destroj'ing the peroxide of hydrogen. No peroxide is
formed in the blood after r(\spiration, nor is it shown in the slow oxidation
of organic matters, but it does not follow that none has been formed.
These opposite conditions of oxygen play an important part in oxidations
of ordinary oxygen at common temperatures ; and particularly in the
decomposition of organic matter and the respiration of animals, in com-
parison wnth which all other oxidations which take place on the earth are
insignificant.

Thermo-electric Batteries.

Bunsen has constructed thermo-electric piles of kupferkies and an alloy
of two parts of antimony with one of tin, which are ten times more power-
ful than the bismuth and antimony series — he also finds that the mineral
pyrolusite is superior to bismuth, although inferior to kupferkies. When
the pile is to be subjected to high heat copper is substituted for the anti-
mony and tin alloy. Ten pairs of the kupferkies-copper elements are
equal to a Daniel's battery, having fourteen square centimeters of copper
surface. Pyrolusite and platinum have the one-tenth the electromotive
force of Daniel's battery. Pyrolusite is chiefly composed of binoxide of
manganese. Kupferkies is copper pyrites containing one atom of copper,
one of iron^ and four of sulphur. It is easily fused at a high temperature
and thus loses much of its power. In a thermo-electric series the native
mineral must be used. It is found in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New
Hampshire, New York, Virginia, Michigan, and in large quantites in
Wisconsin.

Aluminium.

Mr.Corbellc's process for extracting this metal from clay consists in
first purifying it from foreign matter, then drying it, and treating it with
an acid to remove the iron. About six times its weight of sulphuric acid
will answer fur this purpose. The clay which has settled is then dried,
and mixed wiih twice its weight of prussiate of potash ; the quantity of
the latter being increased or diminished according to the amount of silica
in the clay. To this mixture, one and a half times the weight of the clay is
added of common salt; the mixture is then placed in a crucible and sub-
jected to a white heat. After cooling the aluminum will be found in tJje
bottom of the crucible.

Prof. Joy stated that he had tried this process in the laboratory.

Thallic Alcohols.

Lamy has described the con)pounds formed by substituting the metal
thallium for one atom of hydrogen in wood spirit, common alcohol and

566 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

potato-oil, or ainylic alcohol. The first, methyl-thallic alcohol is a crystal-
line solid. The second, ethyl-thallic; and the third, amyl-thallic alcohols;
are oily, colorless liquids, wliich are decomposed on bailing.

The Grape Vine Disease.

Drs. Desmartis and Bonche de Vitray of Bordeaux, have published a
brochure, in which they announce the startling fact that the vine disease
is inoculable into the huraan system. There is nothing improbable in this
should it ultimately prove true, and it may result in the abandonment of
the grape culture in many parts of Europe, with a corresponding increase
of the vine on this continent. It has long been supposed that intractable
skin diseases are of the nature of parasitic plants. Nothing in the
advance of natural science to which the microscope has mainly contribu-
ted, is more remarkable than the knowledge of the nature and strange
transformations of external parasites and internal ones or entozoa. The
latter in the human subject have been traced to animal food, and were
doubtless carried into the animal through their drink and food. These
investigations regarding parasitic life are becoming of paramount import-
ance.

Thermo-electric Piles.

In consequence of the announcement of this subject by Bnnsen, M. E.
Becquerel has presented a paper before the French Academy of Science, in
which he states that his father, as early as 1827, made tlie discovery that
copper wire covered with sulphur, was strongly positive in relation to ordi-
nary copper, and in consequence constructed a pile of two copper wires — .

one covered with sulphur, and the other not — which, at from 200° to 300°,

* *■ ...

developed a force capable of effecting chemical decompositions. He pro-
ceeded to state that sulphur profoundly modifies the electric properties
of all metals rendering the positive more positive, and the negative
more negative. A mixture of sulphur and bismuth which can be easily
melted together, for example, is strongly negative to bismuth itself. A
couple formed of sulphured bismuth and copper gives three times the
electric force of the ordinary bismuth-copper couple. Protosulphide of
copper, under certain molecular conditions, is eminently positive in rela-
tion to other mineral and metalic substances; and the author has constructed
a pile composed of ten cylindrical bars of this substance, ten centimeters
long and one in diameter, with copper wire rolled around each extremity
with which when raised to 300 deg. or 400 deg. of heat, he is enabled to
decompose a solution of sulphate of copper, and work a telegraph. He is
still engaged in experiments in this direction.

Fermentation.

M. Menard has introduced a new method of fermenting grape juice, con-
sequent on observing that by, exposing a very large surface of liquid in
the vats, some of the alcohol and much of the bouquet was lost. He,
therefore, allows the fermentation to take place in a close covered vessel,
and carries the gases and volatile matters evolved through a cooled wash-
ing apparatus, which detains the last. The wine thus made has a superior
flavor, and contains one per cent more alcohol.

proceedings of the polytechnic association. 567

The Art of Tanning.

Mr. Tlioinas Sm;ill opened the discussion on this subject by some general
statements regarding- the importance of the art. The processes used liave
not generally kept pace with scientiSc knowledge, relating to the chemical
re-actions employed to produce leather. In England, and in some parts of
this countr}', tlie same methods have been used for the last fifty years.
Col. Edwards was the first to introduce the mode of pumping and heating
the liquid extract of the bark. This increases the action, but heat above
the boiling point, injures the leather. Within my own time the plan of
obtaining the extract of hemlock bark and transporting it to this city and
applying it to hides, was thorouglily tried. It did not make good leather,
and was not economical, because the dry hide increases in weight when
turned into leather, and it is cheaper to take the hides to the neigliborhood
of the hemlock forests and return them to the city, than to bring the bark
to the city, or to subject it to the process of boiling down in the forest, and
bringing it in barrels to New York. It requires about 2,000 pounds of
bark to tan 170 pounds of leather.

Some six or eight years ago, a gentleman by the name of Steel, came
from the West to this city, with an idea that in the ordinary mode of
leaching, there was a certain amount of tannin still left in the bark. He
took the spent bark that used to be thrown away, and extracted from it
some fourteen degrees by the barkometer, of extra strength. This result
"was so extraordinary that no leather manufacturer would believe it.
About a year and a half ago, Mr. Pinkney took up the matter of u&ing
spent bark. He made a tank with a false bottom in it, in which he placed
the hides, and poured the hot liquor down on them, and produced very
astonishing results. By the process of Rdwards, however, the best results
have been obtained. One hundred and ninety pounds of leather are made
from ninety pounds of hide. The average of Buenos Ayres leather will
make for every one hundred pounds, one hundred and eighty pounds of
leather. The leather trade in this country, particularly the sole leather, is
as good as any made in the world, and although we make more leather
than any other nation, still we import considerable. Sole leather can be
tanned in three months, but a longer time is considered advantageous.
The amount of hemlock bark is decreasing rapidly by the cutting down of
forests, and it is an interesting question whether the spent bai-k can be
used over economically. A patent obtained for-it has been sold for twenty-
five thousand dollars, and the process is said to' be profitable.

About 10,000,000 of sides of leather, weighing 180,000,000 pounds are
annually made in the city of New York. It may be interesting to know
that this city buys more hides "and sells more leather than the cities of
London, Liverpool and Paris together. Hemlock bark is principally used
in this country, the trees from about 70,000 acres of land are cut every
year to supply this demand. As the hemlock does not grow again on the
same land, it becomes important to know from what quarter this supply is
to come in the future. Hemlock bark is limited to the States of New York,
Pennsylvania, Maine, Michigan, Wisconsin and Iowa. The hemlock forests
in these States are estimated together at about 200 miles square. In 40

568 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

miles square there are 1,024,000 acres. Allowing for the annual increase
required, it is safe to say the hemlock forests will all he consunfed within
two hundred years. The object of the speaker was to direct attention to
the importance of introducing economies in the use of bark, and of finding
substitutes for it which can be used with success.

The Chairman remarked that tanning embraced essentially two opera-
tions: 1st, the preparation of the skin; 2d, the application of tannin to it.
The oldest and most common method of removing the hair from the skin is
to place it in a vat containing a solution of lime, and to let it remain until
the epidermis or cuticle of the skin is so softened and loosened that it and
the hair can be removed very readily. The sulphide of calcium lias also
been used to effect this object. But the process adopted in the great tan-
neries of America is to hang the skins in a long, close room, where the air
is very moist, and kept between 44 and 56 deg. Fab. This low tempera-
ture is maintained by allowing a stream of cold water, usually spring
water at about 50* Fab., to pass around the ceiling of the room, and at cer-
tain points to be let out in fine jets, which have the effect of cooling the
air below the temperature of the water. At the expiration of about one
week the hair is loosened. By this method less of the skin is lost in the
removal of the hair, and it is said hides unhaired in this way make from
twenty to thirty per cent, more leather than where the limiiig process is
used. The object of the tanner being to increase the weight of the manu-
factured article, which is sold by the pound, "the sweating process," as it
is called, is certainly more profitable, but whether the leather thus made is
more valuable than that carried through the liming process, is not yet
determined.

The application of the tanning liquor or ooze extracted from oak, hem-
lock, or other bark containing tannin, results in a chemical combination of
the tannin with the gelatin of the skin. Tannin is compospd of 54 equiva-
lents of carbon, 22 of hydrogen, and 34 of oxygen. Gelatin is composed
of 12 equivalents of carbon, 10 of hydrogen, 4 of oxygen and 2 of nitrogen.
It does not exist in a free state but can be extracted from skin by means
of boiling water. Gelatin swells up in cold water, may be dissolved by
hot water, but is insoluble in alcohol and etber.

When the gelatin of the skin has combined with the tannic, or rather
gallo-tannic acid contained in the ooze, the process of tanning is completed,
and the product is leather. As it is interesting to know the relative value
of barks and vegetable products containing tannin, the following table is
presented, giving the percentage found in each substance mentioned;

Kino 7d

• Buteagiim 73

Chinese nut giills 69

Bark of sassafras root 58

Bombay catechu '. 55

Bengal catechu 44

Terra japonica 40

Alderbark 36

Apricot bark ' 32

Pomegranate iSS

Cherry bark 24

Oak bark from .14 to .20

Hemlock bark from .14 to .20

June berry IS

Sicily Sumac 1(>

t

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 569

Willow bark 16

Sycamore bark 16

Cloves 13

Virginia Sumac 10

Tannin is found in tea and many otiior vegetable products, but tlius far
hemlock bark lias been the most economical source for obtaining this arti-
cle. The Chairman concluded by saying t^vat several years ago he spoke
at length before this Association, on the manufacture of leather in this
country. His remarks at that time will be found in the volume of Trans-
actions of the American Institute for 1859, from page 527 to page 536
inclasive, and for fear of repeating what was then said he would yield the
floor to those who would doubtless be able to throv/ new light on the
subject.

Dr. J. W. Richards remarked that man}'- years ago he had some experi-
ence in the manufacture of leather, and had learned among other things
that pure soft water was essential in obtaining the bark solution. Skins
are prepared for use, in the manufacture of leatlier gloves for instance,
without being subjected to tannin. The most common tanning process, as
it is called, is to submit the skin to the action of alum. Skins may be also
cured and prepared by means of oils. Very fine sheep skins are tanned
with sumac. Hemlock bark, having considerable resin in it, requires mere
time and heat to yield its tannin than oak bark. The sooner tlie tanning
liquor is used after being made, the better. It was his opinion that the best
leather does not always weigh the most. He once had a pair of shoes
made of leather which had the hair of the skin on, and found them imper-
meable to water.

Dr. D. D. Parmelee stated that a great deal of information on this subject
could be obtained in Dr. Campbell Morfit's work on tanning.

On motion adjourned.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, 1
April 6th, 1865. j

Prof. Samuel D. Tillman, in the chair; B. Garvey, Secretary.

New Petroleum Lamp.

Mr. Griswold exhibited his improvement, designed to facilitate tlie per-
fect combustion of petroleum in lamps, by bringing into nearer relations
the carbon of the oil with" the oxygen of the air. This is effected by means
of two plates of mica placed on either side of the wick, which arc designed
to keep the oxygen of the air in action for a longer time, and for a greater
distance than could be done without them. As the mica is transparent and
not easily broken by heat, like glass, its adoption in the manner proposed
by Mr. Griswold, is claimed as a decided improvement.

The Chairman rear! the following interesting summary of scientific news.

Aniline Black.

This new derivative from aniline, completes the series of brilliant colors
derived from aniline. The mode of production, the way of fixing it on
fabrics, and the insensibility to physical and chemical changes which it

570 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

presents, are points on which it differs, essentially from the red, blue and
violet, of aniline. Mr. Lautli's process consists in printing, witli the mix-
ture of hydrochlorate of aniline and chloride of potassium, an insoluble
oxidisable salt, which will become soluble on the fabric, sulphide of copper
for example. B3' the oxidizing action of the chloric acid (or the chlorine
which is set free by the reaction of hj'drochlorate of aniline on the chlorate
of potassium,) the sulphide of copper is transformed into sulphate. The
color is very permanent, and is fixed at from 20'' to 40*^ C. and its compo-
position allows of its being printed with all sorts of colors. Aniline black
has a very rich velvety appearance. It is insoluble in water, alkaline or
acid, and is unaffected by soap. Acids change the black to green, but the
original color is restored by an alkali.

Removal of Bisulphide of Carbon from Gas.

Mr. Lewis Thompson has published a simple process for purifying gas
from bisulphide of carbon, based on the fact that the vapor of water and
the bisulphide cannot exist together at a red heat; mutual decomposition
taking place with the formation of sulphuretted hj'drogen and carbonic
acid. The gas as it leaves the main, is mixed with a certain portion of
steam, and passed through a tube heated to a cherry red having a length
proportioned to the velocity of the current, so that the whole gases will be
heated before they leave the tube. The sulphureted hydrogen and carbonic
acid, are refnoved by the usual processes for purifying gas.

New Bituminous Substance from Brazil.

Prof. Archer submitted to the Royal Society of Scotland, an anal3'sis of
a substance under the name of coal, from Brazil, -which showed that it con-
tained a much larger percentage of oil than any bituminous coal in Great
Britain. It had little of the appearance of coal, but seemed to be an indu-
rated claj'. It was very light, extremely buoyant in water and extremely
inflamable, burning at a low temperature. From this description, we may
conclude that this substance does not differ essentially from similar forma-
tions which have been exhibited to this Association.

Separation of the Cotton and Wool in Mixed Woolen

Fabrics.

Most of our readers are aware that the wool can be recovered from woolen
rags, and worked up again into articles which, if not equal to those into
which it was originally manufactured, are yet of great utility. In the same
way cotton and linen rags may be utilized in the manufacture of paper, &c. ;
but the rags of mixed fabrics are of but little value, and can scarcely be
used at all without the destruction of one of the constituents, so as to leave
the otheras unmixed as possible. This is of course a waste to be regret-
ted, especially at a time when the scarcity of cotton presses hardly on pa-
per manufacturers. A process has, however, been recently invented in
France, by means of which the flax or cotton can be separated for the use
of the paper manufacturer, and the wool for that of the manufacture of
prussiate of potash, or Prussian blue, or for the use of the agriculturist as
manure. It appears that it is particularly valuable as manure, since it is

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 571

80 broken up by tlie process that it is far more effective tlian wool in its
natural state, which is acted on with diiFiculty by air and moisture — re-
quiring' about two years to render it effective as* a manure. It is found
that from 1,000 lbs. of the mixed fabric there may bo obtained 300 lbs. of
coiton, 75 lbs. of prussiate of potash, and 50 lbs. of ammonia, and, in addi-
tion to these, sufficient gas to light the factory and partly heat the retorts
tised ill the process.

New Asteroid.

*

M. Tempel, of Marseilles, has just discovered a new planet, which makes
the eigh!;y-first of the group existing between Mars and Jupiter. Its bril-
liancy is tliat of a star of the 1 1th and 12th magnitude. The discovery has
been confirmed by the observations of M. Luther, at Bilk.

Preservation of Wood.

The following method is used in Germany for the preservation of wood:
Mix 40 parts of chalk, 50 of rosin, 4 of linseed oil, melting them together
in an iron pot; then add 1 part of native oxyd of copper, and afterwai'ds,
with care, 1 part of sulphuric acid. The mixture is applied while hot to
the wood, by means of a brush. When dry it forms a varnish as bard as
stone.

Honor to Prof. Bond.

The royal astronomical society at London has this year awarded, for the
first time to an American, its highest honor, the gold medal of the society,
to Professor George P. Bond, lately director of the observatory of Harvard
University at Cambridge, for his eminent services in the advancement of
astronomy, and especially for his volume on the comet of 1858.

Stability of Gun-Cotton.

M. Morel, who claims to be the inventor of gun-cotton in France, affirms,
in contradiction to the assertions of M, de Luca, that he has specimens of
that substance which he has kept for eighteen years without undergoing
the least alteration, and that, when properly made, gun-cotton will preserve
its properties for an indefinite period.

Gauge of American Railways.

As to gauge, there are three classes of railroads in the United States.
The New England and New York roads are four feet eight and a half inches.
In Ohio and south of Philadelphia they vary from this width to four feet
ten inches. The Canada gauge is four feet six inches, of which gauge also
are some of the roads of Maine. The broad gauge is six feet, of which the
Erie, the Atlantic and Great Western, and the Ohio and Mississippi are
examples.

Turpentine at the North.

There is a company at Freedom, N. IL, engaged in manufacturing tar
from pine stumps. They produce forty barrels of tar and seven or eight of
spirits of turpentine evei-y week. The stumps are drawn and cut up a8

572 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

for stove wood — put into a retort and tlieir essence fried out. A cord of
pitch wood gives three barrels of tar worth $14 per barrel, and 18 gallons
of spirits worth some $7 or $8 the gallon.

Torpedoes for Petroleum.

A submarine torpedo was exploded four hundred and sixty-three feet
down in an oil well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, on Saturday, making the
oil and water shoot thirty feet into the air. The well had ceased to yield,
but as soon as the disturbance subsided oil appeared on the surface as fast
as it could be dipped off with a hand-pump; The theory is that the oil
veins got stopped up with paraffine, and the torpedo blew them open again.

Pianos made in the United States.

The yearly product of pianos in the United States has increased from
2,000 to 20,000 in the last fifteen years, the latter number being the esti-
mated manufacture of the present year.

E. p. Needham's Pneumatic Way.

This novel invention was exhibited in practical operation on a small
scale before the association. The tubes used were each about ten feet long
and made of glass so that the eflect of the air upon the cork balls could
be readily seen.

Mr. Benjamin Garvey. — Mr. President and gentlemen, I have much plea-
sure in bringing before you this evening " Needham's Pneumatic Way," as
I believe it to be a great invention and one calculated to revolutionize rail-
road travel. To develop its principles and show wlicrein its excellence
consists, it will be necessary to recall some of the earlier attempts to sub-
stitute stationary engines for locomotives.

As soon as the locomotive began to be generally used, it was found to
possess many disadvantageous points which ingenious men strove to
obviate. These were dearness of first cost, a locomotive costing more
than five times as much as a stationary engine of equal power; expense in
working requiring the undivided attention of a fireman and an engineer,
whereas one man can attend a stationary engine ; expense in fuel, needing
a superior and costly quality of fuel, while any kind can be used with a
stationary engine, and the latter can economize its steam and fuel, while
the former is necessitated to waste both ; expense in repairs, the jar of
travel soon deranging and wearing out its parts, all of which are very
costly ; then the life of a locomotive is not one-fourth as long as that of a
stationary engine. Also the locomotive being very heavy — from 60 to 120
tons — necessitated the building of a more expensive road than would be
required for passengers or freight cars (mly, for so heavy a body moving
at a high velocity, strikes every obstacle with incalculable force, and the
minute fall from one rail to another produces such an effect that the rails
are soon battered and rendered dangerous, and would not endure this action
. for even a short time if not massive and firmly fixed ; even the oscillating

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 573

of tlic locomotive from side to side strains the rails and they must be
secured to crossties or they would be torn apart. Ag-ain, the locomotive
cannot ascend steep grad(>s, so that moderate hills must be tunneled and
gentle valleys bridged. Nor is it free from danger. It is liable to explode,
to run off the track, to be thrown from the track by stray cattle, fallen
trees, drift from rain, snow, &c. It is also liable to cause accidents by
frightening horses, and its smoke, ashes and dust are offensive in cities
and intolerable in long tunnels or underground roads.

The stationary engine possessing so many advantages above the loco-
motive, it was to be expected that great efforts would be made to substi-
tute the one for the other. The great difficulty was to convey its power to
a train of cars in motion, and of all the means proposed for accomplishing
that end, the oidy one now approved by engineers is the use of atmospheric
air in tubes.

An endless band has been used on the London and Blackwall, and some
other railroads. A rotating endless screw has been proposed ; so has a
tube of india-rubber to be filled with water behind the driving wheel or
roller; and other plans which were simply abortions.

The employment of atmospheric air in different ways has been more
successful. Between Dublin and Dalkey, in Ireland, an atmospheric rail-
road was used for a short time. A tube having a slit along its upper side
was laid between the rails. A piston to travel in this pipe was fitted with
a bent arm, which, passing through the slit in the top of the tube, was
attached to the car. The slit was closed by a valve of leather strengthened
with metal strips across it, which was fast along one side and was sealed
to the other side with pitch so that the bent arm in passing along tore up
the sealed side of the valve, and a hot roller following resealed it. Motion
was given to the car by the pressure of the air acting on the piston in the
tube, when a partial vacuum was produced in front by air-pumps worked
by a stationary engine. The valve was very imperfect, and whilst travel-
ing in the car, I have heard it hissing throughout its length as it leaked
in air. Some ingenious improvements in the valve were proposed, but the
great defect in this plan was that the lateral strain on the tube, as the car
oscillated from side to side, distorted the tube so that the piston could not
fit it and the leakage was too great.

To dispense with the slit along the tube it was proposed to have a piston
travel in a perfectly enclosed tube, and by means of a toothed rack on top,
give motion to a double set of rollers, half within the tube and half with-
out, those within being connected with those without by pins passing
through air-tight holes, so that the outside rollers should grasp a rack on
the bottom of the car and thus give motion to it. This was very ingenious,
but that the car and piston should travel at the exact same rate, was not
under complete control. This plan was consequently abandoned.

It was next proposed to have holes at intervals along the tube, and to
have these closed by valves which could be operated by a traveling slide
valve, so as to make a communication, at the moment of passing, between
the inside of the tube and an air engine in the car, the car being, in fact,
an air locomotive. This plan has been lately revived, but it seems too

674 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

complicated, and could hardly have rested twenty years, if it be really
practicable.

In all these methods of employing stationary eng-ines, the cars were car-'
ried through the air and were exposed to all accidents from weather, stray
cattle, etc. A totally ditferent plan has been invented by Rammcl, of Eng-
land. Instead of a small piston, I'equiring intense pressure, he employs a
large piston, requiring only such pressure as a stiff breeze exercises on a
sail. To do this he builds his railroad within a tube, and makes the front
of the carriage a large piston fitting the tube loosely, a brush of hog's
bristles being the only packing used. He then obtains his current of air
by means of an atmospheric ejector or huge centrifugal wheel, the air
being taken in at the center and ejected at the periphery to exhaust air
from the tube, and the air being taken in at the periphery and sent out at
the center to produce compression in the tube.

The experimental pneumatic railroad at the Crystal Palace has demon-
strated tliat this mode of locomotion is very agreeable, being a gentle
gliding motion without jar, smoke, dust, or noise; that it is capable of
very high velocity, say one hundred miles an hour; that it is perfectly
safe, there being no danger of explosion, of running oflf the track, of
encountering stray animals or fallen trees, etc.; that it is practical and.
pleasant in all states of weather; that the ventilation is perfect, as fresh
air is constantly supplied to tlie car by the propelling current, and that in
case a car should break down there would be merely a stopping of forward
motion without danger to life or limb.

Is Rammel's pneumatic railroad then perfect? Does it meet all require-
ments of economy, speed, safety, etc.? By no means. It requires an
American inventor to perfect the "pneumatic way."

Rammel, to move a carriage from one end to the otlier of the tube, must
put twiqe the full of the tube of air in motion, and must therefore over-
come a double amount of inertia and friction. His stationary engine must
remain idle until a car is ready to start. He must have a telegraph from
station to station, to notify when the engine is to be set to work. He can
have only one car in motion in the tube at one time, and must bring the
whole column of air to rest to stop the car, thus losing a large amount of
accumulated force. To return a car he must stop and reverse his air wheel,
thus losing another large amount of accumulated force.

Now, by attending to a description of the annexed diagram, we will
see in what a simple and masterly manner Needham overcomes all tj^ese
objections and perfects the pneumatic way. A, fig. 1, is a rotary air pump
which is connected with a continuous circuit cf tube. B, B, C, I) and D
are stations, each having two gates for isolating a section of the tube.
These gates are shown both open at B, B, both closed at C, and one open
and the other closed at D, D. When both gates are open as at B, B, the
current of air, produced by the pump A and indicated by the arrows, passes
straight along through tlie station, and a car going with it would not be
stopped. When both are closed, as at C, the current passes the station
through the bent tube shown beside it; the car, however, can not pass
round the bent tube, but must stop in front of the gate. When one gate

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 575

is open and the other closed, as indicated at D, D, the current must also go
round, but the car will stop within the station, after which the other gate
may be closed, and the state shown at C will be attained. Fig. 2 shows
botli gates open and the current going straight along, while fig. 3 shows
botii closed, tlic current going round and the station open to the exter-
nal atn»os|)here, so that cars may load and unload, passengers get in or
out, without interfering with the working of any other part of the rout.

It is evident, from a careful view of this diagram, that the whole power
exerted by the air pump is available in generating a current of air within
the tube. There is no air drawn in from the outside to keep up the cur-
rent, nor is any air in motion thrown away into the atmosphere, but the
air taken from one end of the circuit of tube is driven into the other, thus
giving at once compression and exhaustion by the one action of the pump.
Since there is a double line of tube there maj'- be travel in both directions
at once without the possibility of collision. When a car approaches a
station it can be made either to notify the station man or to operate auto-
matic divices, so that the farther gate will be shut and the car be stopped
in the gentlest manner by impinging on a cushion of air, after which the
other gate js closed and the station is opened to the outside. Several cars
may move along the track in the same direction, at the same time, without
fear of interfering, for tliey would be, as it were, attached to an endless
band of air and have to maintain their relative distances, A car may be
transferred from the up to the down tube at any station, and the current
of air may consequently be maintained always in the one direction.
' The tube may be made of an inexpensive material — wood, burned clay,
Roman cement, or anything of which a tube can be made. The stationary
power may be steam or water, provided only the engines or water wheels
be at suitable distances along ,the track, at say from five to ten miles
apart. We see, then, that Ncedham has perfected this new style of loco-
motion. Its economy of construction and working can not be surpassed.
For safety and speed it is more desirable than any other style of travel for
passengers, and its speed should make it the great means of carrying and
distributing mail matter, newspapers and parcels. Its peculiar suitable-
ness for city locomotion, as not interfering with rights of way or of pro-
perty, and giving an admirable means of passing from the business centers
to the suburbs, points it out as the best means yet proposed for relieving
Broadway and the other crowded thoroughfares of our city.

Mr. Neediiam's address is 97 East Twenty-third street, New York, and
I am confident that any gentleman calling upon him for information upon
this plan of locomotion will be allowed a sight of his working model.

After selecting "City Sewerage" as the next topic for discussion, the
Association adjourned.

American Institute Polytechnic Association, )
April \Zih, 1865. j

Prof. S. D. Tillman, in the chair; B. Garvey, Secretary.

The Chairman opened the meeting by saying, that during a recent trip

676 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

to Albany, he visited the Dudley Observatory, under the direction of Prof.
G. W. Hough. He examined there the following instruments:

1st. The Olcott Meridian Circle, made by Pistor and Martins, Berlin-
Object glass 8 inches; Focal length 19 feet.

2d. The Transit Instrument by the same makers.

3d. The Equatorial Refractor, made by the late Henry Fitz, of New York.
Object glass 13 inches; Focal length 15 feet.

4th. The Comet Seeker, made by Mr. Alvin. Clark, of Boston.

5th. The Declinometer, invented by the late Prof. Mitchel, and made by
Messrs. Foster and Twitchell, of Cincinnati.

6th. The Charting Machine, made by Mr. Fasoldt, of Albany.

1th. The Sidereal Clock, No. 1, movement by Dent, pendulum applied by
Bond and Son, of Boston.

8th. Sidereal Clock, No. 2, by Howard and Company, of Boston,

9th. Chronograph, invented by Professor Mitchel, made by Foster and
Twitchell, Cincinnati.

10th. Barometer, by Fastre of Paris.

Also a magnetic Mean Time Clock, by Mr. Farmer, of Boston; Chronome-
ter, by Johnson, of London; Clocks for the Observing Rooms, and other
minor apparatus needed or useful in an observatory.

The speaker was most interested in the Calculating Machine of Scheutz,
first exliibited at the International Exhibition in London. The following
description of it is from the pen of Prof Hough:

The Savedish Tabulating Machine of Mr. George Scheutz.

It is a well known fact that Mr. Charles E. Babbage was the first to
attempt the construction of a Difference Engine; but owing to some misun-
derstanding between the Inventor and the English Government, under
whose patronage the v.'ork was carried on, it was never completed.

About the year 1834 or 1836, Mr. Scheutz, a printer at Stockholm, heard
of Mr. Babbage's Machine, and at once conceived the idea of building one
himself

The present machine, which bears the impression "Stockholm, 1853," is
the product of his labors, continued with unwearied diligence and at great
pecuniary sacrifice through nearly twenty years. It is the only one ever
perfected, and although based on the same mathematical theory, is yet
essentially dilferent in its mechUnism from that contemplated by Mr. Bab-
bage. It was purchased for this observatoiy in 1858, and was put in opera-
tion for a short time in 1858.

It was found to be in a very disordered condition, and the greater part
of the labor expended upon it was required by adjustments and repairs.
Of the details of its mechanism, no satisfactory conception can be given
without illustrations, and without more space than can here be afforded.

It possesses a twofold power, with mechanism appropriate for each; not
necessarily connected, though simultaneous and automatic in its entire
action. These functions are, first, the production of certain numerical
results; second, the conversion of these results into a permanent legible
record.

The theory of the machine is based on the mathematical truth that in

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 577

any series of imnibcrs, the ?!th oi'der of differences may be regarded as
equal to zero, where n may be any number whatever. To produce such a
series by mechanical means, the only condition necessary is that there be
as many variable wheels indicating the numbers as we have differences. If
n was a very large number, the mechanism would become cumbersome and
unwieldy. It is found in practice that for the great majority of useful
computations, four orders of differences are sufficient.

This machine is constructed for that number, and will consequently com-
pute any series, in which the fourth (or any inferior) order of differences
are equal.

This will be more easily understood by a simple illustration. Suppose
it is desired to tabulate the series of square numbers beginning with unity.
Let us first see how these numbers can be produced by means of successive
differences. We arrange them for convenience in the following table:

Number. Square. 1st diff. 2d diff. 3d diff.

11

3
2* 4 2

5 0

3 9 2

1

4 16

Having given the number (1) square of 1, and the first difference 3 ~:
(2'— r) and the second diff, 2 = (3^— 2=)— (2'— P), the squares of all suc-
cessive numbers may be found by continued additions.

The difference between (2^ — 1") r= 3 is the first diff.; the second diff.
(2) is constant. Then,

(3)' = 9 = (2)' -f 1st diff. (3) + 2d diff. (2),

or 9 = 4 + (3+2),

or 9 = 4 +5, (5) being the second number in column of first differences

And the same process may be repeated to any extent.

What now is required iu a machine, is, first to be able to produce the
first order of differences, having given the first difference 3, and the second
difference (2) constant.

Suppose we have a wheel, on the circumference of which is inscribed, at
equal distances apart, the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. If this wheel
should be set so that the figure 3 should coincide with a fixed mark, and
by means of any simple mechanism, it should be made to advance two di-
visions at every motion of a lever, we should successively cause the num-
bers 3, 5, 1, 9, to coincide with the mark; and if when the wheel has made
a complete revolution, it should cause another wheel placed by its side to
advance one division. The process maj' be continued so as to form the
series of first differences, in which every successive number would be
greater by 2 than the number precedi)ig.

This principle of successive additions is exemplified in an ordinary clock;
for at every oscillation of the pendulum the second-hand advances one di-
vision, and after this has made a complete revolution, the minute-hand has
also advanced one division. By a slight change in the escapement wheel,
the second wheel could be made to advance 2, 3, or 4 divisions at every
[Am. Ixst.] K*

578 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

oscillation. Hence it will be readily understood how, by simple machinery,
any constant quantity may be added.

Now suppose we have three wheels, placed one above the other on a ver-
tical (shaft) axis, on each of which is inscribed" zero and the nine digits,
corresponding with the like number of divisions on their surfaces. If the
number 1 on the upper wheel, 3 on the second wheel, and 2 on the third
wheel, be brought opposite a fixed or zero point; and the nature of these
■wheels be such that when set in motion by a lever from right to left, the
second wheel adds its number to the upper wheel, and by a motion of the
lever from left to right, the third wheel adds its number to the second (be-
ing in this case constant and always equal to 2); from this arrangement,
■we will be able to compute a table of square numbers.

We begin by moving the lever from right to left ; when 3 (the number
on the second wheel) will be added to 1 (the number on the upper wheel),
making 4 the square of 2. On moving the lever back, 2 on the third wheel
is added' to 8 on the second wheel, making 5. Moving our lever back again
from right to left, 5 is added to 4 on the upper wheel, making 9 the square
of 3. Repea'ting the process, we next get 7 on the second tvheel; which
added to 9 oh the upper makes 16, the square of 4.

It is evident from the above statement that the series of squares is do-
, veloped by a process of addition, in which the constant significant differ-
ence, increased by each preceding first difference, generates the order of
first differences ; and with the sum of the preceding first difference and
square, produces the series of squares. This principle is true for any se-
ries, whatever number n may be.

It will now be readily understood, should we have a series of wheels,
ranged under each other, the nature of which should be such that the series
below should add its number to the one above, we could produce any series
of numbers in which the fourth order of differences should be equal.

In case any difference is negative, we get the same result by adding the
complement, or difference between the number and 10. Suppose we wish
to subtract 2 from 3, our result would be 1. If we take the complement of
2 = 8, and add it to 3, we get (10-|-1), or the same result on the first
wheel as before.

' Having given the fundamental principles on which the machine is con-
structed, we will add a few particulars. This machine can be used to 15
places of figures, of which 8 places are printed, at the time of making the
computation. Thirty seconds is the time necessary for a complete result.

Before starting the machine for any computation, it is necessary to set
the proper wheels, after which it needs no further attention; for so long as
the last order of differences is constant, it will continue to produce the
required numbers. Thus for producing a table of squares, it is only neces-
sary to give the machine three numbers, 1, 3 and 2; and from these data
■we can compute the squares of all numbers up to 30 millions. In the same
manner, by giving the machine the numbers 1, 7, 6, 6, we can produce a
table of cubes, the limit being 15 figures. The same principles apply in
the computation of logarithms, or any series of numbers whatever.

By changing the position of the carrying post on one of the wheels, we
at once obtain the nearest whole number, no matter how many decimal

. PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 579

\ places be used. By inserting different sets of wheels in two of the vertical
columns, the computation can be made by the sexagesimal system; that is,
the results will at once be converted into degrees, minutes and seconds.

It is found, from our own work as well as that previously done with the
machine, that it is occasionally liable to an accidental error, from the fail-
ure of one or more wheels to perform its ollice, Tliese errors are purely
mechanical, and are not to be confounded with the principles on which the
machine is constructed. The question naturally arises, can these errors
be obviated ? The thorough examination of the source and cause of the dif-
ficulty leads us to conclude that by a slight addition to the mechanism, the
possibility of accidental error from this source may be reduced to so small
a limit as to make the machine perfectly reliable for any computations in-
chidcd within its capacity.

Tlie success of our improvements has been satisfactorily demonstrated in
the use of temporary mechanism constructed for the purpose. It was found
that those wheels which before were frequently liable to error, worked per-
fectly after the proper mechanism was applied.

"We propose to apply motive power to the machine, so that when once
set, it shall be a complete automaton, making its computations without the
assistance of any person. As soon as one set of constants are exhausted,
tiie machine will stop, and will also be made to give notice of the fact by
ringing a bell; upon which a new set of constants may be introduced, and
the computations continued.

The following interesting items of scientific news were then presented
by the chairman :

A New America:n Silk-Worm.

Mr. L. Trouvelot, of Medford, Mass., has been engaged for several years
in rearing the altacus polyphenus, and in preparing from its cocoon a silk
having great lustre and strength, and superior to all other silks except the
best Chinese. The insect is found throughout the iSorthern States, and
feeds upon the leaves of the oak, maple, willow and other common forest
trees. Mr. Trouvelot has now seven wagon-loads of cocoons, the entire
progeny of which he proposes to raise during the coming summer. For
opening this new and important field of industry, this gentleman is entitled
to the thanks of all wjio are interested in the increase of our domestic
manufactures.

A Buried City.

It is said that a photographer, who has been employed by the Dutch
Government to take views of the most beautiful points on the Island of
Java, has discovered an entire city buried beneath the lava of a volcano
close by, which has been extinct for several centuries.

Steam Engines in France.
In 1850 there were in all France but 6,832 steam engines ; in 1860 there
were 22,516, representing a force of 617,890 horse-power. Certain restric-
tions have lately been removed by the government which will doubtless
result in greatly increasing the number of steam engines in Ihat country.

580 transactions of the american institute.

New Bridge across the Hudson at Albany.

Mr. Julius Adatns, C. E., of Brooklyn, has charge of the construction of
the railway bridge at Albany, crossing the river at right angles from a
point sixty feet north of Lumber street and passing the upper end of Van
Rensselaer Island, and resting upon a pier built out therefrom and touch-
ing the opposite shore a few hundred rods north of the Western Railway
depot. The total length of the bridge will be one thousand four hundred
feet. It will be of sufficient width for a double track, and the distance
from the floor to the roof will be 22 feet. It is to be finally constructed of
American wrought iron, upon what is known as the lattice system. A tem-
porary wooden structure will be laid upon the piers which will be used by
railway trains while the iron sti'ucture is^ being completed. The principal
permanent spans will be 172 feet each, and the two draw-spans will be 110
feet each, swinging horizontally upon one pivot-pier 32 feet in diameter.

YosEMETE Gorge and Big Oak Grove, in California.

The General Land Office has received the returns of the survey of these
wonderful developments of nature, probably the greatest natural curiosities
on the globe. The " Yosemete" is a cleft in one of the lateral spurs of the
Sierra Nevada. By some volcanic convulsion the mountains have been
torn asunder to the extent of some nine or ten miles in length and a width
varying from three to five miles, forming stupendous walls of granite,
with a valley at the bases of the same, through which flows the Merced
river. By a wise and munificent act. Congress by a special law has granted
this cleft to the State of California, to be forever dedicated as a public
resort for health and recreation. By the same act there is also granted to
the State what is known as the " Big Oak Grove," some thirteen or four-
teen miles south of the cleft. The grove contains 421 trees, from 275 to
400 feet in height, covering 2,589 acres. These mammoth trees are the
cone-bearing evergreen of the redwood genus, and known as the sequoia
gigantea, with bark on the largest of them of 18 inches thickness, and bear
two different kinds of leaves. One of the largest of the species which has
been hewed down indicates an age of from two to three thousand years.

The Public Domain.

The United States own upwards of 1,000,900,000 acres of public lands
susceptible of cultivation. They own at least 2,000,000 acres of gold and
silver-bearing lands. The arable lands are worth at least $1,200,000,000,
and the mineral lands are worth at least $8,000,000,000, making together
a total of $9,200,000,000.

Metals of Michigan.

Michigan yields about $7,000,000 worth of copper and $2,000,000 of iron
annually.

What Cashmere Shawls are Made of.

The cashmere shawl wool consists of the fleece beneath the undercoat of
the hair of the shawl-goats. The shearing is performed at the commence-
ment of the summer, which, in those Alpine regions, though short, is very

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 581

hot. " The liair is first cut short with a knife, the shearer beginning at
the head ami following the direction of the fleece toward the tail. The
animal is then rubbed in the reverse direction with a sort of brush or comb,
which detaches the fine wool from next the skin (the asuli) nearly free
from hair. When the animals are «ot shorn, they relieve themselves of
these winter vests of delicate down, by rolling on the ground or rubbing
against the rocks." Seeing that the original possessors of the asuli are
nearly as wild as the winds, materials for thousands of shawls must be
annually blown about and utterly wasted amongst the pinnacles and crags
of those desolate regions. M. Gerard thinks that at present a very great
quantity of the genuine asuli is lost by being mixed with the coarser hair
and common wool, and thus indiscriminately manufactured into bushmeena.

Sewerage.

The regular discussion was opened by Mr. Woodward, of the firm of
Knights & Woodward, of Brooklyn, who exhibited specimens of their
hj'draulic cement sewer pipe. Mr Knights followed, and said the pipes
were made of cement, gravel and sand, precisely the same as concrete.
They are very durable, and being made on polished cores, they are true
throughout the whole bore. The p'roportions are two parts of sand and
gravel and one of cement ; this is kept damp for seven or eight weeks and
made to set very slowl3^ They can be made much cheaper than ordinary
clay pipe, and they never get out of shape. The size here exhibited is
twelve inches in diameter, and is sold at 50 cents a foot; and that of three-
inch bore costs 14 cents a foot. We make some twenty -four inch pipes ;
they are made in an egg shape, and sold at $1.30 per foot. These pipes
are specifically adapted for distribution and drainage in cities and villages.
They will stand the most severe tests, and improve in strength with age and
use, and are now extensively adopted by eminent hydraulic engineers. The
sewer-pipes are in use in New York, Brooklyn, Central Park, Hartford, &c.,
and also under heavy railroad embankments. They stand the most severe
test of acids. In the city of Brooklyn over forty miles of this pipe is used
for the street sewers.

Mr. Woodward read some extracts from a report of an English commis
sion appointed to examine the sewerage of London, showing that in their
opinion small pipes are less likely to be obstructed than large sewers wiiiel-
are several times more expensive.

Mr. Enos Stevens gave the results of some experiments he had tried t(
find the descent required for water to carry along stones and other sub
stances. The conclusion was that in a V shaped trough, after it has
become smooth, a descent of one foot in fifty-eight feet of length was suffi-
cient to wash away all obstructions.

City Sewerage.

The following paper was presented by ^fr. Samuel McEIroy, C. E., o/
Brooklyn :

The attention of the Polytechnic Association, which is directed to th«
various public and scientific improvements of the age, and to the various

582 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

means and processes of improvement, maj-- properly be asked to the discus-
sion of some of the prominent characteristics of city sewerage.

It has pleased the creator of man to endow him with a compound ele-
ment of earthly existence, having a spiritual and immortal nature in com-
bination with a human form, which is constantly troubled with necessities
of the hour, and in need of constant care. The glory and dignity of tlie
soul, and also of the body, is here chastened and humbled by the- recurring
wants and weaknesses of human nature, which are imperative in their de-
mands, and find their only cessation in the rest of the grave; and the greater
part of man's existence is a struggle with these infirmities.

Out of this obvious law of existence have come all the methods and ap-
pliances for social comfort and the general welfare. The upward tendency
of the higher existence carries with it the subordinate organization, and
every efibrt for the general welfare of those masses of individuals who form
our communities is a valuable contribution to the law of charity and the
offices of kindness. Improved construction of dwellings, conveniences of
public conveyance and travel, street pavements, public institutions of
charity and of learning, food suppl}', water supply, sewerage, gas supply,
and the like, are prominent sources of gocial amelioration and are indices
of progress in civilization. •

Of human infirmities, or laws of bodily existence, the necessity of ade-
quate disposal of hourly and daily accumulations of matter, also pertains
to that law of the continued existence of matter, which has attracted the
earnest study of the most profound thinkers of the race. In the natural
world nothing is lost, whatever transformations each particle may undergo.
Among all the food-consuming plants or animals, or inhabitants of the
earth, nothing is taken within the organization which is not also, in some
form or other, given up. So far, then, as the human race is concerned, this
law of restitution places the question of adequate disposal in the same
class with that of adequate supply. The air we breathe, the water we
drink, the food we eat, must also not only be properly used, but properly
accounted for.

The infringement of any phj'-sical law, or of any moral law, brings an
inevitable punishment. Science has demonstrated, in its sublime analysis,
that the body was not created to suffer, and that it always does suffer
through the infringement of certain laws and conditions of its existence.
Precisely so with regard to our special subject of discussion. Auy com-
munity which neglects the proper disposal of its constant accumulations
nui.st, m theory, and does, in practice, suffer grevions injury !n individual
comfort -and health. The instances which testify to this law are so abun-
dant and so conclusive as to indicate this theory beyond dispute.

From lessons taught by experience, that preceptor which human nature
is always prone to challenge, it has been found all over the world, and
from its earliest ages, that the upward progress of civilization is marked
by provisions for the more effectual suppl}' of general necessities, and for
the health and comfort of the masses. In some ages and countries these
provisions have assumed a luxurious expansion, and have resulted in pub-
lic works which, like the aqueducts of the Incas of Peru, or of the emperors
of Rome, have stood the test of many centuries in their eloquent witness to

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 583

special regard for public 'welfare, and which, to. this day, rebuke the mis-
taken parsimony of ages and lands which arrogate to themselves specious
pretensions of social rank. Farts of buried cities on the shores of the M li-
terranean, brought to light after ages of seclusion, ])ut to shame, in their
sanitary appliance, the costliest mansions of our proudest modern towns.

In the scliool of hydraulic engineering it is understood that any proper
arrangement of water supply involves an equally complete system of sew-
erage. The latter generally follows the former, though it should properly
precede it. But cities like those of modern times, rapid in growth and uhcer-
tain in local development, arc rarely built up with proper regard to civic
necessities, and only adopt plans of public works when forced into it by press-
ing sanitary conditions of existence and progress. The ancients were wiser
than the men of this generation in these respects, and did not leave their
prospective cities without careful provision for necessities which may be
better provided for in advance of their occurrence.

The accumulations of a city which require adequate disposal may be
classified as street dirt, house sewage and rain-fall.

Street dirt, so far as it is made up of garbage, ashes, and other matters
of a perishable or solid character, which can be conveniently carted, should
not enter the sewers; and the horse roanure and street wash, which rapidly
accumulato on the pavements, may or may not be carried into the sewers,
as the character of the pavement itself, and the method of carriage, will
properly determine. The quantity of manure dropped in the streets of a«
large city is much greater than is generally supposed. A London report
of 1850, on this point, says:

" It is considered that the horse dung which falls in the streets of the
metropolis, cannot be less than 200,000 tons a year. Much of this, under
ordinary circumstances, dries and is pulverized, and with the common soil
is carried into houses as dust, and soils clothes and furniture. The odor
arising from the surface evaporation of streets when thej' are wet is chiefly
from horse dung. Tlie surface water discharged into sewers from the
streets and roofs of houses is found to contain as much filth as the soil
water from house drains."

With close laid block pavement, which admits the use of a water jet for
sti^ct cleansing (which experience has proved to be much more economical
than the street sweeper and dirt cart), this part of the street dirt may
properly be washed into the sewers; but the ordinary cobble stone pave-
ment will not permit a strong, scouring jet, without risk to its bed, and
where in use, indicates the need of dirt carts for all kinds of street dirt,
with tiicir attendant imperfections, annoyances and expenses. Among
other benefits of the trap block pavement, now being extended through
New York, will be its superior cleanliness, when subjected, as it should
I be, to the periodical water jet, of adequate power.

House sewage, discharged from the various household appurtenances,*
in a liquid, semi-liquid, and solid state, requires underground disposal.
Investigation has shown the singular fact, in our own cities as in Europe,
that water supply, for daily consumption, forms a very correct measure of
daily sewage flow, and any attention to t'.io quantity of water waste in
daily household experience readily explains this connection. The amount

581: TRANSACTIONS OF THE A?,IERICAN INSTITUTE.

of water actually used in New York has exceeded ninety gallons per day,
for every person in the city, while the quantitj' it is possible to use, for
drinking and cooking, is less than ten per cent, of this amount. Conse-
quently we find that, in addition to the ordinary house sewage proper,
vast quantities of water, as it conies from the supply pipes, are rushing
into the sewers, bearing comparatively slight impregnation of sewage mat-
ter. It is also observed, in corroboration, that the periods of maximum
daily sewage flow correspond with those of water supply ; about fifty per
cent, of the daily flow being between 9 A. M. and 5 P. M.

In addition to these conditions of ordinary discharge the sewers must be
able to dispose of rain-fall, ordinar}- and extraordinary.

From the varied character of surface in all cities, with gardens, parks,
areas, and other retarding parts, it follows that the rapidity of rain-fall or
storm-fall discharge is much impeded, so that it rarely happens that sixty
per cent, of the fall enters the sewers within six hours of the commence-
ment, in closely built districts, while suburban districts have given forty
per cent, within twenty-four hours. Nor does the entire rainfall enter the
sewers, by more than twenty-five per cent.

• London observations in 1852, show that " a rainfall of half an inch in three
hours, took twelve hours in discharge, that is to say, twelve hours elapsed
from the commencement of the rain before the flow of the sewer resumed
its ordinary level. In a second case, a rainfall of I. II inches in about an
hour, with an addition of 0.33 inch in the next two hours, being nearly an
inch and a half in three hours, occupied in discharge fifteen and three-
quarter hours from the commencement of the rain."

Observations made for the Brooklyn sewerage, show that "in a period
of seven years, but three days occur in which the rainfall in four hours is
as high as one inch, and but three days in which the whole rain during
twenty-four hours was as much as two inches."

This condition of storm-flow, so much exceeds the ordinary house-sewage
flow, that adequate provision for the first, fully provides for all other con-
ditions of service, and among hydraulic engineers, a basis one-inch storm-
fall per hour, has been adopted for trunk sewers, which receive the supply
of lateral systems, the basis for the latter being two inches fall per hour.
,From what has been experimentally shown under this head, it is evide^it
that such a basis of computation and arrangement is in abundant excess of
all contingencies ; and as this basis is the key to a very radical defect in
sewerage systems in general, it deserves special attention, as will more
fully appear, in I'emarks on the principles of arrangement.

The nature of sewage flow, has an important connection with its pro-
cesses of flow, and is shown by analysis of its contents.

As may be expected from the various imperfections of sewers, which
have been analyzed, the results vary largely in dissolved and suspended
matter; the proportions of solid matter vary, in cases, from 1 in 142, 1 in
830, and 1 in 420, to 1 in 1,000 ; advocates of utilization having assumed
1 in 600, as a reliable mean. The results confirm the deductions from the
remarks on house-sewage as to the entire fluidity of the flow, demonstrating
the facili-ty of removal, while it is found in some instances that the sewer
discharge may be actually purer and more wholesome than wells, main-
tained at public e.xpense for pi\blic use, in more than one modern city.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE rOLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION.

585

In a report of Major Doug-lass, the Eng-inoer to wliom the Croton supply
sliouhl be properly accredited, dated November, 1833, analysis of the
Bloecker street and Thirteenth street wells show 80 grains of solid matter
in the tirst, and 64.4 grains in the second, per gallon. A previous report
makes the Manhattan well 125.8 grains per gallon.

During the preliminary examinations for the Btooklyn Water Works,
various city wells were analyzed, as being most gehcrally used, and gave
43.2, 4ti.4, 58.6, and in one case 11 grains per gallon.

The Beacon Hill well at Boston gave 50 grains per gallon; the Capitol
Park well at Albany, 65.5 grains ; wells at Detroit gave 116.4 grains ; at
Indianapolis, 60 grains.

In London, St. Paul's Churchyard well gave 15 grains ; and the Lam-
berth Shallow well, 110 grains.

Six samples of Thames water, reported in 1857, gave an average of
2.059 grains organic and 23.281 mineral contents, or 25.34 in all.

Thr<'e prominent London sewers, analyzed in 1857, gave the following

results:

Locality. Organic. Mineral. Total grains.

Earl 2.738 46.110 4B.84S

i'ii Icon Brook 3.987 40.146 44;i33

King's Scholars' Pond 17.750 47.230 64.980

While this analysis preserts a singular contrast with sources of com-
mon public use, and furnishes a severe comment on the delay's common to
all projects of sanitary improvement, it must be understood that the same
sewers, at other periods of flow, would give very different results, more in
keeping with those from other sewers in a more active state of organic
discharge.

Sewage flow, taken in London, in a district aSected by the intermittent
water supply, in vogue, gave 96 grains soluble and 28 grains insoluble
matter on days of water supply, and 127 grains of soluble and 40 grains
insoluble matter at intervening days.

A quaWative analysis of two sewers, in 1850,

gave the folloioing results:

*

Dorset Square.

Barrett's Co

URT.

CONSTITUENTS.

6

3

o
CO

3

"o
c

"a

o
H

3

CO

•a
1—1

Organic matter and salts of ammonia . . .

57.. 32
0.78
1.16
2.53
0.28

10.58

7.40

.07

Traces.

2.60

23.00

44.50

12.09

1.64

3.63

1.99

8.37

Traces.

2.66

0.72

80.32

45.28

13.25

4.17

3.91

12.57

15.77

.07

2.66

3.32-1

121.50

1.39

1.57

7.71

10.71

11.62

7.50

2.87

Traces.

46.91

180.32

19.30

10.94

2.73

4.02

3.97

17.03

Traces.

6.20

1.22

1.51

1.72

301.82
20.69

Soluble .«iliea

12.51

10.44

iSiilpliuric acid

14 73
15.59

24 . 53

2.87

6.20

48 13

fj(,fla

1.51

27.27

2.10

29.37

31.52

33.24

Total

109.00

100.70

209.70

243.30

248.96

492.26

586 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The imperfect action of l)rick sewers, with sizes entirely disproportioned
to their ordinary flow, which deposit their solid contents a portion of the
time and discharge tliem under the impulse of rainfall or unusual water
supply, must affect any analysis of their flow, in proportion to their special
conditions of action. An analysis of Edinburgh sewage water, which is
under constant supply, gives 62 grains of soluble and 244 of insoluble
matter per gallon. This is equivalent to 1 grain in 229, while 1 in 600 has
been assumed as a general mean, or 116.7 grains per gallon.

Examinations of this class, which have been extensively made, tend to
correct the general idea of difficult sewage flow, and entirely divest the
subject from any doubts on this point. Sewage matter may be carried
through pipes or elevated by pumps, about as easily as water, under proper
regulation.

The proper utilization of sewage matter, pertains to the doctrine of
restitution, alluded to in the introduction, and involves the consideration
of what may be taken as a duty on one side, and a serious waste on the
other.

Experimental science has shown that the nitrogen and other valuable
constituents, annually produced by each person in any community, amount-
ing to an average of fifty-seven pounds, solid matter, is sufficient for the
supply of not less than two pounds of bi'ead per day, or over 800 pounds
of grain per annum, the estimated value being $1.91 in gold. Similar
researches have shown the value of sewage water, which includes and
increases this source of value, to be about 4.39.100 cents per ton. On this
basis, the value of the New York, sewage, estimated from the water sup-
ply at 200,000 tons per day, is $3,204,100 per annum in gold.

It is stated from a reduction of the analysis of the Dorset square sewer,
with a solid content of 209.7 grains per gallon, that in 100 tons of similar
solid matter 57 are of no value, the remainder being 30.10 tons organic
matter, 1 ton potash, 2.63 tons soluble phosphate of lime and 1.27 tons
insoluble, and 8 tons ammonia, valued at $3,006, and of this value the
ammonia makes $2,235.

Here, then, we have but 8 tons in 100, of high value, to produce the
ammonia and the phosphate of lime, or 11.81 tons, of concentrated manure,
worth $2,811, it is necessary to reduce 31,638 tons of sewage water or
6,960,360 gallons.

Various attempts have been made to concentrate sewage water, so as to
make its manure merchantable, but the enormous dilution of water has
hitherto prevented their commercial success. The quantities of useless
matter to be moved and disposed of have proved too formidable, in weight,
in space and in expense to justify any extensive operations in utilization
of sewage by the process of concentration.

The city of Paris provides for the removal of all its cess-pool contents
to Montfaucon. The estimate of cost, in 1850, for the removal of 230,000
cubic metres, was $414,000, and the income from the poudrette manufac-
tured was considerably less than the cost of simple transportation. We
have here another practical illustration of the mechanical difficulties
which surround the process of artificial concentration, and which go to
show that the cost of reduction is not justified by the prospects of income.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 587

These results have been verified by an expenditure of £40,000 at the Stan-
ley' Bridg"e works in London, and by experience witli processes of reduc-
tion by lime, sulphate of alumina and charcoal, by ag-itation with or
filtration through charcoal, and by niagnesian salt, detailed in the Metro-
politan Drainag-e Report of 1857.

The mechanical obstacles to the solution of this problem of utilization
assume a very diflferent aspect, in all cases which admit of processes of
direct agricultural irrigation b}-- sewage flow. In cases of extension and
long continued application, very favorable results are reported.

The Vettabbia, a canal which receives the sewage water of Milan, dis-
charging into the river Lambro, ten miles distant, is arranged so as to
irrigate a large extent of meadow land, with a remarkable result in pro-
diictiveness. These meadows yield a net rent of $40 (£8) per acre, beside
paying taxes, &c. They are mowed four times a year for stable feeding,
and yield three crops of hay, with pasturage after August.

At Edinburgh, for forty-five years, several hundred acres of successive
])lateaus have been irrigated from ponds or tanks which receive the Old
Town sewage water, in part. "The practical result is that land which let
formerly at from forty shillings to six pounds per Scotch acre, is now let
annually for from thirty to forty pounds, and that poor sandy land on the
seashore, which might be worth two shillings and six pence per acre, lets
at an annual rent of from fifteen to twenty pounds; on lands near the city
twenty-five pounds per acre is the net annual income due to the sewage
water; 17,920 gallons, containing five hundred weight of dissolved and
suspended matter, are equal in fertilizing power to two and a half hundred
weight of guano, or fifteen tons of farm yard manures, and cost in appli-
cation twelve shillings and nine pence in comparison with three pounds
for the latter, the economy being greater with an increased scale of irriga-
tion." Drainage and Sewage of Towns.

At Mansfield, AVilleston, Ashburton, Chatsworth and other English
towns; at Berlin, in Sweden, Tuscany, Switzerland, Flanders, and in vari-
ous other countries of Europe; in Asia, Africa and South America, irriga-
tion has been practiced from time immemorial for agricultural purposes.

A valuable paper on this subject was contributed to the Farmers' Club
of the American Institute by K. L. Pell, Esq., and. is given in pages B36
to 360 of the Transactions of 1863. On the application of liquid manure
Mr. Pell says:

" Not only is the produce increased, but offensive emanations are entirely
prevented by a greater dilution with water, and more frequent applications
of the liquid to plants. - These conclusions were early corroborated by an
able agriculturist, the late Mr. Oliver, of Lochend, who held a portion of
the irrigated meadows near Edinburgh, and who complained that the
sewer water, as there obtained, was far too highly charged with manure
fur its best application, and that such tenants as himself were prevented
from improving the system by the want of water for proper dilution and
of means necessary for more frequent applications of liquid manure. He
was so convinced ol' the necessity of greater dilution that he caused water
to be pumped by steam for the purpose.

583 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

"It will be found that after six tons of night soil and urine, diluted with
about forty tons of water, have been applied to an acre of land, in an hour
no offensive smell will be perceptible.

"A large portion of the valuable properties that are lost from decompo-
sition and evaporation, by the retention of manure in the dry state, or in
its application as top-dressing, is saved by its being diluted and carried in
water under the surface of the soil, among the roots of plants."

In the same paper plans and estimates for farm irrigation, by the use of
a steam engine, with a system of pipes, hydrants and hose, are given in
detail.

The arguments in favor of sewage irrigation are forcible in themselves,
and confirmed by the lights of expeiience. A principle deduced from cor-
rect theories is often doubted and delayed in application, if such applica-
tion is novel in character; but experience adds force and conviction to
every theory, experimentally. The valuable character of sewage flow; the
deodorising effect of water which dilutes it; the superior processes of ap-
plicati(m to the roots and fibers of the vegetable kingdom, are not only
clear in the chemists' laboratory and the engineer's library, but are demon-
strated on a scale of most conclusive experimental testimony, which "he
who ruhs maj' read."

The engineering question of irrigation by gravitation, as at Milan and
Edinburgh, is simple in its details of application. It may also be confi-
dently asserted that in those cities, with adjacent farming lands so located
as to be easily accessible from a central elevation, which will admit the
construction of a sewage reservoir and its supply by pumping power, the
resultant benefits will largely exceed the outlay for engine power, pipage,
and reservoirs; but in those cases, like New York, where vast quantities
of sewage flow must be discharged, at points far distant from cultivated
lands, and at tide level, the item of cost in transportation becomes formida-
ble, and cannot be overlooked.

The conclusion under the head of utilization is that a due rog^ird to a
matter of public duty and profit requires the careful study of the local
characteristics of every city and town, in arranging its plans of sewage
flow, so as to make it available in all proper cases which admit the process
of irrigation, by gravitation or by pumping, within the limits of prudential
expenditure. In the case of Brooklyn, it is not improbable that the sew-
age flow into Gowanus bay might be elevated to the easterly ridge and
distributed over the Flatbush farms, in part, with valuable results. The
possibility justifies a careful examination, in this case, as in all others
which seem favorably located. Two important benefits are secured by this
process; the soil, depleted by its crops, receives back again its chief sources
of production, and yearly renews its vigor; and the vast flood of contami-
nation pouring from the intestine ducts of a densely populated town, is
deprived of its noxious eflfects on the riyers which must otherwise receive
its flow and the atmosphere, otherwise charged with its exhalations.

The principles of arrangement, which .should govern an engineer in any

general plan of sewerage, involve several important questions of practice.

The ancients, in their magnificent public works, which include expensive

drainage construction, as at Rome, Salopia, Genoa, Agrigentum, Hercula-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION.

580

ncum, Jerusalem, Nineveli, Cartliag«\ and many other cities of Europe,
Asia, Africa and America, very fre(iueiitly adopted a combined system of
large trunk sewers, with tubular house connections, and availed themselves
of excessive water supply, for flusliing the main lines. Some of these
arterial sewers (as the cloaca ma.rima, at Rome, fourteen feet wide and
tliirty-two feet high), were of enormous size, and the manner in which they
liave gradually tilled up, while the tubes are still available, furnishes a
striking comment on the general practice of modern cities, which, as in
London, Paris, and New York, have, until recently, ignored the use of the
tubular system and abound in examples of inherent defects. The positive
and negative testimony on this point, establishing and confirming theor}'
by long continued experiment, has led to the more recent adoption of the
combined trunk and tube method of drainage, which, in time, will super-
cede all others, and which will be presented in detail after a notice of topo-
graphical arrangement.

From what has been said of the character of sewage, which requires
disposal through sewers, it is evident that provision for rain-fall far exceeds
ordinary house sewage and street wash. Now, as rain-fall must be dis-
posed of through the natural depressions of the locality drained, and the
quantity is determined by the natural drainage area, the sewer system of a
city must therefore be adapted in its proportions to its entire drainage
area, and is in this way independent of buildings or population. We refer
here to the arterial arrangement, which is to be extended from time to
time until the whole district is provided for and populated, and must be
adapted to the greatest ultimate discharge. The lines and grades of these
arteries are defined by the natural ravines for the flow of which they be-
come substitutes.

It follows, from this law of arterial flow, that sewage discharge naturally
finds its outlet in the river, or other water current which receives the rain-
fall, unless, for agricultural or sanitary purposes, it is artificially inter-
cepted; and the propriety and method of such interception becomes the first
study in the details of arrangement.

The arterial sewers for the primary, secondary, and tertiary ravines of
the general district must be adapted in size and grade to the areas thej''
severally and unitedly drain, and to a maximum storm-fall deliver}'. The
following table of sizes, grades and areas, calculated for a continuous
storm-fall of one inch per hour, is applicable to trunk lines, and accepted
among hydraulic engineers as a reliable bassis of arrangement, inclusive of
house sewage and street wash.

Area in acres drained under a storm/all of one inch per hour.

Diameter in inches.

24

30

36

48

60

72

84

95 108

120

Inclinations:

38.?
43
50
6.3
78
»0
115

67|

75

87
113
143
'.05
182

120
1.35
155
203
257
295
318

277
308
355
460
590
670
730

570

630

735

950

1200

1.385

1500

1020
1117
1318
1692
2180
24Sfi
2575

1725
1925
2225
2875
3700
4225
4550

2850
3025
3500
4500
5825
6625
7125

4125
4425
5100
6575
7850

5825

1 in AHO

6250

1 in 240

7175

1 in 160

9250

1 in 120

11050

1 in 80

1 in 60

. 1_

— -.—

590

TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

It might be presumed that a study of the natural conditions of drainage,
and an inquiry as to the large surcharge of water in sewage flow, wouLd
have led to the adoption of a more delicate and elaborate system for the
several subdivided districts of drainage than massive and costly arterial
sewers, and that the tubular or venous system would have been ingrafted
on, the arterial as a matter of simple induction. But, jn drainage as in
water supply, designors and constructors have been proved to copy the
examples immediately before them, without due examination of their in-
herent defects in principle and failures in practice; or have lacked the
courage to attempt changes which seemed experimental. The analogy
between water flow into a city and sewage flow out of it has therefore been
practically disregarded, and cities like London, whicl^ considered four feet
water mains enormous in caliber, yet constructed Fleet sewers 18.5 feet by
12, to assist in the ordinary discharge, and classified sewers 5 feet by 2.5
as " small sewers" for subordinate districts. The city of New York, with
about 200 miles of six-inch water pipes, builds no sewer less than 48 by 32
inches; and Paris, which doles out its house to house water supply by
hand, builds the sewers from 4.16 by 6.25 feet to 13.41 by 15.41 feet. It
is a singular fact in the history of modern engineering, that London is now
expending near £6,000,000 in building intercepting sewers, designed to
carry not less than twice the ordinary flow of the Thames River, and the
city of Paris is following her example.

From an entire misapprehension of the fluidity of sewage flow and the
causes of clogged and surcharged sewers, the order of nature has been
generally reversed, in our modern cities, and the arteries have been built
where the veins would have answered a much better purpose. In all such
cases the results have amply condemned the practice, as to sanitary evils,
damages from floods, cost, and expense of administration.

The capacity of comparatively small tubes, for drainage, is fully illus-
trated in the following table of areas of discharge, sizes, and inclinations,
calculated for a storm-fall of two inches per hour, including house sewage
and street wash:

Area in acres drained under a storm/all of tioo inches per hour.

Diameter in inches.

6

7

8

9

12

15

18

Declination :
1 in 240

5.8
7.8
9.
10.

10

1 in 120

1.2
1.4
1.5

1.5
1.8
2.1

2.1
2.5
2.75

4.5
5.3

5.8

17

1 in 80

19.9

1 in 60

1.

By this table it appears that under the most excessive storm-fall on
record, supposing it to discharge continuously, a twelve-inch pipe will free
a street 972 feet long and 60 feet wide, draining house-lots 100 feet deep
on each side, with the moderate grade of one in sixty.

While the arrangement of the main arteries is controlled by the aggre-
gate supplies they are to receive, and sewers of but five feet diameter will
drain 1,000 to 1,500 acres, the arrangement of the lateral connections should
be controlled by the nature of their special action. Here, where water

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 591

supply from house to liuuso is restricted in amount, satisfactory operation
depends on the scouring- action of this supplj', and its proper concentration
on the solid contents received. The whole aim of the Venous system is to
make the water supply eflfective, and this can only be attained by the use
of intermediate lines, so devised in grade, caliber, tightness, and smooth-
ness of internal form as to accomplish with certainty the desired concen-
tration of flow; or, iu other words, by the u'se of circular tubes, which
combine the greatest power of delivery with the least frictional surface.

This system is not only incontrovertible in theory, but the history of
sinvorage, ancient and modern, abounds in experimental confirmation. In
all those cases where trunk sewers have been erroneously built, with sizes
entirely disproportioned to their service, with porous and rough surfaces
and rough joints, they have proved as defective in action as excessive in
cost. They have needed constant visitation and costly excavation and
removal of deposits ; of 69| miles of sewers examined in the Kent and
Surrey districts of Lonclon, the deposit was usually two feet in depth, and
in some cases five feet, reeking with foul gases subject to explosion, and
choke damp, and in a state of noxious fermentation; such sewers are spa-
cious reservoirs of malignant accumulations, furnishing food and harbor
for vermin, and exhaling pestilential gases into the air, breathed by those
who work and sleep over them; bringing down storm-flow in large floods,
they rapidly surcharge those larger arteries with which they connect and
convey an erroneous impression of defective caliber, duo only to defective
arrangement; iu strength and durability, they are exceeded; in cost, they
are excessive; and in friction, seriously so, on the same wet perimeter.
Pipes are, therefore, to be preferred as to caliber, close and firm joints,
smoothness of surface, and regularity of form, strength, power of self-
cleansing, transportation and laying, cost, and sanitary efi'ects.

In 1863, New York spent §59,262 in cleansing, repairing, and rebuilding
sewers, having n5| miles in use; the average cost of 20,315 feet con-
tracted for was $3."90 per foot, while the average cost of 15,874 feet laid in
Brooklyn was §1.41 per foot.

As an illustration of arrangement under the theory of combined trunk
sewers and tubes, the following statement of the Brooklyn sewerage, built
or contracted for from 1858 to 1863, is given :

Trunk Seicers.

feet.

72 inches diameter 2,472

60 do 6,099

54 do 1,425

48 do 15,4n5

42 do 602

86 do 21,282

47,345

Tubular Syatem.

feet.

24 inches diameter 34, 1 23

18 do 69,102

15 do 112,(J49

12 do 310,104

51 3, ."578

Aggregate.. ..► 562,723

592 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Of sewers in brick work, which can be entered and cleansed, we have
here about eight and a half per cent of the system; three-fifths are twelve
inches diameter, one-fifth fifteen inches, and one-tenth eighteen inches —
the aggregate cost being $1,312,242, of which $455,943 is for street basins,
man-holes, and other appurtenances.

In 1855, London had 934 miles of covered sewers, of which 126 miles
were pipes. Liverpool, Glasgow, Carlisle, and other Euiopean cities use
the combined system, while Manchester, Rugby, Craydon, Edinburgh, and
other cities use pipes. In this country, Brooklyn and Chicago are promi-
nent examples of the combined sj'stem, and pipes are being adopted at
Albany, Hartford, New Haven, Elizabeth, Jersey City, and various other
places, in whole or in part.

The proper materials for trunk mains, in ovals or circles, are brickwork ;
stonework, lined and arched with bricks, being preferable for other forma
and large sections. Tubes, in Europe, are usually of stone-ware, carefully
made from fire-clay; these were imported to this country for the Brooklyn
sewers first laid, but have been gradually superseded by pipes of concrete,
carefully made with hydraulic cement mortar in iron molds, and on pol-
ished cast-iron cores. With material of groat durability, and with great
perfection of form and surface, and moderate cost, there is every I'eason to
suppose that they will eventually be adopted for general use — about twelve
miles of them having been Ikid in Brooklyn since their first introduction,
and their operation is a matter of congratulation in the annual reports of
the commissioners, in common with the general pipe system.

The sanitary condition of a populous town in which damp subsoil and
foundations, impregnated wells, and contaminated atmosphere are constantly
exerting an evil effect on individual health, have therefore, an intimate con-
nection with correct systems of sewerage.

It has been asserted as a matter of theoretical deduction, and of practical
illustration in a number of the great cities of the world, subjected to the
scourge of destructive epidemics, that the chief ravages of the disease
have been confined to certain local districts within their limits', and that
these districts are characterised by depressed levels and saturated ground,
by improper water supply, and hy defective drainage.

The victims of the cholera in 1849, at London, were taken in districts.
The Health Report of 18 GO says:

"On dividing the whole of the metropolis into three districts, the highest
averaging 63 feet above high water mark, the intermediate 30 feet, and
the lowest four feet, we find that the deaths were in the highest, 1 in 346-
in the intermediate, 1 in 256, and in the lowest 1 in 93.

This report abounds in illustrations of effects from damp foundations,
impure water, and vast deposits in cess-pools and sewers of sewage matter
in fermentation, exhaling carburetted and sulphuretted hj'drogen gas, and
other deadly atmospheric mixtures. It was remarked by Pr. Grey, of Lon-
don, in reference to the consequences of imperfect sewer action, that
"knowing where the greatest mortality L-om typhus, typhoid fever, diar-
rhcBa and cholera exist, he could map out accurately, the courses of the
great sewers."

The Registrar General of London, in 1847, refers to the "disease-mist"

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 593

wliich "arising from llie breath of two millions of people, from open cess-
pools and sewers, graves and slaughter-houses, is continually kept up and
undergoing changes; in one season it is pervaded by cholera, in another
by influenza; at one time it bears small-pox, measles, scarlet fever and
hooping cough among young children; at another it carries fever on its
wings. Like an angel of death it has thus hovered for centuries over Lon-
don. Thirtj--eight persons out of one hundred and thirty-four, die daily
from local causes, and the great majority are untimely deaths."

' Paris, Rome and other prominent cities, might be cited, in confirmation
of similar conclusions.

In our own countrj' and during the discussions of 1859, it was shown at
that time, that New York and Brooklyn might claim the unenviable dis-
tinction of the most unhealthy cities among those of their rank, while the
United States stood high in comparison with other countries. The mor-
tality of New \'ork, shows a gradual downward progress from the com-
mencement, being in

1810 1 in 46.49

1825 1 in .^4.78

18;{5 1 in 40.87

18*5 1 in 37.55

1855 1 in 27.33

1857 I in 27.15

the latter being about the rate of London two centuries ago, while in 1859,
lier rate was 1 in 40; as compared together, the ratio of New York being
1, that of Brooklyn was 1.242, Boston 1.739, and Baltimore 1.746. While
it is to be considered, on one hand, that statistics published to sustain a
special theor^'^, may require closer investigation than gerreral statistics, it
must still be admitted (^n the other, that in any city a heavy proportionate
loss of young or mature persons, whether by pestilence or the less emphatic
action, often no less fatal, of continued mortality all the j'car through, and
especially the preponderance of death in certain localities, does furnish
ample reason for the most energetic inquiry into sanitary remedies and
tiieir prompt application.

The ratio of mortality in New York in 1856 and '57, was as follows:

1856. 1857.

Istwardlin 21.04 21.96

6 til ward 1 in 23.47 29.89

9th ward 1 in 42.94 41.56

11th ward 1 in 34.42 36.61

13th ward 1 in 25.20 22.36

15th ward I in 55.12 69.68

There can be but one inference drawn from a continued testimony of this
kind, for the 15th and 9th wards show what is possible in public protec-
tion, while all the rest show what is fatal in neglect of precautions entirely
within the scope of medical and engineering skill. In the universal tragedy
of human misery, hereditarj' disease, intemperate habits and improper food
have an important effect, in combinaticm with other sources of siiflering;
but no incidental or individual predisposition to disease, can justify neglect
of those prominent physical evils, which, in the ground we walk over, in
the water we drink, and in the air we breathe, arc nurtured and accumu-
lated, as constant reservoirs of malady to those who do not " live out half
their diiys."

[Am IxsT.l L<

SQd TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

With these hurried allusions to the nature of sewage matter to be dis-
posed of, its analysis, its utilization, the principles which govern the
arrangement of sewers, the comparative merits of pipes, and the sanitary
evils to be remedied, this subject is commended to the earnest consideration
of the members of the Polytechnic association, as pertaining to a matter
of vital public welfare and of scientific research.

At the conclusion of the reading of this valuable paper, "The Manufac-
ture of Combs " was selected for the next discussion, when the association
adjourned.

• American Institute Polytechnic Association, ]
Jpril 2T, 1865. j

Prof. Samuel D. Tillman, in the chair; Mr. Benjamin Garvey, Secretary.

Metals — Solid and Melted.

Dr. Rowell gave an account of some experiments which he had made to
test the relative specific gravity of solid and molten lead. He took a
hydrometer tube, which is a glass tube with two bulbs blown in it, a small
one at the bottom and a larger one above, and introducing a small quantity
of lead he melted the metal with an alcohol lamp. The quantity of lead
was sufficient to fill the lower bulb and half the upper bulb. Dr. Rowell
supposed that if the metal shrank in hardening it would draw the two
bulbs together and break the glass at the neck, while if it expanded it
•would burst the lower bulb. The glass was not broken; he, therefore, con-
cluded that lead in hardening neither expands nor contracts, at all events
not more than glass.

Another experiment resulted in the same conclusion. Having a kettle
with a hemispherical bottom he filled it with molten lead and allowed it to
cool. He then melted it all except a little lump at the center of the sur-
face, and observed that the upper part of this lump was precisely at the
level of the surface of the molten mass. But if the temperature of the
molten lead be raised a few degrees above the melting point, the solid lump
sinks; lead, whether molten or solid, being subject to the law of expansion
like other bodies.

The case is different with iron. Visiting an iron foundry a few days
before, he took the opportunity to drop a small ball of nearly red hot cast-
iron into a ladle of the molten metal, and the ball floated with about one-
tenth of its mass above the surface. One of the workmen dropped a leaden
bullet into the ladle, when it went to the bottom instantly.

Mr. Blanchard said that he had tried the experiment of throwing solid
cast-iron into molten cast-iron a thousand times, and it will always float.

Mr. Norman Wiard observed that there was some deception practiced in
relation to the lead bullet; as every foundry man knows that if lead be
mixed with molten cast-iron an explosion follows. The iron may all be
thrown out of a ladle at any time by placing a little lead in the bottom of
the ladle before the iron is drawn in.

Mr. Bird said that in melting lead he had tried the experiment many

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 505

times of pusliiiij; with a stick a solid lurnii of lead to the bottom of a
molten mass, and it would invariably rise again to tlie surface.

The Chairniaa explained that he was present at the experiments made by
Professor Everett, an account of wliich was given at the time, and it was
found that a pig of solid lead would sink in a kettle of molten lead, but
whether the temperature of the molten lead was not considerably above
the melting point, was not carefully observed. Had the solid and the
molten lead been of nearly the same temperature perhaps the result would
have been different.

Mr. Garvey remarked that the fact of the solid floating upon the molten
metal was not conclusive proof of a lower specific gravity, as there were
mysteries connected with the behavior of the substances under these con-
ditions that had not yet been unraveled.

Dr. Parraelee observed that water, sulphur and some other substances
when they change from the solid to the liquid state crystalize, and the
crystals arrange themselves in such way as to have interstices between
them, in this waj' diminishing the specific gravity of the substances. But
substances which have not this property, increase their specific gravity in
passing from the solid to the liquid state. If the experiment be properly
and fairly tried it will be found that solid lead or iron will always sink in
the same metal melted.

The Vanderbilt Medal.

Mr. Xorman Wiard presented the designs and plaster casts of the gold
medal voted by Congress to Commodore Vanderbilt in recognition of his
munificent gift of his superb steamship, the Vanderbilt, to the nation in her
hour of need. The design was by Leutze and the medal is being executed
by Mr. Salathiel Ellis. On one side is a likeness of the Commodore in bas
relief, and on the other an allegorical design: a female figure representing
Commerce is kneeling to another, meant for America, standing upright,
with a huge two-handed sword on her shoulder, and with her left hand
resting upon a shield, while the background is filled with the spars and
hull of the great ship. The medal will be three inches in diameter, and
will cost $3,000. The ship is of 5,000 tons burden; she was built in the
most thorough and careful manner, and cost $800,000.

The Chairman presented the following interesting items of scientific news:

The Largest Diamond Known.

This gem is in the possession of the Grand Mogul. It resembles in form
and size half a hen's <igQ, and weighs two hundred and ninety-seven and
three-sixteenths carats. It was found in the year 1552, at Colore, a short
distance east of Golconda, and is valued at $2,300,000. It is cut as arose
diamond and is perfectly limpid with the exception of a slight flaw near
the girdle

Chrome Alum.

A large quantity of chrome alum having been made at the laboratory of
the Glasg(>w Mechanics' Institute, the various mother liquors were boiled
to a syrupy consistence, placed in a bottle and laid aside. The solution

596 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

had a pure and intense green and retained its fluidity for several months.
After exposure for several days to intense cold, however, the bottle was
observed to be full of a solid body consisting of minute crystals of ordinary
violet chrome alum. The conversion of the violet into the green varieties
is well known, but the reverse by means of cold is something new.

Vegetable Flannel.

This article is manufactured in Germany from the Pinus Silvestris. It is
said a large number of persons are now engaged in the Black Forests in
the various processes of separating the oil and the fiber, called Waldwold,
or forest wool, from the pine leaves, and of spinning, weaving and knitting
the yarn. This vegetable flannel is believed to have the important power
of re-establishing the functions of the skin when they have been interfered
with by accidental causes.

Comparative Value of Coals.

It is found that a pound of the best "Welsh anthracite coal is capable of
converting from 9| to 10 lbs. of water of a given temperature into steam;
whereas the same amount of the best Newcastle bituminous coal will con-
vert only 8| lbs. of water at the same temperature into steam. The infe-
rior Newcastle will not raise more than 6| lbs. of water into steam.

Transformation of Protoxide of Nitrogen into Ammonia and

Nitric Acid.
M. Peroz, in a memoir to tlie French Academy of Sciences, states that he
passed nitrous oxide into a cooled tabulated receiver to arrest most of the
water, then through a curved tube filled with hydrate of potash and lumps
of lime. On heating the tube to a dull redness and as soon as the current
of moist protoxide is well established, ammonia is abundantly disengaged,
.'ind after some time nitric acid may be found in the saline mass in the tube.

The Armstrong and Whitworth Guns.

A test was lately made in England of the 12-pounder gun made by Arm-
strong and by Whitworth. The charges used consisted of one and a half
pounds to three pounds of powder, and a number of shots varying from
three to six pounds. The mode of testing was most severe, an air-space
being left between the shot and the cartridge. The breech-loading Arm-
strong became unserviceable at the forty-second round; the muzzle-loading
short Armstrong at the sixtieth round. In both instances they simply
cracked without a separation of parts. The Whitworth gun burst intu
eleven pieces at the ninetieth round. The tests applied to each gun were
similar in all respects.

A Loom for One of the Nobility.

Messrs. Stewart, of Kilmarnock, Scotland, have constructed an elegant
loom, of yellow polished pine, with all the necessary properties for the
Countess of Eglington, who intends to manufacture her own dresses.

proceedings of the polytechnic association. 597

Substitute for the Sand-Bath.

Dr. Eloumcycr lias suggested a very useful contrivance for superseding
the inconvenient sand-bath in the distillation of liquids with high boiling
points, which consists in surrounding the retort with short fibres of asbes-
tos, which are held in place by wire gauze.

The Age of the Pyramids.

Mahmound Bey, astronomer to the Viceroy of Egypt, charged to investi-
gate the positions of the pyramids, has found that the lateral faces of the
great pyramid form with the horizon an angle of 51 degrees and 45
minutes, and that precisely the same angle of inclination is presented by
the lateral faces of the pyramids of Memphis. The uniformity of the pyra-
mids in this respect, and also in relation to the points of the compass, is of
itself indicative of their having been built with some reference to the stars;
and Mahmound Bey found that when the star Sirius crosses their meridians,
its rays fell almost perpendicularly upon the southern faces. This dis-
covery led him to calculate the date at Avhich, supposing the pyramids to
have been in existence, the rays of Sirius, at the moment of crossing the
respective meridians of their localities, would fall exactly perpendicular to
tfieir southern faces ; and the result of his calculations is, that this would
be about 3,300 years b. c. According to the principles of astrology, the
influence of a star is greatest when its rays fall perpendicularly upon
the object. The brightest of the stars — Sirius — was dedicated by the
Eg3'ptians to the god Sothis, whom they supposed to have all funeral
monuments under his, special protection. The view of Mahmound Bey
strikingly accords with Bunsen's calculation, that the builder, Cheops,
flourished in the thirty-fourth century before the Christian era.

On the Cause of Rolling Thunder.

M. Yionnois, in a note to the French Academy, explains the cause of
rolling thunder. He was at the camp at Nancy and heard the echo of the
firing, not sharp and dry, but somewhat confused and prolonged. He then
noticed that he was separated from the field by some trees, and concluded
that the leaves of those were the reflecting sui-faces. This led him to
think that the explosion of the electric spark might be reflected by the
vesicular vapor of the clouds, and the noise be softened and prolonged by
the inequality of the distances and the successive reflections.

Cause of Rottenness of Cotton Cloth.

Dr. Calvert read a communication to the London Chemical Society, "On
the Action of Silicate and Carbonate of Soda upon Cotton Fibre," contain-
ing his investigations into the cause of the rottenness apparent in some
white and blue-dyed cloths which were shipped to South America about
two years ago and returned to Manchester in consequence of their damaged
condition. He found the goods had not been finished by the old starch-
dressing, but had been treated according to the modern process, with a
solution of silicate of soda, and he then expressed the belief that an oxidi-
sing action had been set up.

598 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Prof. Abel said some experiments made bj^ him some years ago, upon
the preservation of canvas, led him to believe that oxidisation was not
the cause, but he would rather attribute it to a mechanical force of crystal-
ization. The experiments he referred to were made under conditions very
similar to those described by Dr. Calvert. The canvas or tent duck was
■first impregnated with a solution of basic acetate of lead, and subsequently
immersed in aqueous silicate of soda, which had the effect of precipitating
a dense silicate of lead within the fibre. The canvas thus prepared was
found to be very considerably protected against fire and the attack of mil-
dew ; but there was a diminution in the strength of the material, and the
process had to be abandoned. As a confirmation of the correctness of his
opinion, Mr. Abel mentioned the result of other experiments in which flax
and cotton fabrics were impregnated with the sulphate of magnesia, a
neutral salt which could not exert or promote chemical action upon the
fibre, yet the material became weakened merely in consequence of the depo-
sition of solid matter within the fibre, and the unusual distension of the
latter by the act of crystalization.

Manufacture of Indiarubber Combs

Dr. Parmelee being called upon to open the regular subject of the even-
ing, the manufacture of combs, remarked that he had designed to speak
onl}^ of combs made from hard rubber. Exhibiting a black mass, he said
that it was a specimen of the rubber after being masticated — that is, passed
between hot rollers, one of which revolves a little more rapidly than the
other, and thus grinds and kneads the substance into a homogeneous mass.
He then exhibited a specimen of the rubber after being mixed with the sul-
phur. It was a light colored, limber, elastic sheet. The speaker remarked
that hard rubber differs from soft vulcanized rubber only in containing a
larger proportion of sulphur, and being subjected to a higher temperature
and for a longer period. It was invented by a younger brother of Mr.
Charles Goodyear, the author of the great discovery of vulcanized rubber.
The materials are mixed in various proportions, ranging from four to six-
teen ounces of sulphur to the pound ot rubber. The best proportion is
that of equal parts of sulphur and rubber. After the two ingredients are
thoroughly incorporated, the sheets are rolled down to about one-sixteenth
of an inch in thickness, and are then subject to a temperature of 280° for
eight hours. In order to keep the surfaces of the sheets smooth, they are
oiled on both sides with a solution of lard in petroleum, and covered with
a very thin sheet of block tin. They are then placed either in a pan of
water or in a tight soapstone box, and enclosed in a strong air-tight cylin-
der, where they are heated to the required temperature.

The speaker stated that hard rubber may be softened by immersing it in
boiling water, or otherwise raising its temperature to 212°. It can then be
stamped, pressed, or molded into any desired form. Combs are made by
pressing the substance into the proper form, while it is thus softened, and
then cutting the teeth. There are three processes for cutting the teeth.
By one process each 'tooth is cut separately by a circular saw. A small
machine has been invented by which the comb is fed to the saw, drawn
back automatically and carried forward to the next tooth till the comb is

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 599

completed, when tlic feed motion stops, and the machine gives notice by
sonnding an alarm.

The machines are ranged in a row, and one girl can attend some twenty
of them. By another process, a piece of hard rubber is i)ressed into tlie
prciper form for two combs with the backs at the two edges, and then the
teeth are all formed at a single stroke of a press — each tooth of one comb
coming from out the space between two teeth of the other comb. The third
process is employed in cutting the finest teeth. A very thin blade of steel
lias a rapid reciprocating vertical motion over an anvil of block tin, and
the comb to be cut is fed along horizontally under the cutter — one tooth
being formed at each stroke. In this operation the rubber is kept warm,
and no material is cut out — the tooth being formed by pushing aside a por-
tion of the substance.

After the teeth are cut the combs are polished by hand — the work being
done mostly by girls. The combs are first ground upon a stone, and the
polishing is finished upon a buifer of cotton and oil. They are then packed
and sent to market. The business is large, and great fortunes have been
m:ide from the manufacture.

Mr. Joseph Miller said, in the manufacture of large horn combs, there is
great difiiculty in getting large plates without cracks. To overcome this
trouble the teeth are cut crooked, when, if a tooth breaks out, the horn is
heated and pressed out to the required length.

CLYDONICS No. 2.

By Prof. S. D. Tillman. — The celebrated liistorian. Buckle, believed the
most effective way of turning observations of natural phenomena to account,
would be to give more scope to the imagination and incorporate the spirit
of poetry with the spirit of science. By this means our philosophers would
double their resources, instead of working, as now, maimed and with only
one half of their nature. They fear the imagination on account of the
tendency to form hasty theories. But surely all our faculties are needed
in the pursuit of truth, and we cannot be justified in discrediting any part
of the human mind.

These views if not applicable to methods of original research, are cer-
tainly of great moment in considering the best means of diffusing scientific
knowledge; and if there is any branch of philosophy' which is pre-eminently
entitled to bring to its service the free play of fancy, it is that treating of
the force of waves, whether propagated through liquids, eeriform fluids, or
more attenuated media. •

The Pharos.

A discourse on the structure of the flame of the ordinary lamp might not
gain general attention, yet how intense the interest as we speak of the
particular light which a captain seeks when his vessel, freighted with
human beings, midst storm and darkness, has nearly reached its haven.
There are scattered along our vast boundary five hundred such beacons,
kept in operation at an annual expense to the United States Government of
more than a million dollars.

A description of one of these is given in the posthumous papers of the

600 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

gifted Thoreau, just published under the title of "Cape Cod;" and althong'h
since the time of his visit a more imposing- structure has arisen in the
place of the old lighthouse, the account ia so graphic, one feels after its
perusal, the satisfaction which he would probably have experienced by a
personal inspection of the premises.

The Cape Cod Light.

"The Highland Lighthouse, where. we were staying, is a substantial-
looking building of brick, painted white and surmounted by an iron cap.
Attached to it is the dwelling of the keeper, one story high, also of brick,
and built by Government. As we were going to spend the night in a light-
honse we wished to make the most of so novel an experience, and there-
fore told our host that we would like to accompany hiro. when he went to
light up. At rather earl}' candle-light he lighted a small Japan lamp,
allowing it to smoke rather more than we like on ordinary occasions, and
told us to follow him. He led the way first through his bedrooni, which
was placed nearest to the lighthouse, and then through a long, narrow,
covered passage way, between whitewashed walls like a prison entry, into
the lower part of the lighthouse, where many great butts of oil were
arranged around; a winding and open iron stairway, with a steadily increas-
ing scent of oil and lamp smoke, to a trap-door in an iron floor, and through
this into the lantern. It was a neat building, with everything in apple-pie
order, and no danger of anything rusting for want of oil. The light con-
sisted of fifteen argand lamps, placed within smooth concave' reflectors
twenty-one inches in diameter, and arranged in two horizontal circles, one
above the other, facing every way excepting directly down the Cape.
These were surrounded, at a distance of two or three" feet, by large plate-
glass windows, which defied the storms, with iron sashes, on which rested
the iron cap. All the iron work, except the floor, was painted white. And
thus the light house was completed. We walked slowly round in that nar-
row space as the keeper lighted each lamp in succession, conversing with
him at the same moment that many a sailor on the deep witnessed the
lighting of the Highland light.

His duty was to fill and trim and light his lamps, and keep bright tho
reflectors. He filled them every morning, and trimmed them commonly
once in the course of the night. He complained of the quality of
the oil which was furnished. Tliis house consumes about eight hun-
dred gallons in a year, which cost not far from one dollar a gallon; but
.perhaps a few lives would be saved if better oil were provided. Another
lighthouse-keeper said that the same proportion of winter-strained oil
was sent to the southernmost lighthouse in the Union as to the most
northern.

"Formerly, when this lighthouse had windows with small and thin panes,
a severe storm would sometimes break the glass, and then they were
obliged to put up a wooden shutter in haste to save their lights and reflec-
tors; and sometimes in tempests, when the mariner stood most in need of
thei- r uidance, they had thus nearly converted the lighthouse into a dark
lant^-.., which emitted only a few feeble rays, and those commonly on the
land or lee side. He spoke of the anxiety and sense of responsibility

PROCEEDINGS OF THE rOLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 601

which he felt in cold and stormy nights in the winter, when he knew that
many a poor fellow was depending on him, and his lamps burned dimly,
the oil being chilled. Sometimes he was obliged to warm the oil in a ket-
tle in liis house at midnight, and fill his lamps over again; for he could
not have a fire in the lighthouse, it produced such a sweat on the windows.
His successor told me that he could not keep too hot a fire in such a case.
All this because the oil was poor. A Government lighting the mariners
on its wintry coast with summer-strained oil, to save expense! That were
surely a summer-strained mercy.

" This keeper's successor, wlio kindly entertained me the next year,
stated that one extremely cold night, when this and all the neighboring
lights were burning summer oil, but he had been provident enough to
reserve a little winter oil against emergencies, he was waked up with
anxiety and found that his oil was congealed and his light's almost extin-
guished; and when, after many hours' exertion, he had succeeded in replen-
ishing his reservoirs with winter oil at the wick* end, and with difficulty
had made them burn, he looked out and found that the other lights in the
neighborhood, which were usually visible to him, had gone out, and he
heard afterward that the Planet River and Billingsgate lights also had
been extinguished.

"Our host said that the frost, too, on the windows, caused him much
trouble, and in sultry summer nights the moths covered them and dimmed
his lights; sometimes even small birds flew against the thick plate glass,
and were found on the ground in the morning with their necks broken. In
the spring of 1855 he found nineteen small yellow birds, perhaps gold-
finches or myrtle birds, thus lying dead around the lighthouse; and
some times in the fall he had seen where a golden plover had struck
the glass in the night, and left the down and the fatty part of its breast
on it.

"Thus he struggled by every method to keep his light shining before
men. Surely the lighthouse-keeper has a responsible, if an easy, office.
When his lamp goes out, he goes out; or, at most, only one such accident
is pardoned.

" I tliought it a pity that some poor student did not live there, to profit
by all that light, since he would not rob the mariner. 'Well,' he said, 'I
do sometimes come up here and read the newspaper when they are noisy
down below.' Think of fifteen Argand lamps to read the newspaper by!
Government oil! light enough, perchance, to read the Constitution by! I
thought that he should read nothing less than his bible by that light. I
had a classmate who fitted for college by the lamps of a lighthouse, which
was more light, we think, than the University afforded."

Wave-Motions.

Let us, in imagination, stand with Thoreau on the luminous tower and
amid the agitations of ocean, air and seth, consider the laws by which the
Presiding Power controls these elements. The restless sea, through all its
movements, from ripple to billow, obeys the same mandate; the tfme of
each oscillation is proportional to the square root of the length of the
Wave. At great depths the motion of the fluid is wholly insignificant,

C02 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

because at a distance below, equal to the length of a wave, the motion is
only one five hundred and thirty-fifths of that at the surface.

The size of the wave depends, therefore, upon the force of the wind and
the depth of the sea. The largest on the Atlantic observed by Captain
Scoresby were 550 feet long and 30 feet high.

Air-Waves.

The air, however, is not confined like the sea, which has only an upward
and downward motion, except near the shore, where the force it contains
would escape. But the whole mass of air, moving as wind, has also a
vibratory or wave-motion producing sound. If the distant bell we hear is
tuned to middle C of the musical scale, according to the new French stand-
ard, and the temperature is at sixteen degrees centigrade, its sound is
produced by air-waves vibrating' — not undulating — at the rate of 522 per
second, each of which is about 2-15 feet in length. The lowest octave of
this note which could be* heard would, according to Savart, be the result
of 16.31 waves per second, each about 68.8 feet long, and the highest
octave by waves moving at the rate of 33,408 per second, each 0.492 of a
foot in length.

jEth- Waves.

Turning now to the light produced by the fifteen Argand lamps, we be-
hold still more wonderful wave phenomena. The all-pervading seth is, for
miles around, thrown into undulations moving at an average rate of 582
million of million per second, having an average length slightly exceeding
twenty-one millionths of an inch. These numbers, determined by r(>poated
experiment, appal us, and we turn to that branch of the subject where
results are more palpable.

The Chemistry of Flame.

All the phenomena attending the artificial production of light are not yet
fully understood. Light is only one of the effects of the burning of hydro-
carbons in the gaseous state. Tlie solid candle and the liquid contents of
the lamp must be volatilized, and brought into the same expanded state as
ordinary illuminating gas before they can be burned. This condition is
attained, in the case of the candle, by the heat of the flame; the liquid
wax or tallow, b3' capillary attraction, is carried along the wick to the
point where it is turned to gas. Yet light does not emanate from gases.
Draper found that while gases heated to over 1,100 degrees centigrade do
not give light, all the solids subjected began to be luminous at about 510
degrees C. and they display the several colors of the prism, and finally emit
white light.

In the process of burning illuminating gas, the hydrogen is first com-
bined with the oxygen of the air, and the solid particles of carbon, thus
deserted by the hydrogen and exposed to the heat generated b}' the burn-
ing gases, become incandescent, and afterwards unite with oxygen forming
carbonic acid gas.

It is, however, true that when the carbon is consumed at the same time
with the hydrogen, no light is evolved; such condition exists when the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 603

oxjg'cn is mechanically, but thoroug-hly mixed with tlie hydro-carbon gas
before it arrives at the place of burning*. This is eflectcd by the Bunsen
burner, in which the air is admitted at the bottom and mixed with the gas
on its upward passage within the burner.

The result of this simultaneous burning of both carbon and hydrogen
is an increased amount of heat and an almost entire absence of light. It
seems, therefore, to be essential to the production of light that the com-
bustion of the carbon should take place after that of the hydrogen.

Incandescence.

Steel filings dropped into a current of heated gases give forth brilliant
scintillations. Hare, soon after his invention of hydro-oxygen blow-pipe,
found that a pencil of lime lu^ld before it, in the burning gases, emitted a
light of intense brilliancy. Such a light, when its rays were thrown into
parallel lines by means of a parabolic mirror, has been seen in diffused
daylight at a distance of more than one hundred miles. But to assert that
light is generated because carbon or any other solid is incandescent, is not
to explain the phenomenon.

Light is proved, beyond a doubt, to be the result of waves moving trans-
versely to the line of propagation; the solid from which it proceeds must,
therefore, have the power of prcxlucing such waves in the teth. The inter-
esting question to be settled is whetlier the solid itself, or the seth within
it, can be set into high vibratory action by means of waves of heat having
a lower rate of velocity. Eeasoniug from analogy, we must decide in the
aflBrmative.

Wave Induction.

Air waves have the power of exciting vibrations in solids which are
more rapid than the waves producing them. This fact was brought forci-
bly te my notice many years ago, when I found the low tone in which I
was conversing in a certain room was constantly followed, not by an echo,
but by a musical note of very high pitch. After a search, the sound was
found to proceed from a sheet of steel, six or eight feet long by as many
inches wide, standing on its end and resting against the wall.

This sympathetic action can be accounted for by the laws of harmonics.
The proper tone of a bell is always accompanied by harmonic sounds readily
perceptible to a fine ear. It is asserted by some musicians that every
sound made by a musical instrument is thus accompanied.

The vibratory action arising from periodic pulses sometimes appears to
be greater than the cause. This arises from the fact that a new impulse
is given just before the force of the previous impulse is expended. The
same remark may be applied to oscillations. In the gymnasium, tiie self-
swingers exert themselves only at the extremities of the arc. The danger
of regular pulses where weight is sustained is well known. Soldiers in
crossing a wooden bridge are required to break ranks and step out of
tune. I have ofteji seen the lonjr span of a timber bridge, which was firm
under the tread of a herd of cattle, thrown into quick vibration by the
rapid passage of a dog across it.

The condition required iu this case is, that the tread of the dog shall

604 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

harmonize in time with the vibratory action due to the elasticity of the
timber. Many points connected witli the subject of secondary vibrations
are yet to be further elucidated by experiment.

.Light from Rapid Dilations.

Only one other cause for a^tli undulations by means of carbon can now
be suggested. It arises from the characteristics and conditions of the
three important simple bodies which play the principal parts during ordi-
nary combustion. Oxygen, the clement of which more than one-half of our
globe is composed, when isolated, is a permanent gas. No power yet
applied has reduced it to the liquid state. Hydrogen, a gas sixteen times
lighter than oxygen, has also no cohesive power, Natterrer, of Vienna,
subjected these gases separately to a pressure of 3,000 pounds to the square
inch, when at a temperature of lOG deg. centigrade below the freezing
point of water, without producing cohesion. Yet these two gases, when
mixed in the proportion of two volumes of hydrogen to one of oxygen, are,
by the electric spark, instantly condensed to steam, and, on cooling, to
water. Carbon, on the other hand, when isolated, is always a solid No
amount of heat yet applied has brought it to a gaseous, or even a liquid
state. In its most condensed conditittn, as the diamond, it had 3.56 times
the specific weight of water. It is 41,890 times heavier than an equal
bulk of hydrogen, 2,618 times heavier than oxygen, and 2,992 times
heavier than olefiant gas (C4 II4. )

In the process of illumination by the combustion of hybro-carbon gases,
as described, the isolation of the carbon seems to be essential. It must,
therefore, instantly change its volume and become a solid, and then as
quickly assume the gaseous state, in the formation of carbonic acid gas.
These rapid contractions and expansions of carbon may act as pulsations
on the pervading a?th, and thus generate the whole series of waves, which,
commingling, form white light.

It is passing strange that carbonic acid gas, a resultant in generating
light and heat — including the vital heat <A' myriads of animals — should,
after its passage from the lamp or the lung to the leaf, be resolved into
carbon and oxygen by a force similar to that these constituents can exert
under certain conditions.

Molecular Forces.

Turning again to the Highland Lighthouse, let us estimate the power
expended by its lamps. The average weight of oil consumed nightly was
about sixteen pounds at the time of Thoreau's visit. Taking the mean of
the results of experiments by Favre, Silbermann, Dulong, and Andrews
with olefiant gas (oil gas not being given), Ave find that 11,943 jiounds of
water are raised 1*^0 by the combustion of one pound of oil. This sum
multiplied by sixteen, the number of pounds used per night, and that pro-
duct by 1,390, the number of foot-pounds which measures the force ex-
pended in raising one pound of water 1*^0 — that being the mechanical
eqtiivalent of heat as correctly determined by Mayer in 1842 — we have
265,012,320 foot-pounds as the amount of energy expended in generating
the light required for a single night.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 605

In order to fully ap|)rcciato the power of these molecular forces, it is only
necessary to refer to Dr. Tindall's admirable work on " Heat as a Mode of
Motion," After calculating the mechanical value of the energ-y developed
when the atoms of one pound of hydrogen and eight pounds of oxygen
attract each (.)ther, fall and clash together, when the molecules of steam
thus generated condense to water, and this water is converted to ice, the
author says:

" Thus our nine pounds of water, in its origin and progress, falls down
three precipices. The first fall is equivalent to the descent of a ton weight,
urged by gravity down a precipice 22,320 feet high; the second fall is
equal to that of a ton down a precipice 2,900 feet high; and the third is
equal to a descent of a ton down a precipice 433 feet high.

" I have seen the wild avalanches of the Alps which smoke and thunder
down the deelivities with a vehemence almost sufficient to stun the observer.
I have also seen snow flakes descending so softly as not to hurt the fiagile
spangles of which they were composed, Ye-t to produce from aqueous
vapor a quantity of that tender material which a child could cany, de-
mands an exertion of energy competent to gather up the shattered blocks
of the largest avalanche I have ever seen, and pitch them to twice the
height from which they fell."

Such is the impressive estimate of the force expended in the formation
of a pound of ice from its component elements in the gaseous state; yet it
will be observed, by the figures already presented, that the energy devel-
oped in one nocturnal display' of the Highland beacon was sufficient to have
thrown the fragments of five such avalanches to the same height.

Thoreau, the student and lover of nature in her wild moods and original
garb, doubtless, with Mingled feelings of awe and delight, beheld from
that beacon tower the surging of the sea, ^nd heard, in sullen sounds, the
threatenings of a tremendous force; but as he turned toward the light,
which fixed the gaze of many an anxious mariner, he did not realize the
truth that art had there trained nature to perform the conmion service,
which must ever be regarded as one of her greatest miracles; and that, to
guide the sailor along the dangerous coast, she sent forth her messengers
of light amid the ambient £eth, whose undulations, in each and every minute
of time, outnumber all the ocean waves that have culminated since man
first ventured on the deep.

On motion the Association adjourned.

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION-

Horticultural Association of the American Institute.

This association met at the rooms of the Institute on Wednesday evening-,
April 6, 1864, for the purpose of completing- its organization.

Peter B. Mead, editor of the Horticulturist, called the meeting to order,
and moved that Nathaniel C. Ely take the chair, which was unanimously
adopted.

P. T. Quinn, of New Jersey, read the proceedings of the previous meet-
ings, which were approved.

Mr. Mead, from the committee to select a list of oflScers, said the com-
mittee had attended to the duty confided to them, and had nominated for
officers, gentlemen who were well known in the community as taking a
deep interest in the cause of Horticulture, and who would attend the meet-
ings of the association, viz :

President, B. C. Townsend, Baj^ Ridge, L. I. J\.iit Vice Preddent, Dr.
Isaac M. Ward, Newark, N. J, '2d Vice President, J. W. Barrow, New
York. Corresponding Secretary, James Hogg, New York. Recording Sec-
retary, John W. Chambers, Brooklyn, L. I. Treasurer, Isaac Buchanan,
New York. Botanist, Professor J. W. Thurber, New York. Entomologist,
Doctor Isaac P. Trimble, Newark, N. J,

Committees.

1. Large Fruits — William S. Carpenter, P. T. Quinn, Isaac M. Ward.

2. Small Fruits— Feter B. Mead, R. G. Pardee. Francis Brill.

3. Plants and Flowers — John Henderson, William J. Davidson, William
Fitzpatrick.

4. Vegetables — Peter Henderson, Alfred Bridgeman, William Craustoun.

5. Floral Designs, Ferneries, &c., — Andrew Bridgeman, James Hogg, J.
W. Wood.

6. E:jpecutive and Premium Committee — The Presidents, Treasurer, Chair-
man of Committees 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and the committee on horticulture of the
Institute.

The officers and committees were unanimously elected.

P. B. Mead presented to the Association, on behalf of Mrs. Barrow, the
first bouquet ; and after complimenting the lady for the taste displayed in
the selection and arrangement of the flowers, took occasion to utter a pro-
test against the usual mode of smotheriny flowers in paper, which he termed

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 607

the strait jacket system, in wliicli the symmetry of the leaf and flower is
lost, ajid only an arrangement of colors preserved.

Mr. J. W. Barrow one of the Vice Presidents followed :

I will detain you only a few moments with sOme remarks on a dry sub-
ject; one, however, which has a direct interest for a Horticultural Associa-
tion, as it is based upon that which is now, unhappily for us all, a purely
vegetable production, limited in extent only by the quantity of fibers fit for
the manufacture of paper, now known and yet to be discovered. The
subject is Finance, its basis Mr. Chase's pets. Greenbacks.

We are engaged in establishing a societ}^ the objects of which we all
appreciate ; the success of which will be useful to the science of which we
are all votaries, and creditable to our city, our State, and ourselves. It
ought to succeed. We have all the advantages we could desire. If we
fail, our failure will be a disgrace to us ; and we must therefore place
failure beyond the bounds of possibility. To ensure success, however,
something more is wanted besides enthusiasm for the science and a love
of the beautiful.

We desire to found a lasting institution, one which shall outlive our-
Belves, and prove a benefit to future generations. We should aim at nothing
loss than the collection of the best botanical library on the continent, the
ownership of a model garden and glass houses, and the establishment of a
society whose approval shall bo a stamp of sterling merit. How is this to
be done ? Not by outbursts of spasmodic enthusiasm, but by quiet, con-
tinued, prolonged, increasing efforti^ ; by taking such measures as shall
ensure us a permanent and increasing income. We must not rely u])on the
generosity of individuals, but upon a widespread basis of small subscrip-
tions.

We must increase our numbers to such an extent that the falling away
of a few will be more than compensated by the accession of others. We
must render ourselves independent, and we shall then merit the public
support. All this will require much time, but it can certainly be effected.
Look to what has been done at Boston, and then say whether ive ought to
fail. I have not the figures before me, but I believe that I understate the
case when I say that the Massachusetts Horticultural Society is possessed
of real and other property worth not less than $10.0,000. Part of this is
certainly the result of liberal donations and bequests, and of judicious
investments; but the donations and bequests came after the society had
shown itself worthy of liberality. "Heaven helps those who help them-
selves."

Let independence and self-support be the watchword of this Association.
We shall have scientific and practical men among us well worthy to vie
with IIk)SC of all other cities and countries. They will support the credit
of the Association in the fields of scientific botany and practical horticul-
ture. Let those among us who have not the same qualifications remember
that there is work for us to do, less distinguished, but not less practically
useful. It is for us to set the machine going, and to keep it steadily at
work, by supplying it with the necessary motive power in the shape of
subscriptions. Each one of us can bring in at least one more member.
Let him do so, and our numbers will soon increase in a geometrical ratio.

608 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Those wlio take an interest in liorticultui-al pursuits are much more numer-
ous than we may think at first. Every one who occupies a respectable
room may grow a flowering plant in it, and we all must know, from our
own experience, that the possession of a sing-le plant gives us tlie desire
to collect more, and to procure all the information we can about their
culture.

Finally, as a commencement of the good work, I beg leave to hand to
the secretary the names of some candidates for membership; and I trust
that each one of us will consider himself a special committee of one on
recruiting service.

R. G. Pardee spoke of the influence- of horticultural societies in elevating
the taste and exciting a generous rivalry among those who grow fruits
and flowers. These associations are the means of combining and concen-
trating individual influence and effort, so that the whole may be brought
to bear in the collection and diffusion of information. Every one who
raises a flower confers a benefit upon his neighbor. He had lately passed
a magnrficent conservatory, and the thought tiien occurred that its owner,
instead of gratifying his own circle of intimate friends, might be the
means of giving delight and instruction to immense numbers had he an
organ like this Association, through which he might hold communication.
He hoped this was the beginning of a new era.

Isaac P. Trimble said he had been honored by his appointment as Ento-
mologist, but he must tell them at the outset that he was acquainted with
the peculiarities of comparatively few of the 400,000 insects which are
known to exist on our globe. In looking at the beautiful models of fruit
which adorn these rooms, he did not see specimens of Plums, Apricots, or
Nectarines. These fruits are gradually disappearing from this section of
the country. No doubt many of you are aware of the cause. It is the
effect of an insect called the curculio, of which it takes four to weigh a
single grain, and we are cowardly letting it do as it pleases. Ho was
asked by a gentleman what he should do to destroy the lady bug; his gar-
den was full of them. He told him to let them alone until they had eaten
all the plant lice, and then they would die of starvation. He had occasion
lately to count the eggs of the Dusty Vapor Moth, and the average was
four hundred, and tiiis is nearly the average of all our moths and butter-
flies. Arithmetic will easily tell the story of how long we could live if any
one of these was permitted to multiply without being checked. Among
the insects, nearly half are feeding upon the other half ; and we should
have the knowledge to know which half are our friends. The birds are
important aids in holding in check our insect enemies. Lately, in examin-
ing the crop of the Chick-a-dee, (Black-capped Titmouse,) one of the little
creeper birds of winter, he found five of the larvae of the apple motli, and
the apple moth, next to the curculio, is the most fatal enemy of apples and
pears. All animated nature is a cycle of complexity to those who do not
study it, but there is a movable harmony in all things. If his friend could
have killed all his lady bugs, he would soon have found his mistake. When
the small birds have been shot off, noxious insects have increased fearfully.

Wm. S. Carpenter said he should fill but a small niche in this Society,
but would do all in his po.wer to make it valuable to the country. Pomul-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 609

ogy had been a subject to which he devoted many j'cars; in fact, it was a
specialty with him. The celebrated Van Mons, of Belgium, had done much
for the cause of Pomology, especially in the improvement of the pear. Mr.
Knig-ht, of England, had devoted a lifetime to the improvement of small
fruit, also to the apple and pear. Such enthusiasts deserve well of their
fellow-men. There are a great many fine fruits which are unknown outside
the orchard in which ihey grow. He had picked some apples from a tree
100 years old. He had propagated trees from it, the fruit of which he sent
to England, where it was preferred to the New'town Pippin. Improve-
ments are being continually made in the quality of our fruits. Many va-
rieties that stood high in favor twenty years ago, have given place to the
improved varieties of the present day. These Societies are of incalculable
benefit to the country, as a means of encouraging and disseminating infor-
mation in relation to the various improvements made.

The Chairman, Mr. Ely, spoke of the influence of flowers. Their cultiva-
tion has a moral and refining effect upon our natures. He remembered in
his young da3's those young ladies who cultivated flowers were more re-
fined than others. Painting and the arts have a refining influence, but the
flowers have a still higher, because they lead the mind upwards to the
Creator. He spoke of his countiy home at Norwalk, where ever}'- house
and garden is adorned with flowers and shrubs. He loved the country,
and passed all the spare time he had there. He never knew a man or boy
but was elevated in mind by the ci:ltivation of flowers, and one that was
always read}"- to do a kind action by his neighbor.

A. G. Burgess said he was early advised never to look for a wife in a
family who did not cultivate flowers.

Mr. Nash said it was very important that correct reports of the meetings
should be published in the newspapers, and urged that a competent stenog-
rapher should be employed for the purpose. This association, as I under-
stand it, is for the purpose of bringing forward practical Horticulturists.
The remarks of such persons will be of great value, as they will be the
results of experience, and not mere theories.

He said he was born and lived in the midst of an orchard of about 20
acres, and was educated in the midst of good fruit. Many of the trees
would yield well for a time, but would soon become diseased. He sug-
gested a Committee on Seeds be appointed, and recommended that an
orchard sliould be set out where forest trees had been cut down.

Mvs. J. W. Barrow exhibited choice cut flowers. '-^'*^

Wm. S. Carpenter exhibited eleven varieties of apples from his own
orchard, viz: Northern Spy, Newtown Pippin, Swaar, Pennock, R. I. Green-
ing, Seek-no-further, Dominie, Baldwin, Hubbardston Nonsuch, Greenwich,
Roxbury Russet.

Wm. A. Burgess, Rosevale, Roslyn, L. I., exhibited two varieties of his
new seedling strawberries, viz : four pots of " Garibaldi," and one of
" General Grant." The plants were in fine condition, and covered with
clusters of ripe fruit.

Adolphus G. Burgess, East New York, exhibited two new varieties of
variegated leaved plants, viz: Ageratum splcndens, and Salvia elegans.

[Am. Inst.] li*

610 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Burgess said he was willing to offer a premium of $15 for the best
seedling- Rose to be exhibited during the year 1864.

It was resolved that the regular meetings of the Association be held
semi-monthly.

On motion, "Flowers" was selected as the subject for discussion at the
next meeting, and 3Ir. John Henderson was appointed to open the dis-
cussion.

On motion, it was resolved, that the ladies and others be invited to send
written communications.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary

Horticultural Association of the American Institute.

The second meeting of this Association was held at the rooms of the
Institute on Wednesday evening. May 4, 1864.

Mr. Peter B. Mead called the meeting to order, and, after a few remarks,
introduced the newly elected President, Mr. B. C. Townsend, who, on
taking the chair, said:

Ladies and Gentlemen, — I rise with feelings of great embarrassment to
thank you for the honor which you have seen fit to confer upon me ; an
honor the more highly appreciated, as it was. unsolicited and unexpected.
At the time of your last meeting I was out of the city, and knew nothing
of your action until my return. I feel embarrassed from the consciousness
of my inability to worthily fill the position to which you have elected me»
You will therefore permit me to occupy it only temporarily, until another
more capable of discharging its duties can be found. At the same time,
allow me to say that I take a great interest in the art of horticulture, and
feel mortified, as a citizen of this city, in being so long without a society
like this. With the influences and advantages around us, of our Central
Park, and many other public and private parks and gardens, it is not very
creditable to us to be without a well-organized Horticultural Society. The
salutary effect on the occupants, of embellishing the surroundings of
houses, is well known, and surely those who do not cultivate a taste for
this art, lose much enjoyment. It should, therefore, be our aim to awaken
an interest in tliis matter. See the innumerable gifts of God that crowd
our pathway, which he has made common to us all. Our endeavors should
be to foster a love for the simple pleasures of the garden; and, as far as I
am concerned, my aid shall be cheerfully given. I will not take up any
more of your valuable time from the discussion of the subject for the even-
ing, but merely tender to you again the expression of my esteem and ardent
good wishes.

Mr. Mead reported from the Committee appointed to prepare by-laws for
the Society, that they had not fully accomplished their labors, and on
motion further time was granted to them.

Mr. Mead suggested holding a horticultural exhibition in the month of
.Tune, when a fine display of flowers, and some of the early fruits, could
be had. This matter was favorably received, and, after a brief discussion,
the subject was postponed for action to the next meeting.

proceedings of the horticultural association. 611
Flowers.

The subject for the evening was then taken up, when Mr. John Ilcuder-
son read the following Essay:

Subject, "Flowers." Why I proposed it. Because the culture of flowers
is the highest attainment of horticulture; consequently they ought and do
take precedence in all Horticultural Societies. For this reason, I con-
sidered it the most fitting subject (or its first discussion; but in proposing
it, 1 did not expect to be called upon to speak of it myself, for I am well
aware there are not only among my own profession, but also among ama-
teur florists, many more capable of doing so, more especially at this season
of the year, when, so dii^tracted with business, I have no time to think the
subject over, although dwelling, as it were, among flowers. But it is a
subject so intimately connected with our future existence as a society, and
of so great a scope, that I trust it will afiord us very many more discus-
sions, when others more able will favor us with their views.

Flowers have been more or less connected with man from the earliest
period. Indeed, the opening chapters of the Bible inform us that when
God had created man, he planted a garden in Eden, and caused to grow
every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food, and therein he
placed Adam, our first parent, thus typefying what is necessary for man's
most perfect happiness. Nor has this changed in our day. Although man
has so degenerated, yet, when he emerges from his sunken state, and
strives to regain his original lofty nature, he does it in the garden; for here
he finds in the cultivation of flowers, that true happiness which the highest
honors of the world cannot give him.

Let us take man in his most degenerate condition, and we shall find that
when he arrives at the highest point of civilization, it centers, as in our
first parents, in a garden. For instance, the savage, when emerging from
his wild state, commences with agriculture; that is, growing corn and
cereals, and 'getting together herds of animals. Then, in order to facilitate
the more easy culture of the earth, he fashions rude instruments of hus-
bandry, thus bringing the mechanical arts into use. This very soon leads
him to barter and exchange, when commerce begins, and commerce we all
know by its wealth; when ambition shows itself in building splendid man-
sions, and adorning them with the most costly paintings, and beautiful
pieces of sculpture, art and science can bestow.

When these are all obtained, horticulture asserts its sway. He surrounds
his mansion with magnificent groves of trees; he plants an orchard, and
makes a vegetable garden; but yet it is not perfect. He still feels a want,
and that want is only supplied by flowers. He adds these to his otherwise
beautiful dwelling, and his Eden is perfect.

As I before observed, flowers have been more or less associated with
man in all ages. The ancients paid great attention to their culture.
Flower markets existed in ancient Athens. India, China and Mexico have
been famous for the cultivation of flowers from the earliest periods to which
their history can be accurately traced. They were in great request by the
ancients at all their entertainments. They scattered them before the
triumphal cars of returning conquerors. They adorned the browa of their

612 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

gods with wreaths of flowers. They constituted the mystical language of
poetry, and in our day, they are the testimonials of our gratitude. They
add brilliancy and luster to our festivals. We present them to those whom
we love. We place them on the coffins and graves of our departed friends.
We use them in decorating our churches on all joyful and religious occa-
sions. But, above all, we use them to adorn our homes; and who has not
felt their softening influence on his spirits ? What pleasure they afibrd us
when placed in our dwelling rooms, and how grateful and pleasant their
odor. And who is there when going to a strange house, and perhaps not
knowing any of its inmates, when ushered into the parlor, has not felt a
load, as it were, taken from off his shoulder, as his eyes glance on a little
vase of flowers ? for his heart tells him that here a genial spirit dwells.
We read that the celebrated Lord Bacon, while composing his sublime
philosophy, used to have a vase of fresh flowers placed on his table every
day. And what is there so lovely, after the cold blasts of winter, as the
flowers springing from their earthy beds. With what delight do we not
welcome the Primrose and modest Violet, gently telling us of the more
gorgeous flowers that are following in their steps as summer advances.
But there is a pleasure attached to the culture of flowers that never tires.
They soothe our mind, and cause us to forget the cares and toils of life.
Many of the most celebrated rneu the world has ever produced, have ended
their days in the quiet and happy pursuit of horticulture. And this is
easily accounted for, as flowers are ever changing, and showing us new
beauties. We sow the seed, and after a few days or weeks are gratified
in seeing the young plants springing from the ground, and then observing
them from day to day increase and develop their growth until they arrive
at perfection in blossom. Indeed, they are as it were our second children.
They require constant care and ^attention, and that care and attention are
so pleasing to us that we never tire of it.

Look at that masterpiece of painting or of sculpture. It is beautiful ; it is
everything desirable as a painting or as a piece of sculpture; but it is the
same to-day as yesterday, and will be years hence. But not so with flowers.
Thej'- each have their season of flowering, and each year, as the returning
season advances, we look forward to it with as much delight to see a par-
ticular flower as though we had never seen it before.

But let us turn for a moment to the commercial value of flowers. Few
are aware how important a part the products of flowers assume in our
every-day life. Whence come all the delicious perfumes of the toilet-table?
What would be the manufacture of pomades and soaps without the extracts
from the fragrant flowers to destroy the rancid and disagreeable odors
inseparable from all articles made from fatty substances? In Italy and
France, in Asia and Africa, and more recently in America, thousands of
acres are wholly used for the culture of flowers for their perfume. But at
present France and Italy take the precedence over all other nations in this
particular branch of manufacture ; and in order to give you some idea of
the extent to which this art is carried, I will give you the amount of flowers
that one manufacturer of perfumes at Grasse, in the south of France, annu-
ally makes use of. This house alone consumes over 80,000 pounds weight
of orange blossoms, 60,000 pounds of Cassia, 60,000 of rose-flowers, 30,000

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 613

pounds of jasmine flowers, 40,000 pounds of violets, 30,000 pounds of tube-
rose flowers, besides thousands of pounds of lilac, mint, thyme, rosemary,
and other fragrant plants. In giving this estimate, you must understand
it is for the flowers free from stalk, leaves or wood ; and this is the con-
sumption of only one out of tlie hundreds of manufacturers in France and
__ Italy.

Have you ever been in a city noted for any particular branch of manu-
facture ? If so, you will have observed that every other house appears to
be a factory. Chimneys are sending up their volumes of smoke. The rat-
tling and hum of machinery surround you on every side. If you go to
Grasse, in the south of France, there every one appears to be employed in
the manufacture, or rather the art of extracting the odors from flowers.
The whole town smells of flowers ! Walk in the country, and almost every
wagon you meet, or every peasant girl or boy, is carrying baskets of
flowers to the difierent laboratories in the town. Indeed the whole air is
80 impregnated with their fragrance, that for miles before you come to
their vicinity you can smell their delicious fragrance, as it is wafted along
by the breeze. But it is not my intention of here giving in detail a full
statistical account of the quantities and value of flowers used for this pur-
pose, but only to observe that t^e remarks I have just made are from per-
sonal knowledge; from having resided for many years in the immediate
vicinity of Grasse and Nice. But this is a branch of commerce only just
opening up in America; and who can foretell to what an extent it will not
some day arrive at ; for America possesses every degree of climate neces-
sary for the production of flowers, the same as Italy and France. Already
there are hundreds of acres under the cultivation of lavender, peppermint
and wintergreen, which are extensively exported to Europe.

But I will not detain you longer on this subject, for it is of so much
importance as a branch of commerce to this country, that I feel the growth
of flowers in America for the manufacture of perfumes, to be a fitting sub-
ject for another discussion. I will therefore turn to the cultivation of
flowers for the decoration of our dwellings, either as plants or as cut
flowers. Perhaps there is no city in the world where cut flowers are so
extensively used as in New York. I say tliis from a personal knowledge
of the consumption of London and Paris, the former a city with more than
double the population of New York ; yet I think I am correct when I say
the consumption of cut flowers for bouquets is nearly double in New York
to what it is in London. And in order that you may judge somewhat of
that consumption, I will give you the quantity of flowers I have myself
cut for that purpose during the past season, say since September last. Ot
that beautiful carnation called La Purite, of which there is a specimen on
the table, I have cut 50,000 blossoms; of Bouvardia, 30,000; of the double
Chinese primrose, 70,000; of tuberoses, 30,000 ; besides about 50,000 ot
other flowers, such as roses, camelias, heliotropes, &c. ; and yet I am only
one of the many engaged in the cultivation of flowers for the bouquet
makers of New York.

I may here observe, that although New York takes the precedence over
the cities of the old world in the matter of cut flowers, it is not so in regard
to plants in pots ; for there the consumption is far greater than here. In

614 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

the vicinity of London, almost every house has its garden belonging' to it,
and almost always filled with flowers. Flowering plants are also much
more extensively used for the decoration of rooms, and especially for win-
dows ; a system I hope to see more extensively adopted in New York; for
window gardening adds a charm even to the abode of the wealthy, and
also the poor have the delight of tending a few choice plants, and of
becoming acquainted with their habits and flowers. Horticultural socie-
ties have also done much for the encouragement of the cultivation of
flowers, and particularly among the humbler classes, with an evident
increase of amenity within and around the dwellings, as well as an unques-
tionable tendency to refinement of habits and feelings. In almost all
European cities there were floral markets specially devoted to the sale of
plants and cut flowers. Who has not heard of the Marchee aux fleurs, or
flower markets of Paris, or of Covent Garden in London ? These markets
have become world renowned, solely from their being the great depots for
flowers, whether grown in pots or cut for bouquets and for the table.

But let us turn for an instant to artificial flowers. It may be said, what
have they to do with the present subject? I answer, very much. We are
so constituted that we will have flowers at all times and seasons if possi-
ble; for what greater adornment for the person? How would a lady's hat
or bonnet look without them? but as we know natural flowers would fade
too soon for this purpose, art has imitated nature, and there is not a new
flower, or a new shade of color introduced by the florist, but the artist in
flowers is ready to imitate it; and to give you some idea of the extent to
which they are used, I have only to mention that France annually exports
over $200,000, over and above what is consumed in the country itself.
Then again, the colors of flowers. What more varied or beautifully brilliant?
Art has never attained to them, but must ever be an imitator. The
painter attempts to portray their brilliancy on the canvas ; but how feeble
the attempt. Let any one take the most beautiful painting of flowers by
a Van Huysen, or a Cuyp, and let him compare the flower on the canvas
with the natural one, and he will at once perceive how great a difierence
there is. Indeed, in many instances we have no means of describing a
color except by naming the plant. For instance, the Rose, Lilac, Peach,
Lavender, Violet, and many others. The manufacturer of silks for dresses
or for ribbons, studies the colors of flowers, in order to imitate them as
near as possible in his manufactures, so that no lady can adorn herself in
the most costly dress or the most lovely ribbon, but its coloring is derived
or imitated from the humble and lovely flowers.

In the year 1636 a flower mania prevailed in Holland, chiefly in reference
to the Tulip, in which people speculated as in stocks and railway shares in
our da}'. At that time a single Tulip called the Semper Augustus, sold for
13,000 florins, about, I believe, $6,000 of our money, the ownership of a
Tulip being often divided into shares.

Artificial moans have been employed for the produce and rearing of
flowers far more generally than for the cultivation of fruits and vegetables.
Those who can only aff"ord a small green-house, almost always devote it to
flowers; and those who cannot attain this have often favored plants under
a frame or in a window of a room. I need scarcely mention what the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 615

amateur and florist have done for flowers, in the production of new ones, or
the improvement given to the form and shape of old varieties. We have
before us some beautiful new Verbenas, raised by Mr. Peter Henderson
who has become somewhat identified with this flower. There are also some
pretty Pansies raised by myself; also a Heliotrope, which I call tlie Belle
of Jersey; and also tlie Double Chinese Primrose, raised by me 25 years
since. It will perhaps be interesting to you, sir, to see the' silver medal
awarded to me by the Horticultural Society of London, as I was not much
more than a boy then.

In conclusion, there is one other flower I would call your attention to. It is
the Lily or Calla ^thiopica. This is probably the flower alluded to by our
Saviour, when he compared it to Solomon — Solomon the greatest potentate
the world ever knew, whose wisdom has never been equaled, living in a
superb palace, surrounded and adorned by the famous hanging gardens;
and 3'et, with all these attributes of royalty, our Lord said he was not
arrayed as one of" these little lilies of the field. And who can look at it
without feeling the full force of the remark! What more artistically beau-
tiful, whether we consider the chasteness of the form of the flower or its
general appearance, taking blossom and foliage together. I will only fur-
ther add, that flowers are so associated with us in our every day existence,
that life would be monotonous without them.

On motion of Mr. R. G. Pardee, a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Hen-
derson for the very interesting and instructive manner in which he treated
the subject.

Mr. Isaac Buchanan exhibited a choice collection of rare flowers. Among
them were several very choice Camelias, Cacti, Rhododendrons, an Aus-
tralian plant called the Dottle washer. Lilies, Ltelia, &c.

The President said that the Rhododendron is a plant that has been sin-
gularly neglected in this country. In England it is called the American
plant, and much attention is paid to it there; yet, strange to say, we know-
very little of it here. It is a wonder that we have neglected such a beau-
tiful ornament even for our city residences. It is a plant that is well
adapted to stand the heat of our summers and the cold of our winters.

Mr. Buchanan said that it was an evergreen, and would grow in almost
any soil; but in a stiff soil it would stand the heat better than in a light one.

Alderman Ely spoke of the profuse display of flowers that were on the
tables. The massive bouquets presented by Mr. Wm. R. Prince, of Flush-
ing, L. I., were worthy of particular notice. He called upon Mr. Mead for
some remarks upon them.

Mr. Mead hoped that those who had favored them with such a floral dis-
play would be present and give an account of them; but as this time of
the year was their busiest season, they could not, perhaps, well attend this
meeting. He would, therefore, in compliance with the flattering request
of Alderman Ely, say soriiething in relation to a few of them.

We have here some fine specimens of the Pansy. This plant exhibits, in
a peculiar manner, the advancement of horticulture in this country. He
well remembered when it was called the Johnny Jumper. It then stood
up something like the ladies' bonnets did about a year ago. The florist
has improved them very much. He had seen some that were almost per-

616 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

fectly round, so that, if laid upon a circle, they would exactly fit the whole
circumference. In flowers of this class, the border color should be pure
and distinct, and go entirely round the plant. In this respect this flower
is a little imperfect. The great trouble in our country is that it is too hot
and dry. The pansy can only be brought to perfection here by artificial
means, except in the early spring. If a cool place in the garden is selected,
pansies can be grown with a good deal of perfection; that is, if good seed
is obtained. Good seed is hard to be got. That usually sold at the stores
will give only some 15 per cent of good, flowers. He spoke somewhat
doubtingly, as latterly they gave him good seeds. With good seed there
was little doubt that they would yield 75 per cent'. If we desire to pro-
pagate it, the best way is by cuttings. The amateur will tell you this is
difficult, and can be done best by the florist, who is sm-rounded with all the
appliances necessary. Now this is not exactly so; for here is a cutting,
and if always cut in this way, there will generally be good plants. (Mr.
Mead here took a slip and cut it in the proper way.) After this is done,
if the plant is placed in a cool, shady part of the garden in the month of
September, and covered with a newspaper, or if the plant is put into a box
with some sand and a glass placed over it, it will generally take root. Mr.
Buchanan would say that forty-nine out of fifty would be raised, with all
his facilities for propagating this plant; in fact, it is the only way to per-
petuate a choice kind, for we cannot depend upon the seed to reproduce it.
It is a great satisfaction to a person to be able to say that he raised such a
plant from a cutting, and it greatly enhances his pleasure; but, notwith-
standing this pleasure, it is cheaper to buy the plants from the florist. For
about twenty-five cents we can buy such fine plants as we have here. The
pansy is a free-blooming plant, and comes early into flower. I have seen
flowers on them before tlie leaves had attained the size of a ten-cent piece.
This flower is not only intrinsically beautiful, but it is prized by the ladies
quite as much as the Pink is by the men.

The large bouquet which we have here he supposed was made up in
accordance with a suggestion that he made at a previous meeting. He
took occasion then to say that our professional men made a great mistake
in the formation of their bouquets; they are simply an arrangement of
color, without form or good taste. He well remembered, many years ago,
being on a committee with the late A. J. Downing and some ladies, at the
Lyceum of Natural History, where an occasional exhibition was held. On
this occasion, Mr. Downing said he did not like the style in which the bou-
quets were put up, and the ladies entirely agreed with him; but one of the
ladies picked out a bouqu(!t which she said was well arranged. Mr. Down-
ing looked at it, and said tliat it was so; and turning to another placed at
the other end of the table, said : " Here is a mate to it. I wonder if it
was put up by the same person." But as there was noname to either of
them, we could not tell; we therefore gave to those two simple bouquets
the first prize. But he had not since seen any done up in that way. He
had ever since declared war upon them. What have those innocent flowers
done that they should be bound together like criminals ? Which is the
most beautiful, this or that? (holding up examples of each.) He would
always condemn this strait-jacket mode. If any exhibition is got up as

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 617

sngg'csted, lie would request that a set of prizes be given for bouquets
made up in tlie natural way, and in this manner we wuuld do away with
the strait-laced style. The flowers should not be crushed together like a
crowd in the street, but they should be arranged in their individual beauty,
so as to be seen under as well as on the surface.

Here are some two or three kinds of the Magnolia; one of them is the
M. soulangiana, slightly striped; another, M.ohovala, purple; and M. Alex-
andria, deep crimson, striped. The trees on which these grow are of the
Chinese variety, and are generally of medium height, but he has seen some
of our native species, macrophylla and others, nearly 100 feet high. The
great fault with the Chinese Magnolia is, that its flowers appear before the
leaves. If it could be made to flower when the tree is in leaf, it would be
magnificent; but it is very beautiful as it is

The next flower in the bouquet is the Mahonia aquifoUa, from the Rocky
Mountains. The seeds of this plant were originally brought home by Lew-
is and Clark. It is a very beautiful evergreen plant. This is a double
white flowering Peach from China, one of the best of recent introductions.
There are also double crimson, double rose, and double carnation striped
varieties of the Peach, all of them handsome objects for the lawn. Here is
a species of Ilex, the English holly, which is very pretty to look at, but
vwy bad to handle, as its leaves are armed with sharp spikes. It is a
splendid evergreen, bnt usually needs winter protection with us. This is
the Diehjtra spectahilis, sometimes called the bleeding heart, a name which
he hoped would be discarded. He asked if there was anything pleasant in
the idea of a bleeding heart, yet the flower is exceedingly pretty. It is a
hardy herbaceous plant from China. Here is the Cydonia Japonica, or Japan
quince, a beautiful scarlet flower that opens early in the spring. It is per-
fectly hardy, and every way desirable.

He wished to speak of the Orchids. This is a Laelia. It is a common
notion with many that orchids can only flourish in a high temperature, but
he had seen Lycastes, Oncidiums, &c., blooming finely where the tempera-
ture was allowed to go down to 45 degrees every nig;ht in winter. If this
can be done, considerable fuel can be saved at least.

One great drawback to the advancement of Horticulture in this country,
is that plants, to sell well, must have a foreign name and reputation. If
Mr. Henderson, who raised this beautiful Heliotrope, the Belle of Jersey,
had imported it from Europe under the name of the Belle of Lancaster, he
would have sold five thousand where he has now sold one. He had seen a
great deal of this. He had seen fine flowers in the hands of our florists
year after year that could not be sold for want of a proper endorsement.
The late George Thorburn was forced once to resort to the expedient of
exporting and importing the same flowers to make them saleable here; and
where he could not sell a few dozen before at 50 cents, he then sold hun-
dreds of the same plant at a dollar ! and now this is done over and over
again. We must raise our own seedlings, and seek some means to beget
public confidence in them. The best Verbenas, Heliotropes, &c., now in
cultivation have been raised in this country.

The President alluded to this desire for foreign plants, and gave as one
reason the lack of any recognized standard or body to endorse a variety

618 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

before it is sent out. Not so iiu England. A plant is put on trial for one
or two years, and if it stands the various tests, it then receives official en-
dorsement, and every purchaser knows he is buying a good thing when he
secures it.

On motion of Mr. Jireh Bull, a vote of thanks was tendered to the gen-
tlemen who have so kindly favored the Society with such a tasteful display
of flowers.

The subject of " Early Fruits " was selected for discussion at the next
meeting.

Adjourned to Tuesday evening, May 31st, at 8 o'clock.

John W. Chambers, Sedy.

May 31, 1864.

A meeting of this Association was held on Tuesday, May 31st, 1864, at
8 o'clock p. M., at the rooms of the Institute, B. C. Townsend, Esq., in the
chair.

After the usual preliminary business was transacted, the President
remarked that he noticed a very beautiful bouquet on the table, and its
style clearly indicated from whom it came. He called on Mr. William R.
Prince for a few remarks on the flowers of which it was composed.

Mr. Prince said the flowers were cut promiscuously that morning, at the
suggestion of the Secretary. They are all herbaceous plants, which are
now beginning to bloom. The principal part of these flowers are the
pseony, of which there are a great many varieties, but the majority of them
are natives of Tartary, Japan, and Pekiu, the northern part of China, which
is nearly in the same latitude as this city. The cultivation of these flowers
here does away with the impression that gorgeous flowers appertain to the
tropics. There are few better flowers tlian the Chinese pfeony. There are
perhaps one hundred kinds of them that have odor. Some may suppose
they are roses. Most of the old peonies are scentless. One variety is
called endulas, in consequence of the root being used as food in the southern
parts of Europe, particular!}^ in Spain. There are two or three species of
the pajony in the Levant, and also in California.

The tree pEeony is supposed by many to be too tender for out-door cul-
ture, and is thrust into pots, whereas it ought to be put in the coolest place
in the garden. It will flourish as well on the ramparts of Quebec as here,
and the reason it fails with amateurs is that they take too much care to
put it in a sunny place.

Mr. Mead said he noticed some desperate looking branches on the table,
and suggested that Dr. Trimble say something about them.

Dr. Trimble said he had no doubt that most of those present were aware
that the cherry crop, that is, of the very fine kind of cherries, will be very
deficient this year. The trees blossomed as usual, but the long-continued
wet weather, and heavy showers, caused the petals of the blossoms to
decay and fall ofi'. This, with the lengthened wet season, giving them no
chance to dry, they rotted, so that the crop of good cherries is entirely
destroyed. The pear and apple were in blossom at the same time, and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 619

much of these fruits will also fail; but tli(?ie are some good apples that
have been saved. This is a brauch of a very fine kind of Fi-ench cherries
that have been destroyed in his neighborhood this season. The apple trees
this year, of wliich we have here a specimen, at one time were in this con-
dition. On examining closely the loaves, the aphis, that scourge of the
rose bush, was found there, and their destruction of the early leaves has
diminished the crop very materially. Here are two branches of the apple
tree, and they all present this appearance. This is due to the ravages of
the well-known canker worm. In New England nearly all the leaves of
the early trees have sullered from them; but the worms have since fallen to
the ground, as this season there were more leaves than the worms wanted.

The aphis, which is the most universal of insects, and one that increases
the most of an}', has an enemy in the lady-bug. You can scarcely take up
a bud but you will find some of these bugs in search of the aphis. He had
sometimes fed these lady-bugs with the aphis placed on the point of a
knife, and this season he was enabled to discover that these insects have
a particular fancy for the snowball flower. When this flower does not
flourish, if the leaves are examined, they will be found to be perfectly alive
with the aphis. There is a prevailing opinion that the different color of
these insects is owing to the food they eat; but microscopic examinations
showed them to be of different species. Birds are very fond of them, and
I have known of an instance where the snowball appeared to be almost
entirely destroyed, when the birds came, and they picked off all the insects,
and after tliat tliej^ flourished very luxuriantly. The birds that feed on
these insects are very numerous; all those charming birds that remain
with us but a few days, and then go further north, such as the warbler,
oriole and cedar bird, are their enemies. If our public parks are visited,
the shrill notes of the cedar bird are heard. They are great friends to us
in destroying these insects.

He had here, in this bottle, some three or four specimens of the curculio,
that enemy of the fruits of our country. He did not know of many bugs or
birds that fed on them, but he found that the oriole does, and they are
probably the food of those kinds of birds that feed on beetles.

Mr. Wm. R. Prince then read the following:

The grass specimens sent to the Society by Mrs. Mary Treat, of Iowa, are:

Hierochloa horealis, Seneca grass or Sweet Summer grass, described by
Torrey & Gray, and in Eaton's Manual of Botany. It is perennial, and
found abundantly in the Newark and Hackensack meadows, in the environs
of Seneca lake, and in many localities in the Western States. It is
remarkable for its sweet and pleasant odor. It is a native, creeping
species, and spreads rapidly. In the eastern hemisphere, however, they
possess a grass of a distinct genus, which presents a counterpart of our
own Seneca grass, as to character.

The Anthoxantum odoratum, or Sweet scented Vernal grass, has a
similar sweet and agreeable perfume. It is a native of the northern coun-
tries of Europe, and for the simple circumstance that it is an exotic and
far-fetched, it is much cultivated in the flower borders of our gardens,
while acres of a native grass, of a similar and in some respects of a supe-

, 620 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

rior cliavactcr, which absolutely suiTound this city, arc passed by daily,
unnoticed and unknown.

The subject of the evening was then considered.

Early Fruits.

Mr. "Wra. S. Carpenter said he was passionately fond of fruit culture,
and took a deep interest in the improvement of flowers. We see every
season what great improvements have been made in flowers all over the
country b}'- the different horticulturists, and the improvements of different
kinds of fruit that were originally worthless. This would go to show
that thej' were left by the Creator for man to cultivate and improve. Some
persons, who see the bouquets on the tables, may think that the flowers
were made so originally by nature, but they would scarcely be recognized
as belonging to the original. It was so with the wild crab apple and
native strawberry. These fruits were made what they are by cultivation
and by crossing. An advantage we have over former times is, that we
are not now confined to fruits that grow in our neighborhood. Who is
there now that is satisfied with tasting fruit raised in his own country?
We have before us flowers, most of them came from Europe; some from
Japan and China. This latter country has contributed largely in flowers,
but little in fruit. Perhaps France has done more for the cause of horti-
culture than any other country. He had within the last few years endea-
vored to collect the fruits of that countr}^ and now had in his possession
most of the fruits that are approved there, and the possession of which is
ample compensation for all his labor in collecting them. He felt a pleasure
in working among the trees tliat are j'^early producing their luscious fruits,
not only for the good they afforded him, but for the pleasure he derived in
distributing them among others.

Mr. P. B. Mead then made some remarks on the strawberry. There is a
class of cultivators who look upon its culture entirely with reference to
profit, while with the amateur it is a matter of pure taste. An amateur
who grows strawberries only for his own table, wants a tender, juicy,
high-flavored berry; and if size and beauty are added, so much the better.
For his own part, he would prefer a moderate crop of Burr's New Pine, to
bushels of Wilson's Albany. He was becoming rather nice in his taste,
and would choose a little that is good to a great deal that is bad. xVmateurs
would select high-flavored berries, and turn over the Wilson to those who
grow for the market. Now is it good policy for horticulturists to pander
to uneducated tastes, or should they not rather aim at a higher standard?
One of the objects of a horticultural society, like this, is to establish a
standard of taste. The public buy fruit with the familiar names without
much regard to quality, and are often imposed upon

The Bartlett is a good pear, and people know it to be so; but the unedu-
cated are often imposed upon by persons selling inferior pears under the
name of Bartlett. The people need information such as they can only
obtain by attending horticultural meetings and fruit shows. Dealers in
fruit constantly deceive, instead of instructing the people. The summer
Bon Chretien, an inferior pear, is often sold in this city under the name of
Bartlett. People need to be educated by the eye and taste. He gave half

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 621

of a pear to au individual, telliug him it was the Bartlctt, wliich he pro-
nounced to be very fiue; then lie gave him the other half under another
name, which he said was not near as good as the first. He ventured to
say that examples of this kind are very common.

There is a great diversity of opinion in regard to the foreign strawberry.
He was inclined to think that they are not adapted to our country. The
Triomphe de 'Gand, La Constante, and a few others, he had seen grown
very successfully here, but there was no foreign strawberry that will com-
pare with our own native varieties for hardiness. It is not underrating
foreign strawberries to say that they will not suit our climates. He had
at one time 360 different kinds of strawberries. Many of them were from
abroad; but he found that most of them required a great deal of nursing,
more than he wished to give them, and after two or three seasons he threw
many of them out, and he would advise others to do so, and replace them
with our native varieties. The soil that he found best adapted to the
strawberry and fruits generally, was one abounding in carbonaceous mat-
ter, such as muck, decayed leaves, &c. This is Nature's pabulum; it is
that on which she nurses her first-born; it is that upon which she builds
her forests, and upon which she feeds her choicest productions. What is
wanted is a light, carbonaceous soil, and a little manure with it. The
carbon can be got into the soil in the form of muck, leaves, charcoal dust,
etc.; the manure should be old and well rotted. With such a soil there
would not only be an abundance of fruit but also of good quality.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

June 14, 1864.

A meeting of the Association was held at the room of the Institute, at 8
o'clock P. M., the president, B. C. Townsend, Esq., in the chair.

During the miscellaneous business quite an animated discussion arose on
a motion of Mr. Peter B. Mead to appoint a committee to endeavor to secure
a location, in the Central Park, for holding the spring exhibitions, in
which General Hall, Messrs. Mead, Hogg, Carpenter acd the President
took part. The motion was finally laid over.

The Strawberry.

Mr. Peter B. Mead said he occupied some little time at the last meeting
in discussing some general points of strawberry culture. He then spoke
of there being two kinds of strawberries, one for the epicure and another
for the market. The time would come when there would be no distinction
of this kind, as the cultivation of the finer kinds of strawberries and
fruits generally would become more popular. It is not quite so now, as
the public taste is not yet educated to that point. In reference to the pre-
paration of the ground for the strawberry bed, he would remark, in the
first place, that the ground could not be too thoroughly prepared. It
ought to be worked at least two feet deep — two and a half feet would be
better — a soil somewhat like light loam would be best. With that he
would incorporate a large quantity of carbonaceous matter in the form of

622 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

muck, leaves, charcoal and things of that kind. These peculiar substances
have the character of attracting from the atmosphere the elements that are
required to nourish the plant. They not only give color to the soil, but
also flavor to the fruit.

Let a piece of ground, twenty feet square, be prepared, one-half with
carbonaceous matter in the soil and the other half without it, or in the
ordinary way, and it will be found that the fruit in the half that contains
the carbonaceous material will be very high flavored, while the other will
be ver}"- inferior. He spoke confidently, as he experimented in this matter
for years, and he therefore would recommend this carbonaceous matter for
all kinds of plants and soil, whether it be a clay soil or pure sand, and if
stimulants are to be used they should be of light manure that has laid for
years and become very rotten. Soil prepared as he indicated requires
very little stimulants to grow strawberries in great perfection. The
Hooker, La Constante and Triomphe de Gand are good kinds of strawber-
ries to plant, and there are some few other kinds that will probably take a
place by their side. In selecting plants we should discard every kind ot
acid fruits. The strawberry should contain the sweetness within Itself.
It should not be that to make it palatable it must be smothered with
sugar, particularly as the present price of that article forbids its liberal
use. The true strawberry should be sweet without any sugar at all.
They ought to be the same as the apple that you can make one or two
bites of, according to the size. He would then discourage the planting of
strawberries that possess a large amount of acid. There are many kinds
that are as full and productive, and some a good deal better. They are
sweet and very palatable. The Wilson is a very productive kind of straw-
berry, and he would not exactly discourage its cultivation; but there are
many kinds that are better, and more that are a good deal better. Select
strawberry plants for flavor alone, and be sure to get those that will endure
the heat of summer and the cold of winter. The foreign varieties will not
do this, as he found them to fail in this respect. The Triomphe de Gaud and
the Bonte de St. Julien are good for hardiness, and are very suitable to
plant in a garden.

Now, as to the best time for planting, some will tell you the spring is
best, and others will say the fall; and again, some will tell you to plant
whenever you can get them. In the main they are all right; but in a cer-
tain measure they are wrong. If a strawberry plant is taken up in the
fall, with ordinary care, it may be transported 400 or 500 miles and bear
in the spring, but we should prefer to cut the fruit stalk out. They can be
planted in the early spring with the certainty of having ninety-nine per
cent of them thrive well,. and they may be planted in the fall, say the mid-
dle of September, provided that on the approach of winter the plants are
covered with a litter of some kind to prevent them from being thrown out
of the ground by the frost, for the roots of new plants do not attain a hold
in the ground during the first season to prevent this from taking place
during the winter, and, for the want of a little straw placed over them in
winter, many fine plants have failed. There is no reason why even one in
a hundred should die. For his part, he preferred the month of September
to any other month of the year. He had planted strawberries until the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 623

ground was frozen. For years past he had done this, even in the month
of Dcceuiber, but he always covered them with a litter of straw, and
whenever, by accident, this was neglected, they would be sure to fail, ai\d
fie deserved to loose thera. He planted last season eighteen different kinds,
and those planted during the last week of November are the strongest of
any planted throughout the whole season; but it so happened that last
winter was very favorable for this purpose. Select kinds that are noted
for their flavor, and do not plant straight in the ground, but spread out the
roots and get the soil well about the roots, and there is no reason why
they should not grow to four and five inches in circumference. A straw-
berry plant that throws out a massive head will always be sure to be very
productive and fine. This is a noted fact that good plants are distin-
guished in this way. A strawberry that has made some noise, and a very
good plant, called the agriculturist; he had seen a bed of them a few days
ago, and he found, by counting, that the first plant contained 294 berries,
the second plant 248, and the third 223, and these were mere infants, not
quite a year old. Now if they do this in the green state, what will they
do when they are full grown? He did not think he was betraying any
secret if he told where he had seen these plants. They wei-e on the
grounds of Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter, who deserved great credit for his per-
severance and skill in horticulture.

In answer to the following query: "Shall strawberries be planted in
rows or hills?" His practice was to plant in beds, the rows one foot apart,
and four rows in a bed, and to plant from fifteen to eighteen inches apart,
according to the kind of plants, and so arranged that a person could walk
between the rows without treading upon the beds. As strawberry beds
are usually made, it is impossible to pick them without injuring the beds
and destroying a great many berries, in which case the beds in a few years
run out. Here is a box of strawberries placed on the table this evening
that did not require much to be said of them, as they spoke for themselves.
They are from seedlings raised by myself eight years ago. The}' thrive
under a great variety of circumstances, and are a very good fruit. These
were grown in pure sand, and under very unfavorable conditions, and they
show clearly what can be produced without hardly any culture. The
flowers have been imperfectly developed, and hence the berries are some-
what out of shape; but they are very good. Some are hardly ripe enough
to show their true flavor, and their size could be much increased. He had
grown some six and six and a half inches in circumference.

Mr. James Hogg then read the following paper on

JThe Principles of Taste Applied to Floral Decorations and

Designs.
Mr. President and Ladies and Gentlemen :

The aphorism, " de giislibus non dispidandinn" I have no doubt is familiar
to you all, and although it is often quoted to prove that the principles of
taste are not govefned by any fixed rules, but are dependant upon the
whims and fancies of each and every individual, j'ct, I think, upon a pro-
per analysis, and careful study, it will be found lo admit of a more strin-

624 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE

gent and elevated intei-pretation, and really to mean that the rules of taste
are predicated upon principles as fixed and rigorous in their application as
t'jose of mathematics or any of the exact sciences.

While on this occasion I do not intend to go into an elaborate and
detailed analysis or examination of all of these rules and principles, for
your time would not permit of my doing so, yet I propose to glance at such of ^
them as have a direct bearing upon the subject of this evening's con-
sideration.

To many perhaps the theme may not be thought worthy of much con-
sideration, as not being sufficiently practical and utilitarian in its bearings;
but it must be borne in mind that whatever tends to elevate our thoughts,
to render our homes more elegant and attractive, and exercises a refining
influence over us, is as much a matter of utility and has as much practical
bearing on our lives and happiness as subjects which have for their object
the increase of crops on a given area, or the enhanced values measured by
the price currents of the markets.

I shall more particularly address mj'self to the ladies, as it is a subject
which especially commends itself to them, for I have never known a lady,
of taste and refinement who was not delighted with, or could not appreciate
a tastefully arranged bouquet or floral design.

One of the greatest faults in the present fashion of arranging floral
designs is their stiffness and formality; bouquets are made in the form of
a stone-cutter's mallet, and exhibit a ponderosity almost as great; the
centre piece for a dinner table exhibits a solidity of form almost if not
quite equal to that of a sirloin of beef, or any other " piece de resistance"
which the culinary artist may find necessary to introduce. Does a gallant
send a basket of flowers to his inimorata, it will often be found arranged
in ribbons of color, perhaps with a five or six pointed star in the centre, or
may be a spread eagle; do we attend the obsequies of a deceased friend
we find the cofiin literally covered with crosses, anchors, harps, crowns and
similar designs, as though such things could ever be appropriately made
out of anything but wood, iron, or other metal, or precious gems. At our
floral exhibitions we find spades or plows made of wood smothered in
Dahlias and marygolds; or, as such occasions frequently occur near elec-
tion time, we find temples of liberty, suggested by the first political poster,
posted on the nearest dead wall, made of verbenas and clnysantliemums,
and what is worse we find premiums awarded to their manufacturers as for
floral designs. All such things are execrably devoid of taste, and should
be kicked out of the exhibition rooms as outrageous impertinences.

The fundamental principle of taste is creative power, and it must always
be exhibited if we would command respect or consideration for our work.
It is this which distinguishes genius from talent; genus in works of art
imitates nature — talent copies her. The one paints a picture ; the other
makes an anatomical or scientific drawing. He who creates or produces^
the greatest eflect from the smallest amount of material has the greater '
genius, as showing the greater creative power, and his works give greater
pleasure than do those of him who has to bring in a larger number of acces-
sories to produce the same or similar efi*ects. For this reason sculpture
always ranks higher than painting, and is of a higher order of genius, and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 025

is the rarer of the two gifts, for comparatively there are sculptors few and
painters many. One has to depend, entirely upon beauty of form and
sitiiplicity of material to produce pleasant emotions in the beholder; the
other has to call in the aid of colors and certain accessories of light and
shade to produce the same or similar emotions.

For this reason floral designs made of fern leaves or other foliage, always
to a cultivated and critical taste, produce the most pleasant emotions, as
the eii'ects produced alwa^-s indicate greater creative power than if they
had the accessories of color and the greater variety of lines to be found in
tlowers. Some of the exquisite designs of the silversmith, wrought in
bright and frosted silver of palm leaves or fern leaves, or similar foliage,
will exemplify what I mean if contrasted with the elaborately wrought and
colored work of the choicest Sevres or Dresden China. The exquisite
beauty of well arranged phantom bouquets is referable to this source; the
material itself is almost despicable, j^et the wonderful creative power dis-
plaj'cd in the marvellous traceries and wondrous variety and grace of form,
lill us with astonishment, and call into play the highest and most delight-
ful emotions of the mind.

Success in such designs depends much upon the objects in view, which
necessarily can be but two and they the opposite of each other, and yet
according to the character of the artistic treatment will equal degrees of
pleasure be given. Either we must use the simple and delicate forms to
ornament some other object, when they become subordinate, or we must
make them the principal objects to the eye and so make them of primary
importanco. In the first case the object decorated must be of more value
intrinsically than the material used in the decoration ; in the second case
the object containing them, or to which they are attached, must not appear
to be of as much value as the material used. For instance, if you have a
beautiful vase or other central piece (jf silver, you may arrange fern leaves
of the more common or familiar species around its foot, or upon its stem,
or in its cup, and so produce delightful effects of beauty by contrast, by
contrasting the elegant lightness of the foliage with the more massive
elegance of the silver, while beauty by harmony is preserved by the foliage
being all of one color though in diflerent shades. In the other case you
require more rare and less known species and of greater variety of curious
forms and shades of color, as in this case they are presented to the eye on
account of their value as rarities as well as for their beautj'^; we must be
careful that the object whicli contains them, or to which they are attached,
appear not to be of greater value than themselves, hence a fine glass or
simple porcelain vase or ornament is the more suitable for our purpose.
But care must be had that we do not go to an extreme; the glass or vase
must be of sufficient value either in intrinsic quality or workmanship as
to aid in suggesting the idea of the value of its contents by showing them
U) be worthy of such a support. This brings me to the consideration of
another principle, viz : that the material must be worthy of the labor
bestowed upon it. There ought to be in all productions of art a certain
nobility of character . which should show that they are the products of
intelligence or mental effort, and not the products of mere mechanical
skill; and the embodiments of such intelligence or thought should be of
[Am Inst.] N*

623 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

materials correspondent in value thereto. I recollect some years ag-o
seeing some pictures exhibited in this city which were made of tufted
wool dyed of the necessary and suitable colors to render them, not copies,
out representations of some of the noble paintings of the old masters.
They had cost the artist, if such he could be railed, an infinity of labor and
manual skill, and yet for all that they were not pictures, they were simply
tufted wool dyed and skillfully arranged. So, too, you may see disgracing
our park a statue cut in red sandstone, which no doubt cost the workman
who made it much manual labor, but it is not a statue, it is an effigy, and
would be so if it had been cut by Powers or Crawford. I have often seen
at our fairs and exhibitions premiums oifered or given for bouquets of wild
flowers, and have never yet seen an instance of an elegant bouquet or
design made of such materials. There is among plants as among all other
forms of created objects a certain nobility oi- aristocracy of class. Some
are created no doubt simply to provide for the sustenance or similar needs
of mankind, for others we can find no other use, but that a noble use, to
please the eye or gratify the olfactory sense of men, or looking further
they may be the gems which the Creator has employed to decorate his foot-
stool withal.

Therefore, eschew all the sentimentalities and poetry so called of the
woodland and forest, for while they are all proper enough in their place
they are not suitable for the object we have in view; and if a beautiful
thought or design suggests itself to your mind, work it out in the best
flowers you can procure. Let them be cultivated flowers, suggestive of
care and skill in their production, and suggesting also the sacrificing of
the material for the intellectual.

Fitness of purpose is another principle which must be attended to in
floral decorations. As such decorations are used on so many various occa-
sions, each having a more or less remote significance, it is necessary to
carefully avoid incongruity of purpose. A design intended for a festive
board, when its elegance or beauty would be suggestive of the most joyous
emotions, would be out of place at the funeral of a friend, as its tendency
would be to attract attention to itself and away from the considerations
suggested by the mournful occasion. At a funeral the flowers should be
subdued in color, should be arranged in a more careless and unartful way
than on other occasions. They should simply be accessories to the occa-
sion, not prominent features of it; should be suggestive of affectionate
regard, and be a simple token of our love and esteem for the deceased.
Elaborately wrought designs of anchors, harps, crosses, &c., are not to be
tolerated. They are simply impertinent displays of vulgarity varnished
over with a sickly sentimentality. Simple wreaths, as for instance of
lamarque or safrano rose buds with their own foliage, are not only elegant,
but appeal to our better feelings through their simplicity. Aside fronr
these bouquets of choice and fragrant flowers, such as we would ofier to the
deceased if in life are appropriate. Convenience requires that they should
be made flat if to be laid on the coffin.

It is the custom among us to decorate the fonts and chancels of our
churches on Easter Sunday, in commemoration of the resurrection of our
Saviour, and ignorant fashion requires that the flowers used should be

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 627

white. From time immemorial, in all countries of the eartli, there has been
a symbolism of colors, which, especially in religious ceremonies and deco-
rations, has been strictly observed and practiced. According to this syni-
bolism two principles, light and darkness, produce all colors. Light is
represented by white, and darkness by black; but as light does not exist
"without fire, red is also used to represent it, and on this basis symbolism
admits two primitive colors, red and white. Ked is the sj'mbol of divine
love; white the symbol of divine wisdom and uncreated right. Ked, in its
various shades, was continually used as a prevailing color in the vestments
of the priests, as it is to this day in the Roman church, and by a tradition
of practice the cushions of our pulpits and the covering of the communion
tables are of this color. In tlie great mysteries of Eleusis a child was
always initiated and performed a character emblematic of death, hence he
was called the cliild of the sanctjaary, and to this day choir boys in our
churches wear red vestments The artists of the middle ages always gave
to Christ, after his resurrection, robes of red and white. Yellow was a
sj'mbol of the revelation of the love and wisdom of God. Azure was the
symbol of divine eternity and of human immortality. From this it will
appear that if we undertake on such occasions to emblematize, we should
do it with studious care, or else we shall be apt to commit anachronisms.
In placing flowers on the communion table, or in the font, on such a festi-
val, we should not choose white only, but should choose such colors as are
befitting to express the ideas we wish to symbolize. As those who so use
flowers believe in the divinity of Christ, the flowers should, in their pre-
vailing colors, be red, white, yellow and azure. Red, as indicating his
divine love; white, as indicating his divine wisdom and emanation from
the Father; yellow as a revelation of his love in dying for us, and azure,
as emblematic of his immortality and divine eternity. I could pursue this
interesting subject much further, and explain the symbolism of other colors
and their various shades, and also the ideas conveyed in their combinations
and use, but it is not necessary to do so at present.

Stifi'ness and a regular formality are especially to be avoided in arrang-
ing boufjuets for vases. Lightness and gracefulness are especially to be
sought for; but if heavy solid flowers, such as camelias, or roses, or pseo-
nies, or similar flowers are used, they ought to be used by themselves with
their own foliage, and not intermixed with lighter flowers or foliage. Such
flowers, however, are better adapted for baskets where massiveness of
efiect is not so much out of character. I would especially call your atten-
tion to using as much as possible the foliage properly belonging to the
flowers themselves; it invariably harmonizes better with the flowers than
the foliage of any other species. As a general rule it will be found, upon
close examination, that the foliage belonging to every plant suitable for
decorative purposes, has a certain beauty, either by harmony or contrast,
with the flowers it produces. Take the rose, for instance, in its full blown
state. Its petals are rounded and involved in their lines of arrangement,
whilst the foliage is pointed; in this state it produces beauty by contrast
of lines. But the buds are pointed, the swelling curve of the outline being
similar to the beautiful curve of the leaves; in this state it produces beauty
by harmony of lines. Again, take the camolia. Alone, without foliage,

628 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

it is a cold, unimpassioned flower; but when combined with its rich, glossy
foliage, with its acute termination, it produces a magnificent effect, through
the beautiful play of light reflected from its leaves, and the contrast of
their noble curved lines and their yet harmonious substance with the regu-
lar, dull, wax-work appearance of the flower.

Bouquets for the hand should bo of the choicest flowers gracefully
arranged ; heavy solid flowers, or massive arrangement should be as much
as possible avoided. Such bouquets are necessarily brought under the
closest inspection of the eye, and should be composed of flowers of delicate
structure, or great rarity, or exquisite fragrance. The present style of
immense size, composed of solid flowers, scarcely if at all relieved by
foliage, issonly suggestive of some enormous variegated or pied fungus,
hung with silk fringe, or put up in lace paper. I have often noticed at
evening entertainments, that they literally became a burden to their fair
possessors. For successful effect in floral decoration, much depends upon
the judicious arrangement of color; violent contrasts are especially to be
avoided, as is also the sameness, produced by having too much of one color.

In producing harmonious contrast of colors, it should be remembered that
there are only three primitive colors, red, blue and yellow, from these arise
what are called binary or secondary colors, namely, orange composed of
yellow and red, purple composed of blue and red, and green composed of
yellow and blue, these form contrasting colors to the primary three with
which they are in harmonious opposition, as the orange with blue, purple
with yellow and green with red. From the combination of these seconda-
ries arise three tertiary colors, olive from purple and green, citron from
green and orange, and russet from orange and purple. These tertiary colors
harmonize with the primitives, as they stand in the relation of neutral
tints to them, but are in harmonious opposition to the secondaries from
which they were combined. Red, blue and yellow, harmonize with each
other and may be placed in juxtaposition, but purple should not be placed
near red or blue, as it is composed of those two colors ; for the same reason
orange should not be placed next to yellow or red, or green next to yellow
or blue. The rule being that no primary color should be brought in con-
tact with a secondary color of which it is itself a component part, nor any
secondary color brought in contact with a tertiary color of which it is a
component part. Another rule is that the secondary and tertiary and the
neutral hues arising from the tertiaries, such as brown, maroon, puce, slate,
lavender, &c., should be used in the greatest quantities, and the primaries
used in smaller quantity for heightening the effect. If you lack the proper
shades for producing the necessary harmonies and find that two colors do
not harmonize well, separate them by some white flower. Again, you
should always place your brightest color in the centre of your design, and
gradually decrease the intensity of the tints as you approach the exterior.
This was the almost invariable practice of Van Huysen, so celebrated as a
painter of flowers ; he was also in the habit of using but one prevailing
color, so as to avoid spottiness or patchiness in his groups.

But, Mr. President, I fear that I trespass on j'our time and patience, and
will therefore conclude my remarks. I trust that we shall see at our exhi-
bitions specimens of the taste of our lady amateurs, especially in floral deco-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. .629

rations for the tabic. Such decorations imparl an air of elegance and
refinement to an apartment or to a festive occasion, and if the desultory
remarks which 1 have had the honor of offering to you should afford any
instructive hints, and aid any of my hearers to carry out some pleasant or
beautiful idea, I shall feel pleasure in the thought that I have been the
means of affording any assistance to them.

Mr. Bull moved that a vote of thanks bo tendered to Messrs. Mead and
Hogg ft)r the interesting remarks made by them, and that they be requested
to furnish copies thereof for the Transactions of the Association. Carried.

The Secretary called the attention of the members to some bunches of the
Wistaria alba, a seedling from the W. Fortescue, brought by Mr. A. S, Fuller,
of Brooklyn. This plant he received last year from Messrs. EUwanger &
Barry, of Rochester, who produced it from seed.

On motion, adjourned to Tuesday, the 28th of June, at 8 o'clock.

John W. Chambers, liec. Sec'y.

June 28, 1864.

Mr. Berljamin C. Townsend, President, in the chair.

Mr. Wm. R. Prince read a paper on Garden and Orchard Fruit, particu-
larly the strawbery, embracing most of the matter presented by him at the
Farmers' Club in 1862. *

On motion of Mr. A. Nash, the thanks of the Association were given to
Mr. Prince for his very interesting remarks.

Mr. Nash said that it seemed to be a desire of Nature that the human
family should live on the fruits of the earth. We are informed that our
first parents lived in a garden, and subsisted on the fruits thereof. Animal
food was then unknown. So we sec that fruit was the original food of
niJiM. It is a diet that the sick person longs for, and which aids very mate-
rially in his recovery when animal food is forbidden.

As to the strawberry, it is the only fruit that will grow within the Arctic
circle. It is found even at Spitzbergen on the south side of the line. But
in order to have the fruit sweet, a certain heat is necessary, hence it is that
our sweet fruits are found only further south. The remarks of Mr. Prince
have been so very interesting and instructive, he moved that he be re-
quested to address the Association at some future meeting on the subject
of the grape. The resolution was adopted.

The Strawberry.

Jlr. Prince, in answer to several inquiries by the President, said that
the strawberry failed in England on account of disregarding the law of
the sexuality of the plant. Prof. Lindsley, who for twenty years past,
has been tiie editor of the London Horticulturist, a journal widely circu-
lated in England, has always warred against the sexuality of the straw-
berry. Some two years ago he (Mr. Prince) took up this subject and
wrote an article, which was published in the New York Horticulturist, in
which this subject was treated at lengtli, and which was copied into the
London Technologist, occupying some twelve pages. Yet, notwithstand-

G30 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ing- all that has been said and written on this subject, the English still
adhere to the idea of the non-sexuality of the strawberry, and say that
nature had made a mistake in making two kinds, so that for the last sixty
years it has been a common practice in Europe to eradicate the male
strawberry plant, so that now a perfect crop of this fruit is unknown there,
and in order to produce any kind of a respectable crop all the flowers but
one or two have to be taken off. The inferior yield of this fruit in Europe
is solely in consequence of the destruction of the male plant. If we here
destroyed the female plant it would have the same result. The European
and American strawberry can never be hybridized, but the South and
North American species can. Some fifteen years ag'o Pi'of. Huntsman and
himself succeeded in hybridizing them, they produced most beautiful flow-
ers but bore no fruit.

Mr. R. G. Pardee said his experience in raising strawberries seemed to
be somewhat difierent to others. He had been given some plants to try in
his garden, merely as an experiment, and at that time he knew very little
about their cultm'e. He plowed the earth some 2| to 3 feet deep, and put
in the plants, and in the following spring they produced monstrous heads;
but having succeeded so well at the commencement he thought he would
try and improve on the next. With this view he commenced raking in the
manure, and he thought he had the ground in the best possible condition
for the following spring. In due time the}' came forth, and their foliage
was of the most massive kind, but the result was that they did not have
hardly any fruit. This perplexed him very much, and for 8 years he tried
to solve the problem. He consulted the late Mr. Downing and others, and
at one time he had a man employed for two days on a bed of some 20 feet
square. After thoroughly plowing the soil and mixing the old with the
new, he found to his surprise that they bore profusely. His error was in
feeding his plants too highly, in which case they would bloom beautifully,
but would bear no fruit. With less stimulants and the application of bark
and ashes he got his soil to its original productiveness. He then kept a
record of what it cost to raise them, and found that his strawberries cost
him fifty cents a bushel, and on a bed of fifty by sixty feet he picked fifteen
bushels. The strawberry is one of the most delightful fruits that can be
cultivated. He raised some of four and four and a half inches in circumfe-
rence. Next to good soil is having fine plants. To get these is very diffi-
cult. Barren plants are not only unproductive but they also destroy what-
ever good ones near which they may be placed. He used ashes very largely
and also swamp muck, which he decomposed with salt. A proportion of a
bushel of lime to a bushel of salt will decompose manure very quickly.

A very large display of cut flowers from the nursery of Mr, Wm. R.
Prince, adorned the tables. Their names and peculiarities were explained
by him, after which they were made up into bouquets and preserited to the
ladies.

After selecting fruits of the season for the next discussion, the associa-
tion adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTUEAL ASSOCIATION. G31

August 2, 1864.

Mr. J. AV. Barrow, Vice-President, in the chair.

The Association selected the following gentlemen to be submitted to the
American In.stitute, as their choice for the committee on horticulture :
Messrs. B. C. Townsend, J. W. Barrow, James Hogg, Peter B. Mead and
John Henderson.

On motion, the following gentlemen were appointed a committee to con-
fer with the board of managers in relation to holding a fall exhibition :
Messrs. Townsend, Mead and Hogg.

On motion of Mr. Mead, the following delegates were nominated for
appointment by the Institute, to attend the National Pomological Society
to meet at Rochester : Messrs. B. C. Townsend, Peter B. Mead, Wm. S.
Carpenter, Nathan C. Ely, Isaac M. Ward, John Cr. Bergen and Isaac
Buchanan.

Fruits in their Season.

The subject selected was then taken up.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter said he brought some specimens of this season's
fruit for exhibition. As will be seen, they are very small, owing to the
remarkably unfavorable season ; he feared many kinds of fruit will hardly
come up to fair. In some the quality of the fruit is not well developed,
and again there are others that have ripened before their time. When we
see no larger specimens than those on the table, there must be something
the matter. The drouth this season has been more severe than he had ever
known it before. He had lost a great number of trees that have been
standing out several years. That day he noticed twelve that had perished;
also several shrubs. This convinced him that i(^as a most severe drouth.
The fruit has nearly all fallen, but where there was any dampness in the
soil it held on the tree. Such specimens as these are as fine as we can get
them. This is the Prince apple, one of the finest kinds we have, but
should be much larger tlian this. The fruit this year is very fair, but very
small; he would place the Prince among the best of our fruits; and although
it is a very old apple, there are very few that know anything about it; he
supposed not one in a thousand that ever saw it. He had a tree which is
at least fifty years old, and perhaps a hundred, and yet it is not to be
found with the nurseryman. He would advise everj'one that wishes a good
apple to plant the Prince. The next best apple is that sent from Germany
some twenty-five years ago, called the Gravenstein ; it is a long time ripen-
ing, which makes it more valuable. The next apple is the Red Astrachan,
also from German^', which is very saleable in market, but he would not
recommend it as a table apple. Here are some Middleton pears originally
brought from France, although they have been cultivated here for over a
hundred j-ears. He took a great interest in fruit culture, and was now
making it a study to procure all new varieties, with a view of determining
their true value. He had some three hundred varieties of pears, and nearly
the same number of apples, and he had learned that each variety was valu-
able for particular purposes. To stimulate improvements in this direction,
he would suggest that a standing premium be offered for the best apple,
pear, grape or strawberry. There are many new seedlings being intro-

6d*J TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

duooil hoiv which are muoh sought afior. "Wo huvo tlio Chipp's Fhvvor,
which avo soUl at tivo doHars a troo, and luoro whips at that. An incroas-
ing intorest is growing* in favor of improved fruits. Some oightoou or
twenty years ago tlie first Rartlett pears were sent to Washington market.
but no one could be got to bid tor them ; this year lie thought they couUl
easily comniaud 25 dollars per barrel. Hundreds of acres could be set out
Avith the Bartlett pear, and still the market would uut bo overstocked.
The thousands annually sent to market does not supply the demand. The
millions of acres now planted with fruit in this country is not sufticient for
the wants of the people. To-day there are not enough Isabella grapes in
market to supply the demand. He would therefore urge everyone to plant
OTchards with fruit. There need be no fear of an over supply, for the
increasing taste for improved fruit, experience has taught us, has always
been greater than the supply.

Mr. James Hogg said he had seen fruit ripen and color beautifully by
being placed between blankets in a dark room; the blankets he found much
better than wool or cotton. Fruit-growers have observed that the blankets
give a particular bright red color, and it does not appear to take anything
from the fruit like the cotton or wool. By its not absorbing moisture from
the fruit, the blanket makes the best for this purpose.

Mr. Mead exhibited some fine specitnens of blotched and edged petunias,
presented by Mrs. Barrow. They were raised in her garden in this city.

Adjourned. Joux W. Cu.vmukrs, Seorianj.

i August im, IS 64.

Jfr. J. "W. Barrow, Vice-President, in the chair.

The Secretary reported that the gentlemen named at the last meeting of
the association were duly elected the committee on Horticulture of the
American Institute, He also reported tbat the gentlemen nominated as
delegates to the National Pomological Society liad Ihhmi appointed.

On motion of Mr. P. B. Mead, it was resolved that the Horticultural
Association of the American Institute hold au exhibition of fruit and flowers
in their rooms, at such time as may be selected by the committee having
charge of the exhibition.

On motion of Mr. Hogg, it was resolved that the committee on Horticul-
ture of the American Institute have charge of the exhibition this fall, and
that they fix the days for the same.

On motion of Mr. Hogg, it was also resolved that the premium committee
of the Horticidtural Association be requested to make out the premium list
for the contemplated exhibition, and report the same within ten days from
this date to the board of managers of the American Institute for their
approval.

Fruits in their Se.\son.

The subject for discussion was then taken up.

Mr. "Win. S. Carpenter — Pomology, although in its infancy in this coun-
try, has made rapid strides within the last few years, and we are glad to
know that the public taste has been improved, which will cause many of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. C33

the worthlcjsH varietieB of fruit to be diHcarded, and the Inscious progres-
sive fi(:<:i\\iu'^H rif this country and of Europe will take their placeH. One
of the rno.st prominent ohjectH of this Bociety in to diHHerninate knowledge,
HO that tlie amateur and the orcliardiMt may plant »ur;h varieties of fruit as
will carry on the good work in which we are interested.

I propose to-night to Hpeak of the pear and its improved European seed-
lingH. The following varieties, I think, possess sufficient merit to recom-
mend their introduction into general cultivation:

The Doyenne de (Jf/mmice. — Fruit large, yellow. Season October and
November. This is one of the most promising new pears, and will, I think,
become popular when it is better known.

The Ilenkd. — Hather large, yf;llow, slightly russeted, buttery, melting
and fine. One of the best of Van Mons' seedlings. Season, October.

The De longres. — A very laige and beautiful pear of excelleutquality.
It has been fruited in this country about four years, and is a promising
variety. Ripening in September and Octol>er.

The De Nonnen. — A good sized pear. I have fruited this variety for
several years. It proves to be a pear of the first quality, coming early into
bearing. Season September and Octf>ber.

Duchefn de Jierry d) Ele. — .\ medium sized pear, very handsome and of
first quality. Kipening the last of August.

The Jieurre Hardy. — A large pear of first quality. This pear may be
safely introduced into general cultivation. Season last of September.

Fonda,nle de Ch/xmeuHe. — A very beautiful and excellent new Belgian
variety, as large as the Bartlett. Kipening in October.

ManninrfH Etizaleth. — A medium sized pear, ripening in August. This
variety should be introduced into the smallest collection. It is one of oor
best summer pears.

Doyenne de Ilicer d^Aleneon. — A goo4 sized pear of excellent quality
keeping until April.

Beurre St. Nicholas, Heurre Kennun, Madam Eliza o:ad WiJ.I//raoz are
varieties promising to be of the first order.

The pear tree is a native of Asia. It is found growing wild with the
apple, but it is hardier and a much longer lived tree. There are trees on
record of great size and age. Several in England are known to be over
400 years old. They are natural seedlings, or wildlings, which produce
what is called the perry pear. The fruit is worthless except for making
perry, a pear cider. From one of these trees more than fifteen hogsheads
of perry was made in one year. We have some remarkable pear trees in
this country. There is one in Illinois the girth of its trunk one foot from
the ground, is ten feet, and it is enormously productive ; it yielded in one
season 184 bushels of pears. . We have a most remarkable pear tree not
more than a hundred yards from this building, the seed of which was
planted more than 250 years ago, by Peter Stuyvesant, Governor of the
Dutch colony. It is quite vigorous and bearing annually a crop of pleasant
Summer pears, quite attractive in appearance. When we look back to
the days of Duhamel, Miller, Forsyth and others, who cultivated the Bon-
chraton, Martin Sec, Messire Jean, Blankets, and pears of that sort, and
compare them with the Beurre Superfijie, Beurre Hardy, Doyenne de Com-

634 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

mice, Honkel, Detongres, and others, which have been produced in our
day by Van Mons, Porteau, Diel, Bivort and others, we are led to inquire
"whether these genilemen have exhausted the subject, or whether we are to
look for the same relative progress within the next twenty-five years as has
already been made in the production of the fine varieties alluded to. Van
Mons who spent a life time in ameliorating the condition of the pear,
adopted the theory that the pear must be improved by degrees, or by pro-
gression, commencing with the wildling and planting the seed of each
successive generation, and training the tree so as to induce it to fruit,
rather than to vigorous growth. He discovered that in the fifth or sixth
generation all the excellence of that variety had been fully developed, and
any further effort to improve it caused it to return to the condition of the
wildling.

Although Van Men's theory is repudiated in this day, yet his name will
be handed down to future generations, as one zealously engaged in improv-
ing the condition of the pear, and it will be a long time before his seedlings
such as the Buerre Bosc, Buerre Diel, Paradise d'Automne, Henkel, Man-
nings Elizabeth, and a host of others, will be discarded.

The improvement of fruit has resulted from scientific culture. The
pollen of the Flemish Beauty is carefully transferred to the blossom of the
Bartlett, and the result of this union is the Clapp's Favorite, a pear of
great excellence and beauty. Is there any reason why we cannot jn-oduce
winter varieties of pears of the finest quality ; as beautiful and smooth as
the Bartlett? Why cannot we have, instead of the rough exterior of some
of our late sorts, those of fair skins, ruddy colors, and of a rich character
like the Seckel and Belle Lucrative? The impossible has no place in pro-
gressive science. And it is but fair to conclude that after the combined
efforts now being made to improve the condition of all our fruits, the next
generation will look back on the result of our labors as only the beginning
of the great work ; and the varieties we now recommend will then only be
retained to prove that to man has been given the power to perfect the
various fruits of the garden and the orchard.

In conclusion Mr. Carpenter suggested as subjects for some future dis-
cussion, the growing and ripening of fruits, and best methods of retarding
the ripening of fruits.

On motion flowers were selected as the subject for the next meeting.

Adjourned.

John W. Chambers, Secretary.

AngustSO, 1864.

Mr. Benjamin C. Townscnd, President, in the chair.

Mr. Mead, from the Committee on Premiums, submitted a list of pre-
miums to be awarded.

On motion, it was

Resolved, That a Horticultural Exhibition be held in the rooms of the
American Institute, beginning Tuesday evening, September 21th, and con-
tinuing until Friday, the 30th, competition to be open to persons in any
part of the country.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 635

Mr. Mead then made an address, in which he spoke of tlie interest gener-
ally felt in the recently organized society, and had no doubt that a credit-
able exhibition could be held, which would delight the people of New
York. What is now wanted is something to give it a permanent charac-
ter, and to do this funds are needed, which shall be sacred to horticultural
purposes. With ample funds liberal prizes can be awarded, and these will
always secure good shows. The great success of the Massachusetts Hor-
ticultural Society lies in its ample resources, much of which has been
donated to it from time to time — 310,000 by a single individual.

On motion, a committee was appointed to take the subject into con-
sideration.

The following gentlemen were appointed the committee: Messrs. P. B.
Mead, J. W. Barrow, John Henderson, James Hogg, Isaac Buchanan

New Grapes.

Mr. Mead exhibited Avell-ripened clusters of Israella, lona and Allen's
hybrid grapes, which he spoke of as follows, remarking that his chief
object was to show the relative time of ripening. They were from vines
two vears planted.

ISRAELLA.

A seedling b}' Dr. Grant, sent out by him last season, and one of the
earliest grapes, ripening- at least five or six days earlier than the Hartford
Prolific, and is much superior to that sort. So far it has proved a good
grower, perfectly hardy, and will probably succeed both east and west.
The cluster shown was below medium size, berries round and nearly black,
containing very little pulp. It is a very sweet grape, and will doubtless
make a passable raisin.

Allen's hybrid.
Called a ichite grape, but Mr. Mead thinks the color green. A seedling
raised by J. Fiske Allen, of Salem, Mass., the first person who succeeded
in crossing our native grape with a foreign sort. The difficulty in efiecting
a cross is owing to a difference in the size of the pollen. The Allen's
Hybrid ripens with the Delaware and lona, and will please those who like
the foreign varieties. He does not recommend it as a grape for vineyard
culture, as it shows some disposition to mildew, though its leaf is so thick
and tough that it resists the disease better than many other sorts. For
the amateur, in gardens and sheltered situations it promises well. Berry
medium size, light green color, with scarcely any pulp, sweet and very
good, partaking largely of the quality of the Golden Chasselas, one of its
parents, with a perfectly hardy vine. Mr. Mead here remarked that it was
not owing to their being tender that we could not succeed with the foreign
varieties out of doors, but because of the mildew not only on the leaf, but
also on the fruit and wood, which will not allow the shoots to ripen, hence
they are killed by freezing.

JONA.

Another seedling sent out last season by Dr. Grant. Clusters of about
haif-pound size, loose, or at least not so compact as the Delaware, whose

G36 TRANSACTIOMS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

berries have no room to grow larger. Color about like the Delaware,
berr}-^ size of the Isabella, tender, juicy and vinous, and Mr. Mead thinks
destined to occupy a large space in the horticultural community, and will
probably supersede that popular grape, the Delaware, as most persons will
prefer it on account of its larger size. It ripens a little before the Con-
cord, but not (piite as early as Hartford Prolific, and he hesitates not to
recommend its extensive planting both in garden and vineyard, being suffi-
ciently hardy for the climate of Maine.

In response to the question what age is best to transplant the vine,- Mr.
Mead said one year from the cutting, and furthermore he considered a vine
raised from a single eye infrnitely superior to a layer, — would sooner pay
five dollars for a vine one year from a single bud, than one dollar for the
best layer ever made. He replied to the early ripening of the Isabella,
that he had found single berries colored by the llth of August, and whole
clusters, on the 22d.

Adjourned.x John W. Chambers, Secretary.

September 20, 1864.

Mr. Benjamin C. Townsend, the President, in the chair.

Mr. \Vm. S. Carpenter exliibited some bunches of a new seedling grape,
which was tested by the members.

Mr. Mead suggested that Mr. Carpenter present a bunch of these grapes,
•when fully ripe, to the Committee on small fruit for a critical examination.

Mr. Mead, from the Committee on Horticulture, stated for the informa-
tion of the Association that the responses to the circular are very flatter-
ing, and no doubt the exhibition to be hold in these rooms next week would
be a very fine one. If any of the members had not yet made preparations
he hoped they would commence at once.

Mr. Carpenter gave a very interesting account of the nurseries at
Rochester.

The Chairman spoke of the neatness displayed by Messrs. Ellwanger &
Barry in the arrangements of their nursery. A green lawn as a walk to
their houses, with a border of choice flowers and shrubs, such another he
doubted could be found in this country.

The preservation of winter fruit was made the subject for the meeting
on the first Tuesday of October.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

October 4, 1864
Mr. Benjamin C. Townsend, President, in the chair.

Exhibition of French Pears.

The President said he regretted verj' much that the splendid contribution,
of apples and pears, which were displayed on the tables that evening, did
not arrive here in time for exhibition at our Horticultural Fair last week.
This collection embraces 160 different varieties of apples, and 100 distinct

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 637

kinds of pears. They were intended lor our Fair, and sent to us by Mr.
Andres Leroy, of Angiers, France.

Mr. William S. Carpenter was delighted to see such fine specimens of
foreign fruit. They are not only beautiful samples of what are old, but
also many varieties that are new. He was quite familiar with most all of
tlie fruits grown in this country, and he saw here some varieties that were
entirely new, and which seem to possess qualities of much excellence, and
well worthy of our consideration. We have almost all those varieties of
fruit, accounts of which have been published in Engljind and France. At
our exhibition last week, which was said to be one of the linest tliat was
yet held in this country, we had many fine specimens of our own produc-
tion, but in this French collection he saw many that appeai'ed finer, both iu
color and quality. Many of our fruit growers are turning their particular
attention to this matter, and some have been very successful in producing-
many fine colored specimens, that can compare with any in size and weight.
lie took a deep interest in fruit culture for the last twelve years. There
has been a marked improvement in the same fruit; they are better grown,
and generally speaking better varieties are everywhere observable; we
are every season getting some new varieties, and we can go on cultivating
new species for many years yet, without coming to the end. One of the
means by which fruit has been improved is by increasing its size, and this
has been done by thinning off the fruit. He, like many others, had not
the courage at first to take enough ofl' tlie loaded tree, especially as a
loaded pear tree is one of the most beautiful things in nature, 3'et he
ventured on and continued thinning, and he found it to be a great advan-
tage, and he observed that he got the same amount of fruit, and probably"
more; if one-half of the fruit is taken ofi" before ripening we get as much
in bulk, and more than if the whole cro"^ was allowed to remain on the
tree. When a tree is permitted to retain its whole fruit, it ie impossible
to expect it to ripen whole, and a pear tree if left to itself will wear itself
out. There is the Bartlett and tlie Louise Bon of Jersey, which require
much attention in this respect; of thinning, he thought that hardly enough
was ever taken off in thinning, when they are about one-third grown it is
time to commence thinning off the fruit; it is very well in the first instance
to leave on a little over crop, and when we take off the second thinning to
leave just enough to have them properly grown. It is frequently required
to take off a third crop, and in this case we may not get the same weight
but in market we can get doulilc the price. We can take off one-third of
our pears before ripening, and those that remain will almost double in
size; and if again there is a thinning, the last crop will be still better, and
hold on the tree much firmer.

It was highly gratifying to see such a fine display of foreign fruits ; we
had before us some of the improved varieties, never before seen in this
country. He had himself over one hundred of these new varieties of
French pears.

We feel proud, however, of our own native seedling, the Seckel; there
is no pear that can equal it in this country. Mr. Clapp, of Massachusetts,
and Mr. Dana, have lately introduced many varieties in this country, and

638 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

some of their trees are now being altered to produce many fine varieties.
He had seedlings sent to hira almost every day.

The President said it was due to Mr. Carpenter to state that it was
through his instrumentality that this society has had the opportunity of
witnessing this really fine display of foreign fruits, and he would suggest
that the horticultural committee be requested to take the proper action in
regard to testifying our appreciation of Mr. Leroy's munificent contribu-
tion to our erJiibition.

Mr, Jireh Bull said he felt happy in seconding the motion as suggested
by the President. Tliis was the second gift of Mr. Leroy to the Institute,
and he was informed that Mr. Leroy would be very happy to send whatever
might be of interest to us here. The motion was adopted.

On motion of Dr. John B. Rich, the committee on large fruit were re-
quested to make a critical examination of the fruit sent by Mr. Leroy.

On motion the President of the Association was added to the committee.

Mr. W, S. Carpenter exhibited a seedling pear from the estate of Mr.
Beekman, in Westchester county, and said there was but one tree of this
variety in this country ; the tree is perhaps thirty yeai's old. The fruit
was known as the Beekman pear, and should be named such by this Asso-
ciation. The pear seems to be most prized — more so than the apple — but
the latter, in a commercial point of view, is more valuable. Some of the
farmers in the western country would scarcely live but that the millions of
bushels of apples raised annually by them aids materially in supporting
the population of the country, so the apple must be considered the more
valuable fruit of the two, and then it is adapted. to a greater variety of
uses than the pear, and an article that is largely exported ; yet, as a .
luxury, the pear is more highly esteemed. There are millions of trees now
being grown, which, in a short time, will yield immensely. There are
thousands of acres of pear trees alone, and yet the supply is not equal to
the demand. He hoped that' the day was near when we shall have the
pear in this country in something like abundance, and so cheap as to be
staple in every household. He was informed that the pear in France com-
mands now a greater price than it did in ten years. There need be no fear
of an over-abundance of fruit being grown, as it has alwaji^s been found
that the greater the supply the demand will be in accordance.

The Beekman pear he would esteem quite equal to the " Bartlett," but
it does not possess so high a flavor; the Bartlett is objectionable on account
of its musty flavor. This pear is about secoftd rate, but equal to the Bart-
lett, quite juicy and very productive. There is but one tree of this kind,
so we cannot judge it very thoroughly. It is a medium size pear, of yel-
low color, with red cheeks, and ripens first of October.

On motion the pear was named the " Beekman pear."

Mr. W. S. Carpenter exhibited a seedling apple raised by Dr. Scribner^
of Bedford, Westchester county, N. Y. It was, he said, so tender as to
scarcely bear transportation, and almost melts in the mouth like a pear.
It seems to possess many merits.

This apple would be considered by some as first rate, in consequence
of its mellow flavor. The tree is very thrifty, and highl}' esteemed by the
family of Dr. Scribner, and is used both as a table and cooking apple. It

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 639

probably would not reckon more than second rate; it is a very large me-
dium, ripening in September and October, and striped red.

On motion the apple was named the "Scribner apple."

On motion of Mr. Henderson, a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. John
W. Chambers, Secretary, for the careful and efficient manner in which he
arranged and conducted the horticultural exhibition of the Association.

On motion Mr. K. H. Williams was appointed a committee to visit the
Pleasant Valley Fruit Growers' Association, at Hammondsport, N. Y.

The Trcservation of Fruit was made the subject for the next meeting.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Sec'y.

October 18, 1864.

Mr. Benjamin C. Townsend, President, in the chair.

Mr. P. B. Mead, chairman of the committee on premiums, reported that
Dr. Grant, to whom the award was given, sent the committee a letter de-
clining the premium, and wishing the prizes to remain open for farther
competition. The committee have sent a copy of Dr. Grant's letter to Mr.
Greeley, the donator of the prize, and he has published it. The premium
for grapes is therefore still open, and the committee are ready to give their
full attention to any new grapes that may be presented.

Mr. Nathan C. Ely moved that the thanks of the Association be tendered
to Dr. Grant for his liberality in desiring the prize to remain open for
another year, and that the Association approve the decision of the com-
mittee in doing so.

Which was carried.

Mr. Mead moved that the thanks of the Association be presented to Mr,
Horace Greeley, for his very liberal offer of $100 for the best grapes, $100
for the best pear, and $100 for the best apple.

Unanimously adopted.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter said the prizes offered by Mr. Greeley, of $100
each for the best variety of grapes, pears, and apples, were not properly
competed for, a& the time specified was so short that very few could gather
up their choice varieties. We had some three varieties of pears presented,
but no apples. A half barrel of Ilubbardston's "Nonesuch" apples had
been received a few days ago. The committee have had several meetings
in regard to extending the time for keeping open the prizes, and have come
to the conclusion to have four exhibitions from now till the first of Febru-
ary— on the first of November, December, January and February. We
have no doubt but we will receive large contributions for these prizes, par-
ticularly in apples and some rare varieties of pears.

On motion,

Messrs Charles Downing, of Newburgh, and Wm. L. Ferris, of Throg's
Neck, were added to the committee on the Greeley premiums.

Mr. Wm. S, Carpenter read the following paper

On New Native Pears.

The following varieties are mostly of recent introduction, and possess
sufficient merit to warrant their introduction into cultivation :

640 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Coil's Beurre originated in Northern Ohio. A variety of great excel-
lence ; fruit of medium size ; color, cinnamon russet ; ripening in Septem-
ber and October.

Jackson originated in Vermont. Large, yellow, sweet, juicy and fine
flavored. Season, September.

Pratt originated in Rhode Island. Large medium, yellow; quality, best.

Lodge, from Pennsylvania. A russet pear ; quality good. September.

Mirium originated iu Roxbury, Mass. Large medium. A russet pear
of ver}' fine quality. October.

Wilmington, a seedling of Dr. Brinckle, of Philadelphia, medium size,
russet. This is one of the most promising new pears ; season, September.

Richards, originated by Mary Richards, of Wilmington, Delaware. I
fruited this pear for the first time this season. It is nearly as large as the
Bartlett, and a fine variety. Season, September and October.

Leggett, originated in Westchester county; a medium sized, excellent
pear; ripening the last of August.

Church — This also originated in Westchester county. Medium, yellow,
Bergamotte shape ; a pear of first quality. October.

Clapp's Favorite — This fine pear was originated by Mr. Clapp, of Dor-
chester, Mass. A variety of great excellence, as large as the Bartlett,
yellow and very handsome, ripening in September.

Halsted's Beurre originated in Westchester county. I fruited this new
pear for the first time this season. It is a large, handsome pear, keeping
until April ; promising well. Dana's Hovey originated in Mass. Intro-
duced to the public by C. M. Hovey, of Boston. A medium sized pear, of
great excellence, keeping into January.

It is most gratifying to know that pomology has not been stationary in
this day of progress. It is now only about thirty years since the estab-
lishment of the first Horticultural Society in America; there are now seve-
ral hundred iu this State, working together iu harmony, and aiding ia
developing new and improved varieties of fruit, which must be regarded
as among the great interests of the age. Fruit is rapidly becoming one of
the most valuable products of our country. The crop of last year was esti-
mated at nearly ^$100, 000,000. Thirty years ago it was not deemed worthy
of a place in our national statistics. This progress should clieer us on-
ward, and encourage us to greater perseverance. I would prefer the honor
of introducing an apple, a pear, or a grape of decided merit, to the proudest
victory which has been won on the battle-field. But the production of new
and improved varieties of fruit is not the only work for the pomologist. He
will discover that fruit trees will not take care of themselves. We must
realize, therefore, that without care and skill in the orchard no satisfactory
results can be obtained.

Experience has taught us the importance of thinning our fruit. Many
varieties liave a tendency to over-bearing, and unless a portion of the fruit
is removed, we fail to get anj' good, well-developed specimens. An over-
crop of fruit is most injurious to the tree, exhausting its energies and pro-
ducing premature decay. How few appreciate the beauty of a well trained
tree, which should in itself be a link to bind us to our homes. Our highest
aim and ambition should be to make the inmates of our dwellings happy

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 641

To insure this, till the appliances' and additions to secure such a result
should be attended to, and perhaps there is nothing- in horticulture more
conducive to this than a well kept fruit garden. It should be the duty of
every one who has a home, to beautify and adorn it, so that our dwellings
may be the happy abode for ourselves and our families.
The regular subject was then taken up.

Preservation of Fruit.

Mr. C. C. "Williams, 31G Dean-st., Brooklyn, presents some jars of pine-
apples and pears for the inspection of the Association, and gave the fol-
lowing interesting account of the manner of preserving them:

In the first place, I have deemed it of the utmost importance to obtain a
jar, or can, that is not only simple and easy to manage, but perfectly reli-
able when put to the test.

Secondly, I am particularly careful to select only sound, ripe fruits, as
none other are suitable for canning, and having previously made a syrup,
of say one pound of sugar to one quart of water, boiled together and
allowed to stand until cooled and settled, and then having prepared my
fruit, and placed the same in a raw stale in the jars or cans, I fill them, or
nearly so, with the cold syrup, and place them in a kettle of cold water
(with the usual caution against breaking), and bring the water in the ket-
tle to a boil. After boiling about five or ten minutes I remove the jars or
cans to a table, and cover them with a cloth to prevent cooling too sud-
denly. In this condition I let them stand about five or ten minutes, during
which time the evaporation and consequently shrinkage is ver}'' rapid. At
this point I nmiove the cloth from each jar or can, as I want them to seal
up. Before doing this I fill up with boiling syrup or boiling water, and
immediately' apply the cover or fastenings, and when cold, other things
being equal, all is right, my fruit is safe.

I have only to add that I have to my own mind full}' demonstrated the
fact that the old plan of scaling up as sooji as removed from the kettle, is
a mistake, inasmuch as no time is given for evaporation or for shrinkage.
Hence it is that they who follow the old plan find, when their fruit is cold,
their jars are not full. It maj' be asked, " is there not danger that air will
enter the jars, if allowed to stand five or ten minutes after removing from
the hot water?" We answer, no; because so long as the heat in the jar
predominates over the pressure of the air without, there need be no fear
that air will be shut in when sealing up.

Mr. V. B. Mead said that in presenting this subject to the Association,
and through it to the public, it should be our endeavor to popularize it.
The most prominent method of preserving fruit in its natural state is- by
placing it in an ice house built for that purpose. Now it is not to be ex-
pected that every one can build an ice house for this purpose. But for
keeping apples, an ice house is not absolutely necessary, although good
in some respect; still it can be disocnsed with. To preserve apples it is
very essential that they should be properly gathered. He tried the process
of rubbing them clean, and found that apples treated in this way kept bet-
ter than when this was not done. We all know that apples of the same
kind differ much in flavor; some will have hardly any, while others will be
[Am I.vst.] 0*

642 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

highly flavored. This he thought was on ticcount of the different way they
were gathered. They should be entirely free from moisture, and those that
are taken from the tree in the early morn should not have any night dew
on them, but should be let dry naturally, and very little handled after that.
And now as to keeping them during the winter, n so happens that he is
possessed of a cellar having peculiar qualities. This cellar is built under
ground with the exception of one foot. It is in sandy soil, and has two
windows, nine inches wide. There is no ventilation at the bottom, and
there is no communication with the outside atmosphere except through
these windows and a very narrow inside door. The atmosphere in this
cellar is comparatively dry, and is not surcharged with moisture at any
time, and the temperature varies but little during the winter and is at an
average of forty-two degrees, and even in summer it is very low. He had
kept vines in this cellar till July without starting buds; this he attributed
to the low, dry atmosphere. In a moist atmosphere it has been found that
fruit cannot be kept well, neither does it retain its flavor. But such a cel-
lar or room as he described would keep fruit long and well. The apples
are sometimes placed directly on the floor, which was raised some eighteen
inches from the ground and made it quite dry. In other cases the apples
were placed in barrels, which method he found best. He also kept fruit in
an ice house, which was ten feet wide and eighteen feet long; it was sur-
rounded with ice on three sides, or on two sides and the top. The inside
was insulated from the ice by a wall one foot thick, tilled in with charcoal
dust, and there was an opening to admit the cold air from the ice. But
the objection to this plan was that the atmosphere was at times a little
damp. For remedying this they now use lime, and he understood with
much success. In France they use chloride of lime; this he thoug-ht de-
sirable in all fruit houses. In this country, where we can so easily com-
mand almost any temperature, we should have fruit preserved all the year.
All that is required is a dry, cool cellar, and apples can be kept there both
in form and flavor. He attempted to keep apples in the house when he had
more than would fill his cellar, but he found in the house the apples became
too dry and became wilted, and the fruit lost that desirable quality that
makes them palatable. Fire should never be kept in houses used for
storing fruit. He also recommended when taken directly from the tree to
be wrapped in paper when the fruit is gathered from the tree at midday,
and done up in paper they will preserve with their original aroma, and
will be found good to eat at the end of the winter. After trying various
methods he found that a dry atmosphere is very desirable, and the plan
here described best calculated for general adoption.

Mr. David Thompson, of Green Island, Albany county, N. Y., exhibited
several varieties of grapes produced from seedlings obtained from Prussia
some fourteen years ago; one variety was a large white grape, which was
very hardy, so much so, that it has ntn'or been laid down during the winter.
The vine is some five years old now; the season of ripening is in the mid-
dle of September, or about ten days earlier than the Delaware; it has a
cotton down on the leaves and very short-jointed, and the leaves very
smooth on the bottom side, and holds its leaf well. He never had any of
these varieties to " scald." A large sized grape on the table he said were

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 643

but the third year from the seed. The leaves and wood could not bo dis-
tinguished from the Delaware. The wood is green first, and after, a deep
brown. There was no mildew on any of these varieties, but some split
open after being attacked by the fly, and that was all. This variety origi-
nated from the Delaware and the Pope Hamburg; the vines were vei*y
strong with a large cluster, so much so, that they had to be tied to keep
them from breaking from the vine; the leaf looked like the white grape,
and had a little down on the under side, and is as hardy as a piece of
hickory. It ripens about three weeks earlier than the Catawba. Tliese
varieties he said could, with due care, be made very fine; they are very
hardy, short-jointed and very delicious.

On motion of Mr. Nathan C. Ely, the thanks of the association were
presented to Mr. David Thompson for the fine specimens of grapes pre-
sented by him this evening.

Mr. Peter B. Mead, from the committee on small fruits, made the follow-
ing report, which was accepted, on

Mr. Thompson's Seedling Grapes.

No. 1. Four bunches on stem; in all respects like Isabella; either it, or
nearly a reproduction of it; not in quite as good condition as a ripe
Isabella.

No. 2. Another Isabella seedling, resembling it in form, but with little
of the buttery character about it.

No.3. Catawba seedling (notripe). If a seedling, it resembles the Catawba
80 closely as to be of no special value, unless it should ripen earlier.

No. 4. Said to be a seedling from the Delaware and Black Hamburg, but
presents no evidence whatever of being a hybrid. Bunch solid, berry
round, black flesh, juicy, thin and wanting in flavor. Undoubtedly a pure
foreign seedling.

No. 5, Said to be a seedling of Delaware and Pope's Hamburg, but like
the above seems to be a pure foreigner. Bunch loose, berry oval, flesh
meaty, sweet and rather tender; very much better than No. 4 in quality,
but apparently smaller in bunch.

No. 6. Seedling from a German grape, apparently a Chasselas. Bunch
compact, berry round, amber green, translucent, juicy, tender with a Chas-
selas flavor; a grape of good quality; the best grape of the lot. The
committee recommend the appointment of a committee at the appropriate
season to visit Mr. Thompson's grounds and examine the plants in habit,
foliage, growth, and to ascertain the native characteristics.

On motion of Mr. Carpenter, the Rev. Dr. Osgood was invited to address
the association at the next meeting on " Horticulture."

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

November 1, 1864.

Mr. J. W. Barrow, Vice President, in the chair.

Mr. W. S. Carpenter exhibited some choice varieties of apples, also some
varieties of pears from Andre Lcroy's celebrated nurseries at Anglers,
France.

644 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. W. S. Carpenter from the committee on large fruits, acknowlcdg-ed
the receipt of a bushel of Hubbardston Nonesuch apples from Mr. Asahel
Foot, Williamstown, Mass., in competition for the "Greeley Prize."

Mr. Isaac Buchanan exhibited a fine speciment of "Bilbergia Thrisoides,"
the cochade plant in bloom, and several splendid Cactus.

The Chaifman said in compliance with the invitation extended to him at
the last meeting-, the Rev. Dr. Osgood is present, and I have the pleasure of
introducing him to the audience.

The Garden as an Educator.

By the Rev. Br. Samuel Osgood.

I confess to having been moved to throw out these stray thoughts on the
wisdom of the garden not in the usual way of the poets and essayists who
have made the subject so charming. Not in blooming June nor ripe Sep-
tember, but in dull Noyember, after quitting the country for the city, and
in the midst of the bustle and passion of the great electioneering campaign,
the fit comes upon me while looking at the luscious apples and brilliant
flowers upon the tables of our Horticultural Society; and my remarks upon
the Garden as an Educator are thrown out impromi^tu at request of friends,
while the Democracy are listening to their pet orators in the great hall
below, and thundering out at times applause so deafening that the prize
Nonesuches on the table seem to deepen their blushes, and the radiant
cactus to tremble in its sensitive petals at the din, as if spirits of Paradise
were appalled by an outbreak from the pit below.

It is veiy pleasant to go among the farmers, florists, and fruitmen — and
I will not forget that November reunion now — they are so full of love for
their soothing delightful pursuit, and so ready to give the help of their
experience to every kindly seeker as to be quite winning to us men of
books. I confess, however, to some little misgiving when asked to enlighten
them, in view of my small doings as an amateur cultivator. I am afraid
that our fe\V acres have been more a sink of money than a mine, and that
our crop of health and pleasure, when-compared with our account of outlay
and income, would bring more than a smile to the faces of the thrifty hus-
bandmen who are willing to hear a scholar talk of flowers, fruits, and trees
with great respect, and take it for granted that his practice is as good as
his theory, and his thrift keeps pace with his taste. I am afraid to say
how much our potatoes and eggs cost us as compared with the market-
price; yet sure I am that we get our raoiiry's worth, for health and enjoy-
ment that are priceless come into the estimate, and no money could tempt
us to part with the harvest of delights that every year yields from our
garden. The most thrifty farmer or nursery-man is always ready to forgive
an amateur a considerable share of improvidence if he has only the true
love of nature; and on that ground I am able to hold up my head among
these good people, and talk and write as one of their gentle craft. What
is said will have more point if we consider the philosophy of the garden as
a school of science, a workshop of art, and a gallery of beauty and sociality.

Consider, first, the school that is opened to us among the plants. The
place itself is a marvelous lesson, for it sets before us the first form of
organic life, and teaches us how nature rises in vegetation from the earths

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 645

of the mineral kinp:dom through the world of plants up to meet the realm
of animal organization with man at its head. The garden is thus mediate
between the mineral and the animal world, and has a wonderful chemistry
of its own that transforms soils of sand, loam, gravel and clay into the
juices and fibre of flowers, shrubs, and trees. The last great discovery of
chemistry brings out this power in clearer light by teaching us to see that
all atoms of organic existence consist of but two general classes, the crys-
talloid and the celloid; and it is with vegetation that nature passes from
the crystalloid to tlie celloid, and begins to build up her wondrous archi-
tecture of living things. How this is done we do not know. We see that
the crystals of sand and limestone are dissolved and transformed into the
starch and gluten of wheat and corn; but our chemical laboratories vainly
try to make the change with all their science and art; and all their retorts
and acids and blow-pipes have never been able to make bread or bread-
stuti' — not even an atom of starch or gluten — out of earth. Plants are
ordained of God to work this transformation from crystal to colloid, from
mineral to vegetable, and each plant has its own line of succession from
the beginning, and it does its wonderful work in its own way, and with the
same costume and implements as at the beginning.

The study of the various soils themselves becomes most interesting in
itself and its correspondences. A man of observation may learn wisdom
for himself and his children by considering the qualities of his land and
what they stand for. The mind is sometimes thick and clayey, or light and
loamy, or drifting and sandy, or hard and gravelly — and in each case needs
as specific treatment as the soil. Sometimes, too, the good yield of most
forbidding soils gives us most encouraging hopes for unpromising children
•and youth. I once had five hundred loads, chiefly of clay, carted from a
dirty swamp-hole ta fill up a bog, and was frightened to see snch an un-
sightly vacancy in the first locality and such a cold, barren surface in the
second. But the empty hole soon became a pretty pond, and the dismal
clay-jsmiled and laughed itself into a green and luxuriant meadow. Who
will despair either of soils or souls.after such an experience?

Then what a lesson a man may learn from the marvelous variety of
growths in his garden. Saintine, the author of that charming story of a
flower in a prison-yard, has lately died, and the grateful earth might fitly
bloom out violets, lilies and roses upon the grave of so loyal a lover of
nature and man. If his prison-hero found a world in that one plant that
pushed its way up between the stones, and became the subject of that
lovely prose-poem, we surely are more favored, and we all have field enough
for our survey and our pleasure. The little plots of a few square feet with
vine and n»ses behind our city houses, or the broad acres of our great park,
give us all our botanic garden, where we may be wiser with Ra}', and
Goeth.e, Linnaeus, and Jussieu, if we will. If the naked eye soon exhausts
its range in our little field of vision, try the microscope, and what wonders
disclose tlicmselves beneath our feet and give enchantment to the very dust
we tread ! I once passed the rambling* hours of a week in the cfiuntry in
this way, peeping into the grounds at the risk of being thought crazy, and
was ashamed of my old ignorance and astounded by the new-found wisdom.
Even in the hard paths under our feet there was a world of hidden beauty —

646 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

flowers of most exquisite tint and form; and never more reverently did I
quote Wordsworth's lines that tell us, " Wisdom is ofttimes nearer when
we stoop than when we soar."

When we walk through a garden of any magnitude we are surrounded
with such a multitude and variety of growths as to be almost oppressed
with those riches, and we find it hard to classify them under one dominant
law. The lichens and mosses, the ferns and funguses, the trailing and
climbing vines; the flowers of all hues and forms, the esculent plants so
various, some ripening their fruit under ground and others lifting it into
the air and light; the clover and the grasses, the trees deciduous and ever-
green, of all sizes and shapes, from the low juniper to the soaring elm —
what a world is thus set before us I and how shall we bring all this motley
crowd of growths to any sort of order, and arrange them under any satis-
factory system ? This question has not only perplexed simple observers of
nature like ourselves, but even the shrewd masters of botanic gardens; and
it is still not wholly clear by what marks plants are to be classified. It is
still the ruling habit of popular speech to classify plants under the heads
of trees, shrubs and herbs, according to their mere size. But careful
observation shows the folly of this arrangement, by showing that plants
of the most various dimensions belong to the same organic family; the
bamboo, thirty feet high, being a kind of grass, and the lowly hearts-tongue
being of the same general division as the great tree-ferns that rival tho
palm. But, when the error of this superficial system was seen, it took
years for naturalists to hit upon the true criterion. The system of Rivinus,
in 1690, was based upon the formation of the corolla or circlet of flower-
leaves. The system of Kamel, in 1693, depended upon the characteristics
of the fruit alone, while Magnol, in 1720, look'ed to the calyx or outer
envelope, as well as to the corolla; and at last Linnseus, in 1731, drew his
system from the variations in the stamens and pistils or the reproductive
organs of the floAver. We were brought up to believe in this last system, and
some of us remember well how we used to plod over its pedantic terms,
and write them again and again from set copy in our writing-bocks at
school. Before Linnteus, however, a sagacious Englishman, Ray, had a
glimpse of the better science of vegetation, and in 1703 had grouped plants
either as flowerless or flowering, and had subdivided the flowering into
dicotyledons and monocotyledons, according as the germ is nourished by
two or one seed-lobe. The idea of Ray waited for its complete develop-
ment till the time of Jussieu, who presented the first principles of his nat-
ural system to the French Academy of Sciences in 1773, and finished his
great exposition of this system in 1789, eleven years after its commence--
ment. His system, with some modifications, now prevails, and plants are
divided into the asexual or flowerless and the sexual or flowering. With-
out puzzling our readers with learned terms, it is better to take them out
into the garden and teach them how to see for themselves the leading char-
acteristics of plants. Consider, first, such as are asexual or flowerless.
These are of two kinds: first, those that have stems and leaves undistin-
guishable, such as the sea-weed, the fungus, the lichen; secondly, those
that have leaves and stems distinguisliable, such as ferns and mosses.
There can be no dijQdculty in understanding at once these two classes of

PROCEEDINGS OP THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 647

the first order of plants; for aii}' toad-stool or mushroom shows us a plant
both llowerlcss and without distinguishable leaves and stem. Pluck,
moreover, a leaf of fern of any kind, and, instead of flowers or seeds, you
will note on the back of the leaf little elevations that look like barnacles,
and from these come the spores that propagate the plant. Thus you have
the two classes of tlowerless plants.

I am willing to be laughed at for quaintly simplifying the second and
principal order of plants, the sexual or flowering; and once amused an in-
telligent and good-natured audience by producing a cornstalk and a stick
of sassafras as specimens of the two orders of the second of th^ two great
divisions. All the plants that are' most important to us are either of the
cornstalk or the sassafras family. Perhaps it is best, however, to take a
more familiar specimen than the sassafras, and we will hold up the corn,
stalk and the maple branch before our readers as specimens. The corn-
stalk is a somewhat homely creature, but has the most distinguished rela-
tives, and is of the family of the grasses, lilies and palms. All our cereals
are of this familj', and without its help man and beast must come near
ctarving. The characteristic marks are obvious. The cornstalk grows
from within and is endogenous, and, moreover, the germ is fed from only a
single cotyledon or seed-lobe. In this, as in other plants of its class, there
is no clear distinction between the wood and the bark.

Pass to the other or exogenous class of the same grand division of flower-
ing plants, and we have, as in the maple and all our forest trees, and most
of our fruits and flowers, the constant mark of the formation of the wood
from without inward, so as to record each successive season of growth in
the rings of the trunk or branch beneath the bark which is distinct from
the wood. The germ, moreover, in growing is nourished by two seed-lobes
instead of one. It is interesting and instructive to carry these simple
principles in our mind as we ramble through our groves, and orchards, and
garden, with pruning-knife and microscope in hand. We soon find our-
selves becoming tolerable botanists without crazing our heads with a cata-
logue of outlandish names. We can train even our little children to read
this grand yet obvious alphabet of nature, and tell whether a plant belongs
to the flowering or flowerless division; whether to the famil}' of toad-stools,
mosses and ferns, or to the family of grasses and trees ; and to decide to
wiiioh branch of this last great family it belongs — whether to the grass
and cornstalk tribe, or to the tribe of maples and roses. When we have
found the place of a plant in the grand division, and its general class, it is
interesting to hunt up its especial order and tribe, and sa}^ exactly what it
is in common phrase. Here, for example, we have a clump of oaks of
various kinds, big and little, that have colonized that corner of our ground;
cut off a branch or twig from each ; ascertain by the wood that it belongs
to the grand division of flowering plants, and to the first class exogenous
and dicotyledonous, and then trace it out to the second subdivision of
plants without corolla, and to its order, according to Loudon, among the
urticepi with ro\igh points or stinging hairs, and see its odd aflinity with
the nettle that gives the order the name; or, as other botanists have it, we
may rank it with the cupuliferce or cup-bearing trees among the chestnuts
and beeches and hizels. Thus we have fixed the place of the oah accord-

048 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ing to tlie natural system. Then we can compare the leaf and wood with
those of other oaks described in the catalogues or plates, and tell just what
kind of oak it is. Every such search will teach us a great deal, and if we
have a good botanist at hand great is the gain. A plain farmer who has
learned the trees and shrubs by heart is an admirable colleague to the
botanist, and may tell us at once what a plant is before the scholar can
study it out, and may rid us of avast deal of trouble by teaching us by its
common name where to look for our full scientific description. I am half
ashamed to say that in our own little domain there are still many wild
plants that I cannot call by name, nor identify with any of the descriptions
and plates in my books. Very likely that solid farmer or his buxom wife
or pretty daughter, whom we sometimes pass on their way to the village,
might wholly dispel our darkness by a word as familiar as any in the
kitchen and herb garden to the rural population.

We know very well that the knowledge which is generally sought from
the garden is not of the scientific kind, and gardening is a very different
thing from "botanizing. It is not safe, of course, to base our cultivation
upon learned classifications ; and he would be a funny horticulturist who
should portion off his grounds after the system either of Linnaeus or Jussieu,
and insist on keeping by themselves all plants not found in the same
botanic classes. This rule would compel us to keep the cucumber and
pumpkin aw£^y from the corn, and forbid the rose to show its lovely head
near the green turf which best sets off its beauty, or to mate with the |ily
that so completes its charm. We must bring economy and taste as well
as science to bear upon our garden before we combine all desirable variety
with unity, and integrate the differences of our vegetation by a judicious
singleness of aim. In this way we reach the practical economy of garden-
ing, and are able to bring our science into the service of our art. The true
economy must of course have in view both utility and beauty, for there
can be no good garden without both elements ; since the potato-patch and
currant and raspberry bushes are none the less profitable by being neatly
and even prettily arranged, and the winding paths through fresh lawns or
under shady trees are full of healthful influence, strengthening the limbs
by inviting exercise, and cheering the spirits by .various aspects of loveli-
ness.

As to the complete idea of the garden, the estimate must differ as our
point of view or aim differs. If we were writing for a prince with ready
millions at command, we might perhaps take Lord Bacon's estimate, and
say that thirty acres are not too much for a prince-like garden, without
including the forest park or farm. It is easy to see how his plan might be
adapted to modern taste, and made quite charming, by doing away his
absurd Dutch squares, and set circles, and cumbrous carpentry. If laid
out literally by his plan, his thirty acres would become a magnificent baby-
house, and confirm his own remark, "that when ages grew to civility and
elegancy, men come to build stately rather than to garden finely, as if
gardening were the greater perfection." His four acres of green in the
entrance, with two long walks in covered alleys on either side, would be a
dismal affair without trees or shrubs to cheer the eye and relieve the loiterer
from the necessity of hiding under the covering of carpenter's work, twelve

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 649

feet high, to escape the glare and heat of tlio surnmtv sun. Nor do we see
inucli charm in his artificial mound (in the middle of the twelve acre garden
proper), thirty feet high, for "some fine banqueting house, with some
cliiinnoys neatly cast, and without too much glass." His heath of six acres
^ in the roar, which he would have "formed as much as may be to a natural
wildness," is more to our modern taste; and the only trouble with this por-
tion is, that instead of our having all the wild beauty by itself, and all the
regular beauty by itself, the two should be intermingled, and the broad
lawn should border on charming flower beds of various growths, and romantic
shrubbery in studied freedom; and art and nature should do their best to
help each other.

The case with us, however, is that we are not to devise princely methods
of magnificence, but republican plans of economy; and the garden that we
have iu mind must needs be one that comes within the average means of
lovers of nature in America. Any man of moderate means may own a few-
acres, and treat it according to the most approved principles of economy
and taste. We who are not farmers, wish, of course, to do as much as we
can with our little domain, and expect, if possible, to unite the advantages
of park and orchard — flowers for the eye and vegetables for the table. We
wish to have the largest crop of market value and landscape beauty. Our
rule of utility' niay be summed up in a single sentence, and be said to be
that method of gardening which secures the most products of the best
quality suited to our needs through the year, and so produced as to draw
out, without exhausting, the various and alternate powers of the soil. To
carry out this rule, even in a kitchen garden of half an acre, will be no
small study and discipline to the shrewdest calculator and economist.
Books have been written on "Our Farm of Two Acres," "Four Acres,"
and " Ten Acres." I shall be glad to see as good a book as those on " Our
Garden of One Acre," or "Half," or "Quarter of an Acre." I have so
humble a sense of my own attainments in thes economics of gardening
that I will not pretend to be overwise, but be more ready to remember the
constant comfort and health of our unfailing supply of fresh vegetables
through the season, than to school our readers in the art of money making
out of carrots and potatoes, strawberries and grapes.

The economics of the beautiful I am more free to speak of, and am quite
sure that beauty is far nearer to us, if we will seek it, than is commonly
supposed. The great secret is to follow the lead of nature, and try not to
overlay nature by ambition, and not to fall into poor artifice in our search
for art. The idea of God in nature is obvious. He unites every difference
with unity, and always brings together a large array of various elements
around some central purpose. The great universe, our solar system, our
earth, or any large prospect on its surface, or, if we specify particular
objects, we may say that a tree, a bird, an animal, or above them all, a
human body, these manifest wonderful diversity of parts in unity of aim —
and the study of creation opens an inexhaustible school of beauty. The
nearer the garden comes to the variety and unity of nature, so much the
better for its completeness. There, as in nature, the lines of beauty and
utilitj- should be mingled; and while we should not be ashamed to plant
our esculents, and even our fruit trees in straight rows, we should study

650 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

to secure the curve of grace wherever we can consult taste, and allow the
generous eye and the easy foot to move in the line of beauty. He is happy
who can have enough of flowing or living water in his grounds to help him
to dream of the lake, the river and the ocean; enough of rise and fall on
the surface to relieve the scene from monotony, if not to suggest the images
of the hills and cliffs of his romantic rambles or reveries; enough of lawn
and grove to unite the charms of the open meadow with the forest shrubs;
flowers, shrubbery and orchard enough to present the useful and the beau-
tiful in judicious harmony, and to help the master and his friends to discern
distinctly the hand of God — the All- wise and the All-lovely — in the domain.
I believe most sincerely in making the garden thus a microcosm, an epi-
tome of nature, a chapter out of the great Cosmos. We read that Father
Adam heard the voice of God in the midst of the garden, and our faith is
that the same God is with us; and with all our illumination we are wretched
scholars if we have not learned to hear His word as it speaks to ns amidst
the flowers and trees. Lord Bacon well says, " God Almighty planted a
garden, and indeed it is the purest of human pleasures." Base surely is
the mind that forgets Him in this purest of pleasures, or fails to see His
wisdom and goodness in its riches.

One glance at the science of horticulture prepares the way for looking
at the art, and so we pass from the garden as a school to regard it as a
work-shop. It is certainly the oldest of work-shops — older by far than the
carpenter's or smith's — and the place where man learned to earn his bread
by the sweat of the brow. Strength surely is born of this labor, and the
w ;rking power of the race comes mainly from the tillers of the ground.
Without undertaking to call farm labor wholly blessed, or to think it alto-
gether a luxury to work ten hours a day in the broiling sun, we may surely
say that no form of muscular activity is more beneficial than that which
belongs to a judicious round of gardening. It compels us to take every
attitude, and call every muscle into use. We read of, and sometimes see,
ingenious calisthenic exercises that are so contrived as to bring the whole
body into healthy motion, but no artificial ingenuity can compare with
gardening as a gymnastic exercise. What variety of implement, posture,
and movement there may be in a single morning's work I We may sit, or
stoop, or walk, or stand, with rake, hoe, trowel, spade or plow. I certainly
never knew what muscles I had till bringing them out in this various work.
There is a great deal that a gentle hand may do, and grace as well as
health attends the fair woman who plays the Flora or Pomona of the
domain, and tends her flowers, vines and trees as a good housewife only
can do. Beauty is lovelier at this task tlian at any play; and a rational
man on the way to matrimony might be more readily won by the charming
contrast between the delicate hand and foot of the fair amateur gardener,
and the brown earth and useful trowel or pruning-knife, than by the bril-
liant belle of the ball-room, with its surfeit of splendors and its monotony
of unbroken display. There is nothing, moreover, better for a sedentary
man, or student of delicate habit, than moderate practice in the garden.
There is variety enough to keep his attention, and eifort enough to stir his
blood, quicken his senses, and point his purpose. He may profitably try
once in a while the harder forms of labor, and learn from experience what

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 651

hard work is. Let him go at the stones of the little or large quarry with
sleilge-hanimer and crow-bar, or try his hand with the axe at A.'lling some
dead or doomed cedar or sycamore, »nd his aching flesh and bones, and
panting breath, and swelling veins will soon teach him his liiriitations,
give him new respect for his rough comrades at the business, and read him
a new version of the old Latin saw, " Non onuies omnia possumus,^' or, " We
cannot all do all tilings."

Skill as well as strength is found in tilling the ground, and the horticul-
turist who is master of his art, need not hang his head before any adept
in accomplishment. To be able to adapt each plant to its soil and condi-
tions, to train and prune,, to bud and graft, and perform all the nice ofiBces
of gardening, with the attendant supervision of fowls, cattle and horses,
and the due prevention of blights from the elements and ravages from
noxious insects, requires a rare union of aptitudes and crafts, and seems
almost to call for all handiworks and vocations in one. Some persons have
a charmed touch for trees and flowers. A good nurseryman has his own
gift of nature as well as training, and there is something more than super-
stition in the legend of St. Rosa of Lima, one of our few American saints
of the canon, who is said to have had such witchery over vegetation that the
roses and lilies bloomed out at her approach. Some temperaments are cer-
tainly in peculiar harmony with plants, and seem to be loved by them as
well as to love them. Perhaps there may be something in the influence of
animal electricity over the growth of vegetation that may explain the
apparent marvel, though I am not one of those who insist upon explaining
all faith away by the materialist's creed or no creed.

If we add the skill of horticulture to the rugged health that belongs to
out-door labor in the wholesome air of the country, we certainly have a
work-shop worthy of the school which should prepare us for it. Little as
the rural population come up to the proper standard of their privileges, we
may be quite sure that we need them to recruit our exhausted city vitality,
andthat our great towns would miserably degenerate without constant
reinforcement from the bone and sinew, the fresh blood and brain of the
green fields. So far, indeed, as the science of health and the art of living
are concerned, the city has the advantage; and were it not for our better
knowledge of medicine, ventilation, bathing, cooking", etc., we might all
.anguish and die, until a fresh migration came in from the bush. Undoubt-
edly the best science as well as art is to be found in the great centres of
life, and if we, therefore, receive much from the country, we are bound to
give much in return, and carry .our culture and knowledge into the villages
and fields.

There is probably no piece of ground in the whole land better worth
seeing than our Central Park, that work-shop of so much labor and studio
of 90 much art. We ought to rejoice in it not only for its direct pleasures,
but for its influence as a model garden upon the whole nation. Every
man's acres ought to be lovelier for that careful and magnificent enterprise
and achievement. There is something there for every man to learn,
whether for the millionaire bent on laying out his princely acres wisely, cr

the thrifty workman who would know what is the best vine to trail over
his cottage or the best shade trees to set before his door. The clement of

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beauty is evidently becoming' move and more a popular study with us, and
the taste for landscape-gardening is making more general advances iu
America than any other art except music, which goes so well along with
it and seems to call for it as the song of the bird calls for the grove and
the flowers, "whose breath," says Lord Bacon, "is far sweeter in the air
(where it comes and goes, like the warbling of music) than in the hand."

The beautiful arts are brought before us by this illustration in their two
classes — the arts of the hand, that appeal to the eye, and the arts of the
voice, that appeal to the ear. Now surely the garden is the atelier for both.
classes of arts, and on the one hand invites architecture, sculpture, and
painting, and on the other hand rewards music, poetry, the drama and elo-
quence. We must have some kind of building there, and any man of the
least taste can play the architect upon some rustic bower, even if he has too
much good sense or modesty to venture upon planning his own house or stable
or conservatory. One may be well amused at the effect that may be pro-
duced by a little money, where there is plenty of rustic timber. I built
two rough arbors several years ago, which cost but twenty and thirty dol-
lars, and now that the vines have covered thgm they have risen into
romantic beauty, and no costly summer-house of the old, artificial pattern
can compare with them for a moment. My favorite retreat in the heat of
the summer days is the least costly of the two; and the pomp of million-
aires seems ridiculous when I sit with some noble book in hand under the
shelter of my twent3^-dollar study, with stately oaks and walnuts around,
with chirping birds and chattering squirrels, keeping company with the
ceaseless murmur and rustle of their leaves. Last year I tried my hand at
a statelier structure, under the spur of a generous gift, and with the help
of a young student of architecture, who is now winning honors in the great
school of architects in Paris. His drawing was charming, but the thing
itself is more so ; and the rustic tower with five pointed arches, on its
stately rock foundation, is a picturesque feature of the whole neighbor-
hood, and is intended to bear aloft our sacred flag with the holy symbol of
our faith. The cost was only about two hundred dollars at the worst of
all seasons for building, and in common times it might have been built for
little more than half that sum. Who will laugh at me for erecting three
handsome buildings for two hundred and fifty dollars ? Let him laugh who
wins. I am willing to be laughed at by any body who will get more
beauty and enjoyment for less money. Our acres are enriched for our life-
time, and our summers are idealized for a sum of money which might be
easily spent upon a ball-dress or a dinner.

Sculpture as well as architecture belongs to the garden. It is well to
have means to set up fountains, vases and statues, for these do much to
fill out and integrate the landscape. But little wealth is needed to bring
the sculptor's eye, for mass and form and light and shade, to bear upon the
prospect. Every grove and clump of trees or shrubs is a study in form
and grouping. Swedenborg says that trees represent men; and whether
he. is right or not, we know that the finest statuesque effects may be pro-
duced by due selection and massing of trees and shrubs, so as fitly to com-
bine and contrast the drooping willow or elm with the spire-like fir or
hemlock, or the rounding maple or oak. At night the eye, in some respects,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 653

enjoys still more the sculptor's art of g-iving beauty and grandeur to masd
and ibrm. In our little domain it was a new revelation to iue years ago,
when I began to walk at evening in our groves of cedars and maples and
oaks, and to note the sky-line of shadow and light which so brought out
their expressions. The place had a solemn, grand, cathedral look ; and
two or three cedars that had no particular charm in the daytime rose up
into romantic beauty then, and their tips seemed to be ready to volunteer
to be built into the walls of some old minster, in order to complete or
repair the work of the glorius dreamer among the builders of the ancient
•<imes. The landscape-gardeiier must needs be a sculptor in taste if not in
talent, and so arrange buildings, walks, lawns, trees, water, shrubbery and
a'll things in the view as to give all the true measure and proportion, and
bring out new power and charm under all the changing lights and shades
of nature. Every man of common sense practices the same art, however,
when little conscious of it; and he who trains a woodbine upon a stately
tree, or an ivy upon a solid wall, belongs to the illustrious craft that ranks
Phidias and Michael Angelo among its princes. He is a sculptor not in
dead wood or brass or stone, but in materials quite as ready to obey the
call of taste and imagination, and give those elfects of form and light and
shade that lend the handiwork of the chisel its power and charm.

And who shall tell the capacities of the garden for the painter's art, with
its display of fia'ure, color, and perspective. Landscape gardening is land-
scape painting, with a stouter instrument than the pencil, indeed, and with
richer and more living colors than any on the pallet. It may be that the
material is so near at hand, and often so ample as to leave little to the
invention of art; and he sometimes treats nature most generously who most
scrupulously lets her alone in beauty unadorned, and thus adorned the
most. But generally the loveliest ground needs clearing and arranging.
In fact, rural art is never so perfect as when it brings out nature; and
culture of the soil, as of the soul, reveals the fairest of its capacities, and
lights up tlie face with its best expression. You must first be able to see
your ground properly, and so also to see from it into the distance. If your
garden is a wilderness of nature, where you can hardly see a rod before
your face, you are not master of your domain; for you cannot, either by
sight or imagination, take in its extent or richness, nor own it with your
eye, that most imperial of the senses. True art will not show the whole at
once, but what it does show will imply the rest, as the hand or foot implies
the whole body. The thicket that you let remain will combine with that
which you cut away to give the due proportion of seclusion and openness
and your pruning-knife or bush-hook well plied will sometimes do wonders
in bringing your tangled wilderness into the proportions of a picture. One
of our great painters showed me a few days ago a pictun^ on canvas twelve
feet by seven, which embodied only a week's work, and was a noble sketch"
of a storm in the Rocky Mountains, with all tiie features of snow-capped
peaks, majestic cliffs, highland lakes, browsing deer, running brooks,
stately trees, and gentle flowers. If he had been two months at work upon
the piece the result before the eyes would be enough to show for the labor
and time. Yet I have seen more marvellous transformations than that
wrought by the knife and axe. Cut away a few bushes and branches

65-1 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

within that g-rove on the hill, and there is a full view, a grand picture, of
the sea, with its changing waters, and its rich effects of storm and calm,
moonlight and sunlight, now with broad and unbroken surface, and now all
alive with vessels under steam or sail. I have seen an arbor that Eve
might not scorn made in a couple of hours by cleaning out the interior of
a thicket of alders and young cedars, opening a lovely carpet of ground
pine under foot, and preparing the way for the woodbine, the clematis, and
the honey-suckle to run up the bushes of the encircling walls, and to cover
them with their rich and ever-varying festoons and arabesques.

The proper application of tlie principles of perspective to any little
domain as simple as ours may not shame any painter's art, and what has
already been done there is enough to show that the pruning-knife is ally
to the pencil, and both may minister to the spirit of beauty. The element
of color, too, needs careful treatment, and is much under command of taste
and imagination. The hues of nature, indeed, we do not create; but we
find them, and not as the painter finds them, in parcels assorted and labeled
at his order, but in natural combination. The rose is not of a single red,
nor the pink or the violet of a single pink or violet shade. But there is
great choice in the selection and grouping of flowers, shrubs and trees, so
as to bring out the true melody and harmony of color. Wc may call color
the music of the light, and, as in music, we may find in color melody and
harmony. That rose, with drooping head and blushing cheek, has its own
native air or melody, like the song of the robin or bluebird; and that
fuchsia, with pendent and jeweled drops, seems to answer the rose's queenly
air with her own gentler tones. But group the whole array of plants of
color duly, and what harmony is the result! Sometimes different clusters
or beds of well-chosen flowers seem to answer each other like the respon-
sive choirs of the cathedral; and it may not be altogether conceit to say
that in a well-concerted garden you may have all voices of color music,
from the deep bass of the ruddy rose to the thrilling soprano of the violet.
We need to take account of all the changes of season and periods of vege-
tation to bring out the proper effects of color, and the good gardener will
sow his seed and arrange his flowers so as to leave no month uncheered
from the time when the bluebird pipes on the advanceguard of spring, and
pecks at the swelling buds of the maple, to .the time when the sere and
yellow leaf gives such glory to autumn, and the snow-bird is seen on his
way to summer skies. All the hues of nature, of course, should be made
to contribute their part to the pictured series of months, and great account
should be made of the constant features of the landscape, such as the ever-
greens and the mosses and the rocks that give such charm to winter when
summer life is no more.

The vocal arts cannot fail to feel the power of the haunt thus prepared
for them in the landscape ; and music, poetry, the drama, and even elo-
quence, are ready to catch inspiration from the arts of rural architecture,
sculpture and painting. Nature surely gives us music enough to call out
our voices ; and it is no slight to the birds to practice their art on true
principles, and make their wild melodies the prelude to the finer melodies
and harmonies .of the voice, the flute, the harp, or piano. We hear of
chamber concerts and academy concerts. Why not h-ave garden concerts

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. C55

more frequently? I have certainly sometimes thought even the organ-grinder
a godsend in the country, and have there listened with delight to the old
strains that I would have closed my ears against in the city, so much does
nature set off art, and the trees and flowers ask to be interpreted into mu-
sic. And as to poetry, we are all ready to be poets in tlie country; and if
our fancy is dull of itself, and has no Pegasus of its own to ride, it is quite
ready to mount upon the pillion of some favored son of the Muses, and ride
with him into the heaven of ideals. How much poetry has been written in
or about the garden, every library is proof, and Parnassus can never be a
paved city. Even the policies and passions, the lights and shades, and
follies and aspirations of city life come most to mind in the country, as they
see the battle best who look upon it from some tranquil hill away from the
din and smoke. The drama, too, belongs to the garden; and he who has
the true eye may see tragedy and comedy all about him in the airs and atti-
tudes, the loves and the quarrels of insects, reptiles, birds and beasts, and
the various play and mien of the more rational tenants and ramblers of the
domain, with their walks and talks, their work and play. It is a goml
place, too, for actual dramatic scenes, especially for pastoral life, and there
are many parts of our great dramatists that can be charmingly enacted in
groves or dells, or among flower-beds and grassy lawns. Last year a little
association of amateurs of letters spent a day with us in the country, and
amused themselves and us with recitations. Among other selections, they
gave us the melancholy Jaques with his companions in the great scene in
the Forest of Arden. The famous words "All the world's a stage" gave
our little dell, with its canopy of oaks, elms and walnuts, quite a Shake-
spearian dignity, and we were not at all ashamed to have such a scene
brought to such a theater. Nor would glorious Will himself have thought
the performance altogether poor.

As to elo(iuence, the garden speaks for itself, and is sure to make its true
friends and lovers speak; and the finest of all speech — that which calls for
two parties only, and is very likely to fix the destiny of both — flows more
freely and willingly there in some charming arbor or shady walk than in
the city drawing-room or promenade. What sacred eloquence the garden
may inspire none will deny who revere Him who bade us consider the lilies
how they grow, and taught the hidden wisdom of the seed and the soil.

I have been anticipating the last branch of our subject, and have implied
that the garden may be a gallery of elegant resort, a saloon of society and
conversation, \Vhy should not more stress be laid on this idea?

There is something in the place itself that favors companionship; and
when left to ourselves, away from the distractions of the world, we make
friends of books or find them in our neighbors. We feel our social nature
more when less surfeited with society, and made to hunger and thirst for
its nurture and refreshing. There is something, too, in the ready walks
and various paths and scenes that invites conversation. The tongue in-
sists on alternating with or relieving the active foot, and the eye, in time
satiated with seeing, asks for the voice to give the listening ear its turn.
The garden makes Peripatetics of us all, and after we have walked half an
hour we are impatient to read or talk the next half hour, and keep up the
balance between body and soul.

656 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Then what socializers are fruits and flowers by tlieir taste and beauty !
The pear, peach, apple, cherry, and all the smaller fruits of flavor, seem to
be half soul and half body, and to mediate between the spirit and the flesh.
Who cares to eat fine peaches or strawberries by himself? We must share
the treasure, like a choice poem or sparkling paragraph. All persons of
gentle culture have this feeling, and every good-hearted man, however
rough his hand, is no stranger to it. How obvious it is in all fruit-growers
at their gatherings I and although the quantity of the choice fruit under
view may be small, they insist upon sharing it in good fellowship. It may
be a single choice apple or pear for the whole dozen of amateurs; but out
comes the pocket-knife, and all have a fair portion. I believe that the
growing of fine fruits has introduced a new element into society, and has
made the taste of good things to educate the higher taste that feeds on the
beautiful, and brings men together in the fellowship of refinement and in-
telligence. The strawberr}^, the raspberr}^, the peach, and the pear have
been great civilizers in America, and their work is not done as yet.

The more express beauties of the garden carry out this work, and there
is something wonderfully assimilating in all scenes and objects of pure
taste. Flowers are wine to the eye, and they who enjoy them find them-
selves won to genial companionship, that softens and exalts and does not
inebriate. When combined with the various charms of the landscape they
have a certain enchantment, and the rose or the honeysuckle is a precious
poem when it interprets our old homestead or our pet haunt. Then how
comparatively small the cost of much of this rare beauty. Buy a dozen or
two of roses or phloxes of choice kinds, as you can for some two or three
dollars a doien, and see what will come of them. What exquisite bloom
in those bush-roses, in that splendid Chateaubriand, that luxuriant Mrs. El-
liot, that stately Pius IX! and what witchery in those climbers that run
like roguish imps upon everything that 'will hold them, and are Puck in
frolic and Ariel in aspiration! Those phloxes, I confess, amaze me by the
perfection of their color and the continuance of their bloom. For two months
that Valery has charmed us with its rich Magenta clusters, and that Alba
perfecla has soothed and even evangelized us by those petals of exquisite
white, with its interior of pink, as if love and purity were blending to-
gether, and the pure in hrart were flaming into rapture as they begin to
see God. Yet the twelve phloxes cost less than a good bottle of wine, and
for two months their cups have been full of nectar, and now are filling
again.

The eloquent speaker in conclusion gave a brief description of his own
country residence. Eight jx^ars ago he purchased eight acres of land, still
unreclaimed and the fit abode of snakes and crows; but upon reducing it
by cultivation and bringing out its picturesque points, by an application
of some of the well known principles of landscape gardening, he had suc-
ceeded in making it one of the most beautiful spots in the town.

On motion of Mr. Bull, the thanks of the Association were tendered to
the Rev. Dr. Osgood for his very interesting address, and a copy was re-
quested for their use.

Adjourned. JonN W. Chambers, Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 657

November 15, 1864.
Mr. J. W. Barrows, Vice President, in the chair

Mr.'Wni. S. Carpenter presented six varieties of apples, viz : Fall Pippin,
PJunlc Island Creeninj;-, Newtown Pippin, Dominic, Wine and IJawley's
Sweet, and spoke of tiie qualities of these apples both for the table and for
shipping;. Ho alluded to the fact that handsome looking apples bring the
best prices, and that other varieties, beside the Newtown Pippin, sell well
in Europe.

Dr. Ilawes asked if the Hubbardston Nonesuch was more liable than
other kinds to bo molested by the apple moth ?

Mr. Peter B. Mead — Apples in this respect may be divided into classes,
such as sweet, sub-acid and acid, and it will be found that sweet apples
are most of all liable to be attacked by insects, the sub-acid less, and the
acid least. The Hubbardston Nonesuch, therefore, is not more liable than
others to the attack of insects, at least this is mj' experience.

Mr. Mead then spoke of the apple in an economic sense. The Newtown
Pippin is a good apple, and sells for a high price, not less in some seasons
than S15 per barrel. When perfectly ripe its flesh is tough. The Esopus
Spitzenburg is also a fine apple, but its flesh is rathev tough. I prefer
apples with a tender flesh, such as the Early Joe, and the Swaar.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter — I place many varieties of apples before the
Newtown Pippin. As a cooking apple the Hubbardston Nonesuch is of
first quality. The Rhode Island Greening is a good apple, but it will not
make cider ; it has no distinctive quality. A number of persons are, how-
ever, planting this variety for tliat purpose. The Mother and the Wagner
possess fine qualities. The Jonathan is also a fine apple of the Spitzenburg
quality. The Primate is one of our finest varieties, approaching the
character of a good peai-. The Early Joe alluded to by Mr. Meade is a
very excellent apple ; it is buttery and you may squeeze it as you would
a pear.

Mr. Meade — I hope our committee on large fruits are tak'ng notes and
making a record of all the local fruits they meet with. I have seen many
kinds that are very superior, both for cooking and eating. *I presented
one variety grown in New Jersey, called tlie Checney apple, to the last
Pomological Socief)', held at Rochester. It was deemed by the. fruit com-
mittee to be of a very good quality.

Dr. C. W. Grant — I expected Mr. Carpenter would have extended his list
of apples. Mexico I consider a good apple, also the Cogswell, AVestfield
Seek-no-further, and Melon. The McClennan is a vigorous grower and
should not be passed over. Peck's Pleasant is a Connecticut apple, sur-
passing the Newtown Pippin. Dr. D. S. Pardee of New Haven, originated
one hundred varieties of pears, many of which are of good quality. Gov-
ernor Edwards also originated a large number of excellent pears. Primate
is an excellent apple. I saw it growing in Connecticut thirty years ago,
and think it must have strayed to the western part of this State.

The early settlers of New England had a great variety of English apjjles,
and seedlings are constantly coining up, which is one reason for finding
tjuch good apples there.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter — The Tompkins County King has been put high
[Am. Inst.] P*

658 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

on the list by our western friends. I think it over-rated. It is a showj
apple, but its great weight renders it liable to drop from the tree.

Dr. C. W. Grant — The Baldwin I think one of the best apples. I do not
know whore to find a better orchard apple.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter. — I cannot put the Baldwin above a second class
apple, but still it is a valuable tree for our orchards. It keeps well, but
there is a greenness about the Baldwin that I do not like. It will not
compare with many of the apples I have named.

Dr. C. W. Grant. — When the trees are properly thinned, the flavor of the
apple is greatly improved. We have been shipping it to England as one
of our best apples. Sometimes from the effects of the sun it becomes spot-
ted, which injures its flavor and appearance.

On motion of Mr. Carpenter it was resolved that an invitation be extended
to the Eev. Dr. Campbell to address the association on the subject of Botany
at its next meeting.

On motion the following committee was appointed to invite gentlemen
to lecture or give addresses before the association during its winter meet-
ings. Messrs. Carpenter, Mead and Henderson. Adjourned.

John W. Chambers, Secretary.

December 13, 18G4.

Mr. Benjamin C. Townsend, President, in the chair.

Mr. E. Williams, Montclair, N. J., exhibited several varieties of apples
-which he said were sent him by a gentleman formerly a neighbor of his,
but now living in Ohio. Two specimens of Fall pippin that had been kept
in an open room with plenty of air circulating around them. They are
well preserved, and will keep so until January, These are called the
Eomariite of the West, and are very sweet and pleasant to the taste. Spit-
zenbeig apples from Ohio, and Rhode Island greenings, and a variety
called the Hartley pippin. Here is an apple that is so different in shape,
size and appearance, that he did hot recognize it. It is one of the hardest
apples that he ever saw. The apples of this tree are inclined to flatten on
the lower branches, while those on the top are more conical. 'This was the
prevailing feature of the specimens grown in Ohio.

These specimens are Jersey cider apples. They can be made a football
of and not be injured, and where they become bruised, the spots dry up and
never cause them to rot. This is the Canfield apple which makes the
famous Newark cider. Twenty or thirty years ago there was no apple so
well grown as the Canfield ; it has now greatly deteriorated on account of
the vast increase of insects every year, and the soil becoming exhausted.
The young trees are not what we should expect. Apples this year do not
keep so well en account of the very dry sun)mer we have had,

French Fruit.
Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter submitted the following report, which was
accepted :

The committee appointed to examine the collection of pears and apples,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTDRAL ASSOCIATION. 659

sent to our last exhibition by M. Andre Lcroy, of Ang-crs, France, beg
leave to report —

That the collection, as a whole, was very fine, and considering- the num-
ber of new varieties, was more interesting than any previous exhibition of
foreijjn fruit ever sliown in this city.

We naturally look for new and superior varieties of pears from France,
where the greatest attention is paid to h3'bridizing and producing seed-
lings, and in the detailed report of th<? separate varieties accompanying
this paper, you will notice several new pears ranking best.

To our great regret, the pears more especially were in so many varieties
so much decayed as to render it impossible to judge of their merits, and
out of the large number of varieties, only those which were in a condition
to test have been noted.

The secretary has a list of all the varieties, and it is to be hoped that
we may have a subsequent opportunity to test them. Unfortunately,
nearly all the fruit which was sound, was more or less tainted with the
odors of the ship's hold, and on this account the ranking of some of the
varieties must be considered as perhaps subject to some modification,
when specimens grown here may rank higher. Those however which,
under this disadvantage, are judged to rank as good, very good, or best,
may be safely recommended as desirable for trial. Of course they must bo
tested in our own climate and varied soils, before being recommended for
general cultivation.

Your committee were not prepared to expect such a splendid display of
apples as was found in the collection. The size, beauty and quality of
many varieties were superior.

In conclusion, we beg to call the attention of the Association to the obli-
gation we are under to Mr. Leroy for the opportunity given us of examin-
ing his fine collection, and it would be ungracious not to acknowledge it.

In the French catalogues we can read of the new varieties of fruit for
years before we have the visible evidences of their qualities, but here we
had the privilege of testing the fruit itself, including most of the new varie-
ties, of which, if there are in this country any young trees, they have not
yet borne fruit, and possibly in this collection were specimens of seedlings
which have fruited in France for the Jirst time this year. Those of us who
know the long delays required to determine the rank and value of new
varieties, must appreciate the great advantage which such opportunities
afford, and we regret that the fruit-growers of the country could not all
have availed themselves. of the examination of this collection.

Leaving out of view therefore the gain to accrue t(» us b}' stimulating
Mr. Leroy to continue his contributions, we trust that the Association will
see fit to send Mr. Leroy some suitable testimonial in acknowledgment of
his courteous response to our invitation to exhibit, and we beg that you
will at once take some action upon the subject.

WM. S. CARPENTER,

New York, Dec. 13, 1864. B. C. TOVVNSEXD,

Committee.

PEARS.

Royale d'Hiver — Large; pyriform; second rate.

660 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Bezy Sanspareil — Medium; Bcrgamot shape; yellow; good. ' ''

Foudaute de Malines — Large; yellow; fine melting; very good.
Souvenir d'Automne — Large; yellow; melting; good.
Neuf maisons — Large; yellow; liands.ome; good.

Doyenne Goubault — Large; llattonod pyriform; cinnamon russet; very good.
Princess Eoyalede Groom — Medium; yellow; Berganiot shape; very good,
Fourcroy d'Hiver — Medium; russetty; handsome; good.
Belle de Noel — Medium; Bergamot shape; yellow; best.
Serruricr d'Automne — Large; yellow; specimen too much decayed to teat.
Frevost — Very handsome; difficult to ripen here; specimen tested in per-
fection; quality good.
Cnlmar des Livalides — Large medium; yellow; handsome; inferior.
Casserole — Very large; pyriform; yellow; very handsome; good.
Franc Real d' Orleans — Large; quality third rate
Leon le Clerc — Very large; handsome; cooking.
Bon Chretien d'hiver — Ver}' large; very handsome winter pear, possessing

fine cliaracteristics; specimen not ripe.
Bon Chretien de Vernois — Very large; very handsome bright yellow;

third rate.
Bon Chretien d' Audi — Very large; yellow; barrel shape; very handsome;

second rate.
Bon Chretien de Ranee — Very large; green; second rate,
Bon Chretien de Foudante — Large; green; unripe.

Emerald — Very large; pyriform; resembles Bartlett; yellow; first quality.
Fontaralie — Large; pyriform; winter; specimen not ripe.
Belle de Troyes — Large; pyriform; cinnamon russet; red cheek; very

good.
Grain de Corail — Medium; elongated; very beautiful; nearly covered with
bright crimson on yellow ground; very fine grain; juicy, melting; quality
best; supposed to be the " Forelle," but this specimen was without spots
or specks, and if that variety, this specimen was unique.
Joloy — Very large; resembling GloutMorceau; yellow; very good; winter.
Rateau Gris — ^Very large; bronzed russet; winter; specimen not ripe.
Gros Lucas — Very large; yellow; winter; specimen not ripe.
BeurreBachelier — Extra large; yellow and crimson; juicy; very handsome;
flesh fine; should think very good; specimen too much decayed for
quality. . '

Beurre de fais — Large; very handsome; yellow; second quality.
St Florent — Very large; yellow; marked russet; specimen unripe
Beurre de Knops — Very large; yellow; elongated; winter; specimen unripe.
Bezi de Caen— Large; elongated; dark russet; winter; very good.
Uvedale St. Gq^-main — "Well known; specimen weighs two pounds; very

fine in appearance.
Gustave de' Bourgogue — Very large; handsome; cinnamon russet; juicy;

specimen decayed.
Marechal do la Cour — Large; russetty.
Belle Julie— Medium; green; juicy; good.
Cavernier de Boullangier — Large; yellow; winter; unripe.
Bezi de Veterans — Larg; yellow; winter; unripe.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 661

There were also a. larger number of varieties than here enumerated,
■which were entireJy decayed, doubtless of early varieties. The tickets
upon which the names were written were so stained that the names could
not be deciphered in many cases; those that were at all legible, the Secre-
tary will attach to this report.

APPLES.

Unicjue — Large; rich yellow; tender; very good; like our fall pippins, but
higher color.

Lantcriie — Large; yellow, with ruddy cheek; very good; nigh flavor.

Belle fleur — Very large; skin bright grenn; quality second rate.

Reinettc de Chine — Very large; green; very good.

Gaumonte — Very large; ribbed; bright yellow; very good.

Calville des femmes — Very large; green; good.

Archduchesse Sophid — Small; very beautiful; striped vermillion on yellow
ground; quality best

Buncombe — Medium size; striped vermillion; yellow ground ; good

Bedfordshire — Very large; yellow; very tender; good.

Rosa blanc — Very large; yellow; crimson cheek; flesh very white; quality
viry good.

Reinette Sui.sse — Very large; bright yellow; quality best

Cceur do Boeuf — Very large; red and green; second rate.

Colville blanc d'hiver — Very large; very ribbed; yellow; high flavor; good.

Menagerc — E.Ktra larga; four and three-quarter inches across; very hand-
some; whitish yellow; second quality.

Reinette Dolbeau — Very large; yellow; red cheek; good.

Gros Vert — Very large; yellowish green; good.

Riezen Szerdsica — Large; green; dull red cheek; good.

Doncklair — Large; bright yellow; high ]9a.vor; good.

Grosse face d'Amerique — Large; greenish yellow; tender; good.

General — Medium; whitish yellow; tender; very good.

Metayer — Medium; light green; red bottom; good.

Surpasse Imperiale — Medium; sweet; good.

Calville Rose — Medium; bright yellow; tinged rose; good.

Reinette pepin — Large medium; yellow; red cheek; tender; good.

Surpasse Reinette — Large; yellowish green, with rosy blush; good.
And a large number of varieties not in condition.

A seedling apple from Orange county, X. Y., some Tompkins county
Kings, and Fallawaters from Pennsylvania, were on the tables in compe-
tition for the Greeley $100 prize.

W. S. Carpenter recommends the following new pears: Doj-enne du Cor-
nier, season October and November; Henkel, season October; De Tongres,
September and October; Des Nonnes, September and October; Duchess de
Berri D'Ete, last of August; Beurre Hardy, last of September; Fondant
de Charneuse, October; Manning's Elizabeth, August; Doyenne d'Alen-
con, keeps till April. The following he spoke of as promising: Beurre St.
Nicholas, Beurre Kennes, Madam Eliza.

History says that the pear tree is a native of Asia, long lived, hardy,
.'ind often attains a large size. A tree growing in England is said to be

662 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Gvev four hundred years old, while another is repoj-ted to have yielded
fifteen hogsheads of perry (pear cider) in a sing-le season. There are some
remarkable trees' in our own country. One tree in Illinois is ten feet in
circumference one foot from the ground, and said to have yielded one
hundred and eighty-four bushels, of fruit in one season. A noted tree, the
Stuyvesant pear tree in this city, was planted two hundred and fifty years
ago.

In looking back to the old sorts of Bon Cretien, Martin, Jean, &c., and
comparing them with Beurre Hardy, Henkel and other modern sorts, we
are led to inquire whether the subject has been exhausted, or whether wo
may not expect equal progress in the next twenty-five years.

Adjourned John W. Chambers, Secretary.

November 29, 1864

Mr. Benjamin C. Townsend, President, in the chair.

Messrs. Carpenter and Mead, from the special committee appointed at
the last meeting, reported that they had called upon several prominent
speakers who had agreed to speak before the Association They suggest-
ed that the committee have power to prepare a programme and print the
same.

On motion of Prof. Tillman, the committee were requested to prepare a
programme of the lectures and have them printed for circulation among
the members.

On motion of Mr. P. B. Mead, the regular business of the evening was sus-
pended in order to hear Dr. Campbell's lecture on botany.

The chairman then introduced to the Association the Rev. Dr. Campbell,

Botany.

By the Rev. Dr. James K. Campbell.

I propose to address you this evening on that branch of Natural History
termed Botany. It derives its name from a Greek word which signifies
an herb or grass. It is' a branch of science every way fitted most amply
to reward the careful student. It opens up sources of enjoyment which
cannot be explored without rewarding the explorer with the purest satis-
faction. The whole field of scientific pursuits is covered with objects of
highest interest to intelligent beings. The light of science reveals to the
eye of man objects which have lain in concealment, and, without it, much
that is at once beautiful and useful would have remained unknown to the
human family. The great author of nature has made nothing in vain; and
it is equally true that it is the interest and duty of his intelligent creatures
to search out his purposes of mercy and goodness, that are inscribed on
every object which his hands have made. The pleasure with which the
person engaged in scientific studies pursues his delightful course, can
never be fully set before the mind by anytliing like a mere description.
We may descant on the amazing and prodigiously important discoveries of
the chemist, which have at once gratified the taste and wonderfully light-
ened the labors of man, but can never convey an idea of the thrilling emo-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 663

tions that gladden Iiini, as from step to step he goes onward in liis analy-
sis until he attains the results. Actual experience alone can make us
acquainted with his joy. 80 it is with the pursuits of the Botanist.

There are few who cannot admire the beauty and variety of the many
Uowers that cloth the meadows, or enjoy the fragrance which they send
forth ; but this is a mere drop of pleasure from that stream that flows in
upon the soul of the botanist as he treads the fields of nature. The super-
ficial observer may indeed be filled with admiration as he contemplates the
bright and many colored i)lanis that grow around his pathway, and his
spirit charmed with the scene, may say, with the poet Thompson,

" Who can paint ,

Like Nature ! Can imagination boast
Amid her guy crcntion, hue? like these;
And oan she mi.v them with that matchless skill,
And lay them on so delicately fine, .»

And lose them in each other, as appears
In every bud that blows."

But the botanist, as he examines the structure and functions of plants,
lifts his soul in the language of inspiration, and says, " In wisdom hast
thou made them all" ; or, with Milton,

" Thou sittest above all heavens.
To us invisible, or dimly seen
In these thy lowest works, yet these declare
Thy goodness, beyond thought and power divine."

It is not, however, a superficial observer of anything who discovers
merits or detects faults, it is the close and careful observer. This is pecu-
liarly so with the plants that cover the fields of nature. The science of
botanical arrangement first assumed a regular form under the auspices of
Conrad Gesner and Cesalpinus, but it was reserved fur Linnceus, a native
of Sweden, to place it before the world in a systematic and attractive
form. His great mind systematized the science, and opened up a pathway
which leads the student pleasantly onward in his researches into the arcana
of vegetable nature. He saw and urifolded to view the fact that every
plant has distinct characters by which it can at once be classified. He
also discovered and expounded the generic or family character of each
plant, and demonstrated how the various species may be ascertained. A
much surer and easier method for the attainment of a knowledge of the
science wets by him pointed out, and a great impetus was given to the
study of botany by his discoveries and zeal in teaching this branch of
natural science.

Upsala, once the capital of Sweden, where he taught, became a place of
great attractions. The students attending his lectures increased from 500
to 1,500. It was not, however, his fame alone as a naturalist that caused
this great increase. It was also the intecest and importance connected,
with the science. Nor was it only in his own country, and among his
countrymen that Ik; did so. He awakened the whole civilized and edu-
cated portion of mankind, and sent many forth zealously to explore the
whole vegetable kingdom. Young men, animated with the spirit of their
great teacher, explored every country. Many, indeed, lost their lives in
pursuit of their favorite science, but many returned bearing with them, the

664 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE. >.

seeds and plants of other lands, which they valued more than the gold of
Peru. The Return of a pupil from foreign countries bearing their produc-
tions with them was an event that conveyed pure and lofty enjoyment to
their great teacher. The results of their researches were always presented
to him. The cultivation of the seeds and the arrangement of the plants
afforded him the highest satisfaction, while it powerfully advanced the in-
terests of his favorite science. But there were many mighty minds at that
time engaged in cultivating the science of botany. Drs. Rudbeck and
Celsius were eminent for their knowledge, and early discovered the genius
of Linnaaus, and powerfully assisted him to rise above the difficulties that
beset his pathway to greatness. Frederick Adolphus, too, the then reign-
ing- monarch of Sweden, himself a botanist, showed great kindness for him,
and the friendship of such men, in connection with his own talents and
industry, soon placed him among the most conspicuous in Europe. There
were also higiily distinguished naturalists in Holland, France, Great
Britain and our country, engaged in botanical pursuits, and by their united
efforts the science rose into high repute, and ever since it has been the
favorite pursuit of some of the greatest minds that have acted their parts
on the theatre of life.

The great author of Nature has beautifully adapted every plant to the
soil, situation and climate in wliich they are found. If we travel from the
tropics to the polar regions, we find that every zone has its peculiar plants,
and they flourish only in that particular climate.

But this abstract truth is not the only one taught us by the vegetable
world, the character of him who made them is inscribed, as it were, on the
leaf of every plant fanned by the wind of heaven. The plant called Nepen-
thes distillatoria, may be fitly mentioned as showing his goodness and his
bounty. Its leaves bear a covered pitcher full of water by which the thirst
of man may be quenched, and how often has the weary, parched traveler,
been refreshed by this kind and merciful provision in Nature under the rays
of a tropical sun. The Peruvian bark. Gentian, Senna and an endless
variety of others, eminently useful in restoring and preserving the health
of the human family, all attest the goodness and the mercy of the great
Father of our race. The Lapland moss is another plant that furnishes a
striking evidence of this truth. The Reindeer, an animal so useful to man
in these regions, is provided with the means of sustenance by it, amid the
bleak and inhospitable country which it inhabits, without it it would cease to
live. Man would thus be deprived of the flesh to nourish him, the skin to
cover him, and its strength to bear him, almost with the fleetness of the
wind, over the frozen snows of his Arctic home.

There are two systems by which a knowledge of botany may be acquired.
The one i» called the linnean or artificial, the other the natural system.
Linnseus founded his system iipon the consideration of the stamens, as
more or less numerous; upon their proportion, connection and their absence.
Linnteus did not overlook the natural system, but he was persuaded that
it did not meet and provide for all the wants of the botanist in order
to the attainment of a correct knowledge of the science. Other eminent
botanists have sustained this opinion, especially with regard to American
plants. But botanists of the highest character, both in this country and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ^ASSOCIATION C65

in Europe, now in the more advanced state of the science, altog'ctlier prefer
tlie natural system. It is not, however, my intention to enlarge on this
subject, or to give an opinion. Let me briefly speak of the advantages of
the science of botany, first from the important uses that may be made of
plants. I have already referred to the medical properties of some plants,
I may now add that probably every plant has some such property, which if
known might add materially to the liealth and comfort of the human family.
Many plants too are noxious to man, consequently a knowledge* of their
peculiar properties is highly necessary, in order, that we may know what
to choose and what to avoid.

By the aid of Chemistry their valuable qualities have been extracted
and given to us in a form at once useful and pleasant. But for the
researches of the botanist the properties and uses of many plants would
have remained in concealment from us, and many of those medicines that
contribute so largely to soften the woes of sufferin.g humanity would have
been unknown. To discover the useful properties of plants is the great
object of the intelligent botanist. It is hot merely to enlarge his own
acquaintance with nature and her productions; not merely to drink of that
stream of pleasure which flows through the whole of nature's domain. No,
liis aim and object is higher and nobler! It is to direct the rich provision
of nature to the grand end for which the Creator designed it, the promotion
of the welfare and happiness of men.

The history of the botanist will probably furnish as much evidence of
the feeling of benevolence as that of any other in the whole range of
scientific labors. It is true his pursui|ts are in themselves attractive. The
objects that meet his eye are indeed lovely; the scenery through which he
passes enchanting; but he is urged onward by the thought that his dis-
coveries may tend to lighten the woes of some sufierirvg fellow mortal, and
restore the joys that disease had taken away. This motive alone is fitted
to sustain him amid the hardships and dangers that meet him under the
burning rays of a tropical sun, or amid the cold of the Arctic snows.
AVhorever he wanders, he finds that the Author of nature has fitted the
plants of every climate to meet the wants of his creatures. Many of them
have distinctly stamped upon them the merciful purposes of God in their
creation. IIow often has the juice of the poppy, papaver sommferum,
when administered in the shape of laudanum, relieved the sufferings of the
eons and daughters of men. How often has it changed the bed of suifer-
ing into a place of comfortable repose. How often has it disappointed the
fears of fond friends, and restored to health the victim of disease. Botany
not only reveals the virtues of plants, but also their hurtful qualities.
The researches of the botanist inform us that the poisonous plants generally
have five stamens and one pistil, with a corolla of a dull, lurid color, and
a disagrceabh? smell.

Tlie umbelliferous plants, which grow in wet places, usually have an aro-
matic smell and are not poisonous, as caraway and fennel.

Plants with labiate corollas, and containing their seeds in capsules, are
often poisonous, as the foxglove, digitalis ; also such as contain a milky
juice, unless they are C()mpf)uiid flowers. Such plants as have horned or
hooded nectaries are most poisonous.

666 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Among- plants that are seldom poisonous are the dandeliou and bonesot,
such as have labiate corollas with seeds lying- naked on the calyx, arc
seldom or never poisonous ; the mint and thyme are examples of such
plants. The papilionaceous flowei's, as the pea and bean ; the cruciform,
as the radish and mustard, are seldom found to be poisonous.

Such plants as have their stamens standing- on the cal^'x, as the rose and
apple are never poisonous; neither the grass-like plants with glume calyxes,
as wheat, rye, &c.

But it may be said that the qualities of plants, to some extent at least,
are known even to the rude children of the forest. This is true, but the
acquiring of this knowledge is often attended with painful circumstances,
and it is lost with individuals. Science proceeds on sure and safe princi-
ples, while without it knowledge is the result of accident. It is well
known that the Indians, who once possessed this land, obtained all their
medicines from plants. The Indian women accompanied their husbands
•when they penetrated the deep recesses of the forest, or climbed the rugged
mountain side. While the husband was in pursuit of game, to nourish or
clothe his family, she was collecting plants to preserve or recover their
health. Their properties, or the likelihood, that thc}^ would answer her
purpose, she sought to ascertain by smell, or taste. This was the uncertain
and unsafe way that she acquired her knowledge of the medicinal qualities
of herbs. She had no sj^stem, and no written language in which to pre-
serve the knowledge she had acquired, consequent)}' it was lost with her-
self or was preserved only in tradition; but the botanist accumulates and
classifies, discovers and experiments, and thus transmits to succeeding
generations the results of his researches.

Take for example the digitalis purpurea, or foxglove. An eminent bota-
nist. Dr. "Withering, says, regarding it, " The history of this plant might
afford a practical answer to such as sneer at the pursuits of the botanist,
for, digitalis grew neglected, until a botanist made known its virtues and
gave to medicine one of its most valuable auxiliaries. It is most beneficial
in dropsical and inflamatory complaints and diseases of the heart, and of
the lungs, but great caution is required in its use. This single reference
is amply suflScient to show us the value and a right use of botanical know-
ledge to the human family.

After adverting; to the pleasure arising from viewing nature at different
seasons, the speaker concluded with the following:

I have endeavored briefly to present to you some of the many induce-
ments for the study of botan3^ Yet enoug'h I trust has been said to impress
upon us its importance. Even if circumstances may render it unlikely that
we can ever pursue it to any very great extent, the smallest degree of
knowledge regarding it will convey a corresponding degree of pleasure.
The happiest hours of life may be spent in wandering through fields of
nature, collecting and classifj'ing the wild flowers, and contemplating the
evidences of skill and goodness written on each by the finger tif the great
creator. It is a mistake to suppose that there is anything insuperably
difficult in the study. An ordinary mind, with ordinary industry, may soon
acquire a sufficient acquaintance with it to make it at once pleasant and
profitable. With even a limited degree of the knowledge of botany, nature

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. G67

reveals her attractions. The meadow and the forest teem with objects of
interest. Wherever the foot carries us we are brought in contact with
something to interest and instruct. The fields of nature instead of being
to us a barren wilderness, become a large store-house of knowledge and a
source of pleasure.

In conclusion let me say to the j'oung that the pursuit of botanical
studies will bring them in contact with some of the best and grandest
minds who have lived before them, and this may prove a mighty shield
against n:any of the temptations which destroy, and many of the sorrows
that afflict others. Let me assure them that the enjoj'ment it gives far
transcends that which the gaj'^est scenes of folly can impart.

When from the botanical excursion they return to the bosom of theii
families, carrying with them Flora's choice gift's, with serenity of mind
tliey can enjoy the sweets of social life and woo " kind nature's sweet
restorer" while wearisojne nights are appointed to the votaries of ple.'isure.
And when at last the weight of years may unfit them for such pursuits,
sweet reflection, springing from the knowledge they may have acquired,
will bless the evening of their days, and sinking into the too often cheer-
less winter of life, they will draw comfort from memory and find their faith
strengthed in the yet higher lesson of religion — that a spring time will
come, when, like the lily and the rose of nature, they too will burst from
their confinement in the grave to enjoy an endless spring in the paradise
of God.

On motion of Prof. Tillman it was resolved that a vote of thanks be pre-
sented to the Rev. Dr. Campbell for his interesting discourse this evening,
and that he be requested to furnish a copy for the use of the As.sociation.

Mr. William S. Carpenter. — ^The three varieties of apples on the table
this evening are sent in for the Greeley prize.

Mr. Ambrose Stevens. — I present to the Association a seedling apple.
It is a very hardy sweet apple, and will keep until July. They never rot,
but dry away, and they never become mealy. The orchard in which the
specimen grew belonged to my father. I never knew the orchard culti-
vated; the tree has been utterly neglected, and has not been pruned or
trimmed for twenty years. The tree bore two barrels of apples last season,
and bears a crop every year. Insects have not been known to affect tho
fruit.

It is said that the Newtown pippin will not grow in Western New York.
That is a mistake, for I have them growing on my place; the fruit is of the
medium size. Twenty miles from Rochester, on a strip of land underlaid
with limestone, the Newtown pippin grows with great luxiiriance. If this
tree is removed South it becomes an autumn apple. In Tennessee its
character is all gone, while in Kentucky it is neither an autumn or winter
variety.

It is an astonishing fact, but nevertheless true, that more apples are
grown in Western New York south of 44 deg. than on any other section
of the same size on the face of our globe.

The Vanderveer, a well known apple, grows well with me. It seems to
have the power to resist the efiects of climate as far south as 36 deg. This

6G8 TEANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

apple is very digestible. If grown in Pennsylvania it is in perfection
from November to Christmas, while those grown in Western New York
last from Christmas to March. Early Joe and Sweet Bough do well with
us. The Fall pippins picked before frost will keep until February; they
must be kept in a dry cellar. Latitude has a great deal to do with the
preservation of fruit.

If you desire fruit to keep do not let the frost ripen it. As soon as the
tree becomes dormant, say about the 23d of September, the sooner the fruit
is gathered the better.

Mr. Carpenter asked, in relation to the Tompkins County King, an apple
of which we hear so much praise.

Mr. Ambrose Stevens. — Unless grown upon shale, it loses character. It
is an apple that ripens early. The Northern Spy retains all its character
if grown in about 43 deg., will not stand 44 deg. It is a very delicious
apple, and sells in the London market^equal to the Newtown pippin.

On motion of Prof. Tillman the apple was named "The Stevens' Sweet."

On motion of Mr. Carpenter Mr. Stevens was requested to furnish the
Association with grafts.

Mr. Ambrose Stevens. — While in Western Pennsylvania I found a new
apple, called the Hornet. It originated near Meadville.

Mr. Mead. — About three weeks since Mr. Stevens brought me several of
these apples. They are of medium size; flesh very tender, resembling the
Swaar; very spicy in flavor. The apple made such an impression upon
me that I requested him to send me some grafts.

Mr. Isaac Buchanan exhibited a bouquet of choice hot house plants. The
varieties were fully explained by Mr. John Henderson.

Adjourned. Jonx W. Chambers, Secretary.

Deceviber 21, 1864.

Prof. Samuel D. Tillman in the chair.

Mr. William S. Carpenter, from the committee on lectures, reported that
in. consequence of the holidays it was thought best that the course of lec-
tures should not commence until thi.s night two weeks. The report was
accepted.

Jlr. Mead said that the committee would report a full programme at the
next meeting.

Mr. William S. Carpenter spoke in relation to the effect of hemlock boughs
for the protection of half-hardy plants. He had tried the experiment the last
winter, and had succeeded in preventing a number of plants from being win-
ter killed.

The Chairman said no doubt the hemlock boughs were a non-conductor,
but he could not discover why hemlock boughs were better than any other
evergreens.

Mr. E. C. Frost, Highland Nursery, Schuyler county, N. Y., exhibited a
bushel of the Tompkins County King, for the Greeley prize.

Mr. William S. Carpenter placed upon the table a number of samples of
winter pears, just received from Hovey & Co., Boston, which exhibit their
keeping qualities at this season.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION, 669

Mr. Carpenter remarked of these to tlie following effect: The Vicar of
Winkfield, you see, ia beautifully ripened up toa rich gold and crimson color,
notwithstanding it is said by many in this vicinity that it will not ripen. It
certainly does when grown near Boston, where it is in high esteem, owing to
soil, cllnuite, or cultivation, being different from ours. Here is another very
valuable pear, Beurre Langlin, which has a high reputation in Europe, and
in this country where grown upon aged trees. It is, as you see by tasting, a
pleasant sub acid, very juicy, and should be in all collections. Here is the
Doyenne d'Alencon, a good sized pear, that keeps as well as a russet apple.
Tlie fruit, when well ripened, has a high character. The tree grows
thriftily. This is a fair specimen of Easter Bcurre, not well ripened, and
not at all equal to the same sort grown in Europe. This is the Betterman, a
good-sized fi-uit, but nothing particular to recommend it. This is the Egwood,
originated by Knight, of England, and is, with one or two others, all that are
considered worthy of cultivation, out of all of his seedlings. This handsome
russet pear is the Caen du France, a new and very promising sort, of fair size
and a long keeper. This, the De Solis, is only second rate in this country.
Here is a large, fine-looking pear, an accidental seedling of Westchester
County, but is not first rate.

He, Mr. C, lately imported a gi'cat variety of Rhododendrons and Azaleas.
These are superior shrubs for ornamenting lawns and grounds. Among the
plants were several new varieties of Clematis. Many have been lately intro-
duced into England, and are highly spoken of.

Mr. E. "Williams alluded to the growing taste in the ornamentation of our
houses. He was glad to see it. A small amount of money spent in hardy
flowering shrubs is well laid out.

Mr. Kidd, of New Jersey, made some interesting statements of his experi-
ments in farming and raising of fruit in that State.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

January 10, 1865.

Mr. Benjamin C. Townsend, President, in the chair.

Mr. Mead, from the committee on -the testimonial to Mr. Andre Leroy, of
Angers, France, reported that the board of managers, on the recommendation
of the committee on horticulture, had awarded to Mr. Leroy the large gold
medal of the Institute.

Mr. William S. Carpenter, from the committee on lectua*es, reported the
following programme of lectures to be delivered during the winter months iu
these rooriis :

Hon. Horace Greeley, " Talk on Trees."

James Hogg, Esq., "Trees of the Bible and the Classics."

John Henderson, " Winter Flowers."

Rev. Henry Ward Beeeher, "Horticulture."

Mason C. Weld, Esq., "Soils."

Isaac M. Ward, M. D., " Pear Culture."

Peter Henderson, ?]sq., " The Market Gardens of New Jersey."

Isaac P. Trimble, " Insects."

670 thansactions of the American institute.

The Chairman then introduced the Hon. Horace Greeley, who entertained
them for nearly one hour on the subject of

Forest Trees.

In place of a full report of this address from the pen of the speaker him-
self, we can only present the principal points, which were very fully and
clearly elucidated.

Mr. Greeley said that he was opposed to the recklessness sliown by many
farmers in the indiscriminate destruction of trees. In Westchester county
there were trees which God intended should never be cut down, and yet
many farmers there are too prone to clear their forests away to make what
they call land for cultivation. At the same time it was a well known fact
that there are ma;ny farmers who will persist in attempting to cultivate
seventy-five acres each, when they cannot till twenty acres in a proper
and thorough manner. He believed that if agriculture in the State of New
York were confined to one-third the number of acres now cultivated, the
produce would be much greater 'than the present yield.

The great fault of American farmers lies in their disposition to cultivate
too much land, to do which they carry on a war against the trees which
are so necessary to render the arable land rich and available for purposes
of agriculture. Still, wfiile he reprobated the indiscriminate destruction
of trees, he knew, what every intelligent farmer^ knew, that it was some-
times necessary to cut down some in order to preserve others. This, how-
ever, should be done with great care, and only those of no especial value
should be destroyed.

In EuroDe the forests were poor, compared to those of America. The
foliage of the latter, with its rich summer beauty, and the glory of its
variegated autumnal tints, finds no parallel in any other portions of the
globe. It constituted the principal beauty of American scenery. He be-
lieved that if one-half of the forests which, were standing on this continent
at the time of its discovery by Columbus, were still standing, the country
would be much better off. This could be easily proven. Trees were neces-
sary to the enriching of the soil and the prevention of long droughts. It
was a fact to be deplored, that so much land was now devoted to pastur-
age. Farmers permit their cattle to browse in their forests, and thus eat
up a portion of his prosperity.

It was a great mistake for him to permit this to be done, for the bai'bar-
ism of pasturage, it could be shown, was sadly destructive to his pros-
perity in more ways than one. It would be well if all the forests within
one hundred miles of New York Avere so inclosed that cattle could not get
into them, to browse on the bud and the young leaf of the sugar-maple and
other valuable trees. In Westchester, Putnam and Rockland counties, iu
Fairfield county, Connecticut, and in ma;ny portions of New Jersey there
were many places where trees were intended to grow, and where they
would grow, if the farmer would pennit them to do so. Wherever there
was a rock a tree shfnild stand by its side, and it was an easy matter to
plant trees between clumps of rocks in soil which could not and was not
intended to be used for any other purpose.

No land was fit to be ploughed out of which the rocks can not be taken.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 671

It was bad economy to inako land by blasting rocks and pulverizing them
into vliat some farmers call soil. Stone, no matter how fine it might be
pulverized, could not be transformed into ground. It was a mistaken idea
to suppose that it could be done, and he desired the farmer to see it in that
light. In Westchester county there were thousands of acres, now devoted
to cultivation, which should be covered Avith forests. The farmer could
not m:\ke a better investment than by planting them with locusts, sugar-
maple and other valuable trees. In Europe this planting of trees was
understood, and in many portions of Scotland it is done with great advant-
age to the farming interests of the country. Trees are valuable, not only
for their immediate product, but they are highly valuable for the moisture
which they retain and shed upon tlie soil during the period of drought.

JBy the wholesale destruction of them the ftvrmcr intensifies our summer
drouths. If it were desirable to have a long drouth annually, let the country
be denuded of forests, and it will not fail to pay us a visit. Wisdom, it was
true, dictated the policy of cutting down many ttees that are of no value, so
that our forests might be improved in beauty and value. There should he
combined enterprise for increaiing our forests. He deprecated the running
of a railroad through John Brown's tract, which he denominated the great
park of the State of New York. The enterprise had "broken" two or three
men, and he hoped it would break every man who ventured into it. We
could not afford to have that lovely region cut bare of its trees. He believed
that if it were done there would be immense floods annually on the Mohawk
and the Hudson, which would sweep away whole streets in Albany and Troy.
That tract should be preserved for the benefit of all who desired to leave the
city and all its conventionalisms in summer, and go to that place to breathe
the pure air of Heaven, and enjoy a season of freedom from the restraints of
society.

Mr, Greeley urged the establi.shment of forest parks in various parts of the
country. These could be found within a distance to be reached by a five
hours' ride fiom the city, and they could be filled with animals like- the ante-
lope of the west, and others equally as valuable. There was no reason why
wc should not have parks of this kind in this country which would throw
those of Europe far in the shade. In conclusion he hoped that the farmers
of the couutry would adopt measures to prevent the destruction of birds on
their farms. The preservation of the birds was an absolute necessity. They
destroyed insects which were becoming more numerous year after year — a
fact which could be attributed to the great scarcity of birds as compared with
the great abundance of former years. He hoped that if the murderous de-
sired to shoot anything, they would shoot the insects, and not the insectivor-
ous birds.

On motion of Mr. Jireh Bull, it was

Ro.aolced, That the thanks of this Association are due, and they are hereby
presented, to the Hon. Horace Greeley, for his interesting, instructive and
practical lecture delivered this evening.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

^372 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITDTE

January 24, 1865.
Mr. Isaac M. Ward, Vice-President, in the ( hair.

The Chairman introduced to the audience Mr. James Hogg, of Yorkville,
who delivered the second lecture of tlie series.

The Trees of the Bible and the Classics.

Ladies and Gentlemen :

I confess to a feeling of embarrassment in appearing before you this eve-
ning, for I can not but feel that in addressing you immediately after the dis-
tinguished gentleman who opened this course of lectures, anything that I may
say will appear comparatively insignificant and uninteresting to you; yet
wishing to give my small mite to the furtherance of the objects v/hich our
Horticultural Association has in view, I do not shrink from the duty imposed
upon me, asking only your clemency for any short comings which may appear
in the discourse which I have the honor to- deliver before you. *■

I ha-^e chosen for my subject the " Trees ?ind Shrubs of the Bible and the
Classics," not intending to go into any scientific description of them, or to,
give any very learned dissertation in regard to them, but only to speak of
such as are most generally known to you, and are most familiar to your minds
as embalmed in holy and poetic associations.

To me trees have a peculiar charm. I can not stand beneath a noble pine
and hear the sough and sighing of the winds through its leaves and branches
without a feeling of almost superstitious melancholy. If I stand before a •
noble oak, who for centuries has been contending with the warring elements,
whose branches bear witness, by their scars, to the many combats they have
had with the lightning and the tempest, and whose sturdy trunk, gray with
the moss of centuries, still stands firm and erect, still bidding defiance to the
elements, I can not resist a feeling of deep veneration and of momentary
insignificance.

Our American people are greatly lacking in poetical feeling in this respect.
They have, as a general rule, no love for trees — nay, they rather hate them,
and ruthlessly destroy them. In all other lands trees have, during all ages,
been highly esteemed and frequently almost idolized, but here, where nature
has given us the most magnificent flora on the globe, we despise her glorious
gifts. It has frequently come under my observation that a person of opulence
will purchase a country seat, and will then most deliberately and barbarously,
cut down its principal glories, seeing nothing more to interest him in them
than the price they will bring in the ship yard. The same person will per-
haps plant some comparatively worthless exotics, highly prized because rare,
and only admiring them as a reflex of his, wealth.

In the ligneous flora of our own country, we have a superabundant share
of the grand and the beautiful, yet we are wanting in trees whose names
are clothed in poetic imagery^ and association. It is true that our magnifi-
cent sylva is equally as beautiful if not more beautiful than that of Pales-
tine or of Greece ; our trees are equally with theirs "the tents which the
Lord has spread;" our forests are vast and age-lasting, but they are uncon-
secrated; from them, though so beautiful and grand, comes no whisperings
of an antiquity loved and dwelt upon; their glories have scarcely yet been
sung in verse to endure to the end of time.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 673

I doubt not that the thoughts which, as I proceed, my subject will sug-
gest to you, will lead your minds back to some of the holiest and best days
of tlie world, and recall to your memory some of the finest passages in its
history-; some of the greatest actions, some of the holiest and sweetest
spots iu its antiquity; and I hope that a remembrance of what I may sa^
this evening may induce you to plu,nt some of the trees I shall allude to, if
not for their own intrinsic beauty yet for the delightful associations con-
nected with them, which will always be a theme of pleasure.

The Cedar of Lebanon is one of the first trees in sacred association ; the
statelincss of its form, the disposition of its branches, its depth of green,
its magnificent aspect, render it surpassingly beautiful among trees. On
the mountains surrounding Jerusalem it could be seen casting " a weight
of glory" upon them. On Lebanon it formed a fit accompaniment to that
glorious view which embraces the waters of the Mediterranean and the con-
fines of the Persian gulf.

The Jews believed that God loved it more than any other tree. It was
the fruitful source of metaphor and illustration to the Hebrew poets : did
they speak of the prosperity of the righteous, the simile was " He shall
grow as the Cedar of Lebanon;" were comeliness and majesty to be ex-
pressed, love and reverence to be excited, the Cedar of Lebanon afibrded
apt illustration.

In ancient times it was accounted a great privilege to have Lebanon and
its cedars. So Mtrses, with earnestness of feeling and language, exclaims,
" I pray thee, let me go over and see the good land that is beyond Jordan,
that goodly mountain and Lebanon."

From its wonderful durability, it was extensively used in building the"
temples of the Gods. The temple of Solomon was inlaid with cedar; " iu
it was no stone seen." The principal portion of the wood-work of the tem-
ple of Apollo at Utica, and of the temple of Diana at Ephesus, was of this
wood, as was also the statue of Diana at Ephesus, " whom all Asia and the
world worshiped;" and the statue which fell down from Jupiter.

It was the emblem of eternity ; of its wood was the scepter of Jupiter
made, and also the statues of their kings. Virgil alludes to this in the
.cEneid, saying,

" Before the gates, a venerable band

In cedar carved, the Latin monarchs stand."

I cannot forego the pleasure of quoting from Shakespeare the beautiful
allusions to this tree. In the 5th act of the 3d part of Henry VI , he says,
alluding to the fall of "Warwick,

"Thus yields the cedar to the axe's edge
Whose arms gave shelter to the princely eagle.
Under whose shade the rampant lion slept,
Whose top branch o'crpepr-d Jove's spreading tree,
And kept low shrubs from winter's powerful wind."

And again, in the last scene of Henry VIII., Cranmer, in speaking of
James I., says:

lie shall flourish,
And like a mountain cedar reach his branches
To all the plains about hira. J

^Am. Ikst.1 Q*

674 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Of other coniferous trees, the Pine is frequently mentioned in the classics
By the Egyptians it was considered an emblem of the soul. Homer tells
us that the residence of the Cyclops was "brown with o'erarching pine."
Ovid speaks of Polyphemus carrying a lofty pine as a walking staff. Ceres
carried a flaming pine, torn from Etna, in each hand when seeking her
daughter Proserpine in the infernal regions. A grove of sacred Pines is
spoken of as being among the trees moved b}' the music of Orpheus. The
ships of Enoas wore made of pine trees sacred to Cybele; these ships were
afterwards changed to nymphs, and Virgil, alluding to the mournful sounds
of the wind among the pine branches, calls them the singing pines.

" The pines of Menelaus were heard to mourn,
And sounds of wo along the groves were borne."

There are two legends as to the origin of the pine tree. One states that
when Atys, the favorite of Cybele, was about to destroy himself, she
changed him into a pine tree. The other runs thus: Pitys, a nymph, was
beloved by Pan and also by Boreas, but she not reciprocating the passion
of the latter, he in a fit of jealousy killed her by dashing her against a rock.
Pan, commiserating her sad fate, and in loving remembrance of her, caused
the pine tree to spring from her remains.

Permit me to suggest that the mysterious sighings and moanings of the
pine tree in the winter wind may be the moanings and sighings of the
poor Pitys, when thus so roughly embraced by rude Boreas. If not a sci-
entific, it is at least a poetical way of explaining a hitherto unexplained
phenomenon.

The upright cypress is supposed by many to be the Gopher wood of which
the ark was made. Allusion is made to its peculiar growth in the Book of
Ecclesiasticus: " I am exalted like the cedar of Lebanon and like a cypress
on Mount Zion."

The Egyptians made their mummy cases of this tree, and the Greeks who
died for their country had their ashes preserved in cypress wood cases.
The tree, esteemed as an emblem of immortality, was dedicated to the
dead and held sacred to Pluto and Proserpine, because when cut down it
never throws up any suckers or gives any signs of remaining life.

From its durability it was like the cedar of Lebanon, used to make the
statues of the gods. Pliny speaks of the statue of Jupiter in the capitol
as made of this wood, and as being in his day perfectly soimd, although
six hundred years old. The doors of the temple of Diana at Ephesus were
made of cypres^ wood, and appeared as though quite new when four hun-
dred years old.

The inhabitants of the island of Crete boasted of the magnificent speci-
mens of cypress planted on the tomb of Jupiter. But of all localities there
is none so deserving of notice as the neighborhood of ancient Rome. South-
ward of the capitol on the Latium plain, forty miles in diameter, may be
Been the Palatine Hill, covered with the ruined palaces of distinguished
ancients, the remains of the baths of Tifriis, the vaults of the Temple of
Peace, the sepulchral pyramid of Caius Cassius, the tower of Cecilia Me-
tella. the Calian Mount, the temple of Minerva, the baths of Caracalla, the
Appian way — all waited upon by this gloomy tree, truly appropriate to
such scenes of desolaVon and fallen greatness.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 675

An ancient myth states that the cypress trees were the daughters of
Eteocles, who, when dancing in imitation of the goddesses, fell into a well,
whereupon Terra, the earth, taking pity upon their misfortune, produced
flourishing plants like the damsels, forming them for the delight of man
and for perpetuating their memory.

Another mythological story tells us that Apollo had a beautiful and favor-
ite stag who was accustomed to be fed, either by Apollo himself, or by a
favorite attendant of his named Cyparissus. One day the youth, exercising
himself in practice at hurling the spear, unfortunately struck and killed
the stag, who had unexpectedly bounded from a neighboring grove, expect-
ing to be caressed as usual. The grief of Cyparissus was so great at this
untoward accident that he threw himself upon the ground in despair, and
refused the consolations of Apollo, whereupon,

*' Praying in expiation of his crime

Thenceforth to mourn for all succeeding time.

And now of blood exhausted, he appears

Drained by a torrent of continual tears;

The fleshy color in his body fades,

A greenish tincture all his limbs invades,

From his fair head where circling ringlets hung,

A tapering bush with spiry branches sjjrung.

Which stiffening by degrees its stem extends

'Till to the starry skies the spire ascends.

Apollo saw, and sadly sighing cried :

' Be thou forever what thy prayer implied.

Bemoaned by me — in others grief excite —

And still preside at every funeral rite.' "

The juniper is the last of the coniferous trees to which I shall allude in
this connection. It was consecrated to the furies, and the ancients threw
its berries on the funeral piles of the dead in order to protect the departing
spirit from their evil influences. They also burnt its wood in their dwell-
ings to keep away demons. It was also offered in sacrifice to the infernal
deities, as it was thought they were fond of its perfume — an idea which I
wonder has not been taken hold of by Mr. Gough and other apostles of the
total abstinence movement — for it indicates that the infernal deities were
fond of gin, or of Wolfe's Schiedam Schnapps, which latter beverage Mr.
Wolfe assures us is flavored with the best Italian juniper berries, the iden-
tical classic berry, which if true leaves no doubt but that Schnapps is a
classic beverage.

Kext to the cedar in classical and biblical association is the oak. A
chain of exalted remembrance is connected with it in the minds of all who
have read classical authors. It was held sacred alike by the Hebrews, the
Greeks and the Romans,

In the scriptures we read of the groves of oaks planted by Abraham at
Beersheba, also of the oak of Moreh and the oak of Mamre in connection
with the liistory of Abraham. I would here observe that tlie Hebrew word
allun, elou or eilon, is by the best scholars now interpreted to mean the
oak tree, and not the plane tree as it is generally translated. One of the
most absurd and inexcusable errors is committed both by our &iglish and
American Bible Societies in their editions of tlie Bible in this respect.
Finding the word " allun " in some of the older English editions so trans-

676 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

lated as to mean the plane tree, an Eastern species of our buttonwood,
they appear to have arrived at the conclusion that it was a typographical
error, and so have made it read " the plain of Moreh " " the plains of
Miimre," as though the idea to be conveyed was level stretches of land,
instead of trees.

The oak tree, one of those which composed the grove of Mamre, under
which Abraham stood when the angels announced to him the birth of Isaac,
was long an object of veneration, and was said to be still in existence in
the time of Constantine, and Eusebius speaks expressly of the oaks of
Mamre as being a place where idolatry was committed by the Israelites.
Deborah, Rebecca's nurse, was buried under an oak tree at Bethel, " and
the name of it was called Allen-bacheeth," which literally means the oak
of weeping. Under an oak tree Joshua sot up the tabernacle of the Lord,
so that the congregation might comfortably perform divine service. The
oaks of Bashan were highly prized by the Jews as may be gathered from
the reproaches of Ezekiel when prophecying against Tyre, "of the" oaks of
Bashan have they made their oars " intimating that the Tyrians had been
guilty of sacrilegious acts in destroying such fine trees and using them for
such inferior purposes.

The oak groves of Dodona, in Epirus, formed the most celebrated and
ancient oracle on record. All the trees in the grove were said to be
endowed with the gift of prophecy, which they not only possessed in their
living state, but also when hewn into timber, for the ancient legend runs
that when some of them were cut down to build the ship Argo, the beams
and masts of that ship frequently spoke to warn the Argonauts of approach-
ing danger. The oracular powers of this grove are frequently alluded to
by the ancient poets, and even by some of modern times.

Cowper, addressing the Yardley oak, says, also alluding to its great age:

Oh ! couldst tLou speak

As in Dodona once thy kindred trees

racular, I would not curious ask
Tho future, best unknown; but at thy mouth
Inquisitive, the less ambiguous past,;
By thee I might correct, erroneous oft.
The clock of history, facts and events
Timing more punctual, unrecorded facts
Recovering, and misstated, setting righ

The Athenians particularly looked upon this tree with intense delight,
and planted it around their dwellings for the sake of its cool umbrageous
shade. It grew chiefly, and in the greatest abundance, on the slopes and
heights of Hellas, and formed the basis of many a Hellenic legend.

Jupiter at his birth was said to have been sheltered by an oak tree which
grew upon Mount Lycseus in Arcadia. One of their myths states that he
derived his might from the oak, and with a generous disinterestedness,
upon feeling its power within him, taught mankind to live upon acorns so
that they too might be puissant.

It was esteemed an imperial plant and was consecrated to Jupiter.
"Virgil speaking of it, in the Second Georgic, says:

" 'Tis Jove's own tree

That holds the woods in awful sovereignty)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTTJRAL ASSOCIATION. 677

Requires a depth of lodging in the ground,

And next the lower skies a bed profound,

High ns his topmost boughs ascend.

So low his roots to hell's dominion tend;

Therefore, nor winds, nor winter's rage, o'erthrows

His bulky body, but unmoved he grows.

For length of ages lasts his happy reign,

And lives of mortal men contend in vain;

Full in the midst of his own strength he stands.

Stretching his brawnj' arms, and leafy hands;

His shade commands the plains, his head the hills commands."

An^ also in the -^neid he says:

*' As when the winds their airy quarrel try.
Jostling from every quarter of the sky,
This way and that, the mountain oak they bend.
His boughs they shatter and his branches rend;
With leaves and fulling mast they strew the ground,
The hollow valleys echo to the sound ;
Unmoved the royal plant their fury mocks.
Or shaken clings more closely to the rocks;
For as he shoots bis towering head on high.
So deep in earth his fixed foundations lie."

The civic crown of the Romans was made of the oak, and was especially
bestowed upon those who had been instrumental in saving the life of a
Roman citizen.

Lucan alludes to this in his Pharsalia:

" Straight Lelius from amidst the rest stood forth,
An old centurion of distinguished worth;
An oaken wreath his hardy temples bore,
\ Mark of a citizen preserved he wore." «

Shakspcare, in his play of Coriolanus, also notices this custom. In the
second scene of the second act, Cominius, in describing the merita of
Coriolanus, says:

" At sixteen years

When Tarquin made a head from Rome, he fought
Beyond the mark of others; our then dictator.
Whom with all praise I point at, saw him fight,
When with his Amazonian chin he drove
The bristled lips before him; he bestrid.
An o"erpressed Roman, and in the Consul's view
Slew three opposers; Tarquin'g self he met.
And struck him on his knee; in that day's feats
When he might act the woman in the scene.
He proved best man i' the field, and for his meed
Was brow bound with the oak."

Sophocles also describes Hecate as crowned with oak leaves and ser-
pents. Socrates swore by the oak, as did the women of Priene, a town in
Ionia. To say " I speak by the oak," was a most solemn form of assevera-
tion among the Greeks, on account of the sacredness of the tree. To be
born of an oak was a form of speech applied to a foundling, it being cus-
tomary for the poor to expose their children in the hollow of an oak tree
when they could no longer support them, thus putting them under the
immediate and direct charge of Jupiter or the Gods.

Boughs of oak with acorns were carried in marriage ceremonies as
emblems of fecundity. They were also used in the Eleusinian mysteries.

678 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

" Then crowned with oaken chaplets marched the priest
Of Eleusinian Ceres, and with bougha
Of oak were overt^badowed in the feast
The teeming basket and the mystic vase."

One of the most beautiful fictions in Greek mythology, is that of the
Hamadryads or wood nymphs, each " doomed to a life coeval with her
oak." The Greek poets frequently refer to them, and our much admired
ballad of " Woodman Spare that Tree," finds its counterpart in one of their
poems, where a Hamadryad is represented as imploring a woodman to spare
the oak, upon whose existence her life depended.

" Loud through the air resounds the woodsman's stroke,
♦ When lo! a voice breaks from the groaning oak:

Spare, spare my life, a trembling virgin spare,
Oh, listen to the Hamadryads prayer;
No longer let that fearful axe resound.
Preserve the tree to which my life is bound.
See, from the bark my blood in torrents flows,
I faint, I sink, I perish from your blows."

The oak was also sacred to hospitality which arose in this wise: Jupiter
and Mercury travelling through Phrygia, entered the cottage of a poor old
couple named Philemon and Baucis, and were by them treated with great
kindness and hospitality; in reward therefor, Jupiter turned their cottage
into a splendid temple, making the old couple priest and priestess, and
granting them the only request they had to make of them, viz: that they
might die together; accordingly when they had become so aged as to wish
to die, Jove transformed Philemon into an oak tree, and Baucis into a Lime
or Linden tree, the two trees entwining their branches together, and shad-
ing the portals of the temple. Living monuments of hospitality and con-
jugal affection.

The Greeks were particularly fond of the Lime or Linden tree, and
planted it so as to foi'm wide spacious avenues, and when in bloom, clouds
of fragrance were wafted on every breeze that blew, and as swarms of
bees are allured by its flowers, the musical hum of the insects and the
fragrance together might well call up poetical emotions in the mind of the
Greek, and in fancy lead him to thymy pastures of his much loved Hymettus.

The legend connected with it I have already given.

The oriental Plane tree (or Eastern Button wood), was also a favorite
tree with the Greeks; they planted it profusely, particularly around Athens,
.in the neighborhood of the gymnasia and the public schools. The groves
of the Academus where Plato delivered his discourses, and the groves of
Epicurus where Aristotle taught, were planted with this tree, and so highly
was it esteemed that Socrates sometimes swore by it, as well as by the
oak, but some considered it impious to swear by a tree of such beauty.

It is related of Xerxes, that when on his celebrated expedition, he found
in Lycia a Plane tree of such beauty, that he halted his army of 1,700,000
men for several days, not permitting the importance of his expedition, nor
the necessar}^ movements of such an army to interfere with his admiration
of it; and when finally obliged to leave it, he had a figure of it engraved
on a gold medal which he afterwards continually wore.

Probably no tree has holier associations connected with it than the olive.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 679

From the earliest ages it has been the emblem of peace and of the boun-
teous gifts of Heaven. It was exceedingly plentiful in Judea, and was
frequently used in the poetical imagery of the east. Of the righteous it Ia
said, " his branches shall spread, and his beauty shall be as the olive tree."
The most endearing reflections connected with this tree grow from its
having given its name to the Mount of Olives, just outside of the city of
Jerusalem, and which has become so famous through its connection with
the history of our Saviour. Thither our Redeemer was wont to retire after a
laborious day spent in the endeavor to lead a crooked and perverse gene-
ration into the paths of truth and righteousness. Reclining under the
boughs of its olive trees. He gazed upon the ill-fated city, prophecied its
destruction and wept over it. In the garden at its foot. He commenced the
scene of last sufterings, and from its highest elevation he ascended into
Heaven, Eighteen hundred years have I'olled away, and still on that mount
stand trees under which, no doubt, he has reclined; trees which have over-
shadowed Him and sheltered Him from noontide heats or evening dews;
trees which were witnesses of his debasement for our sakes, as they were
also witnesses of His exaltation and all-glorious ascension.

In the mention made of this tree in our translations, we have another
notable instance of the ignorance of the cloister and of tlie schools. If their
theologj'- is no better than their knowledge of science and of nature, it is
of little worth to us. In translating many passages of the Psalmist and
the other sacred writers, they are made to speak with rapture of the green
olive tree. Now it so happens that the foliage of the olive is rather dingy-
luoking, as though it had been covered with dust from a neighboring well
travelled road, and is far from convej'ing the idea of freshness and beauty
of verdure. The word which our translators have rendered green, really
means flourishing or vigorous, and the seventy have so translated it in
Daniel, where Nebuchadnezzar says : " I was at rest in my house and flou-
rishing in my palace." It would be absurd to say that he was " green in
liis palace." Such passages as "I am like a green olive tree in the house
of God," should be translated " I am like a vigorous olive tree in the himse
of God ;" as the metapl-or has not relation to simple beauty of appearance,
but to a robust and healthy growth in righteousness through the grace and
favor of God ; implying cultivation and care taking on his part.

In Greece the tree was very highly esteemed, and rich harvests of it were
gathered on the plains of that country. The Grecians thus accounted for
the origin of the olive : When the earth, which in the beginning was
covered with water, first appeared, the most prominent point was where
the city of Athens stands. Neptune and Minerva, both being enamored of
the situation, contended as to which of them should there build a city bear-
ing their name. Jupiter, desirous of putting an end to their contests iu
regard to it, decided that whichever one of them bestowed the most useful
gift on the city should have it. Neptune thereupon bestowed ports and
naval deposituries, but Minerva raised an olive tree in the citadel, flourish-
ing and fruitful, and being crowned with it and by all admired, she obtained .
the victory, and they called the city Athens after her name. Hence it was
the custom to crown those who overcame in difficult contests with a chap-
let of wild olive leaves. The Greeks also inscribed the word Athena on au

680 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

olive leaf, and aflSxing- it to the head with a thread, believed it to be a sove-
reign cure for the headache.

In the apple we have another instance of ignorance on the part of our
schoolmen. "When it is said in the Canticles, "Stay me with flagons, com-
fort me with apples, for I am sick of love ;" or that " A word fitly spoken
is like apples of gold in pictures of silver," and similar expressions. A
person aware of what the apples of Palestine really are, cannot but smile
at the absurdity of the idea. Imagine a love-sick person deriving comfort
from a little hard crab-apple, whose flesh is only surpassed in acerbity by
a green persimmon. Imagine a poet, whose eyes with frenzy rolls, using
the simile of a little hard green fruit, not much larger than a cherry, to
express the idea of soft, mellifluous words.

The fruit which our translators have rendered apples, is really that of
the orange or citron tree, for these trees flourish finely under oriental skies,
becoming large and beautiful trees, having a perennial verdure, and filling
the air with perfume of exquisite odor.

Among the Thebans, Hercules was worshipped under the name of Melius,
and apples or citrons were offered at his altars. .This custom originated
.in this wise : On a certain occasion the river Asopus overflowed its banks
to such an extent as to render it impossible to bring a sheep across which
was to be sacrificed to Hercules, whereupon the worshippers, calling to
mind that the Greek word melon signified an apple as well as a sheep,
took an apple and sticking four little pegs in it to represent legs, offered
it at the altar instead of the sheep.

The trees in the garden of the Hesperides were supposed to be apple
trees, but modern scholars are inclined to the belief that oranges and not
apples were the trees meant in that legend.

The Orange also flourishes in matchless beauty in lower Eg^'pt, where
particularly beautiful specimens shaded the temple of the Sun in Heliopolis,
but it appears to have been of comparatively'' recent date in Greece, for
Antiphanes in his Boetian speaks of its introduction.

The Mulljerry, Ovid informs us, was at first of a white color, but became
of a red color through the following tragical circumstance, which shows
the folly of hard-hearted parents interfering with the heart affairs of their
children; instances of which, as you are aware, are of every day occurrence
with us, showing that human affairs are ever the same, tender-hearted
youth and stony-hearted age, ever in opposition:

" Pyramus and Thisbe lived in Babylon, he a very proper young man,
she, of course, a beautiful angelic creature; they naturally fell in love;
their flame was mutual; but their parents would not consent to their mar-
riage, so the lovers managed to exchange sentiments through an opening
in the wall, which separated their houses — the old story.

" They agreed to meet at the tomb of Ninus, outside the walls of Baby-
lon; this tomb was overshadowed by a white mulberry tree. Thisbe was
first there, but a lioness comiiig unexpectedly, as was natural frightened
her away. As she fled she dropped her veil, which the lioness found and,
in some unexplained way, left covered with blood. Pyramus arrived soon
after, and, finding the bloody veil, very hastily concluded that his dear
Thisbe had been destroyed by wild beasts, and so without further cere-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 681

mony, stabbed himself. Thisbe, in the meantime, having recovered from
her fi'iglit, returned to the triste-trysting place, and when she saw her
faithful Pyramus in the last agonies of death, she fell upon the- sword with
which he had destroyed himself, and died likewise.

"The poor mulberry tree, witness of such a melancholy catastrophe,
being sprinkled with their blood, ever afterwards bore red fruit instead of
white. Whether this change was produced by grief on the part of the
poor mulberry tree, or from some natural change incident to the absorption
of the blood in the soil, I am unable to say. Suffice it to say, that the
story is poetical, and as a natural consequence I fear lacks truth; though
be that as it may, I trust that if any of my young hearers should eat red
mulberries this coming summer, they will bear in mind their origin, and if
miserably happy will not do anything as rashly as our two lovers."

The Sweet Bay or Laurus was the emblem of victory among the Greeks
and Romans, who crowned their victorious generals with wreaths made of
its leaves. They also bestowed similar wreaths or crowns upon their
greatest poets, hence the term poet-laureate. Mythological story tells us
that Daphne, a daughter of Peneus, flying to escape the embrace of Apollo,
■who was smitten with her and pursued her, finding that she could not
escape from him, supplicated her mother earth to receive her, which she
did, and produced a tree in her stead. This so astonished Apollo that he
called the tree Daphne, and crowning himself with a sprig of it the plant
afterwards became a symbol of divination. It was also called Sophrosune,
for divination proceeds from chastity, and they believed th9,t where a bay
tree was planted demons would betake themselves to flight. The tree was
also consecrated to Apollo, and the first temple raised to him at Delphi is
said to have been made from the branches of this tree.

The ancients also considered the bay tree good for the health, and had a
practice of making presents of dried figs and bay leaves on the first day
of the year; and it is to be noticed that in the packages of the choicest figs
which we now receive froui abroad there are always some bay leaves on
the top.

Maia, the mother of Virgil, dreamt that she was delivered of a bay tree,
and we are told that one of these trees sprang from his ashes and is still
growing over his tomb.

Unmarried men take their name of bachelor from the bay tree. As I
have already stated, poets were crowned with it, and so also, in the mid-
dle ages, were students who had taken their degrees at the Universities,
and were thence called in frcnch bacheliers, or laurel-berr^-ers, from the
berries being intermingled with the leaves in the wreaths; the word
bacheliers being derived from the latin word bacca laureus, a laurel berry.
Tiicso students were not allowed to marry for fear that the duties incum-
bent upon them as husbands or fathers would interfere with their studies,
and hence in time all single men came to be called bachelors.

In holy writ the almond is called Shakad, a Hebrew word, signifying to
watch or awake, in allusion to its eaily blooming immediately after the
rigors of winter have passed away.

Jeremiah says: "The word of the Lord came unto me, saying. Jeremiah,
what seest thou ? and I said, I sec a rod of an almond tree. Then said the

682 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Lord unto me, Thou hast well seen; for I will hasten my word to perform
it," or in other words, " I am hastening or watching over ray word to ful-
fill it." The rod of Aaron was of the almond tree, as were also the rods
which the princes of Israel bore, and representations of its fruit and flowers
were introduced into the sculptured ornaments of the temple.

The poet Moore makes a very beautiful allusion to it in one of his
poems:

*' The hope, in dreams of a happy hour,
That alights on Misery's brow.
Springs forth like the silvery almond flower
That blooms on a leafless bough."'

And Virgil, in his Georgics, welcomes it, when flowering profut^i^y, as the
sign of a fruitful season.

The mythological legend attached to the almond is very pretty. Demo-
phoon, son of Theseus, returning from Troy, was wrecked on the coast of
Thrace, where he was most hospitably entertained by the beautiful Phyllis,
queen of that country. They became mutually enamored, and were
united in marriage. Soon after, through the death of his father, he was
recalled to Athens, but promised Phyllis to return to her within a month.
His affairs detaining him beyond the expected time, the unfortunate queen
became melancholy' and wandered dail}^ on the sea-shore, watching in vain
for the return of her husband. The months rolled on and 3-et he came not;
and one day, whilst she was* gazing out upon the sea, she fell dead upon
the shore in a fit of despair. The gods, pitying her sad fate, changed her
into an almond tree. Demophoon returning soon after and being infornled
of what had happened hastened to the sea-shore and embraced the tree in
his arras, whereupon the strong affection of Phyllis, unable even. then to
restrain itself, caused the tree, though bare of leaves, to burst forth into
bloom.

The Greeks and Romans regarded the hawthorn as the emblem of hope.
Its flowers were always used in the floral games of May, and were carried
by the Grecian maidens in wedding processions and laid upon the altar of
Hymen, which was illuminated by toiches of the wood.

In England the}' have a curious religious legend connected with a vari-
ety called the Glastonbury thorn. The story goes that Joseph of Arimathea,
after the burial of Christ, came to England, attended by twelve compan-
ions, to found the first Christian church in Britain. Guided by divine in-
spiration, he proceeded to Glastonbury, arriving there on Ciiristmas day.
He commenced his holy labors, intending to erect a church in honor of the
Virgin Mary, but the natives, having some doubts as to his mission, he
prayed God to work a miracle in his behalf, whereupon, striking his stafl
or cane into the ground, and it immediately shot forth into leaves and blos-
soms. The superstitious say that the tree is still in existence, and that it
still blossoms on Christmas day.

The pomegranate is one of the oldest fruit-bearing trees with which his-
tory has acquainted us, and i^s one of those most frequently spoken of in
the Bible. It was one of the three fruits brought by Caleb and Joshua to
Moses from Eschol. It was held in great veneration b}' the Jews, and its
fruits and flowers entered largely into the metal and other decorations used

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION C83

for the adorning of the tcini)lo and tlie vestments of the priests. Solomon
Bpeaks of it as a fruit from wliich wine was made, and also uses it symbol-
ically as representing^ certain graces of his beloved: "Thy temples are
like a piece of pomegranate within Thy locks."

Pliny informs us that it was first found near Carthage, but so well did it
succeed in the climate of Greece, that that country became noted for its rich
crops of this fruit. It of course figures in their mythological story. When
Ceres discovered that Pluto had stolen her daughter Proserpine, and carried
her off to the infernal regions, she earnestly implored Jupiter to restore
her, and he consented, provided she had not eaten anything during her stay
in the infernal regions. Unfortunately, whilst walking in the Elysian
fields, she had plucked a pomegranate and eaten seven of its seeds. This
was observed by Ascalphus, who told Pluto of it, which so eni'aged Ceres
that she turned Ascalphus into an owl.

Another legend is, that a ytjung Scythian girl was told by some divines
tj^at she should wear a crown. Upon this she became very proud and vain,
and, by promising to give her a crown, Bacchus had no difficulty in seduc-
ing her. lie soon tired of her and abandoned her, upon which she died of
grief; he then metamorphosed her into a pomegranate tree, on the top of
the fruit of which he affixed a crown, thus tardily and ambiguously redeem-
ing his promise.

Still another story is that the Athenians and Boetians had a di-spute respect-
ing a place on their borders called Side. Epaminondas took a pomegranate
from under his robe and asked the Athenians what they called it. They
answered Rhoa. Very good, said Epaminondas, we call it Side, and as the
place takes its name from the quantity of this fruit which grows there, it is
clear that the place belongs to us, and the cause was decided in favor of ihe
Boetians.

The myrtle is eminently Grecian in its associations, and among the ancients
it was a universal favorite. By them it was held sacred to Venus, who was
said to have sprung from the sea, crowned with a wreath of myrtle, and by
some of the Greelis was worshiped under the name of myrtilla. The priests
of Venus Aphrodite always wore circlets of myrtle on their foreheads, and
her temples were always surrounded by myrtle plants. At the festival of
Europa, at Corinth, a crown of myrtle, ten yards in circumferepce, was
always carried in procession. It was also worn by the Athenian magistrates
as symbols of their authority, and by the Olympian victors as symbols of their
bloodless triumphs.

The myrtle was associated with the olive in the regards of Minerva, for
Myrsine, an Attic maid, who surpassed all other maidens in beauty, and ex-
celled all the young men in strength, had made herself very acceptable to the
Goddess of Wisdom. "Myrsine, being murdered from envy by some of those
whom she had overcome in the palestra and in the race course, was turned
into a myrtle tree, so that the myrtle is not less acceptable to Minerva than
the olive tree.

But another story is that Myrsine, suffering her love to overcome her wis-
dom, offended Minerva, who turned her into a myrtle, when Venus, from .sym-
pathy, took the plant under her care.

681 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The fig tree is frequently spoken of in the scriptures and in the classics.
It foimcd a prominent article of food among the eastern nations, and was
highly valued by them, so much so that the Athenians forbid the exportation
of such as grew at a place near their city, where tradition said that figs first
grew. This spot was called " Hiera Suke, or the place of the sacred fig
tree," and Aie fruit here grown was very highly prized by them. Those who
gave information of the fruit being sold contrary to law were called Syko-
phaiitai, or " revcalers of figs," from whence is derived our English word
vsycophant, to denote a mean, dastardly person, for the information was given
frequently maliciously and falsely.

The island of Naxos, in the Egean sea, was noted for the superior quality
of its figs, which are said to have been especially cherished by Bacchus, the
tutelary god gf the island, who was there called " Mcilechios," or "the gra-
cious," because he first taught them to use this fruit. He was also thought
to have derived his corpulency and vigor from the use of this fruit, hence
the Romans carried the fig next to the vine in their Bacchanalian pro-
cessions.

Adam and Eve are said to have made themselves aprons or girdles of fig
leaves, but I presume that this is another wrong translation. If it is a correct
one, then it is an early instance of ascetic penance, for the acid of the plant
will produce blisters, and the leaves are so rough that they would produce
excoriations nearly as rapidly as a sinapism. It is probably a mere legend
growing out of the Hebrew name for the fig tree, viz.: Thacra, or the " tree
of grief." I am tempted to relate an anecdote in relation to the fig, which,
although not in any classical work, is related to the classics.

Dr. Pococke, in 1648, first introduced the fig tree into England. One was
planted in the garden of Oxford college. Dr. Kennicott, the celebrated He-
brew scholar and compiler of the Polyglot Bible, was very fond of this fruit,
and seeing a very fine one on the tree, attached a label to it on which was
written, " Dr. Kennicott's fig." A waggish student noticed it, and when the
fruit was ripe plucked it, exchanging the label for one on which was written
" a fig for Dr. Kennicott."

What clusters of associations rise up at the mention of the vine. The
classics, one might think, were written under its shade, their pages so ex-
hale the sweet odor of its fruit. Throughout the scriptures continual mention
is made of it. It was the emblem of fruitfulncss, happiness and prosperity.
Its cultivation descends from the remotest antiquity, and with the fig and
apple, or more properly the orange, it is the earliest mentioned of all fruit.
Judging from Noah's success as a vine grower so shortly after the deluge, it
is not improbable but that its cultivation was well understood by the Antedi-
luvians. In Judea it arrived at great perfection, and modern travelers bear
evidence to the extraordinary size of the bunches there grown, fully corro-
borating the scriptural statements relative to those grown in the valley of
Eschol. We find Solomon had an extensive vipcyard at Baalhamon, which he
let at an annual rental of 1,000 pieces of silver, and we also find Moses giving
directions as to its cultivation.

The heathen nations had a great veneration for the vine, and it is said
that Hesiod, a contemporary of Homer, wrote a treatise upon its cultiva-
tion. Among the Greeks the vine was sacred to Bacchus, who they said

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 685

first taught them the art of making wine, iu reward for which they elevated
him to the rank of a deity; the gathering of the vintage was with them a
season of Bacchic enthusiasm and excess.

The Egyptians ascribed the invention of wine to Osiris, and held the
vine sacred to him.

The Romans extensively cultivated the vine, using wine at first only in
the service of the Gods, but when it became more abundant, it was more
freely partaken of, by men, yet for a long series of years it was forbidden
young men under thirty, and to women all their lifetime to drink wiue.

It is related that a Roman having caught his wife drinking wine out of
a wine cask, killed her with a cudgel, and being tried before Romulus, was
acquitted, it being considered justifiable homicide. It is also related of
anotheT Roman lady that she was starved to death by her own kinsfolk fov
merely opening a closet in which were kept the keys of the wine cellar.
Cato records that the custom of kinsfolk kissing women when they met,
was to detect by their breath if they had been drinking wine. Plato says
that " nothing more excellent or valuable than wiue was ever granted by
God to man." ,

Permit me to remark that red wine does not appear to have been in favor
with Solomon, for he expressly advises us not to " look upon the wine when
it is red, when it sparkles in the cup." This would seem to indicate that
the still white wines were most approved by him, and I must say that 1
admire his taste. Of one thing we are certain, that the Syrian grape of
this date is of a, light color, and makes a delicious wine. It is in all pro-
bability the grape of Eschol as it produces the largest bunches of any
variety known, having been grown in vineries to produce bunches of nine-
teen pounds weight. V

The elm was much valued by the Greeks, for its shade, and for its use
in supporting their grape vines, and this has given rise to numerous allu-
sions to the elm by the poets. When Vertumnus is recommending matri-
mony to Pomona, Ovid makes him sa}':

"If that fair elm," he cried, "alone should stand.
No grapes would glow with gold and tempt the hand;
Or if that vino without her elm should grow,
'Twould (jreep a poor neglected shrub below."

Among the Greeks and Romans all trees which did not produce food or
fruit fit for the use of man, were devoted to the infernal gods, and were
considered as funereal trees; hence Achilles raised a monument to the father
of Andromache in the midst of a grove of elms, and Ovid tells us that
when Orpheus returned from the infernal regions, his lamentations for
Eurydice were so pathetic, that the earth opened, and the elm and similar
trees sprang up to give him shade.

The poplar was consecrated to Hercules, because he destroyed Cacus in
a cavern adjoining Mt. Aventinus, which was covered with these trees, and
as a token of his victory, bound his brows with a branch of the whito
poplar. When returning from tlie infernal regions, he wore a wreath of
the same on his head, and the fable says that from this the Abele or silver
leaved poplar came, because the perspiration from his bruw made the inner

G86 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

side of tlio leaves white where they touched his forehead, while the thick
smoke of the infernal regions turned the upper surface almost black.

Persons sacriftciug to Hercules, always wore wreaths of this tree, and
those who overcame their enemies in battle, were frequently crowned with
it in honor of Hercules.

Under a poplar tree at the door of Tychius, the tanner of Hyle, Homer
used to sit aiid recite his poems.

The Highlanders believe that the Cross of Christ was made of the wood
of the aspen poplar, and that consequently its leaves can never rest.

Of the black poplar, Ovid's story is, that Phaeton having borrowed the
horses and chariot of the Sun, and by his careless driving setting half the
world on fire, was hurled by Jupiter into the river Po, where he was
drowned,' and his sisters, the Heliades, wandering on its banks, were turned
into poplars. Some, however, assert that they were turned into alders, and
not into poplars.

The Akler is frequently mentioned by Homer, Virgil, and other poets.
Virgil, in one of his Eclogu3s, tells us that the sisters of Phaeton were
turned into alders.

" The sisters mourning for their brothers' loss,
Their bodies hid in bark and furred with moss,
And each a rising alder now appears,
And o'er the stream distils her gummy tears."

The willow does not appear to have been celebrated by the ancie&t poets,
except in the Scriptures where the sorrowing Jews are represented as
hanging their harps upon the willows growing on the banks of the Baby-
lonish streams; but the Arabians have a strange legend as to its origin
They relate that David, after he had married Bathsheba, was one day play-
ing on his harp in his private chamber, into which he had given strict
orders that none should be admitted to disturb his privacy, when suddenly
two angels made their appearance and nearly in the way related in the
Scriptures, convicted him of his heinous offence. David threw himself upon
the floor, and for forty days and forty nights shed bitter tears of repent-
ance, weeping and trembling before the judgment of the Lord. Moaning
forth psalms of repentance, in those forty daj^s and forty nights David shed
as many te.'trs of repentance as all the human race have shed and will shed
from David's time until the judgment day on account of their sins. From
his tears flowed two streams, which ran from the chamber into the garden,
where they sank into the ground, and from them sprang two trees, one of
which was the willow, which incessantly weeps and mourns, and the other
the frankincense tree, which incessantly sheds big tears each in remem-
brance of his sincere repentance.

H' all the poems which have been written on the rose were collected into
one volume, it would be a large one, for there is scarcely a poet of eminence"
who has not celebrated its beauty and its fragrance which has been the
theme of song for nearly 3,000 years.

In mythological legend it is almost equally rich. Anacreon makes the
birth of the rose coeval with that of Venus and Minerva.

"Then, then in strange eventful hour.
The earth produced an infant flower,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 687

Which sprang with blushing tinctures drest,
And wanton'd o'er its parents breast;
The Gods beheld this brilliant birth.
And hailed the Rose, the boon of earth."

Some of the poets give us a different version of the birth of the rose thau
that related by Anacreon. The story is that Flora, having found the dead
body of one of her favorite nymphs, whose beauty was only equalled by
her virtue, implored the assistance of the deities to aid her in changing her
into a flower, whom all should acknowledge to be their queen. In response
to her request Bacchus bathed it in nectar, Aurora caused her dews to fall
thick upon it, refreshing its roots, while Apollo's beams shone with invig-
orating warmth. Flora crowned its stem with a diadem of bloom unsur-
passed for beautj'^, and Vertumnus anointed it with perfumes from the vale
of Tempe.

Some, however, say that the original color of the rose was white, but
that when the gods were feasting above, Cupid who led the dance, with
his wing upset a bowl of nectar, which showered upon the earth, caused
the roses to become red. Others, again, say that Mars jealous of the
favors bestowed upon Adonis by Venus, killed him, and she hastening with-
out her sandals to avenge his death, trod on a rose, whose thorns lacerat-
ing her beautiful foot, caused the blood to flow, which staining its flowers,
at once gave to it its color and fragrance.

The rose was dedicated to Aurora as an emblem of youth, from its fresh-
ness and reviving fragrance; to Venus as an emblem of love and beauty,
from the elegance of its flowers, and to Cupid as an emblem of fugacity and
danger Irom the fleeting nature of its charms and the wounds inflicted by
its thorns, which are said to be derived from the stings of the bees with
which the arc of his bow was strung It was an emblem of silence, because
Cupid gave it to Harpocrates, the god of silence, to bribe him not to reveal
the amours of Venus. Hence, it was sculptured on the ceilings of their
banqueting halls, or suspended over their tables as a token that what was
said in convivial moments was not to be repeated; hence the phrase sub
rosa, or under the rose, to denote secrecy.

And still another legend relates that Ehodanthe. a beautiful queen of
Corinth, to escape the persecutions of her lovers, attempted to seclude her-
self in the temple of Diana, but forced by the clamors of the people to leave
her sanctuary, she prayed the gods to change her into a rose; which still
bears the blushes that dyed her cheeks when forced to expose herself to
the public gaze.

I might occupy an evening in relating the history of the rose, the various
legends of it in different countries, the modes in which it had been used for
ornamentation, and the diflerent allusions to it by the poets. I close with
a legend in our own language equal to any in the classics which tells of
the birth of the moss rose.

The angel of the flowers one day
' Beneath a rose-bush sleeping lay,

That spirit to whose charge is given,
To bathe young buds in dews of Heaven.
Awaking from his slight repose.
The angel whispered to the rose.
Oh ! choicest object of my care,

688 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Still fairest found where all is fair,

For the sweet shade thou'st given me,

Ask what thou wilt, 'tis granted thee.

Then said the rose with deepened glow,

On me another grace bestow;

The spirit paused in silent thought,

What grace was there, that flower had not,

'Twas but a moment, o'er the rose

A veil of moss the angel throws;

And clothed in nature's simplest weed

Can there a flower, that flower exceed.

Time, however, admonishes rae that I must draw to a close. I could
enumerate many other trees and plants with which much of the poetical
feeling of the ancients is associated. Among these may be named the ash,
of which Cupid made his arrows — although he afterwards made them of
cypress, embleniatical, I suppose, of the melancholy consequences of the
wounds which the shafts of love inflict. We also have the beech, the birch,
the sweet chesnut — which shaded Mount Olympus, the favorite residence
of the gods — the sycamore, the alder, the larch, the yew, the spindle tree,
the walnut, the laburnum, the indas tree. "We may also name the laurus-
tinus — the dogwood — sacred to Apollo, in a grove of which the trial of
beauty in which Paris adjudged the prize to Venus, took place.

Among smaller plants and shrubs we mightjiame the lavender, the rose-
mary, the ivy, the daphne, the laurel, the lily — which owes the purity of its
color to the milk which flowed from the breasts of Juno when nursing Her-
cules, that which fell to the earth producing lilies, that which remained in
the sky produced the milky way — the violet, the iris, and the narcissus.
And among fruit trees the apple, the pear, the plum, the peach, and many
other fruit trees.

Such are the more striking objects from whence emanated the odors,
imagery, and poetical feeling which is so profusely spread over the classic
pages either of verse or prose.

On motion of Mr. Carpenter the thanks of the Association were presented
to Mr. James Hogg for his interesting lecture, and a copy was requested for
publication.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

February 7, 1865.

Mr. Benjamin C. Townsend the President of the Association in the chair.

On the tables were displayed a very large and choice collection of green
house plants, in bloom, from the nursery of Mr. John Henderson, of Jersey City.

The chairman introduced to the audience Mr. John Henderson, who deli-
vered the third lecture of the course,

Winter Flowers.

Mr. Preaident, Ladies and Gentlemen :

The subject I propose calling your attention to this evening, is one that I
feel assured you are all interested in. It is that of Winter Flowers. When
I say winter flowers, I do not mean those flowers only that blossom naturally

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 689

at this season of the year, but all plants that can by artificial means be forced
or rather coaxed into producing their flowers during the cold and dreary months
of winter. But in order to illustrate my meaning more particularly, I will
give you a familiar example. You are all doubtless acquainted with the
common lilac of the gardens, a hardy shrub or bush, which flowers naturally
iu the open air during the latter part of May and beginning of June. This
iihrub if planted in a pot in the spring, may be placed iu a forcing house about
November, when it soon commences throwing out leaves and blossoms and
thus becomes a winter instead of a summer flower.

A forcing house is a conservatory heated to about 70 degrees of heat, and
by means of which we are enabled to enjoy at this season almost all plants .
that do not flower generally till late in the spring or summer. Flowers are
beautiful and lovely at all times and at all seasons, but how much more so
during the winter months when almost every plant or tree outside is leafless
and dcsolat-e looking. It is then that the}' give such a charm to our homes.
For what can give us so great a pleasure after a walk in the outside world
during this period of the year, as on returning to our comfortable dwellings,
to be welcomed by such beauties as these ; beauties that we never tire of, for
each bud or leaf as it expands, unfolds to us new delights and creates for us
an ever changing yet constant pleasure.

The adornment of human dwellings with plants and flowers is traceable to
such a remote period of history that its origin is lost in antiquity. They are
ornaments that the most refined art cannot even approach to, much more excel.
For instance, take any one of the numerous flowers before us ; Avhat is {here
either in sculpture or art to equal it. It is true you may imitate a flower or
a plant in wax or other material, to a nicety, but after all what is it but a
poor imitation. You may pass it perhaps a dozen times a day and the eye
rests upon it, without any particular emotion of delight. But place a real
living Kose in its place ! What an almost miraculous change comes over us.
Each time we behold it, it is with a new thrill of pleasure, for now our finer
feelings are interested with joy. Our sense of the beautiful, our sense of
smell, our sense of care is brought into play, for we feel that in this we have
a living plant that is dependent on us for its existence, and which it so amply,
so sweetly repays by its beauty and fragrance.

To be a lover of flowers it is not necessary to be either a florist or a botanist
or even that we should be familiar with the proper or botanic names of plants,
although this latter knowledge I cannot too earnestly impress upon every one
as being most useful, and I consider the possession of it adds ten fold to our
pleasures in tlieir cultivation. Indeed it is sometimes very difficult to des-
cribe a flower to another person, so that they understand the particular one
we mean, for if we attempt to do so by its leaf or color of its flower, how un-
satisfactory it is, as no two persons scarcely ever agree as to a particular shade
of color when it is before their eyes, and how is it likely to be so when there
is nothing to refer to ; whereas by giving its proper name we are immediately
understood ; besides, while the botanic names of plants unlike everything else
is universal in all civilized nations. For if you travel to France, or Germany,
Russia or Italy, and have no knowledge whatever of the language of either,
yet if you enter the garden of the first florist or amateur, you meet with in
any of those countries and name any kind of plant by its botanic name, you
[Am. Ixst.] Pt*

690 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

are immediately understood, so that by the simple act of calling a plant by its
proper name it is the talisman that opens the foreigner's heart, so that he feels
a pleasure in showing you all the beauties of his garden and greenhouses, and
you aie able to hold a floricultural conversation with him, and when you leave
his garden you part with a mutual esteem for each other. This is the true
language of flowers, the knowledge of which is a kind of freemasonry that
gives us the entre and a welcome to every garden and greenhouse in the
civilized world.

The love of flowers is not confined to any one class of persons, for the hum-
ble as well as the rich unite in the admiration of their beauties, and we as
frequently see them adorning the rooms and windows of the most lowly dwel-
lings, as we do the mansions of the rich, receiving too from the poor inmates
of the former a care and attention that those in affluence would often do well
to imitate.

Many persons will doubtless exclaim that they would gladly have flowers
in their rooms, could they only grow them so as to appear like these ; and
I must admit there are some difliculties to be met with here, on account of
the want of a suflBciency of light, and from too hot and dry an atmosphere
in most sitting-rooms at this season. But these difficulties would be more
imaginative than real if we adopted the same customs here as are so pre-
valent in Europe, for there almost every modern-built house has its con-
servatory or greenhouse attached to it, which not only makes a beautiful
addition to a dwelling, but is at the same time scarcely any extra expense
when building. And how much more desirable would such a custom be in
this country, where in all large cities we are crowded together in a 25 by
100 feet, with no better view from our windows than the 3'ards of our
neighbors, which are generally the deposit of everything that is unsightly.
How easily could all this be changed by building conservatories, which
would give a beautiful finish to our rooms, and at the same time aflbrd us
a most healthful and recreative amusement. But in order to grow flowers
in a conservatory it will be necessary to keep up a temperature within that
shall be congenial to the plant, otherwise they would freeze up at this sea
son ; fortunately, however, the means of doing this is now so simplified
that it will scarcely add any extra cost to the building, for it may be done
by either steam or hot water pipes, or even hot air ; in fact whatever pro-
cess is made use of for warming the apartments of the dwelling can be
brought into use for the conservatory, only if hot air is made use of, the
atmosphere is apt to become too dry for the proper and healthful culture of
plants ; this however is easily remedied by frequently throwing water on
the floor of the house, and at seasonable times syringing the leaves of the
plants, operations easily performed and would scarcely take a longer time
to do than it does me to describe. This creates within the house a gentle
moisture which plants love so much, and without which a high state of
cultivation can never be attained ; and for the matter of that, if we could
find the means of introducing a little more of this humidity in our dwel-
lings, it would be all the better for us, as we should enjoy much better
health than we can ever hope to do by breathing such a hot and dry atmos-
phere as we accustom ourselves to. Presuming, therefore, we have our
conservatory, the next question is how to fiil it with suital^e plants. To

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 691

those who possess countiy as well as city residences tliis is easy enough,
as they can grow the plants in the gardens of the former during the sum-
mer, and when they have perfected themselves and are ready for bk)Ssonfi-
ing, they can be transplanted to the conservatory attached to their city
residence. But to those who have not such facilities, it is far better to
purchase from a respectable florist plants already grown to the necessary
stage of perfection — which under ordinary care, will continue flowering
during the whole of the winter season — than to attempt to grow them
themselves in their city yards, which under scarcely any circumstances,
however skillful the cultivator may be, can he produce such specimens as
these before you. In order, however, more fully to make you understand
whj' this cannot be done, I will describe the process of growing this
monthly carnation, one of the most desirable plants for winter flowering:
This plant is not much more than a twelvemonth old. The season for pro-
pagating this and kindred plants among florists commences generally iu
October and finislies in March, consequently any time intervening during
that period is favorable to the operation. The young shoots that have not
formed flower-buds are taken from the plants and made into what are
termed cuttings, or by some slips. The process is simple enough. The
lower leaves of the cutting are pulled off and an incision or cut made near
a leaf-joint by means of a sharp knile. The cuttings being made are now
stuck into sand placed on benches especially adapted to the purpose, and
in about a month's time they commence throwing out roots, or striJsing, as
the technical term is among gardeners. As soon as this occurs, they are
taken out of the sand and planted into small pots full of any rich and well
manured mould ; they are now placed in a cool gr^nhouse or pit, there to
remain till all appearance of frost is over, say about the middle of May,
when they are planted in the open ground when they soon assume a vigor
of growth that cannot, under ordinary circumstances, be obtained if grown
exclusively in pots or in the yard attached to a city dwelling.
When planted in the open ground, they require no attention in watering,
the rains of summer, and especially of the fall, being all they need. About
the latter end of September they are taken up carefully and potted, after
whrch they are fit candidates for the conservatory, and very soon become
such as you now see before you. This is the mode adopted b}'^ florists who
do these things on a large scale; but, for amateurs, and those who only
require a few plants of each sort, there is another very pleasing and simple
process of striking cuttings, which is sticking them in saucers of sand,
which should always be kept saturated with water. This mode of grow-
ing cuttings can be done in an ordinary sitting-room — merely placing the
saucers in the windows during the day, so as to obtain the full light of the
sun, and by keeping the sand well moistened — they will require no shad-
ing. Before you on the table are some saucers of Verbenas, Koses and
other plants grownby this very interesting yet simple process. In Europe
they have an excellent custom, which would, no doubt, be greatly appreci-
ated if introduced here. It is that of employing a class of gardeners or
florists who make it their especial business to supply plants in flower for
the decoration of sitting-rooms, and of attending to them afterwards, by
sending competent gardeners every day to see that when they need water

692 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

the}^ get \l — a need, I am sorry to say, amateurs are very apt to forget —
for plants require their food as regularly as we do ours, and, like ourselves,
if they do not receive a sufficiency, or get too much given them, their
health suffers accordingly. These gardeners also contract to take away
all plants as soon as they are out of flower or otherwise become unsightly'',
and replace them by others, so that a constant supply of fresh and healthy
plants is kept up during the whole season This is a verj desirable cus-
tom, and one that I think could be well and profitably introduced into New
York and other large cities of America, as the knowledge that we could
always procure gardeners accustomed to the care and management of
plants in cities would be a great inducement to the moi-e general building
of conservatories attached to our dwellings. For how many persons there
are fond of flowers in their rooms, but have not the leisure or the necessary
knowledge to attend to them themselves. But, under any circumstances,
every one having a conservaotry for the first time, it would be very profit-
\able to them to employ a regular gardener to attend to it at the commence-
ment, and, by a little observation, they would soon perceive how little care
plants actually do require to keep them in a healthy and thriving condition
when that care is rightly applied. In most large cities in Europe they
have what they call winter gardens, which is nothing more than a conserv-
atory on a large scale. These, in some instances, are very elaborately laid
out, with winding walks so arranged that at almost every turn you are
meeting with new beauties; here, perhaps, in a secluded nook, you find a
grotto, overgrown with Mosses and Ferns, with water oozing out from
among the rocks, and giving to it all the appearance of one of those beauti-
ful, quiet places we aije constantly meeting with in our rambles in the
country. Or, we go a little farther, and before us is an elegant fountain,
overflowing into a miniature stream, with beautifully colored fish sporting
gracefully about; or, hark! what are those joyous sounds we hear as we
suddenly come to an aviary of sweet singing birds, which seem to show
by their glad and cheerful voices that, to them, there is no vi'iuter there.
These conservatories are generally planted with Camellia Japonicas, which
are always covered with their beautiful blossoms during the winter months,
and whatever other plants or flowers are in season or can be forced into
flower are here brought together to add to the general beauty, and so all
combine to make these winter gardens a very Paradise in themselves.
But, if we have no public winter garden here in New York, we are not at
least deprived of the pleasure of having plants and flowers in our rooms,
and, in some favored places, of even having conservatories full of such
charming beauties as these before us.

We have here this evening many varieties of plants which you perceive
can be made to blossom at this season of the year. The first and most
prominent among these, on account of its many good qualities, is the Ca-
mellia Japonica, one of the most desirable winter plants we possess,
whether we regard it for the beauty of its blossoms or the lively freshness
of its foliage; for even when not in flower it is one of the most useful plants
for the conservatory on account of its rich evergreen leaves, which form
such a handsome background to other flowers; and besides it has another

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 693 ^

excellent quality, which is, it will bear as much ill usage as almost any
plant.

We next come to the Rose, most justly styled the queen of flowers,
and is deservedly admired by every one, not only for the beauty of its
flowers, but also for its exquisite fragrance. I regret I cannot show you
this evening some more beautiful specimens than these, and further ad-
vanced in blossom, but the severe weather during the last month, with the
great want of sun, has caused them to be a fortnight later than they other-
wise would have been. There are two principal classes among roses; the
one called monthly or everblooming, consisting of the Bengal and Tea
roses, the Bourbons, and most of the Noisettes. The flowers of this class
generally possess more or less of that peculiar odor or perfume called tea-
scented, from its supposed resemblance to tea leaves when rubbed in the
hand. Among these is to be found almost every variety of color from white
to very nearly black, yellow, orange, and even green, so that a beautiful
bouquet may be made of roses only, possessing every diversity of color,
without the aid of any other flowers. The other class is composed of the
Remontants and Perpetuals, or roses that only produce one set of fine blos-
soms, but afterwards are continually throwing up a few stray flowers, more
especially in the fall of the year. These belong to that class of roses from
which that most exquisite of all perfumes is produced, the Attar or Otto of
Roses. There are other classes of the rose, such as the climbing rose and
the summer or June rose — the former very beautiful for covering trellises
and verandas, and among the latter are some very showy and sweet roses, but
generally they are not well adapted for pot culture or for forcing into flow-
er at this period of the year, with however one bright exception which muet
be made in favor of the lovely moss rose. This beautiful rose requires to
be grown in pots- for a twelvemonth before forcing it, otherwise it does not
flower well, but when this is attended to and the pot becomes well filled
with roots, it may be forced so as to flower as early as Februarj'-, and a
more beautiful object than a well grown moss rose cannot be imagined.

We now come to a very different type of flower, the Calla or yEihiopian
Lily, the flowers and leaves of which are equally beautiful. This plant is
of easy culture, thriving perfectly well grown in a pot as you now perceive
it, or it may be placed entirely in water and grown in a similar way to the
common yellow and white Lily that we see in almost every pond or stream.
Beautiful as the lilies arc, unfortunately there are but few that will bear
forcing so as to flower in winter, excepting that most lovely and fragrant
little variety, the Gonvalaria or Lily of the Valley, which thrives well if
taken up in the fall and planted in pots, when it may be brought into the
forcing house so as to flower at this season. The Lily, like the Rose, is a
very numerous family and embraces flowers of the greatest diversity of
form and color, but with few exceptions, as before observed, are more
fitted for garden culture than for forcing in pots.

Boumrdia. — This invaluable winter flowering plant consists of but few
varieties, but tho.se few are all beautiful and free flowering. It is also one
of those few plants that the more the flowers are cut off the more it pro-
duces, for generally whenever a blossom is cut off" the stem invariably
produces three more shoots, which in their turn, in a short time, have

694 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

flowers. Another excellent quality of the blossoms of this plant is that
■when cut and placed in water and kept in a cool place, they will look fresh
and retain all their beauty for nearly a fortnight. This is a very desirable
quality for those who are fond of cut flowers in their rooms.

This beautiful wliite flower, the Chinese Primrose or Primula Sinensis,
fi. pleno of botanists, is perhaps of all plants the most profuse flowerer,
for it commences to flower in October and continues till July, during the
whole of which long period it can be kept as you now perceive it, provided
each flower as it arrives at perfection, that is becomes full blown, is cut
ofl". Now this is a most excellent quality in any plant, for thus we have
a plant always covered with blossoms, yet at the same time giving us an
abundance of cut flowers for the rooms. And I might here mention that
all plants do better and give a much greater supply of flowers by frequent
gathei'ing the blossoms as soon as they are perfected — so that we are en-
abled to enjoy them not only in their growing state as plants but at the
same time as cut flowers. The reason of which is that with most flowers
as soon as the blossoms are fully expanded they commence producing seed,
to perfect which the whole strength of the plant seems to be expended, and
the flowering ceases, whereas, by constantly cutting the blossoms off as
Boon as they are in perfection, the plants may be made to flower almost
indefinitely. Besides this double variety of the Primula, there are several
others with single flowers, two of which are now on the table, they are
also very abundant flowerers, but as they shed their blossoms very soon
they are not of much use as cut flowers, although very ornamental and
showy as plants, and deserve a place in every conservatory.

The Heliotrope is so universally known that it needs but little comment
from me. No collection can be said to be complete without it, not so much
from any peculiar beauty in its blossoms, but from the early associations
attached to it as a sweet smelling flower — for as children we are taught to
call it the cherry-pie plant, from a supposed resemblance to the smell of
the cherry when baked. This 1 suppose is the reason why it is such a
universal favorite with both young and old. It is also one of those ever-
flowering plants that seem to thrive and blossom the more they are
gathered.

We next come to the Violet. This beautifully pei'fumed little flower is
perhaps, of all flowers, the most associated with us from our earliest in-
fancy. With what delight as children have we not gathered bunches of
it from the fields and roadsides of the country, and being one of the first
flowers of spring, we welcome it as the harbinger of many joys to come.
It is, however, one of the most difficult plants for flowering in city conser-
vatories, as it requires to be kept much cooler than other plants, with an
abundance of fresh air and light; without these contingencies, instead of
flowering it grows all to leaf. But where it meets Avith the necessary
amount of sun a)id air, it is one of the most abundant flowering plants we
possess, producing a continuous supply of its fragrant blossoms froni Octo-
ber till the middle of May.

Azalea indica. — This is perhaps one of the most profuse flowering plants
we have to do with, and during the time it is in blossom it makes a greater
display than any other plan<^ Among them is to be found every shade of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 695

color, from white to the richest crimsons and purples, besides many striped
and mottled varieties. The white variety, and a lew of the others, can be
forced into flower as early as December, so that with a little management
a succession may bo kept up until the end of June.

Of all flowers that have been comparatively recently introduced into
America, the Monlhly or Tree Carnation ought perhaps to be placed in the
first rank. They are very great flowers, having a diversity of color that
makes them very desirable, and many of them highly fragrant. It is of
very easy culture, and being monthly, will, under proper treatment, con-
tinue flowering the greater part of the year.

Fachfiia, or Ladies'^ Ear Drop. — This now well known plant is univer-
sally admired for its elegantly drooping flowers, giving to it when in full
blossom a gracefulness possessed by scarcely any other plant. Although
it is composed of a great variety, both as regards the form of its flowers,
as well as their colors, j'et there are but few that blossom freely during
the winter months. Fuchsia speciosa is one of the best winter flowering
varieties. There is also a very pretty and elegant species called the Prin-
cess of Prussia, the outer leaves or sepals being red, and the inside, or
corolla, white. Those having dark purple corollas are mostly spring or
sunmior flowerers, with perhaps the exception of the Prince Imperial, a
variety lately introduced, and which gives promise of being a winter flower-
ing kind. If this on further trial should prove to be the case, it will make
a great addition to the flowering plants of this season.

This beautifully drooping plant, with scarlet, star-like flowers, is the
Eujihorhia JacquiniceflGra, a very elegant plant, and continues in blossom
during a long period. Also nearly allied to it is the Poinsettia pulchen-ima,
a plant which when in flower, as that before you, makes a most splendid
display. Yet the blossom itself is small and insignificant, being that
starry portion in the center. But when in flower it is always accompanied
by those gorgeously colored leaves, or bractoe, as I suppose botanists would
-.all them. The Euphorbias are a very numerous family of plants, nearly
all exuding, when bruised, a milk like substance that is in some cases ex-
tremely poisonous. Other portions, again, are highly nutritious as food, as
the rhizoma, or underground portion of the stem of the Mandiac, or Cas-
sava, of tropical America, which, when freed from the poisonous juice by
washing and exposure to heat, forms a kind of starch, which is the well
known tapioca of commerce. Then again we have the Ricinus communis
and the Croton Tiglium — the seeds of the former yielding the castor oil, and
the latter croton oil. Others, again, are virulent poisons, as the Manchi-
vecal tree of the West Indies, which is said to be death to any one sleep-
ing under its shade, and a drop of the juice falling on the hand produces a
blister instantaneously. The hair of other species, such as the Jatropha
stimulose, sting like nettles. Another and very important product is the
Caoutchou, or india rubber, which is yielded by several varieties of this
order of plants. So that this numerous class, called the Euphorbiaceae, not
only furnishes us with plants producing beautiful flowers, as those hero
represented by the Euphorbia jacquiniceflora and the Poinsettia pulcherrima,
but others yield us a highly nutritious food; whilst the extracts of another
portion are of the greatest importance in the arts and sciences.

69G TRANSACTIONS OF THE AJIEFJCAN INSTITUTE

To those who have conservatories there are few flowers more conepicn-
ous than the different species of the acacia, of which we have but one rep-
resentative here this evening, in the acacia linifolia. They are mostly larg'e
and rapid growers, so that they require a great space of room to them-
selves; but when in flower they are not only very showy but exceedingly
sweet. They are mostly very profuse flowerers, and even when not in bios
som are highly ornamental, many of them having, like the present, a very
graceful and drooping habit of growth.

The next flower I will call your attention to is the Eiipatorium, of which
we have two varieties here, ,both as you perceive pure white; this
is a most useful class of flowers, not only for the decoration of the conser-
vatory, but also to the bouquet makers; there are some six or seven varieties
that flower during the winter months, some coming into blossom as early
as September, whilst, others do not flower till April, so that the period of
flowering extends over nearly nine months; and although they are all
white, yet they are distinct in form from each other, the flowers and leaves
have a slightly aromatic smell in several of the kinds, especially so in the
two varieties on the table.

The next flower is the Begonia, which embraces a A'ery great variety,
some for the elegance and beauty of their flowers, and others for the sin-
gular markings of their foliage; the flowers, in general, have no great
merit, except a few, among which are the two species now before us.
Begonia incarnala, this pink-colored kind, and Begonia Saimdersiana, this
red coral-colored one. Most of the species continue in blossom the greater
part of the year.

The orange free, I dare saj, is recognized by all by its fruit; it ought to
be in every collection, the foliage being of that peculiar lively green so
pleasing to the eye, and the blossom is universally admired for its fra-
grance, a single flower, when open, being sufiBcient to perfume a whole
conservatory, besides which, it generally has its golden fruit on the plant
at the same time as the flowers, "making it of double interest, especially to
the younger members of our families.

This little white flower, the Ahjssum. Maritimum or Sweet Abjssum, is
only looked upon as a very common garden flower in the summer, but is
most useful in a conservatory during the winter. It can either be grown
as a dwarf pot plant like the present, or placed on a shelf, or even sus-
pended by means of a wire, and allowed to fall over the sides of the pot,
when it becomes a very pretty hanging plant; by carefully cutting off all
flowers as soon as the lower portions commence producing seed, it may be
made to flower almost indefinitely. The flowers are very sweet, smelling
very much like honey.

Another of our common garden flowers in summer is the Reseda odorata
or Mignonette, so universally admired for its fragrance by all classes of
people. The plant bsfore us is a new variety and called the tree Migno-
nette, by never allowing its blossoms to perfect its seed; it will continue
flowering the whole of the season, and will live for years, becoming a large
bush or tree, according to whether it is allowed to grow at will or is trained
to a single stem. It is also somewhat sweeter than the ordinary garden
species.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 697

Besides the plants I have described, there arc'a vast number ol others
that may be flowered at this season, so as to add to the general beauty of
the conservatory, although those that I have named are among the more
prominent for the many good qualities they possess, unless, perhaps, I
make exception in favor of the Hyacinth. This flower, you are aware, is
produced from bulbs annually imported from Haarlem, in Holland, where
the soil appears to be more suitable to this and kindred roots than in any
other part of the world, for there they are grown by the million, thousand
of acres being devoted to their cultivation, and from thence they are
exported to all parts of the globe. The Hj'acinth too is more specially
adapted for room culture than almost any other plant. It appears to thrive
equallj' as well whether grown in pots with earth or in glasses of water,
although the latter is perhaps the most interesting and pleasing way, as.
we are enabled to observe the formation of the roots as well as the devel-
opment of the leaves and blossoms. In order to have a succession cf these
flowers during the whole of the winter and spring, they should be planted
or placed in glasses as the case may be, at different intervals from Septem-
ber till middle of December. For the first ten or twelve days after being
placed in the glasses, which should be filled with water so as to cover the
lower part of the bulb with about half an inch,, they should be set in a
dark closet, as they throw out their roots more freely than when fully
exposed to the light; but when taken from the closet they should be kept
in the window so as to i-eceive as much light and sun as possible, care
being taken that the glasses are well supplied with water, so that the
lower part of the bulb is constantly immersed in it. Narcissus, Tulips and
Crocuses can be grown in a similar way, although these latter thrive
better and make more appearance when cultivated in pots.

There is also another class of plants, the flowers of which for the most
part do not [possess any very great beauty. I allude to variegated or orna-
mental fuliaged plants, these have now become very numerous, the leaves
of many being so beautifully marked that no conservatory can be said to
be complete without them. We have but few of them here this evening,
which I very much regret, as they would have added much to the display
before us, but the weather unfortunately , is too severe. For many of the
finer varieties do best in a warmer and more humid temperature than
ordinary greenhouse plants, therefore would have felt the change of atmo-
sphere more than these. I would here observe that as the beauty of this
class of plant consists in their foliage, it should always be kept from cold
draughts of air, also the leaves ought to be frequently washed, which is
not only more healthy for the plant but doubly repays' the trouble by their
enhanced beauty and brilliancy of color.

In conclusion I would call your attention to a very pretty and elegant
manner of growing plants in a room by means of what are called Parlor
Greenhouses, or, niorc properly speaking, Wardian Cases, which require
very little care and attention.

It has always been supposed that plants of all descriptions must have a
constant change of fresh air, btit recent discoveries by Dr. Ward, a phy-
sician of London, has proved that many kinds of plants can be grown for
months without any change of atmosphere. The origin of the discovery

698 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

I believe, -was this: The Doctor had buried the chrysalis of a sphinx moth
in some mould ^yhich he placed in a covered bottle, and after a time he
observed some grasses and ferns spring up, which at first he thought
nothing of, but observing that the}' continued growing day by day and
yet remained perfectly healthy, it led him to make further experiment, which
resulted in the beautiful ferneries and parlor greenhouses so prevalent
among us now. At present the. plants that are found to thrive best in
these miniature greenhouses are the different varieties of mosses, ferns,
cacti, aloes and orchids; and there is no doubt that as our knowledge
extends, we shall find that almost every description of flowering plants
may be cultivated in a similar way, and when that time arrives wo shall
see every dwelling adorned with its Wardian greenhouse or conservatory,
for it must be borne in mijid that when this system is fully developed it '
will not be necessary to have any such small arrangements as at present,
but regularly built conservatories the whole width of the house, with
proper means of entering them so as to arrange the plants and flowers con-
tained within. Such a one I believe Dr. Ward has now, or had until very
recently, attached to his dwelling, situated in the very heart of London.
As I before observed, when the principle of these conservatories is more
thoroughly understood, we shall be enabled to have plants and flowers in
the greatest luxuriance in cities as well as in the country, and that too
with one-half the care that is now requisite, for under this system the con.
eervatory if necessary may be closed up for a fortnight or even months
during tlie summer, or other period that we may be absent, as the plant
will require no water, having once received their proper supply to last for
a given period.

On motion of Mr. Jireh Bull the thanks of this Association were presented
to Mr. John Henderson, for his beautiful exhibition of winter flowers, and
also for his interesting and instructive lecture, and a copy was requested for
the use of the Association.

On motion of Mr. William S. Carpenter it was

Resolved, That as a mark of our appreciation of the eiforts of Mr. Hender-
son, in making this splendid display of flowering plants exhibited this eve-
ning, that it be recommended that the silver medal of the Institute he awarded
to him.

Mr. Mead — The double White Primula on the table, which the modesty of
the lecturer has prevented him from alluding to, was introduced by him. This
plant has received high honors from the lloyal Horticultural Society of
England.

."Dr. Rich exhibited some leaves, cones and seeds of the Silver tree, of the
Cape of Good Hope, brought by Mrs. Fannie V. Mangum from that country.
The following description of the tree was prepared by her :

Silver Tree of the Cape of Good Hope.

In the midst of so much that is curious and beautiful in the vegetable
world, my attention has been particularly drawn to the brilliant and graceful
Silver tree, that belts this magnificent mountain, and is at once the pride and
boast of the Africandia, who declares it to be a habitant of no other portion
of the globe.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 699

I am no botanist, and therefore unable to refute this exclusiveness so boTdiy
claimed for it. I am not even sufficiently skillful to give it its scientiiic posi-
tion in the vegetable kingdom. I only know, from the assertions of the irftel-
ligent, that it is confined to a portion of Table mountain, untouched by frosts,
and from observation, that it dwindles as it reaches its highest range, and no
where seems to attain a height of over eighteen feet. It is usually seen spring-
ing up like pines, in clusters, and of all stages of growth, from one inch in
height to twelve feet.

It is coniferous, bearing the finest specimen of winged seed I have ever
seen. This seed is enclosed in an exceedingly hard casing, and requires to
be soaked two weeks in water before it is fit for planting. The beautiful
pointed leaves of this tree are thick, like cotton, of extreme toughness of
fiber, very distinctly veined, and covered both upper and under sides* with soft
thick hairs, like down, that shine, even after drying, with a most silvery lus-
ter in the bright sunlight. With a light wind it is truly magnificent. The
cones, too, are covered with this same silvery down, somewhat shorter.
They, as well as the leaves, when young have an extremely delicate green
appearance .

The stems of this rare tree generally branch at each intersection, in threes.
The bark is smooth, reddish and silvery. We have not yet found a trunk to
exceed eight inches in diameter.

I think the Silver tree highly ornamental, and that it would be found as
useful an addition to our conservatories at home as many of the brilliant hand
shrubs of north Africa and the East Indies.

Many ornaments are made here from the leaves of this tree that are so
tough as to dry well and retain nearly all of their original brilliancy.
Baskets are curiously plaited of these leaves, and besides being tastefully
introduced into the bouquets of immortals, so common to every house in this
settlement, they are made use of in embroidery, in ornamenting table covers,
and in various other ways, with great nicety and ingenuity.

On motion of Mr. Carpenter the thanks of this Association were tendered
to Mrs. F. V. Mangum for the interesting description and exhibition of the
Silver tree of Cape Town.

Mr. Mead read the report of the Committee on Horticulture, to be made to
the American Institute.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

FehYuary 21, 1865.

Mr. Isaac M. Ward, Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. William S. Carpenter, from the committee on large fruits, made the
following report, which was adopted:

The committee held a meeting on Friday evening, February 11, to consider
whether the award of the Greeley premiums should be made at once, or left
open for another season.

At the request of all the members. Dr. John A. Warder, of Ohio, and Dr.
E. Ware Sylvester, of western New York, were added to the commit«je.

The meeting was organized by appointing Dr. J. A. Warder, of Ohio,
Chairman, and Mr. P. T. Quinn, of New Jersey, Secretary.

700 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

As the premiums offered by Mr. Greeley were made known only a few days
before the exhibition of the Horticultural Association of the American Insti-
tute in September last, the committee, in justice to themselves and the pub-
lic, after freely discussing the relative merits of the fruits already presented,
passed unanimously the following resolutions :

Besolced, That the award of the " Geeeley premiums" be postponed until
after the exhibitions of the Horticultural Association of the American Insti-'
tute, to be held in the middle of September, the second Tuesday in November
and second Tuesday in December, 1865.

Resolved, That invitations for competition be extended to the growers of
all varieties of apples, pears and grapes, except the following kinds, speci-
mens of which have been received by the committee :

Apples. — Hubbardston Nonesuch, Fallawater, Conkling's Seedling, Swaar
and Baldwin.

Fears. — Bartlett, Lawrence, Duchess d'Angouleme, Danas' Hovey.

The object in extending the time from September 15 to the second Tuesday
in December, is to give persons offering late varieties of fruits an onuortunity
of presenting them when fully matured.

It was resolved that Mr. P. B. Mead be requested to act with this commit-
tee in awarding the premiums on the grape, which, at Mr. Greeley's request,
is to be decided by that committee.

The following gentlemen compose the committee : John A. Warder, chair-
man; P. T. Quinu, secretary; Chas. Downing, Isaac M. Ward, Wm. S. Car-
penter, W. L. Ferris, E. Ware Sylvester,

The Chairman introduced to the audience, Dr. Isaac P. Trimble of New

Jersey, who delivered an interesting and instructive lecture on the nature

and habits of the span or measure worm, one of the great pests of our

• fruit and shade trees, giving a detailed account of his researches and

examinations chiefly in regard to this worm.

His remarks were illustrated by numerous drawings of these worms in
every stage of their development, and of the leaves upon which they feed.

The lecture was an extract from a diary kept during the season of the
insect's life.

THE EGGS.

The lecturer first exhibited a handful of branches on which were large
numbers of eggs, and called attention to the fact that the eggs were nearly-
all on the lower sides of the limbs. He stated that no degree of cold
injured the eggs, but that when ice collected on the branches it was some-
times fatal to them.

WORDERFUL INSTINCT OF THE MOTHER.

The diary commenced with the coming forth of the leaves on the 8th of
May. The degree of warmth that is necessary to bring forth the leaves is
also just the degree that is required to hatch the eggs. The mother knew
this last July when she deposited her eggs, and therefore selected those
trees which would put forth their leaves at the same time that the eggs
would hatch.

It may be asked. How do these little feeble, fluttering insects know which
are the riirht trees ? I cannot answer. We call it instinct. But what is

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 701

instinct ? It is a word wo use to answer a question, but it is not a defini-
tion. The insect world is full of such wonders. They arc the manifesta-
tions of the guiding hand of God Almighty."

JARRING THE TREES.

" June 9. Visited Brooklyn to-day to see the worms. At one place I
saw a negro man with a pole some twent}'' feet long, with a cross-piece
about six inches in length, fastened to one end of it; and with this he was
jarring the 'critters,' as he called them. He was the most sensible man I
had ever met with on the worm question. He jarred and jarred, and I
picked up till I got my handkerchief full, and then he killed the remainder."

THE CEDAR BIRD.

" Later in the day, after a shower, I visited Madison Square, to see about
that flock of cedar birds. While talking with the keeper of the park about
them, I heard the familiar low, whispering whistle, like a boy just begin-
ning this accomplishment of youth, when he cannot get out the sound
above his breath. Soon a few could be seen coming to a tree near us, and
very soon more, and then almost continuously, until several hundreds were
busily at work within fifty yards. These birds have been every day more
or less for two weeks, generally coming early in the morning and towards
evening, but often at other times also. To-day they grow so familiar from
being undisturbed, that I could approach within three or four yards of those
at work on the under branches. Here was no necessity to kill and dissect
to know what they eat.

"The cedar bird has not the foot of the woodpecker and creepers; they
are not so graceful in the pursuit of their game as the orioles and warblers,
but they have become wonderfully expert in taking these span-worms.
Sometimes they will reach out to their utmost extent from the twig they
stand on to the worm on another; often the twig yields so much to this
pressure in the opposite direction, that the bird misses the worm, and has
quite a flutter to recover himself, but as soon as righted up, he tries again,
persevering till he gets the prey. Often they would take the worm from
the end leaf of a pendent twig, where t]iere was no way of reaching it
except on the wing as the fly catchers do, hovering over their intended
victims like the king fisher and the ospray.

"Some few of the worms are already curling their leaves that arc to be
their cocoons. As soon as they shut themselves up in these houses, they
begin to contract in length, the lower part of the body grows larger, and
they lose their activity. This seemed something new to these birds, and I
was very much amused at the difliculty they had in getting the worms out,
especially where the bird and worm — or rather chr^'salis — were on separate
twig.s. The bird, when he would take hold, would pull hard, bringing the
two twigs suddenly together, and leaving no chance of purchase; then he
would let go, and away the two would separate with a spring. It would
now take some time to adjust matters, but he would try again. In one case
I counted ten attempts before the prize was secured."

702 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

WHAT TO DO.

"June 10. I had a long talk to-day with the keeper of Union Square.
He told rnc the birds are more numerous this year than ever before, and he
has watched them carefully for years. He told me he had tried to have the
parks closed during their visitation, so that they should not be disturbed
by the people, especially by the children, but could not succeed. But one
wet Sunday that park was closed. The birds came in a g-reat flock, and
would come to the ground, and even on the benches after the creeping
worms. This was the most valuable testimony I have ever got on this
question.

" Should these birds come just so another season, and the people or the
city government close the parks and fill them with poultry, and then jar
down faithfully, the worm pest could in a single year be placed at the
mercy of the Ichneumon fly."

At the conclusion of the lecture, which lasted for nearly two hours, Prof.
Tillman remarked that the audience had been highly entertained and inter-
ested by Dr. Trimble. He had chosen a topic particularly attractive to
those living in cities, who have seen the havoc of the measure worm
among the trees of their squares and parks. The manner in which the
lecturer had commanded the attention of the audience, by giving extracts
from his diary made last year during his examinations in this and neigh-
boring cities, was novel and entirely successful.

The beautiful colored pictures of insects, leaves and birds, prepared by
Mr. A. Hochstein, used, to illustrate the lecture, had added very materially
to a correct understanding of the subject, and the audience could say they
had all the experience of searching for the greatest enemies of our trees,
without the trouble cf disposing of them. He hoped the lecturer would
soon give to the public in a printed form the results of his researches, and
concluded by ofiering a resolution of thanks to the lecturer for his able ex-
position of his subject, with a request that a copy of the lecture be furnish-
ed for the Transactions of the Association, which was unanimously adopted.

Mr. James Hogg, of Yorkville, exhibited ten new variegated leaved
plants from Japan, sent to him by his brother, Mr. Thomas Hogg, now ia
that country.

Mr. Mead informed the audience that this was the first time these plants
had been seen in this country or Europe.

Mr. Hogg stated that at some future meeting of the Association he would
exhibit other varieties of Japanese plants in bloom, and the curious methods
of grafting which these people adopt, and which is unknown to our nurse-
rj'men. Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Sec.

March 7, 1865.

Mr. Benjamin C. Townsend, the President of the Association in the chair.

The Chairman introduced to the audience the Rev. Henry Ward Bcecher.
For nearly two hours this eloquent divine held the undivided attention of
his audience by a mastoi'ly exposition of the principles of Aesthetics. Un-
fortunately no report was madet)f this impromptu address. At its close Mr

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 703

P. n. ^fcad presented to tlie speaker, witli appropriate remarks, two beau-
tiful boiKiuets; one illustrating the natural arrangement of flowers, and the
other the geometrical.

On motion of Mr. Jireh Bull, the thanks of the Association were ten-
dered to the Rev. Henry AVard Bcccher for his interesting lecture, with a
request for a copy for publication.

After some remarks by the lion. Geo. Bancroft, the Association adjourned.

John W. Chambers, Secretary

March 14, 1865.
Mr. Benjamin C. Townsend, President, in the chair

The Market Gardens of New Jersey.

BY PETER HENDERSON.

The market gardens of New Jersey, in the vicinity of New York, are
embraced in a half circle of ten miles from the City Hall. The lands occu-
pied by them now cannot be less than a thousand acres, and it is dt)ubtful,
indeed, if there is anywhere, in the whole length and breadth of the land,
another spot where the soil is cultivated in such a thorough manner, and
with such profitable results. In many cases, the returns per acre are as high
as §1,500; and it is perfectly safe to say, that the whole will average $1,000
per acre, that is to say, the receipts from a thousand acres will be one
million of dollars. But this high degree of fertility is only obtained by
the highest cultivation, all farm lands broken in for market garden pur-
poses requiring at least three years to bring them up to this high produc-
tive standard. The varieties of vegetables cultivated are few in number,
and for the most part are diiferent from those of the Long Islanders, whose
lands embrace a much greater extent, but are by no means so highly culti-
vated The vegetables grown are principally cauliflowers, cabbages,
beets, -spinach, onions and lettuce, as first crops, and celery, horseradish,
thyme, sage and other herbs as a second; for be it known, that for old
mother earth to produce such results, she must be kept active, for no sooner
has she developed the spring crop in July, than the plough and harrow
again invade her rest, and she is planted with the ciop that is to be
developed in the fall.

It may be of some interest to detail the manner of cropping. Cauli-
flowers, for instance, are planted out two feet between the rows, and fifteen
inches between the plants; at the same time, between the rows of cauli-
flowers are planted lettuce plants, which are fit for use ^ before the cauli-
flowers are grown enough to injure them; and being cutoff, the cauliflowers
have the full benefit of the space until the end of June or the first week in
^July, when they also are fit for market. As soon as they are cut off, the
ground is cleared without delay, and planted with the fall crop of celery.
Our manner of cultivating which I will briefly describe. After the ground
lias been well pulverized by ploughing and harrowing, lines are struck out
three feet apart on the level surface of the soil. No trenches are made, as
is usual in private gardens. The plants are then planted six inches apart
in rows The ground is kept clear by the cultivator until September, when

704 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

the plant is strong enough to allow the earth to be laid up to it by the
plough. The process of blanching is then completed by the spade, but for
private winter use celery may be grown yet more simply. Instead of
planting three feet by six inches, it is planted, also on the level surface,
one foot each way. All that is required by this method is simply to keep
the space between the plants clear of weeds until the celery is strong
enough to crowd them down. Being planted so close together, they have
no room to extend laterally, and in the struggle for light, or, as Darwin
might say, " the struggle for life," they assume the necessary perpendicu-
lar form which is necessary preparatory to tht^ blancliing process, which
can best be done by amateurs by lifting the plants about the middle of
November, and placing them perpendicularly between layers of sand in a
coal cellar. By this simple method, ^ plot of ground twenty by twenty
feet will give 400 roots, which will be an abundance for any family from
November till May. The variety best suited for this method is. known as
the " French Dwarf."

Another feature peculiar to the Jersey market gardncrs, is the forcing
and forwarding of early vegetables by hutbeds and cold frames, immense
numbers of which aroused, some growers having upwards of two thousand
sashes, principally for the forwarding of lettuce and cucumbers in "cold
frames." The process is so very simple that I will give a brief description
of the " cold frame process," which is that in most general use, and that
which is done with the least trouble and expense. The sash used is the
common three by six sash, while the " frame " is simply two boards of nine
or ten inches in width, running parallel to each other six feet apart, on
which is placed the sash. The lettuce plants are planted in March, about
eight inches apart, giving about fifty plants to a sash. By the middle of
May the lettuce is fit for use. As soon as a few heads are cut, seeds of
cucumbers are sowed in their place, which come up quickly, taking the
place of the lettuce as it is cut for use. By this method, any occupant of
a city lot could find a corner for a sash or two, and with little trouble'could
provide fresh lettuce and cucumbers at times when stale ones that had
passed through at least half a dozen hands, could not be purchased at less
than $1.50 per dozen.

Of the fruit market gardens of New Jersey, in this district, I am com-
pelled to say there is nothing to boast. Of strawberries, raspberries,
blackberries or grapes, there is not, to my knowledge, a single acre pro-
perly cultivated in Hudson county. The few attempts at strawberry and
raspberry culture are defeated by the growers pertinaciously retaining the
mis&i'able small varieties that were in use twenty years ago; and in regard
to grapes, I have j'Ct to see the first earnest attempt with any variety. It
is notorious that New York is most inadequately supplied with the finer
varieties of small fruits. Even the lettuce that is seen is sent frtmi immense
distances; some of the best, perhaps, from Knox, of Pittsburgh, distant
from New York over 400 miles. I had the satisfaction of seeing the open-
ing of some cases of strawberries from Mr. Ivnox, at one of the commission
stands in Washington market last summer. The whole lot, some thousands
of b®xes, was disposed of at extraordinary rates as quickly as the men
could count them out, and dozens of eager purchasers had to go away dis-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. /OS

appointed, the very large daily shipments from Pittsburgh being but a drop
in the bucket, compared with what was wanted. I mention this matter to
show, that while we excel in the cultivation of vegetables, we are corres-
pondingly deficient in the cultivation of fruits; and it should be our duty
as a society to call attention to the fact, and endeavor in some way to
remedy the deficiency. One would think that this inattention to the pro-
duction of fine fruits would naturally cure itself, when it is so palpable tliat
their cultivation is much more profitable tluiu those of inferior quality; yet
the progress of improvement is so slow, that prices to the consumer to-day
are much higher than they were ten years ago, taking gold as the basis of
value then and now, proof positive that the supply is inadequate to the
demand.

Mr. Peter B. Mead. — I fully indorse the remarks of Mr. Henderson. The
variety of celery spoken of was the very best sort, making up in breadth
what it lacked in height. I have grown it weighing 3| and 4 pounds per
head. Growing this crop, particularly in trenches, benefits the s(jil by
deep and thorough stirring. Tomatoes were little grown in New Jersey
us a market crop, most of them coming from Long Island.

^Ir. Nichols of Hammonton, Atlantic county, N. J., said tliey were
going extensively into the culture of small fruits in his vicinity, having
alread}'' planted from 3,000 to 4,000 acres of strawberries, raspberries and
blackberries. The strawberries were mostly Triomphe de Gand and
Wilson. In that more southern climate the Wilson loses its acidity — has
beds of it four years in bearing with no signs of running out, though he
had been told that one good crop was all it was safe to depend upon
Tliere were acres of strawberries in bearing where scrub oaks were grow-
ing one year ago.

On motion of Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter, the thanks of the Association
were presented to Mr. Henderson, with a request f(jr a copy for the Trans-
actions of the Association. Adjourned.

John W. Chamber, Secretary.

March 21, 1865.
Mr. Nathaniel C. Ely in the chair.

After some preliminary business the chairman introduced to the audience
the lecturer for the evening, Mason C. Wold, Esq., who spoke -as follows

Soils.

To the plant the soil is its birth-place, cradle and grave. In part it is its
food, and in part the trencher from which it feeds ; it is its solo drinking cup,
its anchorage as it is swayed to and fro in the gabs. What is the soil, whence
comes it, and will it always remain fertile ? With our lenses we may examine
the finest soils, and we will find them largely composed of bits of stone — the
ground-down particles of this or yonder mountain chain — incorporated with
which is the decayed vegetable matter so necessary to fertility. The begin-
ning of a soil is the fine dust and bits of moss with the particles of stone
cracked off by frost, and washed or blown into the cracks of rocks, or collected
under the lichens attached to the frost fissured surface. This small beginning,
LAu. Inst.J S*

706 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

compacted by water and acted upon by air, forms a suitable rooting place for
delicate mosses and other little plants, which live their short lives while the
moisture lasts on the shallow soil. This soil thus begun catches and holds the
blowing dust, the wear of the rocks, and incorporates into itself the vegetation
which grows and dies upon it. So it accumulates until it fills the crevices,
and loose stones are covered. Many plants thrive upon the ever deepening
eoil, and the hill-sides are finally covered. Shrubs and trees strike deep their
roots, drop their leaves, or dying, their whole substance becomes part and
parcel of the soil. Acted upon by the winds and rains the tendency of all
soils is to seek a level, and gradually find their way into the valleys and plains.
Soils are constantly forming, and moving as they do, rarely increase to much
extent save in the valleys, and here the tendency of that deeply buried is to
form a hard pan, the first step in the transformation of soil back again to rock.
This turning of soil to rock again is a natural result of heavy pressure, with
the percolating water bearing lime, iron, alkaline salts and silica among it,
thus hardening or cementing it together. Causes producing effects like these
have ever been going on, and all contribute to maintain the verdure and fer-
tility of the soil.

Some of the volcanoes ailord us good opportunities for the study of soils,
and where at some former period the torrent of melted lava covered whole dis-
tricts, destroying all vegetation, leaving a thick crust of scoriae, sand and
ashes, or even solid rock, which within the historic period had been converted
into pasture fields, vineyards and even forests

So extensive are the deposits of stones, gravel, sand, clay, &c., left there by
the agencies already alluded to, that it is a comparatively rare thing to find a
soil formed directly or chiefly from the rock upon which it lies. The most
common rocks, being usually mixtures of dilferent minerals, in their decomposi-
tion furnish soils, as a general thing, containing all the elements necessary for
the growth of agricultural plants. Trap rock consists chiefly of feldspar, and
hornblend, granite of feldspar, quartz and mica. None of these of necessity
contain sulphuric or phosphoric acid, without which no soil can be fertile. But
intimately mingled with these minerals, are found, in inconspicuous forms,
other minerals, viz : phosphates, sulphates, iron, manganese, etc., which are of
vital importance to the soil, so that in various ways the All-wise Father has
provided on the surface everywhere that the earthy essentials to fertility shall
not be wanting. Beside these mineral elements which give no evidence of
having been a part of either animal or vegetable organization, there are organic
elements, or that part of the soil which results from the decay of animal or
vegetable life, or has in some manner been produced by it. If a soil in the
condition of fine dry powder be put into an iron spoon and heated, it will
gmoke, turn dark -colored, and, perhaps, burn with flame. By this process all
the organic portion is driven ofF, while the inorganic "or mineral remains.
This organic part is called humus or vegetable mold, and is the result of the
action of the oxygen of the air upon dead vegetation in or upon the soil. Soils
containing less than 5 per cent of this vegetable mold are considered poor in
humus, those having 5 to 10 per cent are "humus soils," or those rich in
organic matter, while those with more than 10 per cent are peaty soils and are
found in very wet places.

Kow let us look at growing plants for which agricultural soils must be

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 707

adapted. These plants are found to consist of an organic portion which
burns or is driven off by heat, and an inorganic portion left in the residue
or ash. In its growth the plant obtains the materials which add to its bulk
from water, from the air and from the soil. The earth}' elements of tho
plant come directly from the soil, while the others, oxygen, hydrogen, car-
bon, nitrogen, etc., are derived from the air and from water. Do Saussure,
in the early part of the present century, first made known the fact that
plants would not grow unless they found in the soil the ingredients of their
ash. This has repeatedly been confirmed, and it now seems strange that
"what is at present so well established as the very ground-work of agricul-
tural reasoning should have caused so much investigation. A soil was
imitated with comminuted platinum, washed with acids, and heated to red-
ness, consequently containing nothing which a plant could appropriate.
The seeds planted in this soil germinated, and grew for a while, but when
the ash ingredients contained in the seeds were used up, they died. The
substances found in the ash of plants, are potash, soda, lime, magnesia, ox-
ides of iron and manganese, chlorine and carbonic, sulphuric and phosphoric
acids. These are absolutely essential to the perfection of plants. Another
experimenter, Prince Salm Hortsmar, found that the oat would not thrive and
perfect seed if a single ingredient of the ash was withdrawn from the soil.
The plant receives these ingredients in the water absorbed by its roots;
hence, nothing in the soil is available as plant-food, which is not readily
soluble in water.

When these facts became known everybody saw at once the great bene-
fit chemistry was about to be to agriculture. The plants must be analyzed
and their demands upon the soil known; then the soils must be analyzed
and what they lacked made apparent, and last!}'", the manures must be
analyzed, or at least those obtained which would make any soil exactly
what the crop to be raised demanded. Agricultural chemistry was one of
the most beautiful branches of science. The world was entering upon a
new era in the art of cultivating the soil, and the rate at which it was
making progress must have been rather alarming to the old fogies. But
alas the science was in its infancy and it had been too heavily laden by
these Utopians — it failed to do this work. It soon became appareiit that
no soil analj'sis when made in the best possible manner could show the
fertility of a soil. Practically soil analyses do not exhibit the available
constituents of a soil with any very great degree of accuracy. Charlatans
who talk learnedly advise those who consult them to have their soils
analyzed, and on the strength of these analyses make prescriptions for the
soils — often too with excellent results. For where is the soil that bones,
gypsum, ashes, etc., will not benefit?

Water is not only indispensable as a solvent of the plant-food, but it is
food itself. The absorption of water takes place through the roots alone,
hence all the water plants- receive comes through the soil and much of it
is breathed out through the leaves. The immense quantity of water thus
transferred from the soil to the air is hardly conceivable. It often amounts
to more than the entire rainfall. Mr. Lawes, of England, estimated that
for every grain of solid matter added to the plant in its growth, it trans-
pired 15G to 270 grains of water. A crop of grass therefore which weighs

708 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

thi-ee or four tons would have transpired 600 tons of water. Soils alwajs
contain much water, even in the tropics, and the avidity with which an
artificially dried soil attracts moisture from the air makes it one of the
most powerful drying substances known. The vegetation which can exist
on a surface of coarse gravel is very scanty. The finer the particles, other
things being equal, permeability to air and moisture not being checked,
the more fertile the soil. Two soils analj'zed, a few years since, one from
the Scioto Vallej', in Ohio, the other from Vermont, gave the same ingre-
dients, though the Vermont soil would yield only meagre crops of buck-
wheat once in two or three years, while the Ohio soil had produced yearly,
for many years, 50 to 80 bushels Indian corn per acre, without manure.
The only difference seemed to be in the fineness of the particles. Mechani-
cal analyses, or the separation of the soil into portions of different degrees
of fineness, first b'"' sieves, then by washing, has been suggested as a
means of measuring the relative fertility of soils, and in connection with
chemical analysis has given some excellent results.

A finely pulverized soil worked to the depth of several feet will supply
the plants with a greater quantity of water, and the plant-food contained
in it, during hot and dry weather, than a shallow and less pulverized one.
Water rises in capillary tubes, and the finer the tubes, the higher it will
rise. Of all the constituent parts of a fertile soil, humus, ov vegetable
mold, attracts and holds the most water, and is the slowest to give it up
except to the plant. It also attracts and retains valuable gases, its own
decomposition affords carbonic acid, water and ammonia, besides increas-
ing friability, permeability, and that openness and crumbly character pos-
sessed by all rich and good soils. Its increase in the soil is therefore often
a matter of the highest moment. One of the properties of every fertile
soil is that of arresting the most valuable kinds of plant-food in their pas-
sage through it. The humus has this property, assisted by the clay and
mineral substances. Humus, like charcoal, which it resembles, is a pow-
erful disinfectant or consumer of decayed substances, hence is useful in
absorbing the valuable products of decomposition in a soil. As the passage
of water through a soil is productive of no harm, while that which runs
from the surface bears away much thatis valuable, soils should bo drained
either by nature or b}' art. Nature often drains her soils too well — often
not enough.

A soil may contain all the ingredients necessary for fertility, be suflB-
cicntly moist, and still not be fertile unless air have free access. 3Iuch of
the vast amount of water transmitted through the plants, is obtained first
by the soil from the air. The more open and finely worked the soil is, the
more susceptible will it be to the free passage of air into and through it.
Such is the soil — a synonym of filth, yet it is the most efficient purifier of
unclean things. It furnishes from its never-failing storehouse the materials
which, transformed, fill our granaries. Toad our orchards, refresh and rt\joice
the heart of man.

On motion of Mr. Carpenter, the thanks of the Association were ten-
dered to Mr. Weld, for his interesting and instructive lecture, and a copy
•was requested for the use of the Association.

On motion of Mr. Carpenter, it was resolved, that an exhibition of straw-

- PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 709

berries, cut roses and Fuchsias, 1)8 held in the month of June, and that the
committee on Horticulture submit a schedule of premiums.

Adjourned. John W. Chambers, Secretary.

April 4, 1865.

Mr. Benjamin C. Townscnd, president, in the chair.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter called the attention to the fine specimens of Catawba
grapes from the 'preserving house of Prof. B. M. Nyce, of Cleveland, Ohio,
which were examined by the members.

Mr. James Hogg did not think that the grapes retained the rich aromatic
flavor of the fruit in its proper season.

Mr. R. G. Pardee. — The specimens of grapes are in a fine state of preserva-
tion ; the bloom on them looks as fresh as when first gathered. I think the
method of Prof. Nyce is worthy of all praise. It is a step in the right direc-
tion ; the subject is one of immense importance to fruit growers, as well as
the lovers of fine fruit, and had engaged the minds of scientific men.

Prof. Tillman gave an interesting summary of the causes of decay of fruit.

The chairman then introduced to the audience Dr. Isaac M. Ward, of New
Jersey, who chose for his theme

The Culture of the Pear.

In this series of lectures of the Horticultural branch of the American Insti
tute, there has been assigned to your speaker the pleasing though novel duty
of inviting this audience to a walk through the pear orchard. Accepting the
invitation it would be natural for him to asK you whether you love the country
and find delight in rural scenes. Regarding your presence here this evening
as an answer in the afiirmative, he will cherish the hope you will be interested
in the thoughts presented for your consideration, and the scenes surveyed by
the mind's eye, as we walk through the orchard, though no romance or poetry
be woven in the landscape ; and that this may constitute a pleasing interlude
in this series of lectures.

Nature would make all men happy if they would appreciate her gifts.
Rightly to do this you need not worship, only love and revere her; and con-
fess her power over your hearts. Nature's bounties are not confined to the
fruits of the earth, they are found as profusely scattered in the garniture with
which she has beautified its surface ; garniture that is necessary for the pro-
duction of its fruits, while at the same time charged with provision for the
sentiments of the soul, and in which the powers of the imagination may find
scope for exercise till our better natures are purified for Heaven.

Before we go into the orchard it will be well for your speaker to tell you,
as your guide, you will no sooner have entered within its portals, than you
may discern the temple where the presiding deity is wont to receive the offer-
ings of her votaries. That the goddess Pomona is so jealous of her honor that
she accepts only the ofi"erings of the heart, and the true worshiper is wont to
propitiate her favor, by recognizing her right to adoration in all her works.

The tree that is destined to be majestic in form, and venerable in years, she
may show you, just starting on its career of development. The tiny bud that
her well instructed house-maid has caused to be inserted in a wild and barba-

710 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

rous stock, that is destined to change its uncouth and thorny structure into a
symmetrical and graceful form ; and the fruit that is to be boruo upon its
boughs from the acrid and puckery, into the aromatic and melting pear, you
may sec of stalwart form, though of hut one summer's growth. Stop, and
praise her work ! Anon you may see its fellow, though yet in its youth having
attained to the stature and form of adolescence, that has already gladdened
hearts by its manly bearing. Give it your earnest commendation ! "While to
the venerable form that for years has been yielding its golden harvests, you
•will do well in heart felt respect if not in very deed, to uncover your head as
you walk beneath its branches. In the variety of forms which she imposes ou
these developing structures, there will be presented to the eye the most
uncouth and the most graceful. Here the perfect pyramid, and there the
most amorphous form, will proclaim her ability to please by variety ; and
hence on the one hand you will be delighted with the most symmetrical while
stransioly contrasting on the other, with the most refractory. If beauty is to
be found, as is claimed by the landscape, gardener, in the surface of the earth
as well as in foliage and verdure, in hills and valleys and in streams of water,
much more is it found in the gentle curve with which nature marks the outline
of those trees that JBirst are to delight the eye with the profusion of snow like
bloom, and then both the eye and the palate with their golden harvests.

Artists and men of taste have long acknowledged the curved line, as the
line of beauty, and in the pear more especially, of all fruit bearing trees will
you confess nature has exerted her<elf to beautify the orchard. Could I trans-
port vou to-night to familiar grounds, not where the gentle swells and undula-
tions rise and melt away into one another, almost insensibly disappearing,
views so captivating to the lover of nature ; but to an orchard where your
eyes could take in at a glance the outline of the scene, with a stretch of ma-
jestic evergreens in the background, enchanting by their strange contrast ;
while constituting a defense against the rude vernal blasts on its northern and
western border ; you would acknowledge in the structure of the trees of the
orchard as well as in the evergreen picket line of defence, the power of the
beautiful over your hearts. So wonderfully diversified are nature's beauties,
that we know not where most to admire, nor how enough to praise. At a
distant view it is the whole, with its pleasingly contrasted yet beautiful out-
line. On a nearer approach it is the leaves with which they are clothed, so
strau'^ely diversified in form and color, with every shade from the shining rich-
ness of the tropical plant to the clearer softness of the cherry and apple ; and
the bud in its variation of size and form ; and the bark of the trunk and
branches, in their changes of color and habit.

The di'^nity of a science is claimed for horticulture. If rightly so, there
must be modes of action in accordance with established principles, to lead the
euijineer to certain attainments, though varying somewhat as circumstances of
soil, climate and location may indicate. These principles upon which all suc-
cessful operations in the orchard depend, are often obscured l)y the undue pro-
minence given to a favorite mode of cultivation; a mode which under given
circumstances will secure success, unless other necessary conditions are entire-
ly ignored, if not actually condemned with the view of exalting unduly his own
favorite method. With one it is special manuring ; with another thorough

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 711

pulverization of the soil ; with a third under draining, and with another irri-
gation or the use of liquid manure; and the exaltation of some one condition
an essential to success often embarrasses the engineer, or as an " ignis fatuus,"
leads liim from the pathway of intelligent scientific culture. The recognition
of established principles as truly exalts horticulture tg the rank of a science
as any other department of study. Has the infinite architect whose plans we
are but working out, made every particle of matter, nay the very earth itself
obedient to law ; lias he made the sun in the heavens and all the luminaries
that revolve around it the subject of law ; must even those genial rays, which
alone have power to quicken dormant life, and every particle of light which
often traveling its hundred millions of miles to give to every leaflet and every
blade of grass its beautiful green of varying shade, move in their appointed
way in obedience to law ; must every drop of water that falls from the clouds,
even the dew drop reflecting the beauties of the rainbow, all be creatures of
law, and He not give us laws when we seek to work as nature's handmaid ?
It cannot be. Verily the principles upon which all these operations in the
garden and orchard are conducted have laws as fixed and immutable as any
other science. Nay there is not a leaf, not a flower, not the unseemly root
itself, but is formed as the action of light in obedience to law, decomposing a
given quantity of carbonic acid, for the production of a given quantity of gum
which is to enter into its structure.

Accept these principles and the culturist can adopt his operations to the
varying conditions of temperature and the hydrometric changes of the atmos-
phere found in our extended country, and to the quality and depth of the soil,
recognizing depth as the most essential in the thin soil of the Atlantic slope :
while iu the virgin soil of the west, especially upon the river bottoms it will
be a superfluous task.

CHARACTER OF THE SOIL.

Let us examine ts conditions with special reference to the pear If the
land be of a tenacious, cloggy, or peaty nature ; indeed in all land of whatever
character, if inclined to be wet in winter, a thorough system of under draining
must be adopted to bring it into a condition to ensure successful culture. The
finer varieties will not exhibit their characteristic excellences under any other
conditions : hence we may regard this as an indispensable preparative. The ex-
planation of this necessity is found in the fact that the requisite degree of
warmth in the under-lying subsoil cannot be attained without the system of
drainage. The preparation of the ground for the development of the character-
i.-;tic excellences of such varieties as the Buerre Diel, Glout Morceau and
Buerre d'Anjou, will secure a vigorous growth of healthy, stalwart trees, and
a corresponding fineness of fruit, gained under no other circumstances. The
intelligent orchardist finds the rationale of this in the removal of the stagnant
water about the rootlets of the tree, that wars with its growth, sadly marring
its development, and often proving fatal to the tree itself. If you can find a
gravelly, or even a sandy loam, with an underlying shaly sub-stratum, you
have one of the best physically constituted soils nature oan give for fruit cul-
ture, for it secures the requisite dryness without the expense of under-draining,
its depth being increased by the sub-soil and trench plow.

To these two indispensable conditions, depth and dryness, add those of mel-

712 TnANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

lowness and richness, which can often be obtained by the cliaracter and quan-
tity of the manure. We would make it deep, for the extension of the roots ;
rich, that the tree may have food enough ; mellow that it may readily find
and appropriate the food within its reach, and dry to prevent injury from stag-
nant water, as well as to guard against disaster from the frosts of winter.
Very few soils are to be found in our country, more especially on the Atlantic ■
slope, that will not be benefited by rich manuring, and I have yet to learn
that its most liberal use -will injure the pear tree if tlie climate be favorable
to its growth. Unlike man it never gormandizes, but like the grazing herd it
feeds upon the rich pastures, and appropriates them simply for the supply of
its wants. The latter when it has done this lies down and chews its cud ; the
former having attained more speedily its requisite development, enters upon
its fruit bearing state. The vigor Avhich has characterized its career of develop-
ment, and now proclaims its condition of perfect health, will most abundantly
reward the possessor with even its first fi'uits, beautiful and luscious, years
before the neglected one has entered upon its work. And, moreover, there
are conditions that often obtain, some the result of the operation of laws that
arc altogether unknown to us, others that spring from climatic influences, con-
stituting a class of causes altogether beyond our control, crossing the pathway
even of the most intelligent orchardist, deranging the beautiful harmonies of
nature. Trees with a vigor of constitution from being well cared for will
resist these untoward influences, while the half fed, sickly and enfeebled
young tree, as well as the decrepid old, will fall a prey to the diseases depen-
dent upon such conditions.

And again the sterile soil is not only unfavorable to the culture of the pear
in the diminution of the quantity of the crop, equally marked is its influence
upon the quality, giving us decided deterioration in its character. Indeed,
were we pennitteil to ascribe to an}' one cause the wonderful changes wrought
in the character of our fruits, particularly of the pear and peach with us, in
contrast with the pear of the Romans, and the peach of the Persians, we
should be inclined to name that of cultivation. The florist doubles the size of
the flower, heightens its color, and in some instances makes the single one
double, by cultivation. Why may not we as justly ascribe to this cause the
radical change v/rought in the fruit bearing plant, almost insensibly effected,
generation after generation, until the forced change has become constitutional
habit. The writers of the earliest lloman period have not failed to describe
to us the pear as it then was. Virgil and Cato were both pear growers, and
as the llomans were well acquainted with the art of grafting, probably
exchanged grafts of their new varieties, as we do now-a-days. According to
their own account their pears were scarcely to be tolerated without cooking.
Pliny we know highly commended certain varieties, particularly lauding the
Costumine for its good qualities. He may possibly have over estimated it, as
we are apt to do new varieties in our day. We know he commended the Faler-
nian for its juices having nothing better to say of it, just as we do the Vicar
of Winkfield, when we say it is admirable for cooking. In learning their
opinions of the pear from their writings, I have been struck with one custom
which we have copied ; they called their pears after their own names. Instance
the Tiberian after the Emperor Tiberius, as we have named the Ilovey, tlio
Gushing, the Dix, the Dearborn, the Bloodgood and even the Bartlett. The

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 713

fact, however, cannot be disputed, account for it as we may, that the pear of
their day was not fit in our judgment to be eaten, while our most delicious
pears arc prized too highly to be eaten by the common people. So the peach
of ancient Persia wc are told was originally a poisonous alinoiid ; 'its flesh
used to poison arrows, and therefore introduced into that country, while the
peach of our day is so universally appreciated that we wonder at the man
whose gustatory sense (if he ever had aii}-) is so perverted as not to know
this the most delicious of fruits. To what else than to cultivation do wo owe
this transformation ? But to close our remarks on this part of our subject,
and by way too of recapitulation, we would say, if there be any one of the con-
ditions requisite for successful cultivation of the pear, and which we should
be inclined to lay more stress upon than any other, it would be depth of soil
for the production of the finest varieties, whatever may be the nature of the
soil or the quantity or quality of manure. In our varying climate of burning
sun, and cloudless. sky, and long continued drouth, especially with the extreme
drouth suddenly broken, and the orchard deluged with water, and the air for
succeeding weeks surcharged with moisture, you cannot secure the requisite
conditions without it. During the prevalence of the drouth the required mois-
ture cannot be supplied, unless your deepened soil constitutes an immense
reservoir inexhaustible ; or on the other hand when that drouth is suddenly
succeeded by drenching rains it will be an outlet for the too abundant supply.
If on the one hand the moisture be wanting, vegetation will be arrested and'
development cease ; if on the other hand it be too abundant, and if especially
that excess be in contrast with a previous deficiency, the sap vessels concerned
in the formation and development of the fruit cannot dispose of that excess,
the fruit cracks or is deteriorated in flavor. From this cause, under just these
climatic and hydrometric changes in the atmosphere are we to find a solu-
tion of the question, why so many pears of great excellence of foreign origin
have disappointed the expectation of American horticulturists ; so that few
of them under the trials made, are pronounced " first class ;" why so few that
begin to compare with our own. What becomes of the great number of French
and Belgian pears proclaimed delicious in their native soil, unless deteriora-
tion results from climatic influences.

KIND TO PLANT, NUMBER, ETC,

The question as to the character of the soil, the preparation of it for the
tree, having been considered, you are ready to ask, how many and what varie-
ties shall we plant. If the embarassment in the selection of a dozen varieties
of pears, is at all proportioned to the magnitude of the numbers from which
that selection is to be made, it would be regarded by the uninitiated as truly
herculean. Pliny in one of his letters says, " the varieties are exceedingly
numerous." In modern times Van Mons, added to those previously known
over one hundred and fifty, since which time there have been received from
Belgium and France more than three hundred. P^ngland has also contributed
to swell the number, and our own country has brought her quota of not less
than two hundred, so that it is not improbable that there are at the present
time over a thousand varieties known to horticulturists. Years since the
numberii found in some private collections in our country exceeded five hun-

714 THANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE

dred, and about the same time seven hundred was catalogued hy the London
Horticultural society. From these facts it may be assumed that my estimate
of a thousand A^arieties is not far from being correct. And for each of this
thousand, some character is claimed, and unquestionably, more of reputation
for a good character than justly belongs to it. The question is a pertinent
one if not embarrassing, how many and which are deserving of so much regard
as to be worthily entitled to a place in the selection of twenty or thirty of the
best varieties.

Mr. Downing in his excellent work on fruit, unquestionably one of the best,
and entitled to the confidence of horticulturists, undertook the task and
arranged his best pears, in what he termed his first class. In the execution
of this he subjected himself and his book to severe criticism, and called forth
a greater number of dissenting opinions than any other subject treated in his
entire volume. Indeed we may venture the remark, no one has been found to
subscribe to that grouping, without making some exception or mental reserva-
tion. If this is so, it would assuredly not be becoming in me to attempt such
a task with the expectation of giving any better satisfaction than my superior
has done. If I should venture the remark that double that number of good
pears cannot be named that are worth growing, I am well aware some jealous
cultivator will thinfc me unnecessarily severe. If I qualify the remark by
adding that, though many not included in that list might be pronounced good
pears, and in the absence of better would be worthy a place in such a list, but
that being so much inferior to others that ripen at the same time and possess
all the characteristic excellencies, with others added, that these do not, that I
would not grow them, I lake the edge ofi" the insult to the feelings, but still
give offence. Some culturists have reduced the number of good pears to a
dozen, and said these were sufl[icient for any collection for profit or family use.
Here we are met wilh the remark, if the number of good pears is after all so
small, what becomes of the great number of good varieties commended to us
by veteran collectors from abroad, more especially of that host of new peais
from Belgium and France, that on their introduction attract and captivate tho
American culturist ? The answer to .this we have already attempted to give by
showing deterioration the result of climatic influences peculiar to our country,
as well as in that other recognized fact, that should be universally accepted,
that most fruits flourish best in the climate and locality in which they origi-
nate, not even excepting tlie pear. This is alike true of the apple, the pear,
the plum, the strawberry and others we could name. Who does not know that
though the Newtown Pippin is a Pippin away from its native place, it is there
the best. Though the Baldwin is good in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, it
is best in Massachusetts. The Spitzenberg is known away from New York;
it is the Spitzenberg par excellence only when found in sight of the Hudson.
The Hovey strawberry is thought as little of in Cincinnati, as Hovey himself
thinks of the Wilson's Albany. Some of us too are learning at our cost what
others will be taught one of these days, that the Triomphe de Gand, in the
hands of the prince of strawberry growers will not be a princely strawberry at
all on the Atlantic slope. So too with our favorite pear the White Doyenne ;»
it has its climatic range, out of it, it falls a prey to its enemies and becomes
the subject of disease to such an extent as to be a discarded variety. The

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 715

Glout Morceau is equally capricious, and while tlic Vicar of Winkfiold is fair
in the vicinity of Boston, it is not a vicar at all in the neighborhood of New
York.

To return to the selection of the best. Since it is expected we would advise
those about entering upon this branch of horticulture in the selection of their
varieties, and are yet reluctant to assume the responsibiliiy, so embarrassing
is the task, I propose to compromise the matter, if compromise it can be
called, by telling what with my experience and observation in the orchard
over the twenty years past, I would plant were I about entering anew upon
the work. And first, as to our summer varieties. We have here the Dear-
born Seedling and Andrews of Massachusetts ; the Bloodgood, Osband's Sum-
mer, and Beurre Giiford, of New York ; the Tyson, Brandywine and Moya-
meusing, of Pennsylvania, with the Madeline, Doyenne d'Ete, Manning's
Elizabeth and Rostiezer of foreign origin, each of which has had its turn of
being lauded as the best-. To name them in the order of ripening, you have
the Madeline, Doyenne d'Ete, Beurre Gifford, Bloodgood, Manning's Eliza-
beth, Osband's Summer, Dearborn Seedling, llostiezer, and Moyamensing.

In the Massachusetts Horticultural society's report of 1854, we find the
following : " The Rostiezer, Tyson and Brandywine always good. Until we
can get as good summer pears as these, no others should be recommended for
general cultivation." And yet in New York and Pennsylvania in the opinion
of the best growers the Beurre Gifi"ord is superior. Barry says, if confined to
one early pear, it would be the Beurre Gifi'ord. It has been tested extensively
in Massachusetts and in the Middle States, and wherever tried, has been
regarded as a fruit of great promise, and in Pennsylvania as the very best
summer pear. The Doyenne d'Ete also has many points of excellence to
commend it to the orchardist, for instance, its great earliness, ripening with
the Madeline, its attractive appearance, exhibiting a blush on its sunny side
and the enormous crop it uniformly bears, that I should not feel willing to do
without it. My selection of summer pears would then be the Doyenne d'Ete,
Bloodg-ood, Beurre Gifford and Manning's Elizabeth. The Rostiezer is too
fine a pear to be omitted in any collection, though confined as it ever will be
to the grounds of the amateur, as will be also the Tyson and Brandywine.
For their period of ripening being delayed till the Bartlett makes its appear-
ance, with which no pear now known will compete, in view of the demand for
it as an orchard fruit, detracts immensely from their commercial value. Both
the Tyson and the Brandywine may be regarded by the amateur as richer,
more sugary and melting, while equally aromatic with the Bartlett. The
beautiful, deep yellow color contrasting with the fine crimson cheek makes the
Tyson a most inviting fruit.

We are inclined to head the list of autumn pears with the one first ripening,
viz : the Bartlett ; too well known and universally appreciated for its size,
beauty and excellence, to need any commendation. We probably assume
nothing in saying the Seckcl is the richest and most exquisitely flavored pear
grown, and being an American seems to be at home in every part of our country,
in the hedge wiiere it originated as well as in the garden, and like the emblem
of our nationiility wherever known, is known but to be respected. Rivers
accepts It as in full return for the Bartlett, and well may lie, for in the Seckel,

710 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE

small as it is we have concentrated all the spiciness and honied sweetness con-
tained in any pear, though quadruple it in size. Indeed it is not surpassed
probably not equaled, and the form, habit, thrift and hardiness of the tree
commend it to the American orchardist. Cultivation has been doing much
for the size of the Seckel within a few years. Now when well grown it is so
highly appreciated as to command quite as high a price in our markets as any
other pear.

The Sterling, a pear decidedly inferior in richness of character, ripening
with the early Bartlett, I esteem very highly. It grows on a beautiful iip-
right tree, is itself so delicate looking, having a beautiful yellowish white
sk!n, and a tinge of red coloring its cheek, with here and there one with a crim-
son blush all over its face, as Ave say of the maiden, coloring to the very eye
lids. Ripened in the house it is one of the most attractive pears in appear-
ance, and though not of very fine flesh it is still juicy enough and melting
enough, with a sugary, brisk flavor to make it the most inviting pear of its
season, though ripening later it would lose caste by the side of the Beurre Diel,
Beurre d'Anjou, and other late autumn varieties.

Nest comes the Belle Lucrative or Fondante d'Automne, Flemish Beauty
and Onondaga. The Belle Lucrative, of Flemish origin, is undoubtedly one of
the highest flavored pears. This and the Flemish Beauty are among the few
that are probably as good with us as in their native locality. The period is
short in which both these pears may be said to be in good eating condition,
very quickly commencing to decay, the Flemish Beauty at its core, so that
while they are pears of high excellence they will never be very desirable for
family or commercial use, though both when well grown will ever be highly
regarded by the amateur of cultivated taste. The. Onondaga, of American
origin and American all over, of good size, good looking and of good quality,
following closely the Bartlett in its period of ripening, fills a gap that would
otherwise be left till the Duchess d'Angouleme, Beurre Diel, and Beurre
d'Anjou make their appearance. After ten yeai's more observation I feel like
repeating with a strong commendation, what I said of the Onondaga in 1856.
Its fair size, smooth skin, of pale yellow, and when fully ripe, rich golden
color, make befitting the expression, magnificent in color as well as size; of
rich, juicy and aromatic flavor, flesh moderately fine grained. It is a most
vigorous grower on its own stock, and uniformly an abundant bearer, but not
at all adapted to the quince ; in this respect resembling other American
varieties. Maturing between the Bartlett and Beurre Diel, at a time when
nothing is comparable to it in size, it commends itself particularly for its
commercial value.

The Sheldon, an American variety, though recently introduced has already
established a character for excellence that commends it at least to the amateur.
It is uniformly melting, juicy, with a brisk, vinous, and highly perfumed flavor,
and when well grown above medium size. If it proves as good on a more ex-
tended acquaintance, and as well adapted to other localities as the one iu
which it originated, we shall regard it as a great acquii^ition.

The Doyenne Boussock of large size, comparing favorably in this respect
with the Onondaga, a pear of excellent quality, though by no means of the
highest flavor, has a similar mission with the Onondaga; but like the Belle

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 717

Lucrative and Flemish Beauty, is in an eating condition but a short period,
rapidly passing to decay, very often before it seems to have reached its ripened
Btate.

The Duchess d'Angoulcme, Bcurre Die! and Beurre d'Anjou constitute
our best late autumn pears. The Duchess is too well known to require any-
thing more of commendation than to say, this most magnificent pear, when
well cultivated will give entire satisfaction as to the size and character of
the fruit, as well as proye a most ffbundant bearer. My trees commenced to
bear some twelve or fifteen years ago, and have never failed with each return-
ing year to give me a good crop. The Duchess is the only one of all the
pears thus far named I would recommend dwarfed on the quince, though the
others associated with it, the Beurre Deil and Beurre d'Anjou, seem well
adapted to dwarfing; but that they will be better than on their own stock,
our experiments, under the mania for dwarfs, have not been sufficiently multi-
plied to satisfy me. The Beurre d'Anjou on the pear stock is a thrifty and
hardy variety.

Equally well proved has been that oldest and longest cultivated of the for-
eign pears, the Beurre Deil, so rich, so sugary, so melting in character that
I do not ever remember to have heard a word spoken against it ; certainly in
this respect a living example for fruit growers tu imitate. The Bcurre d'An-
jou later introduced, I think by Mr. Wilder, is one of the few that has im-
proved upon acquaintance, so that it may truthfully be said, we think more
of it now than ever. It has uniformly proved most excellent, not only equal-
ing but exceeding our most sanguine expectations ; we want nothing better as
a dessert pear. It hangs well on the tree, quite as well as the Lawrence, and
ripens later, after the Duchess and Beurre Clairgeau.

The Beurre Clairgeau, a splendid pear of large size and beautiful appearance,
has been improving upon acquaintance, and during the past season has been
quite favorably introduced to city consumers ; it has been well spoken of and
often enquired after. I give it a large place in my orchard.

The Columbian Virgalicu brings up the rear of the autumn pears, and is
quite fond of being on hand at the holidays; and, vi^ith its clear smooth
skin of lemon yellow,^ makes a good display and is consequently sought
after when its better neighbors have had their day and been forgotten.
By some it has been thought coquetish, but I think without reason. Its
clear skin covering, melting flesh, not wanting in richness, and of delicious
flavor, should exculpate it from such imputations^

Of the winter pears, the Lawrence, Beurre Nouvcau, and the Glout Mor-
ceau, must have a place in every collection. The Lawrence, if not already,
is destined to be the most popular of winter pears, as well as the most re-
munerating to the orchardist. The Glout Morceau has sadly disappointed
the ranjority of fruit growers, on account of the great proportion of knotty
and deformed fruit in every crop, exciting our disgust wiini the iVuit is
gathered, but at its ripening the few specimens that are fair and well grown
seem to atone for the defects of the mass, so that I am too well pleased
with it to drop it from the collection. Loving a good pear as I do, I
pliould bo pained to lose that one which I have regarded the most lusciou.s,
most delicious oi all.

I have said nothing of the Winter Nelis, the Easter Beurre, or the Vicar

718 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

of Winkfield, As I have nothing to saj' in favor of the two former it is
best to say nothing. The Vicar of Winkfield is a good cooking pear.

LARGE PEARS — HOW TO GROW THEM.

In Hovey^s Horticultural Review, vol. 25, page 171, he says : The proprie-
tor of the Pomological Gardens in Sacramento, California, exhibited at one
of the meetings of the society in 1858, a Bartlett pear which measured 17
inches in the largest circumference, afld 13 inches in its lateral, and
weighed 27 ounces avoirdupois. Also, from that paradise of fruits a Swans
Orange was exhibited that weighed 20 ounces avoirdupois. Mr. Hovey
says the largest pear he ever saw of this variety raised in Boston, weighed
13 ounces, and the largest Bartlett 11 ounces. The model of a Duchess
d'Angouleme described by J. J. Smith, then editor of the Horticulturist
was represented by him as weighing 35| ounces avoirdupois, and measur-
ing 17| inches in its longitudinal and 15^ inches in its cylindrical diameter;
said to have been grown by a New Jersey orchardist, and is believed to
have been the largest pear grown of any of the good varieties, at any rate,
the largest on record. Without describing the process by which the speci-
men before us was developed into its mammoth proportions, we would say
the French cultivators who have long excelled in this department of pomo-
log3' have detailed with such minuteness the process by which such results
ha%'e been obtained, that we may now regard the development of large
specimens of fruit, not as freaks of nature, but the result of the observa-
tion of the laws touching the vegetable, as fixed and invariable as any
that obtain in the animal economy. These processes are such as train-
ing, pruning, pinching, thinning and watering, or as a substitute for it,
mulching. An increase in the size of the fruit has so commonly been
observed to follow the judicious pruning of an orchard, that if you would
have good fruit you must prune for it, is as accepted a fact as is the decla-
ration of our Saviour that the branch that beareth fruit if purged (or
pruned) will bring forth more fruit. We need scarcely stop to say that
the sap that would have gone to the support of the lopped off branches,
now contributes to the increase of the developing crop of fruit. Akin to
this in its effect tipon the fruit, is the pinching of the shoot while it io yet
tender, arresting the flow of sap that is destined to extend the shoot by
the formation of wood and bud and leaf, which now by its sudden arrest ia
converted into fruit. By no mysterious operation then will a judicious re-,
moval of a part of the shoots of a previous year's growth be followed by an
increase in the size of the fruit. It has been often observed that the largest
fruit would be found upon a spar from the trunk of one of the principal
branches, possibly from the trunk itself. And no marvel, for such position
is in proximity to the greatest and most abundant flow of sap, and the de-
mands of the evolving fruit is most easil}'' met. The ox thrives most nearest
the master's'crib. The vegetable physiologist accepts the fact of the influ-
ence that lines and angles have upon the circulation of the fluid through
the vessels, facilitating or retarding its flow, and hence prunes so as to
secure the free and uninterrupted flow of the sap to the fruit distributed
along the branches, freel}^ lopping off those that start out directly and at
right angles from the trunk of the tree. The overloading of the branches

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 719

with fruit tends to dwarf the size, not simply by dividing the pabulum the
ti'oe can supply among too many, but by bending* the branches with their
weight, thus retarding the flow of sap by compression of the vessels through
which it circulates. The shortening of bearing shoots, as well as removal
of suporlluous ones, exerts a well marked influence on the growth of the
fruit. Thinning out the fruit is of no less importance in the production of
fine fruit, than the skillful and intelligent use of the knife, for when a part
of the crop is removed, the energies of the tree, that would have been ex-
pended in maturing the entire crop with which the tree started in the pro-
cess of development are given to a reduced amount, that amount is devel-
oped into better proportions and as much better in quality as in size.

ADJUSTMENT IN THE ORCHARD, PLANTING, ETC.

Having selected your varieties, some acquaintance with the character-
istic forms of trees will be required so to adjust them in the orchard in
their relation to each other, to produce the most pleasing and artistic eifect
as well as to facilitate your operations in the culture they demand, and in
the gathering of the fruit. The knowledge of the habits of the tree will
enable thepruner so to guide his hand as most readily to secure the natural
and characteristic form much earlier than he can otherwise do. For not
only will the pruuer's time be lost, when his efforts are misdirected, he too
thus opposes and thwarts nature; she resists and struggles against these
efforts and her energies will be concentrated to reproduce what he has
ruthlessly destroyed; and thns the period of perfect development is post-
poned, a point that in the wood process must be reached in the great
majority of trees, before we see the begMnuing of the fruit process. So
tenacious will some varieties be of their characteristic form, that successive
efforts to change that form will be followed by successive efforts in the
reproduction of wood to recover what has been lost. And these efforts
will onl}' come, when as the wild colt broken in spirit meekl}' submits to
bit and bridle, so this refractory nature is controlled, by the long continued
labor of the orchardist; and thus it is that the tree that was destined to
become a, giant, remains a pigmy. But the process is laborious as the
system is unnatural.

The Beech, the Chestnut, the Maple, the Basswood, have each their
appropriate forms. You know them whenever the eye can measure their
distinctive outlines. This is equally true of some, indeed of many of our
fruit trees, but the pear assumes almost every variety of form. Nature
gives us ill the Columbia a pyramid; in the Seckel and Urbaniste a conal;
in the Bloodgood and Dearborn seedling a round head; in the Doyenne
d'Etc an upright, towering form, and in the Rostiezer a straggling nonde-
serijit. Others are so refractory as appropriately to be classed with
neither, though under the judicious and continuous use of the knife may
readily be brought to assume some resemblance to one of these forms. In
this sportive habit of the pear the man of taste finds scope for the exercise
of his* most discii)lined faculties. The orchard, under his skillful manipu-
lation securing a symmetrical arrangemcLt, may be made in appearance a
very Eden.

Oftentimes in the season of bloom will the attention of the beholder bo

720 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

riveted till lie is forced to exclaim, and with necessary admiration every
time he beholds it, how beautiful! how beautiful! surpassing- grand!
exceeding all description language can portray. A sight that ravishes
the senses, till overwhelmed with the vision, one is lost in the loveliness of
the scene. Never do I enter the orchard at such a time, but the desire, too
strong to be concealed, finds utterance in the expression, 0 that every one
could feast on these ravishing views! These orchard views, at such a
time, most truly elevate the soul and give it sublime repose. Here it is
the heart, burdened with care and wearied with labor, finds rest. Here the
serenity of nature in its highest t^'pes breathes upon the soul a silence,
hushing all its turmoils, till peace and contentment reign supreme. It is
not the grandeur of the forest that subdues into tenderness, it is not the
majesty of the cataract that awes into silence, it is the sweet melting of
the heart with nature's loveliest scenes, that seem too pure for earth, pre-
figuring the paradise above, that fills the soul with benevolence and love.
xlt must have been in I'cference to this department of terracultiire that
the remark was made, "Agriculture is the most beneficent of all pursuits of
man." In every age of the world it has been the greatest civilizer; the
evidence of which is found in the fact, that whenever a tribe or nation has
devoted itself to agriculture in obedience to the rules of husbandry, though
in its simplest and rudest forms, it has become great and powerful, while
the nation following the hunt or chase have become enfeebled and fijially
extinct. The nation or people alone, who have been long civilized b3' agri-
culture as a refining process, have passed on to a higher level through
which they have been disciplined to appreciate the pleasures of orchard
life, a type at least of the Eden Adam occupied before sin entered.

ARRANGEMENT OF TREES IN THE ORCHARD.

The pleasures of the orchard are enhanced by the artistic effect that is
produced by a proper adjustment of the trees in the orchard. It has been
remarked that in floriculture, more than half the art consists in bringing
out and setting forth the distinctive merits of the plants, and so arranging
them as to their position in the plat, relatively to other plants of the same
or other variety, as to exhibit to the spectator their distinctive marks, if
he would develop some new beauty hitherto unperceived, or just now for
the first time developed under his fostering hand. Thus it is said the florist
becomes an artist and an inventor. This is also true of the orchardist.
Here in this department of horticulture will the mind most fertile in expe-
riments become the most successful in expedients, in which no small share
of the beauty and delight, as well as profit of the orcliavd consist. If
nature has given to the pursuer even a spark of the love of the beautiful,
it will be developed oftentimes in the orchard and garden into the strength
of a passion, that he will find as a presiding genius inspiring him at every
step, in his work teaching him to do this or that for its artistic impression..
And so from day to day the pleasures he experiences in his work under
such developed taste, most abundant!}^ rewards him for his toil. In his
efforts to produce choice fruits, he accepts the fact, that his success will
depend not only on good management, nor simply on the enriching and
cultivation of the soil, but also on the judicious training of the body and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 721

brandies of tlic tree to obedience to artistic laws. And obedience to this
law oftentimes seems to him to be so in harmony with those which regulate
the How of the sap, the development, formation and ripening of the fruit
itself, that he is led to re^-ard them as synchronous in their action. The
artistic law forbids superfluous growth; superfluous growth sadly wars
■with the fruiting process. An excess in the quantity of the crop borne by
its enormous weiglit, disturbs the harmony of relation of limb to limb, and
limb to trunk; they become too pendulous and often break under their
burden, thus sadly marring the beautiful structure which he has carefully
roared. The excess of crop furbids growth, dwarfs the fruit, detracts from
its wonted flavor, offends the eye and damages the purse. Thus he is most
impressively taught to recognize the artistic and the useful as companions,
if not as twin sisters. And he growingly loves the beautiful for he recog-
nizes it in the order of the useful.

And now, as our walk in the orchard is about ended, and our talk is
drawing to a close, we may, though seemingly a teacher, be pardoned for
saying, that on the subject that has engrossed our tlioughts, we can
scarcely be said to have acquired a rudimentary knowledge. The science
of horticulture is still in its infancy, whil5 that of pear culture is yet far
from being developed into even the form of a science. Though pear culture
dates back to the earliest days of Rome, the pear of the earlier centuries
is not adapted to the palate of the present day. Indeed, not until within
tlie last seventy or eighty years has cultivation developed the delicious
qualities which we now recognize as belonging to this most attractive
fruit; and so little are these qualities known, even in our day to the great
mass of the people, that the multitudes maybe said to be still unacquainted
with the pear. And not until the laws that govern its growth are better
known by those who may be regarded as the leaders in this branch of hor-
ticulture, and that knowledge so universally diffused that the culture of the
pear may be generally understood by terraculturists, will the millions know
anything of the deliciousness of this fruit. Neither can they know it until
its cultivation shall become so general tliat it is brought within their reach.

Choice pears commanded in this city from twelve to fifteen dollars per
bushel for a period of at least two months last season, and this price was
readily obtained for them in "Washington market. If well grown from
seventy-five to one hundred pears would constitute the number, all told,
making the bushel. At such a price choice pears are beyond the reach of
the multitude, neither will they know, and not knowing cannot appreciate
the excellencies of this fruit. The Bartlett most unfortunately for the ad-
vancement of science, and most fortunately too, for pear culture, regarding
it as a John the Baptist, a forerunner in the work; has such a combination
of characteristic excellencies, that it produces good fruit anywhere, and
everywhere in our country ; in all climates and in all soils, with all kinds
of culture and with no culture at all, provided the tree be only stuck in
the ground, and it does this too almost as this work is done ; as though
Providence designed it to be a pioneer, stimulating and leading on or invit-
ing to diligence, in extending our energies in this direction in horticulture.

The millions may now be said to know the Bartlett, on account of these

[Am. I.vst.] T*

722 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

very qualities, and it is about the only pear they do know, though a few
have tasted the Seckel and have endorsed it too, because bein^ an Ameri-
can, though half grown from neglected culture, it is an American still, good
and trustworthy to its very core.

Were we addressing amateurs we should make no apology for saying,
those that only know the Bartlett do not know what good pears are, and
to prove the truth of this remark, were it the appropriate season for testing
and you were with me in the fruit room — the proof of the pudding you
know is said to be in the eating, you would most readily assent to it.

And now having invited you into the orchard, courtesy demands that I
extend to you all even at this time a most cordial invitation to accompany
nie even there, and sec if the mouth is not made to water first in beholding
the golden colored Glout Morceau, Beurre d'Anjou, or Beurre Gris d'Hiver
Noveau, and then above all in tasting those greedy morsels.

And now lest what we have said apparently in disparagement of the
Bartlett, and what we are prepared more distinctly to affirm, that it is not
even one among our most delicious pears, it is still in view of the very
qualities we have ascribed to it, namely, its uniform productiveness, its
large size, golden color, solid fl^sh, and almost universally acceptable fla-
vor, possibly the best pear grown ; and not only for the present, but des-
tined to be the most popular pear for years to come, and therefore the one
to be commended above all others for general cultivation.

This commendation of the Bartlett among pears, is akin to that of the
Baldwin among apples, that for its size, its brilliant red color, with its
fairness of skin, constituting it altogether a most beautiful apple, with its
long keeping qualities, its freedom from injury in transportation, its excel-
lence of flavor, firmness of flesh, quite up to the time of ripeness, and then
with a m'oderate degree of softness, combined with great productiveness,
as well as vigor of growth and symmetry of form in the tree, make it
altogether a king among apples. In saying this of the Baldwin we believe
that we may not be charged with saying, there are not more delicious ap-
ples. Even the Dominie, scarcely known out of its favorite locality, will
readil}'- carry off the palm, compared with it in flavor. And othois there
are, possibly we might name a dozen higher flavored, more delicious apples,
and yet in view of all the good qualities of the Baldwin above enumerated,
no one in our judgment would compare with that apple, when we talk about
the best. And so too with the Black Tartarian among cherries, inferior as
it is in deliciousness to the Coe's Transparent.

This is but endorsing the remark long since made by Mr. Ilovey. There
are certain fruits which hold their place for a great length of time, and for
which it is difficult to supply a better, not that they are the very best of
their class, but because all qualities considered they far outnumber all
others.

We haye said that pear culture was still in its infancy. Half a century
ago and there were but few varieties of great excellence, indeed the Seckel
stood almost alone. The awakened interest in this branch of horticulture,
under the labors of Downing, Ilovey, Dana and Wilder, has resulted in giving
us of American origin, quite a number of surpassing* excellence. Indeed,
there are none to be so highly commended, to those now embarking in this

PROCEEDINGS OF THE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 723

branch of horticulture, as those of American origin. And it is a singular
fact, that but few of these arc adapted in their habits to dwarfing- so as to
succeed on the quince.

While much has been accomplished by the laboi's of these and other pear
culturists, very much still remains to be done. For nearly twenty years we
have been engrossed with the study while making our observations in the
orchard, but are obliged to confess that we seem to ourselves to be as yet
in the outer portals of the temple, and with the dim light of a taper have
boon groping after knowledge, using as our guide for the most part, the
facts accunuilated by the experience of others. But when the great prin-
ciples underlying this science shall be clearly comprehended, and the laws
that govern each operation shall be clearly conceived, as definite and fixed,
we sliall be ^permitted to enter the inner recesses and comprehend most
perfectly, the now mysterious operations of nature under the teachings of
a wiser philosophy and the perfect light of truth.

On motion of Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter, the thanks of the Association were
presented to Dr. Ward for the interesting and instructive lecture, and a
copj' was requested for publication.

The meeting adjourned to April 18, 1865, but in consequence of the
national calamity, caused by the death of President Lincoln, no meeting
was held during the month.

John W. Chambers, Secretary.

INDEX

A.

Page.

Absinthe 350

Accidents on railroads and steamboats . . . 400

Acclimation 240

Actinism 323

Aftermath 98

Agriculture in Peru 202, 219

southern Illinois 144

Agricultural products imported 67

Ailanthus silk 112

Air and steam engine 47fi

Air rarificJ by altitude 638

Alcohol from coal gas 423

Alloy from silver and zinc 310

Almond 681

Aluminium or aluminum 446, 565

Amazon, the delta of the 388

American Institute, officers of iii

American Pomological Society at Roches-
ter 116

Ammonia from nitrous oxide 596

produced by soils 564

Anffisthetic, now 318

Aniline green and black 373, 569

Anthracite for locomotives 457

Anti-corrosive mixture 439

Ants, how to trap 25

Apple,' Stevens' sweet 668

the Scribner 639

Apples, 137, 170, 203, 631, 657, 658, 661, 667

680

bitter rot in 255

how to keep 124

to be named 130, 178

suited to Illinois 167, 169

Iowa 63

Wisconsin 173

Apple trees 92, 148

Apple tree beetle 53

borers, remedy for 93, 269

insects 239, 256

hedge 199

fence posts. ..•: 37

Arabian ink 447

Aroma, extracting and preserving 423

Asteroid, new 571

Ashes as a manure 150, 258

Asparagus beds, how to make 49

Atmosphere, analysis of 442

height of 538

impure at New York 441

Auk, the great 396

Autumnal leaves 291

B.

Badger fur 393

Ballistic apparatus 424

Barberry alcohol 491

Barrow's address 607

Barks, tannin in 568

Page.

Barrel, the hermetical 381

Battery, electrical 344, 347

Beans, for a late crop of 74

manure for '39

string, how preserved 360

Bcecher on landscape gardening 702

Bells, manufacture of "... 496, 516

forming a musical scale 519

Benzole 325

Bees 156, 260

in California 38

do toads eat? 97

stings, cure for 270

Beet sugar .' 217

Billiard balls 397

Births in Cuba 318

Bisulphide of carbon 457

Bitumen from Brazil 570

Blackberries 51

Blackberry cuUnrd 252, 290

blackberry wine 270

Black-knot, cure for 184, 294

Bleaching straw 407

Blight of fruit trees 27,44,47, 54

Blowing tubes for raising oil 346, 355

Boiler explosions 321

Bolts , 315

Bond, G. B., honors to 571

Bonnets of straw 400, 412

Bookworms, how destroyed 439

Botany 662

Bouquets, arrangement of 616

Braiding straw 399

Bread making 283

Breath, human 387

Brick, dry pressed 291

Brines, how to dissolve 287

Bridge at Albany 5S0

at Washington 456

over Messina 311

over the Seine 456

Broadway, N. Y., improvement of 321

Bromide of potassium 339

Broom corn 68, 174

Buckwheat, as a manure crop 143

Building in Ceylon 481

Buried city '. 579

Bursting of large plate 560

Bushes, when to cut 185

Buttons of paper 409

C.

Cabbage culture 261

Cables, chain 372

Calcareous spar 394

Calculating machine 576

California cotton 198

Calves raised by hand 275

CampbclPs lecture 662

Canada thistles 60,95, 114

726

INDEX.

Page.

Canals of New York 462

now, in the old world 471

Canker worm in Iowa 294

Carbine, Stevens' new 408

Carbolic or phenic acid 478

Carbon as a fuel 313

bisulphide of 457

Carharfs improvoments 525

Carpets made by spiders 358

Carpenter's seedling grape 121

Carriages, improvements in 103

Car wheels, pressure on 345

Cashmere shawls, how made 680

Casting, enormous 425

Cataract, cause and cure of 495

Ciitterpillars ; 96,97, 104

Cattle on the highway 92

jumping fences 87

relieved from choking 184

vermin on 40

Cedar of Lebanon 673

Cedar-birds 146, 701

Cement, French 318

Cherry trees, aphidea in 82

Chess in wheat 75, 134, 159, 18d

Chickens, gapes in 48,98, lOo

Chickory 271

Chimes, church 480

Chinch bug 180, 217, 248

Chinchilla fur 384

Chloroform, how made 457

how preserved 345

Chrome alum 595

double salt 344

Cider, how to keep sweet 140, 171

Cisterns, filtering 28

City sewerage 73

Cloth, from a new fibre , . . . . 276

Clover and clover hay 84

Clover hay worm 95

Clydonics, treating of wares 537, 599

Coal ashes 141, 262, 277, 288

comparative value of 596

dust, how to utilize 199

in Great Britain 341

in France 479

in Minnesota 340

mines, casualties in 404

oil for insects 66, 94

Coating for stone 318

Caesium in the mineral (pollux 344

Colorado ores 326

views in 344

Color in grapes 148

of fruit 612

Combs of India rubber 598

Commerce of New York city 461

Comstock's spader 89, 129

Condensation by solids 311

Cooling by tension 323

Copper, haloid salts of . . 423

Corl%f , refuse 450

Coin, a new variety of 257

harvester wanted 261

in Peru 220, 285

preserved for table use 288, 360

sweet 133, 257, 259, 276

sowed with small grain, 36

stalks as winter fodder,.. 125, 149, 173

paper from, ." 342

syrup and sugar 154,1 3, 1 83

worms in 38, 50, 248

Cotton and wool, separation of 670

cloth rotted by dyes 697

pest, new 127

Paob.

Crab apple 75

Cranberries 174, 234

Crystaline pictures 455

Cucumber vines, protection of 39

Culture of small fruits 289

clean, 266

Curculio, 130

CurrantSj 290

D.

Dana's Hovey Pear «. . . . 176

Delaware and New Jersey compared 195

Desert of Sahara 319

Dessication 359

Dewpoint 435

Diamonds 321

Diamond the largest ever known 595

Diathermic compound 350

Diggers vs. ploughs 123

Dinoris 397

I^islillation over Asbestos 597

Dodder 107, 148

Dogs and dog laws 203, 233, 241

Doors, rollers for sliding 483

Drowned, rescue of the apparently 340

Dudley Observatory 676

Dye for feathers 438

E.

Early fruits 620

Earthenware, ornamenting of 332

Earth fences 237

Earthquake of 1811 503

Eath or ether, density of 538

Eggs, how to preserve 115

Electrical discharge 403

Electric currents, inductive, 382

Electricity of metals 387

velocity of 362

Electro ballistic apparatus 424

batteries, thermo 665, 566

magnetic locomotive 491

magnetism 493

magnet, new .' 495

of great power 347

elongation of 348

poion battery 348

Emerald, color of the 350

Emery in Massachusetts 474

Emew 396

Emigration to Del. and Md. 69, 87, 100, 153

167

Engraving, microscopic 459

new process of 382

Entomology 608, 618

Ermine 384

Esculent nests 356

Ether, how made 458

Evans' rotary cultivator 167, 161

Evergreens, how to grow from seed 285

when to transplant 74

Explosion of pile hammer 660

Explosive compounds 330

materials, how stored 466

F.

Family receipts 369

Fan for hospitals .' 489

Farmers' club, proceedings of the.... 21, 295

should economize time 49

Farming tools, care of 191

uninviting 184

Farms in Missouri 122

INDEX.

727

Page.

Fatty acids 332

Faucet, with rubber valve 478

Feed water beater for boilers 380

Fermentation 5(i(')

Fi>rtili7.er, a new 22, 81

Fibre of the Dis 430

Files, recutting of 446

Fissures 603

Fitch fur SJ)!

Fiaiue, chemistry of 602

Flannel, vegetable 506

Flax crop.... 279

pest 127

Flax seed, amount per acre 04

does it hybridize 40

Flora and fauna 478

Floral decorations and designs, address on 623

Flowers, address on 611

and flower seeds 56, 71, 135, 160

173, 178, 200, 206, 212, 228, 235
247, 263, 278, 288, 295.

fruit from Nebraska SO

change of color of 205

cultivation of 56, 71, 213

from Iowa 61

Wisconsin 112

hardy 215

respiration of 350

Fog horn 389

in North Carolina 606

Forage plant, a new 292

Forests, planting of, on prairies 228

Fox fur 384, 393

Freezing and thawing hills, plants 268

Frost work on glass 45S

Fruit cans, how to seal 115

gardens for women 46

gathering of, 359

growing 45,52,73, 193, 200

jar 137

preservation of 358, 625, 641

thinning out 640

trees by the road side 245

eftects of manure on 82

staking of 172

Fruits, early varieties of 620

in South Jersey 196

in their season 631, 632

respiration of 310

Fuel 312

Funnel indicator . 425

Furnace of Rochette 364

Furs, manufacture of 383, 390

Fur trade 385

G.

Gamboge 479

Gapes in chickens 41, 57, 77

Oardcn, the, as an educator 644

Gas engine. 395

in Egypt, 480

lime, as a manure 23, 55

removing bisulphide of carbon in .... 570

testing the illuminating 445

works, waste of 335

Geological 319

Geology of petroleum 426

Germ, a mii-take m the 249

Glasses for obstructing heat 329

Gloves, manufacture of 360

Goitre in lambs 34

Gold, a new method of extracting 389

in Connecticut 456

ores 326

Page.

Gold, receipts of, in New York 460

separator 356

Gooseberries 290

Grafting the grape 172, 261

wax 24

G rafts, how to preserve 129

Grape, Adirondac 107

Allen's hybrid 635

Clinton 189

Delaware 189, 216

lona 635

Israella 635

Oporto 256

Grapes 137, 290

and cotton Peruvian 223

strawberries in Illinois 62

wine 105

in Iowa IZ'i

winter 242

rot in 92

Grapevines, careful packing of 127

disease of the leaf of . ; 90

grafting of 172, 261

pruning of 267

sulphur for mildew on 185

training of 128

trenching' for 229

Grass, analysis of 84

a new kind, found in Kansas 238

China . ; 320, 404

fragrant 44, 619

land, seeding of 156

seeds, furze top 132

Grease balls found in exhaust pipes 405

Greeley on forest trees 670

prizes 137,639, 700

Gun cotton 330

stability of 671

the Ames 549

Armstrong \ 555

Blakesley 551

Dahlgren 642

Parrott 555

Rodman 387, 553

Stevens 405

Whiiworth 555

Wiard 557

Gunpowder as a motor 4-18

Guns, great 539

of Armstrong and Whitworth tested, 596

H.

Hailstones '.

Hams, protected from bugs

Harrison, C. C, the late

Hats of straw 397,

Hawthorn, hardiness of the 270,

Hay, uncured, baling of

Hearing hairs of Crustacea

Heat • •

generation of 313,

SDCClfic •••• •*•• ■■•• •••• ■•■• ■••• ••••

Hedges 131, 154, 170, 185, 199, 205,

Heliotrope, belle of Jersey

Hemlock boughs for the protection of

plants

Henderson on flowers Oil,

on market gardens of N. J. ...

Hen, foHr legged

Henrick's laws of the spectrum

Hick's steam engine

Hill's sweet corn

Hogg on principles of taste applied to floral

decorations and designs

322
185
422
412
082
277
319
472
32''
395
234
617

ens

6S8
703
441
349
532
257

023

728

INDEX.

Page.
Hogg on the trees of tbe Bible and the

classics 672

Hominy 199

Honey affected by light 310

Hops , 114, 209

how te save the expense of poles .... 24

Horse flesh as food 480

Horses, cure for scratches in 37

training of, to step high 87

Horticultural Association oflBcers 606

proceedings of. . 606-723

Hotbeds, a cheap substitute for 269

Hydraulics 337

Hydrocarbon, a new 447

Hydrochloric acid 336

Hydrogen as fuel 313

I.

Ice, production of 438

Imphee 339

Imports at New York 460

Incandescence 603

Iridium, the metal 324, 422

Initial strains in guns 545

Ink used by Arabs 447

Insects 142, 167, 608, 618

how to send by mail 137

Iodide of silver 390

Iowa as a wool producing State 166

plants 124

Iron as a fertilizer 251

cast 547, 661

letter 455

plates, protection of 438

strength of 471

strengthening cast 379

Irrigation 238

Island, movable 340

Isothermal line of peaches 264

J.

Jersey City water works, pipe

Jersey green sand . . . ,

Johnstown, glove making at . .
Juniper

337
363
309
675

X.

Kentucky blue grass 126

Kirkwood's deductions 349

Kolinski fur 392

L

Lakes in Tennessee, how formed . .\

Lamp for petroleum

Lard, how to extract from cracklings

Land, removing sod impoverishes

Lands public, extent of

Liingdon cultivator

Lead, erosion of

Leaves, how to preserve their colors

Leg, artificial ;

Leghorn liats

Leroy's French fruit

report of committee on,

Light from fixed stars

Liglithouse of Cape Cod

Lightning rods , . ...

Light of the Curcuj'os

produced by rapid dilations

Lima beans, how to raise

Lime as a manure

Lime tree •

Long Island, cheap lands on

503
569
171
184
580
184
396
287
394
401
636
658
403
600
332
396
604
187
193
678
IBS

Page.
Loom, a new , 338

for one of the nobility 596

M.

Magnetic action 495

Magnetism of iron and steel shavings . . • • 496

Maguay plant in California 25

Maine laws, water and shade trees 29

Manure 34, 82, 425

storing of, under cover 77

Manuring strawberries 36

Maple, formation of sap in the '. . 138

sugar . .' 294

Market gardens of N. J 403

Mariotts law 327

Maritime commerce 464

Marl, its value 197

Marsh gas acting on metalic oxides ...... 364

Martin fur 391

Maryland, emigration to, 67, 87, 100, 153, 167

lands and climate of 174

Matches, Japanese 489

substitute for phosphorus on. .. . 345

Mead on the preservation of fruit 641

strawberry 621

Meadows, how to restore 186

spoil 126

Meat, consumption of in cities 157

preserving of 56

Measure worm, account of 700

Megass, a disinfectant 309

Melodeons 523

Mcrritt's tree protector 225

Metalic coatings 447

Metals in Michigan 580

separation of 469

solid and melted 594

Metamorphoses in fishes 496

Michigan for sheep farms 269

marshes, how to seed . 27

Millett for sheep 229

Mineral waters 423

Mines, steam power in 440

Mining machinery, ancient 440

Mink fur 393

Minnesota, farming in 268

Mirrors, silvering of 493

Missouri, inforination for emigrants 200

Molecular forces 604

structure 363

Moles 52

Moonlight, increased growth of plants in, 69

Monsters, productions of 324

Mordant, a new 470

Motor, gunpowder as a 448

Z.iuck, its value as a manure. . . 165, 185, 195

Mulberry , 680

Mustc, as an agent 492

theory of 519

Musical instruments 622, 536

reeds 325

Muskrat fur 384

Must, extraction of 42*

N.

Needham's pneumatic way 572

Nerves restored 357

New .Jersey, cropS, climate and lands, 194, 218

Nitrate of soda as a manure 6S

Nitroglycerin 344

Nitrous oxide producing ammonia 594

Nycc's fruit preservatory 271, 281

INDEX.

729

0.

Page.

Oak 675

grove in Cftlifornia 580

varieties of the 258

Oil cavities ."51

from cotton and wool 3;J6

wells 346, 350, 351

connected 353

intermittent 352

Olive 678

Onions 66, 264

how to destroy worms in 288

Onondiiga Salt Company 431

Opium poppy 37, 113

Oporto grape 256

Opossum fur 384

Orange 680

Orchards, how to grow a healthy 46

Orchids 617

Organ Harmoniums % 529

keys, moving of 341

Osage orange hedges 131, 154, 180 264

its hardiness, 170

Osgood on the garden as an educator 644

Otter fur 384

Oxidation, slow 664

Oxide of silver 318

Oxygen as a medicine 306

Ozone 306,318,364

acting on silver .salts 469

Pacific telegraph . . . . 493

Palladium the metal 468

Panzy 615

Paper buttons 409

collars 364

from corn stalks 342

sugar cane 467

wood 395

Paradise stocks 128

Parallelogram of forces acting on car

trucks 345

Parchment paper 334

Paris international exhibition 479

Peach trees " 73

and tanzy 104

Pears 193, 6.33, 659, 661, 668, 709

exhibition of French 636

new native ■. . 639

the way to raise 123

Pear, the Beekman 638

tree blight 27, 54

Peas, crimson 28

Peat for locomotives '. 263

Pennywort 151

PtEonias 59

Pepper cruet improved 362

Periodic comets 349

times of planets 372

Peru, agriculture of 202, 209

Persian black lambs wool 391

Pctr.jleum as fuel 314, 484

export of 463

t first use of 354

for fruit trees 66, 94

geology of 426

volatile 309

wells 350,469, 572

Pharos, the 599

Phenomenon in farming v. . . . . 64

Phosphorus and sulphur 339

oxidation of 444

preparation of 44u

•^Am. Inst.]

Paqb.

Photographic compound . 383

feat ": 397

Photography as a detective 492

in natural colors 491

Photosculpture 424

Phyllotaxis, the law of 266

Pianoforte, cycloid 561

history of 536

Pianofortes made in the U. S 672

Pictures by Chiuenli .382

Pigeon manure 96

Pipes, form of, affecting flow 337

Pistons, velocity of steam 495

Plane tree 678

Plants protected from frost 100

Pleuro pneumonia « 65

Plowing by steam 378

under weeds , 131

Pneumatic railway 373

way of Needham 572

Plumbago 405

Poison ivy cure, 74, 94, 132, 155, 170, 229, 2.34

Poison, labels for 332

Polarising prism , 363

Pollen, vigor of 325

Pollux the mineral contains Coesium 344

Polytechnic Association, proceedings of..

296-605

Pomegranate 682

Pomological Society, delegates to the .... 631

Pompeii, discoveries in 440

Potatoes, early 173, 187

how kept for years 361

not hurt by freezing 275, 288

washing of 71

Potato, experiments in the culture of, 37, 77

13.5

Peruvian 223

Poultry, a new disease of 181

can they be kept in large flocks. . 102

raising 78, 149

Powder, a new, for mining 344

Prairie flowers 288

tea 112

Prairies, cultivating without fences 280

Premiums awarded at the Horticultural

exhibition, 1864 17

Printing, new process of 389

Prizes ofi"ered 422, 469

Pruning trees and vines, 226, 237, 243, 262

260

Prussia, exhibition of industry in 202

Pumping at oil wells 346

Pumpkins 177

Pumps 474, 477, 482

Pyramid, the great 456

Pyramids, age of the 697

Q.

Quarter of grain
Quinua of Peru .

68
223

R.

Rabbits eating trees 202,215, 228

Hadishes 80

Railroads in the U. S 459

gauges of 671

Railway car, apparatus for starting 564

from Paris to Madrid 345

Rain in N. C. mountains 506

water 318

Rat trap 261

Raspberries 105, 290

IJ*

to

0

INDEX.

Page.

Reed, miisieal 623

liefusc cotton, oil from 336

lieport of Trustees 1

coinniiltee on finance 4

agiicultilre ' 8

manufactures, etc. . . 9

library 12

horticulture 14

R.csuseitation of the drowned 340

Rocks, how to remove 181

Roofing 232, 309

Root grafting 219, 172

Rose-bugs (53

Rose, the damask 264

Rosin weed 106

Rubidinum 446

Ruraford prize fund , 476

Rust and mildew 1 42

s.

Sable fur 384,

Saccharimetry

Sal ammoniac

Saltpetre

Salt, as a manure 77,

analysis of

manufacture of

springs . .^

Turks Island

Sandblows

Santonin charged by light

Sap in trees . . .' 130,

Sassafras for hen coops

Satellite of Jupiter

Saxehorn

Schools

Scions, how to preserve

Scorpion in Africa

Screw threads and bolts 315,

Seal fur

Sea otter

Season of 1864

Seeds from Peru

Seeding land tu grass

Serpent fascination

Sewerage

for manure

waste

Sexes, temperature of

Sheep, blind staggers in

disease among 228,

farm, the best place for a

millet for

shedding of their root . . .275, 240,

Southdown

Shingles carbonized

Ship timber machines for sawing

Silk

culttrre 60,

in California

worms

American . . .". .'.

influenced by odor

Silver tree of Cape of Good Hope

ores from Mexico

reduction of

Skins for gloves

Slag from furnaces

Small pox, to prevent marks

Snow, the poor man's manure

Soap, acids for

for family use

Soda in California

in coal gas

salts

392
449
336
363
206
433
429
434
429
503
357
137

79
390
561
178
129
450
390
392
384

80
285
105
498
581

61
334
404
228
229
263
229
264
271
294
404
712
262
470
311
579
430
098
429
403
367
334
237

34

31
470
363
455

Paoe.

Soils 705

forming ammonia 564

Solar system, harmonies of 345

Solids, cooling of 323

Sorghum, begasse as a manure 51, 23

deterioration of 142, 151

in Connecticut 164

. its cultivation as manure 250

syrup, how manufactured 204

varieties of 164

its northern limit of growth, 169, 182
224

will it kill cattle 190

Sorrel, how to exclude it 279

Sound from muscle 499

Sounding apparatus 311

Sound velocity 338

Soup from brine 333

Sour plants, how to get rid of 279, 249

Southern Illinois sugar described, 169, 144

253

Species, variation of 372

Spectroscope, new use of 324

Spectrum, dark lines in 349

of comet 389

of Jupiter .... 362

Spike railroad screw 454

Splints of rattan 339

Springs, hot 388

Squash vine borers 73

bugs 147

Squirrels, friend of the farmer, 249

Squirrel fm- 392

Star shooting 340

Steam conducted through long distance .. 440

engines in France 579

of Hicks 532,

expansive 320, 339

gauge of Shaw and Justice 532

omnibuses in France » 481

plow 378

superheated 386

with fuel 326, 307

Steel protected from rust 439

wires, elasticity of 496

. determined by color 324

no nitrogen in 438

Straw, composition of 406

goods, manufacture of 397

Strawberries -.,.128, 174, 289, 620, 621

do birds eat 104

insects destructive to 71, 5-3

manuring 36

varieties of 86

Strawberry beds, how to make 133

pickers, invention for 35

the Ida 93

Stillometer 478

Stone walls 264

Stumps destroyed^with vitriol 286

Substitutes for coffee 134, 153

Sugar and syrup from corn, 154, 173, 183, 204

225

' beets, culture of 191

cane. Sandwich Island 272

palm trees 491

Sugar glucose ■^■^2

making in Cuba — from corn 451, 450

maple, how to preserve 286

Sulphur and phosphorus 339

for borers 73

Sun, heat from 357

viewing the 329

Sunshine in S:otland 456

Sweet bay 681

INDEX.

731

Pag p..

Sweet briar 24S, 285

potatucs, how to grow them 179

T.

Tiilnihifing machine ^i7C>

Tanning, art of 507

Tar ;nul turpentine in N. II. and Jle 27;!

Tea and eoffee, substitute lor lUlt, I'M

in India 479

native 112, 127

Tcles^rnphs 487

Tlial'liu alcohols 5f>o

Thallium, the metal 305

Tliaver's steam cultivator 136

Tinoiy of parallels 306

Thermo -electric batteries 365, 566

Thermograph 479

Thread, manufacture of 465

twisting of 46C

Thompson s grapes 042, 643

'i luips in grape vines 123

Thunder, cause of rolling 597

Tillman's address 610

Timber, when to be cut 87, 198

Tokay imperial 470

Tomato worms 144

Tenometcr 521

Torpedoes in oil wells 573

Townsend's address 610

Trees, do sap suckers injure 09

forest 670

how to plant,.. . 30, 45

how to transplant 85

of Bible and classics 672

packing for transportation 43

Trimble— sweet co-rn *... 259, 295

on measure worm 700

Tripe, how to clean 149

Trustees of the American Institute, report

of 1

Tumors removed by electric current 357

Tunnel for railways 373

of Mont Cenis 306

Turnips as a manure crop 279

effect on soil 199

Turpentine at the north 273, 571

Twiit drills 4S6

U.

Under drains 231 , 246

Unequal cooling of cast iron 547, 560

V.

Vaccination 491

Van'ierbilt med'al . . . ; 595

Vapor of water with fuel 307

Vegetable fiour 232

Vegetation influenced by gases 306

in darkness 339

Page.

Vegetables for winter use SilO

Vines, protecting from worms 42

planting 120

Vineyards, location of 126

w.

AV'ard on tiie culture of the pear 709

Warming carria_ges 535

Washing potatoes 171

Waste products, utilizing 333, 342

Wattdi, prizes for a treatise on the 447

AVatcr communications 473

flow of 337

for Paris 395

spouts 612

Wave induction . . 603

Waves of water, air and earth 601

Weather indication 317

in March j 275

Weeds 50, 227

for bedding 227

Weights and measures, uniform 404

Weld on soils 7"5

Welding by hydraulic pressure 373

Western N. Y. as a fruit region 117

Wheat and fruit '■'''■'>

cause of rust in 75

chess in ; 75,134,159

development of 439

from Indiana 113

growing, economy in 148

Japanese " 187

pest 147

the midge 141

weevil , 129

without plowing 143

White acacia seed 235

willow 128, 168

wistaria 43

primula 693

Wilbur's hay press 294

Williams on the preservation of fruit 641

Wine, Tokay 470

Woodland, how to subdue and seed 83

Wood, preservation of 571

Worms, not all pests 75

on frrape leaves 75,134, 159

on trees 140

Wortblytype 396

Writing, indestructible 446

Y.

Yeast and bread making 283

Yellow seed 59

Yosemito gorge, California 580

z.

Zinc, relief 490

waste 335

>s.

■•■■■ . \ '\ '■ i^.h/i?

l^\

K\

:>;