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35TH CONGRESS, SENATE. Mis. Doc.
1st Session. No. 272.

ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

BOARD OF REGENTS

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

SHOWING THE

OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR 1857.

WASHINGTON:
WILLIAM A. HARRIS, PRINTER,
1858.

In SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES,
June 3, 1858.

Resolved, That ten thousand additional copies of the Report of the Board of Regents of
the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1857 be printed ; five thousand for the use of the
Senate, and five thousand for the use of the Smithsonian Institution : Provided, That the
aggregate number of pages contained in said report shall not exceed four hundred and
forty pages, without wood cuts or plates, except those furnished by the Institution : And
provided further, That the entire amount of copy necessary to complete said Report be placed
in the hands of the Superintendent of the Public Printing before the commencement of
printing any portion of said Report.

Attest :
ASBURY DICKINS, Secretary.

LETTER

OF THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

COMMUNICATING

The Annual Report of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the
Sirithsonian Institution for the year 1857.

May 27, 1858.—Read.

JUNE 12, 1858.—Ordered to be printed ; and that 10,000 additional copies be printed, 5,000
of which for the use of the Senate, and 5,000 for the use of the Smithsonian Institution.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, May 26, 1858.
Sir: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to submit
to the Senate of the United States the Annual Report of the opera-
tions, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for
the year 1857.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Hon, Joun C. BREcKINRIDGE,
President of the Senate.

ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

BOARD OF REGENTS

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

SHOWING

THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION UP TO JANUARY
1, 1858, AND THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD UP TO MAY 19, 1858.

To the Senate and House of Representatives :

In obedience to the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, establishing
the Smithsonian Institution, the undersigned, in behalf of the Regents,
submit to Congress, as a report of the operations, expenditures, and
condition of the Institution, the following documents:

1. The Annual Report of the Secretary, giving an account of the
operations of the Institution during the year 1857.

2. Report of the Executive Committee, giving a general statement
of the proceeds and disposition of the Smithsonian fund, and also an
account of the expenditures for the year 1857.

3. Report of the Building Committee.

4, Proceedings of the Board of Regents up to May 19, 1858.

5. Appendix.

Respectfully submitted.
R. B. TANEY, Chancellor.
JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary.

OFFICERS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

JAMES BUCHANAN, Ex officio Presiding Officer of the Institution.
ROGER B. TANEY, Chancellor of the Institution.

JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary of the Institution.
SPENCER F. BAIRD, Assistant Secretary.
W. W. SEATON, Treasurer.

WILLIAM J. RHEES, Chief Clerk.

ALEXANDER D. BACHE,
JAMES A. PEARCE,

4 Executive Committee.
JOSEPH G. TOTTEN, jf

1

J

RICHARD RUSH,
WILLIAM H. ENGLISH,
JOSEPH HENRY,

Building Committee.

REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.

JOHN C. BRECKINRIDGE, Vice President of the United States.
ROGER B. TANEY, Chief Justice of the United States.

JAMES G. BERRET, Mayor of the City of Washington.

JAMES A. PEARCE, member of the Senate of the United States.
JAMES M. MASON, member of the Senate of the United States.
STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS, member of the Senate of the United States.
WILLIAM H. ENGLISH, member of the House of Representatives.
L. J. GARTRELL, member of the House of Representatives.
BENJAMIN STANTON, member of the House of Representatives.
GIDEON HAWLEY, citizen of New York.

RICHARD RUSH, citizen of Pennsylvania.

GEORGE E. BADGER, citizen of North Carolina.

CORNELIUS C. FELTON, citizen of Massachusetts.
ALEXANDER D. BACHE, citizen of Washington.

JOSEPH G. TOTTEN, citizen of Washington.

MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.

JAMES BUCHANAN, President of the United States.
JOHN C. BRECKINRIDGE, Vice President of the United States.
LEWIS CASS, Secretary of State.

HOWELL COBB, Secretary of the Treasury.

JOHN B. FLOYD, Secretary of War.

ISAAC TOUCEY, Secretary of the Navy.

AARON V. BROWN, Postmaster General.

J. S. BLACK, Attorney General.

ROGER B. TANEY, Chief Justice of the United States.
JOSEPH HOLT, Commissioner of Patents,

JAMES G. BERRET, Mayor of the City of Washington.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

2

ROBERT HARE, of Pennsylvania.
WASHINGTON IRVING, of New York. ,
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, of Connecticut.
PARKER CLEAVELAND, of Maine.

A. B. LONGSTREET, of Mississippi.

JACOB THOMPSON, Secretary of the Interior

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

[PRESENTED IN THE FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, AND
ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF REGENTS, DECEMBER 13, 1847.]

INTRODUCTION.

General considerations which should serve as a guide in adopting a
Plan of Organization.

1, Writ oF Smrruson. The property is bequeathed to the United
States of America, ‘‘ to found at Washington, under the name of the
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, an establishment for the increase and diffu-
sion of knowledge among men.”’

2. The bequest is for the benefit of mankind. The government of
the United States is merely a trustee to carry out the design of the
testator.

3. The Institution is not a national establishment, as is frequently
supposed, but the establishment of an individual, and is to bear and
perpetuate h's name.

4. The « jects of the Institution are, Ist, to increase, and 2d, to
diffuse knowiedge among men.

5. These two objects should not be confounded with one another.
The first is to enlarge the existing stock of knowledge by the addi-
tion of new truths ; and the second, to disseminate knowledge, thus
increased, among men.

6. The will makes no restriction in favor of any particular kind of
knowledge ; hence all branches are entitled to a share of attention.

7. Knowledge can be increased by different methods of facilitating
and promoting the discovery of new truths; and can be most exten-
sively diffused among men by means of the press.

8. To effect the greatest amount of good, the organization should
be such as to enable the Institution to produce results, in the way of
increasing and diffusing knowledge, which cannot be produced either
at all or so efficiently by the existing institutions in our country.

9. The organization should also be such as can be adopted provi-
sionally, can be easily reduced to practice, receive modifications, or be
abandoned, in whole or in part, without a sacrifice of the funds.

10. In order to compensate, in some measure, for the loss of time
occasioned by the delay of eight years in establishing the Institution,

8 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION,

a considerable portion of the interest which has accrued should be
added to the principal.

11. In proportion to the wide field of knowledge to be cultivated,
the funds are small. Economy should therefore be consulted in the
construction of the building ; and not only the first cost of the edifice
should be considered, but also the continual expense of keeping it in
repair, and of the support of the establishment necessarily connected.
with it. There should also be but few individuals permanently sup-
ported by the Institution.

12. The plan and dimensions of the building should be determined
by the plan of organization, and not the converse.

13. It should be recollected that mankind in general are to be bene-
fitted by the bequest, and that, therefore, all unnecessary expenditure
on local objects would be a perversion of the trust.

14. Besides the foregoing considerations deduced immediately from
the will of Smithson, regard must be had to certain requirements
of the act of Congress establishing the Institution. These are, a
library, a museum, and a gallery of art, with a building on a hberal
scale to contain them.

SECTION I.

Plan of Organization of the Institution in accordance with the foregoing
deductions from the will of Smithson.

To Increase Knowieper. It is proposed—

1. To stimulate men of talent to make original researches, by offer-
ing suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths; and

2. To appropriate annually a portion of the income for particular
researches, under the direction of suitable persons. |

To Dirruse Know.eper. It is proposed—

1. To publish a series of periodical reports on the progress of the
different branches of knowledge ; and

2. To publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general
interest.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE.
I.—By stimulating researches.

1. Facilities afforded for the production of original memoirs on all
branches of knowledge.

2. The memoirs thus obtained to be published in a series of volumes,
me quarto form, and entitled Smithsonian Contributions to Know-
edge.

3. No memoir on subjects of physical science to be accepted for
publication which does not furnish a positive addition to human
knowledge, resting on original research; and all unverified specula-
tions to be rejected.

4, Each memoir presented to the Institution to be submitted for
examination to a commission of persons of reputation for learning in

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 9

the branch to which the memoir pertains; and to be accepted for pub-
lice tion only in case the report of this commission is favorable.

5. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the Institution,
and the name of the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless a
favorable decision be made.

6. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the transactions
of literary and scientific societies, and copies to be given to all the
colleges and principal libraries in this country. One part of the
remaining copies may be offered for sale; and the other carefully pre-
served, to form complete sets of the work, to supply the demand from
new institutions.

7. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of these memoirs
to be given to the public through the annual report of the Regents to
Congress.

Il.—By appropriating a part of the income, annually, to special objects of
research, under the direction of suitable persons.

1. The objects, and the amount appropriated, to be recommended
by counsellors of the Institution.

2. Appropriations in different years to different objects, so that, in
course of time, each branch of knowledge may receive a share.

3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published,
with the memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge.

4, Examples of objects for which appropriations may be made.
(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving the
problem of American storms.

(2.) Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geological,
magnetical, and topographical surveys, to collect materials for the
formation of a Physical Atlas of the United States.

(3.) Solution of experimental problems, such as a new determination
of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and of light;
chemical analyses of soils and plants; collection and publication of
scientific facts, accumulated in the offices of government.

(4.) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical,
moral, and political subjects.

(5.) Historical researches and accurate surveys of places celebrated
in American history.

(6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the dif-
ferent races of men in North America; also, explorations and accurate
surveys of the mounds and other remains of the ancient people of our
country. .

DETAILS OF THE PLAN FOR DIFFUSING KNOWLEDGE.

I.— By the publication of a series of reports, giving an account of the new
discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year in
all branches of knowledge not strictly professional,

_ 1. These reports will diffuse a kind of knowledge generally interest-
ing, but which, at present, is inaccessible to the public. Some of the

10 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals, as the
income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of knowledge
may indicate.

2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators eminent in the
different branches of knowledge.

3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publica-
tions, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his report;
to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on the title-
page of the report.

4, The reports to be published in separate parts, so that persons
interested in a particular branch can procure the parts relating to it
without purchasing the whole.

5. These reports may be presented to Congress for partial distri-
bution, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific
institutions, and sold to individuals for a moderate price.

The following are some of the subjects which may be embraced in
the reports:

I. PHYSICAL CLASS.

1. Physics, including astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry,
and meteorology.

2. Natural history, including botany, zoology, geology, &c.

3. Agriculture.

4, Application of science to arts.

II. MORAL AND POLITICAL CLASS.

5. Ethnology, including particular history, comparative philology,
antiquities, &c.
6, Statistics and political economy.
7. Mental and moral philosophy.
8. A survey of the political events of the world, penal reform, &c.

III. LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS.

9. Modern literature.

10. The fine arts, and their application to the useful arts.
11. Bibliography.

12. Obituary notices of distinguished individuals.

Il. By the publication of separate treatises on subjects of general interest.

1. These treatises may occasionally consist of valuable memoirs
translated from foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the
direction of the Institution, or procured by offering premiums for the
best exposition of a given subject.

2. The treatises should, in all cases, be submitted to a commission
of competent judges previous to their publication.

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 11

3. As examples of these treatises, expositions may be obtained of
the present state of the several branches of knowledge mentioned in
the table of reports.

SECTION II.

Plan of organization, in accordance with the terms of the resolutions of

the Board of Regents providing for the two modes of increasing and
diffusing knowledge.

1. The act of Congress establishing the Institution contemplated
the formation of a library and a museum ; and the Board of Regents,
including these objects in the plan of organization, resolved to divide
the income* into two equal parts.

2. One part to be appropriated to increase and diffuse knowledge
by means of publications and researches, agreeably to the scheme
before given. The other part to be appropriated to the formation of
a library and a collection of objects of nature and of art.

3. These two plans are not incompatible one with another.

4. To carry out the plan before described, a library will be required,
consisting, Ist, of a complete collection of the transactions and pro-
ceedings of all the learned societies in the world; 2d, of the more
important current periodical publications, and other works necessary
in preparing the periodical reports.

5. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of
objects to illustrate and verify its own publications.

6. Also, a collection of instruments of research in all branches of
experimental science.

7. With reference to the collection of books, other than those men-
tioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in the United
States should be procured, in order that the valuable books first pur-
chased may be such as are not to be found in the United States.

8. Also, catalogues of memoirs, and of books and other materials,
should be collected for rendering the Institution a centre of biblio-
graphical knowledge, whence the student may be directed to any work
which he may require.

9. It is believed that the collections in natural history will increase
by donation as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make pro-
vision for their reception, and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary
to purchase articles of this kind.

10. Attempts should be made to procure for the gallery of art casts
of the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.

11. The arts may be encouraged by providing a room, free of ex-

pense, for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union and other
similar societies.

*The amount of the Smithsonian bequest received into the Treasury of the
WIIG SAIS UMLOST IS Wel va \eieslelete/e) enloid ajeterietala/aivelelslclcics atelsisieciciate.c ccc clades ses $915,169 00

Interest on the same to July 1, 1846, (devoted to the erection of the
Inti LNA) jax potetetnloie/sin\alefele/s elaicla/o) esiavelnialsels) o/s) eiesisiola sieip\o\eiauieie tielce.cte een eierc 242,129 00
gi stalaalanlel sfe)o\s\s/nialtulaVaicleltcie’e'e'ajsistsie cet e:sle.8 o' 30,910 14

12 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

12. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of
antiquities, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &ec.

13. For the present, or until the building is fully completed, be-
sides the Secretary, no permanent assistant will be required, except
one, to act as librarian.

14, The Secretary, by the law of Congress, is alone responsible to
the Regents. He shall take charge of the building and property,
keep a record of proceedings, discharge the duties of librarian and
keeper of the museum, and may, with the consent of the Regents,
employ assistants.

15. The Secretary and his assistants, during the session of Congress,
will be required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and to exhibit
new objects of art ; distinguished individuals should also be invited to
give lectures on subjects of general interest.

This programme, which was at first adopted provisionally, has be-
come the settled policy of the Institution. The only material change
is that expressed by the following resolutions, adopted January 15,
1855, viz:

Resolved, That the 7th resolution passed by the Board of Regents,
on the 26th of January, 1847, requiring an equal division of the in-
come between the active operations and the museum and library,
when the buildings are completed, be and it is hereby repealed.

Resolved, That hereafter the annual appropriations shall be appor-
tioned specifically among the different objects and operations of the
Institution, in such manner as may, in the judgment of the Regents,
be necessary and proper for each, according to its intrinsic import-
ance, and a compliance in good faith with the law.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY FOR 1857.

To the Board of Regents:

GENTLEMEN: It again becomes my duty to present to you the
history of the operations of another year of the Institution which
the government of the United States has entrusted to your care. In
an establishment of this kind, of which the policy has been settled
and is strictly adhered to, there must of necessity be much sameness in
the general form and character of the successive reports ; but since
the field of science is boundless, and new portions of it are continually
presented for investigation, there will always be found in the details,
facts of sufficient interest to relieve the routine of the statements
relative to the condition of the funds and the scrutiny of the receipts
and expenditures.

It might at first sight appear surprising that so constant a supply
of materials for the Smithsonian Contributions and so many objecis of
interest, demanding the assistance of the Smithsonian fund, should
be presented, but it will be evident, on reflection, that this results
from the influence of the Institution itself in increasing the number
of laborers in the field of science, as well as in accumulating the
materials on which they are to be engaged. The tendency is con-
stantly to expand the operations, and much caution and self-control
are necessary to repress the desire to be more liberal in the assistance
rendered to worthy objects, than the income will permit. Indeed, a
charge is frequently made of illiberality for what is the result of re-
stricted means. It must be evident that nothing is more important to
the permanency and proper conduct of the Institution than the cautious
and judicious management of its funds. Any embarrassment in this
quarter would involve a loss of confidence in the directors, which would
be fatal to the usefulness and efficiency of the establishment.

I have from the first expressed the regret that the original law of
Congress directed the expenditure of so large a portion of the income
on objects of alocal character, and this feeling has,been increased by
the experience which time has afforded in regard to the good which
could be effected by a more critical observance of the terms of the

14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

bequest, as well as by the increasing expense of sustaining a large
building, a library, and museum. It is to be hoped, however, that
at least a partial relief will hereafter be afforded by an annual appro-
priation, which it is reasonable to expect government will make for
the keeping and exhibition of the collections of the various exploring
expeditions which have been entrusted to the care of the Regents.

At the last session of Congress an appropriation was made for the
construction and erection of cases to receive the collections of the
United States Exploring Expedition and others in Washington, and
also for the transfer and arrangement of the specimens. This appro-
priation was granted in accordance with the recommendation of the
late Secretary of the Interior and the Commissioner of Patents, in
order that the large room in the Patent Office occupied by the museum
might be used for the more legitimate purposes of that establishment.
We presume that the other part of the recommendation will also be
carried out, namely, that the annual appropriation be continued which
has heretofore been made for the care of this portion of the govern-
ment property. While, on the one hand, no appropriation should be
made which would serve to lessen the distinctive character of Smith-
son’s bequest, on the other it is evident that the government should
not impose any burdens upon the Institution which would impair its
usefulness or divert its funds from their legitimate purpose.

It was stated in the last report that the extra fund of the Insti-
tution, which had been saved from the accrued interest, was invested
in State Stocks. This investment was made because the fund was at
the time drawing no interest, and because, until action could be pro-
cured by Congress in relation to receiving said fund into the United
States Treasury, it was deemed the safest disposition of the money.
Though a temporary depreciation of these stocks took place during
the last year, there is no reason to regret the investment. Their
marketable value is at present about the same as it was at the time
they were purchased.

By reference to the report of the Executive Committee it will be
seen that the expenditures during the year, though less than the
amount of receipts, have somewhat exceeded the estimates. This has
been occasioned, first, by unexpected repairs which were found neces
sary to the building, in consequence of an unprecedented hail storm,
which destroyed several thousand panes of glass and did considerable
injury to the roof and other parts of the edifice; secondly, by an
expansion of the system of foreign exchanges, rendered necessary by
the large amount of material entrusted to the Institution by the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

different agricultural and other societies of the country ; and thirdly,
the necessity we were under, on account of the financial pressure, of
paying bills for publications which will appear during the present
and the next year. The funds of the Institution are, however, still
in a prosperous condition, but great care is required to prevent the
accumulation of small expenses, which, individually, by reason of
their insignificance, are allowed to occur, but which in the aggregate,
at the end of the year, are found to have swelled into amounts of
considerable magnitude,

Publications.—Thé ninth annual quarto volume of Contributions to
Knowledge was completed and distributed during the first half of the
year. It is equal in size and importance to the preceding volumes,
and contains the following memoirs :

1. On the relative intensity of the heat and light of the sun upon
different latitudes of the earth. By L. W. Meech.

2. Illustrations of surface geology, by Edward Hitchcock, LL.D.,
of Amherst College.

Part 1. On surface geology, especially that of the Connecticut
valley, in New England.

Part 2, On the erosions of the earth’s surface, especially by
rivers.

Part 3. Traces of ancient glaciers in Massachusetts and Ver-
mont.

3. Observations on Mexican history and archxology, with a special
notice of Zapotec remains, as delineated in Mr. J. G. Sawkins’ draw-
ings of Mitla, &c. By Brantz Mayer.

4, Researches on the Ammonia Cobalt bases. By Professor Wol-
cott Gibbs and Professor F. A. Genth.

5. New tables for determining the values of the co-efficients in the
perturbative functions of planetary motion, which depend upon the
ratio of the mean distances. By J. D. Runkle.

6. Asteroid supplement to new tables for determining the values of

b and its derivatives. By J. D. Runkle. -

It was stated in the last report that Mr. L. W. Meech proposed to
continue his interesting investigations relative to the heat and light
of the sun, provided the Smithsonian Institution would pay the ex-
pense of the arithmetical computations. Though most of his time is
necessarily occupied in other duties, he would cheerfully devote his
leisure hours to the investigation with a view of extending the bounds

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

of knowledge. During the past year an appropriation has been made
of one hundred dollars for the purpose here mentioned, and we are
assured, from what Mr. Meech has already accomplished, that this
sum will be instrumental in producing valuable results. He proposes
to determine, from several elementary formulas, the laws of terres-
trial temperature for different latitudes. The first formula has been
pretty thoroughly applied, and the annual temperature computed by
it compared with the result of actual observation. The diurnal
temperatures have also been deduced and seem to agree with actual
observation within the presumed errors of the latter. The temper-
ature, however, of the surrounding medium, defived from the annual
temperature, differs widely from the results obtained by the diurnal
temperatures. The author is inclined to attribute this difference to a
defect in the law of radiation as generally received, which, deduced
from experiments in the laboratory, he thinks inapplicable to the
phenomena of terrestrial temperature. The second formula takes into
account another cause of the variation of temperature, namely, the
cooling due to the contact of the air; and the third formula includes
also the effect of the absorption of solar heat in its passage through
the atmosphere. The investigation will include the consideration of—
Ist, terrestrial radiation ; 2d, contact of air; 3d, the sun’s intensity ;
4th, atmospheric absor ation : 5th, the difference in radiating power of
luminous heat by day and non-luminous heat by night. Among
other inferences to be deduced is the relative heating or radiating
powers of sea and continent, when the land is covered with foliage
and vegetation, and when it is covered with ice and snow. These
researches are intimately connected with the extended series of obser-
vations on the climate of the United States, now carried on at the
expense and under the direction of the Institution.

The paper of Professor Gibbs and Dr. Genth, which forms a part of
the 9th volume, has been republished in the American Journal of
Science and in the London Chemical Gazette, due credit being given
to the Smithsonian Contributions, from which it was copied. We
regret to be informed by the authors of this interesting paper that
the sum appropriated by the Institution for assisting in defraying the
expense of the materials and apparatus employed in their researches
was scarcely sufficient to compensate for more than one-fourth of their
outlay. Limited means, and not a want of proper appreciation of the
labors of these gentlemen, prevented their entire reimbursement for
the pecuniary loss in the prosecution of their valuable researches.
They intend, notwithstanding this, to continue their investigations,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17

and to devote as much time to them as their other engagements and
the means at their disposal will allow. Since this memoir has met
the approval of the scientific world, it will be proper to make as
liberal an appropriation as the demands on the limited income of the
Institution will permit for the continuance of researches in the same
line. The publication of the paper was of comparatively little
expense, since it required no costly illustrations, and this may be an
additional reason for granting a larger appropriation for further in-
vestigations in the same line.

The ninth volume also contains the supplement to the tables by J.
D. Runkle, mentioned in the last report. The tables in this supple-
ment are intended to facilitate calculations with reference to the
asteroids. The search for these bodies has been prosecuted with so
much vigor of late that their list now extends to more than fifty, and
the mechanical labor required to calculate their places is so great that
this can scarcely be expected to be accomplished, except by the use of
general tables. The work of Gauss on the theory of the motion of
the heavenly bodies leaves little to be desired, so far as the deter--
mination of their orbits is concerned; but this is by no means the
case with regard to their perturbations by the larger planets. The
tables therefore will afford an important means of facilitating the ad_
vance of our knowledge, particularly of this class of the members of
our solar system.

The third part of the Nereis Boreali-Americana, by Dr. William H.
Harvey, has been completed and will be included in the tenth volume
of the Contributions. Two hundred extra copies of the text of the
preceding parts having been struck off before the distribution of the
types, and the drawings on the lithographic stones having been pre-
served, an equal number of plates from the latter have been printed
and colored, so that we shall be enabled to make up two hundred
copies of the complete work to be offered for sale, which will serve,
it is hoped, to reimburse, in some degree, the heavy expense incurred
in the publication of this interesting addition to the science of botany.
It may be proper to mention that the work was published in numbers,
in order that the whole expense should be defrayed by the appro-
priation of different years, as well as to furnish the author the oppor-
tunity of rendering the work more complete by more extended re-
search.

For the purpose of classification, the sea plants have been grouped

258

18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

under three principal heads which are readily distinguished by their
general color.
They are as follows:

1. Melanospermeee—plants of an olive-green or olive-brown color.

2. Rhodospermee, or plants of a rosy-red or purple color.

3. Chlorospermez, or plants of a grass, rarely of a livid purple
color.

The numbers of the work already published relate to the first two
divisions, and the third, now about to be issued, will contain the last,
with an appendix describing new species discovered since the date of
the former parts.

The text of the first part of the work on Oology, mentioned in pre-
ceding reports, has been printed ; but the publication of the plates to
accompany it will be so expensive that we were obliged to defer it
until the present year. In the meantime the author will proceed with
the preparation of the other parts of the memoir, and the whole will
be completed as soon as the funds of the Institution will permit.
From an accidental oversight in the preparation of the last Report, I
neglected to mention the fact that the author of this interesting work
is Dr. Thomas M. Brewer, of Boston. The omission of his name in
the reports would not only be unjust to himself, but might also pre-
vent him from receiving in some cases additional information relative
to his labors from correspondents who are engaged in the same line of
research. The announcement of the fact of the intended publication
of this memoir has induced a number of persons to enter into corre-
spondence with the Institution on the subject, and we doubt not that
these remarks will tend to call forth other additious to our knowledge
of this branch of natural history.

Since the date of the last Report a grammar and dictionary of the
Yoruba language of Africa have been accepted for publication. Thi
work is another contribution from the missionary enterprise of the
present day, and has been prepared by the Rev. Thos. J. Bowen, of
the Southern Baptist Missionary Board, trom materials collected
during a residence of six years in Africa, and revised and rewritten with
the aid of W. W. Turner, esq., of Washington. The grammar and
dictionary are prefaced by a brief account of the country and its inhab-
itants. The long residence of the author in this part of the interior

of Africa has enabled him to gather more minute knowledge of its
topography, climate, and productions, and of the political, social, and
moral.relations of its inhabitants than has before been obtained. He

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

has collected interesting information as to the habits of thought and
action of the people, and their capacity for moral and intellectual
culture, which would have escaped the casual notice of the mere
traveller.

Yoruba is a country of Western Africa, situated to the east of
Dahomey, and extending from the Bight of Benin, in a northerly
direction, nearly to the Niger. It is between the countries explored
by the distinguished travellers, Barth, on the north, and Livingstone,
on thesouth. The author describes it as a beautiful and fertile region,
densely inhabited by a population devoted to agricultural pursuits,
who do not dwell on the lands they cultivate, but live clustered
together in villages and towns, some of which contain from 20,000 to
70,000 inhabitants. The people are generally of a primitive, simple
and harmless character, and governed by institutions patriarchal
rather than despotic. In their appearance they resemble the Cau-
casian race, while their mental powers and general moral impulses
are considerably advanced in the scale of intelligence. They have,
indeed, already attained no inconsiderable degree of social organiza-
tion, while they have escaped some of the more depraved incidents of
an advanced civilization.

The language, which is said to be spoken by about two millions of
people, is represented by Professor Turner to be very homogeneous in
its structure, almost all of it being derived from some five hundrel
primitive words. ‘Its articulations are sufficiently easy to imitate,
and there is a system of vocalic concords recurring through the whole,
which, together with the multiplicity of vowels, renders it decidedly
euphonious. The great difficulty is found in the tones and accents,
which can be discriminated only by a good ear, and must be uttered
correctly to make the speaker intelligible. The Yoruba has neither
article nor adjective, properly so called, and it is almost wholly des-
titute of inflection. The verbal root remains unchanged through all
the accidents of person, mood, and tense, which are indicated by
separate pronouns and particles. The plurality of nouns is also indi- °
cated by the aid of a plural pronoun. The numerals are based on the
decimal system, yet many of them are formed by subtraction instead
of addition or multiplication, as with us. Thus 15 is literally 10 + 5;
but 16 = 20 —4,17=— 20—3,&c. Although this language is spoken
by a rude people, it abounds in abstract terms, and the missionary
finds no difficulty in expressing in it the ideas he desires to com-
municate.”’

é

20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

It is believed that this work will be received by the student of
ethnology as an interesting addition to this science, and that its pub-
lication will not only facilitate the labors of the missionary, but be
productive of valuable commercial results. The country in which the
language is spoken is rich in natural and artificial productions, and
as the inhabitants are anxious to establish relations of trade with
other parts of the world, it would seem to offer a new and tempting
field to mercantile enterprise.

Under the head of publications, we may allude to the Appendix to
the Annual Report of the Regents. Previous to 1853 this report was
in a pamphlet form, and only in one or two cases were a few extra
copies ordered. Since that date an annual volume has been presented
to Congress, of which twenty thousand extra copies have been printed.
The liberal distribution of this work has met with general approbation,
the applications to the Institution for copies have been constantly in-
creasing, and, in connexion with the Report of the Patent Office, no
document has become more popular or is better calculated to advance
the cause of knowledge among the people. The object is, as far as pos-
sible, to distribute this volume among teachers, and through them to
diffuse precise scientific knowledge to the rising generation. It is made
also the vehicle of instruction, in the line of observations, to all who
are desirous of co-operating in the investigation of the natural history
and physical geography of this country. The wide distribution of this
report has tended, more than any other means, to make known the
character of the Institution, and to awaken an interest throughout
the whole country in its prosperity.

In order to render the series complete, the first volume—that for
1853—contained a reprint of the previous reports of the Secretary,
from which a connected history of all the operations of the Institution
from the beginning may be obtained. These volumes are illustrated
by a large number of wood cuts, which have been provided at the
expense of the Smithsonian fund. We have, however, to regret that,
from the rapidity with which Congressional documents are hurried
through the press, we have not been allowed in all cases revised copies
of the proof. We cannot, therefore, be held entirely responsible for
inaccuracies of the press any more than for the style of printing or
the quality of the paper.

It is a part of the settled policy of the Institution to appropriate
its funds, as far as the original law of organization will allow, to
such objects only as cannot as well be accomplished by other means ;
and accordingly, in several instances, the printing of papers previously

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21

accepted for publication has been relinquished because it was subse-
quently found that the works could be given to the public, under
certain conditions, through other agencies. In such cases the favor-
able opinion expressed by the Institution as to the character of the
work, or the assistance rendered by the subscription on the part of the
Regents, for a number of copies to be distributed in exchange for
other books among our foreign correspondents, has been sufficient to
induce some liberal minded parties to undertake the publication,
rather as an enterprise connected with the reputation of their estab-
lishments, than as a matter of profit. (¢ ddl

Among the works of this class is the “Theory ‘of the ules of the
Heavenly Bodies,’’ by the celebrated Gauss, translated by Captain C.
-H. Davis, U.S. N., late superintendent of the Nautical Almanac,
which was originally accepted by us for publication, but was after-
wards relinquished to Messrs. Little & Brown, of Boston, who have
shown in this instance, as well as in others of a similar character, a
liberality which cannot be otherwise than highly appreciated by a
discerning public. This book, which is essential to the advance of
practical astronomy, was published in Latin, in Hamburg, in 1809,
and is now of difficult access, as well as of restricted use, on account
of the language in which it appeared. It gives a complete system of
formulas and processes for computing the movement of a body revolv-
ing in an ellipse, or in any other curve belonging to the class of conic
sections, and explains a general method of determining the orbit of a
planet or a comet from three observations of the position of the body
as seen from the earth. The essay was called for at the time it was
produced by the wants of science. The planet Ceres, discovered on
the first. day of the present century by Piazzi, of Italy, had been
lost to astronomers in its passage through the portion of the heavens
illuminated by the beams of the sun, and could not be found by the
means then known, when Gauss, from a few observations of its former
place, calculated its orbit, and furnished an ephemeris by which it
was readily rediscovered. The methods employed in this determina-
tion were afterwards given in a systematic form in the work now
transJated. The copies subscribed for by the Institution, on account
of exchanges, and those paid for by the Navy Department, for the
use of the computers of the Nautical Almanac, were sufficient to
secure the publication of the work, which could not have been under-
taken without these aids.

In accordance with the same policy the Institution has subscribed
for a few copies of a work on ‘‘ The Pleiocene Fossils of South Caro-

a2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

lina,’’ by M. Tuomey and F.8. Holmes. This work received the com-
mendation of some of the distinguished members of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, at its meeting in Charles-
ton, in 1850, and its publication was undertaken at the risk and cost
of the authors. ‘The actual expense, however, far exceeded their esti-
mate, and without the liberal aid of the legislature of South Carolina
they could not have escaped heavy loss, or been enabled to complete
the work in a proper style of art. To aid the same enterprise the
Institution was induced to make the subscription above mentioned for
copies to be distributed to foreign societies. We regret to state that
before the work was fully completed the science of the country was
called to mourn the loss of Professor Tuomey, of the University of
Alabama, who, during the past year, was prematurely snatched away
from his family and friends in the flower of his age. His works,
however, will remain as an inheritance to the cause of knowledge and
the best monument to his memory. We have been gratified to learn
that, at the late session of the legislature of South Carolina, a resolu-
tion was passed authorizing a continuance of the patronage of the
State to the publication of these researches, and consequently Professor
Holmes has signified his intention to publish two additional volumes
on the Eocene and the Post Pleiocene Fossils, to which the subscrip-
tion of the Institution will also be extended.

Another work, belonging to the same class, is the series of ‘* Contri-
butions to the Natural History of the United States of America,’’ by
Professor Louis Agassiz. It has been mentioned in a previous report
that this distinguished savan was preparing a series of papers to be
presented to the Smithsonian Institution, and that the plates for some
of these had been engraved. But the number of these contributions,
and the cost of their illustration, would have absorbed a larger portion
of the Smithsonian fund than could have properly been devoted to
the labors of one individual. Fortunately, however, the reputation
and popularity of Professor Agassiz have enabled his friends to pro-
cure subscribers for an independent work, containing the result of his
valuable investigations, in numbers unprecedented in the annals of
science of this or of any other country. In order to assist this enter-
prise in the beginning, and to relieve its own funds, the Institution
subscribed for copies, to be distributed among foreign libraries, in ex-
change for rare works of a gimilar character, with which to enrich its
own library.

The Institution has also facilitated the researches described in the
first two volumes of the work in question, and I may quote the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 28

following sentence containing the acknowledgment of the author for
the services which have thus been rendered him: ‘‘ Above all, I must
mention the Smithsonian Institution, whose officers, in the true spirit
of its founder, have largely contributed to the advancement of my
researches by forwarding to me for examination not only all the
specimens of Testudinata collected for the museum of the Institution,
but also those brought to Washington by the naturalists of the dif-
ferent parties that have explored the western Territories, or crossed
the continent with the view of determining the best route for the
Pacific railroad. These specimens have enabled me to determine the
geographical distribution of this order of reptiles with a degree of
precision which I could not have attained without this assistance.’’
Besides this, the Institution caused special collections of turtles to be
made for Professor Agassiz, from those parts of the country from
which no specimens had previously been obtained.

It was originally intended, as announced in the prospectus, to issue
one volume a year, but the author found that the first volume was
insufficient to contain all the matter which he had designed to give
init. Its publication was therefore delayed, that the whole of this
part of his general subject might be presented at once, and hence two
volumes have been issued together. The large subscription which
has been obtained has enabled the publishers to extend the original
plan, and to expend a much greater sum on the engravings than was
at first thought possible. The work will serve to increase and extend
the reputation of the illustrious author, as well as to afford a striking
example of the liberality of our country and its growing appreciation
of abstract science.

Under the head of publications, and in justice to the memory of a
distinguished naturalist, a profound scholar, and a worthy man, the
late Dr. Gerard Troost, of Tennessee, it ought to be stated in this
Report, that after his death, several years ago, a memoir he had _ pre-
pared on the organic remains known as Crinoidea, illustrated by a
collection of specimens, was presented to the Smithsonian Institution
for publication. It was submitted to two naturalists of high reputa-
tion, aud found by them to be an important addition to knowledge,
though left by its author in an unfinished condition. The gentlemen
to whom it was referred generously offered to supply the deficiencies,
and to prepare the work for the press. Wheir engagements, however,
nave since been such as to prevent up to this time the completion of
the task which they undertook to accomplish. One of the gentlemen

24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

to whom the paper was referred, Prof. James Hall, in whose posses-
sion the specimens now are, states that he had hoped long since to
put the memoir in such a form as to do justice to the memory of Dr.
Troost, and be in accordance with the latest views of the subject. To
do this, however, required an examination of other specimens, and for
this object he had never been able to find time. At present he is
engaged in a geological report of Iowa, in which there are several
plates of Crinoids, and any which may be identical with those de-
scribed by Dr. Troost will be accredited to him. We regret exceed-
ingly this long delay in the publication of the labors of one so highly
esteemed in life and gratefully remembered in death. It has, however,
been caused by circumstances over which we had no control, and which
have given us considerable disquietude.

The new and extended series of Meteorological and Physical Tables,
which has been in course of preparation for several years, is at length
completed and ready for distribution. It forms a volume of 634 large
octavo pages, which may be divided into separate parts, each distinct
in itself. A copy of these tables will be sent to each of the meteoro-
logical observers, and it is believed that a considerable number may
be sold in this country and Europe, from which something may be
derived towards compensating the author, Prof. Guyot, for the un-
wearied labor and attention he has bestowed upon the work.

At the request of the Institution, Baron Osten Sacken, of the Rus-
sian legation, who has made a special study of Dipterous Insects has
prepared a catalogue of the previously described species of this con-
tinent, analogous to that of Melsheimer’s catalogue of the Cleoptera
of the United States, which was published some years ago by this
Institution.

It frequently happens that the same animal is described by different
naturalists under different names, and there may be among the species
enumerated in this catalogue some of this character, but in the pre-
sent state of the knowledge of American Diptera the publication of a
complete synonymical catalogue is impossible. Yet a list like the one
just completed is an indispensable preparatory work for the future
study of this branch of entomology. The catalogue includes the
species inhabiting not only the North American continent in general,
but also those in Central America and in the West Indies. It also
gives the principal localities where each species has been found.
In a list like this, says the author, completeness is the principal
merit ; the symmetrical arrangement is but of secondary importance.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25

The groups adopted by Meigen and Wiedemann are retained, avoiding
the subdivisions introduced by modern authors.

The publication of this list, we trust, will very much facilitate the
study of entomology, and it is a special object of this Institution to en-
courage individuals to devote themselves to particular subjects of re-
search. The field of nature is so extended that unless it be minutely
subdivided, and its several parts cultivated by different persons, little
progress of a definite character can be anticipated. To collect the
materials for wider generalizations, microscopic research is necessary
in every direction, and men enthusiastically devoted to one object are
required in every branch of knowledge in order that the whole may be
perfected. It is true, before entering on an investigation of this kind,
that it is desirable for the individual to havea general knowledge of the
different branches of science, since they are all intimately connected ;
and the student can then narrow his field of view until it comes within
the scope of his mental abilities, or the means which he may have at his
disposal for its advancement. As a general rule, however, the ability
to enlarge the bounds of science can only be obtained by almost ex-
clusive devotion to a few branches.

It is scarcely possible to estimate too highly, in reference to the
happiness of the individual as well as to the promotion of knowledge,
the choice in early life of some subject to which the thoughts can be
habitually turned during moments of leisure, and to which observa-
tion may be directed during periods of recreation, relative to which
facts may be gleaned from casual reading, and during journeys of
business or of pleasure. It is well that every one should have some
favorite subject of which he has a more minute knowledge than any
of his neighbors. It is well that he should know some one thing
profoundly, in order that he may estimate by it his deficiencies in
others.

In this connexion it may be proper to remark that the association
of individuals in the same community, each with a special and favor-
ite pursuit, each encouraging the others, each deferring to the others,
and each an authority in his own specialty, forms an organization
alike valuable to the individual, the community, and the public gen-
erally. To induce and encourage the establishment of such associa-
tions is one of the objects of the Institution. It is suprising what
interest may be awakened, what amount, of latent talents developed,
and what dignity imparted to the pursuits of a neighborhood by a
society in which the knowledge of each becomes common property,

26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

and the labors of each one are stimulated by the appreciation and
applause of his fellows.

Iam acquainted with no plan of adult education better calculated
to elevate the mental character of a community or to develop the
local natural history of a district than that of a well organized and
efficiently conducted association of this kind. Such establishments,
I am happy to say, are now becoming common in every part of the
United States. They have taken the place, in many cases, of the de-
bating societies, which were formerly instituted for mental improve-
ment. ‘To the latter it might justly be objected that they tend to
promote a talent of sophistical reasoning, rather than to engender an
uncompromising love of truth. The habit of fluent speaking may
undoubtedly be cultivated at the expense of profound thought, and
however promotive at times of the temporary interests of the indi-
vidual, can never be supposed to tend to the permanent advancement
of the species.

Meteorology.—The system of meteorological observations under the
direction of the Institution and the Patent Office has been so repeatedly
described in previous reports that it will scarcely be necessary to give
any more at this time than an account of the present state of the work.
The system was commenced in 1849, and has since then been gradually
improving in the number of observers, character of the instruments,
and the precision with which the records are made. The Institution
has awakened a wide interest in the subject of meteorology, and has
diffused a considerable amount of information with regard to it which
could not readily be obtained through other means. The manufac-
ture of instruments, compared with standards furnished by the Insti-
tution from London and Paris, has been an important means of
advancing the science. The work is still continued by James Green,
173 Grand street, New York, and during the past year an increasing
number of full sets has been purchased by observers. The Institution
has continued to distribute rain-gages, with which observations are
now made on the quantity of aqueous precipitation in nearly every
State and Territory of the Union.

We are indebted to the National Telegraph line for a series of
observations from New Orleans to New York, and as far westward
as Cincinnati, Ohio, which have been ptiblished in the ‘‘ Hvening
Star,’’ of this city. These reports have excited much interest, and
could they be extended further north, and more generally to the
westward, they would furnish important information as to the ap-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27

proach of storms. We hope in the course of another year to make
such an arrangement with the telegraph lines as to be able to give
warning on the eastern coast of the approach of storms, since the
investigations which have been made at the Institution fully indicate
the fact that asa general rule the storms of our latitude pursue a
definite course.

The materials which have been collected relative to the climate of
the North American continent are as follows:

Ist. A miscellaneous collection of MSS. and other tables relative to
the climate of the United States. This series will be enriched by a
reference list to all the meteorological records, which are to be found
in the extensive library of Mr. Peter Force, of this city, and other
accessible sources of information.

2d. The observations made under the direction of ae Institution
since 1849.

3d. A series of observations made by Dr. Berlandier in Mexico.

4th. Observations made in the British possessions.

5th. The record of observations made by government and other
exploring expeditions.

6th. Copies of the observations made under the direction of the Sur-
geon General at the military posts.

7th. Copies of the observations made at the expense of the States
of New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Maine, and Missouri.

8th. A series of observations from Bermuda and the West Indies.

Besides these, the Institution is endeavoring to obtain, by means of
its exchanges, a full series of all observations which have been made
in foreign countries, and to form a complete meteorological library.

Complaint has been made on account of the delay in publishing
deductions from the materials which have thus been collected, but,
with the limited means of the Institution, it should be recollected that
all objects enumerated in the programme of organization cannot be
simultaneously accomplished. The reductions have been steadily pur-
sued for the last five years, and all the funds, not otherwise absolutely
required, have been devoted by the Institution to this object.

It will be a matter of astonishment to those not practically ac-
quainted with the subject, to be informed as to the amount of labor
required for the reduction of the returns made to this Institution for
a single year. During 1856 the records of upwards of half a million of
separate observations, each requiring a reduction involving an arith-
metical calculation, were received at the Institution. Allowing an
average of one minute for the examination and reduction of each

28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

observation, the amount of time consumed will be nearly 7,000 hours,
or, at the rate of seven hours per day, it will be 1,000 days or up-
wards of three years, or, in other words, to keep up with the reduction
of the current observations the whole available time of three expert
computers is required. This is independent of the labor expended in
the correspondence, preparation and distribution of blank forms, and
the deduction of general principles. The work has been prosecuted,
therefore, as rapidly as the means at the disposal of the Institution
would permit. Since the arrangement was made with the Patent
Office, from twelve to fifteen persons, many of them females, have
been almost constantly employed, under the direction of Prof. Coffin,
in bringing up the arrears and in reducing the current observations.

All the materials collected at the Institution are in the process of
being arranged and bound in accessible volumes, with proper indices,
to be used by all who may be desirous of making special investigations
on any point relative to the climate of this country.

During the past year the reductions for 1855 were printed in
pamphlet form and distributed to observers for criticism and sug-
gestions as to improvements which might be adopted in the subse-
quent publication of the entire series.

Hachanges.—The system of international exchange has been carried
on during the past year with unabated zeal, and we trust with undi-
minished good results. A large amount of scientific material has
passed through our hands in its transfer to and from societies and
individuals in this and other countries. The returns made to the
Institution during 1857 for its own publications consist of 555 vol-
umes, 1,067 parts of volumes, and 138 charts. These works embrace
most of the current volumes of scientific transactions, and are of the
highest importance as aids in original research. The number would
be very much increased if the contents of several large cases, which
were accidentally delayed until the beginning of this year, were in-
cluded.

The importance of the exchanges is not to be estimated by the com-
mercial value alone of the books received. In addition to this we
must consider the effect which it produces in bringing into immediate
communication the cultivators of literature and science in this country
with those abroad, of distributing among our societies publications of
a class, the existence of which would scarcely otherwise be known,
and of facilitating the diffusion of knowledge which, by the ordinary
modes of transmission, would not be attained, except, perhaps, in the
course of years.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

The system has now attained a great development, and increases
measurably every year. The expenses hitherto have been principally
borne by the Institution, but their amount has now become so great
as seriously to interfere with other operations, and I therefore think
it advisable that a charge be made, to the parties receiving a certain
amount of packages annually, sufficient to reimburse some of the
outlay of the Smithsonian funds. What would not be felt by each
one individually would, in the aggregate, materially lessen the burden
of expense connected with this part of the operations, which amounted,
in 1857, to about $3,000.

The expenses of the Smithsonian exchanges would be considerably
greater than they are but for the liberality of various transportaticn
companies in carrying packages free of cost. No charge on freight is
made by the United States Mail Steamship Company, the Panama
Railroad, or the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, forming the mail
line from New York to San Francisco, while the agents of the line
in these two cities, Messrs. 1. W. Raymond and A. B. Forbes, serve
the Institution in various ways. The California Express Agency
of Wells, Fargo & Co., has also acted with the greatest liberality,
and the same should be stated of the old line of Bremen and New York
steamers. None of the domestic agents of distribution—namely, Hick-
ling, Swan & Brewer, of Boston; D. Appleton & Co., New York; J.B.
Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia; John Russell, Charleston; B. M.
Norman, New Orleans; Dr. Wislizenus, St. Louis; H. W. Derby,
Cincinnati; and Henry P. B. Jewett, of Cleveland—make any charge
for services ; and the same may also be said of Messrs. Oelrichs &
Lirman, of Baltimore.

The amount of labor involved in the exchanges is, of course, very
great, as will be readily inferred from an examination of the tables
of receipts and transmissions during the past year, given by Professor
Baird. The entries in the several record books fill over 700 pages ;
the circulars, invoices, and acknowledgments, exceed 4,300, in addi-
tion to over 600 receipts for packages. For a detailed account of all
the operations of the exchanges I would refer to the accompanying
report of Professor Baird.

Explorations, researches, &c.—It was stated in the last report that
the magnetic instruments belonging to the Institution were given in
charge of Baron Miiller, for investigations in Mexico and Central
America. Two series of records of observations have been received,
but for nearly a year past nothing further has been heard from the
expedition. We should regret the loss of the instruments, although

30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the cost of them has been more than repaid by the services they have
rendered to science in the Arctic expedition under Dr. Kane, and in
the results which have already been obtained from them in Mexico.

The self-registering apparatus in the observatory on the Smithso-
nian grounds, established at the joint expense of the Coast Survey
and the Institution, has continued to record the variations in the
horizontal direction of the magnetic force during a considerable por-
tion of the past year. The interruptions which have taken place have
been principally caused by the impurities of the city gas, the exhala-
lations from which have interfered with the photographic process.
The records obtained, however, will furnish valuable data for study-
ing, in connexion with similar observations in other parts of the
globe, the character of the magnetic force, and to assist in determin-
ing how far the changes are merely local, or to what extent they
affect the whole earth.

Laboratory.—During the past year the laboratory has been under
the charge of Dr. EH. W. Hilgard, recently appointed State geologist
of Mississippi. Among others, a series of experiments was made by
him, under direction of the Secretary, at the expense of the Navy
Department, relative to the vapor from a modification of bi-sulphuret
of carbon as a substitute for steam applied to mechanical purposes.
The result of these investigations was unfavorable to the substitution
of this material in the way proposed. Although a greater amount of
pressure is produced at the same temperature than in the case of
steam, yet the amount of work relative to the absolute quantity of
heat employed is by no means in accordance with this, the density of
the vapor and its greater specific heat require a corresponding amount
of fuel, and when we consider the fact that the bi-sulphuret of carbon
is not a natural but a factitious substance, of which the vapor, when
combined with air, is highly explosive and extremely offensive on
account of its odor and the greater complexity of the engine required
for its use, its application in the place of steam would be far from
advantageous.

Another series of investigations was conducted in the laboratory
relating to the prevention of counterfeiting bank notes, particularly
by photography; but as this was intended especially for private use,
the expenses were paid by the parties interested.

The Institution does not consider it a part of its duty to volunteer
an opinion as to the practicability of the new projects with which the
public mind is frequently agitated; but when directly called upon by
the government or other parties of influence to pronounce a judgment

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. a

on any point of practical or applied science, it does not shrink from
the responsibility, but, after diligent and cautious inquiry, gives the
conclusions, whatever they may be, at which it has arrived.

Library.—Extensive alterations are in the process of being made in
the wing of the building appropriated to the library, for the better
accommodation of the bocks. The shelving has been arranged in two
stories of alcoves, thereby more than doubling the space. Hach lower
alcove is separately secured by a door ; a precaution which has been
found necessary in the library of the Institution as well as in that of
Congress. It is a fact to be regretted, but which it is necessary to
mention in order to vindicate the restrictions imposed upon an indis-
criminate access to the books, that there is in some quarters a lamentable
want of honesty with regard to the use of property of a public character.
Not only are works in many cases mutilated, merely to avoid the labor
of copying a few pages, but valuable sets are sometimes broken by
actual theft.

The appropriation for the library must not alone be measured by
the sum assigned for the ‘‘ cost of books ;’’ it must be recollected that
the library is principally increasing by means of the exchanges ; that
every year the Institution sends abroad, besides all the public docu-
ments which it can procure, some hundreds of copies of the quarto
volumes of its transactions, the marketable value of which is several
thousand dollars. It therefore ought to be distinctly understood that
the library is constantly increasing by the addition of the most valuable
series of the transactions of literary and scientific societies in all parts
of the world, and that this is at the expense of what are denominated
the active operations of the Institution. It is true the number of
books directly purchased is comparatively small, but indirectly pro-
cured in the way stated the annual addition is valuable.

Among the numerous donations received during the past year it is
of course impossible in this report to particularize more than a few
of the most important. The Academies of Science of Vienna, St.
Petersburg, and of Brussels, have all contributed largely both of their
older and more recent issues. The Real Sociedad Economica, of
Havana, has been particularly liberal in this respect, furnishing nearly
complete series for many years back, as have also the Horticultural
societies of Paris and Berlin. The most extensive single gift during
the year has been that of the Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, in
72 volumes, and the Histoire Naturelle des Mammirfées, of Buffon
and Daubenton, in 15 volumes, from the Herzogliche Bibliothek der

32 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Friedensteinschen Sammlungen, Gotha. The British Admiralty has
contributed a full set of all the charts published by it during the year,
We may also mention, as an object of special interest of this class, a
valuable set of historical maps, presented by Justus Perthes, the
celebrated geographical publisher of Gotha, exhibiting the political
condition of Europe from the beginning of the third century down to
the time of the crusades. The limits of the several empires are ex-
hibited by different colors, and the whole are on such a scale as to
be adapted for instruction in schools or academies. To render this
interesting work more generally known in this country, it is proposed
to exhibit the maps in the reading room and to translate and print
the pamphlet of explanations for the use of the visiters to the Insti-
tution.

Among the curiosities of the library received during the past year
the most prominent is an ornamental album, presented through the
Department of State, from Miss Contaxaki, a native of the isle of
Crete. This work was designed as a contribution to the universal
exhibition at Paris in 1855, where it received a diploma for the artistic
merit displayed in its execution. The ‘‘ Classical Bouquet,”’ as it is
called, consists of illustrations of the principal monuments and places
in Greece, to which are added a few from the author’s native isle of
Crete. These illustrations are accompanied by quotations from the
most illustrious Greek authors, beautifully illuminated, while many
of the pages are adorned with pressed flowers culled from the places
which the drawings represent. The book itself is a large quarto,
covered with blue velvet heavily embroidered, and lettered with silver.
It is inclosed in a case, nade of olive wood of the country, about a foot
and a half square, richly carved and ornamented with appropriate
devices. This work was transmitted to the United States through
Charles C. Spence, esq., and affords a favorable specimen as well of
the present state of the arts in that country, which was the birthplace
of the true and the beautiful, as of the talents, the taste, and the un.
wearied industry of the lady who devised and principally executed it.

The library possesses an extensive collection of pamphlets, in-
cluding the separate theses of the candidates for graduation or honors
at the German universities ; also a series of the annual reports of the
public institutions and societies in thiscountry. During the past year
these have been classified, a large number of them bound, and the
remainder arranged in pasteboard boxes, labeled and placed on the
shelves as volumes,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33

The binding of the books received through exchange continues to
be a large item of expense, and we have devoted the remainder of the
appropriation for the library, not expended in the purchase of books
or for clerical service, to this object.

In relation to the books received by the copyright law, I have but
little to say in addition to what has been stated in preceding reports.
The provisions of the act are still disregarded, to a considerable extent,
by the larger publishers, and, as a general rule, works are received of
but little value in themselves and inconsistent with the character of
the library of the Institution. Though the cost of postage has been
diminished by the law of Congress authorizing the free transmission
of copyrights, yet it has by no means exempted the Institution from
a large item of expense on this account. The publishers frequently
inclose within the packages letters relating to the proper direction of
the certificates and other matter pertaining to the copyright, and by
a decision of the Post Office Department all such communications are
charged with letter postage. Though the sum in each case appears
insignificant, yet in the aggregate it may amount, in the course of a
year, to several hundred dollars; and since the system from the begin-
ning has been of no real benefit to the Institution, we have addressed
a circular to each publisher who forwards a copyright and neglects to
pay the postage on the accompanying letters, apprising him of the fact.

In conclusion, I may state that though the copyright law was un-
doubtedly intended to enrich the library of the Institution, yet the
non-compliance with it of some of the principal publishers, and the
reception of a large amount of worthless matter involving expense in
its transportation and care has entirely defeated this object. The cost
of the system has been at least ten times greater than the value of the
books received; nor is thisall; acompliance with the act has constantly
subjected the Institution to unmerited censure. We have therefore
been a loser both in funds and in the friendly feeling of an influential
portion of'the community, and it is to be hoped that Congress will, at
its present session, essentially modify the existing law. The deposit
of a single copy of each article in the Patent Office, instead of the
three now sent to Washington, would be sufficient to secure the
rights of the author, and answer all the objects of a complete collec-
tion of this class of American publications.

Museum.—The general plan and objects of the collections which
have been assiduously formed through the agency of the Smithsonian
35

34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Institution have been given in several of the preceding reports, and it
will be sufficient, at this time, to repeat that they are intended to
exhibit the distribution and development of the plants and animals, as
well as to illustrate the geological and mineralogical character of the
North American continent. The number of specimens required for
these purposes is great, since all the varieties from every locality re-
quire attention. During the past year specimens have been collected
by ten government expeditions and six private exploration parties.
Some of the returns from these are now on the way, and will greatly
enhance the number and value of the materials before received. Ac-
cording to the statement of Professor Baird, hereto appended, the
catalogued specimens of animals at the end of the year 1857, amount-
ed to: mammals, 3,200; birds, 8,766; skeletons and skulls, 3,340;
reptiles, 239 ; fishes, 613. ;

During the year several persons have availed themselves of the use
of the collections and library in the prosecution of original researches,
and, as usual, several government expeditions, which have been sentout
for surveys, the construction of roads and for military purposes, have
been provided with instructions as to the mode of collecting specimens
and observing meteorological and other natural phenomena. No oppor-
tunity of adding to our store of information, in regard to the physical
geography and natural history of the western portion of this continent,
has been suffered to pass without being improved, and I may safely
say, that since the establishment of the Institution more has been
done to ascertain and make known the character of the less inhabited
portion of our continent than all which had been previously accom-
plished in this line. The survey of routes from the Gulf of Mexico
to the Pacific has served of late to add much to our knowledge of
Central America, and during the past year the British government
has sent out a party for the exploration of the country north of the
limits of the United States and between the great lakes and the Pacific
ocean. This survey, in connexion with that along the 49th parallel of
latitude, now in progress for determining the boundary line between
the United States and the British possessions, will add to the natural
history of the northern portion of our territory, and will furnish the
data necessary to delineate more accurately the great mountain
system which determines the climate and physical peculiarities of the
western portion of this continent.

Smithson’s personal effects. —The bequest of James Smithson included
all his personal effects, and these were obtained by Hon. Richard Rush,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35

the agent of the American government, through whom the legacy was
procured. ‘They were delivered by him to the Secretary of State, and
afterwards deposited in the museum of the Patent Office, where they
remained until the last year, when they were transferred to the Regents’
room in the Smithsonian building. They have been arranged for exhi-
bition in a large case of black walnut, and now form an interesting por-
tion of the collections of the Institution. They consist of a very ex-
tensive series of rare though minute specimens of mineralogy, of the
table service of plate of Smithson, and of the portable chemical and
mineralogical apparatus with which he made his investigations,
Besides the above mentioned articles, the Institution has had in its
possession for several years the library of Smithson, containing 115
volumes, and a collection of manuscripts, principally consisting of what
would appear to be the materials of a philosophical dictionary. The
whole collection taken together serves to exhibit the character of the
man, and clearly to indicate his intention as to the nature of the Insti-
tution to which he gave his name. It serves to strengthen the convic-
tion, ifanything of this kind were needed, that the proper interpretation
of the will has been given by the Regents in adopting the plan which
makes active operations, the discovery of new truths, and a diffusion
of these among men, the prominent object of the establishment.

In this connexion, it may be interesting to repeat a statement made
in a former report, that the institution is in possession of two like-
nesses of Smithson ; one, a portrait of him while a youth, in the cos-
tume of a student at Oxford, the other a medallion, from which a steel
engraving has beenexecuted. The first was purchased from the widow
of John Fitall, the servant of Smithson, and the other was among his
effects, and identified by a paper attached to it, on which the words
‘‘my likeness’ were written in Smithson’s own hand. A list of the
papers published by Smithson, and a record of all the facts which
could be gathered in relation to him, have been made, to serve here-
after for a more definite account of his life and labors than has yet
appeared.

Gallery of Art.—During the past year this apartment of the Smith-
sonian building has been enriched by a faithful copy, in Carrara
marble, of the ‘‘ Dying Gladiator,’’ one of the most celebrated statues
of antiquity. This copy, which is said to be the only one in marble
in existence, has been deposited here by its owner, F. W. Risque,
esq., of the District of Columbia, to whom the public of this country
is indebted for his liberality in the purchase and free exhibition of so

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

costly and interesting a specimen of art. It is by Joseph Gott, an
English sculptor of high reputation, and its faithfulness, as a repre-
sentation of the original, is vouched for by a certificate, among others,
from our lamented countryman, Thomas Crawford.

The Stanley collection of Indian portraits, which is still in the
Gallery, has, during the past year, been increased by a number of
new pictures, and continues to be an object of interest to the visitors
of the national capital. This collection, now the most extensive in
existence, of Indian portraits, ought, as we have stated in previous
reports, to be purchased by government. Itis a sacred duty which this
country owes to the civilized world to collect everything relative to
the history, the manners and customs, the physical peculiarities, and,
in short, all that may tend to illustrate the character and history of
the original inhabitants of North America. The duty which Mr.
Stanley owes to his family will not permit him to retain the collection
unbroken, and unless Congress make an appropriation for its pur-
chase, he will be obliged to dispose of it in portions. Such an event
would be a lasting source of regret; and, from the interest which a
number of distinguished members of the Senate and House of Repre-
sentatives have expressed in regard to the purchase, we doubt not
that the proposition will in due time be favorably entertained.

Lectures.—During the past season the usual number of lectures
has been given, without any diminution in the size of the audience
and the apparent interest of the public.

In connexion with this subject, we may mention, complaints have
frequently been made against the Institution, on account of the bad
condition of the walks leading to the building ; but it should be recol-
lected that the grounds belong to the government and are not under
the control of the Regents.. A plank walk has, however, been laid
dewn along the principal thoroughfare and lighted, on nights of lec-
tures, at the expense of the Institution.

The Smithsonian lecture-room is found to be the most commodious
apartment in the District for public meetings, and almost constant
applications are made for its use. This is granted in all cases, pro-
vided the actual expense of lighting, heating and attendance be paid,
and the object for which it is required be consistent with the character
of the Institution, and not merely intended to advance individual
interests. The rule which excludes from the lectures any subject
connected with sectarianism, discussions in Congress and the political
questions of the day, has been strictly observed.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37

The following is a list of the lectures which were delivered during
the winter of 1857-58:

Seven lectures by Professor John LeConte, of the South Carolina
College, on ‘‘ The Physics of Meteorology.”’

One lecture by Hon. H. W. Hilliard, of Alabama, on the ‘‘ Life
and Genius of Milton.’’

Two lectures by Dr. I. I. Hayes, of Philadelphia, on ‘ Arctic Ex-
plorations.”’

One lecture by Rev. T. J. Bowen, of Yoruba, Africa, on ‘‘ Central
Africa—the Country and People.”’

One lecture by D. K. Whitaker, esq., of Charleston, 8. C., on the
“¢ Genius and Writings of Sir Walter Scott.’’

Two lectures by Professor C. C. Felton, of Harvard College, Cam-
bridge, Mass., on ‘‘ Modern Greece.”’

Four lectures by Dr. James Wynne, of New York, on the ‘* Dara-
tion of Life in Various Occupations.’’

Three lectures by Professor J. P. Espy, on ‘‘ The Law of Storms.’’

Five lectures by Rev. J. H. McIlvaine, of Rochester, N. Y., on
‘* Comparative Philology in some of its bearings upon Ethnology,
and embraciag an account of the Sanscrit and Persian Arrowhead
Languages.’’

Three lectures by G. Gajani, on ‘‘ The Catacombs, the Coliseum, and
the Vatican of Rome.’’

One lecture by Professor Schele de Vere, of the University of Vir-
ginia, on ‘‘ John Law and the Celebrated Mississippi Speculation.’’

From the foregoing" statements we think it will be generally
acknowledged that the Institution is steadily pursuing a course of
usefulness well calculated to make the name of its founder favorably
known and the results of his bequest highly appreciated in every
part of the civilized world, that its funds are in a good condition, and
that the prospect of its future influence in the promotion of know-
ledge is even more cheering than at any period of its past history.

Respectfully submitted.

JOSEPH HENRY,

Secretary S. I.
Wasurneton, January, 1858,

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,

SMITHSONIAN [nsTITUTION,
Washington, December 31, 1857.

Sir: I have the honor, herewith, to present a report, for 1857, of the
operations you have entrusted to my charge, namely, those which re-
late to the printing, to the exchanges, and to the collections of natural
history.

Respectfully submitted.

SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Assistant Secretary Smithsonian Institution,
JosepH Henry, LL.D.,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.

PUBLICATIONS.

The publications of the Institution for the year consist of the ninth
volume of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, embracing 484
pages of quarto text and 22 plates, and of the annual report to Con-
gress, an octavo volume of 468 pages. Considerable progress has
also been made with the printing of the tenth volume of Smithsonian
Contributions, 136 pages and five plates being finished.

The catalogue of North American Diptera, by Baron Ostensacken,
is nearly through the press and will include 112 octavo pages.

EXCHANGES.

The system of international exchanges so successfully prosecuted by
the Institution since its establishment has been carried on during the
year with the happiest results. A large amount of scientific material
has passed through its hands and has been promptly transmitted to
its destination. The general details of the system will be presented
hereafter.

The returns made to the Smithsonian Institution for its own dona-
tions will be found in the following table:

A.—eceipt of books, dc., by exchange in 1857.

MOLUIMER—-OCLHVOns 222 ocee cece Se een e mstenec a aon na. eh eee 404
Oniantors sees Ses = Da ee eee ae os oa eee 146
Wolioz {lew Ase esse ese ah os ek ee 5
— 555
Parts of volumes and pamphlets—
QOGAVO jase>. oe cesuce - secs ee saissisccessmeeeemeeinees 775
OUATIO tess sect eeas -StcccconenaneemecTeeeeene mentee 255
HMOWO Maca se leeemianesscclata cess = Seees cee eet ees 37
— 1,067
(Charts/aHG Maps) pcee ene eee es cence aes. Sean eee eee eee 138

REPORT OF ASSISTANT eee. 39

The works received embrace most of the current volumes of scientific
transactions, with some back series, and are of the highest importance
as materials of scientific research.

In the following tables are exhibited the chief statistics of exchange
during both 1856 and 1857. The last annual report did not fully
cover the subject, owing to the fact that a supplementary sending was
required in January, 1857, to complete that of July, 1856, and a re-
port for 1856 could not reasonably include what was actually not per-
formed till the ensuing year. In presenting the series of tables
throughout, those of transmissions for 1856 are to be understood as
embracing parcels forwarded in January 1857. This will explain the
apparent disproportion in amount for the two years, as much of what
was sent in the beginning of 1857 would otherwise not have gone until
the ensuing summer.

B.

Table showing the statistics of foreign exchanges of the Smithsonian Institution in 1856.

| wo | pat ' J P=
PA a ete = orci fe =
a Bah | eke oak ee eet) a
a fe. Vad | ar
= Se See = 9 (se ae ne 5
Ne ae) si} ae los 5 A) a | ae
Distributed through— = oe bf Ss. lee os Ses lmees ae
= cots Mall ae p= Oey OF) ees ik iors
pte ae fae Pee 3 5 | & | #9
3e Eh go pera = By ai = ae | is aes
3 = = | =o = = R 20
= ee andes 3 = ae
= Te ae Pa = Bee [ne
————$————_ ssp, ——————
. Dr. F. Fliigel, Leipsic.
RMMEUGHE Gilstad cictersla\a)e(awiels's'eweiaces 8 2 SS ole 22 Dy) orwtars. aiven fod Oth terete sarees g
LOIS D Egos apeeoc Apageaee eases C) Tiler ce ack | 13 Tilaues aes RR Ae 3) eee
MGEIANG warwc sas s oaicein's 0.06,0,0e.ce\sisine iW issoosd Seen eee | SB eSnes0| BERBOroA) Cinatiy ies -c@e) Mase e tae
Den Marks isis cle clseiueiarae os w'ateeeves 6 Db i seinreweil IR SM Boconcee I Gwisieos pill oavatet sl aust aieki<«
PGs Sea M sonic cana tees saenaens 2 ged ene A geal 8 ape: 2k rated | el ot Site aSeore
HONANGe ttl sees veeewanecacwde 17 LG GFe Seek | AGH | | STS leh peRe seed eee wee ste Me ae 2,
GEFMANY 7. sdclesvermeeniasesse sacs 15S, , AGS fe; aes be | ALE. CAD sensi sas pl sasislelellasweiss)(< cntaion =
SMART AAI a sjciwie’eajelsic'ew che cinidisia'e 15 BU iheniesi wine's SO ue oa itera) le atniatal luletearwiell wt olaete reas
BeleiaM 5 occas ceiiicavcecenses vee 3 TOP Et ree Aa) | VG eA ome teaenmbawiee | sbin ecw
Lace aN |
PR GAN sawn’ Se mnemasiinsienadh poeta aoe 562} 656 38 | 1,042| 42] 340] 10,428
| | | } |
2. H. Bossange, Paris. | | |
Barca tetoeremrctars Siete c aislele efule's w/e ata dels 190i! *HQBe). 22s. Ler FAD | erate site Nate ee wsi|'ceecos'| miwcvoaee
Picea Na eit misiele «/ ciel =, viwio ech atcisletama'niars 42 chal he are hain | 95 Be ee ee | ereranet s Fecal \amciove sine
Spain and Portugal.........0....- 5 [owncnere 14 1 pease) neacts): [een crash eiae'e aaa
} ea
} |
AL OLallscieriv octet cinioteinvete sats a's oh 281 | 296 | 176 | 472) ) 23126)" "45199
3. The Royal Society and H. Stevens, |
London.
Great Britain and Ireland......... 117 | 231 | 348 | 260 | 253 513 9| 94] 2,914
:
—|—— ' — |
4. Other channels. ...ccevesicecaves eife 26 10 | 36 | 39 | 10 49 | 6 | 26 800
_———$—_ | ——__— | | | ——$———|
| | |
SPRUE Vek S cis ces cou ace 511 | 716] 1,227] 1,251 | 825] 2,076] 70| 5386 | 18,271
| | / |

40

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

G.

Table showing the statistics of foreign exchanges of the Smithsonian Institution in 1857.

Distributed through—

1. Dr. F. Fliigel, Leipsic.

S WEEN . wevccevccccesscceeneees
INOF Wale onic) to esie viuieaisisieniene

PECAN eters e'e's 0 sain raise Sin to

PICMG ALK cerniste alaicieies\elaiaisiolsinivieiale «x
Russia..... plsje ais sjulels\olale(a's win tsin\eiaiei=
Holland..... wleivuete Biateleyalpieid) sleleisisia’s

GeNMANY/ «200 vec ces. sncccses eens

SWITZELIAN Gon se view bow siecle enn vleise

Belgium. cecveccsoves cesses cosee-

PROtAb csp sietseicc esis visis ana

. Bossange, Paris.
FYaNCe ...ccccceccecccscees coves:

SU tied Uyjate twists nls taloinlo\iclele biatw\e'ein'clclcjais/ele:«

SS PARI erate va reietel = slelefejeleiel eters aialsin secs </e

POFtugalcccer cccecs soccles suse ce

PUG icilisisleislalnlolstaisisis(sisieiotalelsiaic

3. The Royal Society and H. Stevens,
London. "

A KOMCT CRUNNEIS. occlu cee) ssicieisioliieelatenteh

Great Britain and Ireland........

Granditotalle. cccisss's esisins

| Principal addresses
of parceis.

all tell ©)
IO OD on

505

sub-

parcels inclosed.

Addresses of

ra
So

460

Total of addresses.

eee twee

Number of principal
packages.

= eis |
Fae 2 = n
Seth 2 eet 2
20 3) re) ns an
=D = 2 25 —
>= ES St aloe] bog
aS Se x 2 r—)
Ms 3 |3 25
pa 3 Shs 3
= io) Ss »
Zz = Zz 1a i
GAl| eae. ae
NG sk gac-rvc adhe. NA eee ae aa
37 Cr eo oe eeerl reer seen
eres yaltee ea eee be ee
DEP areermegeeany (re SH ie a ee oe
Ei at, isnaicloul te aeeeste Re Galaedl oe cea
Is) CPP Mee A A | ae
382 847| 19| 183] 6,928
Tiidltnccc Seealisas FNS RA as beae
32 Sin afaeitoasll Sea aes A
thy re acs 2
110 288 6| 63] 2,410
158 390| 10] 118] 3,910
10 100 5| 20] 1,000
660| 1,625] 40] 384] 14,948

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

4]

D.—Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution for foreign dis-

tribution in 1856 and 1857.

No. of packages

Albany, N. Y.— 1856.

New York State Agricultural Society -....-.....-----.-.<---- 5

New, Monk state Medical’ Socicty;..— «nasser 6

PTOt aIneCs All ne oo can coo Rca enn ec so ee oem as ene 8 |
Baltimore, Md. --

TE TedW q0g) ae B17 (2) eee ea ee a Se 25
Baton Rouge, La.—

institution tor Mutes and’ Blind!) -..-<-<2s2y-.-2-s2s—-20 = <=c~ 18
Boston, Mass.--

American Academy of Arts and Sciences...-....-...=.-=...- 392

Beston Society of Natural History +. o--..-. <--- 2a on nee ==2- 65

Historic-Genealogical Society ..-..-.-.------..-- He obdactice 1

moron) Discipime NOCety 2-2 ona ajan an cae one a ones mea 32

WP WHILCO See ose oan es rae a cee oat oeeiaaaa cae saan = 5

Eiiguicr ied: oo 0" eel. oo cae tema eaaee te ote eS eee |

Weehle Dixoniena. 236 Soleo ot aee deeds ao seats se 5

Een INS Mee ola oe no toe ern a late cine Se ee oom nase aimee ec | eee

Hd. Tackerman....-- Oe er se Oe ee Se ee ee ee

Negtiew LrescOtlmocn n= soe Cosa cee mote ek as ala ee ee ee aeeee 8

Pikeo) aanos prnney,, MiP Loo. oo ee ae ae se ee ee
Cambridge, Mass.—

American Association for Advancement of Science..-.-.------ 28

Cambridge Observatory’. 222542 55--Se 52 So ea ee eee ae Petes

Denne Soe Joc aocce Solna meeeeet ces cemeteries sieleee sae 50

ero fensay GQIay a. aco ac ase oe sae See ee oe ae a a te 1

BRGe ot! Trend welle. 2 \con4- see eas caesar eacmaenaoeae ae 200
Charleston, S. C.—

Dee “Wee Ravenel 220 fos Ss ese Se Se dese see eis - 2
Chicago, Ill —

Colch Ds Grabai,, US. Ao asceoscee nome sas cmee cease rane. | seer eee
Cincinnati, Ohio—

Ja big] Dade SGA of ogg La Bega a ae pela ial Dae oe fa 24

De Vanohankes < os oaks Bole ce ee es 24
Columbus, Ohio-—

One State: Board of Acricalture . 2 oto. -ssceu saeco aeemee | aecaeees
Frankfort, Ky.—

eauriesl Sutvey Of Kentucky ~~ Jccsccocss sooseso- ss osees eweecne.
Georgetown, D. C—

Georzetowns Colleres* sass fesse we sis Peek sas sass eee 2
Granada, Nicaragua—

IPTESIM eR GIVER se eie cmete ne ee one tee ee eee. melee ome 100
Hartford, Conn.—-

fon. Henry barmmandeeses ose se. hos Sele so See ee 283

Mes Potter sos oS eee eee Sone cae Sa ences sees See 22
Lansing, Mich.—

Michigan State Agricultural Society ..-.---------+---------- 50
Letanon, Tenn.—

ENOL OSOLd 2. = Loe Scene ane Bee eee ee eee ae =| hos see
Lowell, Mass. —

amensb Wancis’ . 2.222. cee ses SaaS aaa ee ee coe ee ne 16
Madison, Wis.—

Wisconsin’ State Apricultural Society 2225-42 seseseseress ate lesee 2-5

istoricaly society, of WiSCOnsini jon ame ee eee as a ees woe
New Brunswick, N. J.—

Prot. Gen i. Cook <= .3.0. 22 eee “apo p ac Aapde lh Pood etic ae Ep eee

see ree

ae ee eee

42 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

D—Continued.
No. of packages.
New Haven, Oonn.-— 1856. 1857.
amnencannlourmal of Sciencetee seu eeee see eases cee 48 20
ponenicany Oriental SOCebYy. .2eokeos owe ose aouk fo eget os Malis Dasma
Proiemioe MIMS ted oe aoe Ue etes eee st ec Ae NRE 10 7
New York—
American Geographical and Statistical Society............----|-------- 57
New: York Dycewm of Natural ‘History (02/220 200 eh oa RN eee tee
SAE FY Ube 6 ote hs AS A RS aR RR emp UN AA 2 90
Philadelphia, Pa.~-
Amen can iM OsOpMi Cali SOClet yay 26 ae ee eee ane mice a mena 42 79
ANCAdemy: GiiNetUrAlSCLeNCe sue = Seana atk anne ee ea a 300 173
CentralyHigh' School of Philadelphiac: 20.00.0000 00 100 109
Historical Society of Pennsylvania 222 se. ooo ee eee iy || eres oe
Pennsylyaniaginstitute tor .the Blinds. 2m. — sane ie Ae 45 AY)
Poailadeipiia iabrary Company i020 225222225 20" ee TO) joe eset
WNT PER OGM CTU ISS UNG cara eee ete ee een eee ge BIN Aa IR URE LOO nares 53.8
SEND ES TE CaRy ee ge acetal car lee pe teeing Uae dee 171 178
Drmcse phi leldivecsmen cae acca tert t. \ tik 2AM SR aEe eee 16} 47
Domo nmAt NICIO ge tennis Se yale ees he ce ROA ee Teo eve eee 44
Providence, R. [ —
SUACROMN NO CMS ANG acme mee se eet oe a Se ee Lee eeee 6
St. Louis, Mo —
St WoulseAcademypotesciencese sees see een t. Se ee eee al eee eee 161
Dr Bh Shumeards= 226 ee ahaa See a ese ie eee Se eee, P2algece cree s
San Francisco, Cal —
California Academy of Natural Sciences .-......--.....------ We eases ae
Santiago, Chile-—
WiniversiiyOrn Chile tee cess. ee sam ee een Dae eat Pee ce 140) 2ae2e soe
Savannah, Ga ——
i eR OS hae ONCE Beers eee aint ste ae Set cans Ee St eR ee HO iekat cose
Toronto, Canada——
Canachianialns trbUbe see oa ate oper he oe io taal Se ee ee Ng fat A 17
Washington, D. 0.—
WegsmgBatent Offices s sa pee aun eh ee als 250 250
Ordnance Bureau -...... 15 AER A ade EB ee he ae Ca re a ANG, Nein Sea
ST Woastisunveyacsoceecce ose seein eed ee sya 67 497
Rrsieohiee OO SERVALORV is.) cee 7s aoa Se owise Cte fc See Mis ome 73
ie TOUBE ES OAnO ns oe crete ee tee, SU Se ee a ae Oy a ceaees
SISTER TERY GUE HAE AS SA A RC A TN nee aie 120 ii4
Surgeon General.....__- Sep a aie oT aT enone ae eieie | eee 50
Major Hi Bimory, We S.A sooo. 2 oo 8 BS ee rennet Whi) || sees Sees
DIG ReAL Ey IBA ey Nk A ah Nh aR NN ee eR a eh i (33.0)
DD ide St uNe Ww DEty Seema cere sin ter uee rs wane aa. oe 20 Wee 2 a=
METS Ur tks CpliVes UNS SAE eee eee acre cen ERCP. sh |e Aree
MGS UDHG Reena rem Rite Ateete ee Sewers en at se Lal ed BO eens eso
Wie tibsye). We NG asa Ut Seige ere eee te ce et nl) ek 25
Ward SUL PSOM 2 eye oe eae terme re AF on S85 ta 50
Degg Ge enmediy . Sao 2 co ie hea eee at tat het ca 59
Vier pmuuhG Ogre ea cae cart me eRe ete te RET CL Ae en | 109
Minscellameousips 2 Pcie eae aid cic ai aw cle aN ee es eC 133 120
1 BC] Sip a Re a ath CC eet Ha Tir Oe 3,510 3, Ook
Supposing cach parcel to contain an average of one and a half pieces,
the numberof these would be so 222.22 ee on eee 5, 265 3,095
Add of Smithsonian volumes and memoirs, about _...--.----------- 2,500 2,500
Add volumes of public documents obtained and distributed, about....| 1, 500 1, 000

Approximate total of volumes and pamphlets sent abroad by the
Instibutionl pean oee eee ae nace wae Se aoe Sea

\
)

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

43

E.—Addressed packages received, by the Smithsonian Institution from

Europe, for distribution in America.

No. of packages.

Albany, N. Y.--
hen VOTKtotmtemibTanyie a cabs nee Sea leee samt eee
Boston, Mass.—-
| American Academy of Arts and Sciences ...-.-_------.------
Boston Society of Natural History.....-----------------7---
Bowarbew: UNDIaey =e eee awe cee n enema cee a= aaa a em meso
Cambridge, Mass.—-
American Association for Advancement of Science------------
Cambridge Astronomical Journal-..-.....------.<----.-=---
Gambmadce.ObsenvkuOly os ==> 2-5 e2 = aan ese <a ee ome eee ee
Hanvand Colleser eek 222s =- ss 2e2* Soo Sse ena me
Charleston, S. C.—
interary-and EPhilosophical’Society --=<=2.2- =-----s===----——-
Colum’ us, Ohio—
Ohio State Board of Agriculture -.-.-.....-.-----ee.--------
Georgetown, D. C.——
Georgetown College.......+--------.-<--=-=-s-s<0-----4-
Lansing, Mich.—
Michigan State Agricultural Society .......---+-------------
Madison, Wis —
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society -....------------------
New Haven, Conn.—-
American Journal of Science -..--.------------------------
Miaka nd One TEU Soe 2 hee PEO eae oe soccer ae ae cee
New Orleans, La.——
New Orleans Academy of Natural Sciences --.-------.-------
New York—-
American Geographical and Statistical Society .-.-.----------
New York Lyceum of Natural Histury......----.----------
Philadelphia, Pa.—
Americans: btlosophical ‘Soctety.< 252-225-222 s22san-e~—a52——
Academy of Natural 'Sciences.----<2----- --<55-s2c—-<acm—--
ranineinstittters +2 Sasson ao Stee ato. Saat eee ams
San Francisco, Cal.—
California Academy of Natural Sciences. ---.--.-------------
Santiago, Chile—
ifcensitivs Of: Ohi levee sae Stele teen ye ata ole mi tetalas =
@ bre myeconyesapss = Ay aeons ot Sees ee en Sete eee
Washington, D. C.—
HPS bavcnhyOMmeGe essa aeae noon ass eee ee wanes Sees
Nations’ LnGiibu bees e tens ar ee Se nee sore ans ie re
Bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography..--.-.--.------------
Wess: Coast: Surveyors se cue eee oe esate ae see ae ee
Wergorial Observe tony sete ate ate ete ee i i
Sonpeon Generales seer ts ees See ae aa eb
United! States Agricultural Societys... -- --.2=----=------= = —
Hibpanysoi Congress see ees eee oe ae ete a ee ee
Worcester, Mass —
Americal “Ant uaATi ans SOClehy aks ae = o-e eee eee eee
Miscellaneous addresses, institutions....---..---------..-.--------
mnidividials® eq. eee ee ae Se

9 9
42 53
30 39

PR
7 7
24 19
9 9
22 19
i eee
14 24
Bee RE cc ok.
8 13
22 22
5 5
PCM
12 16
24 19
24 25
74 55
57 62
9 7
4 19
6

2 7
37 57
3 3
1 3
27 24
23 63
it Baek ee
ee Ce
17 10
1g een oecee
437 330
318 320
1245 | 1,273

In addition to the above, 142 volumes were received from five European institutions for

distribution to such addresses as might be selected by the Smithsonian.

44 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

DETAILS OF THE SYSTEM OF EXCHANGES.

As the system of international exchange now carried on by the
Smithsonian Institution has attained a very great development, a
sketch of the mode of conducting it may not be amiss at the present
time. The subject may be considered under two heads, one relating
to the parcels received from parties in the United States for transmis-
sion to foreign countries, and the other having reference to receipts-
from abroad for institutions and individuals in America. In con-
nexion with this subject, it may be stated that a large room in the
Institution, measuring 70 feet by about 25, is devoted to the depart-
ment of exchanges, and, besides containing the stock on hand of
Smithsonian publications and of miscellaneous documents, is fitted up
on one side with a series of large binns, each one devoted to a partic-
ular portion of the world, and appropriately labelled. The floor of
the room is occupied by a series of long tables, five feet wide, on which
parcels are made up or unpacked. Printed addresses are arranged in
small pigeon holes, and include nearly all the correspondents of the
Institution, domestic and foreign, amounting, at the present time, to
nearly one thousand names.

Operations connected with transmissions from the United States.—The
transmissions of the Smithsonian Institution are regulated, in a mea-
sure, by the time when the annual volume of Smithsonian Contribu-
tions is completed. One or two months before this time, a circular
letter of advice is transmitted to all the institutions and individuals
in the United States and the Canadas known or supposed to have
a desire to avail themselves of the facilities of the Smithsonian sys-
tem of exchanges, and the conditions stated upon which parcels will
be received. If any society or individual have published a work
likely to be of interest to the scientific and literary world abroad, and
no indication is given of an intention to distribute copies, a special
application is made for them, and no effort left untried to secure to
the foreign investigators the benefit of all original and useful Ameri-
can material. Such appeals are generally responded to very favor-
ably, and very many publications of the different bureaus of the gov-
ernment, of States, and of State agricultural and historical institutions,
of societies, and of individuals, have thus been obtained.

In nearly all cases, in the first instance, at least, the Smithsonian
Institution is called on to furnish lists of suitable foreign recipients
for the publications just referred to, or the volumes are sent in bulk,
to be addressed here. After the first sending, the exchange is usually
more directly between the parties corresponding, the Institution pre-
ferring to have the parcels properly addressed before forwarding to
Washington. In all cases great care is taken to secure the credit of
the donation to the proper party, and to prevent it being supposed to
come directly from the Institution.

To facilitate the selection of suitable recipients for donations or ex-
changes, the Institution publishes once in two years a carefully pre-
pared list of foreign institutions for general distribution. The last
one issued contains over 570 names, but manuscript additions bring

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 45

the number up to about 700. The list of individuals is nearly as large
as that of institutions.

To facilitate the selection of recipients for particular works, of which
a limited number of copies only may be available for distribution,
classified lists of institutions are kept, as of academies of science gene-
rally, and of societies devoted to special subjects, as geography, ge-
ology, zoology, botany, ethnology, statistics, &c., and these are ar-
ranged from No. t upwards, in the order of relative importance, or of
equable distribution among the centres of learning; thus six copies of
any work on hand would be assigned to the first six names on the list
of institutions most interested in it.

The parcels, as reccived from the different portions of North Amer-
ica, are placed, after being addressed, (if not so already,) in their ap-
propriate receptacles, and the list entered specifically in a record book.
To facilitate such entry, a detailed invoice of each transmission is re-
quired, and the failure to furnish it puts the institution to the great
trouble of making it from the books themselves.

When the parcels have all been received, a list of the different do-
nors is printed, together with the titles of the various works which
the institution has for distribution at the time. On the day assigned
for commencing the labor of making up the packages, the binns are
emptied successively, the contents arranged carefully on the counters,
so as to bring everything for one address together, the Smithsonian
donations are added, and each particular piece is checked off in the
printed blank just referred to. This rough invoice is numbered and
handed to the packers, who make up the volumes into one or more
bundles, and mark them with the number of the invoice, by which
means they are easily identified and labelled. When parcels or books
are addressed to individuals, these are usually inclosed in the bundles
of the societies to which they belong, the number and addresses of
such sub-packages being marked on the rough invoices. A correct copy
is made of these lists, and forwarded by mail or otherwise to the par-
ties, in which is also stated the nature and time of the transmission.
These invoices are finally posted, to the debit of the party addressed,
in a large ledger, which shows what each has had, and what return
has been made to the Institution. The record of each package is,
therefore, made four times.

In sending the invoice of the package for each address, a circular
is added explaining the objects of the transmission, and the conditions
on which the exchange will be continued.

The time occupied in invoicing and making up the packages varies
with the occasion, although a month is usually required to finish the
work. After the bundles are all made up, those for each agent are
brought into one heap, and they are then packed into boxes, a check
list being kept of the numbers placed in each box.

There are three principal agents in Europe who have charge of the
Smithsonian exchanges in their respective regions: Dr. Felix Fliigel,
resident in Leipsic, has charge of continental Europe, with the ex-
ception of France, Italy, Spain, and Portugal, (which are supplied by
Hector Bossange, of Paris,) and of Greece and Turkey. Henry
Stevens, of London, is agent for Great Britain and Ireland. Greece

46 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

and Turkey are usually reached through the American minister at
Constantinople and the consul at Alexandria. Most of the points in
Asia and Africa are supplied through the Presbyterian Board of For-
eign ‘Missions in New York, and the American Board in Boston,
Australia through Mr. I. W. Raymond, of New York, and South
America through a variety of channels.

The boxes for the agents above mentioned, containing the different
parcels, are then sent from the Institution ; those for Dr. Fligel being
shipped from Baltimore, through Oelrichs & Liirman, direct to Bre-
men, thence by railroad to Leipsic. The boxes for Messrs. Bossange
and Stevens are shipped by packet froin New York.

The governments of Europe to whose ports shipments are made by
the Institution have all authorized their admission free of duty, on
filing an invoice with the customs authorities some time in advance of
the arrival of the boxes. After being received by the agents, these
boxes are unpacked, and the different parcels distributed to their desti-
nation through the channels selected by the intended recipients, accom-
panied by circular advices from the agents. In Germany the parcels
are usually transmitted through the booksellers of Leipsic, as they
may have occasion to send to correspondents in the various towns.

Hechanges from foreign countries for America.—The system of ope-
rations in this case is similar in principle to that just described,
although the steps take placein inverse order. The packages are sent
to the agents of the Institution, who inclose them in boxes, which are
forwarded monthly, or oftener. On being received in Washington
they are unpacked, an entry made of their contents, and the parcels
placed temporarily in the binns assigned to their respective addresses.
They are then assorted, those for each party made up into one bundle,
and thus forwarded, by express or otherwise, accompanied by a blank
receipt, which is to be signed and returned.

MUSEUM.
A.—ZIncrease of the Museum.

The collections in natural history received during the year 1857
have been of great extent, and embrace many important additions to
the material on hand for extending the knowledge of the animal,
vegetable, and mineral productions of America. The specimens
received have been from the usual variety of sources; the most im-
portant being, as heretofore, those brought in by the different govern-
ment expeditions, as follows: ;

1. Survey of the northwestern boundary line, Archibald Campbell,
esq., commissioner.—The expedition left in April, 1857, for Puget
Sound, and during the year had its main camp for the most part at
Simeahmoo bay, near the mouth of Frazer’s river.. Large collections
of the animals and plants of the Sound have been made by Dr. Ken-
nerly, surgeon and naturalist of the expedition; and of minerals and
fossils by Mr. George Gibbs, the geologist.

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 4T

2. Exploration of the Black Hills and Loup Fork, under Lieutenant
G. K. Warren, U. S. _A.—Lieutenant Warren made his third visit to
the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone region, accompanied, as on pre-
vious expeditions, by Dr. Hayden as geologist and naturalist. Very
large collections in all branches of natural history were made and
brought home, tending, in great measure, to complete our knowledge
of the distribution of species over the high plains of the west.

3. Wagen road to Bridger’s Pass, under Lieutenant I’. T. Bryan, U.
§8. A.— During his second year’s work on this road to Utah Territory,
Lieutenant Bryan, as before, was accompanied by Mr. Wm. 8. Wood,
who continued and completed the collections of the preceding year, in
securing many species not previously obtained. Dr. Wm. A. Ham-
mond, U. 8. A., who accompanied the party as surgeon, also made a
separate and independent collection of much interest, not only on the
route, but while stationed at Fort Riley. In this he was for a time
assisted by Mr. J. Xantus de Vesey.

4. Wagon road to California via South Pass, under Wm. M. Ma-
graw.—This party, accompanied by Dr. James G. Cooper, as surgeon
and naturalist, aided by C. Drexler, reached Fort Laramie during the
autumn. The collections in all departments were large and import-
ant, and were accompanied by copious notes on the species observed.

5. Survey of the southern boundary of Kansas, under Lieutenant
Colonel Johnston, U. S. A.—A valuable collection of specimens in
alcohol was made during the survey by J. H. Clark, esq., astron-
omer of the expedition.

6. Survey of the Isthmus of Darien, under Lieutenant N. Michler, U.
S. A.—This expedition, accompanied by Mr. A. Schott and Messrs.
Wm. 8. and Charles Wood, sailed for Carthagena in October, pro-
ceeding thence to the isthmus. While at Carthagena a collection of
birds and shells was made and sent to Washington, and others are on
their way.

Among government expeditions fitted out in 1857, but from which
no collections have yet been received, are the following:

7. Wagon road route to California via El Paso and Fort Yuma,
under Colonel Leech.—This expedition was accompanied by Dr. McCay
and Mr. Hays, both of whom were prepared to make collections in
natural history.

8. Exploration of the La Plata and its tributaries, under Captain
Page, U. S.N.—Christopher Wood doing duty as zoological collector.

9. Artesian well expedition, on the Llano Estacado, under Captain
Pope, U. S, A.—This is the third expedition to the sterile regions of
western Texas, conducted by Captain Pope.

48 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

10. ELxploration of the Colorado river, under Lieutenant J. C. Ives.
This expedition started in September, accompanied by Dr. J. S.
Newberry, surgeon and geologist, and H. B. Méllhausen, artist and -
zoologist. Several collections made by these gentlemen about San
Diego are on their way, but have not yet been received.

The more important private explorations from which specimens
have been received are as follows:

11. Region around Fort Tejon, California, by J. Xantus de Vesey.—
The collections made by Mr. Vesey will compare favorably with any
obtained under government auspices, and embrace complete series of
the animals and plants of the vicinity of Fort Tejon, as far as met
with ; they also include quite a number of new species.

12. Southern Illinois and Northern Red river, by Rk. Kennicott.—Mr.
Kennicott, under a commission from the Northwestern University, at
Evanston, Ulinois, to procure for its museum a collection of specimens
of the natural history of the northwest, visited southern [linois in the
spring, and after exploring the vicinity of Cairo and New Madrid
for several months, proceeded to the Red river of the North, within
the British possessions, and nearly to Lake Winipeg. The collections
made cover all branches of zoology.

13. Coast of Florida, by G. Wurdemann, United States Coast
Survey.—Mr. Wurdemann’s collections were in continuation of those
of previous years, and included a great variety of species, among them
several birds new to the fauna of the United States.

14. Red river of the North and of Nelson’s river, H. B. Territory,
by Donald Gunn, esqg.—A large collection of birds and mammals made
in these regions by Mr. Gunn, assisted by Mr. John Isbister, have
added much to our knowledge of the distribution of species.

A collection of about 150 species of birds of Arctic America, Mexico,
and Guatemala, presented by John Gould, esq., of London, has fur-
nished very important data for comparison and determination of species
of the United States.

Of the numerous other collections made it is impossible to give an
account here. The detailed list of contributions and donations will,
however, furnish additional information on the subject.

In conclusion it may be proper to state, that of the government expe-
ditions mentioned above, that under Mr. Campbell was organized by
the State Department ; those under Lieutenant Warren, Lieutenant
Bryan, Colonel Johnston, Captain Pope, and Lieutenant Ives, by the
War Department ; those under Mr. Magraw and Mr. Leech, by the De-
partment of the Interior; and those under Captain Page and Lieu-
tenant Michler, by the Navy Department.

In the reception of collections trom the California coast, the Institu-
tion is ander great obligations to the California Mail Steamship
Line, composed of the United States Mail Steamship Company, the

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 49

Panama Railroad Company, and the Pacific Steamship Company, as
also to Messrs. Wells, Fargo, Co., for free transportation of very many
boxes and packages. The expense of what has been thus received, if
charged for at the usual rate, would have been entirely beyond the
means of the Institution, and if in an unprecedentedly short time our
knowledge of the natural history of California has been carried to a
point fully equal to that of any of the older States, it is unquestionably
owing in very great measure to the liberality of the companies above
mentioned in so generously seconding the efforts of the Institution.

The following table exhibits the additions made to the vecord books of the
museum in 1857, in continuation of previous years :

1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. | 1855. 1856. | 1857.
Con a a None 114 198} 351] 1,200] 2,046) 3,200
VEL og et RN lle eh eee 4 BABB tie 8 lee Bey | 4,353 | 4,425] 5,855 | 8,766
Skeletons and skulls. . 911 1,074 1,190 1,275 2,050 | 3,060; 3,340
entitles. Bost -u2ue janeons Co peU AL qe el ee < ato tefl Bol ae 106 239
Lh ee Se eres | Se ee a as ete erate jae ee Ste eee 155 | 613

Present condition of the museum.

The remarks in the last annual report of the Institution in relation
to the richness and extent of its collections are strengthened by the
additions of the past year, and they are confidently believed to be
beyond competition in the field of American zoology. The precise
statistics cannot now be given for the different classes and orders, as
the cataloguing is not yet completed. In one department, however,
some idea of the facts may be realized by the statement, that on the
first of July, 1857, the Institution possessed—

Species.
Of skins or alcoholic specimens of North American mammals.......eeeese ecoe 205
Of skins or alcoholic specimens of South American mammals...+-..eseeeeeees 18
Of skins or alcoholic specimens of European mammals.......+ cecsccce coeee 60

— 283
Of skulls or skeletons of North American mammals...ceessceeeseerece ecrcccee 221
Of skulls or skeletons of South American mammals.....ceescceccersecccereseee 17
Of skulls or skeletons of European mammals. ......ceeeseccsceccereccccres see 48

— 2&6

This was entirely exclusive of Cetacea, Pinnipedia, Cheiroptera and
Quadrumana, of which there were many species. Since the first of
July, the number of species of all orders has received a large increase.
The species of North American mammals in the museum of the In-
stitution, not mentioned in the great work of Audubon and Bachman,
exceeds 80. Of birds, the North American species are believed to ex-
ceed 600; of reptiles, 400; of fishes, probably 800 or more. As all
these classes are in process of elaboration, accurate statistics can
probably be presented in the next report.

As

50 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Work done in the museum.

The systematic registration of the Smithsonian collections has been
carried on as rapidly as other duties would admit. The number of
species labeled and entered during the year amounted to 5,271; most
of them in three different series of records, making nearly 15,000 entries.
It may be proper to state that all collections, as received, are entered in
a general record book, of which the alphabetical list of donations ap-
pended to this report is a transcript. The different specimens are
next labeled and then entered on the record for the class, or particular
order, and from this posted in a ledger consisting of separate sheets,
one for each species, systematically arranged, and each sheet contain-
ing an enumeration of all the specimens of its species, with the lo-
calities, sex, date, measurements and other memoranda, making the
third time of writing out the name and statistics. In this way not
only can information be obtained of the number of species of each class
or order, but also of the separate specimens, with the locality and gen-
eral character of each one. The posting up is complete for the mam-
mals, birds, and osteoclogical specimens, and well under way for the
reptiles and fishes, and some orders of invertebrates.

During the past year the general report on the mammals of the
Smithsonian collection has been completed and printed, forming volume
VIII of the Report of the Pacific Railroad Survey. That on the birds
is far advanced, and will be finished in the course of the ensuing
year, which will also, it is hoped, witness the completion of reports
on the reptiles and fishes.

Distribution and use of the Smithsonian collections.

As in previous years, the Smithsonian specimens have been freely
used by students and investigators in natural history, in preparation
of Monographs and other researches. Duplicates have also been dis-
tributed to a considerable extent, and as the collections become better
arranged and other circumstances allow, it is hoped to make such
distribution on a very extensive scale,

Inst of Donations during the year 1857.

C. Bellmann.—Fishes, &c., in alcohol, from Mississippi.

J.and A. Brakeley.—Fresh deer and otter from Virginia; jar of birds,
mammals and reptiles from the Alleghenies of Virginia.

J. Mason Brown.—Cast of the skull of Daniel Boone, taken previous
to the re-interment of his remains.

Lieutenant I’. T. Bryan, U. S. A.—Three boxes of zoological spe-
cimens collected by William 8. Wood on the wagon-road expedition
from Fort Riley to Bridger’s Pass.

Archibaid Campbell.—One box of dried skins, and one chest of alco-
holic specimens collected on Puget Sound by Dr. Kennerly, on the
northwest boundary survey. ;

J. H. Clark.—Chest with two cans filled with reptiles, fishes and

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 51

mammals in alcéhol; specimens of salt from the salt plains of the
Pewsa, on the southern boundary of Kansas.

Mr. Cook.—Copper ores from Arizona.

Dr. J. G. Cooper.—Collections made near Fort Laramie, and thence
to Independence ; four bottles of Salamanders from New Jersey ; one
hundred skins of birds from California and Washington Territory.

LL. Coulon.—Box of Swiss mammals.

Dr. 8S. Wylie Crawford, U. S. A.—Thirty-two jars of reptiles and
mammals from Texas and New Mexico.

Benjamin Cross.—Golden eagle in the flesh (length 36} inches ;
extent, 86 inches ; wing, 25 inches.)

J. P. Cunningham.—Box of Kaolin earth from Virginia.

John Day.—Snake from Virginia.

T. OC. Downie.—Coluber couperi and Geomys pinetis, in alcohol, from
Georgia.

CO. Drexler.—Skins of six birds and three mammals from near Phil-
adelphia.

Dr. J. Evans.—Ten boxes and one bundle of collections of geological
survey of Oregon; skins and skull of felis concolor (panther ;) six
skulls of Flathead Indians, from Oregon.

James Fairie.—25 skins of Lepus aquaticus (marsh hare) and Sczurus
ludovicianus (Fox squirrel;) birds, reptiles in alcohol, from Louisiana.

A, B. Forbes.—Viviparous fish (Hnnichthys megalops) from Cal-
ifornia.

Professor C. G. Forshey.—Cast skin of Scotophis, and skin of mouse,
from Texas; specimens of supposed equine fossil foot-marks ; jar of
alcoholic specimens ; skins of serpents; dried plants ; skin of Ocelot
and of Raccoons from Fayette county, Texas.

W. H. Gantt, M. D.—Infusorial earth from Texas.

O. E. Garrison.—Six packages Infusorial earth ; skins of Putorius
richardsonit and Spermophilus 13-lineatus from Minnesota.

Dr. W. Gesner.—Jar of Geomys pinetis and Arvicola ; mammals
and reptiles in alcohol; two jars of mammals from Georgia.

George Gibbs.—Box and barrel containing skeleton of large shark,
from Port Townsend, W. T.; keg of fishes, from Puget Sound; keg
‘of fishes from Columbia river.

Dr. J. B. Gilpin.—Skins of mammals from Nova Scotia; fifteen
skins of Putorius and Sciurus from Labrador and Nova Scotia; jar
with 12 mammals, in alcohol, from Nova Scotia.

W. R. Goodman.—Diatomaceous earth from Anne Arundel county,
Maryland.

John Gould.—160 skins of birds of Mexico and Guatemala; skins
of humming birds, (Campylopterus delattrii, Trochilus heteropogon and
Eriopus lucvani;) skins of Apternus hirsutus and arcticus.

Donald Gunn.—Skins of mammals and birds; skeletons; speci-
mens in alcohol from Red river. Skeletons of male and female
wolverine from Red river, H. B. T.

Dr. W. A. Hammond, U.S, A.—Box of skins of birds and mam-
mals from Kansas. Chest and two cans of zoological specimens

collected during Lieut. Bryan’s wagon-road expedition to Bridger’s
Pass.

52 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Dr, W. A. Hammond and J. X. de Vesey.—Skins of twenty-four
birds and of two prairie wolves from Kansas.

Dr. EL. W. Harker.—Skin of Salamander (Geomys pinetis?) from
Georgia.

F. V. Hayden.—Six boxes of fossils collected in the Upper Mis-
souri prior to 1856.

C. J, Heistand.—Specimens in alcohol of squirrels, moles, &c.,
from Pennsylvania.

— Dr. BE. W. Hilgard.—Specimen of Carocolla from Spain.

John S. Hittel—Human skulls and bones encrusted in stalagmite,
from a cave in Calaveras county, Cal.

Col. Hoffman, U. 8S. A.—Concretions from Cannon-Ball river, Ne-
braska.

B. A, Hoopes.—Can of Menobranchus and small mammals from
Lake Superior.

Robert Howell.—Two cans of mammals, in alcohol, from Tioga
county, N. Y.

Lieut. J. C. Ives, U. 8S. A.—F¥ossil Dendrechinus excentricus, Point
Lobas, Cal.; miscellaneous fossils from California; fossils from
Gatun, N. G.—all collected by Dr. J. 8. Newberry.

Dr. R. W. Jeffrey, U. S. N.—Collection of fishes of Norfolk.

Col. EL. B, Jewett.—Reptiles from Texas.

Dr. C. B. Kennerly.—Jar of mammals in alcohol, and skins of
Sciurus cinereus, from Clark county, Va.

Robt. Kennicott.—Six boxes zoological collections made in southern
Illinois, and in Minnesota to Lake Winipeg. (Deposited.) Gopher
(Geomys bursarius) from Illinois; thirty skins of Arvicola and Sorex
from Illinois ; two living squirrels, (Sciwrus ludovicianus.)

Major Jno, Leconte.—Astacus latimanus from Georgia.

J. MacMinn.-—Skins of five mammals from Pennsylvania.

Wm. M. Magraw.—Box of skins of birds and mammals; plants
from Independence; three boxes zoological collections, plants, &c.,
gathered between Fort Leavenworth and Fort Laramie during the
South Pass wagon-road expedition. Collected by Dr. J. G. Cooper.

Geo. P. Marsh.—Minerals from Europe.

C. C. Martin.—Keg of reptiles, fish and mammals, from Pennsyl-
vania and New York.

W. Massenburn.—Collections of serpents and crustacea from Florida,

Maximilian Prinz Von Wied.—Wild boar (Sus scrofa) from Ger-
many, and skins of chamois (Capella rupricapra) and of female ibex
(Capra ibex) from Mont Blanc.

Dr. HE. Michener.—Mounted original of Emberiza townsendiu. (De-
posited.)

D. Miller, jr.—Thirty small mammals, in alcohol, from Pennsyl-
vania,

Robt. O. Milton.—Box of fossils from Michigan.

H. B, Méllhausen.—Skin of head and skull, with horns, of Eu-
ropean stag, (Cervus elaphus.)

W. E. Moore.—Skins of monkeys from Bolivia

Henry Moores.—Star fishes from California, (Deposited.)

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 53

H. WM. Neisler.—Shells, reptiles, fishes, &c., in alcohol, from
Georgia.

Dr. J. S. Newberry.—Box of shells, Acapulco ; specimens of coals

from Ohio.

New Orleans Academy of Sciences.—Skin of pouched rat (Geomys
pinetis) from Florida.

B. M. Norman.—Three living turtles from New Orleans, (Zmy
mobilensis ?)

B. F. Odell.—Mammals and reptiles from near Lake Winnibigosh- -
ish, Minnesota.

John Oliphant.—Falco sparverius, in flesh, from Maryland.

Capt. T. J. Page, U. S. N.—Two packages of maté and six bottles
of water from the Rio Negro and Mato Grosso.

Dr. D. W. C. Peters.—Skins, birds, and mammals; reptiles and
fishes, in alcohol, from New Mexico.

Thos. M. Peters.—Bottle of reptiles; skin of Abastor erythrogram-
mus from Alabama.

Prof. Poey.—Two living Emys decussata; living boa or maja,
(Epicrates angulifer ;) collection of reptiles, in alcohol, from Cuba.

J. P. Postell.—Two living Gophers, (Zestudo polyphemus ;) skull
of Geomys pinetis ; box of shells, and other invertebrata, from Georgia.

John Potts.—Skins of Bassaris astuta, Putorius frenatus and Didel-
phys californica, from tue city of Mexico.

Francis B. Ray.—Bottle containing Ophibolus eximius from Mis-
souri.

E. Raymond.—Fossil wood from Neuse river, North Carolina.

J. W. Raymond.—Skin of white raccoon from North Carolina, and
of Bassaris astuta from California.

Peter Reid.—Fresh water sponge, in alcohol, from near Lake
Champlain.

Rev. Jos. Rowell.—Monkeys and other mammals, fishes, &c., in
alcohol.

H. de Saussure.—Four bats, Sorex alpinus, Myoxus glis, Mus sylvati-
cus, and musculus, and Arvicola nivalis from the St. Gothard, Switzer-
land ; other small mammals of Switzerland.

S. H. Scudder.—Can of mammals, in alcohol; box of insects from
Massachusetts.

Lieut. Semmes, U. S. N.—Syenite from North Greenland.

J. D. Sergeant.—Jar of mammals from Pennsylvania.

James Shoemaker.—Snakes and fishes from Roanoke county, Va.

Col. Wm. B. Slaughter.—Peat from Wisconsin.

J. Stauffer.—Can of mammals, in alcohol, from Pennsylvania.

J. J. Steenstrup, Director of Zoological Museum, Copenhagen.—Six
jars of invertebrates from Greenland

J. H. Sternberg.—Four turtles ; two boxes of shells, and of reptiles
and invertebrates, in alcohol; box of living plants from Isthmus of
Panama.

William Stimpson.—Two kegs and numerous jars of marine inver-
tebrates and fishes from Massachusetts; living marine animals for
aquarium.

Dr. George Suckley.—Hunters’ skin of elk and of mountain goat,

54 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Aplocerus montanus, from Washington Territory; box of birds from
California; skins of mammals, birds; fishes, shells, minerals, and
Indian relics, from Washington Territory; box with skins of mam-
mals and birds; plants, &c., from Steilacoom ; box of birds, shells,
&c., Port Townsend.

A. S. Taylor.—Jar of vertebrates and crabs from California; Cali-
fornia minerals.

Mr. Tufts. —Uiving actinia and other marine animals for aquarium.

Colonel A. Vaughan.—Skins of Vespertilio noctivagans and novebo-
racensis from Yellowstone river.

J, X. de Vesey and Dr. W. A. Hammond, U. S. A.—Skins of birds
and mammals from Kansas.

Dr. DS. Wall, U. S. A. Skull of Indian and fragments of pot-
tery from a mound near Fort Capron, Florida; skins of birds; skin
of manatee, or sea-cow, and of Lynx; also two birds from Florida,

William D. Wallach. —Copper ores and native copper from Bay-
field, Wisconsin.

Robert B, Waller.—Bottle of Cyprinodonts from Alabama.

Ineutenant G. K. Warren.—Two boxes fossils from Blackbird Hill,
collected by Dr. F. V. Hayden; collections made by Dr. F. V. Hay-
den during the exploration of the Black hills in 1857, consisting of 5
boxes zoological specimens; 21 boxes fossils and plants, &ec.

C. W. Welch.—Troupial (Icterus vulgaris) from Laguayra.

D. Welch.—Menobranchus maculatus from Lake Champlain.

Samuel Wheat.—lLiving black snake (Scotophis allegheniensis) from
Ohio.

Mr. Wheeler.—Storeria dekayi from Washington.

Thomas Whelpley —Ffossils from Michigan.

Dr, D, D. Whitehurst.—Box of specimens and cask of fishes, &c.,
in alcohol, from Gulf of Mexico; specimens of fishes (crustacea) from
Tortugas.

Dr. S. W. Wilson.—Four living alligators from Georgia ; skeleton
and skins of otter and deer; skins of Lepus palustris ; 24 small mam-
mals, in alcohol, from Georgia.

Dr. C. F. Winslow.—Box of lavas from Sandwich Islands; fossil
bones from California. (Deposited.)

W. 8S. Wood.—Bald eagle, Haliaetus leucocephalus, mounted ; mam-
mals, in alcohol, from Philadelphia.

C. Wright.—Jar mammals and reptiles from Connecticut ; fishes
from Cuba, said to be viviparous ; jars of reptiles, fishes, and inver-
tebrates from Cuba.

G. Wiirdemann.—Box of invertebrates and skins of birds from In-
dian Key, Florida; box of bird skins from south Florida; box of
birds, crustacea, corals, &c., from Key Biscayne, Florida.

Tue Younglove. —Bottle of blind fish, (Amblyopsis,) taken in a well
in Bowling Green, Kentucky.

Unknown.—Box iron ores, St. Louis, Missouri.

Hesperomys cognatus, in alcohol.
Hammerhead shark from Norfolk.
Living raccoon and great horned owl.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

55

LIST OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS

FOR THE YEAR 1857.

BRITISH AMERICA.

Name of observer. Station. N. lat. |W. long.| Height
Qa 7 1) i Fee.
Bakers ¢ Os. Sscu hase ac -- Stanbridge, Canada Hast....-- 45 08 | 73 00
Grape rs W Sih ones aes Hamilton, Canada West.-...- 43,15. |) 79-5
Delany, jrv; John .-=-.:==- Colonial Building, St. John’s,| 47 35 52 38
Newfoundland.
Gunn) Donald fs. 26 2s 22 Red river Settlement, Hudson’s} 50 06 | 97 00 853
Bay Territory.
alle Dr, Archibald). ..—=- Montreal, Canada East...-... 45 30 | 73 36 57
Hensley, Rev. J. M_-..---- King’s College, Windsor, Nova) 44 59 64 07 200
Scotia.
Magnetic Observatory------ Toronto, Canada West ------- 43 39°) 79 21 108
Smallwood, Dr. Charles--.-| St. Martin, Isle Jesus, Canada| 45 32 (Bair 118
Kast.
“SINZ)OC ty Pate EA pa Horton, Nova Scotia -......--| 45 06 | 64 25 95
MAINE.
Name of observer. Station. County. N. lat. |W. long.| Height.
Or Ont? Feet.
pel sonny) 22% 24. ae2 Carmel -.c8esc= Penobscot -.<.-- 44 47 | 69 00 175
Dang ow. 2) eeeacs3- Peryissseceeees Washington ----| 45 00) 67 06 100
Gardiner, R, H.=...2- Gardiner ...<=<- Kennebec)..22te 44 11| 69 46 90
Gupull, GYwW-=-. 22s. Comishville,s242|)/ Mork spa se=— 43 40 | 70 44 | 800
Barker, J.) 2 25-\-24. Steuben'.--24<2 Washington ....| 44 44 | 67 58 50
West, puas!2s) 2222.5 Oomishess2. 422 Morks osaeeeens 43 40 | 170 44 | 784
Walker Henry 225552 Portland: Ss 3-222 Cumberland ..--| 43 39 | 70 15 | 87
Wilbur, Benj. F....-- Monson). 5. - = - Piscataquis ..--- 43 11 69 35
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Bell, Samuel N-.....- Manchester--.--- Hillsborough.-..| 42 59 | 71 28 | 300
Ji tod 0 7ee/: a & ees oe Francestown..--| Hillsborough -.-| 42 59 | 71 45 |
Brown, B. Gould - ---- Stratford .....-- OOOS82 22a atau 2 4408; 71 34 1,000
Freeman, F. N._----- Claremont.....- Sullivaneise2 2 43 29 72 22 | 535
Hanscam, R. F_....-- North Barnstead_| Belknap...-..-- AS 2Be PL Bye |
Mackie Onsen oa. Londonderry----} Rockingham_..-| 42 53 | 71 20 |
Odell, Fletcher.....-.-. Shelburn-- =~... Coosseeeeesece 44 23 71 06 700
Prescott, Dr. Wm ---.| Concord....-.-- Mermmaci 2 == 43 12 71 29 | 374
Purmort, Nath......- West Enfield..--| Grafton ........ 43 30 | 72 00 |
Root, Dr. Martin N.--| Francestown..--.| Hillsborough---- 300} 71 46 |
Great Falls ----. Strafford ......- ASPs |. 0.52
ahi E...| Concord]. lees Merrimack... --- 43 12 | 71 20 |

56

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

VERMONT.
Name of observer. Station. County. N. lat. |W. long. | Height.
Qe! Onn Feet.
Bliss iGeorreses=..- - Shelburn see Chittenden _...- 44 23 | 73 00 150
Bliss vir Witenes. oes West Fairlee__--| Orange......... | 43 55 | 72 15
Buckland, David .-...- Brandongesseee = Rutlands==ess 2. 43 45 73 00
Fairbanks, Franklin ..| St. Johnsbury..-| Caledonia ....--! 44 25 |} 72 00 540
Marsh, Charles..._..- Woodstock ..... Windsor 5222=<c 43 36 72 35 716
spycam ary Ate ys eae Norwich, 222 soa2 Wan dSonroceseers 43 42 72 20
Paddock, James A-...| Craftsbury...-.- Orleanpysoeese- | 44 40] 72 30 1,100
banker, Josenhij-os25- Rapeniee es seca Bennington. .... eee 15 fey Aut 750
Petty; McKi2 204. ee] eburnling ton] ss Chittenden .-...| 44 29 amie 346
.
MASSACHUSETTS.
Bacon, William ...... Richmond <--4-~|} Berkshire 2.2... 42 23} 73 20 1,190
Bonde Prota Were oee Cambridge._.... Middlesex ...... 42,22 | 71 UT 71
Brooks, John ......-- Princeton 2..--- Worcester ....- NO 42 285), Tl Gone weLLs
Daring! Arse ees Bridgewater -.--{ Plymouth .....- 42 00 | 71 00 142
Davis, Rev. Emerson_-| Westfield......- Hampden ...... 42 06 | 72 48
1 SIGS Be 1 Rees se ae @antonssee= ence Nornollata=.=2- 42 12 71 08 | 90
allan hones a= se Lawrence......- issexce ee ee 2 ee 42 42 Cie din 35
Holcomb, Amasa....- Southwick .~....- Hampden..=.=.- 42 02 | 72 10 265
i pe oletede "7777 | | Williamstown...) Berkshire....... 42 43| 73 13 720
Metcalf, Jno. G., M. D.; Mendon -...---- Worcester -....- 42 06 12, 33
Mitchell, Hon. Wm... | Nantucket....-. Nantucket ..... 41 16 70 06 30
Perking) Dre HeiCre ee Newbunyponh sos) Hssexeseoese. 42 47 | 70 52 46
HieewHenty sss. se North Attleboro’.} Bristol .--...... AL 59°) 71 22 175
Rodman, Samuel .._-- New Bedford==—=|| Brstolisss-c2 >= 41 39 70 56 90
Sargent, John S22... 2 Worcester .....- Worcester. .-- 22 42 16 71 48 | 536
Schlegel, Albert....._ Taunton) Seo ce. Bristol ose sess. 41 49 | 71 09
Shaw, Francis..--...- Plainfield......- Hampshire ..... 42 30 | 72 56 |
Snaith: oH see ae IBOStOnme see eee UO KE ce see 42 22) ©7103
sell, Prot gmises2 5+ — Amberst...222 2323 Hampshire .---- 42 22 | 72 34 267
Tirrell, Dr. N. Quincy. | Weymouth ...-- INonole sue saat 42 10] 71 00 150
Whitcomb, L. F...--- Hlorida, ss2auue2 Berkshire ...... 42 42 3 10 2,500
RHODE ISLAND.
Caswell, Prof. A_...-- Providence ..... Providence ....- 41 49 71 25 120
CONNECTICUT.
Edwards, Rev. T., D.D.| New London..-.. New London....| 41 21 72 12 90
Harrison, Benj. F..-.. Wallingford -.... New Haven.--.- 41 26 72 50 133
oll; Aaron Bees. oo Georgetown -=<_| Hairfield’ 22. 222- 41 15 73 00 300
Hunt Dae eee iPomifret= so. 2 =< | "Wanda 22 oo. 5 41 52 ae, 596
Rankin, James...-..- Saybrook .....-- ' Middlesex -....- £118 || “72 20 10
Scholfield Noses. — === INOEWICH Soa .525 New London....| 41 32 | 72 03 50
Yeomans, William H.-| Columbia._._._- fe holl and ee sree 41 42 | 72 16
|

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 57

NEW YORK.
Name of observer. Station. County. N. lat. |W. long. | Height.
Oy 7 oP Feet.
Biba Dri Bi Mes’. . 22. Angelica... sss Alleghany . -.--| 42 15 | 78 01 1,500
Arden, Thomas B.--.-- RE VETLY) < cetee Rutmam: 2 s2ees- 41 22 72 12 180
Bowman, John..-....-. Baldwinsville .-.| Onondaga --..-- 43 04 | 76 41
Byram, Ephraim N~. --| Sag Harbor. ---- Suffolk. 2-322 33 41 00 | 72 20 40
Chickering, J. W-..-.-- OV at; Eee eee SENCCA-<=seaeee 42 41] 76 52 800
Dayton, \HcA~ =. ==. Madridin ss 226. St. Lawrence....| 44 43 | .75 33 280
Denning, William H--| Fishkill Landing.| Dutchess -.....- 41 34 | 74 18 42
Mer Cae ell f Rochester’. cae. Monroe oes eae 43 08 | 77 51 516
Fellows, Henry B-.-.- Sennett -..-...-- Cay a aso Se 3) 00) |) iiees
Erench, John R.....- Wexicog=2— 25: Oswero'g == 55 --< 43 27 | 76 14 423
ATOPTON hss oa 2 wet Westfarms._...- Westchester --.-| 40 53 74 O1 150
Greene, Prof. Dascom..| Troy..........- Rensselaer... =. - 42 44 | 73 3 58
Geaest-(Wphl 42). 22. Ogdensburgh . _.| St. Lawrence--.-| 44 43 | 75 26
House, J. Carroll.....- Lowville. .....- Lewis! so te 43 46 | 75 38
House, John. C. .....- Waterford . ....| Saratoga ......- 42 47 73 39
Mawell Rs. -=-..<2, Nicholls....-_-. NOE = tg 3 42 00 | 76 32 *
Ingalls, S. Marshall...) Pompey - -.-... Onondaga -..... 42 56 76 05 1,745
Johnson, E. W.....-. Canton . -ze42 St. Lawrence....| 44 38 fa15 304
Landon, Anna §...... Biden 27355 ooo 4 WEIe 2 2 42 30 79 07 700
Lefferts, John.-...... 1sy3 ee ae Seneca = oo. cee 42 37 76. 53 1,000
Malcolm, Wm. S----- Oswero — —- eco Osyrero\ =... sa. 43 28 | 77 34 232
Morehouse, A. W-_---- Spencertown . -.| Columbia...-_-. 42 19 | 73 41 800
Morris, Prof. 0. W.-.-| New York-..... News York. - = 40 43 74 05 159
WGEDON: Jegela es o5 . Soe Plainville) £0 Onondaga .....- 43 00 (it fem is
iFaine. He N., MD) o=.|) Clinton. .ss6- Oneida~ 47 ee 43 00 | 75 20 500
Pernot, Prof. Claudius.| Fordham ...---- Westchester _...| 40 54 74 03 147
Reed, Edwar.l C.....- Homer. socsene4 Cortland: 22225. 42 3 76 11 1,100
neds Peter: -a-.ccam Waals anaes Washington.....| 43°15 | 73 33
Riker, Walter H_-..-- Saratoga ...--.- Saratoga ....... 43 06 | 74 00 960
Sanger, Dr. W. W..--- Blackwell’s Isl’d.| New York_----- 40 45 | 73 57 29
Sartwell, Dr. H. P....| Penn Yan...<=; R01) 2 ee 42 42 (ree Aa! 740
Dbecrsr Hey Mie oi 2s Wellsville . ....| Alleghany -..... 42 07 78 06 1,480
Sias, Prof. Solomon..-.| Fort Edward....| Washington --..| 43 13 73 42
Smith, J. Metcalf. .... McGrawville....| Cortland ....... 42 34 76 11 1, 450
Spooner, Stillman ....| Wampsville..._.| Madison.......- 43 04 75 50 500
Taylors sos. W......- Plattsburgh... .. Chintone= 2254 2s6 44 40 73 26 156
Titus, Henry Wm.---| Bellport ....-..- Sufolkis=ss=2""" 40 44 | 72 54
ourrelione re hy A -|\ Utes, <2 22. 2-22 Graz Ne 43 07 75.05 500
Van Kleek, Rev. R..D_| Flatbush-.......| Kimgs.........- 40 37 74 O1 54
White, Aaron. = == Cazenovia ~....- Madison 22 -— 2--- 42 55 75 46 1, 260
Williams, Dr. P. O._-_}| Watertown ____. Jefferson ..--..- 43 56 75 55
Wilson, Rev. W. D___-| Geneva -_-.__.- Ontario 2: 22222 42 53 77 02 567
Woodward, Lewis -...| West Concord_..| Erie .......---- 43 00 79 00 2,000
Yale, Walter D......- Houseville =fe2 =|) Lewis. <:2-2< 2222 43 40 15 32
Zaeptiiel, Tis.... «----| West Morrisania | Westchester ....| 40 53 74 01 150
NEW JERSEY.
Cooke, Robert L.----- Bloomfield >= - =| Hesse ee. 40 49 | 74 11 120
Schmidt, Dr. E. R-..-| Burlington .....| Burlington ....- 40 00 | 75 12 | 26
Sergeant, John T_..-- Sergeantsville.-.| Hunterdon ...-- 40 29 AR UE:
tee e eis t Kreehold:s2s- 2-2 Monmouth .....| 40 15 / 74 21
Whitehead, W. A....| Newark - ....-- ese ee ot 40 45 | 74 10 30

58 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

PENNSYLVANIA.
Name of observer. Station. County. N. lat. |W. long.| Height.
oa rail Feet.
Brown, Samuel_.--.-- Bedford 22222 2= Bedtord 22.222" 40 01 78 30
Baird, Jonnie.) Tarentum _-...- Alleghany -..--- 40 37 79 19 950
Brickenstein, H. A----| Nazareth -. ---- Northampton .--| 40 43 |] 75 21
Brugger, Samuel .---- Hleming = sss" Centre: -.--=---- AO VSS | ioe 780
Coffin, Selden, J-.---- Hastoneecce se Northampton.--| 40 43 TOMLG 320
Comily; Johnoes--— 22 By beriye= see eae Philadelphia----| 40 06 | 74 58
Darlington, Fenelon --} Pocopson -- .--- Chester Sees 22 39) 547) 9°75 ST 218
Edwards, Joseph.--.-. Chromedale -..-| Deiaware.---.-- 39 55 75 25 196
Begert, John oo-5-<= Berwicksss2see. Columbia. -.-.-- 41 05 76 15 588
iniell: Pores sascha ee Shamokin ------ Northumberland.; 40 45 76 31 700
Hance, Ebenezer -.-.-- Morrisville 2. --- Buickssss222s2 05 40 12 74 53 30
Heisely, Dr. John ~.--| Harrisburg ----- Danphinesssec—— 40 16 | 76 50
ickoke Wee Oerecma Harrisburg ----- Dauphin 40 16 | 76 55
Hoffer, Mary H.------ Mount Joy --.-- laneaster-sess52 40 08 76 70
Jacobs, Rev. M.-.--.-- Gettysburg .---- Ndamsiasascesnc BOL eHiNS
James, Prof. Charles §..| Lewisburg --.--- Union 2222/5522 40 58 76 58
Kirkpatrick, Prof. J. A.| Philadelphia --.-| Philadelphia...) 39 57 UL 60
Kohler, Edward__.--- North Whitehall | Lehigh_--.-.---- 40 40 | 75 26 250
Martin, William------ Pitishurcesssoo 2 Alleghany.-.--. 40 3 80 00
Mowry, George.------ POMersetaee == Somersebeeese 40 02 79 02 2,180
Ralston, Rev. J. Grier-| Norristown ----- Montgomery..--| 40 08 oma 153
Schreiner, Francis ..-.| Moss Grove. ---- Crawiorda2s. fee 41 40 79 5L
Smith, Prof. Wm----- Canonsburg..--- Washington ----| 40 25] 80 07 936
Smyser, Rev. B. R..--| Pottsville.-__.-.- Schuylkill.----- 40 41 76 09
Stewart, Thos. B. ---.| Murrysville ...-- Westmoreland -.| 40 28 | 79 385 960
Swit Ds. eau sae West Haverford_| Delaware. .-.--- 40 00 75 21
Minekstime eh 2) Meadville ~....- Crawford! 2 41 39} 80 11 1,088
Walson, Prof: Wi. C222.) "Carlisles2222 22 2- Cumberland -.--| 40 12 Titer 500
Walson, We Wiese -ace Piutsbure sees oo Alleghany ------ 40 32 80 02 1,026
DELAWARE.

Pee ae eset | Newanle aves New Castle....- 39 38 | 75 47 120
Martins Are ..-—=- Milford) = ee eens See etnies 39) O55 Zia 25
MARYLAND.

Baer, Miss"H. M_.=322 Shellman Hills--} Carroll---.....- 39 23\) Gor 700

Cofrau Wy. Wasa. see Oakland! =)222= 22 Alleghany ...--- 39 40 | 79 00
Goodman, Wm. R-.--.-| Annapolis ------ Anne Arundel_--| 38 58 | 76 29 20
Hanshew, Henry E..--| Frederick ----.- Frederick -...-- 39 24 | 77 18
Lowndes, Benj. O-.---- Bladensburg -..-] Prince George---| 38 57 76 58
Mayer, Prof. Alfred_-.-} Baltimore -...-- baltimore = - .- =< 39 18 76 37
Pearce, James A., jr.--| Chestertown ....| Kent -........- 39 14 76 02
Stages DG ooweosen- Ridgessa--a¢ 226 St. Mary’s.....- 38 05 | 76 18
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
Smithsonian Institu- | Washington ee Washington ----| 38 53 | 177 01 | 30

tion.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 59

VIRGINIA.
Name of observer. Station. County. N. lat. | W. long.| Height.
| le) ear 12 et | Feet
Astrop, Col. R. F. - --| Crichton’s Store.| Brunswick....-- 36 40 | 77 46 500
Couch, Samuel-_----.- Ashland ~~ 32<22- Rutnam, =) ase 3o).38 |. Sl bf
Dickinson, George C--| Rougemont ..-.. Albemarle - ...-| 38 05 | 78 21 450
millis, Col, 2D! Hi... 4t @rack Whip o.c|\Handy...5. 22282 39 30 | 78 31 1750
Fauntleroy, H. H.---- Montrose...---- Westmoreland --| 38 07 | 76 54 200
Fraser, James:----<-. Mustapha ....-.- Wood. sits 255 39 20 | 81 41
Hallowell, Benjamin --} Alexandria -..-. Alexandria ...-- 38 48 77 01 56
Hon, Josiah W---.2o- iWartiC: iz ssoae Winds 2. aaa 39 05 81 26
Hotchkiss, Jed......- Mossy Creek_..-| Augusta - ------ 38 20 79 05
Johnson, Enoch D.---| Sisterville ---.-- TVVET" 22 n = siete 39 34] 80 56 540
Kendall, James E .---} Charleston..--.-- Jefferson ......-| 38 20 81 21
Kownslar, Miss Ellen -| Berryville --..-- @lark.2> Ssees= 39 09°; 78 00 575
Marvin, John W..--.- Winchester .~.-.| Frederick .....- 39 15 78 10
Offutt, J. J., M. D--.-| Capon Bridge...| Hampshire --..- 39 16 | 78.29
Patton, Thomas, M. D.| Lewisburg------ Greenbrier ----- 38 00 | 80 00 2,000
Purdie.ohn. K-21 Smithfield...--- Isle of Wight.--| 36 50] 76 41 100
Ruftin, Julian C...-.- Ruthven)ssss..- Prince George-.-| 37 21] 77 33
Ruffner, David L_-..- Kanawha. -..-.-- Kanawhaesceenn 88 53 81 25
Slaven, James_...----- Meadow Dale .--| Highland .--.-- 38°23 | 79°35
Upshaw, George W.--| Rose Hill-.....- SSEX joy Ss syed 38 00 | 76 57 250
Webster, Prof. N B --.|} Portsmouth----. Nonfolk, je2eeee 386 50 76 19 34.
Wells, J. Carson--...- SAleMes aos ats Roanoke —s-<+i-- 39 20] 80 Ol 1,100
Wickline, Thomas J --| Longwood.-..-. Rockbridge ---.. aia. 30) | aida 800
NORTH CAROLINA.
Johnson, Dr. W. M-.--| Warrenton - wae Warren oo- o2 se 36 30 78 15
McDowell, Rey. A----| Murfreesboro’...| Hertford -.....- 36 30 77 06
MeDowell, W. W ..--| Asheville...-..- Buncombe-....- 35 37 | 82 29 2,250
Moore, Geo! F!; M. D-.| Gaston. .2.22--2 Northampton .--| 36 32 77 45
Morelle, Daniel... --- Goldshoro? + 223|) Waynesees a 22" SONEAO Raines
Phillips, Rev. Jas., D. D} Chapel Hill...-- Oranges. S22222 aD 64) 19° 17
SOUTH CAROLINA.
Cornish, ola eles a = AGO ys 35 oy sca Barnwell 22 226- 33 32 81 34 565
Dawson, John L., M. D.| Charleston.....- Charleston.....- '32 46] 80 00
Edisto Island .~--| Colleton....---- 32 34} 80 18 23
eee NM. Mount Pleasant -} Laurens_------- 32 47 | 79 55
Glennie, Rev. Alex’r..| Waccaman-.....- A Saints eee 33.40) 19.17 20
Johnson, Joseph, M. D | Charleston... -- Charleston.._.-- 32 46 | 80 00 30
NOUN a Aa. De Sole Cam dena son Kershaw) o-sace-ioe 17 ||, 80.33 275
GEHORGIA.
Anderson, Jas , M. D -| The Rock -.....- Wpsomy os. cee 32 52 | 84 23 833
ArmmoldeMrst ws Lees AG LON = lalate PRO yer rot ahs) 2a 33 07 84 26
Haste, Prof.,John D-.|,Athens ... .-2-\@lerke:_....=..- 33 58 83 80 850
GIDSOn hn econesone Whitemarsh Is’d.| Savannah ...... 32 04 | 81 05 18

60 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

GEORGIA—Continued.

ka
Name of observer. Station. County. N. lat. | W. long.| Height.
ON Ce Feet.
Glover; MIS 25.222 Hillsboro? S25 2/52 Jasperteo. Jt Bose 33 U3" \- 183945 566
Haines, William.._..- AUGUStA,. <acsse Richmond . -...| 33 20 | 81 54 1,470
Pendleton, E. M.,M.D.| Sparta -.......- Haneock 222 5e2 33 17 | (83709 550
Rosey, Jobn f=. .=22. Pavannalal gece oe Chatham 222 222 32 05 81 07 42
Reid, James M 2....2- Philomath....-. Oglethorpe .----| 33 45 | 83 15
repeat aystoyahs 18). 4D, ae Factory Mills ...| Wilkes.....--.- 33 40 84 46
FLORIDA.
Bailey, James B._.--- Gainesville -__-. Alachuwese..-5* 29 35 82 26 184
Baldwin, A. G., M. D-| Jacksonville __..| Duval--.-....-. 30 30 82 00 13
Batchelder, F. L...--- EIDeRM ae =e eee Divas ess oa 2 30 15 81 30 15
Dennis, Wi. C) 22.22 Salt Ponds...--- Keys Wiest sos 24 33] 81 48
Fry, Joseph...-.---
Hester, Lieut. J. Pensacola eases. Bscampide-.. ee. 30 20 87 16 12
Wie URES aN sae
Ives, Edward R ....-- Allipatoreeee eee Columbia s22 ae SOP UZ) Boe. on 174
Mauran, P. B., M. D-.| St. Augustine.__| St. John’s..-..- 29 48 | 81 35 8
Steele, Judge Aug.-.-| Cedar Keys...-- heyy SSosesrsee8 29 07 3 02 12
Whitner, Benj. F...-- Belair eee s ee Heoniases2e 5.22 30 24 | 84 20 70
ALABAMA.
ATison, Ho gin MM. Dae iCarlowvilles sao- Dallas seesene2 32 10 Siglo | 300
Barker, Thomas M.-..-| Ashville - .....- St, Clair... a2her BB iy 86 20
Darby, Prot. John = 4>-|eAuburnja2e-cee- Macon 55-22 32 37 85 34 821
Tutwiler, Henry--.--- Greene Springs.-| Greene.......-- 32 50 | 87 46
Waller, Robert B. ~..-| Greensboro’. -_--- Greene _ = .22 Je 382 40°} 87 34 350
MISSISSIPPI.
|
Elliott, Prof. J. Boyd_-| Port Gibson_-~-- Claiborne #-.--- SL S098 rae. © on
Lull, James 822.2528 Columbus ....-- Rowntles 2/2025 33 30 | 88 29 | 227
|
LOUISIANA.
Barton, Driyh Ef; o— =| New Orleans-=—-|) Onleams 222 /c=-0 29 57 90 00
Kilpatrick, A. R., M. D.| Trinity---...-.. Chatahoula --_--- 31 30 | 91 46 108
Merrill, Edward, M.D.) Trinity.....-..- Chatahoulaees-= Bil Boll 91 47 68
57} 90) 00

Taylor, lewes BX=-<-- New Orleans--- .| Orleans! --e see 29
|

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS,

61

TEXAS.
*
Name of observer. Station. County. N. lat. | W. long! Height.
eae One! Feet.
A Goliadess 2s shes% I Goliad = s2ss4ee" 28 30 | 97 15 50
oka C- | Helena__...---- Karnes.....---- 29 00 | 97 56 600
Barked. ling 225.258 New Wied..-.-.. Comal, 352252222 29 42 98 15
Horke, Ave Sih ekt 53 ke
MicdrickiOte__. t New Braumfels_.| Comal .......-- 29 41 98 15
Gantt, Dr. Wm. H..--| Union Hill...... Washington ----| 30 3 96 31 540
Jennings, 8. K.,M.D. aa iTate
ie f Most: - 222-2 iPrayin’=-22- oes 30 20| 97 46 650
Rucker, B: Hists= --1% Washington ....| Washington ----| 30 26 | 96 15
TENNESSEE.
Bean; James B.. ...-=—- WalnutiGrove-=-|)Greene==-=—=—- | 36 00 | 82 53 1,350
Stewart, Prof. Wm. M-| Glenwood --.---- Montgomery. ---| 36 28 | 87 13 481
Tockway.J., M. D--..| Memphis ...<=4- Shelbyt-c-...--= 35 08 | 90 00 | 262
Wrieht, Dri Dani! H..| Memphis. ..2<--- DNCLDY < ses seeee | 35 08 | 90 00 262
KENTUCKY.
| | ar 40
Peat Gee ss Danville 5222203 Bayle Peet aie 37 40 | 84 30 950
Ray, L. G., M. D- ---- Part Soe) eea vee | Bourbon .......| 38 16 | 84 07 810
Savage, Rev. Geo. §.--| Millersburg----- Bongpon’= 2-22. | 38 20| 84 20 804
Young, Mrs. Lawrence-| Springdale - is Jefferson ---...- | 38 07 | 85 34 570
} |
OHIO.
AbeHeRBa 2s noc cans Welchfield . ...-| Geauga -... ..-. 41 23 | 81 12 Daas:
Allen, Prof. Geo. N..-.| Oberlin .... -.-. Loraine? 2 3.i<-- 41 20 | 82 15 800
ATmnipn. ips e a ea== = Ripleys <a ss <ie0% BOW aes ease 38 47 83 31
Anthony, Newton ----| Mount Union ---} Stark -.....--.- 41 20 | 81 Ol
Atkins, Rev. DS ..=-- Madison ~ ..-._ Pakexsste2 228. 41 49 | 81 10
Penner, Jo hess aeoe New Lisbon -...| Columbiana -.-.-) 40 45 80 46
Bennett, Henry ...--- Collmpwood 222 |"bucas~s 2.2252" 41 49 | 83 34
Prcers, Je 8 22.522. Germantown....| Montgomery ----| 39 39 | 84 11
Bosworth, Prof. R. S--| College Hill ....| Hamilton -- ---- 39 19 | 84 25 800
Cunningham, Miss A.-| Unionville...... Takesasoh 2222 41 52 81 00 650
Dayton, Lewis M.-.-.-.- Lancaster .. --.- Wairfield'2/2- 22 39 40 | 82 40
Gilmor, Moses-----.--.- Jackson. >= - Jackson) = o2oso 39910 | 82 32 666
Hannaford, Ebenezer-.| Cheviot -....--- Hamilton) aes 39 07 | 84 34
Harper, George W-.---| Cincinnati.-...- Hamilton .. ..-- 39 06 | 84 27 150
Herrick, James D--.--- Jetierson-.-5-=- Ashtabula. -_..- 42 00 81 00
Hollenbeck, F. & D. K.| Perrysburg ...-- Wieodeeeseco25 41 39 | 83 40
Holston, J. G. F., M. D.| Zanesville -..... Muskingum ....| 39.58 | 82 01 700
Hurt, hrancis W.-=.- Cincinnati . ....| Hamilton......- 39 06 84 34
Hyde, Gustavus A__-.| Cleveland ------ Cuyahoga .-...- 41 30 | 81 40 665
Ingram, John, M. D.--| Savannah ---- -- Ashlindies 2 —s—— 41 12 | 82 381
Janes, (C. (Crore cance Hillsborough . -.| Highland.
iuther: ‘6: Maes. SS. Hirani sos eee Rormasess s5252- 41°20" 8115 675

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

OH1IO—Continued.

?
Name of observer. Station. County. N. lat. | W. long.| Height.
2 Feet.
Mathews, Joseph McD.| Hillsborough - -.| Highland..-..-- 13 |} 83 1,000
MeCarty, HD S5.- 22 | West Bedford ---| Coshocton .....- 18 | 82 876
Peck, W. B., M. D.---| Bowling Green _.| Wood.......--- 271 $B 700
IPO; JAMES Elsa amon Portsmouth. .-.. NCIOLOe seeeee oe 50 82 468
Ropers eA bs. Sano mae Gallipolis .- ---- Gee rye es ip 00 | 82 520
Sanford, Prof. S. N.-.-| Granville.-=...- ticking» ssssee—e 03 | 82 995
Sanford, Smith......- \wEdinburssss2o—5 Borbacelea= see 20 | 81 520
Schenck, W. L, M.D.) Franklin .__..-- Warren ....._-- 30 | 84
Shaw, Joseph ---..--- | Bellefontaine . -.| Logan ........- 21) 83 1,031
Shaw, Joseph ......-- RICHEY sme nea Shelbyess ese 21] 84
‘Suan ere aie t Bellecentre ...-- LOHAN. « cocnieck s 28 | 83 1,170
Treat, Samuel W- .---| Windham -....- Portagees. 2... 105) 28k
Ward; in He Sees eee eMedinarss.=22.2 Medina 2.2 ses. 07 81 1, 206
Williams, Prof. M. G--}| Urbana .... ...- Champaign --_.- 06 | 83 1,015
MICHIGAN.
Allen, James 22. --- Rorbeevuron esa StClaire sean a Zi laps) |e te 606
Andrews, Seth L., M.D.’ Romeo..--. ~..- Macombi 2. <2. 244 | 83 730
Campbell, Wm.M.,M.D. Battle Creek ~---| Calhoun-_--.--- 20 | 85 750
Crosbyiid.- Boles see ss New Bufialo----- iBermiente os ese" 45 | 86 600
Currier, Alfred O.-.-. Grandunaple ste) MMenibee aa lama 300 | 86 752
Sireng, ld; Hos22 Seo 5 Grand™hapids=, | ent=<on-=-- = 00 | 86 852
Walker, Mrs.OctaviaC. Cooper..-- --.-- Kalamazoo-.---- 40 85 ¢
Whelpley, Miss H -..- Monroe -..- ---- Mi lionroe, <2 ae 56 | 83 590
Wihite, (Peters s=—s— Marquette --...- Marquette -...-- 5 32 87 630
Whittlesey, Chas. S.-. Copper Falls .---] Houghton -..-.- 25 | 88 1, 230
Winchell, Prof. A ~...) Ann Arbor-_----- Washtenaw. ---- 16 83 8$1
Woodruff, Lum --.-..-.- Ann Arbor...--- Washtenaw. ---- 16 | 83 850
INDIANA,
Barnes, (Clea. aac meee New Albany... -|sHloydo--- -.-j..4 ie 85
Chappellsmith, John..| New Harmony --| Posey.-..--.. ...- 08 87 320
Crisp, John 2—.- so. Evansville --.-.- Vanderburgh. ..- 08 | 87 390
Lasselle, Charles B....| Logansport. ....| Cass-..... ----- 45 | 86 600
Moore, Joseph. -....-. Richmond -....- Wayne .ceeseu= 9 47) 84 800
Smith, Hamilton --..- Cannelton -....- ROLLY w= ===) (Sao 58 | 86 450
Woodard, C.8.....-- Michigan City.-.| La Porte.--.--.. 41 | 86 622
ILLINOIS.
Babcock, Andrew J..-| Aurora..---....- Kane ic. spaces 40 | 88 600
Babcock) ) Heese 1 i ee MeHenry— 2 2p mice 08 | 88 & 650
Baker, Wrankoe-. -—n- South Pass...... Union oa a —eeeee 28 | 89
Bowman, Dr. E. H---| Edgington ...-.- Rock Island..--- 25 | 90
Brendel, Fred’k, M.D-.| Peoria.......... Peoraes ss = aoe 36 | 89 ;
Eldredge, William V--| Brighton. .....-| Macoupin......- 00 | 90

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS,

ILLINOIS—Continued.

63

%
Name of observer. Station. County. N. lat. |W. long.| Height.
ON Ooi! Feet.
Grant, Johnis.s2 .-.2 Manchester -s2-34//Scott_...... 82228 39 33} 90 34 683
Be WJOCNss ke sae Athens=.=- Seo: Menard..ss. 3228 39 52 89 56
Barris, J. O.,M. D-<-| Ottawa... ---=- ba Salle. cose 41 20 88 47 500
scox, Gan 2s. 32a @hicavo..=.225¢ Cooks... 5.33223 41 53 87 41 600
James, Anna :.=-.--=- Upper Alton -..-| Madison ...-...- 39 00 89 36
HeMkIns. J.lices o-28|Granvilles 23. Rutnam,...n22e 41 14 89 21
Mead. 5) basi) se) Aupustas.......- Hancock =<. =... 40 12 | 89 45 200
Mead, Thompson-....- BAbAVI1A <2 ou5= Mane =.= << 41 52 | 88 20 636
iblot: Jj Ebe 26s 588 Bekin s24s.o oes Pazewell.iccs 46 40 3 89 45
Rogers, ©; PL .cs Jee Marengo... 222522 McHenry... .. 23 42 14 88 38 650
Smith, Isaac H.....=- | Fremont Centre | Lake....... =... 42 i8 88 06 736
Swain, John, M. D- --| West Urbana..--| Champaign. -.--| 40 09 | .88 17 550
Titze, Henry A=...-=-- | West Salem-_--_.- Edwards ...---.| 38 30] 88 00
Wallace, Samuel Jacob.| Carthage. .....- Waencock.- os.s45 40.23 | 90 17
Whitaker, Benjamin --| Warsaw.... ---- Hancock = 222s 40 20 | 91 31
MISSOURI,
Wislizenus, A., M. D. | Be. Louise ee2Se St. sLouisssss. 5 38 37 | 90 16 | 461
IOWA.
ce Lanta ace Buchanan .. -..- 42 45 | 87 16
Beeman, Carlisle D---} Rossville - --..-- Allamakee .....- 43 10 Seva 1,400
Bory .John C..s<s= == wbellevtleesaa =a Jackson=<=s-s== 42 15 | 90 25
Goss, William K-..... Border Plains....| Webster ........ 42 36 94 05
Sobart, Edward F.---; Maquoketa . _.--| Jackson..-. .... 42 04 | 90 41
Hom Asa, MDs... =. Dubuque =s=22=- DPubuques=2o.== 42 30 90 52 1, 258
McConnell, Townsend.| Pleasant Plain.--.| Jefferson.......- 41 07 91 54
McCready, Daniel ...-| Fort Madison..-.| Lee-..........-. 40 37 91 28
ParkeryNathanrdes2.| Clintonic.-. coo Chnton= 2.2222 41 48 90 15
[EET Rg) lets Cah see ee Muscatine -...-. Muscatine ...... 41 26 91 05 586
Reynolds; W.--- <<. Iowa City..-.... JOHNSON. 55225 = 41 39 S133
pamilles Dr Jmoc see | wioux. City-2oc2 <= Woodbury -..-.- 42 31 | 96 25
Sbater, J: M., M.D_..| Pairfield:--.:..- Jeterson.. ...--- 41 01 Sian 940
Smith, Prof, B. Wilson| Mount Vernon.-_-| Linn.....-...-- 42 00 91 00
WISCONSIN.

> 4
cao. cag Waukesha. -.-..- Waukesha -..... 42 50 | 88 ll 833
Breed, J. Everett.__-- New London.-.-.| Waupacca .....- 44 21] 88 45
Chandler, Marine T.W.| Falls of St. Croix.| Polk. ........-- 45 30 | 92 40 660
Durham, (Wisden couc Racine <6 sseeeee Racine 4 je sao 25+ 42 49 87 40
Ellis, Edwin....---.- Bays@ity 2222 see Lar Pointe: 222 -/5 46 33 | 91 00 658
Gridley, Rev. John .--| Kenosha ....... Kenositti. . 2-00 42 35) 87 50 600
Hillier, Spencer L.---- Prescott2. 22222 PICkCe Ss 2a aes 44 56 92 40 800
Himoe, John E,.....- Norway 2.2222 Racine’..-= =... 42 50 | 88 10 753

64 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

WISCONSIN—Countinued.

Name of observer. Station. County. N. lat. |W. long.| Height.
O50 ae Feet,
Lapham, Increase A...| Milwaukie-....- Milwaukie. 45) 03y| /8ieai 593
haps; Jacobye2=- —- == Manitowoc ..--- Manitowoc ----- 44 07 | 87 37
‘Wason, Prof. sRWZ: = 52 Appleton. ..--5- Outagamie.....- 44 10 | 88 35 800
Pickard, J. L., M. D--| Platteville... Grant= 355.586 42 45 91 00
Pomeroy, HC... 22 Milwaukie--.--- Milwaukie-...-- 43 04 | 87 59 658
Porter, Prof. Wm.---. Beloituss 25.28 10 eee ae 42°30 | 89 04 750
Schine: A. Me Ds. 23 Madison...-...- DANE i ajnantomtoee AZ: 05:_|. 89025 892
Sterling, Prof. J. W.--| Madison_-.---.-- DEMO iars ose ae 43 05 | 89 25 892
Struthers, Havele - =e Hind sossa=se9 Waupacca ..-..- 44 20 | 89 00
Underwood, Col. D.---| Menasha ...--.- Winnebago -.--- 4413} 88 18
Winkler, C., M. D----| Milwaukie_--.-- Milwaukie...... 43 04 | 87 57 5938
Walllard), J. 22.228 Janesville ...... RoGk,...- Sssse=e 42 42 | 89 91 768
MINNESOTA.
Garnson,, Obie) iPrmcetones ace BeNLON ose5 =-25 45 50} 93 45 |
Hillier, Spencer Ui:=-—= Wabashaw.----- Wabashaw...-.-- 44 30 | 92 15 850
Odell, Rey. Benj; He e2) Lake Winnibi-s|2- S22 22-5. ooo 47 30 | 94 40
goshish.
Ripge Shien sse esos Heizlewoodtmerncimeser int see cee 45 95 30 |
Walsh, Stephen_-_-.-- BUCHANAN ase a see ea ateraeree 47 33 92 00
Winteht wives sero JG}2H osha a Ss es Pembina -..-2-- 46 10 | 96 00 850
NEBRASKA.
Byers Wim, Nese osos=| Omahanoo.-. 2-2 = Douglas: os-s—4< 4115 | 96 10
Hamilton, William-.--|} Bellevue .------ | Shia ea 41 08 | 95 50
KANSAS.
Brown. GoW asses | Lawrence.....-- Douglass easeae | 38 58 | 95 12 800
Fish, Edmund---.----- | Council City ~---| Shawnee -...-.. | 38 42 | 95 50
Goodnow, Isaac T.---- | Manhattan ----- Rileyreeaseseas S 39 13 96 45
Himoe; S ©:,,M. D: <2) Mapleton==2=--— Bommbony=——-<o= 38 04 94 51
MeCarty, “EL Dest =.= | Leavenworth City| Leavenworth ~ 39 20 94 33 1, 342

UTAH:

Phelps, Henry H.-.--- Greatisalt’ Lakers sce. lene sases 40 45 | 111 26 4,250
City.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 65

CALIFORNIA.
Name of observer. Station. County. N. lat. |W. long. | Height.
an ae Feet.
Ayres, W. O., M. D..--| San Francisco_--| San Francisco-.-| 37 48 | 122 23 115
Belcher, W. C.-.=.--- Marysville.....- Wubarec eee 39 12 | 121 42
Logan, Thos. M., M.D.| Sacramento....-.| Sacramento. ----| 38 35 | 121 40 49
GUATEMALA.
CANUDUS, ANTONIO COLLEGE.
SOUTH AMERICA.
Name of Observer. Station. Lat. Lon. Height.
oo ars Cyt i Feet.
Hondlery AR iw csee seas Colonia Tovar, Venezuela ......- 10 26 67 20 6, 500
Geological Surveyors.---| Port of Spain, Trinidad.-------- 10 39 | 61 34 16
Henmng ON do Scones Plantation, Catharina Sophia,
Colony of Surinam, Dutch Gui-
BMA rotcvcinid cesta pa cineraiaje ane aas 5 48 | 56 47
Uricoschea, Dr. E._...-- Bogota, New Granada_...----.-. 436, %4 14 8,863
BERMUDA.
Arnold, James B.....-.- Shelby Bay. ott -cseccerceth ee 32 28 64 32
MOVANGAZGLLG See ates clace ne ce anaes eee aa enw
AZORES.
Dabney, Ss Wie aaaeen2s = Honta,Wsyal Islands —-.-..-0.-. 38 30 | 28 42 80

5s

66 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The Executive Committee respectfully submit to the Board of Re-
gents the following report of the receipts and expenditures of the
Smithsonian Institution during the year 1857, with estimates for the

year 1858 :
RECEIPTS.

The whole amount of Smithson’s bequest deposited in
the treasury of the United States is $515,169, from
which an annual income, at 6 per cent., is derived, of

Extra fund from unexpended income invested as

follows :
In $75,000 Indiana 5 per cent. bonds,
ol CHIVAS ORS Semple sameeren sa ee $3,750 00
In $53,000 Virginia 6 per cent. bonds,
ViClGiNE'.,..s-nacsouseea se Haun nerve vclee ae 3,210 00
In $7,000 Tennessee 6 per cent. bonds,
yielding PET OAT ee Le tere 420 00
In an Georgia 6 per cent. bonds, yield-
eeaeu ines ebes sildthueicn sacs odtSatereomeernuetes 30 00
lee “$100 Washington 6 per cent. bonds,
VCCI AG.) Wats dupase cannes ecesrisvsasseeasnce ee 6 00

Balance in hands of Treasurer Janu-
Papal esis [er ce anew einebias exes venahitan er ena scis eisinn@esiesoine

Total Tecerpts...dc...cteses Pate Ly MOR Rae aectbias

GENERAL STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES.

For building, furniture, and fixtures....... $4,062 65
For items common to the different objects

Gi ee TMStILUDLON.. scvsecstccsueaccnte scams 13,035 18
For publications, researches, and lectures, 11,051 52
For library, museum, and gallery of art.. 6,999 81

Balance in the hands of the Treasurer January 1,
1858, of which $5,000 belongs to the extra fund.

$30,910 14

7,416 00

38,326 14
7,164 32

or

£45,490 46

$35,149 16

10,341 30

—_—_

=

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES,
Statement in detail of the expenditures during 1857 :

BUILDING, FURNITURE, FIXTURES, ETC.

Repairs, &c., incident to building......... « ot $8,305: 12
Furniture and fixtures for uses in common. 313 61
Furniture and fixtures for library .......... 163 50
Furniture and fixtures for museum......... 150 80
Magnetic Observatory.........scscasorrscscsess 49 62
I See ee 20 00
GENERAL EXPENSES.

Meetings of Board and Committees......... $281 00
Lighting and heating.........ccccccscosessesees 1,244 33
We NEMN Saleh dead Panes «p's cwowrctsine obo udsiviin toh 2 524 02
Transportation and exchange.............+6. 2,264 74
PEE Yc. accupt pre dy aus xe es ive sanas vacda ct th 347 94
eR ELINA 5a 5 sy sign ic go siets dees 4 ovine oan 236 50
MMMM NTI a osig sian ay's 12 <9 sich dup adbeadn a deed ie 191 66
HGRA TE EI AG ice din dy deed 2p cmipinagisnae iced 341 38
Salary of the Secretary .......s0...2..seecseeee 3,499 92

Chapt: clarks, j..,..assacsesenensiaes 1,200 00

Book-keeper ....vsxssussadesctews 200 00

AAOD 5. lass ccscadsep aescde ve 400 97

Wratchmen 5..5.26ccdims + essaden 534 65

ENO ERED a9 ini de Ghinsabinualan dante 794 00

Messenger 56.6 <i ehans «ice ceenxs 128 00
Piast clerks hike cis oss o:ins ssadumescdensagaaeaen 222 00
Incidentals, general.........ssecsccsssescecsaves 624 07

PUBLICATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND LECTURES.

Smithsonian Contributions...........ssceseeee $6,230 02
Reports on progress of knowledge............ 342 00
Dither pablications ......0c.s00- sesvescrestocness 649 90
CME UGIOLY ccvasiwseebiorene tera tah oiteved soles 2,465 24
Investigations, computations, and _ re-

SOND ooo wanna eee thoes wie ee gare nose 250 00
PPG ICCLUTCLS. coctc.canstenctesecssconsesescess 980 00
Incidentals to lectures......scccececscssesccetee -134 36

LIBRARY, MUSEUM, AND GALLERY OF ART.
CGREROE DOOKB.) i356 .0s+<.-20c0sceresnueMeuenees » ©) $2,019 83
pEay Of assistantacs.*......->-nsnenaetbaaubeags 1,194 12
Transportation for library.............0 nee 200 00

SLAC Yiveceivescnccscassascccsvacn dosent 1993, 92

67

$4,062 65

13,035 18:

11,051 52

68 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.

Explorationg,.).s.ansssevkteunceeears enue. $57 52
WOTICCtIOTB coe recs ens ce bes sais speieneeelien sae auea 49 78
Alcohol, jars, and museum incidentals..... 445 77
Transportation for MUSeUM. ............ee0eee 450 00
Assistance and labor in museum ............ . 500 00
Gallery 208 AT thd. ES ic6 sa» sninaheenee meeps decsiies 82 87

nae $6,999 81

Total Ex pendibare 2... o.cccscacsvcespsas€acacteenes te leccitee $35,149 16

The estimated income for the year 1857 was $38,290 14, exclusive
of the balance in the hands of the Treasurer; the actual income ex-
clusive of this balance was $38,326 14.

The estimated expenditure amounted to $34,000, the actual ex-
penditure to $35,149 16. The excess is due to unexpected repairs,
necessary to the building in consequence of a very severe hail
storm, which broke several thousand panes of glass, and otherwise
injured the edifice ; and to the payment of the last unsettled account
contracted by the architect for the gas pipes and fixtures.

The expenditures, however, are less than the income for the year,
leaving a total balance now in the hands of the Treasurer of $10,341 30.
Of this sum, $5,000 are the remainder of the extra fund, ($125,000,)
intended to be permanently invested, and the whole is at present re-
_ quired for carrying on the operations of the Institution, until the
receipt of the next semi-annual income.

During the past year, the stocks purchased by the Institution tem-
porarily declined in commercial value, but they are now selling at
_ about the same prices as those at which they were bought. Fluctua-
tions, however, of this character do not affect the income of the Insti-
tution, since the amount of interest continues permanently the same.

The committee respectfully submit the following estimate of the
“receipts and expenditures for the year 1858:

Receipts.

_ Balance in the hands of the Treasurer January 1, 1858,
(exclusive of $5,000 belonging to the extra fund)...... $5,341 30
Interest on the original fund for 1858...............eceeeeees 30,910 14
: Interest on the extra fund invested in State stocks......... 7,416 00
$43,667 44

Expenditures.
BUILDING, FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, ETC.

* Repairs and incidentals......c...1ss:cesseeeee ss $1,500 00

Furniture and fixtures in common.....,....... 500 00

“ Pe Stor libtarysieuvscstere 150 00

“ ys) for MUSEU, aces need 150 00

Magnetic Observatory.....ccssscessccesesssecosees 50 00

ons 9850000

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.

GENERAL EXPENSES.

Meetings of Board and committees ............ $300
Paemtine and ‘heatimgs. 6: .sccateicevsvedeelectee 600
cura kaise Segesensasons deditddaieddsicecdvsee 500
Transportation and exchange........seseccseees 2,500
Penna, SST RR casas dbses ps cos <deascccestns 350
Serial PINAL Adis ciecisscsdecstesccsesese 350
TU MPIADUI det detain geet ected scecccseescascedecades 250
BM RRMNRIAE. YP eoawanadceececeesvesdécacascssceess 400
PROGrereaie, POCTICLAL 2. oe. idee caste scccscee ses 650
Sal ariGes— Secretary .......-..seceseceoscecsscsses 3,500
White! clarke: 3.00.08. eS. 1,400
omlkWeeper S02... sch cedcosese care =< 200
PME Meares corded atettees stn aecess ows 400
WV bE LUNAS A VE ies eesti ebikeats 500
Wiborene: ve. oH eee eens 800
Beenrelerk hirer, 0 iste ds eo 300

00

PUBLICATIONS, RESEARCHES AND LECTURES.

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge... $6,500 00
PO SMUMIEM Oh. casceevcdnessecectasnes Betencgeretea 1,500 00
PP MHEr MEDMCATIONS.......02scisecevasecaccccesaccss 1,000 00
ee mrnrensery ea. Ue ak ete Taeee 3,000 00
Investigations, computations, and researches 250 00
SEE a sa eae 1,000 00
LIBRARY, MUSEUM AND GALLERY OF ART.
sperm Ret =. ocesevcnsaacactees Meecetanaes sds $3,000 00
Pay of assistants in library.........0...ssss0ee0 1,200 00
Dransportavion for Library .......00c.sssecaseseae 400 00
Bncidentats for UDrary......c.0c.cecconoseccsscceas 150 00
MRIS —BALATY .<. 000 deca cescae-caseacs tose caaget shies UAE
MPMEAMAELIAQUIS . ..5..22<aseduevcdcasdsecas<adeasasneds 50 00
MMRRIIIO «25... canto geben aed dle dxcames scudace ss 50 00
Incidentals, museum, jars, alcohol, &c....... 300 00
WESUSPOLtAtiON, MUSCUMI......0.00csicseseesesere 550 00
Assistants and labor, museum...........ceceeee 600 00
RT BEE sin vais «4 sic stale Wage de su caceare cles 100 00

69

$13,000 00

13,250 00

8,400 00

$37,000 00

It is impossible to make a very definite estimate of the expendi-
tures on account of the museum, during the year 1858, because the

70 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.

collection at the Patent Office is to be transferred to the keeping of
the Institution, and the amount of expenditures under this head will
depend upon the appropriation made by Congress for this purpose.
In conclusion, the committee report that they have examined the
books, and each account for the past year, separately, and find them
all correct.
Respectfully submitted.
J. A. PEARCE,
A. D. BACHE,
JOS. G. TOTTEN,
Kaxecutive Committee.

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES, tl

REPORT OF THE BUILDING COMMITTEE.

The building of the Smithsonian Institution having been completed,
the special object of the Building Committee for which it was originally
appointed, might be considered accomplished, and therefore an annual
report no longer necessary ; but as a large portion of the edifice re-
mained unfinished, and since repairs are required which will probably
be very expensive, it is thought proper that the committee should be
continued.

At the last session of Congress an appropriation of fifteen thousand
dollars was made for cases for the accommodation of the collections
belonging to government. These are now finished and form a beauti-
ful addition to the large hall, and are apparently well adapted to the
purpose for which they are intended. With strict economy the appro-
priation of Congress has been found sufficient to provide accommoda-
tions for the present reception of the articles, though in the course of
time additional cases will be required.

The west wing of the building, devoted to the library, has been
furnished with alcoves and a gallery extending around three sides of
the large room. This arrangement, which will serve very much to
increase the accommodation and security of the books, produces a
very pleasing architectural effect.

The large cisterns in the grounds near the building, which were
directed to be arched over at the last session of the Board, have been
properly secured, and one of them converted into an ice-house.

The balance of a bill for gas fixtures, which had been contracted by
the architect, and which remained unsettled, on account of a disagree-
ment as to certain charges, has been finally paid, after a reduction of
$352 99.

The peculiar style of architecture of the building, and the large
amount of surface it exposes to the weather, renders constant repairs
necessary. During the past year almost the whole time of two work-
men has been occupied in this service.

Respectfully submitted.

RICHARD RUSH,

WM. H. ENGLISH,

JOSEPH HENRY,
Building Committee.

12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS,

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS
OF THE

BOARD OF REGENTS

OF

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

MONDAY, Mancx 16, 1857.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day at 11 o’clock
a. m. ;
Present: Hon. R. B. Taney, Chancellor, Hon. John C. Breckin-
ridge, James M. Mason, 8. A. Douglas, Gen. Jos. G. Totten, Prof.
A.D. Bache, Wm. B. Magruder, and the Secretary.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The Chancellor, Chief Justice Taney, then presented the following
communication :

Wasuineton, March 16, 1857.

GENTLEMEN: When the Board of Regents was originally organized
it was deemed proper that the Vice President of the United States for
the time being should be elected as the Chancellor. The Institution
exists under the authority of Congress, and they have made certain
officers of the government ex officio Regents. The Vice President is
the highest in rank of the officers thus designated ; and it would seem
to be peculiarly proper that the one who presides over the delibera-
tions of one branch of the national legislature should also preside over
the deliberations ofa scientific institution which the nation has brought
into existence and fosters.

Unfortunate events have for some time past left the government
without a Vice President elected by the people. And when that office
was vacant the Regents conferred on me the office which had always
before been filled by the Vice President. And when I accepted it I
regarded the appointment as a temporary one. The reason for the
appointment has now happily ceased, and I desire to give the Regents

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 73

an opportunity of restoring the original plan of organization, in which
I fully concurred when it was adopted.

I therefore resign the office of Chancellor of the Institution, and at
the same time return my thanks for the honor which the Regents
bestowed upon me in electing me to that office.

But my resignation will not lessen the interest I feel in the Insti-
tution. On the contrary, every year’s experience has more and more
convinced me of its usefulness and efficiency in promoting the objects
of its founder, and I shall always be ready to offer my humble aid if
I can be useful in advancing its prosperity and success.

I have the honor to be, with the highest respect, your obedient
servant,

BY Be TANEY:

To the Recents oF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

Mr. Breckinridge, Vice President of the United States, moved that
the present Chancellor, Chief Justice Taney, be re-elected to that
office, expressing his unwillingness to assume the position which had
been so long and so ably filled by its present occupant,

The motion was adopted unanimously, whereupon Judge Taney
remarked that he was anxious to serve the Institution to the best of
his ability, and he could not decline this expression of the confidence
of the Board if they insisted on his retaining the office of Chancellor.

The Secretary announced that, by joint resolution of the Senate and
House of Representatives, Hon. Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania, and
Gen. Joseph G. Totten, of the city of Washington, had been re-elected
Regents for six years; also that the President of the Senate had re-
appointed Hon. James A. Pearce and Hon. James M. Mason, Regents
for the same period of tine.

The Secretary announced to the Board that, since its last meeting,
three distinguished men of science, correspondents of the Institution,
had deceased, namely: Prof. J. W. Bamzy, Dr. E. K. Kang, and
Mr. W. C. ReprFiev.

On this announcement Prof. Bache offered a series of appropriate
remarks, referring to their eminent services in the promotion of
science.

Gen. Totten offered the following resolutions, which were adopted:

ftesolved, That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution have
heard with regret the announcement of the death of Prof. Jacop W.
Batizy, whose communications to the Smithsonian Contributions have

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

attracted the notice and won the approval of i throughout |

the world.

fesolved, That the ate offer to the family of Prof Bailey their
condolence on the loss which they have sustained. +f

Mr. Douglas offered the following resolutions, which were » adopted:

Resolved, That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, in
common with the whole country, have heard with deep regret of the
death of one of their esteemed collaborators, Dr. E. K. Kann, to whom.
was committed by this Institution a set of philosophical instruments
for the purpose of research in the polar regions, which he used, and
carefully returned at the hazard of his life, antes a series: of obser-
vations of great value to science.

Resolved, That the Regents offer to the family of Dr. Kane seheir
condolence on the loss which they have sustained.

Prof. Bache offered the following resolution, which was adopted k

ftesolved, That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution have
heard with regret of the decease of their valued correspondent, WILLIAM
C. Reprietp, of New York, whose labors in meteorology have ren-
dered his name familiar to men of science in every part of the civilized
world, and offer to his family their condolence on the loss which
they have sustained.

A communication from Dr. Robert Hare was read, relative to the
practical construction of minute weights and measures.

On motion of Dr. Magruder, the following resolutions were adopted:

ftesolved, That a copy of the communication of Dr. Hare be trans- .
mitted to the Secretary of the Treasury, with the recommendation of —

the Board of Regents that the instrument offered by Dr. Hare be ~
received by the government, and placed in the Office of Weights an
Measures.

ftesolved, That the communication of Dr. ere be inserted in fe
appendix to the report of the Regents to Congress. Hite

A communication from J. A. Johnson, esq., of Maryland, relative
to an ‘‘ International Geographic and Scientific Commission’’ was
read and referred to the Executive Committee and the Secretary.

The Secretary made a communication to the Board, relative to an.
article which had been published by Prof. 8. F. B. Morse, conta
charges against his moral character and his scientific reputation.

a

a

The Chancellor made a few remarks, confirming Prof. aa y

statement as to the advice he had given him respecting this attack,
On motion of Mr. Mason, the following resolution was adopted : Bi

fiesolved, That the communication of the Secretary and uecompany> u

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 75

referred to a committee, to examine and report upon
on of the Board of Regents.

Shancellor appointed Messrs. Mason, Pearce, Felton,
ecommittee. —

~ ac sine die.

| Wasurineton, January 20, 1858.
ance with a resolution of the Board of Regents of the
Institution, fixing the time of the beginning of their
eting on the third Wednesday of January of each year, the
et this day in the Regents’ room.

orum being present, the Board adjourned to meet on Thurs-
uary 28, 1858.

THURSDAY, January 28, 1858.

ting of the Board of Regents was held this day at 10 a. m.,
the Smithsonian Institution. :
Present: Hon. John C. Breckinridge, Vice President of the United
s, Hon. J. M. Mason, Hon. 8. A. Douglas, Hon. George E.
x, Prof. A. D. Bache, Prof. C. C. Felton, Mr. Seaton, Treasurer,
the ‘Godetory.
‘the absence of the Chancellor the Vice President was called to
air.
minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.
peretary stated that, since the last meeting of the Board, the
r of the House of Representatives had appointed Hon. William
B ish, of Indiana, Hon. Benjamin Stanton, of Ohio, and Hon.
hg |. Gartrell, of Georgia, as Regents for the term of their service as
embers of the House.
reasurer presented a statement of the receipts and expendi-
during the year 1857, and also a general statement of the funds;
ere referred to the Executive Committee.
lowing communication was presented :

Spit “Wasurnatoy, January 23, 1858.
EM sn: The undersigned offers for sale, and respectfully sug-
0 ) your peeptabie aa the propriety of gta the gallery

76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

He proposes to sell the whole collection described in the catalogue
published by the Institution, one hundred and fifty-two in number »
for the sum of twelve thousand dollars—one-third of the same cash
and the remainder at two equal annual instalments; or, if it should
be preferred, one-fourth down and the residue in three equal annual
instalments.

The undersigned commenced his labors in this work in 1842, and
devoted the best years of his life in travelling through the region of
our country peopled principally by the red man—through the wilds
of Oregon and what is now Washington Territory. All of the por-
traits are accurate likenesses of prominent chiefs and braves, and
readily recognized by men who have had intercourse with the various
tribes of Indians.

Since 1852 he has cherished the hope (but has not been able to
realize it) that Congress would authorize the purchase of this collec-
_ tion. He has, up to this time, made sacrifices—such as one believing
in the merit of his own work, and whose zeal in persevering through
arduous and unremitting toil to accomplish it, alone would make—to
keep this collection together. He will not affect the modesty of
refraining from expressing his belief that no other gallery (aside from
what artistic merit the public may award it)-possesses the interest,
in a national point of view, that this does. Some of the chiefs repre-
sented are no longer living; and, to the little we know of their history —
it will be some satisfaction to add the perpetuation of their features.
These were taken from life and in the character they themselves pre-
ferred to be handed down to the gaze of future generations.

The price at which he offers this collection will not more than cover
the outlay in cost of material, transportation, insurance, travelling
expenses, &c., and will not afford him any compensation for his time
and labor. Taking, as he humbly conceives, the intrinsic value of
these Indian portraits into consideration, he will receive no pecuniary
profit by their disposal on the terms named.

His ardent desire that they should be preserved, as a national work,
in some place at the capital of our country ; his failure heretofore to
induce Congress to agree to their purchase, and the more pressing
reasons of liabilities now maturing, impel him to make this proposi-
tion. Your honorable Board are again requested to consider it and
communicate your answer at as early a day as is convenient. If the
purchase of the portraits is not authorized by you, he will be com-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. at

pelled to expose them at public auction in time to have the proceeds
available by the 1st of May next. —

The undersigned will take this occasion to tender his acknowledg-
ments to the Board and Professor Henry for the use of the hall in the
Institution where the gallery now is, and for other courtesies, which
he will always appreciate.

I am, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

J. M. STANLEY.

The Hon. Boarp or Recents of the Smithsonian Institution.

On motion, this communication was referred to a special committee,
and Messrs. Felton, Douglas, and Badger were appointed.

The Secretary laid before the Board a present from Miss Contaxaki,
of Greece, consisting of a volume of drawings, &c., illustrating the
celebrated works of art in her own land, together with the following
letters :

Wasuineton, November 23, 1857.

Sir: During my last trip to the east I was charged by Miss Eliza-
beth B. Contaxaki, a native of the isle of Crete, with an ‘‘ ornamental
album,’’ which she desired me to present, through you, to the Smith-
sonian Institution. In forming the work, this lady designed it as a
contribution to the Universal Exhibition at Paris, in 1855, worthy of
the classic renown of the ancient city of Athens. So ardent is her
admiration of the United States and its institutions that she wishes
it to be permanently placed in this country, and having a high appre-
ciation, of you as an American statesman, and your reputation as a
classical scholar, she desired that I would request you to offer it in
her name to the Smithsonian Institution.

The ‘‘ Classical Bouquet,’’ as it is entitled, consists of illustrations
of the principal monuments and places in the kingdom of Greece, to
which are added a few from her native isle of Crete, not yet emanci-
pated from the Moslem yoke. These illustrations are explained by
quotations from the ancient Greek authors in the original language,
beautifully illuminated ; whilst many of the pages are adorned with
flowers culled from'the spots which the drawings represent.

Miss Contaxaki is the sole originator and authoress of it, assisted
in its execution by native artists of Greece. The beauty of the finish,
and the faithfulness and accuracy of the quotations from Hesiod,
Homer, Xenophon, Plato, and others, show that the present sons and

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

daughters of the renowned ancient city of Minerva are not insensible
of the glory that was once attached to her name, nor incapable of
appreciating those monuments of art, science, and literature which
still survive.

Feeling assured that, as an eminent classical scholar, you will fully
appreciate the worth of the Classical Bouquet, I beg to present it,
through you, to the Smithsonian Institution, in her name.

With sentiments of the highest respect, I remain your obedient
servant,

CHAS. 8S. SPENCE.
Hon. Lewis Cass,

Secretary of State.

Wasuineton City, November 25, 1857.

Sir: I send you herewith a splendid album, together with a letter
from Mr. Spence, explanatory of the circumstances of its execution
and transmission to this country. I perform the duty of presenting it
to the Smithsonian Institution with great pleasure, for it is a finished
specimen of taste and art, worthy of a prominent place in your inter-
esting collection. Mr. Spence has so well described it that any
further reference to it on my part is unnecessary.

I am, dear sir, respectfully yours,
LEWIS CASS.
Prof. HEnry,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington City.

On motion, the work was referred to Professor Felton, to report a
resolution expressive of the high appreciation of the gift on the part
of the Board, and a letter of acknowledgment to Miss Contaxaki.

A letter was read from Sir George Simpson, expressing the desire
and intention of the agents of the Hudson’s Bay Company to co-
operate with the Smithsonian Institution in procuring specimens of
natural history, and in the prosecution of scientific researches.

The Board then adjourned to meet on Saturday, 30th instant, at 11
o'clock, a. m.

SATURDAY, January 30, 1858.

The Board of Regents met this day in the hall of the Institution
at 11 o’clock a. m.

Present: Hon. J. C. Breckinridge, Vice President of the United
States, Hon. J. A. Pearce, Hon. J. M. Mason, Hon. 8. A. Douglas,
Hon. W. H. English, Professor A. D. Bache, Professor C. C. Felton,
Mr. Seaton, Treasurer, and the Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 19

The Vice President took the chair.

The minutes were then read and approved.

The minutes of the last meeting of the ‘‘ Establishment’’ were read
for information, according to the by-laws of that body.

The Secretary stated to the Board the action of Congress at its last
session relative to the construction of cases in the Smithsonian
building for the government collections, and also the decision of the
Attorney General respecting the law.

The Secretary then presented the annual report of the operations,
expenditures, and condition of the Institution during the year 1857; |
which was read.

The Board then visited the rooms of the building, the collections,
&c., and adjourned.

Wasuineton, April 10, 1858.

The Board of Regents met this day at 11 o’clock a. m.

Present: Hon. J. M. Mason, Hon. 8. A. Douglas, Hon. George E.
Badger, Hon. Benj. Stanton, Hon. L. J. Gartrell.

Mr. Mason was called to the chair.

The.minutes were read and approved.

The report of the Building Committee for the year 1857 was read
and accepted.

The report of the Executive Committee was presented, together
with the estimates for the year 1858.

Communications relative to the care of the government collections,
the Wynn estate, the publications, investigations, and other opera-
tions of the Institution, were read.

On motion of Mr. Badger, the Secretary was directed to have the
windows and other parts of the east wing of the building put in good
order.

The following report from Professor Felton was presented :

REPORT ON THE PRESENT OF MISS CONTAXAKI.

The Secretary laid before the Board a volume received from Greece,
and sent as a gift to the Smithsonian Institution, together with the
letter of the Hon. Mr. Spence, late United States minister to Con-
stantinople, to the Secretary of State, and the letter of the Hon. Lewis
Cass, the Secretary of State, to Professor Henry, the Secretary of the
Institution. The volume and the correspondence were referred to
Professor Felton.

The volume was transmitted from Athens, Greece, through Mr.

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

Spence. It was designed and executed by a Greek lady of rare liter-
ary accomplishments, Miss Elizabeth B. Contaxaki, assisted by six
Greek gentlemen, resident in Athens. It contains sketches of the
principal ruins in that city, and views of the most famous historical
places there and in other parts of Greece, correctly drawn and deli-
cately colored, together with the passage, from the classic authors,
in which the objects and places are described or referred to, transla-
tions of the passages, and extracts from English and French writers
on the same subjects. The book is adorned with exquisitely drawn
vignettes, and emblematic devices, and with specimens of the wild
flowers which grow in the places described, carefully preserved,
pressed, and attached to the leaves. The volume is bound in blue
velvet, and tastefully decorated with silver. It is put in an elegantly
and richly carved case, made of olive wood, from the olive groves near
Athens, where stood, in ancient times, the academic groves of Plato’s
school. The body of the case is made of the trunk of the tree, and
the ornamental portions, of the root, which is of darker and richer
color. This beautiful gift, therefore, combines a great variety of
objects, possessing, from their associations with the loftiest achieve-
ments of Hellenic genius, a deep and singular interest, and forming
a most appropriate memorial of the country from which European
art, education, philosophy, and letters took their rise.

Miss Contaxaki, the tasteful designer of this memorial, is a native
of the island of Crete. At the time of the outbreak of the Greek
revolution, her father was a landed proprietor there, and, in common
with the great body of the Hellenic race, lost most of his property by
the rapacity and tyranny of the Turks. His family was dispersed,
and his daughter Elizabeth became an inmate in the family of the
Rev. Dr. John H. Hill, the American missionary, who established
himself in Athens, at the close of the war, for the benevolent and
enlightened purpose of aiding the Greeks to reconstruct the shattered
edifice of civilization, by establishing the school, which still continues
to dispense the blessings of education among the children of its first
pupils in that illustrious capital. Residing with Dr. Hill for many
years, and educated chiefly under his superintendence and care, Eliza-
beth became known to many American travellers in the Hast, by
whom she has often been mentioned with a cordial appreciation of her
accomplishments and merits. Their personal relations have naturally
inspired her with a warm interest in the United States, heightened
by the sympathies of the citizens of America in the regeneration of
her country, and the substantial aid furnished by them to Greece in

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 81

the hour of her utmost need. Recently Miss Contaxaki, after a visit
to Constantinople, where she was received with distinction, has re-
turned to her native island, which is under the government of the
Pacha of Egypt, and, by her learning and ability, has succeeded in
recovering, through the Moslem tribunal, a portion of her paternal
estate.

The volume now presented to the Smithsonian Institution was sent
to the great Paris Exhibition of 1855, where it excited much admira-
tion, and gained a diploma for its accomplished author. She has
now transmitted it for permanent deposit among the treasures of the
Smithsonian Institution in the United States.

The Regents of the Institution accept the gift with great pleasure,
not only on account of its rare beauty, its intrinsic value, and the
many interesting associations it suggests with that famous city,
called by Milton ‘‘ the eye of Greece, mother of art and arms,’’ but
also as an expressive symbol of the hearty good will for the American
republic, cherished by the enlightened spirit of a nation which has so
honorably vindicated its right to the glories of an illustrious descent
by re-establishing the institutions of freedom and learning on the soil
where, in ancient times, they earliest flourished, and with uunex-
ampled splendor.

The committee recommends the adoption of the following resolu-
tions by the Board:

Resolved, That the regents of the Smithsonian Institution ac-
cept, with gratitude, the splendid memorial volume presented by Miss
Elizabeth B. Contaxaki, and that they recognize, in the beauty, taste,
and art displayed in its general execution and style of its embellish-
ment, a pleasing indication that the genius which placed the ancient
Greeks at the head of the civilization of the world still survives in
their descendants.

Resolved, That a copy of the above report, and of these resolutions, be
transmitted, with a letter of acknowledgment from the Smithsonian
Institution, to Miss Contaxaki, the accomplished donor.

On motion, the report was accepted and the resolutions adopted.

The Board then adjourned.

WEDNESDAY, May 19, 1858.

The Board met this day in the Vice President’s room, United States
Capitol, at 94 o’clock.
Present: The Chancellor, Hon. Roger B. Taney, Hon. John C.
Breckinridge, Vice President of the United States, Hon. J. M. Mason,
6s

82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

Hon. J. A. Pearce, Hon. 8. A. Douglas, Hon. W. H. English, Hon,
Benjamin Stanton, Prof. A. D. Bache, and the Secretary.

The minutes were read and approved.

Mr. Pearce explained the report of the Executive Committee and the
estimates for the year 1858, and, on motion, they were adopted.

The following report was presented from Prof. Felton, of the com-
mittee to whom was referred the communication of Mr. J. M. Stanley:

REPORT ON THE PROPOSITION TO PURCHASE THE INDIAN GALLERY.
~

The Secretary laid before the Board a letter from Mr. J. M. Stanley,
painter of the gallery of Indian portraits, now on deposit with the
Smithsonian Institution, proposing to sell them to the Institution for
the sum of twelve thousand dollars.

The committee appointed to consider and report upon the subject
respectfully represent that, while they are fully sensible of the great
historical and ethnological value of this collection of portraits, and
of their characteristic excellence, they are yet of opinion that it
would be inexpedient to withdraw the sum mentioned from the funds
necessary to carry on the scheme of active operations, which has been
so ably inaugurated and, thus far, so successfully executed. The
income of the Smithsonian fund should not be scattered among differ-
ent and disconnected objects, and the sum necessary for the purchase
of the gallery cannot be spared, without crippling for a time, at least,
the regular operations of the Institution.

Among the Contributions to Knowledge several important works
relating to the aboriginal inhabitants of America have been published
by the Institution and circulated over the civilized world.

Grammars and dictionaries of the Indian languages may be men-
tioned as of special interest, and of great value to the science of com-
parative philology. Their language will probably pass away, and
the races speaking them disappear; but the works to which we allude
will preserve, for future investigators of the science of philology,
the characteristic form in which their thoughts were expressed, and
will have an important bearing, not only on general ethnological
inquiries, but on the philosophy of the human mind. These volumes
have been eagerly sought and studied by the most eminent compara-
tive philologists of Europe, and have, by universal consent, contri-
buted materially to the increase and diffusion of knowledge among
men in that department of science.

But though your committee are of opinion that the purckase of this

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 83

gallery would interfere with the present plan of operations, and that
it would not so directly tend to the increase and diffusion of know-
ledge, they would earnestly express the opinion that, in a national
point of view, the value of these portraits can hardly be over-
estimated.

They represent forty-three different tribes, and are taken from the
leading personages in them. The artist has studied carefully the
peculiarities of the tribes, the characteristic expressions of the in-
dividuals, their natural attitudes and actions, their several styles of
costume and ornament, and has reproduced, with artistic skill, all these
particulars. To this interesting enterprise he has given ten of the
best years of his life, having traversed, with great labor and incon-
venience, the principal regions inhabited by the subjects of his pencil.
The number of portraits, including that of the artist, enumerated in
the catalogue, is one hundred and fifty-two. The price for which
they are offered is much below their real value, being less than $80
apiece. At the proposed rate the artist will receive no compensation
for his time and labor, and barely enough to defray the cost of material,
transportation, travelling expenses and insurance.

The number of the tribes represented so faithfully in this gallery,
and the prominence of the individuals, render the collection very
complete and satisfactory, as presenting a general view of the charac-
teristic features of the red man. These circumstances make it important
that the gallery should be preserved entire. Its peculiar value con-
sists in its comprehensive character no less than in the fidelity of the
individual details. Centuries hence, when most all of the tribes here
represented shall have disappeared, as the New England tribes, for
example, have nearly disappeared, this gallery will be an object of
.the profoundest interest to the student of man, the historian, the
philosopher, and the statesman.

The relations between the government o! the United States and the
Indian tribes form one of the most delicate and important subjects of
national legislation. The government has not only endeavored to
deal with the red men in a liberal and paternal spirit, but has done
much towards illustrating their character and condition by the pub-
lication of costly works embodying the observations and researches of
investigators who have devoted themselves to Indian studies. It
appears to your committee that to purchase this collection, and to
place it in some secure situation easy of access to visitors at the
capital, would be an act worthy of the enlightened liberality of Con-

84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

gress. The cost would be insignificant, and the value of the collection
would increase in all future time. No place is so suitable for its
permanent deposit as the city of Washington, and no guardianship so
appropriate as that of the government of the United States.

Your committee recommend to the Board that the subject of the
purchase of Mr. Stanley’s Indian gallery be brought respectfully to
the attention of Congress, as a measure eminently deserving a favor-
able consideration in its bearings upon the history of the aboriginal
tribes of America, and as a monument of deep and lasting interest to
the people of the United States.

The report was accepted, and laid on the table for the present.

The Secretary stated that Mr. Putnam having resigned the agency
of the Smithsonian publications in New York,|Messrs. D. Appleton &
Co. had been appointed his successors.

The Secretary announced that since the last meeting of the Board
the death of Dr. Rozert Haru, of Philadelphia, had occurred, who
was one of the principal benefactors of the Institution, and its first
honorary member.

Professor Bache gave an account of the life, character, and scientific
researches of Dr. Hare, and offered the following resolutions :

Resolved, That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution have
learned with deep regret the decease of one of the earliest and most
venerated honorary members of the establishment, Robert Hare, M.D.,
of Philadelphia, late professor of chemistry in the University of
Pennsylvania.

Resolved, That the activity and power of mind of Dr. Hare, shown
through a long and successful career of physical research, the great
fertility of invention, the happy adaptations to matters of practical
life, and the successful grappling with questions of high theory in
physical science, have placed him among the first in his country of
the great contributors to knowledge, clarum et venerabile nomen.

Resolved, That while we deplore the loss of this great and good
man, who has done so much to keep alive the flame of science in our
country in past days, we especially mourn the generous patron of our
Institution, the sympathizing friend of the youth of some of us, and
the warm-hearted colleague of our manhood.

Resolved, That we offer to the bereaved family of Dr. Hare our
sincere condolence in the loss which they have sustained by his death.

The resolutions were adopted.

The report of the Secretary for 1857 was then accepted.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 85

Professor Felton, in behalf of the special committee to whom the
following communication of Professor Henry of March 16, 1857,
together with accompanying documents, &c., were referred, presenteg
@ report.

COMMUNICATION FROM PROF. HENRY, SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION, RELATIVE TO A PUBLICATION BY PROF. MORSE.

GENTLEMEN: In the discharge of the important and responsible
duties which devolve upon me as Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, I have found myself exposed, like other men in public positions,
to unprovoked attack and injurious misrepresentation. Many instances
of this, it may be remembered, occurred about two years ago, during
the discussions relative to the organic policy of the Institution ; but,
though very unjust, they were suffered to pass unnoticed, and gene-
rally made, I presume, no lasting impression on the public mind.

During the same controversy, however, there was one attack made
upon me of such a nature, so elaborately prepared and widely circu-
lated, by my opponents, that, though I have not yet publicly noticed
it, I have from the first thought it my duty not to allow it to go un-
answered. I allude to an article in a periodical entitled ‘‘ Shaffner’s
Telegraph Companion,’’ from the pen of Prof. 8. F. B. Morse, the
celebrated inventor of the American electro-magnetic telegraph. In
this, not my scientific reputation merely, but my moral character was
pointedly assailed ; indeed, nothing less was attempted than to prove
that in the testimony which I had given in a case where I was at
most but a reluctant witness, I had consciously and wilfully deviated
from the truth, and this, too, from unworthy and dishonorable
motives.

Such a charge, coming from such a quarter, appeared to me then, as
it appears now, of too grave a character and too serious a coasequence
to be withheld from the notice of the Board of Regents. I, therefore,
presented the matter unofficially to the Chancellor of the Institution,
Chief Justice Taney, and was advised by him to allow the matter to
rest until the then existing excitement with respect to the organiza-
tion of the Institution should subside, and that in the meantime the
materials for a refutation of the charge might be collected and pre-
pared, to be brought forward at the proper time, if I should think it
necessary.

The article of Mr. Morse was published in 1855, but at the session
of the Board in 1856 I was not prepared to present the case properly

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

to your consideration, and I now (1857) embrace the first opportunity
of bringing the subject officially to your notice, and asking from you
an investigation into the justice of the charges alleged against me.
And this I do most earnestly, with the desire that when we shall all
have passed from this stage of being, no imputation of having at-
tempted to evadeinsilence so grave a charge shall rest on me, nor on you,
of having continued to devolve upon me duties of the highest respon-
sibility, after that was known to some of you individually, which, if
true, should render me entirely unworthy of your confidence. Duty
to the Board of Regents, as well as regard to my own memory, to my
family, and to the truth of history, demands that I should lay thi
matter before you, and place in your hands the documents necessary
to establish the veracity of my testimony, so falsely impeached, and
the integrity of my motives, so wantonly assailed.

My life, as is known to you, has been principally devoted to science,
and my investigations in different branches of physics have given me
some reputation in the line of original discovery. I have sought,
however, no patent for inventions, and solicited no remuneration for
my labors, but have freely given their results to the world, expecting
only, in return, to enjoy the consciousness of having added, by my in-
vestigations, to the sum of human knowledge, and to receive the
credit to which they might justly entitle me.

I commenced my scientific career about the year 1828, with a series
of experiments in electricity, which were continued at intervals up to
the period of my being honored by election to the office of Secretary
of this Institution. The object of my researches was the advancement
of science, without any special or immediate reference to its applica-
tion to the wants of life or useful purposes in the arts. It is true, nev-
ertheless, that some of my earlier investigations had an important
bearing on the electro-magnetic telegraph, and brought the science to
that point of development at which it was immediately applicable to
Mr. Morse’s particular invention.

In 1831 I published a brief account of these researches, in which I
drew attention to the fact of their applicability to the telegraph ; and
in 1832, and subsequently, exhibited experiments illustrative of the
application of the electro-magnet to the transmission of power to a
distance, for producing telegraphic and other effects. The results I
had published were communicated to Mr. Morse, by his scientific
assistant, Dr. Gale, as will be shown on the evidence of the latter ;
and the facts which I had discovered were promptly applied in render-
ing effective the operation of his machine.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 87

In the latter part of 1837 I became personally acquainted with Mr.
Morse, and at that time, and afterwards, freely gave him information
in regard to the scientific principles which had been the subject of my
investigations. After his return from Europe, in 1839, our intercourse
was renewed, and continued uninterrupted till 1845. In that year,
Mr. Vail, a partner and assistant of Mr. Morse, published a work pur-
porting to be a history of the Telegraph, in which I conceived manifest
injustice was done me. I complained of this to a mutual friend, and
subsequently received an assurance from Mr. Morse that if another
edition were published, all just ground of complaint should be removed,
A new emission of the work, however, shortly afterwards appeared,
without change in this respect, or further reference to my labors. Still
I made no public complaint, and set up no claims on account of the
telegraph. I was content that my published researches should remain
as material for the history of science, and be pronounced upon, accord-
ing to their true value, by the scientific world.

After this, a series of controversies and lawsuits having arisen be-
tween rival claimants for telegraphic patents, I was repeatedly ap-
pealed to, to act as expert and witness in such cases. This I uniformly
declined to do, not wishing to be in any manner involved in these lit-
igations, but was finally compelled, under legal process, to return
to Boston from Maine, whither I had gone on a visit, and to give evi-
dence on the subject. My testimony was given with the statement that
I was not a willing witness, and that I labored under the disadvantage
of not having access to my notes and papers, which were in Washing-
ton. That testimony, however, I now reaffirm to be true in every
essential particular. It was unimpeached before the court, and exer-
cised an influence on the final decision of the question at issue.

I was called upon on that occasion to state, not only what I had pub-
lished, but what I had done, and what I had shown to others in regard
to the telegraph. It was my wish, in every statement, to render Mr.
Morse full and scrupulous justice. While I was constrained, there-
fore, to state that he had made no discoveries in science, I distinctly
declared that he was entitled to the merit of combining and applying
the discoveries of others, in the invention of the best practical form of
the magnetic telegraph. My testimony tended to establish the fact
that, though not entitled to the exclusive use of the electro-magnet for
telegraphic purposes, he was entitled to his particular machine, register,
alphabet, &c. Asthis, however, did not meet the full requirements of
Mr. Morse’s comprehensive claim, I could not but be aware that, while

88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

aiming to depose nothing but truth and the whole truth, and while so
doing being obliged to speak of my own discoveries, and to allude to the
omissions in Mr. Vail’s book, I might expose myself to the possible,
and, as it has proved, the actual, danger of having my motives mis-
construed and my testimony misrepresented. But I can truly aver, in
accordance with the statement of the counsel, Mr. Chase, (now governor
of Ohio,) that I had no desire to arrogate to myself undue merit, or to
detract from the just claims of Mr. Morse.

I have the honor to be your obedient servant,

JOSEPH HENRY.
To THE Boarp or REGENTs.

The Chancellor, Chief Justice Taney, corroborated Prof. Henry’s
statement as to his advising a delay in noticing the publication re-
ferred to until the public mind should be more settled in regard to
the policy of the Institution, and the discussions which had arisen in
Congress in reference to it should be ended.

He stated that it would be seen by the report of the decision of the
Supreme Court, in the case in which Professor Henry was a witness,
that, in the opinion of the court, Professur Morse had produced no
testimony that could invalidate the testimony of Professor Henry, or
impair in any degree its weight, and gave full credit to it in the
udgment it pronounced.

REPORT OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS ON THE
COMMUNICATION OF PROFESSOR HENRY.

Professor Henry laid before the Board of Regents of the Smithso-
nian Institution a communication relative to an article in Shaffner’s
Telegraph Companion, bearing the signature of Samusn F’. B. Morss,
the inventor of the American electro-magnetic telegraph. In this
article serious charges are brought against Professor Henry, bearing
upon his scientific reputation and his moral character. The whole
matter having been referred to a committee of the Board, with in-
structions to report on the same, the committee have attended to the
duty assigned to them, and now submit the following brief report, with
resolutions accompanying it.

The committee have carefully examined the documents relating to
the subject, and especially the article to which the communication of
Professor Henry refers. This article occupies over ninety pages, filling
an entire number of Shaffner’s Journal, and purports to be ‘‘a defence

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 89

against the injurious deductions drawn from the deposition of Professor
Joseph Henry, (in the several telegraph suits,) with a critical review
of said deposition, and an examination of Professor Henry’s alleged
discoveries bearing upon the electro-magnetic telegraph.”’

The first thing which strikes the reader of this article is, that its
title isa misnomer. It is simply an assault upon Professor Henry ;
an attempt to disparage his character ; to deprive him of his honors
as a scientific discoverer ; to impeach his credibility as a witness and
his integrity as a man. It is a disingenuous piece of sophistical
argument, such as an unscrupulous advocate might employ to pervert
the truth, misrepresent the facts, and misinterpret the language in
which the facts belonging to the other side of the case are stated.

Mr. Morse charges that the deposition of Professor Henry ‘‘con<
tains imputations against his (Morse’s) personal character,’’? which
it does not, and assumes it as a duty ‘‘to expose the utter non-
reliability of Professor Henry’s testimony;’’ that testimony being
supported by the most competent authorities, and by the history of
scientific discovery. He asserts that he ‘‘is not indebted to him
(Professor Henry) for any discovery in science bearing on the tele-
graph,’”’ he having himself acknowledged such indebtedness in the
most unequivocal manner, and the fact being independently substan-
tiated by the testimony of Sears C. Wanker, and the statement of
Mr. Morse’s own associate, Dr. Gate. Mr. Morse further maintains,
that all discoveries bearing upon the telegraph were made, not by
Professor Henry, but by others, and prior to any experiments of Pro-
fessor Henry in the science of electro-magnetism ; contradicting in
this proposition the facts in the history of scientific discovery perfectly
established and recognized throughout the scientific world.

The essence of the charges against. Prof. Henry is, that he gave
false testimony in his deposition in the telegraph cases, and that he
has claimed the credit of discoveries in the sciences bearing upon the
electro-magnetic telegraph which were made by previous investigators ;
in other words, that he has falsely claimed what does not belong to
him, but does belong to others.

Professor Henry, as a private man, might safely have allowed such
charges to pass in silence. But standing in the important position
which he occupies, as the chief executive officer of the Smithsonian In-
stitution; and regarding the charges as undoubtedly containing an
impeachment of his moral character, as well as of his scientific repu-
tation ; and justly sensitive, not only for his own honor, but for the
honor of the Institution, he has a right to ask this Board to consider

$0 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

the subject, and to make their conclusions a matter of record, which
may be appealed to hereafter should any question arise with regard to
his conduct in the premises.

Your committee do not conceive it to be necessary to follow Mr.
Morse through all the details of his elaborate attack. Fortunately, a
plain statement of a few leading facts will be sufficient to place
the essential points of the case in a clear light.

The deposition already referred to was reluctantly given, and under
the compulsion of legal process, by Prof. Henry, before the Hon. Geo.
S. Hillard, United States commissioner, on the Tth of September, 1849.

The following is the statement of the Hon. S. P. Cuasz, (now gov-
ernor of Ohio,) one of the counsel in the telegraph cases, in a letter
to Professor Henry, dated Columbus, Ohio, November 26, 1856:

In the year 1849, I was professionally employed in the defence of
certain gentlemen engaged in the business of telegraphing between
Louisville and New Orleans, against whom a bill of complaint had
been filed in the Circuit Court of the United States for the district of
Kentucky. The object of the bill was to restrain the defendants, my
clients, from the use in telegraphing of a certain instrument called
the Columbian Telegraph, on the ground that it was an infringe-
ment upon the rights of the complainants under the patents granted
to Professor Morse. It therefore became my duty, in the preparation
of their defence, to ascertain the precise nature and extent of their
rights. With this view I called upon you, in August or September
of that year, for your deposition. It was taken before George SB.
Hillard, esq., a United States commissioner for the district of Massa-
chusetts, in Boston. L[remember very well that you were unwilling to
be involved in the controversy, even as a witness, and that you only
submitted to be examined in compliance with the requirements of law.
Not one of your statements was volunteered. They wereall called out
by questions propounded either verbally or in writing. I was not suf-
ficiently familiar at the time with the precise merits of the case to
know what would or would not be important, and therefore insisted on
a full statement, not merely of the general history of electro-magnet-
ism as applied to telegraphing, but of all your own discoveries in
that science having relation to the same art, and of all that had passed
between yourself and Professor Morse connected with these discoveries
or with the telegraph. Youcould not have refused to respond to the
questions propounded, without subjecting yourself to judicial animad-
version and constraint. Nothing in what you testified, or your manner
of testifying, suggested to me the idea that you were animated by any
desire to arrogate undue merit to yourself, or to detract from the just
claims of Professor Morse.

8. P. CHASE.

Previous to this deposition, Mr. Morse, as appears from his own
letters and statements, entertained for Prof. Henry the warmest feel-
Ings of personal regard, and the highest esteem for his character as a

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 91

scientific man. In a letter, dated April 24, 1839, he thanks Prof,
Henry for a copy of his ‘‘ valuable contributions,’’ and says, ‘‘I per-
ceive many things (in the contributions) of great interest to me in my
telegraphic enterprise.’’ Again, in the same letter, speaking of an
intended visit to the Professor at Princeton, he says: ‘‘I should come
as a learner, and could bring no ‘contributions’ to your stock of ex-
periments of any value.’’ And still further: ‘‘ I think that you have
pursued an origina) course of experiments, and discovered facts more
immediately bearing upon my invention than any that have been
published abroad.”’

It appears, from Mr. Morse’s own statement, that he had at least
two interviews with Prof. Henry—one in May, 1839, when he passed
the afternoon and night with him, at Princeton ; and another in Feb-
ruary, 1844—both of them for the purpose of conferring with him on
subjects relating to the telegraph, and evidently with the conviction,
on Mr. Morse’s part, that Prof. Henry’s investigations were of great
importance to the success of the telegraph.

As late as 1846, after Mr. \forse had learned that some dissatisfac-
tion existed in Prof. Henry’s mind in regard to the manner in which
his researches in electricity had been passed over by Mr. Vail, an
assistant of Mr. Morse, and the author of a history of the American
magnetic telegraph, Mr. Morse, in an interview with Prof. Henry, at
Washington, said, according to his own account, ‘* Well, Prof. Henry,
I will take the earliest opportunity that is afforded me in anything I
may publish to have justice done to your labors; for I do not think
that justice has been done you, either in Europe or this country.”’

Again, in 1848, when Prof. Walker, of the Coast Survey, made
his report on the theory of Morse’s electro-magnetic telegraph, in
which the expression occurred, ‘‘ the helix of a soft iron magnet,
prepared after the manner first pointed out by Prof. Henry,’’ Mr.
Morse, to whom the report was submitted, said: ‘‘I have now the
long wished for opportunity to do justice publicly to Henry’s dis-
covery bearing on the telegraph.’’ Andina note prepared by him,
and intended to be printed with Prof. Walker’s report, he says:
“<The allusion you make to the helix of a soft iron magnet, prepared ©
after the manner first pointed out by Prof. Henry, gives me an op-
portunity, of which I gladly avail myself, to say that I think that
justice has not yet been done to Prof. Henry, either in Europe or in
this country, for the discovery of a scientific fact, which, in its bear-
ing on telegraphs, whether of the magnetic needle or electro-magnet
order, is of the greatest importance.”’

92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

He then proceeds to give a historical synopsis, showing that,
although suggestions had been made and plans devised by Soemmering,
in 1811, and by Ampére, in 1820, yet that the experiments of Barlow,
in 1824, had led that investigator to pronounce ‘‘ the idea of an elec-
tric telegraph to be chimerical’’—an opinion that was, for the time,
acquiesced in by scientific men. He shows that, in the interval be-
tween 1824 and 1829, no further suggestions were made on the sub-
ject of electric telegraphs. But he proceeds—‘ In 1830, Prof. Henry,
assisted by Dr. Ten Eyck, while engaged in experinients on the ap-
plication of the principle of the galvanic multiplier to the development
of great magnetic power in soft iron, made the important discovery
that a battery of intensity overcame that resistance in a long wire
which Barlow had announced as an insuperable bar to the construc-
tion of electric telegraphs. Thus was opened the way for fresh efforts
in devising a practicable electric telegraph ; and Baron Schilling, in
1832, and Professors Gauss and Weber, in 1833, had ample oppor-
tunity to learn of Henry’s discovery, and avail themselves of it, before
they constructed their needle telegraphs.’’ And, while claiming for
himself that he was’‘ the first to propose the use of the electro-magnet
for telegraphic purposes, and the first to construct a telegraph on the
basis of the electro-magnet,’’ yet he adds, ‘‘to Professor Henry is
unquestionably due the honor of the discovery of a principle which proves
the practicability of exciting magnetism through a long coil, or at a dis-
tance, either to deflect a needle or to magnetize soft tron.’’

What Mr. Morse here describes as ‘‘a priaciple,’’ the discovery of
which is unquestionably due to Professor Henry, is the law which
first made it possible to work the telegraphic machine invented by
Mr. Morse, and for the knowledge of which Mr. Morse was indebted to
Professor Henry, as is positively asserted by his associate, Dr. Gatun.

This gentleman, in a letter, dated Washington, April 7, 1856, makes
the following conclusive statement :

Wasurnetcn, D. C., April 7, 1856.

Sir: In reply to your note of the 3d instant, respecting the Morse
telegraph, asking me to state definitely the condition of the invention
when I first saw the apparatus in the winter of 1836, I answer: This
apparatus was Morse’s original instrument, usually known as the type
apparatus, in which the types, set up in a composing stick, were run
through a circuit breaker, and in which the battery was the cylinder
battery, with a single pair of plates. This arrangement also had another
peculiarity, namely, it was the electro-magnet used by Moll, and shown
in drawings of the older works on that subject, having only a few
turns of wire in the coil which surrounded the poles or arms of the
magnet. The sparseness of the wires in the magnet coils and the use

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 95

of the single cup battery were to me, on the first look at the instru-
ment, obvious marks of defect, and I accordingly suggested to the
Professor, without giving my reasons for so doing, that a battery of
many pairs should be substituted for that of a single pair, and that
the coil on each arm of the magnet should be increased to many hun-
dred turns each ; which experiment, if I remember aright, was made
on the same day with a battery aud wire on hand, furnished I believe
by myself, and it was found that while the original arrangement
would only send the electric current through a few feet of wire, say
15 to 40, the modified arrangement would send it through as many
hundred. Although I gave no reasons at the time to Professor Morse
for the suggestions I had proposed in modifying the arrangement of
the machine, I did so afterwards, and referred in my explanations to
the paper of Professor Henry, in the 19th volume of the American
Journal of Science, page 400 and onward. It was to these sugges-
tions of mine that Professor Morse aliudes in his testimony before
the circuit court for the eastern district of Pennsylvania, in the trial
of B. B. French and others vs. Rogers and others.—See printed copy
of Complainant’s Evidence, page 168, beginning with the words
‘¢Harly in 1836 I procured 40 feet of wire,’”’ &c., and page 169, where
Professor Morse alludes to myself and compensation for services ren-
dered to him, &e.

At the time I gave the suggestions above named, Professor Morse
was not familiar with the then existing state of the science of electro-
magnetism. Had he been so, or had he read and appreciated the
paper of Henry, the suggestions made by me would naturally have
occurred to his mind as they did to my own. But the principal part
of Morse’s great invention lay in the mechanical adaptation of a power
to produce motion, and to increase or relax at will. It was only
necessary for him to know that such a power existed for him to adapt
mechanism to direct aud control it.

My suggestions were made to Professor Morse from inferences
drawn by reading Professor Henry’s paper above alluded to. Profes-
sor Morse professed great surprise at the contents of the paper when
I showed it to him, but especially at the remarks on Dr. Barlow’s re-
sults respecting telegraphing, which were new to him, and he stated
at the time that he was not aware that any one had even conceived
the idea of using the magnet for such purposes.

With sentiments of esteem, I remain yours truly,
L. D. GALE.

Prof. Jos. Henry,

Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

It further appears, that principally for the information thus commu-
nicated Mr. Morse assigned to Dr. Gale an interest in the telegraph,
which he afterwards purchased back for $15,000, as appears from the
following letter of Dr. Gale:

Patent Orrice, August 5, 1857.

Dear Sir: In reply to yours of this date, respecting the interest I
once possessed in Morse’s telegraph patent, secured to me by the said
Morse, as alluded to by him in his statement to the Commissioner of

94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

Patents, I would simply state that the part I owned when I entered
the service of the government in this office was orginally given me by
the said Morse for services rendered him in making his invention
practically effective in sending currents through long distances, &c.,
and that the said interest was retransferred to the said Morse for the
sum of fifteen thousand dollars.
Respectfully,
L. D. GALE,
Professor HEnry,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.

It thus appears, both from Mr. Morse’s own admission down to
1848, and from the testimony of others most familiar with the facts,
that Professor Henry discovered the law, or ‘‘ principle,’’ as Mr. Morse
designates it, which was necessary to make the practical working of
the electro-magnetic telegraph at considerable distances possible; that
Mr. Morse was first informed of this discovery by Dr. Gale; that he
availed himself of it at once, and that it never occurred to Mr. Morse
to deny this fact until after 1848. He had steadily and fully acknow-
ledged the merits and genius of Mr. Henry, as the discoverer of facts
and laws in science of the highest importance to the success of his
long-cherished invention of a magnetic telegraph. Mr. Henry was
the discoverer of a principle, Mr. Morse was the inventor of a machine,
the object of which was to record characters at a disiance, to convey
intelligence, in other words, to carry into execution the idea of an
electric telegraph. But there were obstacles in the way which he
could not overcome until he learned the discoveries of Professor Henry,
and applied them to his machine. These facts are undeniable. They
constitute a part of the history of science and invention. They were
true in 1848, they were equally true in 1855, when Professor Morse’s
article was published. We give a passage here from the deposition
of Sears C. WALKER, in the case of French vs. Rogers, Respondent's
Evidence, page 199, bearing upon this whole subject:

‘¢In consequence of some statements made by me in my official
reports relative to the invention of the receiving magnet, a question
arose between Mr. Morse and myself as to the origin of this invention.
It was amicably discussed by Mr. Morse, Professor Henry, Dr. Gale,
and myself, with Professor Henry’s article, alluded to in answer to
the second question before us. The result of the interview was con-
clusive to my mind that Professor Henry was the sole discoverer of
the law on which the intensity magnet depends for its power of send-
ing the galvanic current through a long circuit. I was also led to
conclude that Mr. Morse, in the course of his own researches and ex-
periments before he had read Professor Henry’s article, before alluded

to, had encountered the same difficulty Mr. Barlow and those who
preceded him had encountered, that is, the impossibility of forcing

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 95

the galvanic current through a long telegraph line. His own per-
sonal researches had not overcome this obstacle. They were made in
the laboratory of the New York University. I also learned at the
same time, by the conversations above stated, that he only overcame
this obstacle by constructing a magnet on the principle invented by Pro-
fessor Henry, and described in his article in Silliman’s Journal. His
attention was directed to it by Dr. Gale.’’

What changed Mr. Morse’s opinion of Professor Henry, not only
as a scientific investigator, but as a man of integrity, after the admis-
sions of his indebtedness to his researches, and the oft repeated ex-
pressions of warm personal regard? It appears that Mr. Morse was
involved in a number of lawsuits, growing out of contested claims to
the right of using electricity for telegraphic purposes. The circum-
stances under which Professor Henry, as a well known investigator in
this department of physics, was summoned by one of the parties to
testify have already been stated. The testimony of Mr. Henry, while
supporting the claims of Mr. Morse as the inventor of an admirable
invention, denied to him the additional merit of being a discoverer of
new facts or laws of nature, and to this extent, perhaps, was consid-
ered unfavorable to some part of the claim of Mr. Morse to an exelu-
sive right to employ the electro-magnet for telegraphic purposes.
Professor Henry’s deposition consists of a series of answers to verbal,
as well as written, interrogatories propounded to him, which were not
limited to his published writings, or the subject of electricity, but ex-
tended to investigations and discoveries in general having a bearing
upon the electric telegraph. He gave his testimony at a distance
from his notes and manuscripts, and it would not have been surprising
if inaccuracies had occurred in some parts of his statement; but all
the material points in it are sustained by independent testimony, and
that portion which relates directly to Mr. Morse agrees entirely with
the statement of his own assistant, Dr. Gale. Had his deposition
been objectionable, it ought to have been impeached before the Court;
but this was not attempted; and the following tribute to Professor
Henry by the judge, in delivering the opinion of the Supreme Court
of the United States, indicates the impression made upon the Court
itself by all the testimony in the case: ‘‘ It is due to him to say that
no one has contributed more to enlarge the knowledge of electro-
magnetism, and to lay the foundations of the great invention of which
we are speaking, than the Professor himself.’’

Professor Henry’s answers to the first and second interrogatories
present a condensed history of the progress of the science of electro-
magnetism, as connected with telegraphic communication, embracing

95 PROCEEDINGS OF TIE REGENTS.

an account of the discoveries of Oersted, Arago, Davy, Ampére; of
the investigations by Barlow and Sturgeon; of his own researches,
commenced in 1828, and continued in 1829, 1830, and subsequently.
The details of his experiments and their results, though brief, are
very precise. There is abundant evidence to show that Professor
Henry’s experiments and illustrations at Albany, and subsequently
at Princeton, proved, and were declared at the time by him to prove,
that the electric telegraph was now practicable; that the electro-
magnet might be used to produce mechanical effects at a distance
adequate to making signals of various kinds, such as ringing bells,
which he practically illustrated. In proof of this, we quote a letter
to Professor Henry, from Professor James Haun, of Albany, late
president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science:

JANUARY 19, 1856.

Dear Sir: While a student of the Rensselaer School, in Troy,
New York, in August, 1832, I visited Albany with a friend, having
a letter of introduction to you from Professor Eaton. Our principal
object was to see your electro-magnetic apparatus, of which we had
heard much, and at the same time the library and collections of the
Albany Institute.

You showed us your laboratory in a lower story or basement of
the building, and in a larger room in an upper story some electric
and galvanic apparatus, with various philosophical instruments. In
this room, and extending around the same, was a circuit of wire
stretched along the wall, and at one termination of this, in the recess
of a window, a bell was fixed, while the other extremity was con-
nected with a galvanic apparatus.

You showed us the manner in which the bell could be made to ring
by a current of electricity, transmitted through this wire, and you
remarked that this method might be adopted tor giving signals, by
the ringing of a bell at the distance of many miles from the point of
its connexion with the galvanic apparatus.

All the circumstances attending this visit to Albany are fresh in my
recollection, and during the past years, while so much has been said
respecting the invention of electric telegraphs, | have often had occa-
sion to mention the exhibition of your electric telegraph in the Albany
Academy, in 1832.

If at any time or under any circumstances this statement can be of
service to you in substantiating your claim to such a discovery at the

erlod named, you are at liberty to use it in any manner you please,
and I shall be ready at all times to repeat and sustain what I have
here stated, with many other attendant circumstances, should they
prove of any importance.

I remain very sincerely and respectfully yours,
JAMS HALL.

Professor JosrpH Hunry.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS, 97

In his deposition, Prof. Henry’s statements are within what he
might fairly have claimed. But he is a man of science, looking for
no other reward than the consciousness of having done something for
its promotion, and the reputation which the successful prosecution of
scientific investigations and discoveries may justly be expected to give.
In his public lectures and published writings he has often pointed out
incidentally the possibility of applying the facts and laws of nature
discovered by him to practical purposes ; he has freely communicated
information to those who have sought it from him, among whom has
been Mr. Morse himself, as appears by his own acknowledgments.
But he has never applied his scientific discoveries to practical ends for
his own pecuniary benefit. It was natural, therefore, that he should
feel a repugnance to taking any part in the litigation between rival
inventors, and it was inevitable that, when forced to give his testi-
mony, he should distinctly point out what was so clear in his own
mind and is so fundamental a fact in the history of human progress,
the distinctive functions of the discoverer and the inventor who ap-
plies discoveries to practical purposes in the business of life.

Mr. Henry has always done full justice to the invention of Mr.
Morse. While he could not sanction the claim of Mr. Morse to the
exclusive use of the electro-magnet, he has given him full credit for
the mechanical contrivances adapted to the application of his invention.
In proof of this we refer to his deposition, and present also the following
statement of Hon. Cuartus Mason, Commissioner of Patents, taken
from a letter addressed by him to Prof. Henry, dated March 31, 1856:

U.S. Patent Orrics, March 31, 1856.

Sir: Agreeably to your request I now make the following state-
ment:

Some two years since, when an application was made for an exten-
sion of Prof. Morse’s patent, I was for some time in doubt as to the pro-
priety of making that extension. Under these circumstances I con-
sulted with several persons, and among others with yourself, with a
view particularly to ascertain the amount of invention fairly due to
Prof. Morse.

The result of my inquiries was such as to induce me to grant the
extension. I will further say that this was in accordance with your
express recommendation, and that I was probably more influenced by
this recommendation, and the information I obtained from you, than
by any other circumstance, in coming to that conclusion,

I am, sir, yours very respectfully,
CHARLES MASON.
Prof. J. Henry.

To sum up the results of the preceding investigation in a few words

7s

98 . PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

We have shown that Mr. Morse himself has acknowledged the value
of the discoveries of Prof. Henry to his electric telegraph; that his
associate and scientific assistant, Dr. Gale, has distinctly affirmed that
these discoveries were applied to his telegraph, and that previous to
such application it was impossible for Mr. Morse to operate his instru-
ment at a distance; that Prof. Henry’s experiments were witnessed
by Prof. Hall and others in 1832, and that these experiments showed
the possibility of transmitting to a distance a force capable of pro-
ducing mechanical effects adequate to making telegraphic signals ;
that Mr. Henry’s deposition of 1849, which evidently furnished the
motive for Mr. Morse’s attack upon him, is strictly correct in all the
historical details, and that, so far as it relates to Mr. Henry’s own
claim as a discoverer, is within what he might have claimed with en-
tire justice; that he gave the deposition reluctantly, and in no spirit
of hostility to Mr. Morse; that on that and other occasions he fully
admitted the merit of Mr. Morse as an inventor; and that Mr. Morse’s
patent was extended through the influence of the favorable opinion
expressed by Professor Henry.

Your committee come unhesitatingly to the conclusion that Mr.
Morse has failed to substantiate any one ot the charges he has made
against Prof. Henry, although the burden of proof lay upon him; and
that all the evidence, including the unbiased admissions of Mr. Morse
himself, is on the other side. Mr. Morse’s charges not only remain
unproved but they are positively disproved.

Your committee recommend the adoption of the following resolu-
tions :

Resolved, That Professor Morse has not succeeded in refuting the
statements of Professor Henry in the deposition given by the latter in
1849; that he has not proved any one of the accusations against Prof.
Henry made in the article in Shaffner’s Telegraph Companion in 1855,
and that he has not disproved any one of his own admissions in re-
gard to Prof. Henry’s discoveries in electro-magnetism, and their im-
portance to his own invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph.

Resolved, That there is nothing in Professor Morse’s article that di-
winishes, in the least, the confidence of this Board in the integrity of
Prof. Henry, or in the value of those great discoveries which have
placed his name among those of the most distinguished cultivators of
science, and have done much to exalt the scientific reputation of the
country.

Resolved, That this report, with the resolutions, be recorded in the
Proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Institution.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 99

The report was accepted and the resolutions were unanimously
adopted. The Board then adjourned sine die.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE.

STATEMENT OF PROFESSOR HENRY IN RELATION TO THE HISTORY OF THE
| ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH.

In the beginning of my deposition I was requested to give a sketch
of the history of electro-magnetism having a bearing on the telegraph,
and the account I then gave from memory I have since critically
‘examined and find it fully corroborated by reference to the original
authorities. My sketch, which was the substance of what I had been
in the habit of giving in my lectures, was necessarily very concise, and
almost exclusively confined to one class of facts, namely, those having
a direct bearing on Mr. Morse’s invention, and my paper in Silliman’s
Journal was likewise very brief and intended merely for scientific
‘men. In order, therefore, to set forth more clearly in what my own
improvements consisted it may be proper to give a few additional
particulars respecting some points in the progress of discovery, illus-
trated by wood cuts.

_ There are several forms of the electrical telegraph: first, that in
which frictional electricity has been proposed to produce sparks and
‘motion of pith balls at a distance.
Second, that in which galvanism has been employed to produce
signals by means of bubbles of gas from the decomposition of water.
Third, that in which electro-magnetism is the motive power to
produce motion at a distance; and again, of the latter there are two
kinds of telegraph, those in which the intelligence is indicated by the
motion of a magnetic needle, and those in which sounds and per-
manent signs are made by the attraction of an electro-magnet. The
latter is the class to which Mr. Morse’s invention belongs. The fol--
lowing is a brief exposition of the several steps which led to this-form
of the telegraph.
The first essential fact, as I stated in my testimony, which ren--
dered the electro-magnetic telegraph possible -was discovered by -
—Oersted, in the winter of 1819-’20. It is illustrated by figure 1, in:
which the magnetic gener
needle is deflected by
the action of a cur- 4
rent of galvanism
transmitted through
the wire A B. (See Annals of Philosophy, vol. 16, page 273.)

*

100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS,

The second fact of importance, discovered in 1820, by Arago and
Fig. 2.

Davy, is illustrated in
figure 2. It consists
in this, that while a
current of galvanism is
passing through a cop-
per wire A B, it is
magnetic, it attracts iron filings and not those of copper or brass, and
is capable of developing magnetism in soft iron. (See Annales de
Chimie, vol. 15, page 94.)

The next important discovery, also made in 1820, by Ampére, was
that two wires through which galvanic currents are passing in the
same direction attract, and in opposite direction repel, each other.
On this fact Ampére founded his celebrated theory, that magnetism

-onsists merely in the attraction of electrical currents revolving at

right angles to the line joining the two poles of the magnet. The
magnetisation of a bar of steel or iron, according to this theory, con-

_sists in establishing within the metal by induction a series of electrical

. currents, all revolving in the same direction at right angles to the
, axis or length of the bar. (See Annales de Chimie, vol. 15, page 69.)

It was this theory which led Arago, as he states, to adopt the method
of magnetizing sewing needles and pieces of steel wire, shown in
Fig. 3, figure 3. This method

=e consists in transmit-

ting a current of elec-
tricity through a helix

_gurrounding the needle or wire to be magnetized. For the

purpose of insulation the needle was inclosed in a glass tube, and the
several turns of the helix were at a distance from each other to insure
the passage of electricity, through the whole length of the wire, or, in

_other words, to prevent it from seeking a shorter passage by cutting

across from one spire to another. The helix employed by Arago

. obviously approximates the arrangement required by the theory of

_ Ampére, in order to develop by induction the magnetism of the iron.

By an attentive perusal of the original account of the experiments of
Arago, given in the Annales de Chimie et Physique, vol. XV, 1820,
page 93, it will be seen that, properly speaking, he made no electro-
magnet, as has been asserted by Morse and others; his experiments

_ were confined to the magnetism of iron filings, to sewing needles and
_ pieces of steel wire of the diameter of a millimetre, or of about the

thickness of a small knitting needle. (See Annales de Chimie, vol.

15, page 95.)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 101

Mr. Sturgeon, in 1825, made an important step in advance of the
experiments of Arago, and produced what is properly known as the
electro-magnet. He bent a piece of iron wire into the form of a horse-
shoe, covered it with varnish to insulate it, and surrounded it with a
helix, of which the spires were at a distance. When a current of
galvanism was passed through the helix from a small battery of a
single cup the iron wire became magnetic, and continued so during
the passage of the current. When the current was interrupted the
magnetism disappeared, and thus was produced the first temporary
soft iron magnet.

The electro-magnet of Sturgeon is shown Fig. 4.
in figure 4, which is an exact copy from the
drawing in the Transactions of the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts, &c., vol.
XLII. By comparing figures 3 and 4

by Sturgeon was of the same kind as that ‘
used by Arago; instead, however, of ve
straight steel wire inclosed in a tube of
glass, the former employed a bent wire of soft iron. The difference
in the arrangement at first sight might appear to be small, but the
difference in the results produced was important, since the temporary
magnetism developed in the arrangement of Sturgeon was sufficient
to support a weight of several pounds, and an instrument was thus
produced of value in future research.

The next improvement was made by myself. After reading an
account of the galvanometer of Schweigger, the idea occurred to me that
a much nearer approximation to the requirements of the theory of
Ampére could be attained by insulating the conducting wire itself,
instead of the rod to be magnetized, and by covering the whole sur-
face of the iron with a series of coils in close contact. This was
effected by insulating a long wire with silk thread, and winding this
around the rod of iron in close coils from one end to the other. The
same principle was extended by employing a still Fig. 5:
longer insulated wire, and winding several strata
of this over the first, care being taken to insure
the insulation between each stratum by a cover-°
ing of silk ribbon. By this arrangement the rod
was surrounded by a compound helix formed of a
long wire of many coils, instead of a single helix
of a few coils, (figure 5.)

102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

In the arrangement of Arago and Sturgeon the several turns of
wire were not precisely at right angles to the axis of the rod, as they
should be, to produce the effect required by the theory, but slightly
oblique, and therefore each tended to develop a separate magnetism
not coincident with the axis of the bar. But in winding the wire
over itself the obliquity of the several turns compensated each
other, and the resultant action was at right angles to tle bar, The
arrangement then introduced by myself was superior to those of
Arago and Sturgeon, first in the greater multiplicity of turns of wire,
and second in the better application of these turns to the development
of magnetism. The power of the instrument, with the same amount
of galvanic force, was by this arrangement several times increased.

The maximum effect, however, with this arrangement and a single
battery was not yet obtained. After a certain length of wire had
been coiled upon the iron the power diminished with a further in-
crease of the number of turns. This was due to the increased resist-
ance which the longer wire offered to the conduction of electricity,
Two methods of improvement therefore suggested themselves. The
first consisted, not in increasing the length of the coil, but in using
a number of separate cvils on the same piece of iron. By this ar-
rangement the resistance to the conduction of the electricity was
diminished and a greater quantity made to circulate around the iron
from the same battery. The second method of producing a similar
result consisted in increasing the number of elements of the battery,
or, in other words, the projectile force of the electricity, which enabled
it to pass through an increased number of turns of wire, and thus,

ee: by increasing the length of the wire, to develop
a, » the maximum power of the iron.
= To test these principles on a larger scale the
experimental magnet was constructed, which is
shown in figure 6. In thisa number of com-
pound helices were placed on the same bar, their
ends left projecting, and so numbered that they
could be all united into one long helix, or va-
riously combined in sets of lessser length.

From a series of experiments with this and other magnets it was
proved that, in order to produce the greatest amount of magnetism
from a battery of a single cup, a number of helices is required; but
when a compound battery is used then one long wire must be em-
ployed, making many turns around the iron, the length of wire and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS, 103

consequently the number of turns being commensurate with the pro-
jectile power of the battery.

In describing the results of my experiments the terms intensi/y and
quantity magnets were introduced to avoid circumlocution, and were
intended to be used merely in a technical sense. By the intensity
magnet I designated a piece of soft iron, so surrounded with wire
that its magnetic power could be called into operation by an intensity
battery, and by a quantity magnet, a piece of iron so surrounded by a
number of separate coils that its magnetism could be fully developed
by a quantity battery.

I was the first to point out this connexion of the two kinds of
the battery with the two forms of the maguet in my paper in Silli-
man’s Journal, January 1831, and clearly to state that when mag-
netism was to be developed by means of a compound battery, one long
coil was to be employed, and when the maximum effect was to be pro-
duced by a single battery, a number of single strands were to be used.

These steps in the advance of electro-magnetism though small, were
such as to interest and astonish the scientific world. With the same
battery used by Mr. Sturgeon, at least a hundred times more mag-
netism was produced than could have been obtained by his experiment.
The developments were considered at the time of much importance
in ascientific point of view, and they subsequently furnished the means
by which magneto-electricity, the phenomena of dia-magnetism, and
the magnetic effects on polarized light were discovered. They gave
rise to the various forms of electro-magnetic machines which have
since exercised the ingenuity of inventors in every part of the world,
and were of immediate applicability in the introduction of the magnet
to telegraphic purposes. Neither the electro-magnet of Sturgeon nor
any electro-magnet ever made previous to my investigations wag
applicable to transmitting power to a distance.

The principles I have developed were properly appreciated by the
scientific mind of Dr. Gale, and applied by him to operate Mr. Morse’s
machine at a distance.

Previous to my investigations the means of developing magnetism
in soft iron were imperfectly understood. The electro-magnet made
by Sturgeon, and copied by Dana, of New York, was an imperfect
quantity magnet, the feeble power of which was developed by a single
battery. It was entirely inapplicable to a long circuit with an inten-
sity battery, and no person possessing the requisite scientific know-

104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS

ledge would have attempted to use it in that connexion after reading
my paper.

In sending a message to a distance two circuits are employed, the
first a long circuit through which the electricity is sent to the distant
station to bring into action the second, a short one, in which is the ©
local battery and magnet for working the machine. In order to give
projectile force sufficient to send the power to a distance, it is neces-
sary to use an intensity battery in the long circuit, and in connexion
with this, at the distant station, a magnet surrounded with many
turns of one long wire must be employed to receive and multiply the
effect of the current enfeebled by its transmission through the long
conductor. In the local or short circuit either an intensity or a quan-
tity magnet may be employed. If the first be used, then with it a
compound battery will be required ; and, therefore, on account of the
increased resistance due to the greater quantity of acid, a less amount
of work will be performed by a given amount of material; and, con-
sequently, though this arrangement is practicable it is by no means
economical. In my original paper I state that the advantages of a
greater conducting power, from. using several wires in the quantity
magnet, may, in a less degree, be obtained by substituting for them one
large wire; but in this case, on account of the greater obliquity of
the spires and other causes, the magnetic effect would be less. In
accordance with these principles, the receiving magnet, or that which
is introduced into the long circuit, consists of a horse-shoe magnet
surrounded with many hundred turns of a single long wire, and is
operated with a battery of from 12 to 24 elements or more, while in
the local circuit it is customary to employ a battery of one or two
elements with a much thicker wire and fewer turns.

It will, I think, be evident to the impartial reader that these were
improvements in the electro-magnet which first rendered it adequate
to the transmission of mechanical power to a distance; and had I
omitted all allusion to the telegraph in my paper, the conscientious
historian of science would have awarded me some credit, however
small might have been the advance which I made. Arago and Stur-
geon, in the accounts of their experiments, make no mention of the tel-
egraph, and yet their names always have been and will be associated
with the invention. I briefly, however, called attention to the fact of
the applicability of my experiments to the construction of the tele-
graph; but not being familiar with the history of the attempts made
in regard to this invention, I called it ‘‘Barlow’s project,’’ while I ought
to have stated that Mr. Barlow’s investigation merely tended to dis-
prove the possibility of a telegraph.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 105

I did not refer exclusively to the needle telegraph when, in my
paper, I stated that the magnetic action of a current from a trough is at
Jeast not sensibly diminished by passing through a long wire. This
is evident from the fact that the immediate experiment from which
this deduction was made was by means of an electro-magnet and not
by means of a needle galvanometer.

At the conclusion of the series of experiments which I described in

Silliman’s Journal, there were two applications of the electro-magnet
in my mind: one the production of a machine to be moved by electro-
magnetism, and the other the transmission of or calling into action
power at a distance. The first was carried into execution in the con-
struction of the machine described in Silliman’s Journal, vol. 20, 1831,
and for the purpose of experimenting in regard to the second, [I ar-
ranged around one of the upper rooms in the Albany Academy a
wire of more than a mile in length, through which I was enabled to
make signals by sounding a bell, (fig. Fig. 7.
7.) The mechanical arrangement for
affecting this object was simply a
steel bar, permanently magnetized, of
about ten inches in length, supported
on a pivot and placed with its north
end between the two arms of a horse-
shoe magnet. When the latter was
excited by the current, the end of the
bar thus placed was attracted by one
arm of the horse-shoe, and repelled
by the other, and was thus caused to
move in a horizontal plane and its further extremity to strike a bell
suitably adjusted.

This arrangement is that which is alluded to in Professor Hall’s
letter* as having been exhibited to him in 1832 It was not, however,
at that time connected with the long wire above mentioned, but with
a shorter one put up around the room for exhibition.

At the time of giving my testimony, I was uncertain as to when I
had first exhibited this contrivance, but have:since definitely settled
the fact by the testimony of Hall and others that it was before I left
Albany, and abundant evidence can be brought to show that previous
to my going to Princeton in November, 1832, my mind was much
occupied with the subject of the telegraph, and that I introduced it in
my course of instruction to the senior classin the Academy. I should

* See the Report of the Committee, page 96, and Proceedings of the Albany Institute,
anuary, 1858.

106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

state, however, that the arrangement that I have described was merely
a temporary one, and that I had no idea at the time of abandoning
my researches for the practical application of the telegraph. Indeed,
my experiments on the transmission of power to a distance were super-
seded by the investigation of the remarkable phenomena, which I had
discovered in the course of these experiments, of the induction of a
current in a long wire on itself, and of which I made the first mention
in a paper in Silliman’s Journal in 1832, vol. 22.

I also devised a method of breaking a circuit, and thereby causing a
large weight to fall. It was intended to illustrate the practicability of
calling into action a great power at a distance capable of producing
mechanical effects; but as a description of this was not printed, I do
not place it in the same category with the experiments of which I
published an account, or the facts which could be immediately de-
duced from my papers in Silliman’s Journal.

From a careful investigation of the history of electro-magnetism
in its connexion with the telegraph, the following facts may be es-
tablished :

1. Previous to my investigations the means of developing magnetism
in soft iron were imperfectly understood, and the electro-magnet
which then existed was inapplicable to the transmission of power to a
distance.

2. I was the first to prove by actual experiment that, in order to
develop magnetic power at a distance, a galvanic battery of intensity
must be employed to project the current through the long conductor,
and that a magnet surrounded by many turns of one long wire must be
used to receive this current.

3. I was the first actually to magnetize a piece of iron at a distance,
and to call attention to the fact of the applicability of my experiments
to the telegraph.

4. I was the first to actually sound a bell at a distance by means of
the electro-magnet,

5. The principles I had developed were applied by Dr. Gale to
render Morse’s machine effective at a distance.

The results here given were among my earliest experiments ; in a
scientific point of view I considered them of much less importance
than what I subsequently accomplished ; and had I not been called
upon to give my testimony in regard to them, I would have suffered
them to remain without calling public attention to them, a part of the
history of science to be judged of by scientific men who are the best
qualified to pronounce upon their merits.

PROCEEDINGS OF 'rTHE REGENTS. 107

DEPOSITION OF JOSEPH HENRY, IN THE CASE OF
MORSE vs. O’RELLLY,

TAKEN AT BOSTON, SEPTEMBER, 1849.
[From the Record of the Supreme Court of the United States. |

1. Please state your place of residence and your occupation ; also,
what attention, if any, you have given to the subjects of electricity,
magnetism, and electro-magnetism.

Answer,—I begin this deposition with the express statement that I
do not voluntarily give my testimony; but that I appear on legal
summons, and in submission to law. Iam Secretary to the Smith-
sonian Institution, established in the city of Washington, where I
now reside. The principal direction of the Institution is confided to
me. As I do not expect to return to Washington until some time in
October, I have been called upon to give my testimony here in Boston;
on this account I labor under the disadvantage of beiag obliged to
testify without my notes and papers, which are now in Washington.

I commenced the study of electro-magnetism in 1827 ; and since then
have, at different times, [until] within the last two and a halt years,
when I became Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, made original
investigations in this and kindred branches of physical science. I know
no person in our couutry who has paid more attention to the study of
the principles of electro-magnetism than myself.

2. Please give a general account of the progress of the science of
electro magnetism, as connected with telegraphic communication ; and
of any inventions or discoveries in electro-magnetism applicable to
the telegraph, made by yourself.

Answer.—I consider an electro-magnetic telegraph as one which
operates by the combined influence of electricity and magnetism. Prior
to the winter of 1819—’20, no form of the electro-magnetic telegraph
was possible; the scientific principles on which it is founded were
then unknown. The first fact of electro-magnetism was discovered
by Oersted, of Copenhagen, during that winter. It is this: A wire
being placed close above, or below, and parallel to a magnetic needle,
and a galvanic current being transmitted through the wire, the needle
will tend to place itself at right angles to it. This fact was widely
published, and the account was everywhere received with interest.

The second fact of importance was discovered independently, and
about the same time, by Arago, at Paris, and Davy, at London. It
is this: During the transmission of a galvanic current through a wire
of copper, or any other metal, the wire exhibits magnetic properties,
attracting iron, but not copper filings, and having the power of in-
ducing permanent magnetism in steel needles. The next important
fact was discovered by Ampére, of Paris, one of the most sagacious
and successful cultivators of physical science in the present century.
It is this: Two parallel wires through which galvanic currents are
passing ia the same direction, attract each other; but if the currents

108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

pass in opposite directions, they repel each other. On this fact
Ampére founded his ingenious theory of magnetism and electro-mag-
netism. According to this theory, all magnetic phenomena result
from the attraction or repulsion of electric currents, supposed to exist
in the iron at right angles to the length of the bar; and that all the
phenomena of magnetism and electro magnetism are thus referred to
one principle, namely, the action of electrical currents on each other.

Ampere deduced from this theory many interesting results, which
were afterwards verified by experiment. He also proposed to the
French Academy a plan for the application of electro-magnetism to
the transmission of intelligence to a distance; this consisted in de-
flecting a number of needles at the place of receiving intelligence, by
galvanic currents transmitted through long wires. This transmission
was to be effected by completing a galvanic circuit. When completed,
the needle was deflected. When interrupted, it returned to its ordi-
nary position, under the influence of the attraction of the earth. This
project of Ampére was never reduced to practice. All these discoveries
and results were prior to 1823.

The next investigations relating to the magnetic telegraph were
published in 1825 ; ‘they were by Mr. Barlow, of the Royal Military
Academy of Woolwich, England. He found that there was creat
diminution in the power of the galvanic current to produce effects
with an increase of distance; a diminution so great in a distance of
two hundred feet was observed, as to convince him of the impractica-
bility of the scheme of the electro-magnetic telegraph. His experi-
ments led him to conclude that the power was inversely as the
square root of the length of the wire. The publication of these
results put at rest, for a time, all attempts to construct an electro-
magnetic telegraph.

The next investigations, in the order of time, bearing on the tele-
graph, were made by Mr. Sturgeon, of England. He bent a piece of
iron wire into the form of a horse-shoe, and put loosely around it a
coil of copper wire, with wide intervals between the turns or spires
to prevent them touching each other, and through this coil he trans-
mitted a current of galvanism. The iron, under the influence of this
current, became magnetic, and thus was produced the first electro-
magnetic magnet, sometimes called simply the electro-magnet. An
account of this experiment was first published in November, 1825, in
the Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of the Arts in
England ; and was made known in this country through the Annals
of Philosophy for November, 1826.

Nothing further was done pertaining to the telegraph until my
own researches in electro-magnetism, which were commenced in 1828,
and continued in 1829, 1830, and subsequently ; Barlow’s results, as
I before observed, had prevented all attempts to construct a magnetic
telegraph on the plan of Ampére, and our own knowledge of the de-
velopment’ of magnetism in soft iron, as left by Sturgeon, was not
such as to be applicable to telegraphic purposes. The electro-magnet
of Sturgeon could not be made to act by a current through a long
wire, as will be apparent hereafter in this deposition.

After repeating the experiments of Oersted, Ampére, and others,
and publishing an account in 1828 of various modifications of electro-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 109

magnetic apparatus, I commenced in that year the investigation of
the laws of the development of magnetism in soft iron, by means of
the electrical current. The first idea that occurred to me in accord-
ance with the theory of Ampére, with reference to increasing the
power of the electro-magnet, was that of using a longer wire than
had before been employed. A wire of sixty feet in length, covered
with silk, was wound round a whole length of an iron bar, either
straight or in the form of a U, so as to cover its whole length with
several thicknesses of the wire.

The results of this arrangement were such as I had anticipated,
and electro-magnets of this kind, exhibited to the Albany Institute
in March, 1829, possessed magnetic power superior to that of any
before known.

The idea afterwards occurred to me that the quantity of galvanism,
supplied by a small galvanic battery, might be applied to develop a
still greater amount of magnetic power in a large bar of iron. On
experiment, I found this idea correct. A battery of two and a half
square inches of zinc, developed magnetism in a large bar sufficient to
lift fourteen pounds.

The next suggestion which occurred to me was that of using a
number of wires of the same length around the same bar, so as to
lessen the resistance which the galvanic current experienced in pass-
ing from the zinc to the copper through the coil. To bring this to
the test of experiment, a second wire, equal in length to the first,
was wound around the last mentioned magnet, and its ends soldered
to the plates of the same battery.

The magnet with this additional wire lifted twenty-eight pounds,
or, in other words, its power was doubled.

A series of experiments was afterwards made, to determine the re-
sistance to conduction of wires of different lengths and diameters, and
the proper lengths and number of wires for producing, with different
kinds of galvanic batteries, the maximum of amount of magnetic de-
velopment with a given quantity of zinc surface. For this purpose a
bar of soft iron, two inches square and twenty inches long, weighing
twenty-one pounds, and much larger than any before used, was bent
in the form of a horse-shoe. Around this were wound nine strands
of copper wire, each sixty feet long, the ends left projecting so that
one or more coils could be used at once, either connected with a bat-
tery or with each other, thus forming several coils with several battery
connexions, or one long coil with single battery connexions. The
greatest effect obtained with this magnet, using a battery of a single
pair, with a zinc plate of two-fifths of a square foot of surface, and all
the wire arranged as separate coils, was to lift a weight of six hun-
dred and fifty pounds; with a large battery the effect was increased
to seven hundred and fifty pounds. In a subsequent series of experi-
ments, not published with the preceding, the same magnet was made
to sustain one thousand pounds. When a compound battery was
employed of a number of pairs, it was found that the greatest effect
was produced when all the wires were arranged as a single long coil.
I subsequently constructed electro-magnets on the same plan, which
supported much greater weights. One of these, now in the cabinet
of Princeton, will sustain three thousand six hundred pounds with a

110° = PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

battery occupying about a cubic foot of space. It consists of thirty
strands of wire, each about forty feet in length.

The abovementioned experiments exhibit the important fact that
when a galvanic battery of intensity (that is to say, a battery con-
sisting of a number of pairs) is employed, the electro-magnet con-
nected with it must be wound with one long wire, in order to produce
the greatest effect ; and that when a battery of quantity, (that is, one
of a single pair,) 1s employed, the proper form of the magnet con-
nected with it is that in which several shorter wires are wound around
the iron. The first of these magnets, which is the one now employed
in the long or main circuit of the telegraph, may be called an intensity
magnet; and the second, which is used in the local circuit, may be
denominated the quantity.

The quantity of electricity which can be passed through a long
circuit of ordinary-sized wire is, under the most favorable circum-
stances, exceedingly small, and in order that this may develop mag-
netism in a bar of iron, it was necessary that it should be made to
revolve many times around the iron, that its effects may be multiplied ;
and this is effected by using along single coil. Hence it will be seen
that the electro-magnet of Mr. Sturgeon was not applicable to tele-
graphic purposes in a long circuit.

Previous to making the last experiments above mentioned, in order
to guide myself, I instituted a series of preliminary experiments on
the conduction of wires of different lengths and diameters, with dif-
ferent batteries. In these experiments a galvanometer, or an instru-
ment consisting of a magnetic needle freely suspended within a coil
of wire, was first employed to denote, by the deflection of its needle,
the power of the current. The result from a number of experiments,
with a battery of a single pair, was the same as that obtained by
Barlow, namely, that the power diminished rapidly with the increase
of distance With the same battery, and a larger wire, the diminution
was less. The galvanometer was next removed, and a small electro-
magnet substituted in its place. With a single battery, the same
result was again obtained—a great diminution of lifting power with
the increase of distance. After this the battery of a single pair was
removed and its place supplied by one of intensity, consisting of
twenty-five pairs. With this the important fact was observed, that
no perceptible diminution of the lifting power took place, when the
current was transmitted through an intervening wire between the
battery and the magnet of upwards of one thousand feet.

This was the first discovery of the fact that a galvanic current
could be transmitted to a great distance with so little a diminution of
force as to produce mechanical effects, and of the means by which the
transmission could be accomplished. I saw that the electric tele-
graph was now practicable; and, in publishing my experiments and
their results, I stated that the fact just mentioned was applicable to
Barlow’s project of such a telegraph. I had not the paper of Barlow
before me, and erred in attributing to him a project of a telegraph, as
he only disproved, as he thought, the practicability of one. But the
intention of the statement was to show that I had established the fact
that a mechanical effect could be produced by the galvanic current at

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 111

a great distance, operating upon a magnet or needle, and that the
telegraph was therefore possible. In arriving at these results, and
announcing their applicability to the telegraph, I had not in mind
any particular form of telegraph, but referred only to the general fact
that it was now demonstrated that a galvanic current could be trans-
mitted to great distances with sufficient power to produce mechanical
effects adequate to the desired object.

The investigations above mentioned were all devised and originated,
and the experiments planned, by myself. In conducting the latter,
however, [ was assisted by Dr. Philip Ten Eyck, of Albany. An
account of the whole was published in the 19th volume of Silliman’s
Journal, in 1831, with the exception of the account of the large
magnet afterwards constructed at Princeton in 1833, and the experi-
ment mentioned of lifting a thousand pounds with one of my first
magnets. While I was engaged in these researches, Prof. Moll, of
the University of Utrecht, was pursuing investigations somewhat
similar, and succeeded in making powerful electro-magnets, but made
no discovery as to the distinction between the two kinds of magnets,
or the transmissibility of the galvanic current to a great distance with
power to produce mechanical effects. In fact, his experiments were
but a repetition on a large scale of those of Sturgeon.

After completing the investigations abovementioned, I commenced
a series of experiments on another branch of electricity closely con-
nected with this subject. Among other things, I applied the princi-
ples above mentioned to the construction of an electro-magnetic
machine, which.has since excited much attention in reference to the
application of electro-magnetism as a motive power in the arts.

In 1832 I was calJed to the chair of natural philosophy in the
College of New Jersey, at Princeton, and in my first course of lectures
in that institution, in 1833, and in every subsequent year during my
connexion with that institution, I mentioned the project of the electro-
magnetic telegraph, and explained how the electro-magnet might be
used to produce mechanical effects at a distance adequate to making
signals of various kinds. I never myself attempted to reduce these
principles to practice, or to apply any of my discoveries to processes
in the arts. My whole attention, exclusive of my duties to the college,
was devoted to original scientific investigations, and I left to others
what I considered in a scientific view of subordinate importance the
application of my discoveries to useful purposes in the arts. Besides
this, I partook of the feeling common to men of science, which disin-
clines them to secure to themselves the advantages of their discoveries
by a patent.

In February, 1837, I went to Europe; and early in April of that
year Prot. Wheatstone, of London, in the course of a visit to him in
King’s College, London, with Prof. Bache, now of the Coast Survey,
explained to us his plans of an electro-magnetic telegraph ; and, among
other things, exhibited to us his method of bringing into action a
second galvanic circuit. This consisted in closing the second circuit
by the deflection of a needle, so placed that the two ends projecting
upwards, of the open circuit, would be united by the contact of the
ond of the needle when deflected, and on opening or breaking of the

112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

circuit so closed by opening the first circuit, and thus interrupting the
current, when the needle would resume its ordinary position under
the influence of the magnetism of the earth. I informed him that I
had devised another method of producing effects somewhat similar.
This consisted in opening the circuit of my large quantity magnet at
Princeton, when loaded with many hundred pounds weight, by at-
tracting upward a small piece of moveable wire, with a small intensity
magnet, connected with a long wire circuit. When the circuit of the
large battery was thus broken by an action from a distance, the
weights would fall, and great mechanical effect could thus be pro-
duced, such as the ringing of church bells at a distance of a hundred
miles or more, an illustration which I had previously given to my
class at Princeton. My impression is strong, that I had explained
the precise process to my class before I went to Europe, but testifying
now without the opportunity of reference to my notes, I cannot speak
positively. Iam, however, certain of having mentioned in my lectures
every year previously, at Princeton, the project of ringing bells at a
distance, by the use of the electro-magnet, and of having frequently
illustrated the principle of transmitting power to a distance to my
class, by causing in some cases a thousand pounds to fall on the floor,
by merely lifting a piece of wire from two cups of mercury closing the
circuit,

The object of Prof. Wheatstone, as I understood it, in bringing into
action a second circuit, was to provide a remedy for the diminution of
force in along circuit. My object, in the process described by me, was
to bring into operation a large quantity magnet, connected with a
quantity battery in a local circuit, by means of a small intensity
magnet, and an intensity battery at a distance.

The only other scientific facts of importance to the practical opera-
tion of the telegraph not already mentioned are the discovery by
Steinheil, iu 1837, in Germany, of the practicability of completing a
galvanic circuit, by using the earth for completing the circuit, and
the construction of the constant battery in 1836, or about that time,
by Professor Daniell, of King’s College, London. I believe that I was
the first to repeat the experiments of Steinheil and Daniell in this
country. Istretched a wire from my study to my laboratory, through
a distance in the air of several hundred yards, and used the earth
as a return conductor, with a very minute battery, the negative ele-
ment of which was a common pin, such as is used in dress, and the
positive element the point of a zinc wire immersed in a single drop of
acid, With this arrangement, a needle was deflected in my laboratory
before my class. I afterwards transmitted currents in various direc-
tions through the college grounds at Princeton. The exact date of
these experiments I am unable to give without reference to my notes.
They were previous, however, to the unsuccessful attempt of Mr. Morse
to transmit currents of electricity through wires buried in the earth
between Washington and Baltimore, and before he attempted to use
the earth as a part of the circuit. Previous to this time, and after the
abovementioned experiments, Mr. Morse visited me at Princeton, to
consult me on the arrangement of his conductors. During this visit,
we conversed freely on the subject of insulation and conduction of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 113

wires. J urged him to put his wires on poles, and stated to him my
experiments and their results.

In the course of the years 1836 and 1837, various plans of more or
less merit, were devised, and more or less fully carried into effect, for
applying the principles already discovered to the construction of electro-
magnetic telegraphs in different parts of the world, but of these I do
not undertake to give any particular account. I would say, however,
that of these plans that for which Mr. Morse subsequently obtained a
patent was, in my judgment, the best.

3. Please state whether or not you are acquainted with the electro-
magnetic telegraph for which S. F. B. Morse obtained a patent in
1846. If you are, please state whether any, and if any, which of the
principles or plans which you have described as discovered, or an-
nounced by yourself or others are used in the construction or opera-
tion of it. State also what principles used in the telegraph are, so
far as you know, original with Professor Morse.

Answer, —I am acquainted with the principles and general mode of
operation of the telegraph and improvement referred to. The tele-
graph is based upon the facts discovered by myself and others, of
which I have already given an account.

The plan which was first described to me in the autumn of 1837 by
Mr. Morse, or by Professor Gale, who was associated with him in the
construction of the telegraph, was to employ a single entire circuit of
wire, with an intensity battery to excite the current, and an intensity
magnet to receive it and produce a mechanical action, which would
work the recording apparatus. Mr. Morse afterwards employed the
intensity battery in a long circuit, and an intensity magnet to receive
its current at a distant point, and produce the mechanical effect of
closing a secondary circuit. The secondary circuit may be either em-
ployed to transmit a second current to a distant point and there close
a third circuit, and thus continue the line, or for working a recording
apparatus in the secondary circuit, or it may be employed without
reference to the continuation of the line, as a short local circuit to work
a local magnet. In the first case, there must be in the secondary cir-
cuit an intensity battery and intensity magnet; in the last case, a quan-
tity magnet and quantity battery are required.

I heard nothing of the secondary circuit as a part of Mr. Morse’s
plan until after his return from Europe, whither he went in 1838. It
was not till long after this that Mr. Morse used the earth as a part of
the circuit in accordance with the discovery of Steinheil.

Iam not aware that Mr. Morse ever made a single original dis-
covery, in electricity, magnetism, or electro-magnetism, applicable to
the invention of the telegraph. I have always considered his merit
to consist in combining and applying the discoveries of others in the
invention of a particular instrument and process for telegraphic pur-
poses. Ihave no means of determining how far this invention is
original with himself, or how much is due to those associated with him.

4. Please state when you first became acquainted with Mr. Morse,
and what knowledge he possessed of electricity, magnetism, and
8 8

1i4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

electro-magnetism, and what information you or others commu-
nicated to him relating to the telegraph. State, also, all you know
of the attempts of himself, and others associated with him, to construct
an electro-magnetic telegraph, either from your own observation or
from statements made by himself or by others in your presence.
State particularly any conversation, if any, you may have had with
him in reference to your own discoveries applied to the telegraph.

Answer.—Shortly after my return from Europe, in the autumn of
1837, I learned that Mr. Morse was about to petition Congress for
assistance in constructing the electro-magnetic telegraph. Some of
my friends in Princeton, knowing what I had done in developing the
principles of the telegraph, urged me to make the representations to
Congress, which I expressed some thought of doing, namely: that
the principles of the electro-magnetic “telegraph belonged to the
science of the world, and that any appropriation which might be
made by Congress should be a premium for the best plan, and the
means of testing the same, which the ingenuity of the country might
offer. Shortly after this I visited New York, and there accidentally
made the personal acquaintance of Mr. Morse ;* he appeared to be an
unassuming and prepossessing gentleman, with very little knowledge
of the general principles of electricity, magnetism, or electro-magnet-
ism. He made no claims, in conversation with me to any scientific
discovery, or to anything beyond his particular machine and process
of applying known principles to telegraphic purposes. He explained
to me his plan of a telegraph with which he had recently made a
successful experiment; I thought this plan better than any with
which I had been made acquainted in Europe; I became interested
in him, and instead of interfering in his application to Congress, I
[subsequently}] gave him a certificate, in the form of a letter, stating
my confidence in the practicability of the electro-magnetic telegraph
and my belief that the form proposed by himself was the best which
had been published.

Mr. Morse subsequently visited Princeton several times to confer
with me on the principles of electricity and magnetism which might
be applicable to the telegraph. I freely gave him any information I
possessed,

I learned in 1837, or thereabouts, that Professor Gale and Dr.
Fisher were the scientific assistants of Mr. Morse in preparing the
telegraph.: Mr. Vail was also employed, but I know not in what
capacity, and I am not personally acquainted with him. With Pro-
fessor Gale I have been intimately acquainted for several years ; he
had been a pupil in chemistry of my friend Dr. Torrey, and ‘had
studied my papers on electro-magnetism, and, as he informed me,
had applied them in the arrangement of the apparatus tor the con-
struction of Morse’s telegraph.

My researches had been given to the world several years before the
attempt was made to reduce the magnetic telegraph to practice. Mr.

* This meeting took place in the chemical store of Mr. Chilton, Broadway, New York,
and the place and time are both indelibly impressed upon my mind.

{| The word subsequently was accidentally omitted in giving my testimony. The omission,
however, is of little importance.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 115

Chilton, of New York, informed me that he had referred Mr. Morse
to them previous to his experiments in the New York University. I
was therefore much surprised on the publication, in 1845, of a work
purporting to give a history of the telegraph, and of the principles on
which it was founded, by Mr. Vail, then principal assistant of Mr.
Morse, and one of the proprietors of his patent, to find all my
published researches relating to the telegraph passed over with little
more than the remark that Dr. Moll and myself had made large
electro-magnetic magnets. Presuming that this publication was
authorized by Mr. Morse and the proprietors of the telegraph, I com-
plained to some of his friends of the injustice, and after his return
irom Europe, (for he was absent at the time the book was issued,) I
received a letter, copied and signed by Mr. Vail, but written by Mr.
Morse, as the latter afterwards informed me, excusing the publication,
on the ground that he (Mr. Vail) was ignorant of what [ had done,
and asking me for an account of my researches. This letter was
addressed to me after the book had been stereotyped and widely
circulated. It has been translated into French, and, I believe,
published in Paris. To the letter I did not think fit to make
any reply. I afterwards received a letter from Mr. Morse, in his
own name, on the same subject, to which I gave a verbal reply in
January, 1847, in Washington. In this interview Mr. Morse acknow-
ledged that injustice had been done me, but said that proper repara-
tion would be made. Another issue of thesame work was made,
bearing date 1847, in which there is no change in the statement
relative to my researches.

About the beginning of 1848 Mr. Walker, of the Coast Survey, in
a report on the application of the telegraph to the determination of
differences of longitude, alluded to my researches. <A copy of this
was sent to Mr. Morse, which led to an interview between Mr. Walker,
Professor Gale, Mr. Morse, and myself. At this meeting, which took
place at my office in Washington, Mr. Morse stated that he had not
known until reading my paper in January, 1847, that I had two years
before his first conception in 1832, settled the point of practicability
of the telegraph, and shown how mechanical effects could be produced
at a distance, both in the deflection of a needle and in the action of an
electro-magnet; that he did not know, at the time of his experiments
in 1837 that there had been any doubts of the action of a current at
a distance, and that in the confidence of the persuasion that the effect
could be produced, he had devised the proper apparatus by which his
telegraph was put in operation. Professor Gale, being then referred
to, stated that Mr. Morse had forgotten the precise state of the case;
that he, (Mr. Morse,) previous to his, (Dr. Gale’s,) connexion with
him, had not succeeded in producing effects at a distance; that, when
he was first called in he found Mr. Morse attempting to make an
electro-magnet act through a circuit of a few yards of copper wire
suspended around a room in the University of New York, and that
he could not succeed in producing the desired effect even in this
that circuit; that he (Dr. Gale) asked him if he had studied Prof.
Henry’s paper on the subject, and that the answer was ‘‘no;”’ that
he then informed Mr. Morse that he would find the principles

116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

necessary to success explained in that paper; that instead of the
battery of a single element, he should employ one of a number of
pairs; and that, in place of the magnet with a short single wire, he
should use one with along coil. Dr. Gale further stated that his
apparatus was in the same building, and that having articles of: the
kind he had mentioned, he procured them, and that with these the
action was produced through a circuit of half a mile of wire.* To this
statement Mr. Morse made no reply. The interview then terminated,
and I have since had no further communication with him on the subject.

5. Please state whether or not you ever constructed any machine
for producing motion by magnetic attraction and repulsion; if yea,
what was it, and what led to the making of it.

Answer.—After developing the great magnetic power of the electro-
magnet as already described, the thought occurred to me that this
power might be applied to give motion to a machine. The simplest
arrangement which suggested itself to my mind was one already re-
ferred to, namely, causing a movable bar, supported on a horizontal
axis like a scale beam, to be attracted and repelled by two permanent
magnets. This could be readily effected by transmitting through a
coil of wire around the suspended bar a current of galvanism, first in
one direction, and then in the opposite direction, the alternations of
the current being produced by dipping the ends of wires projecting
from the coils into cups of mercury connected with batteries, one on
either side. An account of this was published in Silliman’s Journal,
for 1831, vol. xx., p. 340. It was the first successful attempt to pro-
duce a mechanical motion which might apparently be employed in
the arts as a motive power. This little machine attracted much atten-
tion at home and abroad, and various modifications of it were’ made
by myself and others. I never, however, regarded it as practically
applicable in the arts, because of the great expense of producing
power by this means, except, perhaps, in particular cases where ex-
pense of power is of little consequence.

6. Please look at the drawings of the Columbian telegraph, now
shown you, marked G. W. B. and N. B. C., and certified by G. 8S. Hil-
lard, Commissioner. Describe generally the apparatus represented
and its mode of operation, and state in what respects, if any, it differs
from the telegraphic apparatus patented by Mr. Morse.

Answer.—I have looked at the drawings, and I find, on examina-
tion, that it will be impossible for me to give a definite answer to the
question, unless I have more time than is now at my disposal, and
the means of examining and comparing the operations of the
machines.

7. Please state, if you can, how many original experiments you
have made in the course of your investigations in electricity, mag-
netism, and electro-magnetism.

Answer.—The experiments I have mentioned in this deposition
form but a small part of my original investigations. Besides many

* See Dr. ale’s letter of April 7, 1856, page 93.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS, WT

that I made in Albany, which I have not mentioned, since my re-
moval to Princeton, I have made several thousands on electricity,
magnetism, and electro-magnetism, particularly the former, which
have more or less bearing on practical applications of this branch of
science, brief minutes of which fill several hundred folio pages. Many
of these have not been published in detail. They have cost me years
of labor and much expense.

The only reward I ever expected was the consciousness of advancing
. Science, the pleasure of discovering new truths, and the scientific

reputation to which these labors would entitle me.
JOSEPH HENRY.

Sworn to before me, September 7, 1849.
GEO. 8. HILLARD,

Commissioner.

GENERAL APPENDIX TO THE REPORT FOR 1857.

The object of this Appendix is to illustrate the operations of the
Institution by the reports of lectures and extracts from correspond-
ence, as well as to furnish information of a character suited especially
to the meteorological observers and other persons interested in the
promotion of knowledge.

LECTURES ON COAL.

BY PROFESSOR JOSEPH LE CONTE.

Nature is a book in which are revealed the divine character and
mind. Science is the human interpretation of this divine book, hu-
man attempts to understand the thoughts and plans of Deity. The
book being divine, it is evident that all parts are equally sacred.
The subjects of all sciences may be said to be equally, because they
are all infinitely, noble. To the scientific mind the organization of an
insect, a polyp, or an infusorial animalcule is no less dignified a sub-
ject of human inquiry than the organization of the solar system. Yet,
as in the Sacred Neriptures, while all parts are equally sacred, because
all are divine, some are cherished with peculiar reverence, as giving
nobler conceptions of divine character, or clearer views of human duty.
So also in science there are some branches which, by a certain magni-
tude in the objects with which they deal, strike the imagination.and
kindle the enthusiasm in a peculiar degree. From a purely abstract
or intellectual point of view they may be all equal, but as human stu-
dies, as means of elevating the mind and ennobling the soul, they
differ very much among themselves.

In this, the noblest function of science, there are two departments
which stand out beyond all others, viz: astronomy and geology. We
are all accustomed to look upon astronomy as the most magnificent of
sciences, as more than all others extending the bounds of human
intellectual vision; but Iam perfectly confident that when the age
has grasped as firmly and apprehended as clearly the fundamental
idea of geology as it has already done that of astronomy, all will
agree with me in thinking that the former is not one whit behind the
latter in the overwhelming grandeur of its conceptions. Let us, then,
compare these two noble sciences. Let us attempt to vindicate the
claims of geology to stand beside astronomy in the very first rank of
sciences as twin sisters, distinguished from all others by superior
beauty and dignity. ;

There are two conditions of material existence, viz: space and time.
We cannot conceive of material existence except under these two con-
ditions. Now, the peculiar province of astronomy is space, as that of
geology is time. Other sciences may have to do with space, limited
space, a portion of space, but it belongs to astronomy alone to deal
with infinite space. So also there are other sciences which necessarily
deal with limited time, but it is the peculiar prerogative of geology to
deal with infinite time.* As astromy is limited in time to the present
epoch, or, in fact, to about two thousand years, but unlimited in space,
so also geology is limited in space to the surface of the earth, but wn-
limited in time. Ag astronomy measures her distances by billions of

* We use the term ‘‘injinile’’ with reference to time, as with reference to space, as synony-
mous with inconceivably great, illiiaitable by human conception,

120 LECTURES

miles, or millions of earth radii, so geology her epochs by millions
of years, 7. e., earth revolutions. As the astronomer takes the ra-
dius of the earth as a base line wherewith to measure the dimensions
of the solar system, so the geologist takes the present geological
epoch, and ‘‘ causes now in operation,’’ as a time measuring vod, with
which to estimate the length of the tertiary period. As the astrono-
mer, becoming more bold as he ascends, takes the diameter of the
earth’s orbit as a line wherewith to calculate the distances of the fixed
stars, or even dares to estimate the probable distance of the remotest
nebula, so the geologist, no less daring, takes the tertiary as a rod
wherewith to measure approximatively the almost inconceivable lapse
of time represented by the secondary rocks, or even dares to cast his
telescopic glance back into the dim nebulosity of the remotest paleo-
zoic period. Finally, as the astronomer, when telescopic vision fails,
still speculates, though filled with awe, concerning the infinite, un-
known abyss of space beyond, so also the geologist, when mile-stones
are no longer visible, when fossils and stratified rocks fail, still vainly
peers with wondering gaze backward, and strives to pierce the dark-
ness beyond, still believes that all he sees, or can ever hope to see, is
but a fragment of the infinite abyss of time beyond. Overwhelmed,
appalled, he shrinks back within himself, and remembers that his own
mind, so daring, so arrogant, so apparently limitless, is also but a
ragment of the infinite intelligence.

Thus, while astronomy fills the regions of the universe with objects,
geology fills the regions of infinite duration with events. As astronomy
carries us upwards by the relations of geometry, geology carries us
backwards by the relations of cause and effect. As astronomy steps
from point to point of the universe by a chain of triangles, so geology
steps trom epoch to epoch of the earth’s history by a chain of me-
chanical and organical laws. If one depend on the axioms of geome-
try, the other depends upon the axioms of causation. In a word, the
realm of astronomy is the universe of space, that of geology the uni-
verse of time. The one peoples her universe with space-worlds, the
other her’s with creations—time-worlds,

The great object of all science is to establish the universality of law;
harmony in the midst of apparent confusion; unity in the midst of
diversity; unity of force amidst diversity of phenomena, physical sci-
ence; unity of plan in the midst of diversity of expression, natural
science. Now, it is the peculiar province of astronomy to establish
this universality of law throughout all space, as it is of geology
throughout all time. Astronomy shows that the same force which
controls the falling of a stone governs the motions of the heavenly
bodies ; so also geology shows that the changes through which each
animal passes in its embryonic development are similar to those
through which the whole earth and its inhabitants have passed in
the course of its geological history; that the same mind which now
conducts the one has presided through all time over the other. If
astronomy, more than all other sciences, illustrates that sublime attri-
bute of Deity, His omnipresence or unchangeableness in space, geology,
more than all other sciences, illustrates that other sublime attribute
of Deity, His immutability or unchangeableness in time.

ON COAL. 121

There are in the history of science two eras which, more than all
others, strike the imagination and fill the mind with admiration. Or
rather, I should say, two moments, the greatest in the intellectual
history of the human race. They are those in which were born in
the mind of man the fundamental ideas of astronomy and geology—
the ideas of infinite space and infinite time, containing other worlds
and other creations. You haveall, probably, thought of the sublimity
of that moment when the idea of infinite space, peopled with worlds
like our own, was first thoroughly realized by the mind of man. You
have all, probably, shared in imagination the exstacy of Galileo as
gazing with awe through the first telescope, the phases of Venus and
the satellites of Jupiter suddenly revealed to him the existence of
other worlds besides his own. Before that pregnant moment our own
was alone in the universe. Sun, moon, and stars were but satellites
to the earth. Astronomy was but the geometry of the heavens; the
geometry of the curious lines which these ‘‘ wandering fires’’ traced
upon the crystalline concave of the skies. In an instant the great
fundamental idea of modern astronomy was born in the mind of
Galileo. In an instant man’s intellectual vision is infinitely extended,
but his own world, before so great, has shrunk into an atom in the
midst of infinite space; has become a younger sister, a comparatively
insignificant member in a great family of worlds.

We have all been accustomed to look upon this as the grandest
moment in the intellectual history of man. But there is another
moment less known, or if known, less thought. of, because less under-
stood and less appreciated, but not less grand. It is that in which
was born in the mind of man the fundamental idea of geology; in
which the idea of other time-worlds besides our own entered the mind
of the aged Buffon.

For many years, indeed centuries, it had been observed that organic
remains, particularly marine shells, might be found far inland, and
even high up the slopes of mountains. There was much speculation
among scientific men as to the origin of these shells. They were
attributed by some to the deluge, by others more truly to gradual and
permanent changes in the relative level of sea and Jand. But no one
for a moment supposed that they belonged to any period anterior to
the present epoch. Some may have supposed that they were extending
the known limits of the present epoch, that they were discovering new
continents in the ocean of time, but never dreamed that these were
the evidences of a new world in the infinite abyss of time. Buffon
himself had taken active part in these discussions. Finally, near the
end of the last century, and in the evening of his great and long life,
a large number of these remains, both marine shells and mammalian
vertebrates, larger than he had ever examined before, were placed at
his disposal and subject to his inspection. To his astonishment he
found them entirely different from species now inhabiting the earth.
In that moment, in the mind of the venerable Buffon, suddenly, like
Minerva from the head of Jove, was born the idea of infinite time
containing successive creations. In an instant man’s intellectual
vision was again infinitely extended; but his own world again
dwindled into a single day in the geological history of the earth.

122 LECTURES

The whole future of geology was seen in the vision of that moment,

Filled with awe, the old man, then over 80 years of age, published
his discovery. Ina kind of sacred phrenzy he spoke of the magnifi-_
cence of the prospect, and prophesied of the future glories of this new
science, which he was, alas, too old to pursue. Thus, to the last, his
dying hand pointed the way, and his dying voice kindled the enthu-
siasm of those whom he could no longer lead.

Picture for a moment to yourself the aged Buffon thus gazing in
rapture, silent and alone, upon this new world suddenly opened to his
intellectual vision. I cannot help comparing him to Moses of old on
the top of Pisgah. Like Moses, he had reached the extreme verge of
mortal life; lke him, he stood upon a mount, raised far above the
rest of the world by the eminence of his intellectual position; like
him, he gazed with sacred solemn joy, mingled with sadness, upon a
new world, a promised land, which he was forbidden to enter; and,
like him, also, he died there upon the mount, prophesying of the
future glories of the new land, and calling upon his followers to enter
in and take possession.

One more comparison between these two noble sciences: In com-
paring modern with ancient or even medieval civilization, nothing
is more striking or more significant than the difference in the manner
in which nature is viewed in relation to man. ‘The spirit of the older
civilization tended to exalt man in his own estimation and to degrade
nature, while that of modern civilization tends to humiliate by
insisting upon his insignificance in comparison with the greatness
of nature. In art this is seen in the graduat but constant increase
in the contemplation of nature, both in painting and poetry. An
increasing love of wilderness and mountain, of rock and crag, of cloud
and sky. In science it is still more distinctly seen in the amazing
progress of the physical and natural sciences. The mind of man has
gradually passed from the study and contemplation of itself to the
study and contemplation of nature. We believe this was a necessary,
but cannot believe that it is a final change. When, by the study of
external nature, a true and solid foundation is laid for philosophy, the
human mind will again return to the study and contemplation of
uself, as the greatest of nature’s works.

Now, it has already been seen, that among the most efficient agents
in bringing about this great and necessary change have been the
sciences of astronomy and geology. Nothing has tended so much to
humiliate the pride of man as the recognition of the astounding fact
that his habitation, his world, is but an atom among millions of simi-
lar atoms in the boundless realms of space; and that dis time, the
life of his race, is but a day in the immeasurable cycle of geological
changes. But there is this great difference between the two sciences, .
that while astronomy leaves man thus humiliated, prostrate, and
hopeless, geology lifts him up and restores him to his dignity. While
astronomy gives no evidence of the superiority of the earth to other
heavenly bodies, or of man above other possible material intelli-
gences—gives no hint of the superior dignity of our world among
other space-worlds—geology most distinctly declares the superior
dignity of our time world, and of our race, among all other time-

ON COAL. 123

worlds and their races. She teaches unmistakeably that there has
been a gradual course of preparation for the present epoch ; that there
is an unity of plan in the whole system of time-worlds; that, in a
certain sense, they are all satellites to ours; that they are all bound
together by a force ; that force the plana of the Almighty, and its
centre the present epoch. Thus man becomes the centre of the
universe of time. Thus, also, by analogy we are led to suspect that
there may be a similar unity in the system of space-worlds also,
and that ours may, and probably does, enjoy a superiority, if not in
size at least in organization, and therefore in the intelligence of its
inhabitants. Thus man’s dignity is restored, or rather, I should say,
dignity is given in place of pride. ‘‘ Pride goeth before a fall,’’ but
dignity comes after.

But it will no doubt be objected by many that the position of a
science depends not only upon the dignity of its subjects, but also, in
no small degree, upon the certainty of its conclusions, and that, in
this respect, astronomy is far superior, But even this is a mistake,
the result of misconception. Even here the superiority of astronomy
has been very much exaggerated. Astronomy has its hypotheses and
uncertainties as well as geology ; and, on the other hand, geology has
its certainties as well as astronomy; only it has happened, in this as
well as in many other cases, that the wisdom of age has given false
dignity to its errors and follies, while the wildness of youth has dis-
credited its wisdom. The certainties of astronomy have given an
appearance of truth to its wildest hypotheses, while the hypotheses of
geology have unjustly thrown some discredit upon her truest theories
and most certain facts. ‘The certainties of astronomy are the form,
size, weight, distance, and relative position of her space-worlds. Her
uncertainties are their physical geography, climate, and, more than
all, their inhabitants, animal and vegetable. The certainties of ge-
ology are the physical geography, climate, and, more than all, the
inhabitants, animal and vegetable, of her time-worlds, while her un-
certainties are their relative size and distance. It is seen, then, that
the certainties of the one are precisely the uncertainties of the other.
Which, then, are the nobler—the certainties of astronomy or those
of geology? Is it more noble to know the relative size and position
of worlds in space and time or to be acquainted with the beings
which form their crowning glory? It would carry me too far to pur-
sue this train of thought. Suffice it to say that, in either case, that
which was most important to know has been rendered most certain ;
while, also, in both cases, that which is most uncertain is also least
important to know.

I have thought this long introduction necessary, because geology is
so constantly misunderstood. She is looked upon by some with sus-
picion, as wild in her speculations and uncertain in her conclusions ;
by others with indifference, as a mass of dry and unattractive detail ;
and by still others with positive dread, as tending to infidelity. I
deemed it necessary, therefore, to say a few words in vindication of
her high rank among the inductive sciences, both in respect to the
certainty of her conclusions, and, still more, the nobleness of her con-
ceptions and the absorbing interest of her subjects.. I might have

124 LECTURES

gone still further, and vindicated her claim to be considered the chief
handmaid of religion among the sciences. But this would have led
me much too far. Thirty years later, and all I have thus far said
would have been unnecessary. One generation more and geology
will need no defender; both her dignity and her religious tendency
will be universally acknowledged. But for this purpose one more
generation must first pass away.

Perhaps it may seem to some of you as a startling paradox, but it
is nevertheless a fact, that the shortness of human life is one of the
most powerful elements of human progress. It would seem as if the
human mind grows and develops, the philosophy and opinions which
govern the conduct of life continue to be modified and moulded, until
about the age of twenty-five or thirty, when the character becomes
unchangeable, opinions become prejudices, and the whole mind, as it
were, petrified. Further progress would be impossible, but that
another generation, with minds still plastic, comes forward, takes up
and carries on the work a few steps, and becomes petrified in its turn.
There are certainly some noble exceptions to this rule—instances of
minds which with their maturity retain the plasticity of youth—but
the very rarity of the exception only proves the rule.

You doubtless recollect that the children of Israel wandered forty
years in the wilderness before they were fit to enter the promised
land. The marks of Egyptian bondage were upon their souls as well
as upon their necks. One generation must fall in the wilderness, and
anew generation, free from Hegyptian prejudices, must arise. We
are apt to look upon this as an isolated fact in history, and entirely
characteristic of this peculiar people. On the contrary, it is a fact
of deepest significance in the philosophy of human progress, and
intended for the instruction of us all. ‘I'o this day it seems to be im-
possible that any great step should be made in the intellectual progress
of our race, except by the sacrifice of at least one generation. We
are even now in the midst of such a great change, brought about by
the revelations of geology. One mere generation dropped in the
wilderness and we are fairly in the promised land. Do not misunder-
stand me, however, as quarrelling with this conservative spirit; on
the contrary, this brake upon the wheels of the car of progress seems
absolutely necessary for its steady motion.

But I find I am again digressing, and therefore hasten to return to
my subject.

I have said that the field of geology is the universe of time. It is
one of these time-worlds of which I wish to draw a true, though
necessarily an outline, picture in the next two or three lectures. I
shall not attempt more than an outline, for this would only tire you
with a multitude of details, but shall seize, if possible, the most strik-
ing features, make a comparison between this and other subsequent
time-worlds, particularly our own, and endeavor to find the law which
binds the whole into one system.

Among the many time-worlds of which geology tells us I select but
one, viz: the Coat Perrop. Its position is far back in the paleeozoic
times. Measuring time by space it is in the region of the fixed stars,
although one of the brightest in the firmament of time. If I could

ON COAL. 125

transport you in imagination to the surface of Sirius; if I could draw
a picture of its physical geography, climate, and, more than all, of its
inhabitants, who in this audience would remain unmoved? Shall
the interest be less because the separation from us is by time instead
of space ; because the place is our own earth, and the materials of the
picture beneath our very feet? '

The coal period is a world distinctly separated from those which
precede and those which follow it. As in the geographical distribu-
tion of fauna and flora upon the surface of the earth at the present
time, we find in some cases contiguous fauna and flora seem to inter-
penetrate or pass by insensible gradations into one another; the
species on the confines of each dying out in number but not in specific
character, insensibly replaced but not transmuted. So also in the dis-
tribution of fauna and flora in time we find some (as, for instance,
those of the tertiary) which pass by insensible gradations into one
another, or interlock with the preceding and succeeding, although
only by gradual replacement, not by transmutation. But as in
geographical distribution we also find many fauna and flora com-
pletely isolated by physical barriers, mountain chajns, oceans, or
deserts, from contiguous fauna and flora, so also in geological dis-
tribution we find creations are often distinctly separated from other
creations contiguous in time, by physical barriers in the form of con-
vulsions of the earth, and marked by broken, dislocated, and upturned
strata. In the history of the earth there seems to have been many
such successive creations completely destroyed by convulsions; in
other words, the time-worlds are apparently separated by blank
spaces, whose dimensions we have no means of estimating. Such a
distinct world is the coal period, with its fauns and flora distinctly
separated from the old red sandstone which precedes, and still more
so from the new red sandstone which succeeds. <A distinct world—
completely circumscribed in time—having its own poles and equator.

Now, in geology, history is recorded upon tablets of stone—stratified
rocks. Time is represented by their thickness; remarkable events by
their dislocation ; the fauna and flora by the contained fossils. Let
us, then, examine the strata which represent this period.

They are called the ‘‘carboniferous strata,’’ and the period the
‘‘carboniferous period,’’ from the remarkable fact that they contain
almost all the coal which is found in the world. The deposit of car-
bonaceous matter is not indeed confined to this period, for it has oc-
curred in every period of the earth’s history, as evidenced by the fact
that thin seams of coal are found in all the strata. Similar deposits are
still going on in peat bogs and. deltas of the present day. But the accu-
mulations of carbon in the strata of which we are speaking are so enor-
mous, in comparison to those found elsewhere, that the name carbonife-
rous, as applied to these strata and this period, becomes entirely appro-
priate. With the single exception of the oolite strata, which belong to
the secondary period, and in which coal is profitably mined in Virginia
and in England, all known coal mines delong to the carboniferous
strata. The knowledge of this simple fact would have saved the
useless expenditure of millions of dollars, both in this country and
in England. It is worse than useless to expend money and labor in

126 LECTURES

following up signs of coal, unless we are sure we are in the region of
the carboniferous strata.

The carboniferous strata are subdivided into two very distinct groups,
representing, of course, distinct subdivisions of the carboniferous period.
These are called lower and upper carboniferous, or the mountain lime-
stone, and the ‘‘coal measures.’’ The former are mostly limestone,
the latter mostly shales and sandstone; the one mostly of marine
origin, the other mostly fresh water ; the fossils of the one are mostly
marine animals, of the other terrestrial vegetation. I shall confine
myself entirely to the latter, or the true ‘‘coal measures,’ as they are
called, from the fact that ninety-nine hundredths of all the coal in the
world are found in them.

You will observe, then, that I have taken for my subject one-half
of the carboniferous period. The carboniferous is itself but one of the
tour great subdivisions of the paleezoic period, and the paleezoic period,
in its turn, only one of the four great epochs, exclusive of the present,
into which the history of our earth is divided. You see, then, that
the period of which I wish to give you a rapid sketch is less than
one-thirtieth part of the recorded history of the earth ; yet the average
thickness of these strata is about 3,000 or 4,000 feet. In Wales they
are 12,000 feet thick, and in Nova Scotia nearly 15,000. If, then,
thickness of strata represent length of time, how great must be the
lapse of time represented by the coal measures.

Such being the enormous thickness of the coal measures, it neces-
sarily follows that but a very small proportion of the mass consists of
coal. The coal strata consist of thick beds of limestone, sandstone,
ironstone, and shale, containing thin seams of coal, and this alterna-
tion sometimes many times repeated in the same locality ; the whole
forming a series like the sheets of a ream of paper, arranged in no
discoverable rational order, but indiscriminately alternating. The
seam of coal will sometimes be covered with a stratum of limestone,
sometimes of standstone, and sometimes of shale; although it rarely
happens that the sandstone or limestone comes directly in contact
with the coal; but is generally separated by a stratum, sometimes
very thin, of shale or slate. In fact a stratum of clay or fine mud
rock both underlies and overlies each seam. Below it forms the “fire
clay,’’ and above the black slate of the miners.

Nis}. I have said that the order is various in different parts of
the same alternating series; but in every part of the same
coal field the alternation is the same for the same part of

—- the series. In other words, each stratum is generally
.;222=] horizontally extended over the whole coal field in a con-
=| tinuous sheet, so that each seam is accompanied by the
same strata above and below. This is a fact of great
===] Importance, as it affords the readiest means of determining
===! the identity of individual coal seams.

Coal strata, like all other sedimentary deposits, were at
the time of formation horizontal, or nearly so. Sometimes
they are found nearly in this their original position, as in
many of the coal fields of our own country. More generally this
original horizontality has been disturbed by igneous agency, and the

ON COAL. 27

coal strata are found in the form of basins. Sometimes the strata are
so folded as to give rise to series of basins belonging to the same

Fig. 2. Vig. 3.

J

a ‘ bil - .
<\ SN / > <<>>
m\ SS Lg by pay SS AS FP?)

4A /\ = Sess SS

Saat |

original field. Whether, however, the strata retain their original
horizontality, or are thrown into basins by igneous agency, seldom or
never do we find the whole of the original mass deposited. A large
portion has been carried away by aqueous agency. From this cause
a large coal field, covering many thousands of square miles, may exist
only in the form of isolated mountains or detached basins of coal
strata, as in the accompanying figures, where all the mass represented

by the dotted lines has been carried away by denuding agencies.
Thus, for instance, nearly the whole of Illinois was originally occupied
by a vast coal field, but little disturbed by igneous agency, but by far
the larger portion of the coal strata of this immense field was carried
away by denuding agencies.

You will observe, then, the striking difference in mode of occur-
rence between metallic ores and coal. The former are associated with
rocks of every age, except, perhaps, the tertiary; the latter almost
exclusively confined to those of a particular age. The former exist
in the form of veins intersecting the strata, the latter in the form of
seams parallel with the strata. The former extend indefinitely down-
wards, the latter horizontally. The former are the result of igneous
agency, the latter of sedimentary deposit. Ignorance of this simple
but radical difference has been the cause of much pecuniary loss, and
seems not yet entirely eradicated. When, for instance, some years ago
it was rumored in the streets of Philadelphia that the bottom of the
Mauch Chunk Summit mine was reached, there was an universal panic,
and stocks in coal mines went down enormously, not knowing that the
continuation of coal seams was to be looked for horizontally rather
than vertically.

This simple rule, when taken in connexion with the one previously
enunciated, viz: that a coal seam throughout its whole extent is
attended both above and below by the same strata, would render the
identification of coal seams, and the tracing of them across valleys
from hillside to hillside, a matter of little difficulty, were it not for

128 LECTURES

dislocation of the strata, producing what are called faults, slips, or
troubles. In the accompanying figures, for instance, the strata have

Fig. 7. Fig. 8.

been displaced by the elevation of one part of the field more than
another. This is not conspicuous on the surface, because all has been
cut down to one level by aqueous agencies. The supposed configura-
tion of surface immediately after such unequal elevation is represented
by the dotted outline ; the strong line represents the present configu-
ration of surface. All between these, therefore, represents the
amount of matter carried away by denuding agencies. These faults
occur very often in coal fields, and are a source of serious annoyance
to the miner.

I have taken here the simplest case of dislocation. The difficulty
becomes very much greater when, instead of being horizontal, the
strata are highly and variously inclined. In such cases the skill and
knowledge of the geologist is often tasked to the utmost.

I have said that while metallic veins extend indefinitely downwards,
coal seams for the most part are extended horizontally, or nearly so.
Sometimes, however, coal seams may appear, like metallic veins, to
extend downwards. This is the case in highly inclined and particu-
larly in vertical strata, as in the accompanying sketch of the anthracite
coal field of Pennsylvania. In such cases, however, as well as in

Fig. 9.
ms

Pan
AON

gs) At

ily

\
&

every other, it will be observed that the seams are strictly parallel
with the strata, that the strata have been elevated to a vertical posi-
tion by igneous agency, and the included coal seams have been raised
with them, still maintaining their relative position.

The thickness of coal seams varies from a few lines to many feet ;
sometimes they exist as sheets as thin as paper, in others in masses 30
or 40 feet thick. A single seam of pure coal, however, is seldom more
than 6 or 8 feet thick. It is true that in France and in the anthracite
region of Pennsylvania they are said to occur 60 or 70 feet thick, or
even more, but upon close examination such mammoth seams wiil be
found to consist of two or more seams, separated by thin laminz of
slate; too thin, however, to form a roof, and, therefore, the several
seams are wrought together as one.

The number of seams occurring in one locality and separated by
interstratified sandstone and shale is sometimes as great as one
hundred, and their aggregate thickness one hundred and fifty feet.
Enormous as is this mass of carbonaceous matter, it is but a small
fraction of the entire mass of the coal strata. The thickest and purest

ON COAL. 129

Seams are generally near the middle of this series ; as if the conditions
necessary for the formation of coal had gradually come into existence
and as gradually disappeared; that there were two poles and an
equator belonging to this time-world—a morn, noon, and evening to
this geological day.

We have spoken thus far only of the thickness of coal strata and of
coal seams; but it is impossible to form a correct idea of the amount
of matter contained in these strata or in these seams without taking
into account also their horizontal extent. Coal is very widely dis-
tributed over the world, although some countries are more favored
than others. England, France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Sweden,
Poland, and Russia have their beds of coal. It is also found abun-
dantly in Asia, Africa, and South America; but no where is the coal
formation more extensively displayed than in the United States, and
no where are its beds of greater thickness, more convenient for work-
ing, or of more valuable quality. There are within the limits of the
United States no less than four coal fields of enormous dimensions.
One of these, the Appalachian coal field, commences on the north, in
Pennsylvania and Ohio, sweeping south through western Virginia

Fig. 10.

U.S. oe America
CoatArea

133500, Sg-Miles

eee

Brit. Amer.'Gr. Brit. 'Spain | France Belgimn.
18000 me60 =}: 3408
Sy. 7

1719 : ols

Sgm | Sg.m

1 !
1 i
1 !
! '
1 1
1 1
1 !
! 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 !
I !
| !
{ 1
1 1

and eastern Kentucky, Tennessee, extends even into Alabama. lis
area is estimated at about 60,000 square miles. A second occupies
the greater portion of Illinois and Indiana; in extent almost equal to

* Recent estimates by Marcou and by H. D. Rodgers make the coal area of the United
States near 200,000 square miles. :

95s

130 LECTURES

the Appalachian. A third covers the greater portion of Missouri, while
a fourth occupies the greater portion of Michigan. Just out of the
limits of the United States, in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, there
is still a fifth, occupying, according to Mr. Lyell, an area of 36,000
square miles. Besides these there are several others of less extent.

If we now compare the relative coal areas of the principal coal pro-
ducing countries, the superiority of our own will be still conspicuous.
The following diagrams represent these relative areas in a more in-
telligible form than could be done by mere figures.

But if, on the other hand, we compare in the same manner the
relative annual production of the same countries, we will find the
order very different.

Fig. 11.

Geeab ene.

Annual Production

31.500000 Tons

Belgium United, States France

4.960.000 4.400.000 4.341.600
Tons Tons Tons

It will be seen that the annual production of coal in Great Britain
is more than seven times that of the United States, although her coal
area is so much less. It is estimated that even at this enormous rate
of production the coal fields of Great Britain will yet last for 500
years. There is little danger, then, that ours will fail us shortly.

Now industry, as the basis of the organization of society, forms the
distinguishing feature of modern civilization. Coal is the very aliment
of industry. The material prosperity of any country may therefore
be tolerably accurately estimated by the amount of coal consumed.

ON COAL. 131

According to this method of estimation, Great Britain is superior to
all other countries in actual material civilization. But if the con-
sumption of coal is a measure of the actua civilization of a country,
the amount of coal area represents its potential civilization. How far
are we superior to all other countries in this respect! Whata glorious
destiny awaits us in the future—a destiny already predetermined in
the earliest geological history of the earth.

One more remark andl am done. It is certain that, as manu-
facturing and productive industry take root and flourish almost ex-
clusively in cool and temperate climates, so also in them do the coal
formations prevail in the greatest abundance. Our scientific maps
and investigations confirm the one, and national statistics the other,
Almost all the true coal of the world is found in the north temperate
zone. Thus the climates which are most congenial to laborious occu-
pations, the latitudes best adapted to the vigorous growth of industrial
civilization, are precisely those where, fortunately, have been placed.
the materials of labor, the aliment of industry. Fortunately did I
say? No; this has not been the result of blind chance, but of
deliberate providential design. We have here a sublime illustration
of that all-comprehensive foreknowledge which foresees and designs
the end from the beginning ; of that immutability which changes not,
but only unfolds its eternal plans; of that unity in the system of
time-worlds of which I have already spoken, our own epoch being the.
sun and centre.

THEORIES OF THE COAL.

There is no point connected with the coal which has been the
subject of so much discussion as the manner of its accumulation. At
first view, existing nature seems to offer no analogy to guide us in
our attempts to account for such enormous accumulations of carbona-
ceous matter. It is admitted, however, I believe, on all hands, that
the deposit must have taken place in water. The perfect preservation
of the carbon of the plants, and often of their external forms and
structure, which must have suffered complete oxydation and disinte-
gration if exposed to the air, the fact that the plants were most or all.
of them swamp plants, and, more than all, the alternation of coal
seams with sedimentary deposits of clay and sand, all seem to point
unmistakably to water as the preserving agent. There is still
another evidence which I think has generally been overlooked. In
the midst of the more structureless bituminous matter of the coal are -
often found imbedded wedge-shaped masses of vascular tissue called
native carbon. No one who attentively examines these wedges can
fail to perceive that they are the wooden wedges of exogens separated
by the decomposition of the softer cellular tissue of the intervening
medullary rays, while they floated as logs upon the water and finally
became imbedded in the carbonaceous mud below.

Thus far I believe all theorists agree. But from this point opinions
diverge ; some geologists holding that the coal was deposited on the
spot where the plants grew, others that the plants were drifted in the

132 LECTURES

form of rafts to great distances and deposited at the mouths of rivers;
the former, that a coal basin is the site of an ancient peat bog, the
latter, that it is the position of an ancient estuary or delta. The
former opinion is called the ‘‘ peat bog theory,’’ the latter the
“‘ estuary theory.”’
Peat bog theory.—It is well known that in many countries, par-
ticularly in moist, cool climates, and damp, low grounds, certain
plants, such as ferns, mosses, &c., as well as trees which delight in
moist places, if allowed to grow undisturbed from generation to
generation will, by their decay, accumulate enormous masses of ear-
bonaceous matter. Such a spot is called a peat bog. The theory of
this accumulation is as follows: Plants derive all their carbon from
the atmosphere. In the annual fall of leaf, and finally their own
death, they return to the earth the whole of the matter thus silently
extracted trom the air. Undisturbed vegetation, therefore, constantly
enriches the soil by adding to it what has been taken from the air.
Thus worn out lands improve by lying fallow. Thus the rich black
vegetable mould found covering the ground in forests continues to
increase from year to year. In all ordinary cases, however, there is
a limit beyond which this accumulation will not go. By decom-
position the organic matter is again returned to the atmosphere as
fast as it accumulates. But if by any means this decomposition is
<prevented the organic matter accumulates indefinitely. This is
precisely what takes place in peat bogs. The presence of water
‘In a great measure prevents the oxydation of the carbon. The
growth of plants now continually takes carbon from the atmosphere,
their death as continually deposits it upon the earth. Hach genera-
‘tion rises, phoenix-like, trom the ashes of the last, to become in its
‘turn soil for the next. Thus the ancestral accumulation continues
to increase, the funeral pile continues to rise, until pure carbonaceous
-matter may in time accumulate to the depth of thirty or forty feet.
| Such a mass of carbonaceous matter deprived of its water and com-
pressed to the density of coal, would make a seam of perhaps three
_or four feet in thickness. Now, according to the peat bog theory, it
is under such circumstances that the carbon of a coal seam has been
: accumulated.
The arguments in favor of this theory are: Ist. The purity of the
_coal. It is true that coal is often found largely mixed with earthy
matter or mud. As we have already shown, every stage of gradation
: may be traced between pure coal and pure shale. But by far the
larger portion of coal seems to be entirely free from foreign matter.
' The amount of ash is not greater than five to ten per cent. ; that is,
not greater than might arise from the earthy matter of the plants
from which the coal was derived. This purity of the coal indicates
- complete absence of sediment in the water in which the coal was
originally laid down. Now the water of peat swamps, though dis-
. colored by organic matter in solution, is always entirely free from
sediment. In fact, this seems a necessary condition of the growth of
peat plants—an incursion of water containing mud is fatal to such
plants. If, then, a coal seam is the result of carbonaceous matter

ON COAL. 133

slowly accumulated at the bottom of ancient peat swamps, the purity
of the coal is completely accounted for. But if, on the contrary, it is
formed by the accumulation of timber carried down to the mouths of
great rivers during freshets, it should always be largely mixed with
mud,

2d. The fine preservation of the tenderest and most delicate parts
of plants. We have already spoken of the profusion of finely-
preserved leaves and entire fronds of ferns in the black slate overlying
a coal seam. So perfect is this preservation that large and complex
fronds are often entirely unbroken, and even the minutest variation
of the leaves as distinct as in the living fern. This fine preservation
of tender parts seems strongly to indicate that these leaves had fallen
gently from the parent stem, and been preserved on the spot where
they fell. It seems utterly inconsistent with the violent action of
currents bearing rafts to great distances.

3d. The pesition ef the finely-preserved leaves, &c., always on the
upper surface of the coal seam, (roof of the coal mine.) Precisely
the same is observed in every peat swamp. The perfect leaves are to
be found only on top, for the plain reason that these are the last
fallen, and therefore not yet disorganized. But in the case of accu-
mulations of vegetable matter at the mouths of rivers, there seems to
be no reason why leaves should not be entangled in all parts alike.

4th. Coal, like peat, is composed of completely disorganized carbo-
naceous matter, containing fragments in which vegetable structure is
more distinct. This is not inconsistent with what I have already
said in my last lecture of the vegetable origin of even the most
structureless coal being detectable by the microscope. Plants are
composed entirely of cells. Both in peat and in coal these cells are
generally separated from one another. The vegetable structure is
completely disorganized, but the separate cells still bear unmistakable
marks of their origin; the organic structure is gone, but the organic
erigin is still visible. But if a coal seam was an imbedded raft, it
should be composed almost entirely of fragments of trunks, branches,
&c., instead of a structureless mass containing only a few such
fragments.

5th. It will be recollected that a seam of coal is overlaid by black
slate and underlaid by fire-clay. In the black slate, as already said,
are found the finest impressions of leaves and other tender parts; in
the jfire-cluy, which underlies the coal seam, are found imbedded in
the greatest abundance the roots of plants, and not unfrequently the
stumps of trees with the roots attached, precisely as they grow. And,
what is still more remarkable and significant, trunks of trees are not
unfrequently found almost entire, standing erect, with their roots still
bedded in the fire-clay, their trunks passing through the seam, and
far into the overlying strata of shale and limestone. By means of
evidence of this kind Lyell and Dawson have been able to make out
distinctly nearly 60 planes of successive vegetation in the coal field of
Nova Scotia. In many of these, viz: about 20, the trees are still in
the position in which they grew, as shown in figure 12; of the rest
the evidence consisted in the imbedded stigmaria or roots of sigil-
laria.

|
134 LECTURES

Fig. 12. In the cases in which these

<S _ S trunks and roots, in situ, are
SS S838) found, (and they are by no
— means uncommon, ) the evidence

“SSN is conclusive that the coal was
2) formed on the spot where the
| trees grew; in other words, that
the growth of the trees and the
~<-| deposit of the coal took place
S simultaneously on the same spot.
“~¥ This is clearly impossible in an
estuary, but is known to take
place in every peat swamp.

SS

thickly strewn the freshly fallen leaves. Now suppose such a peat
bog to be deeply buried beneath the surface of water and overwhelmed
with sediment of clay and sand, and again, after ages, elevated and
exposed by section to the scrutiny of the geologist, and we shall have
a complete reproduction of the phenomena of a coal seam.

The great, and almost theonly, objection which has been urged against
this theory is to be found, not in the phenomena of an individual coal
seam, but rather in the general phenomena of coal basins, in the re-
peated alternation in the same locality of coal seams with marine and
fresh water strata. We have already seen that there are in the same
coal basin sometimes as many asan hundred coal seams, one above the
other ; now, according to this theory, when the coal seam was forming
the spot must have been above the surface of the sea, but when the inter-
stratified limestones and shales were being deposited the same spot
must have been beneath the sea-level. Thus, argues the objector, we
are driven to the enormous assumption that the same spot has been
successively upheaved above and depressed beneath the sea-level one
hundred times during the carboniferous period, and, what is still
more remarkable, that every time it rose above the sea it became a
peat swamp; or if the intervening strata are fresh water instead of
marine, the difficulty seems only to be increased.

Estuary theory.—It is to meet this very difficulty, to account
for this remarkable alternation of strata, that the rival theory has
been proposed. An estuary is the wide open mouth of a river empty-
ing into a tidal sea ; it is occupied sometimes by fresh and sometimes
by salt water. The deposit at the bottom of an estuary, in suitable
positions, is, therefore, an alternation of fresh water and marine strata.
In seasons of freshets the river water, loaded with sediment and

ON COAL, 135

perhaps bearing rafts of drift timber, forces back the sea water, occu-
pies the estuary, and makes its deposit of clay and sand, containing
fragments of such drift timber; in seasons of low water the ocean
returns and makes its deposit, perhaps of limestone, and so on alter-
nately. <A coal field is supposed by these theorists to be the position
of an ancient estuary ; the limestone strata are the marine deposit,
the shale and sandstone the river deposit, and the coal seam the
imbedded drift timber brought down by the river from distant forests.

The objections to this theory are all that has been said in favor of
the peat bog theory. The pureness of the coal, the fine preservation
of even the tenderest parts of plants, the position of such well pre-
served specimens always on the upper surface of a coal seam, the
structureless character of the great mass of the coal, and, above all,
stumps and trunks of trees still erect, with their roots still fixed in
the clay stratum below—all this seems not only unaccountable but
impossible on this theory.

In comparing these two theories it will be seen that the first ex-
plains completely the phenomena of an individual coal seam, but
signally fails to explain the general phenomena of a coal basin, viz:
the alternation of coal seam with marine and fresh water strata ; while,
on the other han'l, the second explains weil this alternation, but fails
utterly to explain the phenomena of an individual coal seam. There
is, then, real and substantial evidence in favor of each, and equally
substantial objections. If this had not been the case one or the other
would have been relinquished ere this. But we find, on the contrary,
that they have both found strenuous advocates from the time geology
commenced to exist as a science until now. In every such case of
vitality in rival theories it will be found, I think, that there is a real
germ of truth in both—that both are true and both are false; both
true in some sense, and therefore reconcilable ; and both false through
narrowness of view, through exclusiveness, through mistaking a par-
tial for a general view. I can best illustrate my meaning by referring
you to the familiar but very instructive fable of the shield, which
being distinctly seen by two knights of equally good eye sight and of
undoubted veracity, was declared by one to be white and by the other
to be black. You will recollect that, after several lances were broken
and many wounds and bruises endured to decide the knotty point, it
was discovered by some one who, strange to say, was more interested
in the truth than in the dispute, that one side was white and the other
was black. The disputants were both right and both wrong, but
wrong only by exclusiveness, by mistaking a partial for a general
view. So it is with almost all vexed questions. There is truth on
both sides, but both err in excluding the other. We are seeking in
the right direction when we attempt to show the partialness of both
views. We have risen to a higher view, to a philosophic truth, when
we show that these two partial and apparently irreconcilable views
may be united into one ; these two surface views may be stereoscopi-
cally combined.

There is an old and much quoted adage, that ‘‘ truth lies in the mid-
dle’’ between extreme opinions. As generally understood nothing

136 ? LECTURES

can be more false or hurtful. Through its influence a merely timid
or temporizing policy is mistaken for wisdom, the ‘‘ fence man’’ is
mistaken for the philosopher. ‘There is another old adage, that
“¢ extremes meet ;’’ 7. e., what to the superficial observer seem to be
extremes, to the deeper thinker are often really closely allied. But
the converse of this proposition, though not erected into an adage, is
even more profoundly true, viz: that what seem to be closely allied
are very often real extremes. There is often a superficial resemblance
between the highest and the lowest, so that by the unthinking multi-
tude the one is often mistaken for the other ; pride for nobility of soul,
humility for mean-spiritedness, the serenity of self-command for the
serenity of insensibility, &c. It is only in this way that the ‘‘ fence
man’’ resembles the philosopher, for they are as wide apart as the
poles. It is in this way only that truth seems to ‘‘ he in the middle,’’
although we are further from it there than anywhere else. To refer
again to the fable of the shield: It would have been a poor solution
of the famous dispute to say that the shield was neither pure white
nor pure black, but midway between the two extremes; that it was,
in fact, some shade of gray or dusky, or, perhaps, pepper and salt.
No; I repeat, truth lies not ‘‘in the middle,’’ but the reconciliation of
extremes in the harmonious combination of apparent antagonisms.

Now, it seems to me that the phenomena of a coal seam already
enumerated prove most conclusively that the coal was formed in situ,
as in the peat swamps of the present day. At the same time the fre-
quent alternation of seams with marine and fresh water strata prove
also most conclusively that the deposit took place at the mouths of
rivers. Here are two incontestible facts. We must put them to-
gether ; we must combine them if we would make a true and sufficient
theory. I believe the more this subject is reflected on the more we
shall be convinced that coal was deposited in peat swamps at the mouths
of large rivers, and therefore subject to overflows by the river and
occasional inundations by the sea. Weare to look for analogies in
existing nature, not among the bogs of Ireland, but among the river
swamps of the Mississippi.

It is well known that such peat swamps, some of them of enormous
extent, exist now on the margins and in the delta of the Mississippi
and probably many other large rivers, and that pure peat unmixed
with mud is constantly forming in these swamps, although they are
annually flooded by the river. This seems at first incredible, when
we recollect that the river water is loaded with sediment, and that
sediment prevents the growth of peat plants, or at least would entirely
destroy the purity of the peat.. But this apparent anomaly has been
entirely explained by Mr. Lyell. According to this high authority,
although the peat swamps of the Mississippi are annually flooded by
river water they are entirely untouched by river mud. These favored
spots are surrounded, particularly on the side next the river, by dense
vegetation, which, acting asa sieve, completely strains the water of
its mud before it reaches the peat swamp. The water of these swamps
is therefore pure, and pure peat has been quietly depositing there for
ages.

ON COAL. 187

Let us now suppose that
there existed during the
carboniferous period a large
river, perhaps less than the
Mississippi, but with enor-
mous swamps and delta,
overgrown with rank vege-
tation far surpassing in
luxuriance anything we
know at the present day.
In the midst of such swamps
there would evidently occur
spots of great extent, the
waters of which, for the
reasons already mentioned, would never be contaminated with sedi-
ment, as at (a) fig. 13. Here for untold ages pure carbonaceous matter
would accumulate undisturbed. In the course of time the surround-
ing portions of the swamps (b) where the mud is detained would rise
by deposit of sediment, while the peat swamp (a) would remain as a
sunken country, such as exist now in the swamps of the Mississippi.
Finally, at uncertain intervals, a more than usually large freshet, or
perhaps some change in the level of the land, would deluge the swamp
with mud and bury the peat. Gradually the vegetation would re-
turn, and the former condition of things be restored, to pass again
through the same changes. We have but one other supposition to
make, viz: that the whole river swamp and delta were gradually sub-
siding during the whole carboniferous period. This is by no means
a violent supposition, but one which we have a right in this case to
make for two good reasons: Ist. We have the best evidence that
many of the large deltas of the present day are thus subsiding. This
is proved in the case of the Mississippi delta by cypress stumps 7 situ
below the level of the sea. 2d. The coal strata themselves give indu-
bitable evidence of gradual subsidence during the period of their de-
posit. The character of these strata and their fossils shows that they
were deposited in shallow water, but their enormous thickness (nearly
three miles in Nova Scotia) renders this clearly impossible, unless we
suppose such subsidence; for, if the bottom was stationary, it must
have been three miles below the surface of the water when the lowest
stratum was deposited. Now, if such subsidence went on constantly,
but slowly, so that, under ordinary circumstances, the delta could be
maintained by deposit from the river, but at uncertain intervals, more
rapidly than the river could build up, so that the sea would again
usurp possession and make its deposit of limestone, and again more
slowly, so that the area might again be reclaimed by the river, and
become a peat swamp, and so on alternately, we should easily, with-
— violent hypothesis, account for all the phenomena of a coal

asin,

It will be observed that by this hypothesis the area of a coal basin
has, indeed, been successively above and below the sea-surface, but
not by successive upheaval and depression, as it has been supposed
necessary on the peat bog theory, but by the contention, with various

138 LECTURES

success, of opposing forces, aqueous and igneous, the river constantly
building up, and igneous forces beneath as constantly striving to de-
press ; sometimes one force predominating, sometimes the other. Of
such contention we have many instances in existing nature. It is
evidently going on in the delta of the Mississippi at the present time.

It may not be possible, in the present condition of science, to picture
to ourselves all the circumstances connected with this process. Per-
haps I have already gone too far in this attempt; but the general
facts upon which the theory rest are incontestible. Coal has almost
certainly accumulated im situ in extensive peat swamps at the mouths
of large rivers, upon ground which was slowly subsiding during the
whole period. Under these circumstances it seems not difficult to
account for all the phenomena of a coal basin. All we have to do in
future is by study of the peat swamp of the Mississippi and the phe-
nomena of delta deposit to discover the details of the process, to fill
up the outline of the picture.

There is a fact noticed by Mr. Lyell, which is strongly confirmatory
of this theory. In the sandstone of the coal measures it 1s common
to find trunks of trees, but only trunks—no small branches, leaves, or
tender parts. Moreover these trunks are observed to be mostly pines,
highland trees, while the trunks in the coal seam proper are sigilla-
ria, lepidodendron, calamites—swamp trees. Now, when we recollect
that coarse sandstone is the deposit of rapid current, does it not seem
evident that the sandstone was deposited by the freshet which over-
whelmed the peat swamp, and that the pine trunks are the remains
of drift timber brought from the highlands. Here, then, we have
ancient drift timber, but how different from a coal seam !

Let us now attempt to estimate approximatively the time necessary
to bring about these stupendous results. I believe we should never
neglect an opportunity of this kind, because the popular mind has not
yet grasped the idea of “illimitable time required by geology to the
same extent as it has the idea of illimitable space required by
astronomy; and, as I believe, this is one of the greatest difficulties
with which geology has to contend.

According to Boussingault luxuriant vegetation at the present day
takes from the atmosphere about a half ton of carbon per acre annu-
ally, or 50 tons per acre in acentury. Fifty tons of carbon of the
specific gravity of coal, about 1.50, spread evenly over the surface of
an acre, would make a layer of less than 4 of an inch. Humboldt
makes the estimate a little higher, viz: an inch. Weare willing
to take the higher estimate. It appears, then, that if all the carbon
taken from the air was preserved so the form of coal, our most luxu-

riant vegetation would make but a 3 inch of coal in acentury. But
in the coal measures the aggregate thickness of the coal seams in the
same basin is sometimes 150 feet or more. In 150 feet there are
1,800 inches, or 3,600 half inches. At the present rate of vegetation,
then, it would take 3,600 centuries, or 360,000 years, to accumulate
this amount. But it will be objected that the vegetation of the coal
period was probably mach more luxuriant than the present, and the
tendency of this difference would be to shorten the time. True; but
it will be recollected that this estimate was made upon the ground

ON COAL. 139

that all the carbon was preserved. This is in the highest degree im-
probable, not to say impossible. Probably much more than half was
returned to atmosphere in the form of carbonic acid and carburetted
hydrogen. Again, we have taken no account of the enormous periods
of time during which there was no carbon deposited on the spot in
question, and represented by the intervening strata of limestone,
sandstone, and shale. The estimate we have given above, therefore,
probably falls very far short of the truth. Let us try another.
According to Messrs. Lyell and Dawson the coal strata of Nova
Scotia are about three miles in thickness at the South Joggins. At
another point, nearly 100 miles distant, (Albion mines,) they found
the thickness nearly the same. There is little danger, therefore, of
erring on the side of excess, if we take the average thickness of the
strata over the whole basin at one and a half miles. Now, the area
of this coal field, according to Mr. Lyell, is about 3,600 square miles.
This would give, as the solid contents of these strata, 54,000 cubic
miles. But we have already seen that this enormous amount of mat-
ter was almost certainly accumulated at the mouth of a great river.
Let us see how long it would take one of our great rivers to do the
work. I shall select for this purpose the Mississippi and the Ganges,
because they are both very large rivers, carrying vast amounts of
sediment, and because accurate observations have been made as to the
amount of sediment brought down by them. These observations have
been made upon the Mississippi by Drs. Forshay and Reddell, of New
Orleans, and by Captain Strachey, British engineer, upon the Ganges.
According to these observations it would take the Mississippi 2,000,000
years, and the Ganges* 375,000 years to perform the work. And yet
the period we are now discussing is probably not one-thirtieth, cer-
tainly but a small portion of the entire geological history of the earth.
It will no doubt be objected to this estimate that it is founded upon
a particular theory, and this theory may be incorrect, and the estimate
thus falls to the ground. In answer to this objection it is only neces-
sary to state that we are acquainted with no other circumstances under
which strata accumulate so rapidly as at the mouths of rivers. Any
other conceivable theory, therefore, would only increase the time.
Again, it will probably be objected that the agencies of nature may
have been and probably were more active in earlier periods of the his-
tory of the earth than now. Such a notion, although almost universal
among intelligent people and very prevalent even among geologists,
is, as it seems to me, utterly without foundation in reason. In refer-
ence to this point geologists may be divided into two classes. The
first and most numerous class hold that the agencies of nature have
gradually decreased in activity from the earliest times until now. The
other, to which Mr. Lyell and his followers belong, believes that these
agencies have acted much as they do now through all time; that there
has been no progressive change of any kind, neither in the earth nor
its inhabitants. Now, it seems to me that it can be proved, or at

* This amazing difference in favor of a smaller river is due to the fact that the Ganges,
being a tropical river, the rains all fall during six months, and are therefore very heavy. ‘The
washing of the soil and resulting sediment are necessarily in proportion. ‘The mountainous
country in which the Ganges takes its rise contributes also to the same result.

\

140 LECTURES

least rendered extremely probable, that neither of these theorists is
in the right; that, in fact, while the igneous agencies have been de-
creasing in activity, the aqueous have been constantly increasing in
the same proportion. As I believe I differ from all other geologists in
my views on this point, I deem it important to go a little more fully
into this subject.

It is generally admitted by geologists, and indeed there is good and
substantial evidence of the fact, that the earth has been gradually cool-
ing throughout all geological history from an original very high tem-
perature. We have also, as I believe most geologists will admit, good
and substantial evidence that the land has constantly increased both
in extent and in elevation with the course of time, while the ocean has
as constantly decreased in extent in the same proportion. In other
words, these two elements, land and water, have been, as it were,
sradually differentiated. Admit these two points and all the rest
logically follow.

The activity of igneous agencies depends upon the internal temper-
ature of the earth. As this has constantly decreased the igneous
agencies have also decreased in energy in the same proportion. The
aqueous agencies, on the other hand, are the result of currents of air
and water upon the surface of the earth; and the rapidity of these
currents depends, not upon the mean surface temperature, but upon
the difference of temperature in different parts of the surface; 7. e.,
between pole and equator or between land and water. It only remains
to prove, then, that this difference of temperature has been constantly
increasing with the course of time.

Land, as is well known, is both a better absonbon and a better radi-
ator of heat than water ; ; 7. e., will both heat faster and cool faster
under given circumstances than water. <A globe of land would be both
hotter at the equator and colder at the poles than a globe covered with
water and exposed to the same influences. Although the mean tem-
perature would be nearly the same in the two cases. the difference of
temperature would be much greater in the former than in the latter.
It follows, therefore, that as the extent of land increased and that of
the ocean decreased with the course of time the difference of tempera-
ture between poleand equator must have increased in thesame proportion.
The gradual decrease of the mean temperature would evidently contri-
bute to the same result; for it is evident that with a higher mean temper-
ature a larger portion of water would exist in the form of vapor. This
excessive vapor would rise into the atmosphere and become condensed
into universal clouds, mist or fogs, but seldom, and to a very limited ex-
tent, in the earlier periods of the earth’s history, into rain, because, as
yet, there were neither extensive high land nor cool currents sufficient
for extensive precipitation. Thus would resulta thick, murky atmo-
sphere, enveloping the whole earth. The necessary effect of this would
be still further to prevent absorption of heat atthe equator and radiation
at the poles, and thus to produce still greater uniformity of climate.
In the earliest geological periods, therefore, when the surface temper-
ature, from internal causes, was very great, and the ocean almost uni-
versal, the difference of temperature between pole and equator was
reduced to a minimum. In such a condition of things it is evident

ON COAL. 141

that the exchange between pole and equator currents of the aqueous
and aerial ocean must have been not only very sluggish but perfectly
regular northeast and southwest currents in the northern hemi-
sphere, and northwest and southeast currents in the southern. In
proportion as the earth cooled the diversity of temperature between
pole and equator became greater and the exchange more rapid. In
the meantime the gradual increase in the extent and elevation of con-
tinents would introduce still greater diversity. The regular oceanic
currents, by impinging upon the continents, are reflected in various
directions, increasing still further the diversity of climate. Currents
of the air, too, are no longer only trade winds, but also monsoons, land
and sea breezes, &c. These various currents, mingling and contend-
ing, produce the infinitely varying winds of the present epoch. But
the most important current we have not yet spoken of. Land and sea
may be considered the two poles of a circulating apparatus; water
rises in the form of vapor at one pole, passes over through the atmo-
sphere, and is condensed on the other in the form of rain, and so back
by the rivers to the ocean. The more rapid the condensation the more
rapid the evaporation and the more rapid the circulation. Within
certain limits, (7. e., until the land is sufficient to condense all the water
evaporated from the ocean,) the amount of evaporation and condensa-
tion is in proportion to the extent and elevation of the continents.
It is evident, then, that in the earlier periods of the earth’s history,
when the ocean was almost universal, although the air was saturated
with moisture, there was comparatively little rain; and that just in
proportion as the continents increased in extent and elevation, evapor-
ation, and condensation would increase in the same proportion. It is
impossible to resist the conclusion, then, that from the earliest periods
until now there has been a constant increase in activity and variety of
currents of ocean and atmosphere ; of wind and rain; of cloud and
sunshine ; of fountains and rivers; in fact of all that constitutes the
life, variety, and beauty of our beloved earth.

Thus it appears that at first igneous predominated over aqueous agen-
cies. It was this very predominance which caused uncompensated, pro-
gressive change—development of the earth as a whole; for perfect
balance is incompatible with developement. But gradually aqueous
agencies increased in energy; the antagonistic forces approached a
balance.as the earth approached maturity, until at present the balance
may possibly be complete.

In all I have said I have had in view, of course, only the ordinary
regular operation of aqueous agencies, or what Mr. Lyell calls ‘‘ causes
now in operation.’’ I say of cowrse, because the extraordinary, irregu-
lar operation of these agencies, such as are called ‘‘debacles,’’ &c., are
too uncertain and hypothetical, not to say improbable, to form the
basis of any reasoning whatever. I repeat, then, that during the coal
period the ordinary operation of aqueous or degrading agencies must
have been more slow than at present. The accumulation of a certain
amount of material in a river delta, other things being equal, would
require a longer time than now.

142 LECTURES

CLIMATE OF THE COAL PERIOD.

It is probable, from what evidence we have on this subject, that
the climate of the coal period was characterized by greater warmth,
greater humidity, and greater uniformity than now obtains, and that
the air was more highly charged with carbonic acid. Of the greater
warmth of the climate we have evidence in the astonishing luxuriance
and universal tropical character of the vegetation of the period. One
of the most marked peculiarities of the flora of coal everywhere is the
great relative abundance of ferns and fern allies. In the present flora
of Great Britain the ratio of ferns to flowering plants is about | to 35,
while in the coal flora of the same country nearly one-half of all the
known plants are ferns. In the American coal flora the proportion
of ferns is said to be still greater. That this abundance of ferns indi-
cates a tropical climate is shown by the fact that in the existing flora,
out of about 1,500 known species of ferns, 1,200 are confined to the
tropics, and as we pass from the equator towards the poles the propor-
tion of ferns, steadily diminishes. ‘The same may be said with refer-
ence to the club-mosses. It is worthy of remark, too, that although |
conifers are abundant now all over the earth’s surface, still those most
nearly allied to the conifers of the coal—such, for instance, as the
araucaria and salisburia of the present day—are found only in tropical
regions. Now, during the coal period, this tropical vegetation extended
as far as 75° north latitude. Tree ferns and gigantic club-mosses
covered the spot now occupied by the Mellville island. The evidence
of remarkable humidity is no less satisfactory, for it is only in warm,
moist climates that ferns and club-mosses grow in the greatest abun-
dance and luxuriance. On some islands in the tropics and in the
south seas the abundance of ferns even approaches that of the coal
flora. In fact, as a condition of the growth of these plants, moisture
seems even more necessary than heat.

It has been objected to the greater heat of the climate, that coal was
evidently formed by accumulation of carbonaceous matter in situ as
now in peat bogs, and that peat bogs are found only in cool climates.
The answer to this objection is not difficult. It is not the heat
immediately, but the resulting capacity for moisture, or, in common
language, dryness of the air of the tropics, which under ordinary cir-
cumstances prevents the preservation of carbon. The air is not so
constantly at or near the point of saturation. Fogs, and mists, and
clouds are not so constant as in cooler climates. But we have sup-
posed greater humidity as well as heat during the coal period. Under
these circumstances, there is no reason why peat should not accumu-
late. We see proof of this in the peat swamps at the mouth of the
Mississippi. Here we find peat accumulating in great abundance in
a climate which is yet very warm; and we have already seen that it
is in such peat swamps, rather than in the bogs of cooler climates,
that we are to look for analogies with the peaty ‘accumulations of the
coal period. The enormous extent of these peat swamps becomes in its
turn an additional proof of the great humidity of the climate.

The uniformity of climate—7. e. the comparatively equable distri-

ON COAL. 143

bution of heat and moisture on the surface of the earth during the
coal period—is evidenced by the remarkable uniformity of the flora.
The general character of the coal flora was very much the same in every
portion of the earth’s surface, and in many cases even the same species
are found in the most distant countries. Thus many identical species
have been found in Europe, United States, New Holland and Mell-
ville island, countries the existing flora of which differ entirely. Now,
although I cannot accede to the doctrine that diversity of climate is
the physical cause of diversity of fauna and flora, yet, whether we con-
sider the physical or the final cause, the result would evidently be the
same, viz: the perfect harmony between the climate and the fauna
and flora, the perfect adaptation of the one to the other.

That the atmosphere was highly charged with carbonic acid is ren-
dered probable by the astonishing luxuriance of the vegetation of the
period. Someexperiments recently made by Mr. Gladstone seem to show
that up to a certain limit the growth of ferns is rendered more rapid by
the addition of carbonic acid to the atmosphere in which they grow.
This probably becomes a certainty, when we reflect upon the enormous
amount of carbon contained in the coal deposits, all of which must
have been extracted from the atmosphere. It has been estimated that
‘‘all the forests of the United States gathered into one heap would
fail to furnish materials of a single coal seam equal to that of Pitts-
burg.’? Again, that ‘‘ that there is laid up in the earth, in the form
of coal, six times as much carbon as now exists in the atmosphere. If
it was all returned to the air, there would be seven times as much
carbonic acid in the atmosphere as at present.”’

Cause of the climate of the coal.—Much speculative ingenuity has
been exhausted to little effect in attempts to account for the remark-
able climate of this period. We find here the same looseness of rea-
soning unfortunately so common among geologists when dealing with
physical subjects. The subject of most of this speculation has been
the cause of the supposed greater heat of the climate. There are two
principal methods of accounting for it. The first and most obvious
mode is by means of the commonly received hypothesis that the earth
has cooled down to its present temperature from an original state of
incandescence. But although there is much independent evidence of
this original condition—and we think it extremely probable, therefore,
that the heat of the coal period was due, at least in part, to this cause—
yet, as Hopkins has shown, (Geol. Jour., 1853,) there are strong ob-
jections to this as the only cause. We have already said that the
surface temperature of the earth is due partly to internal and partly to
external causes. At present the surface temperature from internal
causes has become almost nothing, 7. e. only one-twentieth of a degree
Fahrenheit. The increase of temperature below the surface is about
1° to sixty feet. Now, if we supposed the surface temperature from
this cause to be increased even to 1°, the increase for every sixty feet
of depth would be 20°. An increase of 10° surface temperature would
make 200° increase of temperature for every sixty feet. The springs,
except the most superficial, would all be boiling. Now, it will be
recollected that the winter temperature of Mellville, where coal is
found abundantly, is —20° Fahrenheit. It would, therefore, take near

144 LECTURES

100° additional of surface temperature to raise this to tropical heat.
This would necessitate a temperature of 2,000° at the depth of sixty
feet, a condition of things, it would seem, utterly incompatible with
the existence of luxuriant vegetation on the surface.

The second mode of accounting for it is by means of distribution of
land and water upon the earth’s surface. Land, as compared with
water, is both a better absorber and better radiator of heat, 7. e., will
both heat faster under the influence of a source of heat, as the sun,
and cool faster when that source is withdrawn. This is familiarly
illustrated by land and sea breezes. Again: the earth at the equator
receives more heat from the sun than it radiates, while at the poles,
on the contrary, it radiates more than it receives from the sun, the
overplus in both cases being balanced by the currents of ocean and
atmosphere. If these currents could be prevented, the equator, for a
time, would get progressively warmer, and the poles progressively
colder. We may evidently, then, look upon the earth as a body heat-
ing at the equator and cooling at the poles. Now, when we recollect
the great absorbing and radiating power of land, as compared with
water, it is easy to see that the mean temperature of the earth’s surface
may be materially affected by the distribution of these elements with
reference to the two points in question. For instance, if the water be
all collected in a belt about the equator, and the poles be occupied
entirely by land, we would have the conditions most unfavorable for
heating at the equator and most favorable for cooling at the poles.
The result would be a considerable lowering of the mean temperature.
If, on the contrary, the waters be gathered into polar oceans, leaving
an equatorial belt of land, the conditions would be most favorable for
heating at the equator and most unfavorable for cooling at the poles,
and the mean temperature would consequently rise. It is estimated
that these two extreme conditions would bring down the mean tem-
perature to 32°, or raise it to tropical heat. It is not to be supposed
that such extreme conditions ever existed ; but any approximation to
such conditions—for instance, a decided predominance of land towards
the equator or poles—would produce the same effects to a corresponding
degree. Now, it is possible that the greater heat of the coal period
may be due to some such distribution of land and water.

The fatal objection to this explanation is that we find no coal in
tropical regions. As every coal field presupposes a large river, and
therefore a considerable extent of land, the distribution of coal may
be looked upon as in a general way indicative of the distribution of
land during the period. It would seem from this that the larger
bodies of land existed in temperate and arctic rather than in tropical
regions.

But if itis impossible by distribution of land and water to account
for the greater mean temperature, it is at least easy in this way to
account for the greater humidity and uniformity of climate which we
have found equally to characterize this period. I have already alluded
to the fact that the paleeozoic seas were probably very wide and the
land correspondingly small in extent and low, and that such a condi-
tion of things, on account of the very limited condensation and pre-
cipitation of vapor, would produce a very humid climate. Now, water

ON COAL. 145

being both a bad absorber and bad radiator of heat, both heating very
slowly and cooling very slowly, itis evident that a great predominance
of that element would produce, also, a very uniform climate. The
difference of temperature between pole and equator, and between winter
and summer, would be less than at present.

Some geologists think, with Mr. Lyell, that this uniformity and
humidity of climate is sufficient to account for the coal vegetation
without the necessity of a higher mean temperature than now exists.
If the present mean temperature was distributed more equably both
over the earth surface and over the year, the effect would be to pro-
duce cooler equator, it is true, but also much warmer high latitudes,
and particularly the winters of high latitudes would be much less
severe. The evidence is, however, it seems to me, in favor of some
elevation of the mean temperature also. It is difficult to conceive how
any uniformity of distribution of the present mean temperature, such
as would be produced by the predominance of water, could raise the
winter temperature of Mellville island to the point necessary for the
luxuriant growth of tree ferns. Some increase of temperature from
internal cause seems to be necessary. I suppose, therefore, that if the
temperature of the earth from internal causes was slightly elevated,
say 10°, so that the mean temperature from 60° should become 70°,
and then this mean temperature distributed over the earth surface as
uniformly as possible, by means of a wide extent of ocean, we should
have all the conditions necessary to produce the phenomena of coal
vegetation. It will be recollected, too, that we have much indepen-
dent evidence of the cooling of the earth from an original very high
temperature.

With reference to the highly carbonated condition of the atmo-'
sphere, we may suppose this to be the result of the greater activity
of carbonic acid producing causes, or else we may refer it to the
original constitution of the air—the natural process by which car-
bonic acid is given to the air, decomposition, combustion, respiration
of animals, and volcanoes, carbonated springs, &c. It will be admitted
by all that the first three may be neglected, since they return to the
air only what had been previously taken from it. The carbonic acid
supplied to the air by volcanoes and carbonated springs, according to
Bischoff, is so inconsiderable that, unless we suppose these sources
much more active than now, it would take millions of years to affect
materially the constitution of the air. But even this refuge is taken
away, when we recollect that volcanoes and springs derive their car-
bonic acid from carbonates, and chiefly from carbonate of lime, or com-
mon limestone. But limestones, according to the testimony of all who
have carefully studied them, and particularly according to the recent
microscopic observations of Sorby, are entirely of animal origin, 7. e.
entirely made up of broken fragments of shells, corals, crinoids, some-
times recognizable under the microscope, sometimes reduced to impal-
pable powder. This carbonate of lime is evidently derived from
sea-water. Whence, then, does sea-water derive its carbonate of lime?
The lime is derived, beyond doubt, from igneous rocks, the carbonic
acid probably from the atmosphere, through the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, since lime exists in igneous rocks not as a carbonate but as

10s

146 LECTURES

a silicate. It would seem to follow, then, that springs and volcanoes,
also, only return to the atmosphere what had been previously taken
from it. The only difference between these sources and the three first
is, that while decomposition, combustion, and respiration return to
the air what had been taken from it but a litile while before, springs
and volcanoes return to the air what had been taken from it during
some previous geological epoch. Thus the atmosphere becomes the
great original source of all the carbonic acid in the world.

But whatever be the cause of the excess of carbonic acid in the at-
mosphere during the coal period, we cannot fail to see an evident and
beneficent design in its removal. Carbonic acid, as is well known, is
as poisonous to animals as it is nourishing to plants. Previous to the
coal period there lived none but aquatic animals of low order. These,
on account of low vitality, sluggish circulation, and little necessity
for rapid and constant oxygenation of the blood, have great endurance
of carbonic acid. But now the earth was prepared to receive air-
breathing animals, the atmosphere must be purified for the purpose.
This was accomplished by the astonishing vegetation of the coal period.
But observe, and never cease to admire and wonder, that the self-same
providential act which purified the atmosphere and rendered the earth
a fit habitation for reptiles and birds, had reference also to the coming
of man countless ages after, and laid up materials for his use. In the
carbon thus silently extracted from the atmosphere was buried a me-
chanical energy which, after a sleep of millions of years, was to rise
again as the great physical regenerator of the human race.

ORIGIN OF COAL.

It is now universally admitted among geologists that coal is entirely
of vegetable origin. There was a time, however, and that not many
years ago, when the vegetable or mineral origin of coal was a ques-
tion warmly contested by the best geologists; but its vegetable char-
acter is now so firmly established and so universally admitted that
the history of the controversy has lost its interest. I will not, there-
fore, tire you with its details, but proceed to state the evidence upon
which the universal belief is founded.

First, then, the enormous profusion of fossil plants, in the form of
impressions of leaves, trunks and branches of trees, fruits, &c., found
in immediate connexion with a coal seam, affords strong presumption
in its favor. In the second place, this presumption is strengthened,
and becomes, in fact, almost certainty in the case of trunks of trees
retaining their external conformation, and under the microscope their
internal structure even to the minutest sculpturing upon their cell
walls, and yet turned to perfect coal. It might possibly be objected
that it may be a substitution of one substance for another, similar to
what takes place in petrification, where we find, also, the external
conformation and internal structure perfectly preserved, but the
organic matter all gone, that the ancient trunk having been buried
in bituminous matter and thoroughly impregnated therewith, as
particle by particle the woody matter was removed by decomposition
the bituminous matter took its place, and thus perfectly imitated its

ON COAL. 147

structure. But this objection is forever set aside, when, in the third
place, we subject even the most structureless coal to microscopic
scrutiny. The distinguished American microscopist, Professor Bailey,
of West Point, has been able to detect the unmistakable evidences of
vegetable structure even in the hardest anthracite. In fact it may be
affirmed that there is no coal which, under careful examination, will
not reveal a vegetable structure.

Again: All the stages of gradation between perfect wood and per-
fect coal may be traced with the greatest certainty. We find the first
stage of this process in the blackened semi-bituminized logs of our
peat bogs and deltasof the present epoch. The next stage we find in
the lignites or brown coal of the tertiary period ; the next the highly
bituminous coal of the oolite ; then the coals of the true carboniferous ;
and lastly, the anthracites of the same and lower strata. Thus we
may trace the whole embryology of coal from its immature to its most
perfect condition—may trace and identify all the intermediate links
of the chain of conditions of which wood and coal form the extreme
limits. But not only in external form and appearance, but also in
chemical composition we can trace these several stages. Wood con-
sists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; coal consists of the same ele-
ments but in different proportions. In coal the proportion of carbon
is greater and of oxygen and hydrogen less than in wood. Now, if
we compare the chemical composition of wood, peat, lignite, bitumin-
ous coal and anthracite, we find a progressive decrease in the propor-
tion of oxygen and hydrogen, until, in anthracite, we find the carbon
almost pure, and absolutely pure in graphite, if we acknowledge this
as of similar origin. This chemical evidence is, it seems to me, abso-
lutely demonstrative.

Lastly, direct experiment proves that peat, which we know to be
of vegetable origin, may, by strong pressure, be made to assume the
hardness, the density, the general appearance, and all the useful pro-
perties of coal.

Assuming, then, the vegetable origin of coal as a basis of argu-
ment, we will proceed to speak of, and to account for, the principal
varteties of coal,

All coal consists of two parts, the one combustible the other in-
combustible. It is easy to separate these from one another. If a
piece of coal is thrown into the fire the combustible portion passes
away in the form of gases, the incombustible remains behind in the
form of ash. Now, the relative proportion of these two vary infi-
nitely in different coals. We have every stage of gradation between
pure shale and pure coal, between pure incombustible and almost as
pure combustible.- In the purest coal the amount of ash is only | to
2 per cent.; others, more impure, contain 5, 10, 20, 50 per cent. of
ash. At this point coal loses the property of ready combustion, and
with it loses also the name of coal in popular language. But the
geologist recognizes no remarkable change at this particular point—
no scientific reason why the name should change from coal to shale,
as there is no corresponding change of nature. From this point,
under the name of shaly coal, black slate, &c., the amount of ash
may continue to increase and the amount of combustible matter to

148 LECTURES

decrease, until, in pure shale or slate, the whole becomes incom-
bustible.

Now, wood consists also of combustible matter and ash, but the
amount of ash in wood is much less than in coal—the wood of elm
contains about 2 per cent.; willow, 4 half per cent.; beech, 4 per cent.;
oak and pine about + per cent. The leaves and bark of trees, how-
ever, contain much more than this. The fully matured leaves of the
beech, willow, and elm contain, severally, 6.6, 8, and 11 per cent. of
ash. It is probable, then, that 2 to 3 per cent. is a fair average of
the per centage of ash in dry vegetable matter. But even if the coal
is perfectly pure, that is, formed of vegetable matter without foreign
admixture, we should find a higher proportion of ash than in the
wood from which it was formed, for, as we have already seen, wood
loses hydrogen and oxygen in the process of change into coal. The
weight therefore diminishes, but the absolute amount of ash remains
the same, and consequently the relative amount increases. We may
safely say, then, that if coal contains not more than 5 per cent. of ash
it may be considered quite pure; but if it contains more than 10 per
cent. it is probably impure, 7. e., mixed with foreign matter. This
foreign matter being evidently the mud or clay upon which the carbo-
naceous matter was originally laid down or by which it was after-
wards covered. Hence we find the purest coal in the largest seams
and in the middle portions equally removed from the floor and roof.
As we pass towards the roof of a seam the coal passes by imperceptible
degrees into black slate, which is, in fact, mud, more oz less mixed
with carbonaceous matter.

So much for the varieties of coal depending upon purity or im-
purity, upon the relative proportion of earthy, incombustible, inorganic
matter, and of combustible organic matter.

But, aside from the earthy matter, the combustible or organic matter
of coal consists of two proximate elements mechanically mixed, viz:
carbon and bitumen; charcoal is nearly pure carbon; common tar or
pitch is very similar both in chemical composition and in general ap-
pearance to bitumen. If, then, we conceive a piece of charcoal, care-
fully burnt so that the vegetable structure is perfectly retained, to be
thoroughly impregnated with pitch or tar, we should have a substance
extremely similar to common coal. These two ingredients of coal
may also be easily separated from one another. This is constantly
done in the process of coking and in the manufacture of illuminating
gas. ‘The more volatile bitumen is driven otf in the form of gas or
collects in the pipes as coal tar and the carbon remains as coke.
Now, the relative proportion of these two ingredients also vary infi-
nitely in different coals. We may have a coal of pure carbon, or a
coal of pure bitumen, or a coal containing these two in every propor-
tion. It is the relative proportion of these which give rise to the
principal varieties of coal. A coal of pure carbon is called anthracite;
with a small amount of bitumen, say 10 to 20 per cent., it is called
dry coals or semi-bituminous coal; when there is 20 to 30 per cent. of
bitumen it is called bituminous or coking coal; when the per centage
is above this and the coal burns with a strong blaze and melts, it is
called fat coals. Besides these there are certain varieties depending

ON COAL. 149

upon hardness, fracture, &c., such, for instance, as cannel, which is a
highly bituminous coal, but very hard, compact, fine-grained, and
remarkably free from vegetable structure ; splint coal, &c.

There are at least three possible methods of accounting for these
varieties. 1st. The cause may have existed before the coal was laid
down, in the nature of the wood of which the coals were formed.
2d. The cause may be sought for in the changes through which the
vegetable matter passed in the process of becoming coal. 3d. We
may find it in changes to which the coal was subjected after it became
coal.

First. It is possible that the kind of wood may in some degree de-
termine the variety of coal, as, for instance, the accumulation of pines
and other resinous wood may have given rise to the fat coals, while
the non-resinous woods to the drier coals. This, I say, is possible,
particularly as we know that coniferous trees grew in considerable
abundance during the coal period ; but it seems very improbable as a
general explanation.

Second. We have already remarked that wood consists, chemically,
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and a small quantity of nitrogen, which
may be neglected; and that pit coal consists of the same chemical
elements, only in different proportions, the carbon being in excess.
It is obvious, then, that in the fermentation process by which wood
is changed into coal a portion of the gases, hydrogen and oxygen,
escapes. he amount which thus escapes determines the variety of coal.

The composition of wood is variously stated by chemists ; in fact it
is not a definite compound, but consists of the mixture of several
proximate principles. It therefore varies much, according to the rela-
tive abundance of these principles, such as starch, sugar, cellulose, .
lignire ; in other words, according to the kind or even the age of the
wood. For the harder kinds of wood, such as the oak, Liebeg gives
the formula, C,, H,,°O,,. For softer kinds of wood, and par-
ticularly for succulent vegetable substances, the proportion of carbon
is not so great. Whether, however, the formula which I have
adopted be correct for the plants of the coal, or not, would not affect
the general correctness of the reasoning upon which my conclusions
are based. The composition of bitumen varies also very much, and
for the same reason, viz: that it is composed of several proximate
principles variously mixed. It is generally given as CHa odd
a variable but small amount of oxygen, from 2 to 4. The composition
of cannel coal is given by Regnault as C,, H,, O,.

WY Gd a5 ==) Cie: Hi nib
Bitumen . +1. '== Cy9/Higa0s
Cannel coal = C,, H,; 0;

It will be seen that the proportion of carbon is greatest in coal and
least in bitumen, but that the most striking difference between these
substances and wood is the almost entire want of oxygen. Now, ac-
cording to Liebeg, wood in the process of decay in the open air forms
carbonic acid (C O,) and water (fH O,) and the carbonic acid is
formed by the union of the carbon with the oxygen of the wood, while
the water is formed by the union of the hydrogen of the wood with

150 LECTURES

the oxygen of the av. As in the formation of carbonic acid, oxygen
is consumed faster than the carbon; if the decay goes on the residue
will be at least pure carbon.

Woodyppyy le tecls sus steedeeelels SC oid Onl Ni
Deduct C O, + H (the H unites with O of air) = C,, H,, O,, = partly decayed.
Deduct 5 (Cc Waiic= CU, CO. 5) 4- adv He oe. — —C,, H,, 0,9 = further decayed.

But if decomposition take place out of contact, or with limited sup-
ply of air, the process is more complex. The carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen combine with one another in various proportions, and the pro-
ducts of decomposition are: carbonic acid (C O,,) carburetted hydro-
gen (C H, or C, H,,) and water (H O,) and thus result the deadly
choke-damp (C O,) and the dreaded fire-damp (C H,) of the coal
mines.

Let us now see how, according to this theory, the different varieties
of coal may be formed.

Wadd © ==" Cr tt
Deduct TAG Oe Oe situ ateWo
Deduct 22 H oxydized by the air pee Nate Me ae eee
C25

and twenty-five atoms of carbon alone remain; and this is the com-
postion of pure anthracite. Again: If decomposition takes place out
of contact of air, bitumen or bituminous coal is formed. Thus—

Wioodiniebatin dtd. Java iDbureaelon the eh bok wais ake = Oye He giGie:
Deduet)9. C O;.= C, Ore
Deduct 3 HO = He Ox; == Oy Big Ong
Deduct. 3 CH, = C, H, ——-—
The remainder is cannel coal..... ...... = Oy gi uO
Again:
INVIOUU s cccbe she cuts calnecincear Kolgetnce Se he, ee ee
and if from this we deduct
10 atoms carbonic acid = C,, Ox (22
3 atoms olefiant gas =—C, Le ies a) "eiibectea Shan ae
the remainder is bitumen...........cccesecececees == is Oped oie PON i Se

In the same manner, by supposing the union of these three elements
to take place in various proportions, under circumstances of more or
less imperfect access of air, we may, without difficulty, account for all
the different varieties of coal.

There can be no doubt, it seems to me, that bituminous coal is ac-
tually formed by this play of affinities. But with reference to the
extremes of this series, viz: anthracite and bitumen, naptha, &c., it
seems much more probable that these have been the result of an after
change, the last of the three possible causes with which we started.

In the third place, then, we have many reasons for believing that
bituminous coal is really the normal coal, and that which is always
formed by the play of affinities, of which we have spoken above, and
that anthracite and bitumen are the result of the action of igneous
agency upon such bituminous coal,

ON COAL. 151

We have already said that bituminous coal may be considered as a
mechanical mixture of carbon and bitumen, and these two may easily
be separated by heat. Anthracite is the residue after separation, and
bitumen and naptha is the matter separated by distillation and con-
densed elsewhere. Asin the gas manufactories we find bituminous
coal decomposed—a part remaining behind as coke, (pure! carbon,) a
part passing off as gas and a part collecting in pipes as coal tar—so
in the laboratory of Nature coal beds subjected to heat give rise to the
same three substances; anthracite is left behind, coal gas is dis-
charged into the atmosphere and bitumen collects in subterranean
pipes and gives rise to naptha and bituminous springs, pitch lakes,
&c. Thus, the enormous lake of boiling pitch in Trinidad is, proba-
bly, in connexion with coal strata below. If so, such coal will be left
in the condition of anthracite. All the strata of the earth are subject
to change under the influence of heat: limestones become marbles,
clays become slate. This change is called by geologists metamor-
phism. Now, the proposition is that anthracite is metamorphic coal.
The proofs of this proposition are as follows:

In the first place, anthracite is never found except in regions very
much disturbed by igneous agency, the strata highly inclined, contorted
and broken; and even in the same coal field the coal is anthracite or
bituminous, according as the region is more or less disturbed. Thus,
in eastern Pennsylvania, where the coal strata are very much con-
torted and sometimes perpendicular, (fig. 9,) the coal is all anthra-
cite; while in western Pennsylvania, where the strata are nearly
horizontal, the coal is bituminous. The actual transition of anthra-
cite into bituminous coal cannot be studied with advantage in Penn-
sylvania, because the coal strata have been carried away to such an
extent that only outlying patches are left; but in Wales the same
seam may be traced from the bituminous to the anthracite condition ;
so that there can be no doubt that, in this case at least, anthracite is
metamorphic coal.

Second. Anthracite is never found except in metamorphic rocks,
and conversely all coal contained in metamorphic strata is anthracite.
This universal connexion of two things proves, as it seems to me,
beyond doubt, their community of origin; that they have a common
cause. Thus, in the lowest stratified or primary rocks, where the
rocks are altogether metamorphic, and even in the silurian, where a
less complete metamorphism is almost universal, what little coal is
found is always anthracite. In the coal measures we have coal both
bituminous and anthracitic, but the anthracite always in altered and
the bituminous in unaltered rocks. As we pass upward we find
anthracite more rare, because metamorphism is more rare and local ;
and when metamorphism entirely disappears in the tertiary rocks we
find that anthracite disappears also.

Third. Trap dykes, as it is well known, are formed by the out-
breaking and outpouring of melted rock (lava) forced up through
the superincumbent stratified rocks, which are altered and rendered
metamorphic by the contact. Now, when a dyke passes through coal
strata the coal is always thoroughly coked by the contact; that is, it
is changed into a substance identical in chemical composition with

152 LECTURES

anthracite. These two substances are doubtless similar in their
origin as well as in chemical composition, the great difference in their
density being due only to the pressure under which the change took
place. Anthracite is produced slowly under enormous pressure, while
coke is produced under ordinary atmospheric pressure, and the rapid
disengagement of gas renders it light and porous.

THE PLANTS OF THE COAL—THEIR STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES.

Geology is the latest developed among the sciences. This is not an
accidental phenomenon in the history of human intellectual progress,
but one absolutely necessary, and the cause of which we can clearly
trace. The great divisions of science in the order of their complexity
are mathematics, mechanical sciences, chemical sciences, organical
sciences, and geology. The first is limited to ideas of number and
quantity ; the second comprises, in addition to the preceding, ideas of
force; the third, in addition, ideas of chemical affinity; the fourth, in
addition to the preceding, ideas of life, and the last, in addition to
all the preceding, ideas of historic development. Now, this order of
increasing complexity has necessitated a corresponding order of devel-
opment in time. It is impossible that mechanics and physics should
have assumed even the form of a science until mathematics was
already mature. And so of the rest. Together they form a column,
of which mathematics is the pediment and geology the capital; or,
rather, I should say, a magnificent temple, of which mathematics
forms the solid foundation and geology the heaven pointing spire; the
most wonderful and perfect work which human genius has erected in
honor of Deity.

It is evident, therefore, that geology was compelled to await the
development of other sciences. She could not come forward until her
time was fulfilled, for her problems are the most complex and difficult
which are to be found in the whole range of science. It is evident,
also, that the geologist must be thoroughly accomplished in all de-
partments of science. He must be thoroughly grounded in mechanical
and physical sciences, or how shall he reason successfully on the up-
heaval of continents, the formation of mountain chains, the dynamics
of earthquakes and volcanoes, the actions of currents, &c. He must
be familiar with chemistry, for disintegration and consolidation of
rocks, the deposits of springs, the formation of coal, are chemical
questions. Still more necessary to him is an acquaintance with organic
science, for the organic remains are the Divine hieroglyphs in which
the history of the earth is recorded. It is this very complexity, this
very elevation in the scale, this almost universal culture required of
her votaries, which constitutes the greatest obstacle in the way of real
progress in this science. I know it is thought by many that geology
is an easy and simple science, that any one, by industrious collection
of fossils and persevering exercise of memory, may be a good geolo-
gist; but this is a sad and very pernicious error. In so vast a science
collectors of materials must be numerous, but the philosophical gen-
eralizer is very rare. In so vast an edifice the fetchers of stone and
brick and mortar are innumerable, but heaps of brick and stone and

ON COAL. 153

mortar do not constitute a temple; the one may be accumulated by
the human hand, the other can be constructed only by the human
mind, and in this case only by genius of the highest order. In fact,
a master builder in this science has not yet lived. No man has yet
been able to sketch the outlines of this noble work with a hand so firm
and decided that all shall labor in harmony and mutual confidence,
and the work shall thenceforward proceed with steadiness and cer-
tainty.

In some sense, therefore, all departments of science may be looked
upon as the handmaids of geology. And it is curious and instructive
to observe how, in reward for their services, she stamps each one with
the seal of philosophy ; how each science becomes, in her service,
more comprehensive, more philosophic, more exact. The problems
in physics and chemistry which geology proposes are so difficult, the
conditions under which well known forces act are so numerous and
complicated, and the scale on which they operate are so vast, that
every formula must be revised, every law must be made more exact.
Thus, under the guidance of geology, these two old and mature
sciences seem entering on a new and higher career.

But perhaps the most remarkable instance of the favorable change
and philosophic character which the advent of geology has impressed
upon other departments of science is to be found in the case of natural
history.

The zoology and botany of the last age were little more than the
knowledge of the names and external forms of species, and their ar-
rangement according to an arbitrary system of classification. But it
is evident that such zoology and botany can be of little service to
geology. The external form of an extinct species is seldom seen.
Generally all that we have of an animal is a few bones or teeth, some-
times a single scale; of a plant, a fragment of wood or a leaf, and the
problem which geology proposes is, from such meagre materials to
reconstruct the whole organism. ‘To the unskilled this seems impos-
sible. But the harmony which exists between all parts of an organ-
ism is so perfect that each may be said to necessitate every other. A
complete knowledge of the laws of organization would thus enable us,
from any one part, to reconstruct the whole. One strain of song in-
stantly suggests all that is necessary to make the harmony complete.
Thus a profounder knowledge of animals and plants becomes neces-
sary—a knowledge not only of external forms, but also of internal
structure and the harmonious relation of parts. Classification is no
longer an ingenious artifice to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge,
but becomes the highest expression of knowledge, the epitome of na-
ture. Thus, from a mere mass of barren details, natural history has
risen to the highest philosophic rank. Even astronomy has been
compelled to take a lesson of philosophy from her younger sister.
She must relax the severity of her dogmas. She must modify some-
what the absoluteness of her assertions concerning the stability of all
things, fenced, though they be, round about with mathematical for-
mule, now since the idea of infinite time has been introduced by
geology. ‘The causes which tend to destroy the stability of the solar
system,’ says astronomy, ‘‘are infinitely small, and therefore may

154 LECTURES

be rejected from the equation.’’ True, but infinitely small quantities

accumulating through infinite ages become jinite, in fact, become very

important; for it is these very same infinitely small residual quanti- ©

ties, rejected by astronomy as of no value, which, by their accumula-
tion, constitute the progressive development of the earth and solar
system. Without such small uncompensated forces history, whether
geological, national, or individual, would be impossible. An insect
philosopher, the span of whose life is a single day, attentively ob-

serving the daily cycle of the healthy human body, might rationally ~
assert the stability of the human system. The body, at the end of ©
twenty-four hours, has come back to the same spot whence it started. —

At least the variation, if any, must be infinitely small, and therefore,
for all purposes of insect life, may be rejected as of no value. And
yet it is the accumulation of this same infinitely small variation which
constitutes the growth and progressive development of the body. This
is not an exaggerated illustration, for 2,000 years, the whole age of
astronomy, is but one day, yea, but a small fraction of a day, in the
geological history of the earth.

The flora of the coal period is more complete than that of any pre-
vious or succeeding geological epoch. The whole number of fossil
species of plants known is probably not far from 2,000. Of these,
according to estimates made more than ten years ago, about 816 are
from the ‘‘ coal measures.’’ The constant additions which have been
made since that time, particularly by Dr. Newberry and others, from
an examination of the coal fields of our own country, would probably
bring the number up to at least 900. Probably, therefore, nearly if
not quite one-half of all known fossil plants belong to this period. I
have already said that a coal seam is made up of the remains of such
plants, yet it is not in the coal seams themselves that we find the best
preserved specimens of coal plants. On the contrary, the vegetable
matter is here so thoroughly disorganized that it is only by means of
the microscope that we are able to detect its original structure. It is
rather in the associated shale strata that the most beautiful impres-
sions occur, particularly in the overlying black slate. Between the
thin sheets of this slate the stems and leaves are as perfectly preserved,
every vein and nerve, as between the leaves of the botanist’s herbarium.
This fact, viz: that the well-preserved plants are always found in
abundance in this position, and never in the coal seam proper has, as
it seems to me, an important bearing upon the theory of coal de-
posit. But of this we shall speak again in another place. You have
here before you a magnificent slab of black slate, profusely covered
with beautiful impressions of leaves and stems of ferns and calamites.
In this case, as perhaps in most others, the impressions, though well-
defined, are not conspicuous at a distance, because the color of the
ground and of the figures are so nearly alike, but in some cases, when
the shale background is light-colored, the relief of the coal-black
impressions is very beautiful. ‘The newly exposed roof of a coal mine
has been compared by Dr. Buckland: to the most magnificent fresco
painted ceilings of Italian buildings.

But although the number of species of coal plants is so great, yet

ON COAL. 155

coal is supposed to be composed principally of the remains of four
families only, viz: Ferns, Sigillarice, Lepidodendrons, and Calamites.
The abundance of individuals belonging to these families is so great,
and their size so enormous, that they must have given character to
the vegétation of this period, and may therefore be taken as represen-
tatives of its flora. As such, therefore, I shall consider them, and it
will be our object in this lecture to give you some idea of their appear-
ance and affinities.

There are certain periods in the history of our race upon which we
are apt to gaze with peculiar interest and admiration—when the
human mind, awakening from its sleep of barbarism, rejoices in the
ostentatious display of its strength and its beauty, so in the history
of our earth, the period of the coal stands out beyond all others as the
‘‘ heroic age,’’ when nature seemed to delight herself in the fantastic
exercise of power, and to exhaust her strength in the production of
vegetable giants and monsters. It will be my object to show that this
age, although to the popular mind it may appear a mythological age,
an age of wonders and prodigies, an age to which ordinary principles
of reasoning are inapplicable ; that this age is but one chapter, a page,
in a connected history, one step in the accomplishment of the unvary-
ing plans of Deity.

A glance at these drawings of coal plants will give you some general
idea of the strange:forms which constituted the flora of this period.
But it is not only a vague general idea of external form which I wisk
to give you; we have already had too much of this in popular lectures
on geology. If we would grasp the real thought expressed in the
vegetation of this period ; if we would understand the true significance
of the coal flora in the Divine economy ; if we would catch the key-
note of this Divine harmony, we must take more than a superficial
glance—we must look deeply, thoughtfully, reverently. But, in order
to make myself understood, I find it necessary to step a little out of
the way, to give you a sketch of the great divisions of the vegetable
kingdom and the characteristics of each, so that, by comparison, we
may be able to determine the position of the coal plants. Whatever
is noble and elevating in science must be equally interesting to every
intelligent mind ; but in order to appreciate it, it is absolutely neces-
sary to master in some degree uninteresting technicalities. The jewel
is inclosed always in an unattractive casket of lead ; we must find the
key before we can gain the prize.

The vegetable kingdom, then, is divided into two great classes: the
Phenogams, or flowering plants, and the Cryplogams, or flowerless.
The Cryptogams may be again divided into cellular and vascular Cryp-
togams. The cellular Cryptogams, such as the mosses, fungi lichens,
sea weeds, &c., consist entirely of cellular tissue, while the vascular
Cryptogams, such as ferns, club-mosses, equisetaceze, (horse-tails,) com-
bine the vascular tissue with the cellular. The Phcenogams may also
be divided into two sub-classes, viz: the Gymnosperms, or naked seeded
plants, and the Angiosperms, or. covered seeded plants. The Gymnos-
perms bear their seeds naked or exposed, either near the base of an
open capillary leaf, as in the pine family, (Conifers,) fig. 12, or else

156 LECTURES

on its edges, as in the cycas family. Figs. 12 and 13 represent cross
Fig. 12. Fig. 13. sections of the capillary leaves of naked

seeded plants. The Angiosperms, on the

DL P Pa a
X contrary, bear their seeds enfolded within
the capillary leaf or seed vessel, (figs. 14 and
ey Fig 15,) as in all the ordinary flowering plants.
PE The Angiosperms are again subdivided into
ow ) Monocotyledons, (one cotyledon or seed leaf
mm” in the embryo,) fig. 16, and Dicotyledons,

(t wo seed leaves in the embryo,) fig. 17.

ig. 16. Fig. 17.

9

Dicotyledons,
Phenogams, { Monocotyledons,
Conifers & Cycade, Gymnosperms.

Vascular Cryptogams.
Cellular Cryptogams,

Now, the most important means of determining the families of coal
plants are the internal structure of the stem and the venation of the
leaves. Generally, indeed, these are the only means at our command.
Let us inquire, then, how the great divisions of the vegetable king-
dom are characterized in these respects.

_ Among Pheenogams there are two very distinct types or plans of
internal structure of the stem, viz: the Hzogenous, or outside-growing,
and the Hndogenous, or inside-growing ; the one represented by the
hard-wood trees and shrubs, the other by the palms, canes, grasses,
&c. On cross section of an exogen (fig. 18) we find three distinct
zones of tissue. In the centre a zone of cellular tissue, the pith ;
exterior to this a zene of wood, and around this again a zone of cellular
tissue, the bark. The zone of wood is, moreover, subdivided into con-
centric rings, which represent the annual layers of growth, and sepa-
rated into wedges by radiating lines of cellular tissue (silver grain)
connecting the cellular tissue of the pith with the cellular tissue of
the bark. In the Hndogens,
on the contrary, we have the
woody tissue in the form of
thread-like bundles, irregu-
larly interspersed amongst
the cellular. The dry stalk
of an Indian corn is a fa-
miliar illustration of this
structure. Ifsuch a stalk is
broken across and the two
parts carefully separated, the
thread-like bundles of woody and vascular tissue are observed to draw

Angiosperms.

Cryptogams,

ca

ON COAL. 157

out from the softer cellular tissue. Here we observe no distinct pith; on
distinct bark separable from the wood ; the wood not collected into a
distinct zone; not arranged into concentric layers, nor divided by me-
dullary rays. The exogenous plan of structure includes the Dicoty-
ledons and the pine and cycas families; while endogen may be con-
sidered synonymous with monocotyledon.

In the vascular Cryptogams the woody and vascular tissue is still
differently arranged. The stem of a club-moss, for instance, consists
of a mass of cellular tissue inclosed in a rind of the same tissue more
condensed, with a single central thread of vascular tissue. Sometimes
there seems to be in the centre of this something like a very imperfect
pith. The cellular Cryptogams, as their name indicates, consist

entirely of cellular tissue.

It will be observed that, in the general structure and mode of
growth, the family of pines (Gymnosperms) is allied to the highest
order of plants, viz: the Dicotyledons, while in its reproduction it is
below the Monocotyledons. This latter position is beyond doubt the
true one; and a more attentive examination of the wood of pine in
comparison with that of Dicotyledons will confirm us in this view.
As this is a very important point, and as much false theorizing on
the subject of the plants of the coal has been the result of a miscon-
ception of the true position of conifers, I will dwell a little more
minutely than I should have otherwise considered it necessary to do.

The wood of Dicotyledons consists of two dis- Fie. 20.
tinct tissues, viz: the woody tissue proper and the .
vascular tissue. The woody tissue proper is com-
posed of elongated cells, too small to be distin-
guished by the naked eye, while the vascular tissue
is composed of very much larger cells or tubes.
The visible pores in. such wood as oak, chestnut,
vine, &c., belong to this tissue. Fig. 20 repre-
sents cross section of two wooden wedges, with
their medullary rays. _The comparative size of
the wood cells and the vessels is well shown. The
difference is often much greater than in the figure.
In pine wood, on the contrary, there is no distinction of woody and
vascular tissue; but the so-called wood consists entirely of an open,
thin-walled tissue, intermediate in every respect between the vas-
cular and the woody layer and thinner walled than the true woody,
but smaller than the true vascular. This is shown in the cross
section, (fig. 21.) On a longitudinal section, (fig. 22,) the cells

of pine wood are marked by large disc-like elliptical plates, which
are entirely characteristic of this family. The smallest fragment
is sufficient to distinguish it with the utmost certainty.

_ Now, if we trace the development of the tissues, either by passing
from the lowest to the highest plants, or from the earliest embryonic
to the mature condition of one of the higher plants, we shall find that
all the different kinds of tissue are modifications of the cellular; that
there is a more and more complete differentiation of form and special-

158 LECTURES

Figs. 21 and 22.

ization of function as development progresses,

below all other flowering plants.
plants with respect to the venation of their leaves.
plants are divided into three distinct kinds, viz:

veined, and the dicholomously veined. In the
first the veins branch and again run together,
forming an inextricable net-work. (Fig. 23, a.)
In the second the veins run parallel from one end
of the leaf to the other, connected only by slender
transverse bars, so that the leaf may be torn into
parallel — rib-
bons. (Fig.
23,6.) Inthe
third the veins
branch, but do
not run_ to-
gether again.
(Fig. 23, cand
d.) The first
is characteris-
tic of the Dico-
tyledons ; the
second of the
Monocotyle-
dons; and the
third of the /erns—perhaps of the vascular Crypfogams generally.
The leaves of cellular Cryptogams are veinless. In this enume-
ration it will be observed I have not mentioned the Conifers. To
which class, then, do the leaves of the pine family belong? Undoubt-
edly to the third. This fact cannot be easily demonstrated upon
leaves of ordinary pines, for their cylindrical leaves show no veins,
or, if visible, they seem to be parallel. But there are a few broad-
leaved Conifers, and these always show the dichotomous branch-
ing of the veins in the most unmistakable manner. In the
Salisburia, for instance, we have as beautiful an instance of this
mode of branching as can be found among the Ferns. The leaves
of this Conifer are about two or three inches broad, the shape and
venation very similar to that represented in Fig. 23, c, but much
more beautiful. This close alliance in the venation of the leaves
between the pines and the ferns is another evidence of the low
position of the former among flowering plants. Thus it appears that
this remarkable family of plants is allied to the highest Phenogams

With respect to their venation the leaves of —

the reticulated, or netted veined, the parallel’

The longitudinal system is first formed by modifi-
cation of the cellular, and then this is again differ- —
entiated into the two forms of woody and vascular —
tissue. Now, in the pine family, this last differ-
entiation has not taken place. So far as its tissues —
are concerned, therefore, this family should rank ~

Let us next examine the different classes of —

ON COAL. 159

in the general structure of its wood, and to the Cryptogams in the
venation of its leaves. If there was no other evidence we might be in
doubt as to its true position; but the simplicity of its reproduction
and of its tissues settles the question, as it seems to me, forever.
There are other points of alliance between pines and club-mosses,
which it would lead me too far to notice. In fact this family seems
to be, in a remarkable degree, both a connecting and an embryonic
type, and therefore, as we shall presently see, eminently calculated
to throw light upon the plants of the coal.

Let us now attempt to apply these principles in the interpretation
of the plants of the Coal, and particularly of the four families already
taken as representatives of the flora of this period, viz: the Ferns,
Sigillarie, Lepidodendron, and Calamites. We shall confine our atten-
tion principally to the second and third. With reference to the
Ferns there is little dispute; their unmistakable resemblance to the
ferns of the present flora leave no doubt as to their affinities. I will
only remark, in passing, that many of the coal genera of this family
seem to have aflinities also with the Cycade and Conifere. With
reference to the other three families the difficulty is much greater:
they are generally supposed, however, to be most nearly allied to the
Lycopodiacee (club-mosses) and the Equisetacece, (horse-tails ;) the
Sigillarie and Lepidodendrons being considered most nearly allied to
the club-mosses, and the Calamites to the horse-tails. If so, then we
are at once struck with the enormous size of the coal plants in com-
parison with their humble representatives at the present day. Stgil-
laric and Lepidodendrons attained the amazing height of seventy to
one hundred feet, and a diameter of five to six feet, while the club-
mosses of the present day seldom rise to an altitude of more thana
few inches. Calamites attain a diameter of fourteen or fitteen inches,
and a height of thirty to forty feet, while the horse-tails are among
our humblest plants. This enormous difference in size is sufficient of
itself to lead us to suspect that these are not true club-mosses and
horse-tails. Let us examine them more closely.

Here you have rude sketches of these families. This is Sigillaria.
This genus is so little known as to its external appearance that I
cannot represent or speak of it with any confidence. In almost every
case it is formed as a straight cylindrical trunk, without branches or
leaves. So that, although this plant is so common, yet its mode of
branching and the form of its leaves is still a matter of dispute among
botanists. In afew cases Sigillaria trunks have been found to biturcate
and produce long cylindrical branches. Ina single, perhaps doubt-
ful, case (Sig. lcpidodendrifolia) leaves have been found similar to
Lepidodendron. One of two views seems probable: either that many
so-called Lepidodendrons, so commonly found in connexion with
Sigillaria, are the branches of the latter, in which case the branching
and foliage of this genus are similar to the Lepidodendyon, or else
that Sigillaria, like tree ferns, were generally branchless, and that the
large fronds, (generally supposed to belong to Ferns,) which are so
commonly fouud strewed in profusion about their bases, were their
leaves. What I have represented by these sketches are therefore
ideal restorations on the former hypothesis, rather than actual speci-

160 LECTURES

mens. You will observe, then, the sparse dichotomous branching, the
cylindrical limbs with blunt extremities, so characteristic of the club-
moss, but which is found, also, in some species of pines. Like the club-
moss, too, the leaves are crowded, pointed, strung along the stem for .
some distance, but longer, slenderer, and more nearly resembling the
leaves of the pine. On this trunk you will observe the seal-like im-
pressions (sigilla) characteristic of this family, and from which its
name is derived. Also longitudinal depressions running from one
end of the trunk to the other, and along which the sigilla are arranged
in vertical rows. Thus each trunk of a Sigillaria resembled a noble
fluted doric ,column beautifully but variously sculptured the pattern
changing with the species. These sigillae are evidently leaf scars,
and therefore indicate the leaf arrangement peculiar to this family.

The Lepidodendron, of which you have here a drawing, was still
more lke the club-moss, the crowded leaves being shorter, rhomboidal,
and more scale-like, the same long, slender, cylindrical, sparse dichot-
omous branches. But even here we find an almost equal resem-
blance to Conifers, for it will be recollected that in a large number
of Conifers as the Juniperus, the Araucaria, &c., the same rhomboidal,
plaited scale-like leaves prevail. The impression of a shoot of an Arau-
caria could scarcely be distinguished from that of some species of club-
moss, except by superior size of the former. In its fructification there
is the same difficulty, for it is doubtful whether it most nearly resem-
bled the cone of pines, or the cone-like fructification of club-mosses,
although the recent investigations of Hooker leave little doubt that
the latter is the truer view. All that we know, then, of the external
appearance of these families lead us to the conclusion that they were
intermediate between pines and club-mosses, and that the Sigillaria
approached most nearly the pines, and the Lepidodendrons most nearly
the club-mosses.

Let us next see what light is thrown upon this subject by examina-
tion of the internal structure.

Fig. 24, Fig. 25.

Cross and longitudinal section of Sigillaria;
letters represent same as in fig. 24; fff the
leaves.

Cross section of Sigillaria: a the pith; b the
woody cylinder; c the cellular tissue; d the
rind; ethe bundles of vascular tissue running
from central sheath to the leaves.

ON COAL. 161

If we make a section of the stem of a Sigillaria, (figs 24 and 25,) we
find externally abark, or, more probably, a rind(a) of condensed cellu-
lar tissue, sometimes a half or an inch thick; within this an enormous
amount of loose cellular tissue,(c,) often 2 feet or more thick. Through
the centre of this runs a slender sheath(d) of vascular or woody tissue,
which in a Sigiilaria 5 feet in diameter is not more than 3 inches in
diameter; a mere thread of vascular in the midst of a mass of cellular
tissue. This again incloses a small pith (a) which occupies the very
centre of the trunk. These vascular cylinders, with their inclosed pith,
being the most indestructible portion of the trunk, are often found
alone, and described under the name of Hndogenites. Figs. 24 and 25
represent cross and longitudinal ideal sections of this plant, (a) the
cellular tissue of the pith, (b) the vascular or woody sheath, (c) the
mass of cellular tissue between the vascular sheath and (d) the rind,
(e) slender vascular bundles connecting the leaves with the central
sheath. Upon closer examination of this woody or vascular cylinder
(6) it is found to consist of concentric layers, somewhat analogous to the
layers of growth of exogenous trees, and divided into wedges by medul-
lary rays, like the tree exogens. Upon still closer examination, how-
ever, of a good cross section under a microscope (fig. 26) no distinction
of vascular and woody tissue, such as is found in the wood of Dicotylo-
dons, is observed, but the whole is made up of one kind of tissue, open
and thin-walled, in comparison with woody tissue proper, but closely
resembling the wood of pines. Buta longitudinal section shows no
disc-like markings such as characterize the wood of Conifers, but

Figs. 26 and 27. Fig. 28.

eer
TTT
CTT

CUCU CATO EU UOTE

THT TMT
TT TTT TTT

TOUT TTT

Fig. 28. A cross section and longitudinal section
+ Of a Sigillaria. The letters a, b, c, d, e represent
' same as in previous figs. 1, 2, 3 are the 3 layers

of the vascular cylinder b, m isa medullary ray.
reveals the fact that it consists entirely of spiral vessels, (figs. 27 and
27;) and that, therefore, the sheath of the Sigillaria consists of vascular
rather than of woody tissue. In consequence of the great predomi-
nance of cellular tissue, these stems, as well as those of the Lepido-
dendron and Calamites, are generally found very much flattened by
pressure,
Il gs

162 LECTURES

A cross and longitudinal section of the Lepidodendron shows a
similar but still less highly organized structure, (figs. 29 and 30.)
Fig. 29. Fig. 30.

The vascular sheath is still smaller, extremely thin, forming on
cross section an exceedingly narrow zone. It is moreover not separated
into concentric rings nor divided by medullary rays. The cellular
tissue both within and without the sheath is very open and loose.
The rind (d) consists of similar cellular tissue, but more condensed,
and there seems to be no line of demarcation, but a gradual transition;
in other words, there is apparently no true bark. Here, also, we find
long slender bundles of vascular tissue (spiral vessels) connecting the
leaves with the central sheath. Microscopic examination of the vas-
cular sheath shows no sign of woody tissue.

Calamites we know much less about, but it would seem that in them
there is a still greater predominance of cellular tissue, if, indeed, they
possessed any vascular tissue at all. They are often found pressed
perfectly flat, indicating that they were either hollow, or more probably
consisted of a simple rind of condensed cellular tissue, inclosing looser
tissue of the same kind. Of this plant, however, we know too little to
draw any conclusion as to its affinities.

Now, if we examine by sections a common Lycopodium, or club-moss,
we find an internal structure closely resembling what we have found
in Sigillaria and Lepidodendron. Externally a thin but tough rind,
or epidermis of condensed cellular tissue, inclosing a mass of very loose
cellular tissue, through the centre of which runs a slender thread of
vascular tissue, sending off in every direction still slenderer threads of
the same to the crowded leaves. Upon longitudinal section the vascu-
lar tissue is found to be chiefly spiral ducts. The principal difference
between this structure and that of the Lepidodendron is that the latter
has a more perfect pith, and in this respect seems to be allied to the
higher order of plants. But I am convinced, from personal examina-
tion of the Lycopodium, that its vascular thread was the outline of both
pith and medullary rays. I call more particular attention to this
observation, because, as far as I know, it is new, and asit seems to me
calculated to throw much light on the affinities of coal plants.

This very remarkable structure, viz: the existence of a slender
central thread of vascular tissue in the midst of a large mass of very
loose cellular, does not exist, I believe, among existing plants in the

ON COAL. 163

mature condition, except in the family of club-mosses. In the embry-
onic state, however, of the Dicotyledons we find something similar.

If we make a cross section of a Dicotyledon soon after germination,
t. e., while the first two or three pairs of leaves are expanding, we will
find a structure very similar to that of the Lepidodendron. We find
in the centre a small pith surrounded by a thin zone of vascular tissue,
(mostly spiral vessels,) around this a large mass of cellular tissue, des-
tined to become partly bark and partly wood, but which is yet neither
one nor the other, and the whole inclosed in a thin epidermis of con-
densed cellular tissue.

Thus it appears, both from external and internal examination, that
these families combined the characters of pines and club-mosses. Or
if we are disposed to attach more importance to their exogenous affini-
ties, and thus to place them among the pines, then we must compare
them with the earliest embryonic condition of this class. The true
view, I am convinced, is, that they are both connecting and embryonic
types, or connecting types with embryonic characters. In fact, all
embryonic types seem to be more or less connecting, and conversely
connecting types, at least in Palcontology, are also embryonic. Now,
what I have said of the Sigillaria and Lepidodendron is equally true,
I believe, of other coal plants. I have taken these two because they
are better known; but all that is known concerning other genera
seem to point in the same direction. They all seem to be more or less
connecting types. The Sphenophyllum, Néggerathia, and probably
many of the so-called Ferns of this period are of this character.

Let us inquire now what important conclusions may be drawn from
what we have seen of the affinities of these plants:

1. The distinction of plants into Cryptogams and Phenogams is
considered by botanists a fundamental one. Many recent investiga-
tions, however, have combined to throw some doubt upon the entire
distinctness of these classes. The study of the Coal Plants, particu-
larly of the two families Sigillaria and Lepidodendron, it seems to me
entirely destroys this as a fundamental division, or, at least, as one at
all comparable to the great divisions of the animal kingdom. The
pines belong unequivocally to the Phenogams and the club-mosses to
the Cryptogams. If the Sigillaria and Lepidodendron are connecting
links between these two families then the classes to which they belong
can no longer be considered as fundamentally distinct types or plans
of structure. The study of animals, both existing and extinct, have
confirmed the wonderful generalization of Cuvier. The four types—
Vertebrata, Articulata, Mollusca, and Radiata—were as distinct during
the paleeozoic period as now. If such distinct plans of structure
exist in the vegetable kingdom at all they have not yet been indicated
as such by botanists. The distinction into exogen and endogen would
seem more likely to be fundamental, as this is apparently not a mere
distinction of rank or complexity of structure, but of plan of struc-
ture. If so, then we shall probably be able to trace these two types
downwards until, overleaping the distinction of Phenogams and
Cryptogams as one of complexity of structure only, they reach the
lower confines of the vegetable kingdom.

2. We have seen that ‘the plants ‘of the coal are most, if not all of

164 LECTURES.

them, connecting types with embryonic characters. This is not an
isolated fact, but one which meets us at every step in the course of our
study of the geologic history of the earth. It is but one illustration
of a general law, a law of the deepest philosophic import, and yet one
which is still very imperfectly recognized among geologists. The law
may be thus stated: The first introduced animals or plants of any
class have been combining types, 7. e., have united within themselves
the characters of several families, now distinct and even widely sepa-
rated. Thus the first vertebrates introduced were fishes, but not
typical fishes, as we might be led a priori to expect, but Placoids and
Ganotds, families which, particularly in their earlier representatives,
united with ordinary fish characters others which connected them with
the class of reptiles, and even of mammals; and still others which
connect them with the embryonic condition of the typical fishes. It is
this combination of embryonic characters with others which connect
them with the higher classes, this union of high and low characters,
which has given rise to all the dispute concerning the position of these
families in the scale of Fishes as well as to much of the difference of
opinion concerning the law of succession of animals in Geology.
Again, the first introduced reptiles, viz: the reptiles found in the old
red sandstone and coal, are the most remarkable instances of con-
necting types of which we have any knowledge. In the first place
they seem to have been amphibious, (in the proper sense of the word,)
and thus to have connected land animals and water animals, air
breathing with water breathing, and all of them united characters,
which are now represented by widely separated families. To give a
single instance: the carboniferous reptile, recently described by Pro-
fessor Wyman and exhibited at the last meeting of the Scientific As-
sociation at Albany, so remarkably combined characters which are now
parcelled out between the three families of Batrachians, Saurians, and
Ophidians, that this distinguished comparative anatomist seemed
almost at a lossas to which of these families to assign it. He decided,
however, that it most nearly resembled a Salamandroid Batrachian
with characters closely connecting it with the other families already
mentioned.

The Labyrinthodon of the new red sandstone has been classed by
some anatomists with Batrachians, and by others with crocodiles.
There seems yet a doubt whether it should be called a tailless ercco-
dile or a crawling frog with crocodilian teeth. The huge Saurians of
the secondary period combined reptilian with fish, and even some
mammalian characters. Even in the tertiary period and in the intro-
duction of the highest animals this law is not forgotten. The recent
investigations of Professor Gwen have shown that the first introduced
Pachyderms were not typical Pachyderms, but that they combined the
characters of Pachyderms and Ruminants to such a degree that it is
almost impossible to assign them with certainty to one or the other
order. In fact, the study of these extinct forms has led this great
anatomist to class the Pachyderms and Ruminants together as sub-
divisions of one and the same order.

Thus in every case in the earliest faunze and flore one class stood
for many. ‘The earliest families combined the characters of several

-

ON COAL. 165

families or classes, and stood as their representative until these fami-
lies or classes were separately introduced. The Placoids and Ganoids,
for instance, stood during almost the whole paleozoic period the sole
representatives of the vertebrate type, combining in themselves the
characters of all classes, and thus prophesying their coming, until
Nature was fully prepared for their introduction. The Stigil/aria and
Lepidodendron stood as the representatives of both Cryptogam and
Phenogam, until these two ideas were separately and more distinctly
expressed by the subsequent introduction of the typical forms of these
two classes. It is as if Nature first sketched out her work in general
terms and then elaborated each subordinate idea in separate families ;
all these families, taken together as an organic whole, still containing
the original idea in a more completely developed form, as if the pro-
blem of organic nature was first expressed in a few simple but com-
prehensive symbols and then differentiated. Organic nature has
often been compared to a broken chain, the disjointed links of which
are the widely separated and distinctly marked families of the present
fauna and flora, and the connecting links of which are to be found
deep buried in the strata of the earth. But the complexity, the
beauty, and, more than all, the life, growth, and development of Na-
ture, is not to be represented by any such miserable mechanical con-
trivance asachain. It is rather a tree—a tree of life—a tree whose
trunk is deeply rooted in the lowest paleeozoic strata, whose first
giant arms are given off in the carboniferous, which branch again in
the secondary and again in the tertiary periods, while its extreme
branchlets, and also its flower and fruit, are the fauna and flora of the
present epoch. The object of geology is to trace each branch to its
fellow branch, and each limb to its fellow limb, and thus gradually to
restore the whole noble form and determine the laws of its growth.

This differentiation, this passing from simplicity to complexity,
from unity through diversity to a higher unity, is the fundamental
law of development. Let me illustrate my meaning by a few simple
examples: The ultimate anatomical elements of every organized body,
whether animal or vegetable, are cells. The whole body is made up
of cells, and all the bodily functions are performed by cells. In fact,
the body may be looked upon as an organized community of indi-
vidual cells. Now, if we trace these cells from their earliest condition
in the embryo to their mature condition in the fully developed animal
or plant, or from the lowest animal or plant regularly to the top of
the scale, we will observe a most beautiful instance of the differen-
tiation of which I speak. The cells are at first all alike, simple and
globular, and each performs all the functions appertaining to cells,
though comparatively imperfectly. But as development advances the
cells begin to take on different forms and to perform different func-
tions. Some become nervous cells, some muscular cells, some biliary
cells, &c., until, in the mature condition and in the highest animals,
the diversity of form and specialization of function reaches the highest
point, each form of cell being confined to the performance of a single
function.

If, instead of the ultimate anatomical elements, the cells, we take
the proximate anatomical elements, the organs, or even the regions of

166 LECTURES.

the body, still the same differentiation of form and specialization of
faction is observable as we pass from the embryonic to the mature
condition, or from the lowest to the highest animals. I might give
many other examples taken from the organic kingdom. I will give
but one other example, and that taken from a still higher kingdom.
Human society is also an organized body, the ultimate anatomical
elements of which are individuals. Now, in the earliest conditions of
human society we find these elements, so far as their social functions
are concerned, identical. Hach man performs all the social functions
apertaining to man. He is his own tailor, shoemaker, agriculturist,
scientific man, &c. But in proportion as society advances in the same
proportion does specialization of social functions advance, until, if we
could conceive of a society perfectly organized on a purely material
basis, 7. e. according to the French material philosophy, then the
social function of each individual would be reduced to the narrowest
possible limits. This is only impossible or undesirable on account of
man’s moral and spiritual nature. Still it is no less evident that, in
so far as human society is a material organization, specialization of
function, differentiation is the law of development.

Now, it will be recollected that in the geological history of animals
and plants we have everywhere found the same differentiation of form
and specialization of function. As in the history of the animal body,
one cell form in the embryo was the representative of many widely
separated cell forms in the mature animal; so also in the geological
history of that greater and more complex organism, the animal and
vegetable kingdom, one form in the early periods stood as the repre-
sentative of many widely separated forms in its present mature con-
dition. Am I not justified, then, in saying that the great law which
has governed the introduction of successive animal and vegetable spe-
cies is that of gradual development of the animal and vegetable king-
dom as an organic whole ?

It seems to me that all the dispute and misunderstanding on this
subject have been the result of too narrowa view, have arisen from fixing
the mind upon genera and species instead of upon the larger divisions
of classes and orders, upon the individual elements instead of the
organic whole. Development does not necessarily involve the idea of
progression in all the individual elements. In the differentiation of
the cells of the living body, of the individuals of an advancing com-
munity, or of the forms of an advancing fauna, the whole organism
progresses, but as a necessary result of differentiation, while the high-
est individuals are successively higher and higher, the lowest, consid-
ered in themselves, and not as parts of an organized whole, may
become lower, Certainly the difference between the high and the low
becomes constantly greater. It should not surprise us, then, that
some of the lowest forms of animal life have been among the latest
introduced. It is precisely what, according to a true appreciation of
the law of development, we should be naturally led to expect.

Mr. Hugh Miller, the eminent Scotch geologist, in his admirable
work, ‘‘ Footprints of the Creator,’ by taking too limited a view of
this subject, has been led, if not into error, at least into a statement
of views which has misled many. In his zeal against the Lamarck-

ON COAL. 167

ian theorists, and more particularly against the author of the ‘‘ Ves-
tiges of Creation,’”’ he has attempted to show that, in certain families,
at least, the law has been that of degradation, instead of progression.
He has labored to prove that the earliest fishes have been the highest,
instead of the lowest fishes, and that the earliest reptiles have been
higher in the scale than the present reptiles. This idea has been
seized upon by some in this country, and it has been attempted, by
connecting it with the fall and degradation of man, to show that the
universal law of history, both geological and human, is degradation.
The disciples of this melancholy philosophy believe that divine power
successively introduced higher and higher classes, but each class, left
to its own laws, continued to degrade itself. The Deity repeatedly
attempted progression, by the miraculous introduction of successively
higher classes, but some malign influence as constantly interposed
and, to some extent, frustrated these attempts.

Now, it is evident that these theorizers have never thoroughly
grasped the fundamental idea of development. They mistake speciali-
zation for degradation. Upon this theory all our boasted modern
civilization, so far as it is the result of division of labor, specialization
of social functions, and mutual dependence of parts, is degradation.

Upon what ground are the Ganoids and Placoids considered the
highest fishes? Only on the ground that they combine with their
fish characters others which ally them with the higher classes, par-
ticularly with reptiles. In other words, they fall into the very error
of the Lamarckians themselves, viz: that of supposing that the ani-
mal kingdom is to be represented by a linear series, and that, there-
fore, the highest fishes approach tbe lowest reptiles, and the highest
reptiles the next higher class, &c. But the very reverse of this is the
fact. The animal kingdom should be represented by an infinitely
branching tree, rather than by an ascending right line; for we find,
in every case, classes approach each other in the lowest members of
each, and diverge as they ascend. Thus, it is the lowest, and not the
highest plants, which approach the animal kingdom. As we ascend,
they become more and more widely separated, until, in the highest
representatives of each, the separation reaches its highest point. So
also each branch of these kingdoms diverges from its fellow branches.
It is, therefore, in its lowest, not its highest, members that we should
naturally expect, according to the law of differentiation, the class of
fishes to approach the class of reptiles. In some sense, indeed, Pla-
coids and Ganoids may be considered higher than typical fishes.
Their brain and nervous system is more highly organized, their re-
production is more complex, their young are better cared for. But
it will be recollected that they are both connecting and embryonic
types. Now, it is their connecting characters which seem to elevate
them, for their true fish characters are all embryonic. As vertebrates
they may possibly be considered higher than other fishes, but as
fishes they must be considered low. Anatomists may place them
high but morphologists will always place them low. If the several
classes of the animal kingdom, diverging in various directions, be,
as it were, projected upon a vertical plane, the Placoids and Ganoids
may possibly occupy a higher position than the typical fishes; but,

168 LECTURES,

in such a rectilinear projection, all the variety and beauty of nature
is lost. It is evident that, for purposes of classification, the mor-
phologist is right ; for if the principle of the anatomists is consistently
carried out, no classification is possible, for animals the most diverse,
an echinoderm and a fish, may be brought together. The Divine classi-
fier, in the introduction of species, has followed the principle of the
morphologist.

Geology, then, teaches, and, as it seems to me, unmistakably
teaches, that the law of succession of animals and plants is that of
progressive development in time of these two kingdoms. But,
although there has been a development, it is not the development of
the Lamarckian, of the author of the Vestiges of Creation, and the
pantheist. The development which geology teaches is not a develop-
ment which is the result of physical laws and physical forces. If
there is anything which geology teaches with clearness, it is that
the animal and vegetable kingdoms did not commence as monads, or
vital points, but as organisms so perfect that even the maddest La-
marckian must admit that they could not have been formed by agency
of physical forces ; that species did not pass into one another by trans-
mutation, but that each species was introduced in full perfection, re-
mained unchanged during the term of their existence, and died in
full perfection ; that physical conditions cannot change one species
into another, but that a species will give up its life rather than its
specific character. In passing from the equator to the poles we pass
from one geographical fauna to another, from one set of species to
another, but observe no transmutation, but only substitutions ; so
also in passing from the oldest geological to the present fauna we
pass from one set of species to another ; not, however, by transmuta-
tion, but always by substitution. This has been repeated so many
thousand times in the geological history of the earth that there is
no room for doubt on the subject. As far as the evidence of geology
extends, each species was introduced by the direct miraculous interfer-
ence of a personal intelligence. There has, indeed, been a constantly
increasing series, but the connexion between the terms of the series
has not been physical or genetic, but intellectual ; not founded in the
laws of reproduction, but in the eternal counsels of the Almighty.
There has, indeed, been a development, but not a development the
force of which exists within the thing developing ; but rather the de-
velopment of a great work of art, under the hand of the Divine
Artist—a work conceived in eternity, and elaborated throughout all
time. What an overwhelming idea this thought gives us of the un-
changeableness, the all-comprehensive intelligence and foreknowledge
of the Deity! The infinite diversity of nature, the whole idea of this
infinite work of art, was contained in the first strokes of the Great
Artist’s pencil, and the ceaseless activity of Deity has been exercised
only in the eternal unfolding of the original conception.

LECTURE ON THE VASTNESS OF THE VISIBLE CREATION.
BY PROFESSOR STEPHEN ALEXANDER OF THE COLLEGE, OF NEW JERSEY.

My object on this occasion is, in itself, a very simpleone. I desire to
give some illustrations of the vastness of the visible creation, as made
known by modernastronomy. I say emphatically modern astronomy,
for some knowledge of this science is probably nearly as old as
the world itself. Almost from the first issuing of the great decree
that the sun and moon should serve for signs, and for seasons, and for
days, and for years, men have been careful to observe the heavens ;
for the Great Creator had so written that decree upon the heavens
themselves that men have not been slow to read the lesson thus visi-
bly inculcated. I would observe, moreover, that the objects of astro-
nomical research, with very trifling exceptions, are, of all others, with
which we have to do, the most unalterable. It is almost exactly true
that the very constellations which we now see were gazed upon by the
antedeluvian patriarchs; were in full view of Noah when the great
flood of waters was upon the earth; met the upturned eye of Abraham
when he was led out by Divine command to behold in them the sym-
bol of the promise; guided the ancient Greeks in navigation, and
still serve the modern astronomer as so many guide-points in the
heavens.

My purpose, as already indicated, is to illustrate, not to demonstrate.
To accomplish the latter in a single lecture would not be practicable ;
and certainly of astronomy, above all other sciences, it is true that it
may throw itself on its character for veracity when it requests that its
conclusions should be received as reliable. A science which can trace
a comet in its course, where no eye has had even a telescopic view of
it for three-quarters of a century, and bring it back by computation
correctly almost to a day, or which can predict an eclipse a century
hence as readily as one that will occur this year, and to whose accu-
racy experience throughout bears such abundant testimony—such a
science may fearlessly throw itself on its character for veracity. Be-
fore I proceed, however, to elucidate the subject, let me call attention
for a moment to an old-fashioned problem, whose bearings upon the
subject will, I trust, be presently seen. I allude to the problem of the
price of a horse, in which a farthing was allowed for the first nail in his
shoes, two for the second, four for the third, and soon. There were
thirty-two nails in all, and yet, from the small beginning of a farthing,
owing to this doubling thirty-one times, the value of the horse was only
to be computed in millions of pounds. Now, with reference to the
subject of astronomy, we shall have occasion to see that, though com-
mencing with a comparatively moderate unit, we shall advance upon
a similar plan, but much more rapidly. ' Keeping, then, in view the
illustration already given, you will at once see how gigantic, after a
very few steps, must be the last result compared with the first. Our
first object to-night will be to gain some idea of the size of the earth
itself, on which we stand. ‘The half diameter of the earth is the

170 LECTURES.

measuring unit with which to compare the distance of the earth from
the sun, and thus obtain a new unit with which afterwards to compare
the distances of the other planets. To.give a just idea of the size of
the earth we will avail ourselves of the largest tangible measure at-
tainable, that is, the highest mountain on the earth’s surface. The
highest mountains are the Himalayas, their altitude being five and
a half miles. Now, we do not exaggerate when we say that, if we
could uncover the base of one of those mountains, it would cover four
times the original area of the District of Columbia, or the surface of
one of the ordinary counties of our States, rising above that surface
to the height of five and a half miles, about equal to the height of
Chimborazo added to that of the highest of the Alps. This shall be
our standard of comparison with regard to the magnitude of the earth.
Such a mountain is rather more than ;,;, of the earth’s diameter or
about 1, of its radius. In making the comparison, after the ordi-
nary mode, two difficulties present themselves. It is said that, if you —
represent the earth by a globe, the highest mountain on its sur-
face may be represented by a small grain of sand. You thus proceed
from the greater to the less, whereas, in nature, we must proceed from
the less to the greater. Besides, a grain of sand is too small to give
an adequate idea of the matter to be illustrated. To avoid this we
shall make use of a scale sufficiently large to present the mountain
distinctly, and shall proceed in the natural order from the less to the
greater. This diagram before me is thirty-nine feet six inches in
length, and is intended to represent two radii of the earth opening to
the extent of one degree. At the further end of it is a blue band,
representing the atmosphere, and immediately beneath which is a
small row of mountains. Their heights, on this scale, is a trifle less
than two-thirds of an inch, and their actual height, as compared with
the real half diameter of the earth, is as two-thirds of an inch com-
pared with thirty-nine and a half feet, and doubling the half diameter
we shall have the ratio of two-thirds of an inch to seventy-nine feet.
Below the row of mountains you have a dark blue band, representing
the ocean. Below that again a darker portion still, representing that
portion of the earth’s crust through which you must go to find a red
heat, and beyond that you have the red color continued until it passes
into whiteness; it indicates the depth at which we would probably
arrive at a white heat.

[It would be impossible, in a wood-cut, to do justice to the illustra-
tion here explained by the lecturer. The explanation itself will
doubtless be sufficient. |

The diameter of the earth is, then, a very large unit in comparison
with the height of the highest mountain. The circumference, of
course, is more than three times the diameter. If you should attempt
to walk around the earth at the rate of twenty miles a day, three
years and five months would be spent in completing the circuit; and if
you should fly around it at the rate at which the steam car travels, say
thirty miles an hour, you would accomplish its circuit in thirty-four and
a half days; but, if its circumference be great in comparison with ordi-
nary standards, its surface in comparison with that of a sphere of
ordinary size must be still more enormous. The illustrations, I would

THE VISIBLE CREATION. i71

remark, that I give you here, are most of them originally devised, and
the results in all cases verified by actual computation. We could not
pass over the surface of the earth and take a good look at the surface
at a more rapid rate than that of twenty square miles a day, and yet
this would occupy us a period of 27,090 years. To view that portion
of the earth which is inhabited, if we should estimate it at but one-
fourth of the whole, would, at the same rate of progress, require 6,750
years; or to view the habitable portion of the surface of the earth would
require, in the case of the same individual, provided he could live so
long, more than the time from the creation of man down to the present
day to walk. Ifthe surface of the earth be so large, its capacity, of
course, compared with an ordinary standard, will be found to be to it
in a still greater ratio. The largest tangible measure, as I have said,
is the largest mountain on the earth’s surface. Suppose such a moun-
tain to be regularly shaped, and to have a diameter of twenty miles at
the base, it would then contain 576 cubic or solid miles of material.
Make use of that huge body as the unit of measurement of the bulk of
the earth, and the bulk of the earth would contain it 450,000,000 of
times, and even more. How can we appreciate so large a number?
We find it even difficult to form an idea how large a number a mil-
lion is ; we may obtain some idea of the vastness of numbers, such as
those in question, by ascertaining the time required to count them.
Tf, then, you should count at the rate of two per second, continuing the
work for eight hours a day, twenty-one years and five months would be
spent in counting the number which expresses the bulk of the earth
in comparison with that of the mountain. Perhaps I do not exag-
gerate the matter when I say, that the most accurate idea of a bulk so
vast may be obtained by regarding the image which we frame to our-
selves when we attempt to form an idea of infinite space. As we
cannot grasp infinity this image must have a dim and misty outline;
but it may be that it approaches more nearly than anything else to
presenting an adequate idea of the actual size of the earth.

Having obtained some idea of the size of the earth let us proceed a step
further, not in the way of doubling, but much faster. In so doing we
next notice the distance of the earth from the moon, which is represented
here on a much smaller scale than that employed in our first figure.
The distance from the centre of the earth to the centre of the moon is
about sixty radii, or thirty diameters of the earth. The magnificent
appendage of Saturn compares very well in size with this, its diame-
ter being about twenty times that of the earth. We pass from this to
the diameter of the sun, which is about one hundred and twelve times
that of the earth, and, of course, the surface is: more than ten thou-
sand times the surface of the earth. The scale we have at first adopted
we should find to be inadequate to compare the earth with the sun.
No ordinary apartment could contain the necessary illustration. The
scale has therefore been reduced a thousand times, instead of being
that of a hundred miles to a foot. This diagram is constituted on a
scale of 100,000 miles to a foot. On it the earth has shrunk down to
jsp Of an inch in diameter. This, then, [pointing to the figure,] is
the relative size of the sun, 112 diameters of the earth being equal to
tbe diameter of the sun. The liveliest imagination, however exer-

172 LECTURES,

cised, can form no adequate idea of the size of this magnificent luminary
of the day. Its surface occupies an area greater than that of twice ten
thousand oceans, each larger than the Pacific. And this surface ig
tossed into waves of intense brilliancy, beneath which the Himalayas
would be buried and ‘‘ melt with fervent heat ;’’ and whether we
regard him as issuing from the chambers of the east, he commences
like a giant to run his course; or whether in unveiled meridian splen-
dor, he almost seems to pause a moment to gaze upon a world rejoicing
in his presence, or enwrapped in robes of surpassing magnificence he
sinks to rest at night; under any and all these points of view, he is
at once the fitting representative and chosen emblem of all that is
good and beautiful.

From the size of the sun we proceed, in the next place, to that of
the diameter of the earth’s orbit. But I would observe, in passing,
that the relative size of most of the planets is represented in this
diagram. ‘Thus, we have that of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, &c. The moon is represented by a ball, the size of a pea, at

By 52. 3) tA. 5. 6.

Upper line—1. Mercury. 2. Venus. 3. Earth. 4. Mars. 5. Moon. 6. Jupiter.
Lower line—7. Saturn and the three largest of his satellites. 8. Uranus, with the two
large satellites. 9. Neptune, with his satellites.

the place to which I now point, almost touching the sun. That rep-
resents the comparative size of the moon, The distance from the
centre to the surface of the sun is one and two-thirds the distance of
the moon from the earth, which itself is thirty diameters of the earth.

THE VISIBLE CREATION. 173

The distance of the earth from the sun is about 12,000 diameters
of the earth, or, if we proceed in the other way, multiplying the
last unit, we shall find it to be 107 diameters of the sun, vast as is
that body in extent. To travel this distance at the rate of thirty
miles an hour, going on continually, would occupy three hundred
and sixty two years and seven months; and merely to count it at
at the rate already mentioned, that of two per second for eight
hours of every day, would fully occupy four and a half years;
and yet more than three times this distance the earth travels every
year. To turn around but once in a year requires but a very slow
angular motion. Imagine the hand of a dial-plate to turn around
only once in a year, how large the dial-plate must be in order that we
might see the motion at all; yet in completing its circuit the earth
travels at the rate of nineteen miles per second; or, while I de-
liberately say to you, it moves, we are borne nineteen miles. This
result cannot be in error by more than its two hundred and thirty-
second part. When nearest to the sun, which is about the last of
December, we travel about three-tenths of a mile per second faster
than this, and about the first of July three-tenths of a mile slower.
Even this excess of velocity is fearful. Who could think of being
conveyed, mechanically, over the surface of the earth at the rate of
three-tenths of a mile per second.

Weare now compelled again to reduce our scale, and, instead of one,
one hundred thousand miles to the foot, make use of one, two hundred
millions of miles to a foot; and thus the sun, though magnificent in
comparison with the earth, shrinks down and becomes no larger
than the head of a pin. The orbit of the earth is represented by a
white curve, to which the rod now points. Here we have the dis-
turbed regions of the smaller planets, and there we have portions of
that of Uranus and the most remote of the known planets, Neptune.
This long and complete curve is the orbit of Halley’s comet. The
distance of the earth from the sun being now taken as our unit, the
distance of Neptune will be thirty times that, or thirty times ninety-
five million miles. Of course, to travel it at thirty miles per day
continuously would occupy about ten thousand eight hundred and
seventy-five years. Five distances of the earth from the sun from
the place of Neptune would carry you to the end of the orbit of Hal-
ley’s comet. The distance from this, again, to the nearest star is, we
had almost said, a void of immense extent compared, with that
which we have already had todo. It is scarcely worth while to re-
gard miles at all in speaking of the distance of a star; the number
becomes so large that we cannot grasp it. We may, however, obtain
a speaking illustration of the enormous distance of the nearest of the
fixed stars by ascertaining what must represent it in comparison with
the small globe which I hold in my hand, which has a diameter of
three inches. We must despair any more of illustrating distances so
vast by any picture, however large. We are not about to deal in mag-
nificent oriental fiction, but with ascertained facts. Let this globe rep-
resent the earth; then one hundred and seventeen thousand five hun-
dred miles will represent the distance of the nearest fixed star.

It is useless, almost, to state how long it would take to count

174 LECTURES.

this distance—one hundred and seventeen thousand years would
thus be occupied; and, if you thought of travelling it at all, you
would find that it could not be accomplished in seventy-four mil-
lions of years. Having thus ascended where the nearest of the
fixed stars are, let us, in the next place, ascertain what they are—
whether planets or suns, or what? We all know with how much
facility we see a bright light, though it may be very small. A can-
dle or taper can be seen in foggy weather long before the building
containing it; and even in the case of reflected light, the merest
spicula of glass, how brightly it shines, and how readily it can be dis-
tinguished from the dark substances surrounding it. The light of a
star must be very intense, for even when highly magnified by a
telescope, so that its light is enfeebled, it yet shines brightly, though
appearing nearly asa mere point; and if the light of it is reflected
light why do we not see the body that illuminates the star? What
is that body? It cannot be the sun, because, even at the very moderate
distance of the planets, it becomes very feeble; if, then, we could
suppose the light coming from the stars to be reflected light, we
would be ata loss to discover the luminous body that shines upon
them. But it has been ascertained, by careful experiment, that the
light of the very brightest fixed star, Sirius or the Dog star, which,
if the night were clear, my audience might see as they passed out of
the lecture room—we say it has been ascertained that the actual light
emitted by this star, (with quite a probable allowance for distance,)
is full sixty-three times that of our sun; such is not always the
case, as some stars do not give quite as much light asthe sun. But
it is true, notwithstanding, that if many of the stars are not suns they
are more. It is unnecessary to contend about the name, for you must
either call them suns or invent a name which shall mean a larger
thing. When we make the statement that all the fixed stars are suns,
are we aware of the sublimity involved in that statement? I under-
took to show my audience, as well as I could, a short time ago, what
constituted a single sun; but it is also true that the tiny ray which
gladdens our eye, as shooting from some twinkling star, it trembles in
the casement; it is true that this is a miniature sunbeam, and the
faint and feeble glow of starlight, which sometimes, like a semi-
transparent veil, covers the fair face of nature is woven of the
scattered glory of thousands of suns. In the very fact that it is thus
but faint and feeble we have the most speaking illustration of their
awful distance; when we arrive at such a distance as this, it becomes
quite evident that such a unit as the earth’s distance from the sun is
altogether too small. The distance of the earth from the sun must be
taken some 500,000 times or more, in order to make a comparison, and
we must therefore resort to something that will give us an adequate
measuring unit. This may be found in the velocity of progression of
the light which comes from the stars themselves. According to two
different and independent results this velocity is about 192,000 miles
per second ; the distance of the earth from the sun will thus be repre-
sented by 84 minutes. It takes a very trifle more than that for
light to pass from the sun to the earth. The light comes from a
Centauri, the nearest of the fixed stars, in 34 years; from 61 in the

THE VISIBLE CREATION. 175

Swan in 93 years; from Arcturus in 26 years; from the Polar star in
48 years; and from Capella in 702 years; or Capella, the beautiful star
in the Goat, is seen by the light which left it nearly three-quarters of
a century ago, and has been travelling at the rate of one hundred
and ninety-two thousand miles per second during the whole of that
interval.

- Let us next notice the combinations of the stars. It is a very
curious circumstance, to say the least, that wherever we direct the
telescope to the heavens we shall find the stars combined in pairs;
and so frequently does this combination occur that we cannot regard
it as the result of accidental position. It is true that when two stars
are almost one behind the other they might not appear to be very far
apart, though really at very different distances from us; but by careful
measurement, in some cases, it has been ascertained that they are
really, as well as apparently, near. In fact they are connected to-
gether, and revolve around each other, as is the case with the earth
and sun. We have here represented two or three such double stars.
There is one in Gemini; also one in Scorpio, one of the two stars
being blue and the other yellow. The blue star does not show well,
unless in a very good light; but the representation is therefore the
more true to nature, the sky being itself so blue that it is more diffi-
cult to see such astar. Red and yellow stars are also of frequent
occurrence; and in the case of the beautiful star in Andromeda, the
two individual stars are, the one rose color, and the other green; the
colors of the double stars are complementary, or such as, when com-
bined together, form a white light, the star appearing white and
single to the bare eye. Wecan perceive something extremely elegant
in the arrangement if planets should circulate around these red or
green suns; then a red or a green light would be seen as long as it
alone were visible ; but a white light, when both suns were above the
horizon, poetic fancy never sketched anything more sublimely elegant
than this combination of tinted suns, these parti-colored gems which
sparkle in the diadem which surrounds the dark brow of night.

We come now toa more extensive combination of stars. We cannot
look at the sky with any sort of attention even once without perceiving
an amazing collection of the stars in the direction of one single great
band or girdle. This constitutes what is called the milky way.
Throughout one half of its circuit it is divided into at least two parts.
Most of the stars in heaven are situated in one part, and in the other
portions of the sky the stars are comparatively sparse. The attempt
was made by Sir William Herschel to ascertain the relative distance
of the fixed stars before the actual distance of any of them was deter-
mined. Some idea may be formed of this by ascertaining how many
more can be seen in one direction rather than another, as we might
judge of the extent of a crowded audience in one direction rather than
in another, by ascertaining how many could be seen in the one and in
the other direction. A better method of sounding the heavens, as it was
called, consisted in using successively telescopes of greater and greater
space-penetrating power. The space-penetrating power may be ascer-
tained by comparing the brightness of the beam of light emitted by a
telescope with that seen by the bare eye. The science of optics will
readily enable us to ascertain that, Then, if we bear in mind that light

176 LECTURES.

at twice the distance is four times as feeble, &c., it will be seen that a
telescope which would increase the intensity of light to four times that of
the light seen by the bare eye might enable us to see twice as far, &c.,

By making use of a telescope of a greater and greater space-pene-
trating power Sir William Herschel, in investigating portions of the
milky way, continued to see new stars up to the twenty-eighth
order of distance. The borders of the milky way are supposed to
be at the nine hundredth order of distance. If this be so the
time of the arrival of light from the borders of the milky way must

not be measured by a single year, but by centuries; in fact, so far as —

we may rely on the conclusions of Dr. Madler, the distance of the }

centre of this our group from us, as thus estimated, is 537 years. He
concludes, moreover, that the stars in the milky way and our sun ~

with them revolve at the rate of once in about eighteen million years,

Whether we regard this as accurately ascertained or not, very certain ©

it is that the sun and ell planets are moving in the regions of space,

The researches of Herschel, Argelander, Struve, and others, have —
all contributed to point out very accurately a single spot in the heav- —

ens, towards which we are incessantly travelling by a motion very —
slow when we consider the magnitude of the orbit, the distance trav- —

}

elled being about four-fifths of the diameter of the earth’s orbit every —

year. When we scrutinize the outskirts of the milky way and at-

tempt to see beyond it, we find what seems to be an entirely detached —

combination of stars. If what we see in them be stars only about the
size of those in the milky way we might readily conclude that they
were at no greater distance ; but it may be that what are apparently
single stars are themselves combinations. These groups are called
clusters. This is the representation ofa coarse cluster. We find others
much more closely arranged, as in the figure, where they are repre-
sented by a white, powdery substance. The stars near the centre are
not to be counted by hundreds. When clusters become so remote that
you cannot make out the individual stars you may still discern cius-
ters of a granular shape and appearance in their structure ; or that
they are made up of a ‘‘star dust,’’? an expression sublime from
its very simplicity. In this quasi crystalline mass the molecules are
double stars, the ultimate particles are suns, and the atoms, if any,
are planets. If the cluster be a globular one it may also be true that
all the stars, the outer ones only excepted, are revolving around the
centre in the self-sametime. Beyond these still are the nebule, some
of which the most powerful telescopes have failed to resolve; that is,
have failed to show that they are made up of stars. In other cases
they are found to be made up of stars, and resolvable. We cannot
positively assert that there is no cloudy-looking substance existing
in the heavens which is not made up in this way; some appear-
ances, surrounding stars, cannot as yet be resolved. Other whole
nebulz cannot yet be resolved by telescopes of large space-penetrating
power. Some idea of the distance of a nebula not resolvable may be
obtained by ascertaining the space-penetrating power which will cause
that nebula to present the appearance put on by another before power
sufficient was applied to resolve it; and thus, comparing the powers
employed in the two cases, we arrive at a distance so great as that a
comparison by means of the velocity of light itself becomes almost

THE VISIBLE CREATION. 177

inadequate. Even light, (which could we thus curb its motion would
girdle the earth inatwinkling,) which rebounds to us from the moon
in a second and a quarter, and which, springing from its home in the
sun, visits the most distant of the known planets and returns in
less than a day, even this swiftly flying messenger, borne upon the
very wings of the morning, can only reach us from those remote
bounds after the lapse of centuries. Admitting all this to be true,
then, although an accurate result is here no longer possible, there is
a reasonable probability that the sublime idea presented by Huygens
is itself a fact; that some of these bodies are so remote that the light
by which we see them must have left them before the creation of man.
There is something almost awful in the thought of our having arrived
at a reasonable probability that we see these objects as they were be-
fore the race of man had being ; to behold, as it were, the record of
eternity past, unrolled to be read in time. We are compelled to view
them from such a distance looking towards them; but in imagination
we may place ourselves at the other extremity of the line thus defined,
then the light from the earth and solar system would have been as
long in reaching that position as the light from the other way has been
in reaching us; and if we had the optical power and could look down
upon the earth, then the mastodon, which is now a mere fossil in our
cabinets, would be seen as the living, moving, breathing mastodon.
The fact, in more general terms, is this: There are portions of the uni-
verse through which the visible record of very much that is great
and awful that has been transacted here is still travelling through the
regions of space, and might be discerned by a being provided with
sufficient optical power. I think it necessary to notice but one thing
more. ‘The fixed stars are not merely like the sun in the intensity of
their light, but, it would also seem, in revolving around their axes.
We ascertain that the sun revolves around its axis by noticing the
spots on its surface. When there are many spots towards us the light
of the sun must be enfeebled, sometimes even sensibly so. There are
variable stars that periodically become dim and then again resume
their former brightness. The natural solution of this fact is that these
stars are like the sun, not merely in their light, but alsoin the way in
which that light is produced. Perhaps upon their surface there are
spots which, when turned towards us, cause their light to become dim,
and when away from us there is an increase of brightness. There are
stars also which may be called temporary stars; for after appearing
in the heavens a brief period they become seemingly very small or they
disappear altogether, a fact which can hardly well be accounted for,
except by the supposition that there has been a real physical change
in the body itself. In undergoing these changes, changes in color have
also been manifest, so great that we may suppose that there has been
a combustion or partial destruction of the body in question. The star
seen by Anshelmin 1670 was of the third magnitude, passed through
great fluctuations of light for two years, and then became either ex-
cessively small or quite invisible. There are, moreover, lost stars,
whose places are now vacant, though some cf them have been recently
observed. When we look at these strange fluctuations we may sup-
pose that something like combustion has taken place, or that, for the

12 s

178 LECTURES.

time being, its power of giving light has been suspended. In reviewing
these facts it appears difficult not to conclude that here was a world
whose destiny was, for the time being, completed, and the fitful glare
of whose gorgeous funeral pile shooting across almost the vast distance
which separates us came with undiminished velocity to tell us the tale
that once it was. However this may be, we certainly know that He
who, ‘‘by His strength, setteth fast the mountains, being girded
with power,’’ hath also ‘‘ of old laid the foundation of the earth, and
the heavens are the work of his hands. They shall perish but He shall
endure; yea, all of them shall wax old, like a garment, and as a ves-
ture shall He change them, and they shall be changed; but He is the
same and his years shall have no end;’’ for ‘‘ He inhabiteth eternity
and the praises thereof.’’ 3

METEOROLOGY.

COMMUNICATION FROM A. FENDLER.

Cotonta Tovar, VENEZUELA, SoutH AMERICA,
August 5, 1856.

Dear Sir: I sailed from Philadelphia on the 5th of May, and
arrived at Laguayra three weeks after. Colonia Tovar I reached on
the 7th of June, and commenced my meteorological observations on
the 10th. The barometer and the dry and wet bulb thermometers,
which by your kindness I received from Mr. Green, I have brought
home safe and in good order.

Accompanying this I send you two registers of meteorological ob-
servations of the month of June and July, 1856; and here I have to
make the following remarks :

1, As lam very much interested in the results of the observations,
I need not say that I pay the most particular care and attention to
the condition of the instruments, as well as to the nicety in taking
observations and in noting them down.

2. The column under the head of ‘‘ Barometer height reduced to
freezing point,’ I could not fill up for want of the necessary tables.

3. By comparing my old thermometer, which is one of the more
common kinds, marked ‘‘T. Barry, London,’’ with the Smithsonian
dry bulb thermometer, I found that the former is from one and a half
to five degrees too high; so that I was obliged to use the dry bulb of
the psychrometer also as thermometer in the open air. The wet bulb
was therefore exposed to the open air also. According to the first
principles of evaporation it is, however, evident that the more rapid
the motion of air is which touches the wet bulb the more energetic
will be the evaporation of the water contained in the wet linen, and
the lower will the mercury sink. This I found to be confirmed by
every breeze, and even the lightest breath of wind that happened to
strike the wet bulb at the time I took observations. I therefore regard
all observations with the psychrometer, that are not taken in a calm
atmosphere, or in an atmosphere the velocity of which at the time of
observation is known, as of little value.

As | had no other standard thermometer besides the dry and wet
bulb, I can give the psychrometrical observations only, with the re-
mark that they are worth just as much as all other such observations
made in the open air without regard to the currents of the atmo-
sphere. In future I shall try to shelter the wet bulb against the
influence of wind at the time of observation.

4. As I have norain gage I can only put down the time of be-
ginning and ending of rain.

5. With regard to clouds I may say, that the higher clouds are
mostly hidden from view by the masses of lower clouds, so that the
course of the former can very seldom be ascertained in the rainy
season, and, wheu seen, there are several strata, one above the other.
Instead of the higher clouds, I have carefully noticed and put down

180 METEOROLOGY.

the course of the lower clouds, under the head of ‘‘ winds.’’ The
motion of these lower clouds may justly be said to indicate the real
course of the wind; for in such a mountainous country as this the
atmosphere at the bottom of the kettle-shaped valley of the colony,
is set in motion by a great number of local causes, and this motion
is changed and modified by the many ravines and watercourses, and
by every slope of the irregularly shaped mountains. The colony is
surrounded by mountain ridges, crowned by several peaks. These
barriers open only in one direction, towards the east, where they form
an outlet for the river Tuy, which has its sources in the neighboring
fields and adjacent forests. In such a region as this it is next to im-
possible to note, even in one narrow district, all the different little
breaths and jerks of wind, which frequently change every moment.

As to the motion ot the lower clouds, they frequently showed a
velocity which I estimated at about 7 miles per hour ; and as there is
no number corresponding to this velocity in the tables, I introduced
the number ‘‘ 23,’’ which means 7 miles per hour.

Fog is a considerable item in this region in the rainy season, and I
have accordingly noted it down under the head of ‘‘ kinds of clouds.”’

Thunder and lightning are very rare here, and when they occur
they make so little show that, with regard to force, they may be com-
pared to those of the United States as the zephyr to a strong gale.
In the register I have noted them down in the margin.

Tornadoes I have never seen in the colony, not even a gale of wind,
within the two and a half years that I have been living here. Hail
storms are unknown in this part of the country.

Of the 48 observations recorded in July, at 7 a. m. and 2 p. m., on
the course of the lower clouds, 10 are E., 15 E.SE., and 15 8EH., which
shows the prevailing winds to be between HE. and SH. Their mean
velocity is a fraction over four miles per hour.

Of rain, fog, mist, and clouds, we had more than a sufficiency, the
mean cloudiness being 6.4.

The weather has been so unfavorable since my return from the
States that I have not yet measured any of the neighboring heights
and passes by barometer.

The thermometer in the open air shows a mean temperature of 58.3
for the month of July, a rather low temperature for the height of
6,500 feet in latitude 10° 26’. The minimum of the month was 54°,
the maximum 69°,

I also inclose the half-hourly and hourly barometrical observations
for seven days, made in order to ascertain the hour of maximum and
minimum of the daily periodical variations. And here I found that
these variations within the tropics, at least at the colony, are not so
regular as we sometimes find stated in books. As, for instance, the
following: ‘‘Such is the regularity with which these motions are
effected within the equatorial zones that they might there serve to
give the true time of the day.’’—(Nicollet, Essay on Meteor. Observ.,
page 7.) For we find maximums at 9} a.m., 10, 11, 12 m., and
minimums at 4 p. m., 43, 5, 54, 6, 64, 7, and all this within the short
period of sevendays. This irregularity is the more remarkable, as the
colony is a place where none of the extremes of heat and cold, or of

METEOROLOGY. 181

gales, hurricanes, and thunder storms are felt, that could disturb the
equilibrium of the atmosphere.

Besides the two registers and the hourly observations, I have copied
for you and inclosed the thermometrical observations for 12 months in
1854 and 1855. These have been taken with my old thermometer,
which proves to be from 13 to 5 degrees too high, as compared with
the Smithsonian thermometer. Although this would make the mean
temperature of the year about 3 degrees too high, we are still enabled
to make some comparisons between the different months, which show
that from August the mean monthly temperature is gradually sinking
till January, which is the coldest month. After January it rises
again till May, and then sinks till July. This seems to indicate that
the rising and falling of the mean temperature keeps equal pace with
the declination of the sun. If we now compare the means of the dif-
ferent hours of the day of each month, we find that the highest tem-
perature of the day is not at 2 or 3 p. m., as in the United States, but
at 12 o’clock at noon, and that the temperature at 3p. m. is but a
fraction greater than that at 9 a.m. In five months of the year it is
nearly or quite the same with that at 9a. m., viz: from November
till March, inclusive; during the other part of the year, from May
till September, inclusive, the mean temperature is higher at 3 p. m.
than at 9 a. m., with the exception of October and April, where the
temperature at 3 is even lower than that at 9; and these are the two
months which follow immediately after the equinoxes. Another curi-
ous fact is the sudden rise of mean temperature from July to August.
In Santa Fé de Bogota, in 4° 35’ north latitude, July is said to be
even the coldest month of the year.

Some other facts could, no doubt, be drawn from this register by com-
parison, if its observations were founded upon a standard thermometer.

On the last page of this register of Colonia Tovar you will find
some observations, taken with the same thermometer, of ‘‘ Barry,”’
during my stay at Chagres, on the Isthmus of Panama.

During my absence from the colony last winter some persons here,
who can be relied upon, have seen white frost one morning. This is
of extremely rare occurrence, but anyhow very remarkable for the
latitude of 10° 26’, even at the height of 6,500 feet.

The characteristics of this region are its clouded sky, its equable tem-
perature, and its great amount of moisture. It is the “happy
region of the ferns,’’ where these interesting plants find their most
suitable climate and grow in the greatest profusion. Here it is where
the stately tree-fern sometimes is seen to reach a height of 4/ feet.

The produce most profitable to raise in the colony are potatoes, rye,
and oats. The apple tree grows side by side with the banana. The
strawberry is found in the greatest abundance, spontaneously grow-
ing about the fields. Indian corn does not come to maturity here,
while I have seen it raised and matured in Santa Fé, New Mexico,
which is at least 700 feet higher than the colony, and besides this is
near 36° north latitude. But in New Mexico they havea cloudless sky
nearly the whole year round and an extremely dry atmosphere, while
the colonists of Tovar are not much molested from the beginning of
May to the beginning of January by the rays of the sun.

182 ' METEOROLOGY.

The valley in which Colonia Tovar is situated was, so late as De-
cember, 1841, a perfect wilderness, covered with primitive forest,
Not even the existence of this valley was known fifteen years ago,
neither to the government nor to its owner. although it is only thirty-
five miles west of Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, and in a straight
line cannot be more than twelve miles from the sea. And when an
attempt was made to explore this region not even a guide could be
found for the small exploring party of fifteen men, headed by Colonel
Codazzi, a skillful officer and compiler of the new map of Venezuela.
When this party at last succeeded in crossing this region and reaching
the sca-shore, they thought they had achieved a most extraordinary
thing, (to cross a distance of twelve miles in six days;) and after they
had returned to their homes none of them had a desire to do the feat
over again. This was a party of natives. And when, at a later
period, after the establishment of the colony, another skillful engi-
neer found, with a party of colonists, his way to the opposite port of
the sea-shore, the party did not venture to go back the same route, but
rather chose the way by sea to Laguayra, from there to Caracas and
back to the colony, a very circuitous route certainly. Such is the
nature of this mountain region, with its precipices, waterfalls, deep
ravines, and its dense, almost impenetrable primeval forests.

In collecting botanical specimens, I have penetrated, without a com-
panion, the wilderness around in different directions, also that on the
other side of the principal mountain range towards the sea, and can
testify to the difficulties and hardships which are met with in. exploring
such a country. On excursions of this kind the most needful thing
besides a compass is a short sabre, called ‘‘machetta,’’ which I have
to use continually in cutting through the lianos, the erect and climbing
canes, the under shrub, which isall matted and intermingled in a
thousand different ways into a dense mass of vegetation.

In these woods, where the rays of the sun never touch the ground,
there it is where moisture and a cool temperature reign forever. The
trunk of every tree and its branches are covered with Ferns, Lyco-
podiaceze, Losses, Hepaticee, Lichens, Orchids, Bromeliads, Aracez
and besides Piperacee with many exogenous plants too numerous to
mention.

The soil in these forests is one entire mass of slender rootlets most
completely intermingled and interwoven, more than a foot in thickness,
the interstices filled with a brown but imperfectly decomposed vege-
table mould, which is kept in its place by the network of the rootlets.
This stratum is covered with mosses and remnants of leaves, so that
on the mountain ridges not only the ground, but also the trunks and
branches of the trees, act likea thick layer of sponges in retaining the
water that either pours down in form of rain or settles more slowly
in the form of mist and clouds. This water is allowed to trickle and
sink down but very gradually, and is, therefore, a never-failing source
from which are constantly fed the many little rivulets that hurry down
the steep declivities into their common receptacle, the narrow chasm
of the river Tuy, which, in one continued row of cascades, rushes
thundering down SE. and 8. until after a run of twenty miles, turn-
ing suddenly to the east, it finds a more level country.

METEOROLOGY. 183

In the depth of such a mass of vegetation, when man is by himself,
a feeling of loneliness takes the ascendency over every other emotion ;
no animal is seen, and but seldom the voice of a bird heard. While
on the sea-side of the mountains I was only made twice aware of the
vicinity of a bird in two days. In the neighborhood of farms and
habitations of men a greater variety of birds are seen and heard, and
sometimes the grunting or howling of monkeys and the deafening
cry of parrots.

The dry season commences here generally soon after New Year’s
day and lasts till the end of April. The remainder of the year is
taken up by the rainy season. This is generally so, for there are many
exceptions, and our notions about the great regularity and sharply
defined seasons of the tropics, which we have received from books, are
sometimes materially upset and corrected by experience. When I first
came to the colony, in March, 1854, we had a dry season in its usual
way. ‘The rainy season then commenced on the 23d of April, but it
did not end with the latter part of December, asis usually the case;
it lasted till the end of January, and commenced again with the first
of March, and then kept uniformly on till the end of December, 1855.
The dry season was, therefore, only of one month’s duration instead of
four. The last dry season has been, on the contrary, unusually long,
and lasted till the latter part of May.

I have often thought that the climate of North America may stand
in some kind of relation to the climate of this country. It was on
the 24th of December, 1853, whenI left New York, to sail for La-
guayra. We were hardly out of sight of land when a furious NW.
gale, a real hurricane, (which is still in fresh remembrance with some
of the captains I have lately seen,) during a period of three days threat-
ened our destruction. After my arrival in Venezuela I was told that
about Christmas, 1853, one of the most fearful gales from the north was
felt at Laguayra.* Another question is, whether the late remarkably
dry and cold winter of the United States and the unusually long dry
season of Venezuela, as also the remarkable appearance of white frost
in the colony, are not connected in some way or other.

As to the trade winds, I found on my trip from Philadelphia to
Laguayra that within the tropics we had no K.NE. wind, which is
thought to be the regular trade winds of those regions. After cross-
ing latitude 234°, in longitude 683°, we were becalmed for one day, and
soon after got a fresh breeze from the south, which we kept all the
way to longitude 63°. By tacking we got to latitude 22°, longitude
634°. From thence we had the wind all the time from 8.SE , which
we kept to latitude 114° the day before we reached Laguayra. Capt.
Wilkins, who has been in this southern trade for eighteen years,
assured me that within the last eight years he never could depend
much upon the trade winds. He finds that between latitude 23° and
18° the south wind frequently keeps on blowing very brisk for eight
days in succession.

On the way from the colony to Caracas, along the high ridge of
the principal mountain chain, which stretches E. and W., parallel

* See page 188.

184 METEOROLOGY.

with the coast, at an elevation of from 7,000 to 8,000 feet, we travel
about six miles over a region bare of forest, where we nearly at all
times find a very strong breeze from the south, rushing up the declivity
and over the ridge, hurries off to the north towards the ocean. The
ocean can be plainly seen from this elevation. That this great current
of air does not sink down along the northern slope, but, on the con-
trary, 18s somewhat projected upwards by the shape of the mountain,
can be seen by the course of the condensed vapors which, in the form
of fog and mist, are driven along. May not this current of air sink
gradually lower and lower until it reaches about latitude 18°, where
it strikes the sea? I have found this south wind at sea always much
colder than any of the other winds in these latitudes.

I wish I was in possession of some good work on the winds and the
currents of the ocean.

Vegetation at the colony is uninterrupted throughout the whole
year, except in a small class of plants which cannot thrive without a
great deal of moisture. Even in the dry season, when the lower re-
gions are parched up with heat, if there is any moisture at all in
the atmosphere capable of being condensed, the mountainous districts,
especially those covered with forests, are sure to get some of it. Trees
here are evergreens; they keep their branches and twigs clothed with
leaves until death. Day after day, and month after month, the sur-
rounding forest presents the same unchanged view in its deep green
garment. Single leaves fall here and there one by one; and new
leaves appear as slowly and gradually as the old ones die away—un-
noticed and unobserved. The pleasing and hope-inspiring spectacle
of returning spring, in the sudden appearance of the new and tender
foliage, as seen in the temperate regions, is here unknown.

Cotonra Tovar, January 8, 1857.

Dear Sir: Under date of August 5 I sent you a letter and some
registers of meteorological observations up to the 31st of July, which,
I hope, you will have received long before this.

Inclosed in a separate envelope I send you now four meteorological
registers for the months of August, September, October and Novem-
ber. I would have sent one for December also, but I have no more
blanks. |

Besides these registers, I have inclosed diagrams* on four separate
sheets, one table of half-hourly barometrical observations, and one
about the course of the clouds.

The barometrical observations in the registers have their full value
only up to October 30, at 2 p.m; for when I looked at the height
of the mercury one hour afterwards I found it more than one inch
below its usual level. ‘This was so extraordinary that I expected
something wrong with the instrument. As soon as I touched it the
whole column of mercury sank rapidly down. In unscrewing the
brass cup which contains the little leather bag I found the former
half filled with mercury. On the surface of the bag, a little below

* The diagrams and curves could not be given in this report,

METEOROLOGY. 185

where it is tied and where it was in contact with the surrounding
brass tube, I found a spot of one-eighth of an inch diameter, as if cor-
roded by some kind of acid In the centre of this spot was a hole one-
sixteenth inch diameter. The corroded rim around the hole was very
smooth and viscid, similar to partly dissolved india rubber. After
sewing up the whole and giving it a coat of glue, to prevent the mer-
cury from leaking out, I filled the glass tube again as cautiously as pos-
sible, to prevent the formation of air bubbles. In this I succeeded pretty
well, and, with the exception of one minute portion of air, which
escaped into the vacuum, the latter seemed to be complete. The
mercury then showed but a small difference (;2,; to 73, parts of an
inch lower) compared with its former state. Hoping to succeed still
better the second time, I tried my hand once more at it, but did not
succeed so well this time, as some moisture had settled in the glass
tube. The mercury is now at least one-tenth of an inch lower than it
ought to be.

The barometrical observations made with this instrument since the
Ist November, 1856, can, of course, not be considered as normal, and
can be used only with a view to institute comparisons among them-
selves.

I feel this defect the more acutely as I hoped to measure a number
of mountains and other localities, and to complete a twelve months’
register, to find out the mean height of the barometrical column for
the different months of the year. Up to the Ist November I found
the mean height greatest in July. Hitherto I have measured only
the pass over the mountains on the road from the colony to Victoria.
On this spot the barometer was 23.334 at 7h. 30m. a. m., September 9,
with the thermometer at 61°.

In the diagrams on sheet No. 1,1 have laid down, in a graphical
manner, the hourly and half-hourly rise and fall of the barometer from
6 a. m., till 9 p.m. for 12 days. We can see here, at once, the greater
amplitude of the daily periodical variations in October compared with
that of June; also that the hours of maximum of the different days
in October are not far apart from each other and near to 10$ a.m.,
and ithe hours of minimum not far from 4 p. m.; while, on the con-
trary, in June, the hours of maximum, as well as those of minimum,
are much more scattered, and therefore not so regular.

On sheet No. 2 are the half-hourly observations laid down for 24
hours, from 4 a. m., October 7, till 4 a.m. next day. Here we
observe that, in the morning, the maximum, as well as the minimum,
is somewhat higher than the maximum and the minimum in the
evening. This seems to be a general rule with all the daily periodi-
cal variations.

On sheet No. 3 the daily mean barometer heights from June 10 to
October 30 are put down and connected by straight lines to denote the
course of the barometer from day to day throughout the several
months. A kind of periodical rising and sinking is observable here,
alternately taking place in periods of 4 or 5 days, at least for June,
July, August and September.

On sheet No. 4 is to be found a comparison of the mean monthly
barometer heights of Colonia Tovar with those of St. Louis, Mo.,

186 METEOROLOGY.

made by Dr. G. Englemann in 1851, which shows the remarkably
small monthly variation in the colony against the extreme range of
atmospheric pressure at St. Louis.

In all these illustrations the barometer height has not been reduced
to the freezing point for want of the necessary tables; but, as the
difference of temperature connected with these observations does not
range much over 8 degrees F., the results may be considered not far
from their true value.

Table No. 5 shows that the most prevailing currents of air at an
elevation of about 7,000 or 8,000 feet above the level of the sea, in the
months of June, July, August, September and October, are here from
K., E.SE., SE., 8.SE.,and 8., but especially from SE.

Table No. 6 contains half-hourly barometrical observations for 17
days, taken down at three different periods of the year. From this
and from sheet No 1 we see that the amplitude of the daily periodical
variations is not a constant quantity in one and the same place, but
changes with the different periods of the year ; as also does the hour of
maximums and minimums. To find out, by continued observation,
the mean amount of amplitude and the precise time of the maximums
and minimums for each month of the year seemed to me desiderata of
much interest to meteorology.

With a view to investigate this matter I have made observations
accordingly. The first set I made from 18th to 24th June; the
second, from Ist to Tth October; the third, from 10th to 12th Novem-
ber, and the fourth, from 22d to 28th December. These observations
give the mean amplitude for the latter part of June 0.058; for the
first part of October, 0.079 ; for November, 0.060, and for the end of
December, 0.043.

By a peculiar view of the cause of periodical variations, and by the
aid of an artificial globe, I had calculated as early as last September
that the amplitude at Colonia Tovar ought to be greatest about the
16th May and 26th September, and least on the 21st January. The
above-mentioned numbers of amplitude for October, November, and
December coincide with my calculations so far, and it remains to be
seen how they will do for the remaining portion of the year.

With regard to temperature I will only say that the mean of the
three months of June, July, and August, (that is, of the meteorological
summer,) is 589; the mean of September, October, and November
(the meteorological autumn) is 58.9, or exactly the same. The mean
temperature of December is 56.6. During 204 days (from June 10
to December 31) the sky was only once free of clouds at 2 p. m., 18
times free at 7 a. m., and 41 times at 9 p. m. Of these 204 days 143
were rainy days.

On the 5th of January I made a botanical excursion to one of the
highest mountains of this region, about twelve miles to the east of
the colony. The mountain, according to my estimation, may be about
7,800 feet above the level of the sea, and is a kind of central point or
knot, from which several rivers, flowing in different directions, take
their origin. This mountain is covered by a dense forest, with the
exception of a level spot of about half a mile in length and a quarter

METEOROLOGY. 187

of a mile in width, which forms a kind of shallow basin, only spar-
ingly covered by a thin coat of short grass and other small plants.
These plants I found the next morning at six o’clock white and
stiffened with heavy hoar frost, which augmented and lasted till the
rays of the sun fell upon it. The stiffened leaves of the herbs broke
under the least pressure, like thin layers of ice. The thermometer
was 37° at 62. 30m. From all the information I could gather, hoar
frost seems to be common in this spot throughout the months of Janu-
ary and February. The wind blew during the night from northeast,
and was very piercing.

Notwithstanding this low temperature, the forests of the neighbor-
ing heights surrounding this basin are clothed in perpetual green,
and the stately wax palm, with its straight and polished trunk of
70 or 80 feet, (by actual measurement,) rears, uninjured, its slender
form and its leaf adorned head high above all other trees.

In this excursion I had also an opportunity to form some idea of the
vast extent of destruction which was carried into the mountain forest
Jast February by a lucifer match and a thoughtless boy. Over whole
tracts of this primeval forest the trees lie dead one over the other, as
if uprooted by a whirlwind, scarcely showing any marks of fire on
their trunks. J was struck more than ever with the easy manner in
which fire can destroy these dense and humid forests, which, by their
shade, preserve a cool and moist atmosphere, and thereby cause the
vapors of the adjacent strata of air to condense into clouds, that rest
upon them, with little intermission, during nine months in the year.
In these high regions the temperature is so low and equable that the
vegetable matter which is gathered on the ground between the trees
is decomposed very incompletely and very slowly. It forms a stratum
of loose half-decomposed matter, in some places two to three feet thick,
which, in the rainy season, like an immense layer of sponge filled
with water, feeds and supplies the rivulets and rivers gradually. In
the midst of the dry season this layer becomes sometimes dry enough
to burn, when kindled, with but little flame, and more like tinder,
spreading in all directions.

In this way the fire extends until met by a river or a road, or some
- other obstacle. The sub-soil which underlies the spongy stratum on
these mountains is also very shallow and resting on hard rocks. The
roots of the trees. therefore, do not go down very deep, but extend
more in a horizontal direction. When the spongy layer, with the
smaller roots, are burnt, the trees Jose their hold eatirely and fall, one
over the other, in all directions. They die less from being burnt than
from being uprooted. Many different kinds of tall reeds soon take
the place of the trees. In a few years these reeds exclude everything
else. The fertile mould that may perhaps have escaped destruction
by fire is by and by carried down the declivities by the frequent rains.
The region, no longer shaded by high trees, becomes dry. Subse-
quent conflagrations of adjacent savannahs, which are intentionally
set on fire to procure a new growth of young grass, take hold of the
reeds of the ruined forest, until, by the repeated attacks of these fires,
the roots of the reeds can stand it no longer, and the smaller grasses,
interspersed with a few other plants, take their places.

188 METEOROLOGY.

On the road from the colony to Caracas we pass through a region
in which this process is going on; the reeds giving gradually way to
the smaller grasses. Here the oreat number of half burnt yet stand-
ing trunks of the wax palm tell plainly enough that there existed not
long ago a dense and humid forest, in which they luxuriated in all
their beauty, for these palms are never found, in their natural state,
growing in any other but humid forests. Here they stand isolated
in the midst of reeds. Most of them have died already, but many
linger yet in a dying condition, until their last green leaf has turned
brown, and then they stand like tall and slender pillars, the mournful
remnants of a once stately forest.

This is the same extensive region of which I spoke in my first letter,
where a strong southern breeze, sometimes amounting to a gale,
sweeps constantly over the mountain ridge towards the sea. I have
traversed this region since at four different times, in the months of
August and September, and found every time the same southern wind
blowing there, only somewhat more violent.

Before closing this letter I wish to add to the statement made in
my first letter* about the gale of December 24, 1853, that my inform-
ant here, in saying that the gale was felt at Laguayra, forgot to men-
tion that it was felt only in the unprecedented agitation of the ocean,
but not in the atmosphere. This agitation of the sea is observed every
time a violent gale from the north has been blowing in the higher
latitudes, not the least breeze from the north being felt at the same
time at Laguayra, although it is an open roadstead, not in the least
sheltered against the north winds. This agitation of the sea, when
the air was perfectly calm, I have seen myself several times at La-
guayra; but at the time above mentioned the sea was so unusually
high that long, enormous, foam-crested waves rolled up to the very
parapet of the custom-house, a phenomenon scarccly ever seen before.

During my stay in Victoria, a town twenty miles south of the
colony, situate in a valley about 1,700 feet above the level of the sea,
I made the following observations as to the temperature of that place:

Dacabhere: sr apeedeseerske 21 | 22 | 93 | 24 | 95 | 96 | 97 | 98 | 29
SRM ee eee es 70: | 69 | BF =| eget ger Es Fie Mileage age
Dip: raise sh «feces ot ate dhoee SG!) $775 15 81i | 83 84 84 84
ESR EAP, sie 74. | 72 | 7a Nn NN HR Gl ee

The dry season has already set in, and my time is so much taken up
by botanical labors, on which my sustenance depends, that lam un-
able to give at present a more full and extended account of the climate
and other atmospherical phenomena of this region.

* See page 183.

189

METEOROLOGY.

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Date.

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

METEOROLOGY.

No. b.

211

Observations on the motion of strata of clouds of different heights at Colonia Tovar.

7a.M.

12 mM.

Direction.|

se eeer tweets

ween

sew ewneee lee

see leeee

sew eeee

eel seeeee

seer leee

Bll

wWwHone

Direction.

eearle

seen e teens

se ererlen

-..| Station ..].

es ee

we laeee

Cir. and very high clouds.
Mid. stra. 7,500—9,000 h.
Low. stra. 7,000—7,500 h,
High.

Middle.

Lower.

High.
Middle.
Lower.
High.
Middle.
Lower.
High.
Middle.
Lower.
High.
Middle.
Lower.
High.
Middle.
Lower.
High.
Middle.
Lower.
High.
Middle.
Lower.
High.
Middle:
Lower.

212 METEOROLOGY,

No. 5—Continued.

E. | E.SE.|SE.)S. SE.

eS
in
=
tA
=
=
wh
=

W. |W.NWINW |N.NW] N.|N.NE/NE ENE, L

Hich clouds ...... Ase Neaoere Eisheitifistetaetey4 Lil iaaietaeret teins Oil elO 1 AS Neietels JE epee Wc
Middle clouds..... Meal ievete: ate Didiicieielate 19 1 4 i 6 1 3 1 4 3 is
Lower clouds.....| 10 S| ail 1 | 38 2] Bj... Hel sonar Abi ister Ea) fetedaiate

ll 5 | 19 1 | 58 al 4| 13 2) 8 1} 10 3 |..=:1ecem

From this we see that during the time from April 3 to April 22—
The BE and E.SE. currents have beeu chiefly in no other but the lower strata.
The SE.,S, and SW currents have been chiefly in no other but the lower and middle strata.
The W , W SW , and N.W. currents have been chiefly in no other but the upper and middle strata,
The N. cu rent has been in all three sirata, the upper, middle, and lower strata.
Or expre-sed in another manner—
In the upper region occur chiefly W., NW , W SW., N.
In the middle region occur « hiefly 8., SE, W., SW., N., NW., N.NE.
In the lower region occur chiefly 8., SE ,E., E.Sk.

CotontA Tovar, VENEZUELA, June 11, 1857.

Dear Sir: Your kind letter of March 5, was received by me in due
time, and a little box with eight pounds of mercury, for which [
thank you very much, came te hand somewhat later, on the 3d of May.

Soon after the receipt of the mercury I went to work to fill the
barometer tube according to your directions ; but with every new trial
I found that the mercury fell more and more below its standard
height, although I was certain there could be no air above it. At
first I could assign no cause for this failure; but the fact that IL was
losing regularly at every new trial suggested to me the idea, that in
handling the mercury the latter might have taken moisture from the
atmosphere. Accordingly, I placed the barometer tube containing the
mercury and a Torricellian vacuum in a nearly horizontal position
cautiously over a brisk charcoal fire, and in this way heated the
mercury for some time, until no more bubbles were disengaged. I
was hereby especially struck with the great quantity of escaping
moisture, and never thought that mercury could have taken up so
much from the atmosphere during the short period required for filling
the tube. Can this property be due to the nitric acid, with which the
mercury may have been purified, and which is known to absorb mois-
ture from the air? Thus, by boiling, and at the same time making,
use of your directions, I succeeded perfectly well in bringing the level
of the mercury up to its standard value. In such a damp atmosphere
as this the borling of the mercury seems to be indispensable.

I have now the pleasur to say, that since the 9th of May the
barometer may be considered to be as correct and precise as when [
first received it.

In a separate envelope accompanying my present communication, |
have the pleasure of sending you besides the meteorological registers
for six mouths, a short essay on the cause of the daily periodical
variations of the barometer, and a number of tables and diagrams.

METEOROLOGY. 213

| Tables No. 2 @ and 2 6 contain half-hourly observations on the
daily periodical variation of the barometer for 31 days, made with a
view to determine the precise time of maximums and minimums and
ithe amount of daily amplitude. With regard to the latter, if we take
the mean of every six days in succession, “beginning with the 10th of
May, we get the following mean amplitudes: .060, .070, .068, .066,

064 ; showing a gradual rise aud fall in the numbers. The greatest
mean amplitude i is for the period from 16th to 21st May, so that even
these additional numbers are still in accordance with the view taken
with regaid to the amount of amplitude for the different periods of
the year, alluded to in my last letter. All the half hourly observa-
tions up to June 9, inclusive, hitherto made by me on the subject of
periodical variation, which are for 56 days, prove for the occurrence of

thea. m. maximum, the average time to be ‘at 10h. 103m. a. m., and for
the p.m. minimum “dh. 3lim. p. m., which seems ole agree pretty well
with the time of daily inaximums and minimums found in other parts
of the globe.

Table No. 3 is to exhibit the number of hours of rain during the
different times of the day for each month from July, 1856, to May,
1857, recapitulated from tables No. 6eand/. The vertical distance
of the curve a 6 ¢ from the base a d gives us the mean value of dura-
tion of rain for any given time of the day between 6 a. m. and 6 p. m.
This curve is the expression of the mean for eight months from July,
1856, to February, 1857, and is laid down according to the mean
numbers directly above it. It demonstrates very plainly that in the
morning between 6 and 7 there was no rain; but with the advance
of the day the rain augmented and reached its maximum between 2
and 3 p. m., whence it gradually abated towards evening. During
the night it very seldom rains. Mr. Boussingault’s observations,
which he made in another part of South America near Marmato, prove
that at that place more rain fell at night than during the day; and he
says, in his Rural Economy, ‘‘every one in South America allows that
it rains principally during the night.’’ Now this is in direct opposi-
tion with my observations here, and it shows, therefore, that a certain
state of the weather, especially with regard to rain, may sometimes be
limited to small districts only.

From table No. 3 we also see that the month of February, which
is commonly considered to be one of the dryest of the rear, and pro-
perly belonging to the very centre of the dry season, has been the
wettest month of the year, with the exception of May. The dryest
months were March and April.

By a glance at the tables No. 6a to 6 f, we’ may have a ready
survey over the dry and wet months of the year and the distribution
of rain in general. Here we find that the limits of the dry and the
rainy seasons are not very distinct, and from May, 1854, till the end
of 1855, a period of 20 months, we find no well defined dry season,
the month of February, 1855, being the dryest. But with New Year’s
Day, 1856, there commences a dry season which lasts for five months,
the longest and dryest the colonists ever enjoyed. And it was in this
extraordinary dry period that the loose layer of half decomposed vege-

214 METEOROLOGY.

table matter, of which I spoke in my last letter, got to be dry enough
to take fire.

The dry season of the present year we recognize only in the months
of March and April and a part of January. From inquiry, I learn
that well defined dry seasons have also been rather rare previous to
my stay in the colony.

Table No. 4 gives the course of the clouds for seven months. The
most numerous direction is as usual from south and east and the points
intermediate amounting to 293. Asa striking feature may be noticed
the increase in the number of currents from the south since January,
when there are only six, while in April we find 37 and in May 31.
This may well account for the fact, which captains of vessels trading
between the United States and the coast of Venezuela have noticed so
frequently, of meeting during the months of April and May with
steady blowing southern breezes, and which I had an opportunity to

notice myself on my last voyage to Laguayra. In some places east of —

the colony, on the back of the Cordilleras ofthe coast, I have experienced
this steady current from the south as often as I had occasion to
traverse this region on my way to Caracas, with the exception of only
once. It amounts sometimes to a strong breeze. Other colonists,

who frequent this road more than I do, have noticed this remarkable
wind nearly at all times of the year,

Several times I had a most excellent opportunity for observing and
tracing the course of this southern current to a great distance in the
direction south and north. I was then standing on the very crest of
the mountains of the coast, having a view towards the north upon the
sea, and towards the south over a part of the fertile valleys of Aragua.
Scattered masses of clouds showed plainly by their motion the direc-
tion of the current in a long line, whence it came and whither it went.
The annexed figure may serve to give a somewhat clearer idea. It is
to represent a vertical section of the territory from south to north, @
the place of observation, V the valleys between the northern and
southern ranges, ¢ c clouds moving with the eastern trade-winds
towards the west, the line b d the track of the high southern current,
which had a velocity of about twelve miles per hour, and a somewhat
sinking tendency, until it struck the northern range, where it was
forced upwards for a short distance until it reached the crest, and
then went on unobstructed on the other side of the mountains, in a
horizontal line, apparently lowering but very little, leaving hereby
the eastern trade-winds of the sea tar below and undisturbed in their
regular and steady course, which is nearly at right angles to that of

METEOROLOGY. 215

the former. The lower clouds of the valleys showed plainly a motion
from east to west, as seen against the dark background of the south-
ern mountains. The high southern current was not indicated by
clouds in those places where it was vertically over the lowest parts of
the valley; but when drawing nearer to the Cordilleras, on which I
stood, the vapors which it contained condensed rapidly, and became
visible as drifting, incoherent clouds sweeping by, and which could
still be seen on the sea-side as long as they floated over the dense
primeval forest, which extends here from the mountains’ tops to the
very margin of the sea.

Here I may also remark that the great amount of cloudiness, which
in some respects may be regarded as a disadvantage to observation,
offers, with regard to the currents of the atmosphere, great advan-
tages, the condensed vapors indicating the various motions and direc-
tions of these currents, and I have had, therefore, opportunities to
observe them in most of their various forms. Sometimes I have seen
the air ascend and descend vertically with considerable velocity, at
other times pushed up the inclined planes of mountain flanks on one
side until reaching the crest, and then gliding or flowing down on
the other side somewhat like a liquid, following in its course the most
depressed localities and ravines in all their windings. Sometimes the
eastern currents may be seen in their gradually ascending but nearly
horizontal course to meet the higher southern current at right angles,
and, without mixing, to be deflected by the latter in a horizontal semi-
circle, or downward or upward, as the case may be. I have also seen
two opposite currents meet, when each endeavored to force its antago-
nist back with alternate success and failure, until one got the better
over the other, and at last kept undisputed sway.

At certain seasons of the year we may see extensive sheets of cloudy
masses press closely over the northern or the southern range of the
colony valley, and gliding down the declivity for a short distance
become invisible and disappear in crossing the cultivated part of the
valley, but reappear again on drawing near the opposite ridge. re-
quently I have seen immense masses of clouds leaning against the
northern side of the crest of the mountains, and as if stuck to them, for
whole days, and while the base was gently sliding upwards towards
the south, the top of the cloud, which was towering above the moun-
tains, was bent back and moving slowly in an opposite direction.

When standing on some high mountain, especially early in the
morning, I have seen dazzling white coherent masses of clouds filling
up far below me whole valleys, the surface of these clouds representing
immense and level snow fields, from which, in a most lovely and
striking contrast, the green summits of the smaller mountains pro-
truded as so many islets, or higher and lesser promontories of a frozen
arm of the ocean. The delusion is sometimes most complete, and
cannot be viewed without feelings of pleasure and surprise. The ele-
vation of the upper surface of these clouds was between 5,000 and 6,000
feet above the level of the sea.

A striking feature in table No. 4 may be found in the prevalence of
northern currents from November till February, inclusive, while they
are much rarer or entirely wanting in March, April, and May.

216 METEOROLOGY.

Among the number of days free from clouds we find that at 2 p. m.
throughout all the twelve months there was only one single day where
the sky was entirely clear, but at 9 p. m. we had aclear sky on eighty-
eight days. In the month of Se ptember the sky was during all the
ninety observations made in a month more or less clouded. At2
pn. m. the sky was entirely overcast on one hundred and thirty-five
days. In May it was entirely overcast during forty-seven observations.
The number of rainy days is two hundred and thirteen.

Table No. 5 contains observations on the motion of strata of clouds
of different heights.

Observations on the motion of the highest clouds would be very
important, but in this region we are unable to make a great number
of such observations on account of the cloudy state of the sky, and we
have to make the best of the few opportunities we may uow and then
get. As April is one of the most favorable months for this purpose,
1 have chosen this time, and have taken peculiar pains in collecting
the facts contained in table No 5. The greatest difficulty hereby ex-
ists in telling exactly which of the many different thin strata of clouds
are the higher and which the lower ones. I was sometimes obliged
to watch them for ten minutes right over head; but knowing that
inaccurate observations are infinitely worse than none at all, I did not
shun any inconvenience to arrive at the true motion of the different
strata.

From this table we see that in the upper and highest regions the
following winds were observed chiefly to occur: W.NW., W.SW.,
N.; in the middle regions, say from 7,000 to 9,000 feet above the sea,
S SE., W.SW., N.NW., N.NE.; and in the lower region, say from
7,000 down to 5,000 feet and still lower, S.SE., E., E.SK.

I may here remark that, from long continued observation on the
motion of the clouds, 1am inclined to believe that all the easterly
winds of this region are gradually ascending in their course towards
the west, while the southern as well as the western currents are
gradually descending in their course.

Diagram No. 7 gives a view of the curve of mean monthly tempera-
ture for Colonia Tovar compared with the curves for New Orleans, St.
Louis, Missouri, and Boothia Felix. I have chosen these three latter
places because they are all North American, and lying nearly under
one and the same degree of longitude, but in different latitudes ;
Boothia Felix in north latitude 70.2°.

Diagram No. 8 contains all the mean daily heights of the barometer
from November 7, 1856, to April 30, 1857, and from May 9 to June 3.
A similar diagram for June to October, 1856, I have sent alrealy with
one of my former letters. At that, time I remarked that a kind of
periodical rising and falling in periods from four to five days was ob-
servable, but I did not then expect that this rule would hold out for
the remainder of the year. “ But after I had finished diagram No. 8,
merely to see what kind of curve these months would present to the
eye, | was struck with its appearance in shape, and induced to count
the days from vertex to vertex, which, commencing with November
11, gave me the following numbers: 6, 5, 2, 5, 6, 4, 4, 3, 6, 4, 6, 3

METEOROLOGY. yi lit «

5,3, 4. 5, 3, 7, 3, 5, 4, 5, 3, 6, 6, 4, 4, 2, 4, 6, 5, 5, 3, 7, 4, 6, 4 =
167, of which the mean is 4.5 days, as the mean period occurring be-
tween every two successive heights or vertices.

The same process applied to the former diagram of the months of
June to October, 1856, gives me the following numbers: 5, 4, 5, 3,
6; 3,4, 4, 4,5, 6, 5, 4, 6, 3, 4, 3, 4, 3, 6, 4, 3, 4, 6, 10, 2+ 57
5, 5, 5 = 128, of which the mean number is 4.4 days. For May,
1857, commencing with the 14th, the numbers are 3, 5, 5, 5, 3.

No matter whether the barometer had a perfect vacuum or not, the
features of this remarkable phenomenon are the same. The two series
of the above numbers, and the coincidence of their mean value, prove
beyond a doubt that they are not the result of mere accident ; but that
this periodical fluctuation in the pressure of the atmosphere is subject
to a certain law, of which I am ignorant.

Diagram No. 9 exhibits two curves of the mean temperature for
Colonia Tovar for twelve months. The upper curve is the result of
noting down the mean temperature for every ‘hird pert of the month,
and presents quite a different appearance compared with the lower
curve, in which are noted down the mean temperatures of the whole
months only. The latter part of April and the middle of September
show the highest, and the middle of January the lowest temperature.
July has usuall ly a lower temperature than the three months on either
side of it. The mean temperatures of the four meteorological seasons
present the curious fact that three of them, spring, summer, and
autumn, have exactly the same temperature, viz: 58.9, even to a
fraction. The mean temperature of the year is 58.2; difference be-
tween the coldest and warmest month, 5.3.

The temperature of the primeval forest, about two hundred yards
distant from my dwelling, was,-on the 25th of April, at 1h. 30m.
p- m., 61°, at the margin 64°, when at my house the thermometer
was 63°. Ina shady ravine I stuck the thermometer tour inches deep
into the spongy brown vegetable mould at different times of the day,
and found the temperature always 59°, pretty near the mean tem-
perature of the year. 58° or 59° may be considered to be the constant
temperature of this region about twelve inches below the surface of
the ground in shady places.

I have often observed that, whenever the sun breaks through the
clouds and has been shining for a couple of hours, the thermom-
eter fluctuates frequently very suddenly from one to four degrees,
according as it is touched by a warmer or colder current of air pro-
ceeding trom the diff-rently heated localities of the soil; but when
the sky is entirely overcast such changes never take place.

It seems somewhat remakable that, at Colonia Tovar, no heavy
thunder-storms occur. Thunder and lightning are seldom strong
enough to deserve to be mentioned. Trusting to past experience
with ‘regard to the absence of tempests, hurricanes, and whirlwinds,
I have covered the roof of my house with very thin and light shingles,
not nailed down, as is done in the States, but merely hung loosely
upon laths without any weather-boarding ‘at all. And yet, for two

218 METEOROLOGY.

years, they have remained in this position undisturbed by winds and
weather.

The stars are here seen to scintillate on every clear evening the
same as they doin higher latitudes, with the exception of a small
area in the zenith of about 45 degrees, where they have their steady
planetary light mentioned by Humboldt, and to be observed in lower
regions. The zodiacal light I have never been able to see in the
colony, although I have looked for it every clear evening.

Besides the already enumerated tables and diagrams, I have also
inclosed four sheets of copies of sculptured rocks, or, as they are called
in this country, ‘‘ piedras pintadas,’’ (painted stones.)

These rocks, which I have found in different regions, in low hot
valleys as well as on high cold mountains, seem to be the work of one
and the same race of men. The original fiz ures are on a large scale.
A tew well-preserved spots, sheltered by a layer of sandy soil against
the destructive influence of the atmosphere, show that the outlines of
these figures are grooves, engraved or chiseled very smoothly and
regularly to the depth of at ‘least an inch in the hardest rock, and
evinces a skill which would do credit to any of the civilized inhabitants
now living in this country, even when aided by tools of steel There
is no mere scratching about them; they have been sculptured. They
show clearly that they were worked to last, and to outlive full many
a change in the history of nations. The delineations are in all of
them, whether from the sultry and insalubrious coast of Puerto
Cabello, or from the cold mountain regions of the colony, of the same
kind of workmanship, consisting of grooves about an inch wide and
an inch deep.

Time has worked sadly at most of these stones, and on some of
them I found only traces of figures.

All these rocks I found by accident in my botanical rambles, in
places where I never would have ventured to penetrate, and where I
was led by necessity when strayed and trying to find my way back.

Whatever may be said of these figures, patiently worked into the
rock, they were not done without a certain design. Whether they
were intended to convey any peculiar meaning, or none at all, the
Indians have hereby bequeathed to us the means of comparing them
with similar monuments in other distant regions. So much is certain,
they were worked with the intention to remain there for a long period
of time, and to be looked at by posterity. These figures consist in
images of objects, with which their makers were surrounded and ac-
qua nted, as, for instance, alligators or large lizards, snakes, tigers,
canoes, sun, moon, human heads, &c., but show no signs of imple-
ments of civilization. Therefore ‘these figures may be supposed to
date anterior to the conquest of the country by the Spaniards. No
record of the existence of these rocks, I suppose, has hitherto ever been
made, for this region has been discovered but very lately, and none
of the natives living in the neighboring valleys have known anything
about them. In this case I may have been the first and only stranger
who ever beheld their yet lasting works, of which they took so much
pains to make a show in after years.

METEOROLOGY. 219

But how fallacious are often the most unpretending expectations of
nations as well as of individuals. These Indians, as a tribe or nation,
may have removed, or become extinct, or been driven away ; for cer-
tain it is that they are gone, and have vanished from this region.
Month after month and year after year (until amounting to centuries)
went silently on over the only yet remaining witnesses of their existence.
The luminaries of day and night had their glittering rays alternately
reflected from the inclined and even surfaces of these rocks; the rain
ran down innumerable times as from a roof and washed the figures
clean. Wind and water and oxygen and heat worked slowly but
effectually at the destruction of the figure-furrowed surface, and suc-
ceeded but too well. But no one tame to wonder at the skill and
patience of their makers. Fifty or a hundred years more would have
done their destructive work completely, and these figures would have
vanished and gone, probably without having been noticed even by a
single individual.

Occupied with such reflections as these, when seated near the sim-
ple memorials just spoken of, I feel myself richly remunerated for all
my fatigue and the trouble to snatch them from oblivion.

That these sculptured rocks were intended to be séen and noticed is
proved by the fact that they are never found in the primeval forest,
but most generally in some prominent part of a savannah, bordering
on the forest, although now overgrown with brushwood and reeds.
Some of the figures were found in a place partly overgrown with small
trees, or rather shrubs of a stunted growth, mostly of small specimens
of clusia, which fact may prove how slowly a dry savannah, even when
undisturbed by fire, is rechanged again into a forest; while it takes
but a few years to change, by the aid of fire, a forest into a savannah.

These localities show, also, clearly enough toa person acquainted
with the mode of agriculture in the mountainous districts that the
Indians have subsisted on agriculture and not on the chase, for by the
latter not even a dozen individuals could keep themselves alive for any
length of time, much less a whole tribe.

The barometer which I carried to the region of the sculptured rocks
assigns to them a height of about 5,900 feet above the ocean. When
we consider the wet, cold, disagreeable, and foggy weather which
prevails during the greater part of the year in this region, where the
creoles, in coming up from the warmer valleys, sometimes shiver with
cold, where the banana and other cultivated tropical plants seldom
bear fruit, and where Indian corn can only be raised with difficulty
or not at all, we may perhaps be inclined to think that the Indians
chose this cold region from predilection; and in this case might proba-
bly have descended from the same stock that peopled and preferred
the high regions of the Peruvian Andes. But when we afterwards
find similar rocks near the hot and sultry coast of Puerto C»bello, and
in other low valleys, the above inferences would have to undergo con-
siderable modification.

A corn or maize-grinder is in general use amongst the creoles of
Venezuela, which, considering its very rude and simple construction,

238 METEOR OLOGY.

seems not to be cf European invention. It consists merely of a flat
stone @ 14 foot long,
14 inches wide, and 3
inches thick, somewhat
convex on the lower
and concave on the
upper surface ; the con-
cavity 6 is flat, and 7
inches wide. The run-
ner 7, with which the
corn is crushed, is a
stone about 5 inches
long, 3 inches wide, and
of an oval form, so as to
fit the concavity b. The
person crushing the corn
stands near the upper
end of the stone, and
holds the runner with
both hands, and in crushing the previously soaked and somewhat
pounded corn brings to bear nearly the whole weight of the upper
part of the body upon the runner. ‘The ground pulpy mass is shoved
off at the lower end of the stone into. some vessel. If the pulp is not
fine enough it is crushed over again. This pulp, washed to remove
the skins of the corn, and then baked upon hot stoves, constitutes the
bread of all the creoles not living in town. The whole work of
pounding and crushing is performed by females, and is a most tedious
drudgery. It is really astonishing that the people here have not yet
made use of the iron corn-grinders used so universally in the back-
woods of the United States, although they can be bought at Caracas,
The above rude corn-grinder, or rather corn-crusher, is used also to
crush roasted coffee, cocoa, and salt, and has been even adopted by
some German families. I have been explicit on this subject, because
in Emory’s ‘‘ Notes of a Military Reconnaissance,’’ page 133, I find
made mention of a similar corn grinder used among the Pimos; but
whether it is of the same shape as these here I have no means to
learn.

Barometrical measurement shows that the river Tuy, seven or eight
miles to the SSE of Colonia Tovar, is only about 3,100 teet above
the level of the sea, while at Colonia Tovar it is at least 6,000 feet.
This river has therefore a descent of nearly 3,000 feet within eight
miles, or, on an average, a fall of 375 feet per mile. Such is the terri-
tory of the colony.

On the 28th of May I carried the barometer to the ‘‘ Picacho,”’ one
of the highest peaks in the neighborhood of the colony, and found
the height of the mercury at 94 a. m. 22,736, thermometer 69°, from
which I conclude that this mountain may be only 5U0 or 600 feet in-
ferior in height to the ‘‘Silla’’ of Caracas, the highest peak of the
coast range of Venezuela.

In travelling trom Victoria towards Valencia we find, about three

RG

METEOROLOGY. 29%

miles west of Tarmero, right in the middle of the road, the famous
‘* Zamang,’’ an enormous tree, so well described by Alexander V.
Humboldt. Its heal, formed by enormous horizontal branches, is the
most remarkable part of this giant of trees. A section of its head
would present a shape as shown in the marginal figure.

I measured the head in its greatest diame-
ter from ESE. to W.NW. most carvetully, es
and found it to be 206 feet 11 inches, English. Ne

Fifty-seven years ago it was found by a a
Humboldt to measure in its greatest diameter 192 feet, French mea-
sure, which would be equal to 204.48 feet, English. Hence.it follows
that this tree has within the last 57 years increased the horizontal
diameter of its head only by 2 feet 5 inches, English. The branches
are loaded with a wonderful mass of epiphytes and parasites; and it
seems surprising that branches of nearly 100 feet in length, standing
horizontally out from the trunk, can support for centuries, besides
their own astonishing weight, such an extra load of heavy plants as
Bromeliacex, Orchidee, Cactem, Loranthacez, Piperaceze, &c.

This extraordinary tree is but thinly covered with leaves; it looks
as if it lacks vigor to issue new slender branchlets, for its ultimate
branchlets are old, short, thick, and of stunted growth,

Setting out trom Petaquire, (a place nearly as high as the colony,)
on the 8th of February, in an excursion towards the sea coast, my at-
tention was directed to some cow-trees. The space over which they
were distributed was but very limited in the direction north and
south, but extended more towards east and west, and was about
3,500 feet above the sea Their external appearance, the shape of the
trunk and leaves, agreed exactly with the description givea by Alex-
ander V. Humboldt. Most of them were trees of 1 to 13 foot in
diameter, but very tall. I also found some younger ones ot 5 inches
diameter. In seven or eight of these trees of different age and di-
mensions, I made incisions, to see the milk flow. Although it was
about the same season of the year when Mr. A. V. Humboldt saw
the cow-tree between Valencia and Puerto Cabello, I never could elicit
from thein much more than 1 or 2 drops in a second of time. There
was not much difference in the flow otf milk between the larger and
the smaller trees; andif ever I was disappointed in my expectations I
certainly was on this occasion as to the quantity of milk. The milk
has an agreeable, mild, rather rich taste, and becomes somewhat sticky
between the fingers. People who live not far off, and have tried these
cow-trees in different years, do not praise much their milk-yielding
qualities. The cow-trees grow in the midst of shady, humid forests,
at an elevation of about 3,000 or 4,000 feet, along the sea-fronting
declivities of the high mountain range, stretching from east to west
along the northern coast of Venezuela. I have neither seen the fruit
nor the flowers of this tree ; but in comparing its leaves with leaves of
plants in my herbarium, I find the closest resemblance in shape,
structure and venation with some species of fig-trees. The wood is
white and of considerable hardness.

I passed the night in the midst of an immense forest, on a thin
layer of dried grass, in a small, uninhabited, open shed, (a plantain

222 METEOROLOGY,

leaf thatched roof, resting upon six isolated posts,) near to which a
tiger was said to have his range. Towards evening torrents of rain
poured down; but the night was still and undisturbed, except by the
rushing mountain-stream at some distance off, which appeared to the
watchful ear like the hollow rustling of a forest in a gale of wind.
One solitary bird near by made the spot still more melancholy by
its mournful notes, which it sent forth from time to time throughout
the night, unanswered by anything living.

These damp and shady primeval forests, especially when fronting
the sea, arg also to be noted for the great amount of ferns, with regard
to species as well as to individuals. This beautiful class of plants, of
which I have already collected 489 species within a comparatively
small part of the country, loves moisture, shade, and stagnant air, and
rarely ever succeeds in a climate or region which lacks these three
great necessary conditions. With regard to number of individuals,
the different heights show no marked effect. I found them in masses
equally dense at 1,500 and 6,500 feet elevation ; and I have descended
and ascended the flanks of the coast-chain in five different regions.

The only difference we see is the change of species in different
heights, and even here we find many species to extend over a great
area of different elevation ; but most species are rather of a local habit.

We can, therefore, from the amount of ferns which occurs in any
given place, not very well deduce the mean temperature of that place,
as is sometimes done in geology, in conjectures about the temperature
of the earth’s surface at the time of deposition of the coal fields, unless
we know what temperature belongs to the luxuriant growth of that
very species which we wish to draw conclusions from. The yearly
mean temperature of the fern region may vary from 56° to 80° Fy

Cotonta Tovar, VENEZUELA, January 10, 1858.

Dear Sir: Under date of June 11, 1857, I sent you a letter, to-
gether with some meteorological registers and a number of tables and
diagrams, which you probably will have received in due time. In-
closed I send you now—

No. 1. Registers of meteorological observations for seven months,
viz: from June to December, 1857, inclusive.

No. 2. A table showing by the length of horizontal lines at what
time of the day it rained ‘at Colonia Tovar for each day from June to
December, 1857, inclusive.

No. 3. A table containing a recapitulation of the occurrence of
rain expressed in number of hours, for all the months from July,
1856, to December, 1857, from 6a. m. to 10 p.m. This table also
shows by the length of straight lines the comparative value for
each month, as regards the number of hours of rain; and in another
diagram the mean rain value for each hour from 6 a. m. to 10 p. m.

It may not be uninteresting here to see what a symmetrical figure
the curve a b c represents ; how it rises gradually from 6 a. m. to the

METEOROLOGY. 223

hour between 2 and 3 p. m., and then sinks to 10 p. m. nearly as
gradually as it rose.

No. 4. A table giving the course of the clouds of the higher, mid-
dje, and lower strata for the months of June to December, 1857.
The motion of the clouds from the E., E.SE., SE., S.SE., and §S. is
by far the most prevailing, amounting to 415, while the motions from
all the other eleven points amount only to 133. November and De-
cember show, as usually, a preponderance over the eight preceding
months with regard to motion of the clouds from the northern re-
gions. ‘The motions from the west, with only one exception, took
place in the highest regions of the atmosphere. This puts me in
mind of the fact that, while at Santa Fé, New Mexico, the steady
course of the higher clouds from the west had frequently attracted
my attention.

No. 5 gives a view of the fluctuation of the mean daily heights of
the barometer for seven months. My remarks in a former letter about
the falling and rising of the mean daily height of the barometer,
which from one maximum to another requires, on an average, 4} days,
still hold good, as will be seen by the following series of numbers,
which are the number of days counted from one maximum height to
the next following one.

Beginuing with my earliest barometrical observations, counting
from the 14th of June, 1856, and ending with the 30th of October,
1856, the day on which the barometer got out of order, we have: 5,
4,5, 3,5, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 5, 4, 6, 3, 4,3, 4, 3,6, 4, 3, 4, 6, 10, 5,
5, 5 = 128 days, of which the mean is 4.57 days.

Beginning again, when the barometer was put into use, with the
12th of November, 1856, and ending with the 30th of April, 1857,
the day on which the barometer was taken apart to be mended, we
gets 6,5, 2, 5,6, 4, 4, 3,6, 4, 6, 3,5, 3,4,.5, 3,7, 3,5, 4,.5, 3, 6,
6, 4, 4, 2, 4, 6, 5, 5, 3, 7, 4, 6, 4, 2 = 169 days, of which the mean
is 4.45 days.

Beginning again, when the barometer was in good order, with the
13th of May, 1857, and ending with the 31st of December, 1857, we
get: 2,3, 5,5, 5, 3, 4,5, 4, 4, 3, 3, 3, 2, 4,8, 4, 4, 5, 3, 4, 7, 2, 5,
M45 596; 45°65, 2,454, 2,15, By Tat pb p44,:5,08, 4, 85210,,8,,,6,
6, 3 = 230 days, of which the mean is 4.51 days. :

The mean of all these three series is 4.51 days.

No. 6 contains the half-hourly observations on the daily periodical
variations of the barometer for 157 days, which, together with those
made from the 10th of May to the 10th of June, amount to 186 days,
including more than 2,000 half-hourly observations of the barometer.
During these seven months I was, if I may use the expression, ‘ liv-
ing under the clock ;’’ for I had to keep.a continual lookout for the
arrival of the moment when one half hour after another would be up.

How often was I interrupted in my out-door manual labors in order
to attend to these observations! And but the desire to help carry a
few useful materials towards the building ground of the great struc-
ture of meteorology, which no doubt one day will be reared in all its
perfection, could keep me at work with patience unwearied. I should
have continued these half-hourly observations still longer, but my

224 METEOROLOGY.

other engagements multiplied so much that I found it utterly impos-
sible to do so. The clock I used is a first rate time-piece, and was
compared, from time to time, with the meridian line laid down by
observation of the north star.

No. 7 contains the mean barometrical heights of all the half-hourly
observations made in 1857, recapitulated chiefly from table No 6, to
which are added the monthly means of the barometer at 7 a. m.,
2p.m.,and9 p.m. These latter means are not the means of the
whole months, but of those days only on which halfhourly observa-
tions have been made.

No. 8 exhibits the curves of mean height of the barometer in its
course from 7 a. m. to 9 p.m., laid down according to the numbers
in table No. 7. We find these curves to be much more regular, and
more gradually and smoothly rounded off in proportion to the number
of days, of which they are the mean result. So is, for instance, the
curve c, resulting from the mean of eight months, more smoothly
rounded than the curve of the month of August or that of May; and
these again more smoothly rounded than the curves resulting from
single days, which I have sent in my previous communications to you,
and which are more or less angular.

The curve cin diagram No. 8 may therefore serve to illustrate the
true and normal course of the periodical rise and fall of the barome-
ter from 7 a. m.to9 p.m. Its rise and fall from 93 to 11 a. m.,
and from 4to5 p. m.,,are very inconsiderable ; but from 1 to 24 p. m.,
and from 7 to 9 a. m., far more rapid. There exists also a ditference
in the shape of the curve of the month of August compared with that
of the month of May.

No. 9 contains the mean amplitudes of the barometer, calculated
from table No. 6, for periods from six to six successive days; also, the
mean amplitudes for periods from 12 to 12 days, and hkewise those
for the different months. All these mean amplitudes are laid down
in diagram No. 10, in their proper position, according to their numeri-
cal value. :

No. 10. The monthly means in the first curve exhibit a pretty
recularly rounded curve. The second curve, that is, the curve of the
twelve daily means, is somewhat more irregular. The third, or six
daily- curve, is still more irregular, exhibiting many projecting
corners. The fourth and lowermost, which can no longer be called
a curve, and of which, to save time, [ have given only asmall portion,
exhibits in a striking manner the great fluctuation of the daily am-
plitudes.

At first view there seems to be not the, least tendency in them to
follow a certain law with regard to their mean value. This law,
however, becomes apparent, when we look at the next curve above,
and still more so in the two uppermost curves. The third curve
shows, also, that the nature of the curve of mean amplitudes is not
the same in every year; in 1857, for instance, it is much higher from
October to December than it was in 1256. All this indicates plainly
enough that the daily amplitudes of the barometer are subject to
great disturbances by-some cause or other.

Great as the irregularities caused by such disturbances are in the

METEOROLOGY. 225

above curve, they do not invalidate the view I advanced in a former
letter about the nature of this curve, as it ought to be in its normal
value. In their main features both coincide, if we make due allow-
ance for the short period during which these observations have been
continued. The curve in diagram No. 10 having its first maximum
near the 18th of May, its minimum near the 8th of July, and its
second maximum near the 27th of October, and if we were to draw a
mean line between the heights of 1856 and 1857, the second maximum
would be near the 3d instead of the 27th of October.

No. 11. In order to compare the course of the morning temperature
of Colonia Tovar with that of some place of the southern part of the
United States, I have in diagram No. 11 laid down in dotted line the
course of the temperature at 7 a. m. for the different days of March,
1852, as observed by me at Memphis, Tennessee, with the same ther~
mometer with which J made my first observations at Colonia Tovar.
The other line is the course of temperature at 7 a. m. for the different
days of March, 1857, at Colonia Tovar.

Besides the regular observations specified above, I have made from
time to time, just as occasion offered, memoranda on many other me-
teorological subjects which came under my observation. These memo-
randa were made either at the time of observation or immediately
after. They are rather numerous, and for want of time I am unable
at present to arrange them properly, or to make a selection from
among them.

I may, however, afford so much time as to give the following:

July 27. In preparing fora journey to La Victoria, I rose early in
the morning. At 4} a. m. there was a dense fog. Intending to step
out, and opening the kitchen door which leads into the open air, I
saw the sprightly burning kitchen fire reflected from the fog as from
a white, smooth, and solid wall; and, besides this, a halo of about
twenty feet diameter, as plain and well defined as ] ever saw around
the moon. ‘This halo, with the reflected fire in its centre, appeared
to be close before me in a vertical plain, and it changed its position
whenever I changed mine, either to the right or to the left.

At a first superficial glance upon the map it may seem as if the
northern coast of Venezuela, on account of its great distance, can have
nothing to do with the climate of the United States, or that the me-
teorology of the two countries can have no feature common to both;
but observation proves it to be otherwise. And if we take a more
comprehensive view of this vast region, we see that the Mexican gulf,
together with the Caribbean sea, is nothing more than a great inland
sea basin with numerous and spacious entrances to the northeast and
east. Five States of the Union forming its northern shore; Venezuela,
New Grenada, and Central America, its opposite or southern shore.
Here I may also remark about the Venezuelan mountain range of the
coast, that its northern declivity towards the sea is generally very
steep, and in many places near its crest bearing marks of immense
masses of its body having sunk on that side far below its original

level, while on the other or southern side, no such marks are visible.

If we want to study in Venezuela the mutual influence of atmos-
pheric currents of these two opposite shores, viz: The southern coast
15s

226 METEOROLOGY.

of the United states, and the northern of Venezuela, we must not try |
to do it on that ‘low and extremely narrow strip of land, which, bor-

dering the sea, stretches along the foot of the mountain chain running |
east and west, parallel with the seashore. This low and narrow strip

of land has a climate of its own widely different from that of the Uni- -
ted States. But when we take our abode on or near the top of the »
mountain ridge where we are above the steady eastern trade winds, |
and find ourselves in quite a different set of atmospheric currents, and |
if we then pay particular attention to the more violent northerly |
winds, which now and then blow in this region, and to the great |
southerly current, which lowers gradually in its course, reaches the
surface of the sea somewhere between latitude 16° and 26° north, and
generally blows steady during a great part of the summer and fall of |
the year up the Mississippi valley, even beyond latitude 39° north ;*—
we then will recognize in the moisture-laden southeastern, as well ag_
in the dry and chilling northwestern, by their very peculiarities, their
namesakes of the United States. y

It is but five or six times a year that I am fortunate enough to get
hold of a few newspapers in these mountain solitudes, and it is seldom
that they contain anything regarding the weather of the United
States. ffowever, I have read, only a few days ago, in a New York
paper of August 22, 1857, the following:

‘©A private letter from New Orleans states that up to the 18th
instant, it had rained there every day for thirty-eight days consecu-
tively, and was still raining.”’

Now, by referring to my register of meteorology I find a singular
coincidence between the occurrence of rain at New Orleans and Colonia
Tovar. The inclosed table No. 2 exhibits this more strikingly, for
we sce here at once, that of all the seven months there is no other
equally long period that can compare with the period trom July 18,
to August 20, with regard to the number of rainy hours.

The following sentence from the Weekly Herald of September 5,)
1857 :

‘¢ Hrom New Mexico. The season has been unusually dry and cold,
and the crops look very badly. So little rain has fallen that the little
stream near Santa Fé is dried up,’’ shows that the rain-spending
southeast current of the atmosphere, which soaked in the month of
August the soils of Colonia Tovar and New Orleans, never was felt at
Santa Fé, New Mexico; and that there is a closer correspondence
between the aéreal strata of the coast of Venezuela and the lower ones”
of Louisiana, than between those of Louisiana and those of Santa Fé,
although the distance in a straight line between the two former places
is more than double the distance between New Orleans and Santa Fé,

Again, we find in the Weekly Herald of January 17, 1857:

‘‘ A terrific hurricane swept over the city and harbor of Vera Cruz_
on the 20th of December,’’ and ‘‘a heavy northerly gale had prevailed
for several days previous to the 25th of December (at Havana.’’) |

My meteorologicul register of Colonia Tovar shows, on the 17th of

* While living at St. Louis, Missouri, I had a good opportunity to notice, during several
years, in July, August, and September, a steady southerly breeze almost day after day. In
some years, however, this wind blows less regular than in other years.

METEOROLOGY. 227

December, 1856, at7 a.m., north wind, 4.; onthe 19th, at7 a. m., clouds
from the north, 4. ; on the 20th, at 7 a. m., clouds from the north, 3. ;
at 9 p. m., clouds from the north, 4. Number 4, as an indication of
force attached to the winds or the clouds is extremely rare in the
register for Colonia Tovar, and therefore denotes something extraor-
dinary. The mean barometer height was remarkably low on the 19th,
20th, and 23d of December, vid: diagram of mean barometer height
for 1856.
I could, no doubt, cite many more instances of this kind if I had
the means to know what is going on in other parts of the world.
To make observations in this country about the higher strata of the
atmosphere and their motions, no place, I should think, would be
‘more adapted than the mountains of Merida, which are said to reach
the line of perpetual snow. There we have a gigantic range of snow-
capped mountains stretching from southwest to northeast. Its base is
washed on one side by the warm waters of the gulf of Maracaybo, that
great arm of the sea, which runs far inland, and expands in a vast
basin near the mountains. On the other side lie, in near approach,
those immense, level, grassy plains, the Llanos of Venezuela, which
are but slightly elevated above the level of the sea, and entirely bare
of forest.
When in the dry season the sun, unobstructed by clouds, acts upon
the extensive sheet of the already very warm water of the gulf, with
all the power of its nearly vertical rays, the quantity of vapor carried
into the air by evaporation must be immense, while at the same time,
on the opposite side of the mountains, the rarified strata of the atmos-
phere vibrate over the dry and burning hot surface of the llanos as
over a heated furnace.
_ The phenomena which the different strata of air under such cir-
cumstances must exhibit would, I think, form a worthy and highly
interesting subject of study for the meteorologist, and tend to advance
the cause of his science. Happy he who has the means and the mind
to do so!
_ In connection with the foregoing, I will mention only one phenom-
enon, near the lake of Valencia, which may show some of the effects
of evaporation with regard to its disturbance of the atmosphere.
As often as I have visited Valencia in the dry season I have ob-
served a violent northerly wind, amounting sometimes to a very stiff
breeze, blowing there late in the afternoon till 10 or 11 o’clock at
night. I found this same wind also in other parts of the valley of
Aragua near the lake of Valencia, as, for instance, in Cagua and San
José.

By inquiry I learned that this is a regular wind, commencing and
ending with the dry season, returning every year as regularly as the
“season itself ; that it rises every afternoon, continues till late at night,
and is very annoying to the inhabitants by the dust it raises.
| By referring to Humboldt’s Travels I find the following sentence,
where he speaks about the site of the town of Valencia: “ But there
is an opening on the meridian of Nueva Valencia, which leads towards
_the coast, and by which a cooling sea breeze penetrates every evening

228 METEOROLOGY. |
|

into the valleys of Aragua. This breeze rises regularly two or three
hours after sunset.”’ |

Now, here we see that this phenomenon was as regularly exhibited |
fifty-seven years ago as it is now, and no doubt has been going on |
from time immemorial. The same causes that were then at work are )
still at work as forcibly as ever. While at Valencia the slapping of |
the doors, the columns of dust that came sweeping by, and other ©
signs of a violent rush of wind indicated to me with unfailing cer- -
tainty that it was after 3or4 p.m. Travellers and muleteers, in |
coing from Valencia to Puerto Cabello, are especially annoyed on the
first six miles of their road by the dust, so that they have to cover °
their faces or shut their eyes most of the time.

It was natural for me to reflect upon the probable cause of this phe-
nomenon, and a circumstance soon presented itself to help me towards
the solution of this problem.

For on the 11th of March the sky was densely clouded, all day, over °
Valencia, and the whole valley of Aragua, including the lake, and it.
looked as if it was going to rain. In the evening, the usual regular
wind failed to make its appearance altogether.

To account for the alternating daily land and sea breezes of the
coasts in general, there exists a well-known explanation, based upon
the rarefaction of the air by the heated surface of the land or water,
This explanation, however, will not do in the above case ; for at Va--
lencia the wind begins to blow from the seaside not in the morning, ,
when the land becomes heated, but, on the contrary, in the afternoon |
when the land begins to cool again.

When in equatorial regions the direct rays of the sun act for some)
time upon a widely spread mass of water, surrounded by land, as, for’
instance, a lake, they evaporate powerfully the water from its surface ; ;
that is, they convert a liquid into an aériform fluid. In this latter’
state the water requires several hundred times more room and exerts a}
certain pressure which added to the pressure of the atmosphere,* with
which this vapor is mixed, overpowers the surrounding dryer atmos- »
phere, and spreads or shoves the latter outward in all directions to)
make room for itself. Insuchan atmosphere, saturated with invisible:
vapor, its permanent gases are much more attenuated than when in}
a dry state; but they nevertheless exert, by the aid of the invisible:
vapor, an overwhelming outward pressure.

That amount of pressure, however, which the vapor exerts, can be:
easily annihilated by condensation, and thereby a partial vacuum be:
produced, into which the external air will strive to rush with great
force.

Now, in the surrounding bottom lands of the lake, the air loses:
towards evening, in the dry season, by radiation against an unclouded
sky, more caloric than it receives.

It therefore seems highly probable, that the gradual decrease of
temperature, by which the vapors of the air above the lake of Valencia:
lose part of their tension, is the cause of the regular breeze which:

a

—_

* According to the great fundamental principle, that in any given space, the power of ten-
sion of two or more mixed aériform bodies is equal to the sum of all those tensions which!
each of these aérial bodies would exert, if it was to occupy the whole space by itself.

METEOROLOGY. 229

blows as long as the temperature of the air falls: that is, till 10 or 11
o'clock at night. It is easy to imagine what a hurricane would blow
if the cooling and condensing of the vapors were to be very sudden.
What interesting barometrical and other observations could be made
in the neighborhood of this lake!

Very frequently at night or evening, throughout the rainy season,
we may observe, at Colonia Tovar, favored by the absence of daylight,
flashes of lightning unaccompanied by any audible noise of thunder.
This noiseless discharge of electricity shows itself also frequently in
the daytime ; but of all the many discharges of lightning during a
three and a half years’ residence I have heard only once or twice
pupae loud enough to be compared with those of the United

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METEOROLOGY.

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| METEOROLOGY. 263

| Caracas, July 16, 1858.

Under date of January 141 sent you my meteorological registers

for Colonia Tovar, for seven months ending with the last day of De-

| cember, 1857, besides-some other observations on the meteorology of
that region.

The inclosed registers, which I send you this time, extend from the
Ist of January to the 5th of June, 1858, for Colonia Tovar, and from
the 16th to the 30th of June for Caracas.
| On the 6th of June, after having sold my little property, I left
Colonia Tovar, the place where I had lived for more than four years,
‘and moved to Caracas. Iam very sorry to say that on this journey,

in endeavoring to measure some of the highest points of the difficult
and dangerous mountain road, the barometer was accidentally broken,
and hence the barometrical observations end with the 5th of June,
| In February last I attempted to make a complete set of half-hourly
barometrical observations, but after proceeding with this task for
seven days I was compelled to leave off for want of time. The pres-
bee of business at present also prevents me from sending anything
| more on meteorology this time.

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THE CLIMATE OF SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA, BY THOMAS M. LOGAN, M.D.
Latitude 38° 34'41” N. Longitude 121° 27’ 44” W.

As supplementary to the abstract of meteorological observations for
(1853, 1854, and 1855, published in the reports of the Smithsonian
‘Institution, the accompanying tables for 1856-’57, together with the
results of the aggregate five years, have been prepared.
| It may not meet the exactions of a rigid science to deduce a positive
view of the climate from a series of observations extending through
‘only five years, still an approximation may now be arrived at that
will be sufficiently near to afford a very just appreciation of some of
the climatic features of this portion of the great valley of the Sacra-
smento, due allowance being made for irregularities and disturbing
‘causes. Owing chiefly to the difficulty of procuring reliable instru-
‘ments and proper tables and instructions, the records, which were
‘made in various forms and with differing calculations, required re-
arrangement and tabulation to render them comparable with each
other. These considerations will be a sufficient apology with those
'who have much experience in arranging statistical tables for a certain
amount of inaccuracy which has crept into our former publications.
In the present instance we have used every possible precaution while
rectifying former errors,* which are herewith specified, that the advan-
jtages already received may be rendered more valuable hereafter.

|
BAROMETER.

The series of barometric observations have not been, in one respect,
continuous. Had they been conducted with one and the same instru-
ment doubtless some valuable deductions might have been gathered
from their analysis; as it is we can only note some of the most obvious
‘results. During 1853 theordinary ship barometer, (the only one to
‘be had then,) which was used, appears to have ranged entirely too
low. ‘The readings from this instrument, as well as those which were
‘registered from a common open cistern, and a siphon of Gay Lussac,

| * Errata in former publications.—The latitude and longitude of Sacramento are correctly
given above, and are erroneous in the previous reports.

1853.—Bar. Mean for January, for 29.65 read 29.75; annual mean, for 30.01 read 30.02
‘inches. Therm. Mean maximum, for 809.40 read 800.04; mean minimum, for 499.00 read
490.08; mean for October, for 789.00 read 739.00. Winds. SE., total, for 101 read 111.
| 1854.—Bar. Mean of January, for 29.11 read 30.11; minimum of May, for 29.00 read
/29.60; mean minimum, for 29.76 read 29.81; annual mean, for 29.98 read 30.07 inches.
Therm. Mean maximum, for 799.54 read 790.29; mean minimum, for 4290.72 read 42.73
| Rainy days. March, for 9 read 4. Inches of rain, for 8.25 read 3.25. Annual total of clear
_ days, for 223 read 228. Total rainy days, for 60 read 55. i
- 1855.—Bar. Maximum of July, for 29.85 read 30.15; mean maximum, for 30.09 read 30.14
‘inches. Dew point. Annual mean, for 479.52 read 469.69.

284 METEOROLOGY.

were never corrected for temperature. During 1856 and 1857 Green’s |
Smithsonian barometer was employed, and its readings reduced to 32° ©
Fahrenheit. No correction for altitude was ever made, as the cisterns
of the various instruments employed were at so small an elevation
above the level of the sea. Neither was the elastic force of vapor
applied at the time of the record. This force has been calculated only
‘during the past year, according to the rules established by Regnault
for deriving every degree of it exhibited in the atmosphere from the
readings of the wet and dry-bulb thermometers. It will be seen that /
it increases directly with the temperature, and amounted during 1857 §
to nearly half an inch during midsummer, or one sixty-seventh of the «
entire atmospheric weight. |

The absence of either abrupt or great changes gives indication of |
the tropical feature which the climate possesses. As a general rule ¢
the atmospheric pressure varies but little, and that through slow and |
long continued movements, rather than in the sudden manner charae- }
teristic of the latitude on the Atlantic coast and elsewhere. Never- +
theless, although the mercurial column rises and falls within very j
restricted limits, yet there are changes, represented it is true by mall
measurements, which occur with wonderful regularity and certainty, ,
diurnal movements at fixed hours, as well as annual ones, having }
reference to the position of the sun in the ecliptic. The former, or }
horary oscillations, as revealed on the chart of diurnal barometrical |
curves, present, in a marked degree, the two diurnal maxima and |
minima observed within the tropics; the ante-meridian maximum, ab

|
i |
t

_—

about 9 to 10 a. m., being more constant than that at the same period
post meridian. Without a single exception the pressure is always
less at 3 p. m., and this has no reference to whether the column stands
high, as in the cold, or low, as in the hot season. a

The following table, calculated from the horary observations, taken }
once a month during 1857, gives the mean successive hourly range for |
the year. The signs + and — denote the range of each hour above |

4

or below the mean of the twenty-four hours. j

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286 METEOROLOGY.

The mean successive daily range frequently, in summer, does not

amount to more than the ninety-four thousandth part of aninch. The
following calculation from the readings of the Smithsonian barometer
during the last two years substantiates,this fact.

Barometer. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.| May. | June.| July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year,
Mean, 1856..........| -130 | .114} .116 | .114} .056 | .091 | .066 | .070 | .078 | .088 | .103 | .160| .099
Mean, 1857.......00. -110 | .126 | .101 | .071 | .109 | .062 | .046 | .059 | .057 | .075 | .110 | .143| 089

a
Mean for 2 years..... .120 | .120 | .109 | .093 | .083 | .097 | .056 | .065 | .068 | .082 | .107 | .152| 094

The mean difference of the successive months above or below the
annual average of the five years, as can readily be calculated from the
data furnished, does not amount to more than one-sixteenth of an
inch. Between the highest mean mensual mean and the lowest a
fraction over one-fifth of an inch is found. The extreme ranges
observed during the month are also limited, as may be seen in the sub-
joined table for 1857, wherein is also revealed the annual tide shown
in the chart of curves; gradually descending as the sun approaches the
northern tropic, and ascending as he returns towards the southern.*

PAMUALY natcseacceteeecceecrs, CLUOO SAL Geemarc tes Se AREE DE 0.349
February ...... Be ce ee 0.713 OTIS, cache a pon sin tore aan ee 0.401
Navel. (ot Secs sacash: tecweras 0.571 WE PLCNAVET s.r .ncsccn-ednwennene 0.411
PDT 3 an Cetus acer tune ete 0.427 CO CEODOT Seat aaaaite sadist 0.526
11 | as Re teaea, | U.400 NOV OMAN CEE anciecn dase keane oa
OTM yeernewigacss eae ccceesee 0.404 DeCeniper o wacessece onstpesong UME

The extreme annual ranges are alsosmall. During 1853 the maxt
mum height of the barometer occurred in November and December,
and read 28.980, giving the difference as the extreme annual range of
1.460 inch. This, however, is the result of an extreme minimum,
never before nor since observed. A more reliable and the next lowest
minimum was 29.380 inches, observed with Gay Lussac’s siphon ba-
rometer on the morning, Ist January, 1855, before daylight, during
a strong gale from the SE. The greatest mensual range was also
observed in the same month, the maximum for the year having
reached 30.410 inches in the same month, and giving a difference of
1.030 inch for the month as well as for the year The lowest read-
ing for the same year was 29.569 inches on the 19th September. The
extreme annual range was therefore 1.050 inch. These instances of
extreme range are very rare, and must be regarded as exceptional.
The extreme range for 1854 was only 0.850, and that of 1857 but
0.783 inch. During the rainy season northerly winds always deter-
mine the greatest elevation, and southerly the greatest depression of
the mercurial column. This rule is not so constant during the dry
season.

oll

* The mean for July of the series is higher than that of June, in consequence of some
peculiar disturbing causes in June, 1853, which year should be regarded as exceptional, and
which may in part be attributable to a defective instrument.

a a) C= aa <a

i

| ’
METEOROLOGY. 287

The mean annual atmospheric pressure is put down at 30.006
nmches. This has been obtained from the mensual means derived from
she three daily readings. The diurnal mean calculated from the
iourly observations presents the following differences, which, if ap-
dlied, would give the absolute mean for each month.

BAROMETER.
Date.
Daily mean. |Hourly mean.| Difference.

1857.
dpmGany 22 52 ek tS 30. 233 +0. 004
Hebruary 23 ..-a2-.2-.--- 30. 018 —0. 042
Sve ee. 2. 30. 139 +0. 033
PUNE) = ascent eh == nso 29. 948 —0. 016
Miners be Jee ke 30. 007 +0. 024
JN 7 Eee oe 29. 889 —0. 010
Jnl? PE Se ee ae 29. 856 —0. 001
POMS Oe a wie a a 29. 905 +0. 022
Nepuemiber wots 2- 5s nas 29. 922 —0. 014
Octohertlese set see Sst 29. 986 — 0.017
November) 27! os2s0 5-6 sc0< 30. 225 —0. 022
IDEGEIMMEN Zoe - occa e ee 30. 155 —0. 035
MEBNs GieCreNnCe) «5 ae an yam coast | eee eee 0. 020

It will be observed, on referring to the diurnal as well as annual
curves, that while each curve varies there is still, due allowance being
made for disturbing causes, a very apparent similarity, the evidence
of some regular moving influence, going and coming, present at one
season, absent at another, and returning again, and so on. These
phenomena bear the closest analogy with those observed at Algiers,
Oran, and other localities on the southern shores of the Mediterranean,
as established by A. Mitchell, A. M., M. D.*

THERMOMETER,

Like the barometer the thermometer reveals also some features of a
tropical rather than the temperate climate, to which latitudinally Sac-
ramento appertains. The mean monthly and annual temperatures,
as seen in the accompanying tables, are calculated, like those of the
barometer, from the daily observations made at 7 a. m., 2 p. m., and
9 p.m. This arithmetical mean is found to differ occasionally from
that obtained from the thermometrograph during the last two years.
The minimum temperature, as seen from the curves projected in the
chart of hourly observations, occurs between 4 and 5 a. m., and the
maximum about 3 p.m. Consequently the mean deduced from the
latter is generally minus that of the former. The following table
gives the correction to be applied in order to obtain the absolute mean:

* British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, No. xxxu, 1856.

288 METEOROLOGY. |

THERMOMETER.
Date.
Daily mean,,|Hourly mean.| Difference.

1857.
DANUATY 220s eee ee 48. 00 48. 50 +0. 50
Mebruary 23 2 see 54. 00 53. 75 —0. 25
March: 235 s2es22scececeeer 52. 00 50. 38 —1. 62
April 29; 2 se sen oe 62. 66 61. 88 —0.78
May 22 Ae emee oa ncee tase cs 63. 66 62. 46 —1. 20
JUN Cg22 Rep eee secant 70. 66 69. 83 —0. 83
JUly 220s eee eee eee 77. 00 75. 23 —1.77
ATISTISt 28 eee a oe = aie ae 66. 33 65. 21 —1.12
September ’23°s_2222eess-- 64. 00 64..08 +0. 08
October2il {4252225 ees 59. 00 58. 50 —0. 50
November,2@t as theses ase 52. 66 53:58 +0. 92
December 2oiepaseeee eae == 43. 33 3. 50 +0.17
Sum Sasa ee ee eat See ee ee eee 9.74
Mean... iso 2282 Seeee ual eee. = tceeeecenes 0. 81

As this correction is deduced from the difference between the obser- »
vations of a single isolated day in each month of the year, due caution
and allowance for variation of seasons and other disturbing causes )
must be exercised. For this reason we have not applied the correction
to our tables, but purpose prosecuting the series of hourly observa- «
tions ; and with a view to uniformity hereafter will adopt the termi
days, commencing at 10 p. m.s mean time, Gottingen, on the Friday)
preceding the last Saturdays of February, May, August, and Novem-—
ber, and on the Wednesdays nearest the 21st of each of the other’
months. Another and most important object in this connexion will |
be the determination of the hours of mean temperature. As will be’
seen in the table subjoined, the measures of the critical interval are so |
from corresponding with the quantity obtained in all other localities, .
and which are generally so near as to amount almost to a constant, ,
that the two times of the day at which the mean temperature occurs é
can only be regarded as approximative. January affords a solitary /
instance of the daily mean temperature occurring after midnight,

iz: 12h. 30m. p. m.

METEOROLOGY. 289

Table of the Hours of Mean Temperature and the ‘critical interval’’
between those hours.

Lae

Date. Daily mean. | Morning hour. |Evening hour,|Critical interval.

1857 | hm h. om. he om
Sa ee 48.50 | Ds 12 30 13 00
RAEN 25 ....-. -<s00-s 53.75) | 10 45 LORS wrS: ll 30
. Sees 50. 38 8 41 9 19 | 12° 58
Maa. ----5.-s5.552 61. 88 95 53 San ll 14
RE oe 62. 46 7 30 8 16 | 12 46
ee 69. 83 7 33 8 6 12’ 33

, ieee 75. 63 8 54 8 41 | 11 47
ee 2----.---.5.~- 65. 21 36 Sib ary is) etl
September 23 ...........- 64. 03 8 42 9°.56 13: IS
. > es 58. 50 9 38 ea es 18 Ry f

| Mowember 27.........-.-- 53. 58 10 47 124 35 13 48
Eiecember 23............- 43. 50 10 45 V2.9" 30 10 45
as Be a8 ho) an ain ss Sede ae Se ee Seen eee 12 20

One of the most striking features of the climate, seen on the accom- -
panying chart of diurnal variations, is the greatest reduction of tem--
perature after the hour of maximum elevation. Howsoever high the
wave of temperature towers up under the influence of a vertical sun:
and cloudless sky, it sinks proportionately low during the night,
rendering it cool and chilly. As an instance of the reliability and
freedom from exaggeration of the curves of temperature in this respect, .
we would remark that the record of the thermometrograph for July,
1857, reveals a range of 41 degrees, and a mean daily range of 18.68.
degrees, while the chart of diurnal observations describes a curve of:
only 24 degree’. The following table exhibits the successive hourly.
ranges during one day of each month in the year.

19 s

METEOROLOGY

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METEOROLOGY. 291

The mean daily range for each month i is exhibited in the subjoined
table, which embodies the two last years’ observations with the ther-
mometrograph.

For 1856-57.

January.
| February.
| March.
April
May
June.
aa
September.
October
| November.
December.
Annual.

Mean of all highest readings by day.|51. 32/57 .38)63. 56 68.22'71,30 79,20 78.95 81, 03/78. 99 67.75|59.41|50.64/67.29

| ?
Mean of all lowest readings by night|39.81/43.72/47.91/50.01/53. 35/58. 88 58. 88 64.69|55.45 49.86/43.64/37. 80/50. 33

|

Mean daily mensual range......... 11.51/13.66|15.65/18.21/17. 9520, 32 22.07 16.34/23.54 17.89/15.77|12. 84/1696
|

Dividing the year into its meteorological seasons, the mean daily
range will be as follows:

Spring, (February, March and April)....... stats Fite od ettace 15°.84
Summer, (May, June, July, August, and September) eats d, vas? dGneG4
Autumn, (October and N ovembier)<, 2.20...000s Seer ere ee 16°.83
Winter, (December andJ anuary ).o.. 021 OS. ae 12°.18

Reverting to the table of monthly and annual means we find the
respective mean temperature of the seasons to be as follows: For the
spring months, mean 55°.31, the mean maximum being 71°.20, and the
mean minimum 42°.13; for the summer, mean 70°.19, and the mean
maxima and minima 92°.50 and 55°.11, respectively ; for the autumn,
mean 58°.47, and mean maxima and minima 78°.20 and 44.°00, re-
spectively ; in the two winter months the mean is 45°.94, the mean
maxima 0°.90, and the mean minima 29°.70.

Thus it is demonstrated that there is a mean difference between
winter and spring of 9°.35; between spring and summer of 14°.88 ;
between summer and autumn of 11°.72; and between autumn and
winter of 12°.53. The difference of the means of the hottest and
coldest months between summer and winter is also shown to be
24°,25, and the extreme variation, or the difference between the mean
maxima of the former and the mean minima of the latter, 41°.50.

It will be noticed that in our division of the seasons we have, in
accordance with the phenomena observed, defined February as the
first of the three spring months, and appropriated five months to
summer, and only two to autumn, and two to winter. Indeed, the
dormant season is of so short duration that the tropical division into
the wet and dry seasons would perhaps be more appropriate. The
whole period of sensible winter is far from being a complete season of
suspension of vegetation. During the period we have assigned to it
many forms of vegetable life are still active ; particularly the roots of
grasses and winter grains. ‘The lowest mean daily temperature
belonging to this period is seldom below 40°. Although the ther-
mometer has been known to fall as low as 33° as late as the 10th of
February, still the leafing process generally commences during the
first week of February and is completed at a temperature not much

292 METEOROLOGY.

exceeding that of the mean annual. Sometimes a greater degree of
cold is experienced in March than in February, and at other times
spring is as well advanced in March as at other seasons it is in May,
In 1855 the mean temperature of May was 3° lower than that of
April, 1857, notwithstanding, the distribution of heat for the three
months of spring is marked by no great variability in successive years,
nor great constant differences of the months. The measure of heat
increases very gradually from month to month. Indeed, the same
uniformity of temperature is found to obtain throughout all the
meteorological seasons. In summer the greatest vicissitudes of tem-
perature are found to occur, as is readily seen in the subjoined table
for 1856 and 1857. The commencement of autumn is quite similar
to the beginning of spring in its mean of daily temperature. The
earth remaining warmer than the atmosphere under the decline of
temperature, activity is partially renewed after the drought of summer
by the influence of the light early showers of October. The first frosts
occur about the middle of November, and the decline into winter is
prolonged until the latter part of December. Ice is seldom formed
before the beginning of January, and then rarely remains unthawed
for 24 consecutive hours. Asa physical constant it is a matter of
some difficulty to place within 5° of different latitudes isothermal
lines for the seasons. That of 60° for the spring, designed for the
United States Army Meteorological Register, which connectsSacramento
with Beaufort, North Carolina, on the Atlantic coast, and San Diego,
on the Pacific, curves 5° 52! latitude to the south on arriving at
the latter point. A corresponding divergence to the north occurs
during the winter. The isochimenal line of 45°, which is common to
Beaufort, North Carolina, and Sacramento, describes a northerly curve
of 8° 03! latitude before reaching the Pacific at Port Orford, Oregon,
latitude 42° 44’; the mean annual temperature of which place is only
53° 6’. The isotheral of 70°, starting from latitude 40° on the
Atlantic side, comes out on the Pacific coast on the parallel of 30°.
The great curvature to the south on the Pacific coast during spring
and summer demonstrates one of the peculiarities of the distribution
of heat in this region. For the mean of the three months of spring |
the sea temperature which predominates on the line of coast westward
of the coast range of mountains is strikingly uniform, and shows but
little, if any, advance on that of winter. Indeed, the same may be }
said of the summer months. For some hundreds of miles on the 40th —
parallel there is very little difference in the sea temperature for the »

entire year, and the cold of the Pacific in summer extends, according ;
to the Army Register, from the 50th to the 30th parallel. Thus»
while the extremes of summer heat are common to the whole valley /
of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, the mean summer temperature »
of San Francisco is only 60°, and there is only one day recorded |

among the observations of Dr. Henry Gibbons when the temperature »
rose above 79° during the summer months.

293

METEOROLOGY.

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294 METEOROLOGY.
Hygrometry, Wind, Hail, Snow, Electrical and other Phenomena.

An examination of the results of the psychrometer will reveal the
peculiar state of the atmosphere during the summer months. So great
is the apparent aridity at times that the lower erial strata are fre-
quently found to contain during the hottest part of the day not more
than 15 to 20 per centage of their capacity for moisture. As an iso-
lated and extreme case, on the 10th July, 1856, at 2 p. m., wind
N. and light, and temperature 100°, the dew-point was found at
22°. This, we believe, is the greatest dryness that has yet been ob-
served on the surface of the globe on low lands. Humboldt, in his
Cosmos, states that the greatest dryness he has observed was in the
steppe of Platowskaja, after a SW. wind had blown for a long time
from the interior of the continent. With a temperature of 74°.07 he
found the dew-point at 24°, the air containing ;4%,ths of aqueous
vapor. The principal agent in this hygrometric peculiarity of the
climate is to be found in the direct effect of northerly winds. In the
winter and spring the north winds are the coldest and serve, as the
land is then cooler than the sea, on account of the distance of the sun,
to condense the moisture wafted with the atmospherical current from
the southern hemisphere, and to precipitate it in the form of rain.
During this season the southeast trades, charged to their utmost
capacity with moisture, commence descending as their temperature
decreases, and precipitate more and more rain as they become chilled
by the north winds. During the summer, owing to the fact of these
northerly winds passing over a highly heated and arid surface, their
temperature is raised, thereby increasing their capacity for moisture,
which not being able to obtain from the surface passed over, they
appear as dry winds, reminding one of the reputed sirocco of Italy.
Nevertheless, dry as these winds apparently are, on coming in contact
with the westerly winds chilled by the oceanic polar current along the
coast, and their temperature being again reduced, the vapor they con-
tain is rapidly condensed; hence the heavy mists that are precipitated
during the afternoon at San Francisco and at the gaps along the coast.
In the valley, as a general rule, the direction of the wind is from
north by west to southeast. It seldom blows from the east or north-
east with any appreciable force. Doubtless the prevailing wind off
the coast, where no causes of local deflection exist, is west, as estab-
lished by Lieut. Maury. This wind, rushing into the heated valleys
through the gap at San Francisco and Benicia, reaches us at Sacra- —
mento and the northern part of the valley as a southwest wind, while »
at Stockton and the San Joaquin valley it is a westerly and north- -
westerly wind. To this wind, together with that descending from |
the slopes of the sierras, may be attributed our cool summer nights.

The influence of the winds on the temperature, as we have just seen |
with respect to the hygrometric condition of the air, varies according {
to the season of the year. It is during the occurrence of northerly »
winds in the summer that we experience our hottest weather, which )
seldom lasts long, however, before the temperature becomes equalized ©
by a change of wind to the southward. Upon an examination of our |
daily and hourly records we find it to be a common occurrence during +

METEOROLOGY. 255

the summer months for the wind to commence blowing from the north
at or shortly after the morning observation, and to remain in this
quarter until afternoon, when it would change round to the south,
freighted with moisture and invigorating freshness. It is the preva-
lence of these cool winds which temper our summer climate so delight-
fully, the greater or less predominance of which renders the mean
temperature plus or minus.

As regards the force of the wind, it is generally but slight. The
observations in this respect having been registered for the two last
years only itis impossible to make full deductions therefrom with
any degree of completeness. The following enumeration of the fre-
quency, course, and seasons of winds, during 1856 and 1857, stronger
than (3) a fresh breeze, will afford some idea of this feature of the
climate.

The whole number of times it blew with the force of four, (4,) or
what is estimated a strong wind, from the north, was 29, viz: Janu-
ary, three times; February, five times; March, once; April, four
times ; June, once ; September, three times; October, twice ; Novem-
ber, eight times; and December, twice Highteen times it blew from
the south with the force of four, (4,) viz: January, once; August,
twice ; September, four times ; October, three times ; November, four
times; and December, four times. It blew only eight times with the
foree of (5) a high wind, viz: three times from the north, once
in February, once in April, and once in November ; and again five
times from the south, viz: once in January, oncein October, once in
November, and twice in December. But twice does it appear in the
register to have blown a gale, (6,) and on both these occasions it was
from the southeast, in the month of November. These results, as be-
fore stated, are derived from the record of the last two years. Prior
to this no precise estimate was made of the force of the wind. The
only time it was ever observed during the whole series of five years
to blow with a force above six was on the last night of the year 1854,
or rather on the morning of the Ist of January, 1855, when a strong
gale from the southeast, attended with rain, was experienced. As a
general rule, it very rarely rains with the wind from the northern half
of the octant, which may be attributed to its coming to a warmer from
a colder region. During the last five years there have occurred only
fifteen exceptions to this rule, and the aggregate quantity that fell at
these different periods does not amount to two inches. On one occa-
sion, the 27th of December, 1855, the snow which fell at daylight,
amounting, when melted, to 0.016 inches by the rain gauge, was added
to the amount. This was the heaviest fall of snow ever experienced ;
indeed only three other instances of this phenomenon appear on our
record, and in all three the fall was very light. Hail storms are more
common. These, also, are of short duration, and are attended with
more or less disturbance of the electrical equilibrium. The breaking
up of the rainy season is the period of the most violent manifestations
of these latter phenomena. With the exception of the spring of 1857,
which was a season of drought, hail and thunder storms have invari-
ably occurred during the months of April and May, but have never
‘been very severe in this immediate locality. A hail storm which

296 METEOROLOGY.

occurred at a point within eight miles of the city, in May, 1854, is
represented to have been very violent. But we have experienced nothing
in this locality like that, proceeding from a dense nimbus, which sud-
denly arose from the southwest on the 13th of May, 1855, and, while
discharging its watery contents, rivalled, in the vivid shocks of its
well-charged battery, the thunder gusts of more tropical regions.

The aurora borealis has been observed only once—on the night of
the 16th of December, 1857; the sky being entirely clear at the time,
the wind light, from the east—the thermometer reading 44°, and the
barometer 30.321 inches, reduced for temperature. This phenomenon
first appeared in a northeast direction, in the form of a diffused light
defined by an arch below. From this arch, of about 15° radii above
the horizon, the light extended in width apparently 10° above Alioth,
in the constellation of the Great Bear, and gradually spread over the
whole northern section of the heavens, the dominant hue being deep
rose. Its aspect, however, was frequently changed by the successive
appearance and shifting of streaks or columns of white light, which
seemed to be more conspicuous at either extremity of the arch. With
the exception of a somewhat similar phenomenon seen once at Sonora,
Tuolumne county, during the winter of 1852-’53, we have heard of
no other instance of the aurora being seen in California.

Before proceeding to a consideration of the rains we would, in this
connexion, briefly refer to the transparency of the atmosphere for which
California has been noted. The relative frequency of clear and cloudy
days in summer and winter, as appears in the tables, although sub-
stantially correct, does not convey a just idea of the clearness of the
sky. The results are calculated from three daily observations; and if
it so happens that at either of these the least cloudiness is visible it
is recorded as a cloudy day, without regard to quantity. Now, one of
the peculiarities of the summer climate is, that if there be any cloud-
iness during the day, which is rarely the case, it is almost invariably
clear at night. Indeed, on this account, perhaps there is no region
better adapted to astronomical purposes ; for, as Sir David Brewster
expressed his wish, ‘‘ no clouds disturb the serenity of the firmament,
and no changes of temperature distract the emanations of the stars.’’
As to the quantity of cloudiness, this not having been estimated pre-
viously to the last two years, of course the results in this respect can-
not be regarded but as approximative to a constant, the number of
cloudy days having been in excess during 1856 and 1857.

RIVER, RAINS, ETC.

The rise and fall of the river at Sacramento is graduated by the
terms high and low-water mark, or zero. A solid column, surmounted
with a wind-vane, was set up by the city near the river bank in Sep-
tember, 1856, when the river had attained the lowest stage ever
known. The fig. 2 in the accompanying hydrographic scale agrees
with the zero in our published observations up to that date. The
mean depth of the channel of the river in this neighborhood is 16 feet
below low-water mark, and the width of the river is about 300 yards.
There is a tidal rise and fall of about one to two feet at Sacramento,

METEOROLOGY. 297

according to the course and force of the wind and the stage of the
river. if the wind blows strongly from the north this fall is still

greater, especially during spring tides. The stage of the water is
also affected by the temperature, as well as by the fall of rain. The
months of November, December, January, February, March, and
April constitute the ‘‘rainy season,’’ although more or less rain
generally falls during October and May. The first and generally the
greatest rise in the river occurs about the lst of January, after the
early rains. The warmer these rains are the less snow falls in the
mountains, and consequently the more sudden is the rise of the river.
From the middle of January to the middle of February there is gene-
rally a marked abatement, and sometimes a complete suspension of
rain, and the river declines correspondingly. From the middle of
February to the last of April the latter or warmer rains set in, and
| cause a second or spring rise, which is kept up in accordance with the
prevailing temperature. If the spring and early summer have been
cold, the spring freshet soon passes off, and the river maintains a
| high level, as it did in 1857, in consequence of the gradual melting
of the snow at its sources; and the converse obtaining if the hot
weather sets in early. Recurring to the hydrographic scale, we would
| observe that the figures to the left indicate, when applied to the river,
| the number of feet from zero or extreme low-water mark at spring
| tide to the highest point the Sacramento has yet been known to rise,
| viz: nearly 22 feet, in January, 1852. The curves for all the years
| are not complete, our notes not being full and regular. The same
| scale of feet, if read for inches, when applied to the perpendicular
| lines, will denote at a glance, and which is most important in this

connexion, the monthly quantity of rain that fell at Sacramento during
the last five years—the rain for 1853-54 being placed in the first
| column of each month, of 1855 in the second, and of 1856-57 in the
| third. The scale to the right represents inches, and is intended to
| show the comparative annual fail of rain since the year 1852. As
| will readily be seen, the rains during 1856-’57 have been so much
| below the average that they should be regarded as exceptional.
| Averaging the rains of 1852—’53-’54—’55, we find an annual fall
_ of 21,352 inches ; whereas the average of the last five years gives only
17.113 inches. In the rain chart of the Army Meteorological Regis-
ter, Sacramento is included with San Francisco in the area of 22 inches
of rain; and Dr. Gibbons puts down the mean annual rain of the
‘latter place at 21.17 inches. This corresponds with our estimate of
the amount for Sacramento, and rather strengthens the opinion just
expressed, that the years 1856-57 should be regarded as exceptional.
, Although the river is, of course, but slightly affected by the amount
_of rain that falls in this immediate vicinity, nevertheless the con-
nexion here preserved is of much interest, inasmuch as experience
shows that the amount of rain that falls at Sacramento bears a quan-
titative proportion to that which is precipitated in the higher parts of
the valley, as well asin the mcuntains. Certainly, the river never has
| attained a high stage when there has occurred a deficit of rain at
‘Sacramento. To substantiate these assertions the following facts,
|

}
f
'

condensed from our publications in the California State Medical

;

298 METEOROLOGY.

Journal, will suffice. As therein stated the winter and spring of
1849-’50 was a season of continual outpourings. The first settlers
tell us that the rain came down in torrents, and that tubs and casks
left out at night were found full and overflowing next morning. This
must, of course, be taken cum grano salis. There were no ombro-
meters in those mythical days, when the rain appears to have been as
abundant as the gold. Doubtless the rains were copious; certainly
they set in earlier than they have ever done since. ‘‘ The first rain
of 1849 took place on the 23d of September. Through the month of
October they became much more severe and cold, and, as no adequate
preparation had been made for protection against this element, the
Sgt) of the immigrants were consequently aggravated.”’ bs
‘: “Through the latter part of December and beginning
of January, 1850, the rains were so heavy that serious apprehensions
a to be entertained, for the first time, of an inundation.’ *
= ““By Christmas the water was over the lower portions
of the city ; on the 8th of January, 1850, it rose rapidly ; and on the
10th, and for several days after, there was A dry land in town , except
the knoll at the public square.’ i ‘a “In a few days
the waters subsided, the sun broke from its neta confines and shone
bright and beautiful again. This weather continued until the heavy
rains of the following March.’’ ms * ‘i ‘*On the 7th off
April the waters began again to run into the town, and on the 8th
the council voted an appropriation of money for constructing a tem-
porary levee, which was made, and the principal business portion of ©
the city saved from an overflow.’’—(History of the City.) The open-_
ing half of the winter of 1850-’51, when commence our own observa-
tions, was rainless, and consequently the river remained at low-water
mark until January, 1851, during which month about three-fourths of —
an inch of rain fell, and a corresponding rise in the river occurred.
From this period the river remained very low until April 5, when it
attained, although by no means a high level, still a greater elevation
than at any prior date of the season, and navigation continued open
to most of the upper trading points on the Sacramento, as well as to
Marysville, until the summer. The rains that fell during this inter- ©
val amounted to about 4 inches. |
The rainy season of 1851-’52 commenced early, and the river rose »
correspondingly. By the 30th December it was up to within 4 feet of |
its natural banks, in consequence of the heavy rains which fell up to )
that date, amounting in the aggregate, during September, October,
November, and December, to about 10 inches ; thus compensating, in .
a measure, for the deficit of the previous season. ‘The rain of the year *)
1852 was well distributed among all the months of the wet season, |
and amounted in the aggregate to about 27 inches. The heaviest rains |
occurred in March and December, and consequently the city was over- ~
flowed both these months, the levee not proving adequate. The first’
of these inundations occurred on the Tth March, owing to the washing |
away of the embankment at the flood-gate in the levee at Sutter lake, ,
as well as to a crevasse on the American river; and for one week’
nearly the whole city remained submerged. The rains which followed |
after the great fire of November, 1852, were the heaviest known for’

METEOROLOGY. 299

' that season of the year of which we have any positive record. About
| 12 inches fell in December. Accordingly the river rose 17 inches
| higher than in the flood of 1850. From the 25th December to the
24th January, 1853, when the waters began to retire, the city re-
mained aimost entirely submerged. During the following March the
fall of rain amounted to 7 inches, and again a corresponding rise of
the river occurred. On the 29th it rose 12 feet in twenty-four hours,
. and soon reached above the original banks; and, backing up from a
| break in the levee at Sutterville, the greater part of the city was
| again overflowed by the 2d April, and thus remained more or less
| deluged until the rains subsided towards the last of May. The
' amount of rain that fell during the latter month was nearly 14 inch,
| and the aggregate for January, February, March, April, and May,
| and which kept up the river at so high a level, was about 17 inches.

| From the period to which we have thus brought down our account
| of the freshets of the Sacramento river and the corresponding rains,
| up to the present time, (Ist January, 1858,) there has been no ex-
'
}

traordinary rise to record, as may readily be seen by a glance at the
hydrographic scale. As may also be there seen, the rains during the
| same interval have been considerably below the average.

METEOROLOGY.

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METEOROLOGY. 301

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302 METEOROLOGY.

GENERAL REMARKS.

The foregoing table for 1856 is the result of three daily observa-
tions, made at 7a.m.,2p.m., and 9 p. m., with the instruments
and instructions recommended by the Smithsonian Institution, The
readings of the barometer have been reduced to the temperature of
32° Fahrenheit, but not to sea level. The height of the lower sur-
face of the mercury is 41 feet above the mean level of the sea at San
Francisco. The rainy days are included in the cloudy and foggy
days, and are also put separately to show the number of these days
on which rain fell every month. Professor Coffin’s psychrometrical
table for determining the elastic force of aqueous vapor and the rela- .
tive humidity of the atmosphere will be used in our register hereafter,
and the dew-point column omitted. The following corrections of |
errata are to be applied to our tables for 1853-54, published in the |
Smithsonian Report for 1855: Barometer mean for September, 1853,
30.00, and mean mean 30.02 inches ; mean of barometer for January,
1854, 30.11 inches.

MONTHLY REMARKS.

January.—The means of the barometer and thermometer were above }
the average of the three preceding years, the former by 0.254 inch, ©
and the latter by 3.59 degrees. The rainy days exceeded the average }
to the number of seven. There were five days of more or less fog.
The quantity of rain was plus the average 1.460 inch. A sprinkle}
of snow, just enough to be perceptible, occurred on the 8th at 9 a. m.
On the 3d frost remained all day unthawed in the shade.

February.—There was little variation in the atmospheric pressure }
from that of previous years. The mean temperature was plus the!
average by 1.14 degree. Spring opened early. On the 7th the wil--
low (Salix) flowered. On the 13th the buttercup, and on the 16th |
the wild violet were also in blossom. The rain fell short of the»
average by 1.460 inch. '

March.—The temperature exceeded the average still more this }
month, being plus 3.12 degrees. Spring progressed rapidly. On the»
Ist the peach was in full blossom, and on the 10th was leafed out. .
Although the deficit of rain for the month amounted to 2.560 inches, ,
frequent showers, accompanied on the 29th by lightning and thunder, ,
tempered, in this locality, the effects of the drought which prevailed |
generally throughout the State. |

April.—There was very little variation in the readings of the’
barometer and thermometer from that of previous years. Seasonable ©
rains invigorated vegetation, and although nothing like the deficiency /
was made up, still the Sacramento river remained comparatively high »
for the season, in consequence of the warm rains melting the snow. |
Its temperature averaged about 54°, being four degrees lower than »
that of well water. The last frost of the season occurred on the 29th, _
The barn swallow made its first appearance on the Ist, and toward —
the latter part of the month wild geese were observed wending their /

METEOROLOGY: 303

way northwardly. At the last of the month salmon and sturgeon
began to ascend the river in considerable numbers.

May.—The average readings of the barometer and thermometer
did not vary much from those of the four preceding Mays. The pro-
longation of the wet season to the last of the month somewhat com-
pensated for the deficiency of the semestral fall of rain, which was
reduced down to 6.263 inches. On the evenings of the 6th, 8th, and
9th sheet lightning in the northern horizon revealed the time of
occurrence of terrific hail storms at various points at these respective
dates. That which occurred at Butte creek, Shasta county, was
accompanied by a gale, the belt of which was not over half a mile in
width, and the extent of ground on which the largest sized hail fell
two miles. These hailstones were about the size of carbine balls, of
a nucleus of ice surrounded by snow, apparently. On the 21st snow
fell lower down on the foot hills than at any previvus time during the
winter. The temperature of the river still remained 4 degrees lower
than that of well water, the current running at the rate of four miles
an hour.

June.—Throughout the whole month the weather was very variable.
Instead of the close, sultry atmosphere that usually obtains as the
sun enters the calm belt of Cancer, strong, chilly winds, varying from
SSW. to WNW., just at the period of the summer solstice, pre-
vailed, freighted with moisture from the ocean. As the land, how-
ever, had already attained a high degree of temperature, of course it
could not condense the vapors of water held by the air; consequently
no rain fell after the 1st, when 0.033 inch are now chronicled as the
last for this extraordinary season. The total amount, therefore, of
rain for the season of 1855—’56, at Sacramento, was minus the average
4.264 inches The river continued to fall steadily. Its temperature
on the 2lst was 4 degrees higher than that of well water 12 feet
below the surface, which fact showed that the great bulk of the
melted snow from the mountains had passed off.

July.—Notwithstanding the cloudless sky which characterized
nearly this whole month, the tempering of the atmosphere by fresh
southerly breezes was more obvious to one’s feelings than by the ther-
mometer, the mean of which was only 0.60 minus the average of the
three preceding Julys. During the few days that northwardly winds
predominated the heat became intense. An important meteorological
fact connected with this unpleasant wind is that all the moisture has
been wrung out of it that a dew-point of zero in the cold latitudes
could extract. It is, indeed, a return wind, which, after blowing over
the surface fresh from the ocean, grows colder as it goes north, where
the process of condensation commences, and when it comes back it is
as parching and obnoxious to animal and vegetable life as the simoon
of the eastern deserts. The river reached a very low stage this month,
and its temperature at 12 feet below the surface read 75°, while well
water at the same depth was 66°.

August.—This last of the summer months closed after a remark-
ably cool summer. The whole number of days of extreme heat, in which
the thermometer reached 90° and upward, amounted to only 11 for
the summer, viz: two in June, six in July, and three in August. On

304 METEOROLOGY:

the 26th the temperature of the earth at 53 feet below the surface
(the depth then obtained in an artesian well) was 60°, the thermometer,
having fallen about a degree and a half for every 10 feet from the
depth of 15 feet, at the time of reaching which latter depth it read 66°, |

September.—This month was characterized by variable weather,
The barn swallow made its last appearance on the 5th. On the 10th,)
at 54 o’clock p. m., we were suddenly visited with a high wind from

a heavy bank of clouds in the southwest horizon, which at one time.
presented indications of approaching rain, but was intercepted by thew
arid mountains and high lands of Santa Cruz, Alameda, and Sani
Francisco, where the accompanying lightning and thunder are reported
to have been extremely violent. a
For several days previous to the equinox a regular declension of)
atmospheric pressure was experienced, attended with a stagnant,}
sultry condition of the air. This was succeeded by a sprinkle of rainr
(the first of the season in this locality) at daylight on the 20th, whent
the lowest reading of the barometer, as above, was recorded. As thei
sun entered Libra, however, the weather presented one of the mo
favorable specimens of our autumnal climate, a fresh circulation of
air being kept up by southerly breezes.
The most remarkable feature of the month was the brilliant eerolites
which appeared on the evening of the 11th, at about 8 o’clock. Ass
it was seen simultaneously in an area of several hundred miles,),
bounded by Red Bluffs, Iowa Hill, Stockton, San Francisco, and]
Santa Cruz, the probabilities are that at the time of its brief appear--
ance it was in the upper regions of our atmosphere, and that, judging s
from the interval that elapsed between its explosion and the reaching:
of the report here, which resembled distant thunder, its distance then)
was between thirty and thirty-five miles. After comparing all thes
different accounts that have reached us, it would seem that its course’
was on the southern side of the zenith, from SE. to NW., and thatt
its relative position to the point of aspect here was at first about forty)
degrees above the horizon, and twenty when it vanished. When firstt
seen it appeared but little larger than Venus, but as it approached!
the earth it increased in size as suddenly as it diminished again justl
before bursting into brilliant corruscations of light that reflected alll
the prismatic colors. The moon was near the close of iis second |
quarter at the time, and the atmosphere clear and transparent. |
The Sacramento river fell to a lower point than has ever been before »
observed, which will be the zero of the scale of a new river gauge ?
about to be constructed by the city. Its present mean temperature»
twelve feet below the surface reads 70°, while that of well water at '
the same depth is 60°. The temperature in the artesian well at!
sixty-five feet below the surface is 592°. |
October.—-The mean temperature of this month was 5°.47 minus })
the average. On the Ist the flight of wild geese southwardly, which |
had been observed since the 8th September, prepared us to expect the »
rain that fell on five different days—the 7th, 15th, 17th, 19th, and |
24th ; and though not amounting to much in quantity, it was sufficient |
to indicate that the atmospherical changes which characterize the»
rainy season had set in. The first frost occurred on the 20th, and ice »

|

| METEOROLOGY. 305
iformed on the 22d, at daylight. The effect of the rains and snows
was sensibly demonstrated in the Sacramento river, both quanti-
tatively and thermometrically. On the 17th, it rose suddenly ten
inches, and fell again immediately to low water mark ; its temperature
declining 12° lower than that of the previous month. The temperature
of well water fell to 57°. On the last day of the month the leaves of
the willow began to fall.

November _— Although the readings of the barometer were not much
\below the average, more or less stormy weather prevailed over the
greater part of the State. In the south, the setting in of the rains
was attended by disasters of a somewhat novel char acter. A shower
of sand swept over a portion of Los Angeles county, completely de-
stroying the grass on the pasture lands About the same period,
severe gales prevailed at Humboldt Bay. The mornings of the 27th
and 30th were unusually cold for the season. The rains of the month
did not make much impression on the river, further than a rise of
about 9 inches ; its temperature was 46°, while that of well water was
59°. The temperature of the Artesian well, at 73 feet, where it was
discontinued, stood at 58°.50. The fall of leaf of the fig, apple, pear,
and cotton-wood tree occurred on the Ist, 5th, and 30th dates of the
month respectively.

December.—The month was rendered remarkable for the unprece-
dented persistence of continuous cold weather and the number of cloudy
days—much beyond the average of the three previous years. The
barometer maintained an unusually high range in consequence of the
prevalence of northerly winds. The readings of its extraordinary
maxima were made on the evening of the 19th and morning of the
20th, while the wind was fresh from the N.NW., and the temperature
ranged from 30° to 40°. Its diurnal mean fell only five times below
30 inches. The minimum was registered on the 29th at 9 p. m., pre-
ceding a SE. storm which was general throughout the State. On the
same day it snowed at San Francisco, and about the same period the
Coast range of mountains presented the unusual appearance of being
covered with snow. The river was not much affected by the rains of
the month ; its temperature read 41°.

20 8

306

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Abstract of Meteorological Observations—Co

a ip A apa

November.

September.) October.

July. e August.

Terr acnwn

a saoosatoe

+

2

= om nie clanies

= | antatet=
} OW arn wo

e MONNMVWOD

= Sete Ot a

a

= cjnoingia alarin nie

3 Caner HOt

o

oe ote fea
Pasnbanae

RRMA OMAND
Soconanon

m Meas aisaincie
it) row ~~

nnn

=“c7nsceorn
akdalalaieiake

MNOMDADCS
eoconme eon

dim aindinainein
aco rawoonr
=

April. May. June.

March.

MOMMHSOHMA
SSoScH-anon

oo ain Ste Cle> leo
So m~™ Ow BS

ronn-socw
RosaaaHn

Be claste erie
- >neo ie)

Pete So St Os Co i
S—SsHaaqanaa

Mina mle nines
co eMowo

|
} me oe He HOR
|

rinain-jmaie — -leeies
7T i aed ek a ~

February.

= monorn
i

= ip fo cis ale
nbonmoareaS

January,

1857.

on)

alee ales

ae
—iord os

| eoecnoscecen

reas =
Seue =
Scene =
Seas 3
= = =
pa.3 Zz
a 3
@ =« «7 .
Ge. cece ‘
Cia 5
tae Ga ie Py
Eescocoo
seUTUuucT
CMY oe 'S3 & se buon em
sire
Cah oye

es SS
Poco
s=SARA

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cml

METEOROLOGY,

307

METEOROLOGY.

308

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METEOROLOGY.

Heteorological Observations—Contivued.

309

1853-°54-55—"56-757.

MONTHLY MEANS.

5 = 3 ee :
E ® eI Bes =
5 cs = < =

lst days and 2d force of N.wind........| 5 8-45/ 1.7) 47-15[ 1.91 32-45 1.4 3715/1071 13-451 1.4
Rida... NB. wind. ......| 1 7-15] 1.3] 11-15] 0.9] 12-15] 1.0 | 815/0.9| 5-15] 0.8
eee »-E.wind......e.] 1 8-15] 1.9) 18-15] 1.3) 19-15] 0.8] 19-15] 1.9) 8-15] 0.2
RS SE. wind.......{ 7 | 1.81 6 1-15] 1.5] 5 10-15] 1.6| 4 14-15] 9.3] 6 4-15] 1.9
eee n-80...... .. S. wind.........| 2 14-15) 1.7] 9 4-15] 1.3| 3 8-15] 1.1] 4 9-15] 9.1] 7 6-15] 1.9
Do........d0........8W. wind ......| 113-16] 0.7] 26 15| 1.6] 6 6-151 1.9| 7 4-15] 1.9, 8 9-15] 1.8
Do........do........W. wind.......] 8-15] 0.7/ 10-15] 1.31 1 4-15] 0.7] 1 7-15] 1.4) 13-15] 1.6
Do. do........NW.wind...... | 10 2-15] 1/8} 9 11-15] 2.1) 8 11-15] 1.5] 6 14-15] 1.7| 5 12-15] 178

PERE ee i TS Oe ee WoL a ell lek

MONTHLY MEANS.
1853-°54~"55-"56-57. e

; 2 :
; re : ;

3 s 2 2 3

5 5 4 DR 6
c |

ist days and 2d force of N. wind........| 1 14-15 1.9) 16-15 1.2! 12-15] 1.1] 2 6-15] 1.0| 3 13-15] 1.3
ee ea NE. wind..... 5-15, 1.3) 3-15] 0.8) 7-15 1.9} 11-15] 0.7] 10-15] 0.9
“ee ae EB. wind......., 6-15, 0.7) 2-15 1.2) 5-15) 0-8) 10-15] 0.8] 10-15] 1.2
Diniz ds..:- ee SE wind.......| 5 3-15, 1.9} 92-15 2:9] 121-15] 1.6] 7 | 1.6| 5 5-15] 1.7
Bitieass. 4. Riteies ts Bwindi: cc. 8 3-15 2.2) 8 1-15 211) 7 10-15 2.1) 5 215) 2.1] 2 12-15) 2.1
DOisss....d0.......-8W. wind..... 6 6-15 2.0 6 11-15 2.2) 7 6-15] 2.1] 6 8-15] 1.6| 5 5-15) 1.7
ee * aan W. wind........| 14-15 1.5] 2 6-15) 1.3) 9-15] 1.9] 14-15 1.0| 1 | 1.3
Dovseversd0...... NW. wind..1.-] 6 $15 1.6] 2 14-19] 1-9] 1 10-19) 1.3, 5 14-19] 2.0) 11 5.18) 1.6

MONTHLY MEANS. ANNUAL MEANS.
1853-°54?-55 -°56—'57. r a
git ee >
2 2 ee ae A
© 3 a a a a
> Ps) ° o o o
oS o me > al >
a = Q co) x re)

Ist days and 2d force of N. wind.........| 5 5-15] 2.9| 48-15/1.7] 15 38 1-15
DOs.ee-s.-d0........NE. wind. -.....| 112-15] 1.5] 3 4-15] 1.6] | 1.1 12 5-15
SURasawades OU ccc cece Ei: WiNGs.ccccccs| 2 2-lo oh? 1.3 1.0 é Th 19215
Stee. coo ,......SE. wind ./.cn,.): SB Sla SPs SISA OTB Loe ed och ioe 77 3-15
thr. =4..d0.:-..-. S. wind ........ 2 (29 144 15] 19 |] 55 1345
Mites ...ddi,.,....9W. wind.....:) 8 215/l We aSspaal G07, |lislazc|cakeeas|) 68 Bas
Se doe... We wind :...-|, Ws-lol ant Woof) Oo) | 1,8" roan. pce cee 12 10-15
Do... do sic NWewind...0)) 9 715, 2.5) 113-15) 18) VB eye) 90715

ReMaRkKs.—The mean mean of the barometer for July is apparently higher than that of June, in consequence
ofsome peculiar disturbing causes in June, 1853; which month should have been regarded as exceptional.
1856 being leap-year, of course a fractional part must enter into the average of the clear and cloudy days for
February, as well as of the number of the days of the wind.

310 METEOROLOGY.

ON THE BEST HOURS OF DAILY OBSERVATION TO FIND |

THE MEAN TEMPERATURE OF THE YEAR.

BY PROF. CHESTER DEWEY.

The mean temperature of a day is to be obtained, originally, from
observations of the thermometer, taken twenty-four times daily, or
double that number. The mean of daily and hourly observations of

this kind must give a close approximation to the actual mean tem- |

perature. From a series of such hourly observations the two, or three,
or four hours may be selected, which will give nearly an ae
result.

The large Meteorological Society of Manheim, in Germany, selected .

_

the hours of 7 a. m. and 2 and 9 p- m., but I could find no reason for

this selection in any accessible work, when I began observations in

meteorology in 1815. In 1816 and 1817 I made twenty-four hourly ©
observations of five days each in the different seasons ; the first of the

kind on record, so far as I know, being made for thirty days. Th a

mean of the 24 observations is 41°.50 ; of 10a. m. and 10 p. m, 41°.455
and of 7, 2 and 9 about one degree higher. Coming so near the mean
I adopted those hours of the Manheim Society, for the ease of com-
parison with the results obtained by them.

The mean of observations at 6a. m., 2 and 10 p. m., gave a close —

approximation to the mean of 24 observations ; ; but the morning hour
would be too early for half the year in view of many observers.
The results of this series of cbserved temperature I communicated

to Secretary Calhoun, as he was about to organize the system of |

meteorological observations, so successfully made by the surgeons at
the military posts of the United States since 1819. These hours were
adopted for all the posts.

The fitness of these hours, 7 a. m., 2p. m., and 9 p. m, for obsell
vations, is sustained by the ‘following facts :

1. By the hourly observations for a year at Leith Fort, Scotlands

These give the mean of 24 daily observations, 41°.50 ; of 10 a. m. and |

10 p. m. very nearly the same; and of 7, 2 and 9 about one-fourth of —
a degree above the mean of the 24 observations.

2. By the hourly observations at Amherst College, Massachusetts, _

through 1839, under the direction of Prof. Snell. The mean of the

24 observations is 47°.23 ; of 10 a. m. and 10 p. m., is 47°.16; and of —

7, 2 and 9, is 47°.88. This last, then, is two-thirds of a degree above —

the 24 mean. Prof. Snell shows the mean at 6 a. m.; 2 and 10 p. m,
is nearly the same as the mean of the 24 observations.
3. By the ‘‘Girard Observations,’’ under the direction of Prof,
Bache, an extensive series of several years, bi-hourly and hourly. q
The mean of 7, 2 and 9 is only three-tenths of a degree above that

of 24 observations, and from this last, that of 10 and 10, differs only

one-tenth of a degree.
4, Brooklyn Heights’ Observations, hourly, for 1856, by H. Meriam,

esq. Ihave summed only the first seven days in each month. The |
mean of 24 observations is 47°.72, and of 10 and 10 is very near the |

METEOROLOGY, 311

same ; while that of 7, 2 and 9 is 48°.28, or greater than the 24 mean
by one-half a degree nearly.

5. At Sacramento, Cal., lat. 38 N. The 24 mean is 64°.41, and
the mean of 7, 2 and 9 is 64°.11.

Nots.—By the last three it is evident that the mean of 7, 2 and 9
approaches nearer to that of the 24 mean, as the places have a lower
latitude, and an examination of the 24 hours observation in the Arctic
regions show; quite a departure of the mean of 7, 2 and 9 from the
mean of 24 observations.

The 24 hourly observations give the mean of the year—

At Halle ........ Pathe. abe tedatashnas nase nate Pinas oddeke - 48°.00

re a eee Oi ee SPER A ae

me Padua............ aiebeesinete’s tio alslsd iat igs SAE ee a 56 74
On calculating the mean of 7, 2 and ¥, I find that—

REIL ECS «1 adcdesiecdass< act ean viaticé s deiae ae eee cnaeee sean aes

meet Gottingen ...........ccssecscecsensas age custo’ aoceses eae . 53 45

COS SA Sa aes MPI ie bl 1-8 PEN e A SOAS

Observations on the temperature of Salem, Massachusetts, were
made with much care by Dr. Holyoke for thirty-three years preceding
1819. The hours of observation were four, viz: 8a.m., noon, sunset,
and 10 p.m. By interpolating for sunset, in my series of 24 daily
observations, I found that the mean from these four hours is only a
little greater than that of the three hours, 7 a. m., 2 and 9p. m.
Dr. Holyoke’s mean temperature of Salem is 48.68 degrees. The
mean heat at Leith, by the 24 daily observations, is 48.24, and by the
hours, 7, 2 and 9, is 48.50.

This approximation from these four hours, and one of them variable,
is another unexpected result.

Between 1842 and 1855 the observations at the military posts were
directed to be made at four periods of the day, viz: a little before sun-
rise as the coldest generally; at 3 p. m. as the hottest, and at 9 a. m.
and 9 p. m. as approximating the mean temperature of the day, but
half the sum of the observations at sunrise, S. R., and 3 p. m. was
to be taken as the mean heat of the day. In the preparation of the
“* Army Meteorological Register,’’ published in 1856, the fourth part
of the sum of those four observations was taken as the mean of the
day, because Dr. Coolidge and his associate became satisfied from
extensive comparison of the twenty-four daily observations, that the
mean of the four observations was nearer the twenty-four mean, than
those at sunrise and 3 p. m. would give. Dr. Coolidge states also,
that the evidence was clear from the comparison of numerous twenty-
four hourly observations at the posts that the mean of 7, 2, and 9,
was for all the posts, the nearest approximation of any hours selected
to the mean of the twenty-four daily observations. In 1855, there-
fore, the Surgeon General, Dr. Lawson, issued his circular requiring
a return to the original hours of observation, viz: 7 a. m., 2 p.m.,
and 9 p. m.

In ascertaining the relative correctness of the results in the ‘‘ Con-
solidated Tables’’ of the Army Meteorological Register, taken for

a2 METEOROLOGY.

twenty-three years from the three daily observations, and for twely
years from the four hours’ record, it was important to make some teat,
These are as follows: i
1. Prof. Snell performed the labor of interpolating for sunrise in.
his hourly observations for the year 1839, and sent to me the following i
result: While the mean of the twenty- -four hourly observations ig
47°.23, the mean of the four hours, 8. R., 9a. m., 3 and 9 p. m., fb
AT°. ie making a difference of only one-tenth of a degree.
This was an “unexpected result, but of high inter est. My own oe -
servations interpolated in the same way gave only a little ereaug f
difference.
2. The Consolidated Tables in the Army Meteorological Register r
yield the following proofs:
a.—For Fort Columbus, N. Y., p. 600, latitude 40°.42,
TetimGnm OF ta (VEATOTASe: PLCet UN ec sss. cas cecsbewec st snovaancnstneahe 51°.69 }
The mean ot Ps 2hand Oy Zlsy ears, -18...c.seerves vests cheecceatsess 51°.42-
The mean of the four hours, 12 Years, 18....seeeeeeeeeeeeeceee teens 51°.83 }
Hither hours give a close approximation. |
b.—For Alleghany Arsenal, Penn., p. 605, latitude 40°.32,
The mean for 21 Vea Hier events svcnipesuscvaliaspsicasshae sn bumee ss 50°.86
Wieanewnon 7, 2. and 9) fOr, VEaTS 18.0020. 60.. cc ewecnenseereseoess 50°.43°
The mean of four hours, 12 years 18...........:sseeeseeeseeeeeeeeees 50°
This is another close approximation.
e.—For Fort McHenry, Md., p. 607, latitude 39°.17, :
Meme H NUOMMEN. VATS AS ee cieeo ar ca .cqsengee cs cengsananasanneunsen 54°.86 }

Wipementinoe (co. Aud, | Ole AWeAUS 18. 20.005 apacecnenwnavaraaemen 53°. 9a
Mipaticatncol TOU MOUNTS, 0 VCAUS IB... c. ..teeceps scenes anne orpagennaae 54°.86 }
d.—For Fort Monroe, Va., p. 608, latitude 37°.00, .
Cesare oy VRE IS eSBs hee cr niebios a cwiews ans salads dQncicm ou eeits 59°. 2am
PROM ate MOWES, LO IW CRES MS ss cnet ws ssere crs sneeaswevine nen nat cag 59°. 2am

The mean of 4 hours, ATW CAITR UIS core seasslsgne nes tos syer secre remnants 597 Iu
e.—For Fort Gibson, Indian Territory, p. 624, latitude 34°.47,
ive amc aan One RV CATN 18 ten agiane se Spans eee ver vce ssene nnenninse une 60°.81 |
MB IMEALO! oS MOUTH, LO VALS IS ss dcots. acebescee a nniens rok seenmeaasais 61°.53
Tie Gea Ol GUTS, Wor VCAES Tells oe ctpe sec nsen</emasepeta nen nems anes 60°.19 }
f.—For Fort Gratiot, Mich., p. 627, latitude 43°, if
ie macnningt ee Pears IB sai Uke t ceca aad tas sain Tecan s dope on om cnaae 46°,29 )
Mie Wea Of es OUTS, OVERS TSy vp tones uke cusos pis tans cesae saan 46°.627
The mean of 4 hours, EATS CIS. pap ee tiles Seeiak apinte oc toh wa haalnis 45° 3a )
g.—For Fort Brady, Mich., p. 629, latitude 463°
Phe team Of ZO Veats. Ucn. ia. sie eae ache necha se eticaceh nnasas eansussiast 40°.31)
he MEAN Ol o MOUTH ALS, VERT Snes wort sane cst tae ectiaisa4 cascne acd 40°56)
Whe mean of 4 NOuUrs, —— Yeats G6. cearcate a dewt ce <icensenscacsesnse 39°.53 J
h.—For Fort Snelling, Minn. Ter., p. 632, latitude 45°, |
The tirean for 34 ‘Vearuis...2- >. -- Sap eMeeRMee hn 3k ac tins nina sis amrcinacs 44° 54 |
The mean for 3 hoursye2 Years ISigeepewe wakes res sn -<cncsievesen ees 459.17 |
The mean for 4 hours, 12 years 18 vee tesmiceteee Ge tye sore men cas. 44°.06 )
i.—For Fort Leavenworth, Kan. Ter., p. 633, latitude 394°, |
The mean Of ZOtyEaTs 18.....0./:..ccaes ep aeipep mie oemuRen pe tse Hin one «as 52°, 78)
The mean of o.hours, 12. -years i8,.......-.cewemmee sen teen ianoune 52°. 3am }
The mean of 4 hours, Tl years 18... ....0-:qessmeegeyiie:toekatana apex 52°. 659)
|

METEOROLOGY. 313

k.—For Jefferson Barracks, Mo., p. 625, latitude 383°,

RGD) Olt) 22" VCH Gs TEE Sigs coy ss= os. 5S Sou ReROM ae Hide CO vauleleaga 55°. 46
meemnean of 3 hours, [1] years 15.........00cseocneesvisse dena sitdtioee 56°.42

bea mean of 4 hours, 1 FOALS 1S ss oca's) ssine de meanest ee so th Seb wees 65 or

In all these only whole years are introduced, while in the annual
means of the Consolidated Tables, parts of years are sometimes intro-
duced, which will account for a slight discrepancy to be noticed in
some of the results.

The conclusion from the above results is that the observations at the
three hours, and at the four, give close approximations.

To all this add the assertion of Dr. Coolidge, previously mentioned,
which led to a return to the hours of 7a. m., 2 and 9 p. m., at the
‘Military Posts. At these three hours also, the observations under
the direction of the Smithsonian Institution are made over the country.

These are convenient hours for recording observations over our ex-
tensive country, and the results need only slight correction, according
to the publications in the Toronto Observations, and still less accord-
‘Ing to the data already detailed.

From the observations of 1839 at Amherst College, and the results
communicated by Prof. Snell, I have deduced the. following table of
corrections. Their object is to give the monthly mean, and hence
the annual mean of twenty-four daily observations, by applying the
numbers in the table, to the monthly mean at any hour, according to
their signs:

METEOROLOGY.

314

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“NayUasy ny “dajunusay J “sdnoy tnof-hjuanp ayp fo sunaue ayy
wmnjgo 0} Lnoy Yona fo wna Kjypuow ay, 07 payddo aq 07 woysaitoa ay) Hurag ‘ssnoy snof-hjuany ayy fo uno hpyjuou ay) wosf snoy yous fo sunous Ayyjuou ay)? fo aouaia {1g

METEOROLOGY. 315

To use the table, let the mean of observations at 7 a. m., for the
month of April be 42°.57; apply the correction for that month and
hour in the table, 5.97, and you have this sum, 48.54, which is the
mean of the 24 hour observations for that month.

For the two hours, 7 and 7, in April, you would have—
42.57+50.23 , 5.97— 1.69 = 48.54

2 2

For the three hours, 7, 2, and 9, in March, take out the three means—

30.19 + 43.15 + 32.92

, the same mean.

= 35.42, and corrections from the tables are

3
4.62 —8.34+1.89_ yg,
— .61.
The sum 34.81 is the mean of the 24 observations
for the month of March.

Nore.—At the foot of the preceding table are given the corrections
for observations, made at various different hours of the days, to show
the nearer or more remote approximations to the mean of the 24 daily
results.

The first of these is for the hours 3 and 9 a. m., and 3 and 9 p. m.,
the hours adopted by the Royal Society for obtaining the approximate
mean temperature. These hours are convenient, except that of 3 a.m.

The next corrections are derived from one-fourth of the observations
at Ta. m.,2p.m., and 2 (9) p. m., the last being twice the temper-
ature of 9 p.m. A very near approximation is easily obtained in
this way: Thus, the mean of the year, in Amherst observations—

At- - - 7a. m., is 42°.46
At - - - 2p.m.,, is 55°.29
mwice - - 9>p.m., is F140
am hh 1899.15
Mivideby 4 - - - = A7°.29

Add the correction - — .11 from the uibiee

mpprox. mean - - == 47°.18
Mean of the 24, hourly = 47°.23

Difference - - - - = 0°.05, only ;4,th of a degree.
Using the same formula for the Leith observations, the approximate
mean differs from that of the 24 observations only 5},th degree.
‘

EE TOPOL. .6 ors keer dice stn ac ne oe cab eee ree ais :
Franklin arsenal, Pennsylvania......... poe
Halle; abputeSieeteneet. sessen as cn csedes 3 EE
Padua,’ less Giaay Pisices- |. +-000 0 cance. 4 *
Gottin cemat Fe eaecak« olen es -sceceheeee tie i
Girard observations, not.......c0.ssseees . shy Fa

Brooklyn heights about the same.

The advantages of using the fourth part of the observation at 7 a.
m., at 2 p. m., and twice that at 9 p. m., are obvious. The preceding
cases are ample illustration.

This table of corrections will have a special value in our country
from the locality in_the heart of New England, where the observa-

316 METEOROLOGY. ;

tions were made. No similar table has before been derived from thine }
While it presents the analogies of other similar tables, it will be
better adapted to a large district of our country where meteorological
observations are being made systematically. Some gratification will)
result to Professor Snell in such an application of his laborious and:
scientific efforts, in this particular, in 1839.

Such tables, it is evident, avail nothing where one or more simedi
observation, as sunrise or sunset, have a constant change, even though;
they may give an approximate mean. In different latitudes sunrises
has different hours, as well as sunset, and the corrections must require
a far greater series ‘of observations and far more labor. Though the:
four hours used at the military posts for several years give an approxie|
mate mean, no correction for the sunrise observation is yet obtain

So great is the labor of making the observations, and of discussing;
them for practical purposes, that the fewest practicable hours,
exceeding three, should be adopted for the observations of meteorr
ologists generally, Only a few observers, who are favorably situated)
also, can afford to make hourly observations for a year or for years%
and when such have been made, as enable observers to make the cor
rections from prepared tables, ‘the great object will be attained by
using only three hours of observation. The last line of corr ections Im)
the preceding table is derived from six hours of observation, used for)
some time at the Toronto Observatory, viz: siz and eight a. m., two
and four and ten p. m., and twelve, or midnight. Though the correla
tions are very small for these six hours, they are too numerous for)
ordinary object or advantage. The same objection lies against they
use of any four hours separated by six hours, as one and seven, both!)
a.m. and p. m.; which, however, give very nearly the mean of 24
observations a day. Some of these hours will be very inconvenient)
and troublesome. Take even the hours adopted by the Royal Society,”
3 and 9 a.m., and 2and 9 p. m.; 3 a. m. is a very inconvenient hour,”
though the four give very nearly the mean of the daily 24 observar)
tions, as shown in the first line of particular hours.

In a series of observations of ‘twelve years, like those in the “Army
Meteorological Register’ of 1856, these four hours, or any four hour
would require a million more observations than the three hours, bes)
sides increasing the labor of the reductions one-third more than is!
necessary to attain the same approximation to accuracy.

It is hoped that adequate evidence of the value of observations at |
the hours 7, 2 and 9, has been presented, and that a near approxic:
mation to the true mean is attainable. The results may be corrected, i
if need be, by the prepared tables. "|

Rocuester University, March 31, 1858. |

METEOROLOGY. 317

“METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS.

BY J. WIESSNER.

Ist. The daily results of mean temperature of the air in shade, as
ybserved on a farm in the District of Columbia.

2d. The monthly results.

3d. A trial adjustment, assuming that the mean motion of tem-
erature may be represented by the motion of an elastic ball jumping
ip and down.

4th. A comparison of the Washington summer with the summers
it Naples, Rome, Constantinople, Petersburg, and Savannah.

The probable error for the Washington series being very small,
shows that the observations were made carefully and in large num-
ser ; also, that the last summer was a very regular one.

The figures in the former table for adjusting the daily observations
nave the probable error + 0°.3, so that ten years’ further observa-
ions will make them correct to the last figure.

Next, a table containing p for each day of observation. By
ising the three tables and the simple formula ¢, = ¢, + p w, all
she observations now at the end of 1857, 4,500 in number, may be
recomputed and compared with the individual records, which will

tive an average probable error of a single observation and reduction,
= + 1°.4.

Mean temperature of the air in the shade of the District of Columbia.

Date. October. |November|December,| January, | February,} March, Remarks. December,

1855. 1855. 1855. 1856. 1856. 1856. 1856.7

° F ° ° ° ° ° o
Beieass abc. 57.4 39.4 | 21.4 28.8 31.8 | Mean for this period |,.........
ol Sa ee 59.0 38.0 29.5 23.0 34.2 36°.1, or after ad- |.........4
BP ivies ceecs 58.3 42.1 30.4 10.2 33.3 justment, 35°.8. Let |......eces
Oe 55.0 45.5 15.8 (ie 42.1 pede) thepmuniberh|/. Sees,
7 oS eee 48.6 36.7 18.5 14.0 30.7 of weeks before or |......... _
6 62.8 50.2 39.2 26.4 16.9 34.2 after: the ‘week, |’. .:.%... x
7 46.4 54.3 40.3 28 2 33.8 98.8 (Feb. 2—8,)+ after, | wace levee
8 45.5 55.2 35.6 16.7 33 1 35.6 — before; then the |.........
y 52.6 48.9 Soe 5.0 29.0 19.6 adjustment gave |.....scc0.
10 58.8 44,2 35.8 2.5 29.2 16m the mean tempera- |.... cece
ll 60.6 52.2 28.6 11.0 33.3 pais) ture for any week |......c.06
12 45.9 56.0 26.0 92.6 24.1 34.0 fe by the formula: |......... .
13 41.4 59.0 34.7 30.9 8.6 29.7 tm. = 25°.3 + 0.130 |.......00.
14 48.9 49.3 32.0 30.0 10.6 36.1 pe? with the proba- |....... ate
15 58.3 49.6 39.6 27.5 26.9 36.3 ble* errors so 4° oss |ercac ae ae
16 53.8 63.5 55.6 Dye) 34.7 31.6 The probable error 28.7
17 46 2 47.0 45.3 97.1 19.2 35.4 ofthe weeklymeans 27.0
18 53.6 46 8 36.5 95.5 S12 39.2 as found from ob- 198
19 55 4 41.4 27.9 27.9 19.4 34.7 servations, was +> 23.0
20 58.6 35.0 30.0 16.0 31.6 42.3 WP S8e 35.2
Qi 60.6 40.1 35 6 agi 31.6 41.9 Qe
22 52.2 38.5 43.0 18.9 35.6 39.4 18.5
23 42.1 35.6 50.2 17.4 33.0 40.3 13.4
24 38.7 46.4 40.6 17.8 33.1 41.4 22.2
25 38.7 38.5 33.4 17.6 34.7 39.9 25.8
26 42.1 51.3 24.3 11.8 ook 38.3 31.9
27 49.1 42.8 19.2 | 23.2 30.6 36.5 33.4
28 58.6 39.9 30.7 | 29.8 31.8 * 41.8
29 51.8 35.3 23.7 23.4 33.5 mapa 39.2
30 60.3 36.3 26.0 17.4 dealel ere Tsieiniais 32.8
31 es. idee aaa 26.0 dave Gn site wie siceletaltawuia cts cas 30.2
Mean a) Bey 47.8 36.0 20.7 26.1 34.5 27.8

{ New station and thermometer, east corner District of Columbia.

318 METEOROLOGY.

A table, [w], of use for the reduction of observations for tempera’
ture of the air in the ‘shade, made at different hours of the day by th
formula

to + = ft, - pw
. The observed temperature.
Lhe mean of the 24h.
», A factor depending on the disposition of the atmosphere for solai
heat, the mean factor of the month being unit.

p w. The correction to the mean temperature of the day to get, ow
the observed one.

t,, and p are to be found for each day by the method of least squares:
or by a good approximation to it, by a calculation shown on the next

pace.

octets Ss ie aoe LiFe asa

METEOROLOGY.

Example.

319

Reduction of observation for ipey by the formula

fp = ty + p w
| East corner of the District ot. Columbia, September 1, 1857.
Observed. Equations of condition. Comp’d A.
— : Bg a
am ° os
hae 5 30 55.0=t4,—82 p| —184=—10.8p | 56.9 —1.9
| 600 57.8=%4,—7.6 p | — 15.6 = — 10.2 p | 57.8 0.0
| 700 638=>¢4,—42 p|— 96=— 6.8p | 63.0 + 0.8
800 67.8=4,+0.3 p| — 56=— 2.3p | 698 — 2.0
900 73.8=>7,+25 p|+ 04=— 0.1 p | 73.2 + 0.6
1000 7704 +54 p| t+ 386=+ 28p | 77.7 —0.7
1100 808=>¢4,+7.3 p|}+ 7.4—=+ 4.7p | 80.6 + 0.2
PM.1215 8830=#,+90 p|+ 96=+4+ 6.4p | 83.2 —0.2
115 8.8>¢4,+9.4 p|+104=+ 68p | 838 0.0
200 8.8=4,+9.3 p|+104=+4+ 6.7p | 3.7 + 0.1
300 80=>4,+9.0 p| + 96=-+ 6.4 p | 83.2 —0.2
400 818=>#4,4+8.0 p|/+ 84=>-+4 54p)]81.7+0.1
500 798=¢4,+64 p| + 64=-+4 3.8p | 79.2 + 0.6
715 705-6, 7.0.1 p|— 29> —, 215 py 69-6 + 08
815 67.5=t4,—19 p| — 59=>=— 4.5 p) 66.5 4. 1.0
900 66.0=>t4,—2.8 p|— 7.4=— 5.4p | 65.7 + 0.3
73.4 = ¢, + 2.6 p [eae ae eee Sa.5-p es A 2 78G
+ FA = Fee he

Normal eq.,

No. of observations, 16.

Result,

0.08

+ 0.53

cmt 5,

t, — 69°.4+ 0.13

=+ 0.5

Oo
bo
=)

e between 1855 and

if

ions, mad

ty. + pw., obtained from 4,400 observat

east corner of the District of Columbia, latitude 38° 53’. 8, longitude 76° 52'. 0, height 120 ft.

Tuble of w. for the reduction of temperature observations to the mean of the day by the formula to
1857, by M. Wiessner, and reduced by J. Wiessner,

METEOROLOGY.

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- METEOROLOGY. 321

Mean temperature of the air, in the shade, of the District of Columbia.

‘ > | 3 = 5 =
a. 6 7 A =
os 5s | « =e a M a o a i= &
B a i FI S 2 2 Ep B Sr Kees Es
5 ES ee = = Ss = =) ® 2 ae 3
— & ee | < = Lard ard < mM °o Zz (=)
ar}. |
1 30.3 35.7 | 40.0 48 3 Sl 2.9 = 74.9 69.5 54.7 46.0 44.6
2 2.7 93.7 | 22.6 30.7 60.0 70.1 Ge 74.6 71.4 61.8 | 50.0 7.8
3 32.4 19.0 21.9 34.7 62.8 68.3 * 74.5 69.5 63.2 | 43.3 44.3
4 29.0 42.0 32.7 48.6 61.1 68.5 x 72.5 74.5 56.5 | 42.6 37.4
iS 39.5 46.2 34.6 | 69.7 63.4 53.8 al 72.8 75.4 56.6 53.3 43.0
6 23.5 54.0 | 36.7 43.0 61.1 61.3 S 73.7 72 5 54.4 64.9 43.6
7 21.0 49.8 26.4 33.7 56.9 68.8 r 71.8 58.8 54.7 66.7 44.7
8 11.6 52 5 23.9 44,1 61.0 7.9 eS Wl 58.0 Sot Abe Tie 55.7
9 20.4 27.2 29.4 50 5 62.0 68.0 74.7 77.0 63.1 59,9) an 715 64.5
0 28.1 25.1 27.0 | 46.6 68.7 65.6 75.9 74.9 69.0 58.4 43.4 45.8
iL 30.0 u7.5 33.5 | 50.0 51.3 63.8 74.3 75.0 ek 59.6 39.5 37.3
2 17.4 26.0 29.0 43.9 51.9. 70.7 75.6 76.5 72.6 64.0 42.3 29.5
3 21.9 38.6 | 26.7 37.0 57.4 75.0 79.0 81.3 72.0 65.2 50.5 30.0
4 23.0 40.6 | 38.4 42.3 63.5 75d 77.6 84.4 iaao 67.0 37.6 40.6
b 93.2 52.1 | 40.2 43.3 58.4 aioe: WEES 82 5 71.6 63 2 30.0 | 41.8
6 11.9 69.8 ; 43.1 40.3 yl so 79.7 76.1 73.6 65.3 53.6 | 41.6 | 40.4
7 3L.9 60.0 | 45.1 38.7 59.2 75.8 75.2 76.8 78.2 50.8 | 45.3 | 45.0
8 4.7 56.0 53.1 39,2 50.0 75.8 Tane 75.3 76.3 53.7 | 46.5 52.2
9 14.0 62.3 41.9 41.5 43.6 67.9 81.5 71.8 61.8 61.6 41.8 43.6
0 17,1 39.0 44.1 35.1 44.5 75.2 80.8 | 69.3 64.7 43.2 | 926.4 35,2
1 33.1 47.7 | 48.4 40.5 50.8 74.6 78.0 | 66.8 61.0 40.6 | 31.0 34.8
2 6.7 38.6 | 48.9 39.5 60.6 t 75.0 67.1 65.4 43.5 42.0 42.0
3 4.1 44.4 48.6 45.9 64.9 tT 71.9 70.0 58.8 49 5 47.8 38.7
4 | 74 | 52.0 | 60.0 | 47.2 | 677 | ¢ | 73:9 | 66.4 | 57.8 | sa1B | 30.7 36.5
5 11.0 61.9 | 52.0 31.2 Ari t 76.7 64.7 59.2 54.8 22.0 - 30.3
, 10.0 | 41.8 | 41.0 | 52.3 | 79.5 t 79.8 | 70.6 | 65.4 | 49.2 | 93.0 | 32.7
? 37.7 ao. |) 841.2 ..|\. 56.3 69.7 Tt 79.2 69.4 67.5 48.0 | 29.8 30.4
32.7 42.8 44.0 | 63.8 67.4 t 79.0 76.5 66.5 41.9 32.5 37.3
Oe eo 40.4 | 90.4 64.8 T ills. 68.7 54.5 45.7 41.0 40.4
7 | See 46 4 51.4 §5.8 T 74.2 65.2 49.7 45,2 41.7 38.5
ei ca asco “ah > til Ha eee bel: Tt 75,2 GH Tt cones eee | ANAS iC 38.9
ean 22.4 42.7 | 38.9 44.9 60.4 70.6 76.7 72.9 665.5 53.7 43.2 40.6

———

—_—_—

* New thermometer from the Smithsonian Institution.
} Thermometer broke during the hailstorm of June 21.

21s

322 METEOROLOGY.

Adjustment of temperature for Washington, Summer 1857.

Arg. Obs. Assumed eq. of

m. *m. eunilition.
—3 April — 3 449=—-2—3y4+92z —18.8=-3y+52z _—
—2 May — 2 60.4=>2—-2Qy+t42z — 33>—2y _
—l1 June —1 70-6=2x—ly+tlez + 69=>—ly--3-¢ we
0 July 0 Gi, =| a + 13.0 = —4ez _—
+1 Aug. + 1 RI=x2tlytiz + 92=>=411y—32z — 10.0
+2 Sept. + 2 66.5=74+2yt42z + 28=+4+2y — 57.9
+3 Oct. +3 53.7 =ertsyt+t9ez —W.0=+3y+52
Mean....ee0. 63.7 = @& +42
+ 11.6
ood Normal Eq. Solution.
75.3 — 57.9 = 2 z 2
+17.2=>Ry y = +
c=

Washington, Summer, 75°.3 F. +- 1.4 m — 2.90 m* + 09.5.

April. May. | June. July. Aug. Sept Oct. |
+ 5 3 + 75.3 BS CEs)! illsboseeesocos + 75.3 + 75.3 +. 75.3
ep ACO Eile e) OER Maly Soe aIpe im eee ete Sat SEV TII Pet OE RLS
— 26.1 — 11.6 Se DAES doer aden ee — 2.9 — 11.6 — 26.1 |
45,0 9) == 760.9.) -- 71.0 + 15.3.- | 4- WS |) -h 66.5 + 53.4 |
Resid’Ils—
— 0.1 — 0.5 — 0.4 + 1.4 — 0.9 0.0 + 0.3 |

; Mean. Maximum y temp. July 23, 75°.4

be St 4 73.3
. 24 30 + 0.3
— — 0.2

7.2
15.5 75.4

23th

For comparison—

The summer of Naples........ Liat. 40°.9.....cceeeees V0.0 + 1.3m — 1.75
Romer idee misee ALG. wccccsceves, (3.9-+ 13m— 1.69
Constintinople valsiesie “Wentiisetsandaie+- led m —. 2.05
Petersburg.... DOG ccckisccsempepolure- 0.9 m —= 2.70
Savannah..... U2. Lsccccdestedesen cure + 0.6 m— 1.28

METEOROLOGY. 323

OBSERVATIONS ON NATURAL PHENOMENA.

BY STILLMAN MASTERMAN, ESQ.

Wetp, Marne, February 26, 1857.

| Dear Str: Pursuant to my promise, I present to you the registry
of certain miscellaneous natural phenomena observed by myself during
a few past years, belonging principally to the departments of meteor-
ology aud astronomy. Fragmentary and unsystematic as the obser-
vations are, they can be of comparatively little value; however, as
every phenomenon of nature, even the most trifling, is worthy of a
place in the great study of the universe, and as you are desirous of
collecting all registries of natural phenomena, I deem it proper to
place them at your disposal. ‘The accompanying observations were
made with no idea of placing them before the public, but under the
conviction that perhaps they might be of some use in my future scien-
tific investigations. Moreover, they were conducted during fragments
‘of time which happened not to be taken up by what I considered to be
more important duties, therefore in many cases they are separated by
leng intervals of time, not from the want of phenomena to observe,
but from an inability to make trustworthy observations. So few ob-
servations afford very insufficient data for generalizations ; however,
the coincidence of certain results with those derived from more exten-
Sive series are frequently very apparent. The following are some of
the well known principles which the annexed observations tend to
confirm : ‘

1. That shooting stars have been more numerous, at least for a few
past years, on or about the 10th of August, and for a number of days
both before and after that date, than at other times of the year.

_ 2. That these meteors frequently leave long bright trains behind
them in the sky.

3. That during an exhibition they commonly have one general
direction of motivun.

4. That exhibitions of the aurora borealis commonly commence at
an early hour of the evening.

5. That auroral exhibitions generally have their maximum before
midnight.

6. That in our latitudes auroras have been seen in all parts of the
sky.
7 That the zodiacal light may be seen, in the absence of the moon,
on clear evenings during the months of January, February, and
March. ;

8. That this cone of light lies nearly in the plane of the ecliptic.
9. That the zodiacal light at times may be traced above 90° from

the sun.

i

Yours, truly,

STILLMAN MASTERMAN,

Professor JosepH Henry,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

324 METEOROLOGY,

A. ee |
’ Ke
OBSERVATIONS OF SHOOTING STARS. ie
ne |
WELD, FRANKLIN COUNTY, MAINE. kid

1847—December 11.—At 8h. 30m. p. m. I saw a very brilliant :
shooting star, which fell in the northwest. I should judge that when »
it was in sight I could have read the smallest print without dificalae i
in its light. I¢ left a bright streak or tail of phosphorescent matter,
60° or 70° in length, which remained motionless for about 30 second
when it gradually vanished. The nucleus of light was apparently ofr
three-fourths the diameter of the lunar orb, and - was about 2 seconds ||
in passing over 70° of the celestial sphere, ‘disappearing very near the:
horizon. Se

1849—September 15.—Saw three large shooting stars. oh

September 19.—Observed three shooting stars.

September 20.—At 8h. p.m. I observed a brilliant shooting star, i;
enveloped in a nebulous mist, and having a cylindrical cometic tail 1!
4° in length. It shot out brilliant jets or tufts of rays from its nucleus
on its foremost side, which were bent back into the tail, presenting, §
in miniature, the phenomena of Halley’s comet, so conspicuous to
astronomers, during its last return in 1835. It passed between a Ane}
dromede and B Pegasi, towards Momalhaut, describing 60° of the |
heavens in about 2 seconds’ time. I also observed two other shooti i
stars on the same evening. i

October 3, evening. —Saw two shooting stars. in 3

November 14.—In the evening I saw four shooting stars. a

1850—August 4.—At 8h. 30m. p. m. I observed a large meteori¢)
star. Its path was marked by a trail of light nearly 15’ in widtl
which disappeared in about 4 seconds’ time. Its path lay from” 4
Oygni to near ¢ Sagitiarit.

August 5.—At 9h. p. m. saw two shooting stars. The first sppeare
to be as bright and to subtend nearly the same angle as the planet»
Jupiter. It passed from Unuk al Hay in the Serpent to Arcturus int
about three-fourths of a second. The other appeared like a mere line (
of light described by a brilliant point, and vanished in an instant.

August T.—At 9h. 30m. p. m. saw a meteoric star, apparently to (
pass from near 0 Draconis by f of that constellation to the foot of)
Hiecrcules. It appeared to be a streak or trail of light about 8° imi
length, and, if my measurement of time can be trusted, it described |
an are of 30° in less than a half second. q

August 9.—In the evening saw four shooting stars.

August 10.—Between 8h. 30m. and 9h. 20m. p. m. I saw thirty-four
shooting stars, some of which were very brilliant. All excepting four —
small ones appeared to pass down the Via Lacte, or near to and:
parallel with it, from the northeast to the southwest, some as follows :
br. 30m., one passed from near ¢ Cygni, between a and 9 Aquila, to:
the ilk ’ Dipper in Sagittarius ; 8h. 35.m, two passed from Heuleus ’
to the head of Capricornus ; 8h. 40m. , one passed from 7 Ophiucht to °

METEOROLOGY. 325

Seorpio ; 8h, 48m., one passed from Scutum Sobieski to + Sagittarit ;
8h. 58m., observed two at the same instant, having their paths nearly
parallel with each other, and about 8° apart. One passed to the east
and the other to the west of the Milk Dipper. All of the foregoing
seven meteors were accompanied by trails of light.

_ August 11 —Between 1h. and 2h. a. m., saw twenty-one shoot-
ng stars during ten minutes’ observation. They passed down the
Mitky Way from Cygnus to Scutum Sobieski. A greater part of them
were attended by trails of light.

September 1.—At about 9h. 10m. p. m., there was a brilliant meteor
in the west, which approached the horizon rather slowly, describing
in appearance a serpentine line. Its ight was almost equal to that
f the full moon, and its apparent diameter nearly 20’.

September 4.—Between 1h. and 4h. a. m., observed eight shooting
stars. Some of them left brilliant trails.

September 22,.—In the evening, saw two shooting stars fallin the SH.
September 30.—Between 8h. 5m. and 8h. 10m. p. m., saw two shoot-
ing stars fall to the southwest. Between 9h. 45m. and 10h. of the same
vening, I saw three shooting stars pass near to the Milky Way and
sarallel with it.

October 7.—In the evening, saw three shooting stars.

October 9.—In the evening, saw four shooting stars.

October 30.—In the morning, saw a brilliant shooting star. Even-
ng of same day, saw two shooting stars. One appeared to rise up-
wards from the earth. It was in the vicinity of the constellation
erseus,

November 1.—About 4h. a. m., observed two meteoric stars.
November 10.—8h. 30m. p. m., saw a meteoric star.

November 12.—63h. p. m., saw a brilliant shooting star pass from
ear 0 Capricornus to 8 Draconis. It left a conical trail of light,
which remained visible but a little more than one second. Between
h. and 8h., saw a shooting star.

November 13 —At 6h. 30m. p. m., saw a meteoric star.

November 20.—In the evening, I saw a swiftly moving shooting
star. I judged that it moved 20° of the sphere in } second.
November 24.—Th. p. m., I saw a meteoric star.

December 1.—In the evening, saw two shooting stars.
December 30.—6h. 38m. p. m., saw a brilliant meteoric star.
1851—January 11.—Evening, saw a small shooting star.
January 24.—Kvening, observed two shooting stars.

March 31.—I saw two shooting stars.

STILLWATER, MINNESOTA TERRITORY.

1851—July 19.—In evening, saw four shooting stars.

| August 5.—In the evening, observed two shooting stars.

_ August 9.—In the evening, saw three shooting stars during fifteen
minutes’ observation.

August 10.—In the evening, saw nine shooting stars during one
hour’s observation.

326 METEOROLOGY.

rt
ny
4

August 20.—In the evening, saw four shooting stars during thir .
minutes’ observation.

August 21.—In the evening, saw three shooting stars during —-
five minutes’ observation.

August 22.—In the evening, saw two shooting stars during fifteen
minutes’ observation. In’ the same evening I saw a shooting star
apparently rise upwards. It was about three seconds in moving 45°,
and made an angle with the horizon of about 30°.

August 26.—In the evening, saw five shooting stars during forty=—
five minutes’ observation. :

August 2'7.—In the evening, saw three shooting stars during thirty ,
minutes’ observation. ;

August 28.—In the evening, saw two shooting stars during sixty —
minutes’ observation. va

September 18.—In the evening, saw three shooting stars. One
appeared to rise upwards more than 30° of the vertical.

September 23 —Saw a very brilliant shooting star.

September 24.—In the evening, saw two meteoric stars.

September 25.—In the evening, saw three shooting stars.

September 26.—In the evening, saw three shooting stars.

September 28.—In the evening, saw a meteoric star.

September 29.—In the evening, observed a brilliant shooting star. i

, SUMMARY RECAPITULATION.

Whole number of shooting stars recorded as observed pre-

viously to the beginning of the year 1852...... .sss.essesaseeee 173
Observed’ previous to. the year 1850.........52....-0eccereosaeeennerne 6
Oliseryoam unin githel year MSRO ei dsictenes sckecssoewccenes outabans sine 100
Observed during TEV MUG Vanities, eo emeMae sain sn 0 ssiclsnmiy'ybeie Sh ;

During the last five months of 1850, I usually passed an hour or
two in the open air on every clear evening, and noted down alla
the shooting stars that I saw, the number in each month being as
follows :

HAE AMIE a toh che dbaN asta @ TE OT PEE E A PELE 3
ME PECMUDET eae arsdces valapasecanin aeneciet ices 16
MietoWers. eecneeh ccs bless Oo ES aire 10
Pleven ete GOievd sehae sc 2c ces wale 3
Decem Hews, ateaee char ts ee tea eaaaiecs tes «wie 3

fh i's) 2 IRN Ag A ea A Sd 100

During 1851, I not only passed pilcht less time in making such
observations, but likewise recorded only a part of the observations
made. The following is the number recorded as seen in each of the |
months of that year:

ef ATIUIETY .. oul ances e+ sas Reta cee amen: 3 tHe
Pebruar ys. ctieo ec sacs - + cee eee ate 2 On Bt
AO ecck. seas speed neo) Seat geen sree 2 i
DENTE ca cene snvoees wctret cnet eee eae 0 Oe
May fa SoC Uc ale Sos 0 cy

METEOROLOGY. 324

AURORA BOREALIS AND OTHER METEORS.

WELD, FRANKLIN COUNTY, MAINE,

ie EE ee ce) ae Ce a a Oe sen abs 0
ee * Pie NE ge ele at WMH midi Shit ieee SES 4
| UTES RN I a RR ee NH SRE 34
SPI CTCE on. wncatts neayia vn. conaddyraenastiiaios 14
BFCEEN TS ST NERD SPR EE SAD 0
NO Wer Dei a capele tetas ge «5.1 tds deta 0
DICER UL DHE a acd te ames + sntneethye Shins Sees 0
| dW eS 57
—
|

| B.

|

|

i

:

Remarkable Meteor.

1850 —Sepiember 30.—At 9h. 30m. p. m. I saw a remarkably
cae meteor in the southern sky. Its shape was that of an ellip-
ical zone or ring, and when first seen its centre was about 5° east
nd the same distance north of Fomalhaut, or in RB. A. 23h. 9m.,
nd declination 25° 23’. Its longer axis lay in nearly an east and west
irection. The length of its transverse axis was about 10°, and of its
onjugate diameter 5°. Width of the bright belt or annular surface
n the upper part of the ellipse 2°, on its lower part 1°. The north-
rn part was very brilliant, but its southern part was dimmer. It
moved slowly to the westward, and also had a rotary motion. At 9h.
5m. its centre was 4° north of Fomalhaut and on the same declina-
ion circle ; being less brilliant thaa when first observed, but of the
irst noticed figure.

_ At 10h. its centre was in about R. A. 22h. 25m., and declination
27° 23/. Its length was then nearly 15°, and width 3°. It was
scarcely perceptible. It disappeared at 10h. 10m.

STILLWATER, MINNESOTA TERRITORY.

|
/
|
;
| First Class Aurora.

| 1851—September 29.—In the evening there was a remarkable exhi-
dition of the Awrora Borealis. Soon after dark I observed a small and
orilliantly white arch, having its point of culmination, which was about
10° above the horizon, very nearly, if not precisely, in the magnetic
meridian, inthenorth. (The magnetic needle has a variation at this
place of about 94° east, epoch 1850.) Soon after this, deep red streamers

|

328 METEOROLOGY.

were shot upward from the arch, 10 or 15 degrees apart, along its |
whole length, which converged to a focus, as it were, in the south mag-)
netic pole of the dipping needle. One of these, which stretched like |
a broad band along the magnetic meridian, was of a deep crimson or)
almost blood color. After a short pause the northern arch began to!
rise slowly towards the zenith, where it was apparently dispersed. |
On the disappearance of the first arch in the zenith a second arch:
began to form, and was soon completed, in the south, just as if it wasy
the reuniting of the first arch after passing the zenith ; also concentric i)
with the magnetic meridian, and having an altitude of 30° above thei
southern horizon. The extremities of this southern arch reached \
nearly 40° on each side of the magnetic meridian. Beneath this arch, 1
which was about 5° in breadth, was an intensely black arch concen=1)
tric with the white one. Just as the southern arch was formed, a

deeply red belts, springing from the horizon at the points formerly}
occupied by the extremities of the northern arch, stretched themselves 3)
through the zenith, crossing each other at that point, and ran down?
nearly to the southern arch. These soon vanished, when a black seg-:
ment of a circle was formed in the magnetic north, having its edge (
fringed with a silvery white. During this the southern arch had (
remained nearly unchangeable. Presently, alternately red and white \
streamers darted up from the horizon, or near to it, all around the com>)
cave, varying in width from 1° to 3° or 4° and converging towards
the zenith, the southern arch still remaining as before. On the ceasing f
of this phenomenon the southern arch became serpentine in its course, }
About two hours after this, that is about 11 o’clock, the aurora, \;
arriving at its maximum, presented a most beautiful spectacle. The ¢
whole northern sky, from the east to the west, became thickly beset!
with a multitude of stud like streamers, in the north coming to within »
only about 15° of the horizon, but at the east and west meeting the
horizon along an azimuth of nearly 30°, which all converged into@t:
beautiful corona about the pole of the dipping needle. These stream=
ers seemed all to have a sort of tremulous or wave-like motion from
one side to the other in rapid succession. Shortly afterwards thee
corona sent out streamers down the southern sky, thus completing the ¢
auroral illumination of the whole visible concave. Just at this time ¢|
there was another arch formed,in the north, that is to say in the mage -
netic north, stretching about 60° along the horizon, with an altitude ¢)
at the culminating point of 40°, and composed of brilliant whites
columns diverging from the north point of the compass, shaded with |
black beneath. In a few minutes this arch mingled itself with the ©
columns, converging to the pole of the dipping needle; then there!
followed a succession of auroral waves, passing over the whole sky, ,
not unlike the electric flashes sometimes observed in thunder clouds. .
The southern arch maintained its position nearly three hours, disap- -
pearing, however, during the occurrence of the last named phenome- /
non. During the above auroral display the sky was clear from clouds; *
for as brilliant as the auroras were the brighter stars could be plainly )
seen through thera, even where they were intensely black. The aurora
continued more or less brilliant during the remainder of the night. |
This auroral display was characterized by all the more conspicuous ©

METEOROLOGY. 329

————————
wee eet

_} phenomena of the higher classes, such as arches, streamers, a cofona,
and auroral waves, the corona and waves being remarkably developed.
The southern arch, however, was perhaps the most remarkable phe-
nomenon of the exhibition.

Si es as SE

Second Class Aurora Borealis.

December 23.—In the evening there was an auroral exhibition. A
dark arch was formed in the north, having an altitude at its culmin-
ating point of 15°, and its centre of curvature lying in the magnetic
meridian. Numberless streamers shot upward from the ,arch to an
elevation of 45°. The aurora was visible about one hour. The bril-
liancy of the streamers would place this exhibition in the second class
aurora.

Iunar Halo.

December 27.—In the evening I saw a beautiful halo around the
moon. ‘The interior diameter of the ring was about 3°, and its exte-
rior diameter was fully 7°. The inner edge of the ring was of a deep
crimson color, and its exterior a brilliant blue; while it had an inter-
mediate annulus of yellow, bordering on an orange color. The width
of the red ring was 2°, that of the blue 2°, and that of the yellow 3°.
The phenomenon was seen only about three or four minutes.

Auroras of the Third and Fourth Classes.

1852—January 23.—In the evening saw a fourth class aurora bore-
alis.

January 24.—In the evening I observed the aurora borealis, but the
exhibition was of little importance, being of the lowest class.

February 7.—In the evening saw aurora borealis.

February 18.—In the evening there occurred quite a brilliant exhi-
bition of the aurora borealis, with finely developed streamers. I saw
a very curious auroral meteor in the constellation Virgo. Its shape
was that of the head of a huge spear. Its foremost point was in the
vicinity of Spica, and the two anterior points were situated, the one
near 7, and the other near 7 of that constellation. It remained visi-
ble only a few minutes.

February 19.—In the evening observed a slight auroral corrusca-
tion.

Parhelia.

February 26.—In the morning I observed two brilliant parhelia, one
on each side of the sun. The sun’s altitude at the time was nearly
15°, and the mock suns were distant about 30° on each side of the real
sun. On their inner, or sides next the sun, their light was of dazzling
| brightness, and their outer sides were tinged with the prismatic hues.

=a ————— -— —_— —_— = _ —— —_— eee - -
SE

er ee ee

320 - METEOROLOGY.

‘
1%

Minor auroras. 4
March 9.—In the evening the sky was clear and serene. I saw am
auroral arch in the north, having its centre coinciding with the mag- |
netic meridian.
March 12.—In the evening, saw the aurora borealis. m

March 17.—In the evening, saw a fourth class aurora borealis.

if

Parhelia. "

th

March 1%.—Soon after sunrise I observed two parhelia, one on each —

side of the sun, which remained visible at least two hours. *,
March 19.—After sunrise I saw a parhelion. ,
6 sy
WELD, FRANKLIN COUNTY, MAINE.
: i
Aurora borealis,

November 10.—In the evening I saw an auroral display, co
sisting of a number of short streamers beset’ around the magneti¢”
north. While gazing on these I beheld a meteor resembling a
electric spark, which suddenly emerged from a brilliant streamer that
lay in the magnetic meridian, and vanished ina moment. It appeared —
to have a lateral and downward movement of about 2°. Color off
streamers yellowish white.

November 11.—In the evening I observed an auroral exhibition,
which was much more brilliant than that of the 10th instant. The )
streamers reached a height of 45°, being intensely bright, and of a
yellowish white color. bs
Solar halo. ‘ :

1853—May 27.—When the sun had descended about a semi- diam-
eter of its lower limb, below the horizon in the west, I saw the fol.
lowing semi-circle of a ‘solar halo. The interior diameter of the circular »
halo was about 8°, and its exterior diameter 18°. Its interior was
crimson colored, and the several prismatic hues were depicted ont
ward in succession. It was very brilliant, and a beautiful object for
contemplation. i

Aurora borealis.

June 2.—In the evening, saw an auroral exhibition. The streamers :
were quite brilliant, long, and slender. |

June 27.—At a little “past 9h. in the evening I saw a fine auroras.
It was in the form of a great arch, about 140° in length, and from 2° |
to3° in breadth, The arch on the east approached within 3° of Altair; ah
on or near the meridian it passed through Corona Borealis; and its )
western extremity was near ¢ Leonis. It was very brilliant ; and I

METEOROLOGY. 331

observed a number of oscillations or waves pass along its meridian
portion longitudinally. These waves were slow in progress, and some-
what gyratory in appearance. Only a faint illumination was observed
in the north.

Rainbow.

| July 12.—When the sun had been hidden nearly fifteen minutes by
the western hills, and was just on the point of passing below the plane ~
of the horizon, I saw a beautiful rainbow. The bow was entire, and
of splendid prismatic hues. Fragments of a secondary bow were seen.
The bow in a few minutes showed a great preponderance of red rays,
and did not disappear until the moment of sunset.

4 Aurora borealis.

September 2.—In the evening, observed an auroral exhibition. At
first, a dark segment of a circle appeared in the magnetic north,
-about 10° in altitude at its culminating point. This was soon beset
around its exterior with brilliant rays of a yellowish white. These
rays extending out laterally shortly formed a serpentine arch, still
with the black beneath. Then a few streamers shot upwards towards
the zenith. Shortly afterwards these phenomena died away, and the
northern sky remained quite luminous, with here and there patches
of cirrus in filmentous wisps. I saw several small stars through the
dark auroral vapor first observed.

1854— March 26.—In the evening observed brilliant aurora bore-
-alis. Saw a fine auroral arch, having an altitude from the northern
horizon of above 45°, and reaching from the eastern to the western
-horizon. Width of arch about 10°. I saw many minor exhibitions
of the aurora borealis during the winter of 1853-’54.

March 29.—In the evening I observed a beautiful auroral meteor.
It resembled the tail of a huge comet, proceeding from a nucleus about
| 10° north of Spica Virginis. It lay along below Leo Major, branching

out into two bright streams, with a fainter dawn between, the northern
branch reaching a Canis Minoris, and the southern terminating a few
degrees north of Canis Major. The above was its appearance at 8h.
15m. It was very brilliant, and remained visible for sometime.
May 16.—In the evening saw a fine auroral arch, having an alti-
tude of 70° in the north. It was composed of a great number of short
transverse streamers 2° or 3° apart.

Rapid oscillations in refraction.

| September 4.—In the evening I observed rapid vertical oscil-
| lations in the lunar orb, when crossed horizontally by thin cirrus
| bands ; the latter projected in perspective on the lunar disk, reminding
' one of the belts of Jupiter. She appeared to rise and fall rapidly in
| the vertical through about 4° arc: corresponding fluctuations being
observed in the shadows of objects in her light. A number of other

persons observed the phenomenon, which lasted about ten minutes.

\
}
I

332 METEOROLOGY.

The altitude of the moon was about 15° ; and the cirrus bands crossi "
her disk remained apparently unchangeable and motionless. A stor
of rain followed before the next morning. |

C, i
THE ZODIACAL LIGHT, f

WELD, FRANKLIN COUNTY, MAINE. |

ae |

1853—January 31.—On this, as well as several preceding evenings, j)

I have observed a prea column of whitish hight, ane the ceasing 4
an altitude of 40° or. more, which must - the conical body of the
zodiacal light.

the zodiacal light. ail base at ihe: horizon was above 18° j in vi
and the iene of its vertex about 35°

of zodiacal light. It was very brilliant, as much so as that part ‘ei
the milky way visible at that season. Its vertex was above 90° fro m 1
the sun; in fact, a faint illumination seemed to extend almost to the)
eastern horizon. Its width at its base was more than 20°. It was |
observed on several other evenings of the winter. a
1856—February 2.—In the evening observed the zodiacal light; |
it having been seen on several evenings during the preceding month, ,
It uniformly reaches about 90° from the sun, having an apparent!
width at the horizon of 40°. Sometimes a faint reflection is observed |
in the east. j
1856—February 8.—After the ceasing of twilight in the evening
observed the zodiacal light. Apparent width at the horizon 40g
length 10° from the sun. "|
1856—March.—I saw the pyramidal column of zodiacal light on)
every evening, in absence of the moon, during this month. It appears |
at the horizon of a width varying from 10° to 40°, and an apparent |
length of from 30° to 90°, and even upwards. ,
1857—January. —During this month I have frequently observed! |
the zodiacal light. Its vertex is generally not less than 90° from i
sun. Qn some very clear evenings a faint illumination may be traced
to the distance of 170° or 180° from the sun, being visible a sre
part of the night. Its width at the horizon sometimes reaches 40°. .
Its axis appears to lie a little above the ecliptic, or to have a small |
north latitude ; the amount of which is difficult of determination. |

->

;

REPORT

or

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

BY Dr. JOH. MULLER,
PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF FREIBURG,

[Translated from the German for the Smithsonian Institution. ]

In revising this translation, originally made by different persons,
it has been the constant aim to give as nearly and as literally as pos-
sible the exact language of the author. But one exception has been
made to this rule. In the case of the citation of English philosophers
reference has been made to the original memoirs, and their own lan-
guage adopted, instead of that of the report, wherever it was evident
that the intention had been to give the equivalent German to their
English. It is due to the author, however, to state that this change
has been at most but a verbal one, not material to the sense. The
notice is, however, deemed necessary, because this is the only departure,
save in one or two unimportant cases, from the strict rendering of the
language of the text.

'

GEORGE C. SCHAEFFER,

SECTION THIRD.

THE LEYDEN JAR AND EFFECTS OF THE DISCHARGE.

er

{Continued from page 456, of the Report of 1856.]

THE SECONDARY CURRENT.
| § 56. Nature of the secondary current—When a battery is dis-
charged by a long metallic wire the current in the conducting circuit
wire induces a current in an adjoining closed wire conductor.
The wire which forms the conducting circuit of the battery is known
as the main wire.
The wire in which a ctfrrent is induced by the action of the current
in the main wire is termed the secondary wire.
| [The existence of the secondary current was demonstrated in a series
‘of experiments by Professor Joseph Henry in 1838, published in the
» Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,’’ vol. 6, p. 40,
‘in 1839, a publication apparently unknown to our author.

334 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

The experiments of Riess and of Henry were therefore nearly simul-
taneous, as were the subsequent announcements. The article men-.
tioned anticipates, however, much that is discussed in the following.
sections of this report, founded on later publications of Riess an
others. Thus experiments upon screening effects, upon secondary |
conductors at different distances, and upon the difference in magne-.
tism, were recited. The latter of these, in connexion with the matter.
in § 70, throw additional light upon the apparently abnormal devel-|
opment of magnetism. But the whole set of experiments, and the)
deductions from them, were given as a sequel to similar investigations
upon secondary currents with galvanic electricity ; severed from thisi
connexion much of their value would be lost, and to reproduce the
whole, together with later researches in the same line, would take up!
more space than can be spared in the present volume G. C. S.]

Riess proved the existence of the secondary current in the following ,
manner; (Pog. Ann., XLVII, 55.) e

Fig. 59. uf
Let A A, in fig. 59, bea |
pe ENN UBIO CSL) _ Copper wire wound spirally!
Sheth Sra aoe jj eo abet a glass tube anid ia
troduced into the conduct |
ing circuit of a battery; Ay
A consequently is the main).
wire. A wider glass tube)
is passed over the main!
wire, and upon it the seer
ondary wire B B is wound,
leaving its ends hanging;
Shab hc cas a a free. The ends of a third”
spiral C D, also wound,
upon a glass tube, are to be fastened at a and 0. de

The connection at b being severed, and the ends of the wire sepa-)
rated a little, a spark is seen to pass at b when the battery, with @
sufficiently strong charge, is discharged through the main wire.

This spark is a proof of the existence of the secondary current. A:
passage of electricity from the main to the secondary wire cannot take
place if the secondary spiral be kept at a sufficient distance from they
ends of the glass tube on which it is wound. of

A steel sewing needle placed in the glass tube of the spiral 0 D,
which we will call the magnetizing spiral, will be magnetized by the
secondary current. ip

An electrical air thermometer inserted in the secondary circuit)
indicates heat produced by the secondary current.

Figure 59 represents the form in which Riess first arranged his
experiments. Afterwards (Pogg. Ann., Lj 9) he gave the spiral a)
more convenient form. ei

In a disk of wood, consisting of three pieces glued together, the.
diameter of which depends upon the size of the spiral to be ining

>

concentric grooves are to be cut and made into a spiral, by joining’
each circle with the following one by a curved groove; the innermost

:
;
| RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 33)
ircle is joined to the second by the groove c d, (figure 60,) the second
to the third by e f, &c. In these
grooves a copper wire about half a line sh
thick is so laid as to make a spiral.
| One end of the wire passes through
| disk at a, and along the under
sideto z. From a the wire coils out to :
e, from c tod, from dtoe, f,&.;a &
'y is the other end of the wire thus
| wound in a flat spiral.
| The disk is covered with a thin coat
of pitch before placing the wire upon
it.

The wire being fastened by the su-
perposition of a hot metallic plate, the
spaces between the rings of wire will

| be filled up with the pitch; a heavy heated plate laid on the disk will

make the spiral perfectly level. This spiral is now blacked with coal
and pressed upon another wooden disk to
get the marks for a second spiral, which
must correspond with the first as nearly as
possible

The disks are now fastened to glass sup-

= their planes being vertical. They

)
'
:
.

are arranged upon the same stand opposite
each other, and so that they can be ap-
proached and separated at pleasure. This
arrangement is represented in figure 61.

Another arrangement of the flat spiral,
much more convenient for many purposes,
shown to me by Professor Hisenlohr, of Carlsruhe, is represented in
figure 62. One of the spirals is fastened on an upright glass sup-
port in a horizontal position. The second
spiralis fastened in the same manner on a
glass rod, which has no foot ; it-is placed
over the other, like the Upper, over the &
lower condenser plate.

The distance between the spirals can be
changed by placing glass plates of differ-
ent thicknesses between them. For greater
‘distances pieces of varnished wood having
any desired thickness are interposed.

The ends of the wires are provided with
screw clamps z and y, by means of which
the spiral can be connected as may be de-
‘sired.

Fig. 62.

Placing y and z of the lower spiral from one to two lines apart, and
separating the two spirals by a glass plate, a spark will be seen to
pass between y and zon discharging a jar, sufficiently charged, through

| the upper spiral. The spark is produced by the secondary current.

|

as

336 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

§ 57. Magnetizing by the main current.—To avoid false conclusions
in regard to magnetizing by the secondary current, magnetizing by)
the main current should first be properly investigated. ed

Such an investigation was first made by Savary. Riess repeated:
Savary’s experiments and obtained similar results. The following:
are Riess’ results.—(Pog. Ann. XLVII, 55.) i

In the conducting circuit of the battery, consisting of 25 jars with.
1}, square foot coating each, a spiral of platinum wire was placed; 26
inches of this spiral were wound in 42 coils on a glass tube 3 incheg:
long. The ends of the wire not wound up were, together, 34 incheg:
long. |

In each experiment a new non-magnetic English sewing need ae
13.9 lines long and 0.19 lines thick in the middle, was laid in thei
spiral. After the discharge stroke had passed through the spiral thei
needle was magnetized. ‘To test the strength of the magnetism iti)
was broyght to a certain distance from a compass needle two inches
long, (in what manner this was done cannot be easily understood from
Riess’ description,) and the deflection produced in the latter observeds]

By increasing the charge of the hattery, not only the strength but
the polarity of the magnetism of the needle changed, as the following,
table shows: ‘

5

Quantity, fet 10. 15 20 2587 2880.
Deflection, 9914.5 15 10.3 65—25—7.5—8.5 2.3 116)

It is seen that a stronger charge of the battery was not necessarily!)
followed by a stronger magnetism ; also, that the magnetism thus
caused was not always such as might have been expected, according t0l|
Ampére’s rule, (namely, that if we suppose the figure of a man to Dé)
introduced into the circuit, the positive current entering at the feeb.
and passing out at the head, the figure, when it faces the needle, will
have the north pole on its left hand,) for an abnormal magnetizing of
the needle took place in all the deflections marked with the — sign. —

In this series the strength of the magnetism of the needle at first)
increased with the magnitude of the charge, then decreased until the)
direction of the magnetism was reversed, and it was only after still

[

{
F

more powerful charges that the normal magnetism appeared again. |
These experiments are a proof that the direction of the discharge:
current cannot be deduced from the polarity of the needle.
With weaker charges the needle was normally magnetized ; abnormal:
magnetism appeared with increased charges in fine needles only ;
coarse needles are always magnetized normally, although constantly!
increased charges produce in them an alternate decrease and increase)
of strength of the magnetism. |
§58. Magnetizing by the secondary current.—This peculiarity in the
magnetism of steel needles occurs in like manner in the secondary:
current. Magnetism produced by a secondary current will change 11
strength and direction:
1. By increasing the charge. a. i
2. By increasing the surface of the battery, the charge remaining
thesame. The greater the surface, the stronger Riess found the mag-
netism of the needle ; the same quantity of electricity being distributed

|
{
|

1

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 337

jover a greater surface, it has a less density, and consequently a slower
discharge, which is favorable to the production of magnetism.

3. The order of the periods of decrease and increase, as well as that
‘of the reversal of the magnetism, will be changed by an alteration in
‘the secondary circuit, such as introducing wires of constantly increasing
length. .

‘If the secondary circuit remains metallic as before, but interrupted at
lone place, so that the current has to pass with a spark, a very remark-
‘able influence is observed on the magnetic effect; often the magnetism
is in this way increased very greatly, sometimes it is weakened, and
again it is changed in direction. The strongest magnetization by the
secondary current, amounting nearly to saturation of the needle, has
been obtained in this manner.

| 4, A continued change in the strength, as well as a change in the
direction of the magnetism produced by the secondary spiral, takes
place when, ceteris paribus, the length of the conducting circuit of the
main spiral is continually increased.

The apparatus shown in figure 62 may be very conveniently used
‘in these experiments. The lower spiral may be taken for the secondary
circuit, and the magnetizing coil may be introduced between x and y
by screwing its ends in the clamps.

§59. Production of heat by the secondary current.—It has already
been mentioned that the secondary current produces thermal phenom-
ena; Riess has also investigated thoroughly the laws of the development:
of heat by the lateral current.—(Pog. Ann., XLVII, 65.)

In the conducting circuit of the secondary spiral, a magnetic spiral
and an electrical air thermometer were introduced. The following

ble contains the thermal and magnetic effects which the secondary
current produces when the surface and charge of the battery are.
changed. S and q have the same signification as before.

}

|

} Heating.

| S. Q. | etiam
' Observed. | Computed.

5 15 3.8 3.4
20 6.2 6.0
25 9.0 9.4
30 12.0 13.5 °
| 10 20 3.4 3.0 0.5
30 7.0 6.8 1.5
15 30 4. 4.5 1.5
| 20 30 3.5 3.4 4.0
25 30 2.5 2.7 2.3
/ 40 4.4 4.8 0. 6
} 5 202 6.2 8.8
| 25% 8.3 2.0
303 9,8 5 6

22 8

338 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS,

In the last column the deflections of the compass needle produced by
the magnetized needle are indicated as explained above. Where 1
deviation is indicated the magnetism was not perceptible. 4

As far as the last three observations, indicated “by *, the observed)
temperatures harmonize very well with the formula ed

Li +7 Lies 2
8

From all the observations (the tables given by Riess contain a fe wi
more) the mean result for a was 0.075; the temperatures computed \
with this co-efficient in the above formula accord perfectly well wi
the observed values. Hence the formula holds good for the tempeli i
tures produced by the secondary current. ny
In the observations indicated by * the secondary circuit was inter-1
rupted, so that the current had to pass with a spark. This haga;
very important influence (above mentioned) upon the magnetization,
It is shown here, while the heating power is scarcely afiected—it being |
a little diminished. P
When a German silver wire, 78 lines long and half a line thick, was.
inserted in the main circuit the heating was less; the co- efficient. a
which was found above equal to 0.075, was now 0. 028.
As may be readily conceived, the quantity of electricity in de
secondary current is greater in proportion as the portion of the main)
spiral acting upon the lateral spiral is greater, other circumstances}
being equal. In order to determine the amount of increase of the:
secondary current thus produced, the secondary coil B B, (fig. 59),
closed by the platinum wire of the thermometer, was slipped over the
straight prolongation of A A, and the temperature noted which was:
produced in the secondary wire by the discharge of g = 20 ins =
Then, in successive experiments, a different number of coils of the
main spiral was brought under the secondary spiral, and the same
quantity of electricity discharged in the same manner. These experi
ments gave the following results: :

Length of straight | No. of coils. | Heating in the lateral

wire. wire.
Tines.
134 0 1. 85
102 24 4,9
63. 4 do eG
24.8 82 11.5
0 enor 14.0

The numbers of the last column are the mean of two series of exX-)
periments, giving nearly the same results. |
Since we know what elevation of temperature (1.85) is produced i in
the secondary wire by the action of a straight piece of the main wire |
134 lines long, we can compute the heat produced by the action of a
straight piece ‘of the main wire 102, 634, &c., lines long, and thus}

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS, 339

| MIAO AS COMM cd ac ccinecpaceos Ss > SER Bw:
eet pea ions wiv acutecusandanhicd 6.7
SAL) tila ad tendon ojaiee semmann ee 112
DT ee eras anmetac ee wifex ack te 14.0

| Thus the heat produced is very nearly proportional to the number
bf acting coils of the main wire; hence it follows that the quan-
‘ity of electricity generated by the conducting cirewit of the battery in a
econdary wire is proportional to the length of the acting part of the
ircuit wire, other circumstances being equal.
If over the same main spiral A A the same lateral spiral be wound,
first with its coils parallel to those of the main spiral, and then with
ore open coils, so that the main spiral acts always in the direction
of its entire length, but at first upon a long part of the lateral wire
running parallel with it, and then on a shorter and more open part ;
n the latter case the action evidently is as much less as the direction
:

|

f the coils in the spirals differs, or the closer the lateral spiral is in
omparison with the main spiral.
All the coils used for these experiments were wound to the right.
It is not a matter of indifference, as far as regaras the strength of the
econdary current, whether the lateral spiral is wound in the same or
he opposite direction to that of the main spiral. Upon a main spiral
ound to the right, eight inches of copper wire were wound first to
he right, then to the left, with the result:

Secondary spiral to the right...............see00 15.4
/ ss &¢_, tho; bhenle tis vi segenuckaaaoaes « 2.7

'§ 60. Action of the main wire on different secondary wires.—A piece ,
a b,) 26 inches long, of the same wire which’formed the main wire
as stretched out straight ; parallel with it a piece (c d) of the lateral
‘wire was stretched. The whole secondary circuit, in which the elec-
trical thermometer was inserted, consisted of copper and iron wire.
‘'The piece cd of the secondary circuit, lying opposite a b, being a
‘part of the iron or of the copper wire which forms the lateral circuit,
‘with equal charges of the battery the temperature of the thermometer
is the same, provided the iron and copper wire have the same diameter
and the space between a 6 and c d is the same.
Therefore, if the resistance to conduction of the whole secondary
| circuit remains unchanged, it is perfectly indifferent for the strength
of the secondary current whether a better or worse conducting piece
‘of wire is exposed to the action of the main wire.
_ It is impossible for me to understand clearly the arrangement of the
iexperiments relating to this matter from the description given.—
‘{(Pog. Ann., L, 3.)
, § 61. Decrease of the secondary current in proportion to the distance
\from the main wire.—To find how the action on the secondary wire
decreases with the distance from the main wire, the piece running
‘parallel must have a great length, because otherwise, at tolerably

|

t

840 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

great distances, the heating of the lateral wire will be too little to be
observed. ia
Riess stretched two copper wires 10 feet 6 inches long parallel to
each other, (Pog. Ann., L, 7.) One of them was connected by means
of copper wires 6 feet long with the circuit of the battery ; the endg
of the other were connected by similar wires with the platinum wire
of the thermometer. By changing the distance between the axes of
the parallel wires the thermometer showed that the current generated
by the straight part of the conducting circuit of the battery in the paral
lel wire decreases wm the proportion in which the distance of the a
the wires increases, provided the distance of the wires at the start ig
not too small; for if the wires approach within a certain limit the
heat produced increases in a less proportion than the cistanel
decrease. rf
To obtain somewhat elevated temperatures by the secondary cur-
rent, wires of great length must be used, and the management of
these is very troublesome when they have to be stretched straight,
Hence, when ouly the generation of an intense secondary current ig
desired, it is greatly preferable to wind the wires in a flat spiral, as
already described, (144.)
The current which is excited by the main spiral in the secondary, is
weaker the further the spirals are apart; but it is easily seen that be-
tween the strength of the current and the distance between the spirals
there cannot be a simple proportion, for any one part of the circuit of
the main spiral excites a current, not only in the curved part lying”
nearest to it and on the same side, but also in the more remote part of
the curve, on the opposite side; the latter is indeed weaker, but it acts”
against the former and diminishes its effect. But the proportion of
the two opposite currents evidently changes when the distance of the
spirals is changed. Ifthe starting point is from very small distances
of the two spirals the strength of the secondary current at first increases”
more slowly, but at a greater distance far more rapidly than the in-
crease of the distance of the spirals. i

i

§ 62. Action of adjoining closed conductors on the generation of the
secondary current. Riess extended on the floor of a room three copper
wires,0.55 line thick and 10 ft. 6 in. long, parallel to each other,
(Pog Ann., L, 12,) these wires being denoted respectively by A, B,
and C. The axial distance between A and B was 4.45 lines, that of
B and C 2.35 lines. bie
The wire A was inserted in the conducting circuit of a battery ; from
the ends of the wire C copper wires six feet long led to the thermom=
eter, and consequently the secondary wire C included the thermometer
in its circuit. When B was removed the unit of charge gave a tem-
perature indication of 0.135; B being restored to its place nearly the
same temperature was indicated ; but when the ends of B were joined”
by a copper wire 14 feet long only 0.094 was the temperature indi-
cated. Hence it follows that— :
The current generated in a secondary wire by the conducting wire
of a battery remains unchanged when a wire with free ends lies between
the two wires ; but the current is diminished if the intermediate wire 18
closed upon itself. ”

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 341

' It is not essential that the wire B should lie between A and C in
mrder to weaken the current in C, which is generated by the discharge
‘urrent traversing A. B may lie beyond C or beyond A; the lateral
i turrent excited in C by the main current of A will be always weaker
_'vhen B is closed, or when a secondary current exists in B, than when
4 this is not the case. Hence, the main wire of a battery having generated
_ |lectrical currents in two secondary wires near each other, each of the two
econdary currents ts weaker than it would have been were the other not
oresent,
| Two flat spirals, six inches in diameter, each formed of copper wire
13 feet long and 0.55 lines thick, were placed 10 lines apart. The
thermometer of the secondary spiral indicated a considerable heat (42
livision of the scale) when the quantity of electricity (20) accumulated
nm four jars was discharged through the main spiral. But when,
_ inder otherwise equal circumstances, the same quantity of electricity
_ was discharged, while a copper disk 6 inches 10 lines in diameter and
_ ),33 lines thick was interposed between the spirals, the thermometer
_»f the secondary spiral showed no sensible heat.

This remarkable effect of the copper plate evidently depends upon

he good conduction which it offers to the current.

The interposed plate should be a poor conductor to allow a sensible
heat to be developed in the secondary spiral. In proportion as the
japacity for conduction in the interposed plate decreases the current
in the secondary spiral increases.

i
Interposing plates were used successively as follows: 1. A sheet of

-_

{~~

lin foil 0.01 line thick. 2. One of 0.0168 line thick. 3. Both to-
ether. 4. A sheet of imitation silver paper. These sheets were
lamped between glass plates and placed one line distant from the main
piral. When the two spirals were two and a half lines apart the fol-

wing temperatures were obtained in the secondary spiral for the unit
f charge:

Without interposed plate. ........cs0ssecssoccsssescees 0.56

Interposed plate of imitation silver paper......... 0.57
he Rainy tia foal stews tad ase 0.087
o cf Backes 48. Pkt akes als tea Sede 0.056
‘ of both sheets tin foil............. 0.034

‘ Comparing the last three indications with the corresponding thick-
esses of the interposed sheets of tin foil, we find that the strength of
fie current in the secondary wire is inversely proportional to the thick-
Less of the interposed metallic plate.

| The same result was obtained by repeating the experiments in the
ame manner but at greater distances.

§ 63. Action of interposed insulating plates upon the formation of the
jecondary current.—Faraday has ascribed a specific inductive capacity
‘o the different insulators in relation to statical electricity, so that
hrough a glass or shellac plate induction should be much stronger
than through air.

' The origin of the secondary current can only be satisfactorily ex-
plained by the generation of electricity by induction ; and, in his view,
ve should expect currents of different strengths, if plates of different

\
:

|
|

}

j

342 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. |

insulating substances were interposed between the main and sccomiaaay |
spirals.
Pit solid insulators possess a greater specific inductive capacity than }
air a well marked distinction should be made by means of the seconda
current between solid conductors and insulators of electricity. Thu
while conductors, used as interposed plates, diminish the 7 aa
current obtained ‘through the medium of the air, insulators, applied ;
as interposed plates, should increase the current. |
In spite of careful investigation Riess was unable to find such an }
increase of the secondary current by the interposition of insulating ;
plates, such as glass, shellac, &c. The use of these plates changes in no i
respect the force of the secondary current, which was found just as i
“wa as though air only had been between the spirals. —(Pog. |
EB)

§ 64. Action of the conducting wire of a battery upon itself.—We have ' r
seen that no electrical current can be generated by induction in a wire
with free ends. The conducting wire of an electrical battery is such
a wire, but since its free ends pass into broad metallic surface a!
allowing the accumulation of opposite electricities, it is necessary
examine experimentally whether one part of the wire may not | |

—

an inductive action on another part. a
Riess sought to solve this question in the following manner:
(Pog. Ann., L, 19.) a.

The two spirals, one of which had served hitherto as the main, the)
other as the secondary spiral, were placed at a short distance apart, t
and joined so as to form a single conducting wire, so that, on being
introduced into the circuit of the battery, the discharge current had : 0 |
pass through both. v q

In one case the outer endof one of the spirals was united with the cen=
tral end of the other in such a way that when the discharge current im)
the one spiral passed from the middle to the outside, it had to pass from |
the middle to the outside in the other also ; and, consequently, the
discharge traversed the two spirals in the same direction.

The outer end of one spiral was then joined to the outer end of the!
other, so that the current which traversed the one from the middle |
to the outside went from the outside to the middle in the other ; the.
discharge thus traversing the two spirals in opposite directions. 34

Now, if one part of the conducting circuit can act upon another,!
each spiral in the first case must cause in the other a current in the:
same direction as the main current, but in the last mode of connecting }
the spirals a current opposed to the main current ; and hence, in the:
last case the force of the current, cceferis paribus, should be weaker:
than in the first.

The thermometer being introduced into the circuit along with the:
combined spirals, it indicated, under like circumstances, perfectly
equal temperature, in whichever manner the spirals were united ; henee
it follows, that in the discharge of a battery no part of the con utah
wire acts inductively upon another part. |

§ 65. Retardation of the electrical discharge by conductors near the:
conducting wire of a battery.—Riess introduced into the conducting |

|
| RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 343
eireuit of a battery (Pog. Ann., XLIX, 393) a copper wire 13 feet long
and 0.55 line thick, which was coiled in a flat spiral on a wooden disk
six inches in diameter, covered with pitch and supported by a glass
_jleg, as represented by fig. 61. A series of experiments, made with
{the circuit thus arranged, gave—

2
h = 0.43 ea
s

————

A copper plate 6 inches 10 lines in diameter and 0.33 line thick
as placed parallel to the main spiral, at a distance of 24 lines. It
gave—
2

h = 0.412
s

ee

Then a secondary spiral exactly like the main spiral was placed
parallel to it, the ends being in perfect metallic contact. This arrange-
\jment gave—

2
| hi 0.42 2
| ‘
| Hence, neither the copper disk nor the secondary spiral had a sensi-
ble influence on the temperature of the conducting circuit. Instead
of the perfect metallic closure, a less perfect closure of the secondary
ispiral was made; that is, the ends of the copper wire were connected
by a platinum wire 138 lines long and 0.023 in. radius. The secondary
spiral thus closed being placed 5 lines distant from the main spiral
the result was—

2
| h= 0.322;

oS placed at the distance of only 23 lines from the main spiral the
result was—

2
A627 wl
8

The secondary spiral, clesed by a German silver wire 460 lines
long and one-twelfth line diameter, and placed 23 lines from the main
spiral, gave—

2
h= 0.17,
8
The secondary spiral, closed by a glass tube filled with water 9
| inches long, gave—
2
h = 0.39 £,
8

We will now subject these results to a somewhat closer examination.
The current in the conducting circuit, as seen above, generates a

:
|

344 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

current both in the copper plate and in the secondary spiral, but t f
current in the secondary spiral cannot induce a current in the main )
spiral, because the latter is not closed by metal, the two coatings ¢ |
the jars being separated by glass. The only possible influence of the |
current in the secondary spiral upon that in the main spiral is som |
retardation of the discharge.

Now, if the closure of the secondary spiral is more perfect than thal {
of the main spiral, the current of the former will pass more rapidly ;
than that of the latter, and on that account no reaction of the second- 4
ary spiral can take place upon the main spiral; hence, with a more :
perfect closure of the secondary spiral, the temperature in the conduct= :
ing circuit is found very little less than when no secondary spiral i
present. i,

With an imperfect metallic closure of the secondary spiral th
secondary current has a longer duration, and then the discharge cure
rent in the main wire finds, during its whole course, the secondar
wire traversed by a current passing in the same direction, and we 3
must assume that this is the cause of the retardation of the main curs -
rent, which is indicated by the diminished temperature ; by imperfect |
closure of the secondary spiral the temperature in the main current ;
was reduced in the proportion of 0.43 to 0.17.

By inserting a tube of water into the secondary spiral the tempera=
ture again increases almost as much as though no secondary spiral |
had been present, which is well explained by the fact that, with very
imperfect closure of the spiral, no sensible secondary current is gen= -
erated.

The circumstance that, with quite perfect as well as with very im= ~
perfect closure of the secondary spiral, the influence on the main wire ©
is less than for a aera ian good closure, leads us Lip ees! that,

oy
Ts,

that, with a given length of the introduced wire, the influence of ‘thal i
secondary spiral will become a maximum, and then decrease again, and _
that, therefore, the elevation of temperature of the conducting cireui Dt
of the main spiral will again increase when the wire by which the
secondary spiral is closed is lengthened. a

This was verified by experiments which Riess made.—(Pog. Ann.,
LEA ATT: B

erceehe by 100 the temperature observed in the thermometre
introduced in the conducting circuit of the main spiral, the secondary
spiral being closed by a short thick copper wire, the results given
by the insertion of a German silver wire 0.1517 line diameter and 0 s
different lengths, are as follows:

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 345

Length of wire. | Temperature.

|
4.8 feet. 70
9.8 « 55
19.7 « 52
29.6 « 48
39.4 6 52
88.7 « 61
138,“ eee 3
236. 76
582. « 87
Open. 100

It is seen from this table how very rapidly at first the temperature
f the circuit of the main spiral decreases with increasing length of
xerman silver wire inserted in the circuit of the secondary spiral, and
hat a minimum is reached when the l-ngth of the introduced wire is
9.6 Paris feet, in which case the heating effect is only 48 per cent. of
hat which is observed with perfect closure of the secondary spiral.
hen the length of the wire exceeds 29.6 feet the temperature grad-
ally increases again; and by lengthening the wire to 582 feet the
emperature rises to 87 per cent. of that originally obtained.

A metallic closed circuit near the conducting wire of an electrical
attery acts retardingly on the discharge of the battery in proportion to
he length of its closing wire. The circuit of the secondary wire being
rogressively prolonged its action successively increases, attains a maxi-
num, and then decreases.

The changes which the temperature in the main wire undergoes by
engthening the secondary wire, obey the law indicated by the last
able, whether the charge of the battery be stronger or weaker ; with
tronger charges, as well as with weaker, the ‘retarding effect of the
econdary wire attains a maximum when the secondary spiral is closed
y 29.6 feet of the above-mentioned German silver wire; and then the
emperature in the main wire is 48 per cent. of that which would
ave been observed with an equal charge if the secondary spiral had

perfect metallic closure; but as soon as the conducting circuit of
he main wire is lengthened by the introduction of a thin wire the
sourse of the retarding effect of the lateral wire changes.

In the main conductor a platinum wire 7 inches 5 lines long and

023 line radius was introduced, and the results in the following
able were obtained ; the lateral spiral being closed by German silver

ire of different lengths :

Lengthof German | Temperature of
silver wire. main wire.
-0 feet 100
29°56 a8 82
| Agua 78
: 69. « 78
' 25 Ly 91

346 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

We see here that, on prolonging the main conductor, the maximum |
effect. of the secondary wire is not reached until a greater length of wire |
has been introduced into the secondary spiral, and moreover that the re
tarding effect of the secondary wire is now much less. During the pre-)
vious experiments the temperature of the main wire was reduced
the maximum effect of the secondary spiral to 48 per cent.; now, tl
maximum effect of the secondary spiral produces only a reduction :
78 per cent. of the temperature, which would have been observed eithe
without the secondary spiral or by one perfectly closed. . a

This is easy to explain. The secondary current is stronger in pro=}
portion as the part of the main wire acting on the secondary wire ig i
greater, and to the stronger secondary current we must also attribute:
a greater reaction upon the discharge. The length of the main
was the same in both series of experiments, namely, 13 feet of cop)
wire, which acted upon the same length of the secondary wire. ]
the first series these 13 feet made by far the greatest part of the ciret
of the battery ; in the second a platinum wire was introduced, whose re- }
tarding power was equal to a copper wire 568 feet long and 0.55 line,
thick; consequently, in the last case, only about one-forty-fourth part:
of the virtual length of the main wire acted upon the secondary spiral. |

Riess caused two other spiral disks to be made, each containing 534
feet of copper wire two-thirds of a line in diameter. The large and |
small spirals were introduced into the main circuit.

The small main spiral being now placed opposite the small seconde
spiral at a distance of 2 lines, the maximum retarding action of the|
secondary spiral took place when it was closed with 29.6 feet of :

ae, _- =

man silver wire. With this maximum effect the temperature of t
main circuit was 76 per cent. of that which was observed without th
lateral spiral, or when it was perfectly closed.
When the large secondary spiral was opposed to the large m
spiral at a distance of 2 lines, the maximum retarding action of t
secondary wire occurred when the latter was closed by 79 feet of Ge
man silver wire, and in this case the temperature in the main wire was
reduced by the retarding action of the secondary spiral to 45 per cent,
Finally, the two secondary spirals, properly connected, being placed
opposite the two main spirals, then 138 feet of German silver wire had
to be introduced into the secondary circuit to obtain the op

if

retarding effect, and the temperature in the main wire was thereby |
reduced to 20 per cent. of that which would have been observed with-}
out a lateral spiral. From these experiments it follows that— a
The maximum effect of a secondary wire upon the electrical hecho
attained by lengthening the secondary circuit is as much greater as the’
length of the main wire acting on the secondary wire is greater. But,
at the same time, to attain this maximum, a proportionately longer circuit
is required for the secondary wire. | |
The length of the platinum wire in the air thermometer in these:
experiments was 143.5 lines. This wire, which is very long in pro-'
portion to the whole circuit, can never act inductively on the secondary”
wire ; to make the longest possible part of the main wire act on the
secondary spiral, the wire in the thermometer must be shortened, by)
which means the action of the main wire is, indeed, increased, but on)
the other hand the sensibility of the thermometer is diminished.

|

} 4
| RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 347

Riess, in order to shorten the platinum wire which closed the main
spiral, used Berguet’s metallic thermometer instead of the air ther-
ometer.
A straight platinum wire 61.5 lines long and 0.04 line radius was
stened immovably in the axis of a sensitive thermometric spiral,
‘similar to that represented in fig. 63, and intro-
uced into the circuit in a suitable manner. The
instrument was of course placed under a bell-
oy The platinum wire in the axis, on being
heated by a discharge of the battery, commu-
icated its heat to the spiral; the index then
raversed a number of degrees, but soon returned
its first position, in consequence of the rapid
oling caused by the large volume of air in the
li-glass.
The experiments with the metallic thermometer
ach nothing new, on which account no further mention need be made
f them, though I could not leave this method of observing unnoticed.

§ 66. Direction of the secondary current.—To investigate whether
the direction of the lateral current changes with the distance of the
secondary wire from the main wire, Riess used the following method.
(Pog. Ann., LXXI, 351.)
| Au insulator, which cannot be pierced by electricity, being placed
between the free ends of the secondary spiral, no secondary current
occurs. Nevertheless the electrical equilibrium of the secondary wire
is destroyed by the act which would have produced the current, as the
following experiment shows: ‘

If we place between the free ends of the
secondary spiral a thin cake ot resin, so
that the two ends of the wire are opposed
to each other, after the discharge of the
battery by the main line, the two surfaces
of the cake of resin may be distinguished
(from each other in the most decided man-
iner. Peculiar electrical figures are pro-
duced, which, in most cases, are brought
‘out by slightly breathing upoh them. If
it be desired to fix the figures, it is done,
as shown by Lichtenberg, by strewing the
be sbi with a mixture of flowers of sul-
phur and minium. On one of the sur-
faces of the resin treated in this way there
appears a red disk, with a red border, and beyond it a dark (unpow-
dered) ring, surrounded by yellow rays. On the other surface yellow
and red segments of circles are visible, embraced by a wide red ring.

The rays and the ring increase with the
‘strength of the electrical excitation; with
'very feeble excitation the rays of the first
| figure are wanting, and a simple red disk
| remains, which, however, is sufficiently dis-
|

Fig. 65. Fig. 66.

tinct from the second figure, in which the
red ring may always be recognized.

348 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

Each of these figures is composed of the two elementary formg)
which Lichtenberg has distinguished as positive and negative, and)
for this reason the direction of the secondary current cannot be de
duced from these figures. .

In the following experiments the ends of the secondary spiral wey
lengthened by copper wires, and a part of one formed a short, close
coil, wound to the right. In fig. 67 let z and y indicate the ends ¢
the secondary spiral to which the above-mentioned wires are attache¢

Fig. 67.

the resin it was introduced between a and f. Th
results contained in the following table were obtaing
with the small main and secondary spirals, consistin
of 13 feet of copper wire, already mentioned. .
In the main spiral the discharge current passed 1
the direction indicated by the arrow. ‘The following
table shows the polarity indicated by the needle when
it lay in the coil pointing towards m.
A glass plate was interposed between the two spirals.

maf?

ee oe. a ea oe eS

Distance of Main wire. Quantity of | Polarity
spirals. electricity. at m.

8
CA 9h TO ith

It is seen that for the same direction of the main current the mag +
netism of the needle varies with the other circumstances, whence a
difference in the directions of the secondary current might be deduced; |)
but the resin plate being interposed between a and f, and the battery”
discharged through the main spiral under all the circumstances given ||
in the table, fig. 65 was constantly formed on the side of the resin.
plate turned toward the end of the wire 8—a proof that the direction |
of the secondary current remained the same, though the magnetism —
of the needle was reversed. i.

Riess used for producing the figure a small glass or copper plate, —
both sides having been covered with a thin coating of pitch or resin.

A surface of resin once used must be heated over the flame of a
spirit lamp to melting before it can be employed again. iN

The direction of the secondary current, which, as already remarked, |
could not be directly determined from the figures of the resin plate, |
was ascertained in the following way: Two three-inch condensers |
were separated by a thin plate of mica; the lower one touched the ©

, | RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 849

arging the battery, a small bluish spark passed. After discharging
rough the main spiral the upper plate was removed and tested by
e electrometer. For a positive charge of the battery the condenser
late, which touched the end f, was found electro-negative. The
ayed figure (fig. 65) is, therefore, always produced by the end charged
ith negative electricity ; and, consequently, the secondary current has
lways the same direction as the main current.
| The experiment made by Riess for ascertaing the direction of the
teral current by the decomposition of iodide of potassium failed, as
ie did not succeed in producing the decomposition by the secondary
urrent.—(Pog. Ann., XLVII, 74.)

§ 67. Deflection of the magnetic needle by frictional electricity.—The
foils of a multiplier, used for producing a deflection of the magnetic
eedle by a current of frictional electricity, must be very well insulated.
Riess has constructed such a multiplier (Pog. Ann., XL, 348) of a
‘jopper wire 105 feet long and one-sixth line in diameter, which,
-jovered with three coats of silk and in 260 coils, formed 4 layers on
‘jeing wound upon a suitable frame. Before winding a length of the
yire it was twice covered with shellac varnish, and the wrapping
jut on before the varnish was perfectly dry. Hach layer was again
arnished after wrapping.
| The cylindrical astatic needles belonging to this coil were 22.5 lines
png, 0.4 line in diameter, and 5 lines apart. The combined needles

ade one oscillation in 6.6 seconds.
One of the wire ends of such a multiplier being placed in conductin
jonnexion with the conductor, the other with the cushion of the elec-
biel machine, a deflection of 10 to 20 degrees could be maintained
y turning.

When it is desired to deflect the needle by the discharge current of
he electrical battery the discharge of course must be retarded by the
nsertion of bad conductors, such as moist strings, glass tubes filled
ith water, &c.
| The latest experiments made by Riess on this point (Pog. Ann.,
feat 535) gave results showing that the deflection of a magnetic

: d of the wire a; the upper was so near the end f that, in dis-

eedie by the wire which slowly discharges an electrical battery 7s
ndependent of the surface of the battery, provided a perfect discharge
f the bat-tery takes place. It is therefore immaterial to the deflec-
ion of the needle whether the same quantity of electricity is distri-
uted over one or over several jars.
| Faraday had attempted (Haxperimental Researches, 363, Pog. Ann.,
9) to compare the discharge current of the electrical battery with
hat of a voltaic current. After obtaining a given deflection of the
ea needle by discharging a battery he constructed a voltaic
vair, which, acting 3} seconds, produced the same deflection as the dis-
‘tharge of the battery ; and he concluded that the quantity of electricity
rielded by the pair was equal to that accumulated in the battery.
Riess justly remarks, that this conclusion is not well founded, be-
pause the instantaneous action of the discharge current of the battery
n the needle is essentially different from that of a galvanic current,

350 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

I have reported Riess’ researches without interrupting the course
the narration by speaking of what has been done by others on the say
subject. Let us now turn to these labors.

§ 68. Knochenhauer’s researches on the current.—In a second artig le,
with the title ‘‘ Haperiments on Latent Electricity,’ (Versuche tber\
die gebundene, Elektricitat, Pog. Ann., LVIII, 391 ») Knochenhauer pre-)
sents the law according to which the force of the secondary currel
decreases when the distance from the main wire increases.

Riess has shown, as already mentioned, § 61, that the force of thet
secondary current decreases in the same proportion in which the ax
distance of the secondary wire from that of the main wire increases, ,

Knochenhauer: thinks this law is ‘‘ evidently insufficient.”’ ie

Starting, apparently, from the idea that the lateral current is a pl
nomenon of induction, Knochenhauer attempts to apply here his lay

Thatalaw stating the relation between action and distance, adap
to the case of spherical bodies only, in which all action can be cons
ered as starting from a single point, cannot hold good for wires r
ning parallel to each other does not stop Herr Knochenhauer.
law has such an astonishing elasticity that, by barely changing the
efficient, it serves for the secondary current. In his opinion there sub
sists between the force of the secondary current (measured by the airi
thermometer) and the distance of the wire the relation

6=— Aavn_

in which @ denotes the temperature of the thermometer in the second-/
ary wire, and n the distance of the secondary from the main wire.

This n, however, is not the axial distance, but the distance of the)
wire in the clear, in which he assumes three lines as unity ; hem
the magnitude of 7 has first to be computed from the axial distam
a given by Riess. i

He first compares his formula with the results found by Riess. -
series of these observations he arranged in the following table, with
the values computed by his formula:

d. © observed. 6 computed. Difference.

Lines. .
2.71 0. 216 0. 219 + 0.003
6.78 0. 145 0. 143 — 0.002
11. 24 0. 119 0. 104 \ — 0.015
16. 01 0. 081 0.079 — 0.002
19. 61 0. 066 0. 066 0. 000 M
23. 87 0. 054 g. 055 + 0.001 ren |

a

In fact the values observed and those computed by the above form: !)
ula correspond sufficiently well by making A = 0.401, a = 0.489.)
Indeed, the formula answers for very short distances, for which the:
law of Riess, on evident grounds, is no longer applicable. |
But does this accordance of Knochenhauer’s formula with the observar \

*See Report of 1856.

|

| RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS, 351
ions prove its correctness? Certainly not. When there are two
jonstants at our disposal it is easy to invent a whole mass of formulas
_ hich would serve just as well; that is, they will accord with the few

sumbers observed within narrow limits, quite as closely as the limits
re narrow. Asa proof I propose

; @6=A+ blog. D;

e first best arbitrary formula that occurs to me. In this formula let
denote the temperature of the secondary wire, D the axial distance
WANG Wires’ Makine A — 0.276, and 6 — 0-16? thiaformula’ will
gree with Riess’ observations as well as that of Knochenhauer; as the
following table shows, in which the third vertical column contains
_ {he values computed by the above formula:

/ d, © observed. 6 computed. Difference.

i Lines.
; 2.71 0. 216 0. 207 — 0.003
| 6.78 0. 145 0. 143 — 0.002
11. 24 0.119 0. 107 — 0.012
| 16. 01 0. 081 6. 084 + 0.003
| 19.61 0. 066 0. 069 + 0.003
j 23. 87 0. 054 0. 056 — 0.002

| In spite of this harmony between observation and computation, this

formula expresses just as little as Knochenhauer’s, the law according
to which the force of the secondary current decreases with the distance
rom the main wire.

Knochenhauer has himself made a series of experiments to confirm
is formula, and by which he would show that the magnitude of a
epends upon the conducting capacity of the main circuit, of the sec-
ndary circuit, &e. The description of the modus operandi of the
xperiments, how the wires were extended, &c., is exceedingly obscure,

and since, I think, I have proved the inaccuracy of his formula, a
further account of these experiments is unnecessary.

This memoir forms the introduction to further researches, which
relate to the secondary current and currents in branched circuits.
The following are the titles of the memoir on these subjects:
| On the lateral current in divided conducting wires of the battery.—

(Fos. Ann,. LX—LXX, 235.)
| On the electrical current in divided conducting wires of the battery.
\(Pog. Ann., LXI, 55.)
| On the diminution of the main current with divided conducting
wires of the battery.—(Pog. Ann., LXII, 353.)
| On the relation of the formulas which determine the development
lof heat by the electrical and the galvanic current.—(Pog. Ann., LXI,
(207. :
BPs sts on the electrical secondary current.—(Pog. Ann.,
\LXIV, 64, and Pog. Ann., LXVI, 235.) .
' Determination of the compensating length of wire without the air
‘thermometer.—(Pog. Ann., LXVII, 327.)

.

|

352 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSIOS.

Solution of the problems recently proposed on branched galvani
currents, for the discharge current of the electrical battery. —(Po y)
Ann. SUX Vi 136.) ay |

On the ratio of tension in the discharge current of the electrica
battery.—(Pog. Ann., LX1X, 77.) |

On the comparison ‘of the electrical formula with the alo ‘a
(Pog. Ann., LXIX, 421.) !

The experiments mentioned in these memoirs are very badly aa
scribed ; the discussions inflated, confused, and full of difficult formulagy
which do not lead to simple, clear, and well founded results. Tt

Since the design of this report is to present to the reader the pro
gress of physics, and not to weary him with criticisms on fruitl
labors, I need say no more of Knochenhauer’s memoir on the latera
current and kindred subjects. The criticism on the abovementioned
paper suffices to justify me in this respect. i

§ 69. Charging current of the electrical battery.—In«Fig. 68 le Hig
and b denote two electrical batteries, both of which are “insulated
The exterior coatings of both batteries being in metallic connexion
suppose @ to be charged and b to remain uncharged. i

Fig. 68. Now, if any suitable dischargery
fitted to the knob of the j jar b, aps
proaches the knob of the charged
jar, a spark passes, the jar a be
comes partially discharged, a parti
of the (e. g.) positive electricity)
which was accumulated on the im
ner coating of a, passes with @
spark to the inner coating of BY
while a corresponding quantity of
negative electricity passes withow
spark, by the conducting connexion of the outer coatings, from @
Fs b.

In this manner @ is partly discharged and 6 charged; the charge
of b is not gradual, as in ordinary charging of jars, but very rapid
Dove terms the current which, passing from the outer coating of @|
to that of b, charges the latter battery, the charging current, (Ladungs-s
stvom,) and he has compared the action of this current with the action)
of the discharge current already ana is aan He found the:
following results, (Pog. Ann., LXIV, 8

1. Induction. In the outer cae wire a cylindrical induction
spiral was introduced, surrounded by an exterior secondary a
The effects were the same as in the discharge stroke.

2. Sparks. The outer connecting wire having been interrupted, @ a
brilliant white spark, with a loud report, appeared at the place x
external interruption the instant the spark at the inner conducting
wire passed. A moist thread being introduced into the inner con-)
ducting wire, the spark assumes a redish yellow color and has a feeble).
report ; the same change is also indicated in the place of interrupt
of the outer connecting wire, in which there is no moist thread. |

Dove found further that the “« charging current’’ produced in the
same manner as the discharge current. |

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 353

| 3. Galvanic effects.
} Magnetization of steel.
_ 5. Physiological effects.
. Penetration of bad conductors, and
| 7. Evolution of heat.

The needle of a galvanometer inserted in the connecting wire of
she outer coatings is not affected when the inner coatings are brought
nto metallic contact with a white and loudly sounding spark, without
he interposition of a moist thread ; but it is sensibly affected when a
noist thread is introduced there. The magnetizing of a steel needle
laced ina spiral was produced with great effect in the first case,
without interposition,) but feebly in the second case, (with inter-
osition. )

The contents of one of Dove’s papers in Pog ggendort’s dnnalen,
LIV, 305,) bearing the title, ‘‘ On the current induced in magnetiz-
ng iron by means of frictional electricity,’s will have to be presented

ater, because this subject is closely related to the corresponding
ffects of the galvanic current.

> Ore OO

a

§ 70. Hankel’s researches on magnetizing steel needles by the discharge
ark of the elecvrical battery. Hankel has published two large me-
oirs on this subject, (Pog. Ann., LXV, 537, LXIX, 321.) In the
irst he speaks of Savary’s observations, and then proceeds to the
escription of his own experiments, the results of which are as follows:

1. When the discharge stroke passes through a spiral in which a
teel needle is placed, a certain minimum of charge is generally ne-

essary to magnetize the needle. Calling the polarity which it receives
y the discharge stroke of this minimum, normal, the needle will be-
ome abnormally magnetic by gradually increasing discharges, and
one normal by still stronger charges, &c. The abnormal magnet-

appears with strong charges of the battery, as the pieces of wire
atrodiced into the circuit of the battery are longer in proportion as
he charge is stronger.

When in addition to the spiral and the pieces of the conducting
ircuit remaining constant in all the experiments, an iron wire 34
eet long and 0.1 line in diameter was introduced, abnormal magnet-
sm was obtained with a charge 70 (measured by sparks of the measur-
mg jar); on inserting 82 feet of the same wire a charge of 120 was
lequired, and a wire of 154 feet required a charge of 160.
| 2. When a battery of more, and then one of fewer jars was used
vith the same conducting circuit, the battery of the less number of
rs produced the abnormal period with a less charge.
| An iron wire of 202 feet having been introduced, a charge of 20
with two jars produced abnormal “magnetization, while by using 5
ars it was only obtained with a charge of 70, and with 9 jars, even
he quantity of electricity 230, did not produce abnormal magnetiza-
ion. .
| If with gradually increasing charges, the change from normal to
.bnormal magnetization is not always obtained, these periods are
ievertheless not wholly wanting ; for an increase and decrease of the
itrength of the normal magnetism is observed, and the minima of the

23 8

|
}

t

354 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

normal magnetization correspond in this case to the abnorm
periods.

Hankel applied himself to the explanation of this hentai
and he lays down the following as the fundamental idea :

‘Tt is known from Faraday’s researches, that a current at its com=
mencement generates an opposite current in a neighboring conductor ;
at its cessation, on the other hand, a second current which passes in|
the same direction with the original one. The electrical sparks must!
act in both ways, upon a steel needle placed near the wires, as the» !
needle is perpendicular to the direction of the current, the planes 6: f (
the currents produced in the needle are likewise perpendicular to #
length of the needle, and the magnetism of the needle will be’
opposite directions according as we consider it to be excited by 1
action of the beginning or by. the cessation of the spark. But the o
instants of beginning and end of electrical sparks follow each other
rapidly, that their separate effects cannot be measured ; ‘hence mag)
ization is the result of both of these influences.’ 4

This is essentially the fundamental idea to which Wrede (Beraeli
Jahresbericht, deutsch von Wéohler, 20ster Jahrgang, 8. 119,) song
to reduce the alternate normal and abnormal magnetism of steel need
by the discharge stroke in main as well as in secondary wires. _ :

As already intimated by Riess, (Dove’s Repertorium, VI, 218,) thi
mode cf explanation belongs yet to the domain of conjecture. It is
possible that this is the natural process in magnetizing steel needles
by the discharge stroke, but it is by no means proved. i

On the whole this explanation seems very plausible; but the dedue-
tion of the particulars of the phenomenon is not at all convineing
although Hankel expresses himself quite at length upon the subj
We wili do well to consider this as still an open question.

Riess remarks, in the place above cited in Dove’s Repertorium, that
it is better, and more for the furtherance of science, openly to confess
the deficiencies of our knowledge, than to attempt to aid it with halt,
explanation and to cover up its defects ; ; and in this connexion he
quotes a passage from Franklin’s letters, which should be taken to
heart by every scientific man: ap

“©T find a frank acknowledgment of one’s ignorance is not only the
easiest way to get rid of a difficulty, but the likeliest way to Ye
information ; I think it an honest policy.’

In the second memoir Hankel treats of the following points:

1. The number and magnitude of the magnetizing periods, pen
tioned in the first memoir.

The action of different spirals.

The action of the conducting wire upon itself. By |
. The influence of the thickness of the needles. |
. The influence of the surface of the battery. |
. The changes of the alternations by obstacles interposed.
Special influence of particular metals, totally distinct from theit
conducting capacity. 3

We will consider these points in succession : |

1. As a magnetizing spiral, a spiral of silver wire was employe
with coils so close that the introduced needle covered 31 of them

on ‘

2

aT op OTH Go bo

|

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 355

the charge of the battery was regularly increased by 1 spark of the
,easuring jar, and at each discharge a new needle was magnetized ;
ne strength of the magnetism cominunicated was then determined by
ie time which the needle required to make a given number of vibra-
ons. A copper wire 2.63 metres long and 1. 2966 millimetre diam-
yer was used in the circuit together with the spiral.

In this manner Hankel made a series of experiments whose results
pe represented graphically in fig. 69. The abscissas are proportional

HS eee SP
bes sfar toa eee/ aeeaGee ae
HE He eat oe Ray,

Bis Sel

the strengths of the battery charges, the ordinates to the strengths
| the corresponding magnetization. The ordinates above the hori-
ntal 0 correspond to normal, those below to abnormal magnetism.
This curve does not produce the impression of regularity ; it seems
ither to mask some sort of a law by irregularities which cannot be
rrected by computation. But in such cases the law may be repre-
puted by averages obtained from numerous experiments.

| Hankel says he repeated these experiments with the shortest circuits,
) determine the position of the abnormal, or equally significant weak
prmal periods ; from all his experiments with the same kind of needle,
sing the same battery of nine jars, he found these periods to occur an
fe followi ing charges: 3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 16, 18, 21, 23, 26, 29, 32,

5, 40.
| Hankel says, ‘‘ we see that the change in the polarity returns regu-
irly ; but I can find in this series of numbers nothing very clearly
«pressed, and least ofallregularity. He says, moreover, that this regu-
\rity might have been more clearly represented by the introduction
“fractions, but he purposely avoided them, as he had not measured
1em exactly, but only estimated them.

' Now, what does this mean? Does not the above series of numbers
»present the means of numerous experiments made under the same
padition ? IRfthis is the case, why hesitate to introduce fractions?
-ean values are generally computed, not observed.

To render it possible for the reader to judge of the value of his re-
alts, Hankel should have told how he arrived at the series 3, 6,9,

, &e. ; ; and he should have communicated the separate series of
<periments in order that one might ascertain how far the separate

»ries differed from the mean on account of accidental disturbances,

oH

356 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. |
|

The series of experiments represented by fig. 69, were compared /
Ww i two others in which the spirals were so iioved't in Ne direction 0 |
their length that the needle covered only 28 coils in the second, andf |
only 134 in the third series. The general result was, that the periods I
were longer i in proportion as the needles covered fewer coils,

3. As mentioned above, Riess announced the proposition that, in dis-
charging a battery, no part of the circuit acts inductively upon itself, i
Hankel contests this proposition. He comes to the opposite conclu- |
sion from the following experiments : "

A copper spiral of tolerably large diameter was surrounded bya
similar spiral, the two being so arranged that the discharge could at?
pleasure be made to pass through the two, either in the same or in |
opposite directions.* A magnetizing spiral was also introduced into the
circuit’ The march of the magnetizing periods for both arrangements t
being then compared they did not harmonize, and hence “Hankel :
inferred that there was necessarily an interference of effects. / a

Even if it be conceded that Reiss’ experiments are not sufficient to} ;
establish his proposition, those of Hankel are still less fitted to over t
throw it ; for, in the phenomena of magnetism by the discharge stroke, £
our knowledge of what is regular or what may be accidental is not ;

SRSA Ie
She ict PSaee Ss
freer per eer Ree
epelsdetolal eee

Pa
Fe a re Ds
0S A 2

such as to permit a safe conclusion to be drawn from the want of coin-’
cidence of two such series of experiments.
The differences which occur in magnetizing steel needles, accordiug

i ‘Hankel gives the thickness of the ¥ wire to the z5p4555 Of a millimetre, which appears to
me an unnecessary accu)acy, considering the other relations of this series of experiments,

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. Bae |

us a long wire introduced into the circuit is extended in a straight
ine or wound into a spiral, will be considered below under No 6.

4, It appears in general, as Hankel infers from his experiments,
hat with coarse needles the phenomena do not change ; the anomalous
yeriods occur only with stronger charges, and also appear to have lost
n strength.

5. New experiments on the influence of the surface of the battery,
orresponding to the previous ones, indicated that a diminution of the
urface brought about the anomalous periods with decreasing charges,
jut so shortened them .that, with a certain size of the battery, they
eased to appear as abnormal magnetization ; weak and strong normal
yeriods only were then observed.

6. Besides the short insertion, with which the results in fig. 69 were

ybtained, Hankel made experiments with inserted copperwires extended
n a straight line 0.23 millimetre diameter, and varying between 0.375
nd 96.4 metres in length. The curves 1 and 2, fig. 70, represent
he results which he obtained with the wires 12 and then 96.4 metres
ong. ‘These curves seem to indicate that with longer insertions the
eparate small periods disappear, until at last only a large normal pe-
iod is observed with stronger magnetism, after which follows a very
road negative period, (from 30 to 100,) in which, however, very weak
nagnetism is observed.
_ With reference to the disappearance of the smaller periods, these
xperiments do not admit, in my opinion, of any certain conclusion,
ecause the charge of the battery was increased from 5 to 5 for the
onger insertions, and from 2 to 2 for the medium, while they increased
nly by 1 in the shortest. Where is the guarantee that in the longer
vires single periods are not passed over? Hankel preserves silence
n this point.

In relation to the influence of the coils, Hankel compares the result
epresented by the second curve of fig. 70 with those which are given by
03 metres of the same wire wound into 70 coils. While, with straight
vires, a normal period extends to 30, and is then followed by a long
jegative weak one, he observed, with coiled wires, 3 normal and 3 ab-
jormal periods.

When 26 metres of a very thick (30.76 square millimetres in sec-
on) quadrangular copper wire were inserted, no change was seen in

e succession of the periods, but they were generally feebler. When,

addition, 113 metres of a round (1.3 millimetre) wire were inserted,
retched in a straight line, the results represented in the third curve
f fig. 70 were obtained. Nearly all reversions disappeared, the needles
emed but feebly magnetic.

When 94 metres of the thick wire were coiled into a spiral and

serted in the circuit, the results presented in the fourth curve of
g. 70 were obtained. The enfeebling of the magnetism appeared
ere in the thick coiled wires still more strikingly than in that ex-
ended at length. .

The influence of the coiling upon the thick and the thin copper wires is
vidently very different; yet, says Hankel, (page 336 of his 2d Memoir,)
Ea influence is the same in both cases. ‘The discussion, by means of
vhich he seeks to prove this, is incomprehensible to me; indeed, [I
annot call Hankel’s reasoning in general clear and precise.

;

358 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

ducing anomalous ade of very consider aiiie strength. Hankel al
found them particularly striking with thick, long iron wires,
a thick copper wire greatly weakens the magnetism, the latter is con-
siderably strengthened by a thick iron wire. On introducing an i ‘
wire 1.27 millimetre diameter and 131 metres long it gave, for ‘instaneey i
the result for a charge 6, a normal maximum 11; for a charge 36, ani
anomalous magnetism of the strength 94, taking for unity the mag:
netizing strength adopted i in constr ucting the above ¢ curves.

thick sides, (over 1 line,) and : fects a very wide uneoaten ee
Spontaneous discharge is pipievented by the width on the oe ws a

Pt

reach a far toe degree tans in the naa thin jars, in which, i
a spontaneous discharge does not occur, a fracture of the glass is ‘'
be feared. B

with thinner glass. With the same quantity of ane and a
the same density of the free electricity on the inner coating, less elec
tricity will be accumulated in thick glass jars than in those of |
glass ; in general, therefore, the quantity of electricity which a thid )
class j2 wr can receive is less, ‘but the tension of the free lect

It is to os expected that with the greater striking distance, ot n
effects of the discharge will also suffer a change. All effects of the)

with large, thin glass jars, but where the force of the shock is the
main object, thick glass jars serve the purpose better; hence it ap.
peared to me probable that the perforation of glass plates should t@ ke

tar. The thickness of the cee jar, fig. 71, 1s about 1h lng ‘

Aa five ee this notice in order to draw He attention:
of other physicists to the point. It is much to be wished
that Riess would take up this subject, since he has already,
labored in this field with such generally acknowledge x

good favittig!

|
| RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 359
|
_ § 72. Electrical figures.—By means of electricity, figures can be
oduced on the surface of different bodies, which are either directly
isible or are rendered visible by strewing dust, or by breathing upon
hem. Riess has made an extensive series of experiments (Pog. Ann.,

XIX, 1) on, these phenomena, the best known of which are the
Lichtenberg figures, and he has determined very accurately the cir-
cumstances under which these figures and images appear.

Riess divides them into primary electrical delineations, or such as
are caused by different parts on the surface of poorly conducting sub-
stances being placed in unlike electrical condition, and becoming
visible on being sprinkled with powders; and

Secondary electrical delineations, which are produced when the film

f foreign matter which covers nearly all bodies is affected by the
lectrical discharge; in this case the figures are made to appear by
breathing upon the plate, or else visible marks may appear imme-
iately, it the surface of the body itself has been in any way attacked.
| We shall first consider the figures made visible by sprinkling pow-
er upon them.

§ 73. Dust figures.—To produce the Lichtenberg figures Riess used
quare copper plates, covered on one or both sides with a coat of pitch
bout 4 line thick.
The formation of dust figures (Lichtenberg figures) is a consequence
f the electroscopic action of electrified spots on the resinous surface
pon the powder itself, electrified by shaking in the bag through
hich it is sifted. A mixture of flour of sulphur and minium is best
or this purpose. Positively electrified places on the plate are covered
ith the su]phur, and therefore appear yellow; the minium, on the
ontrary, is collected on the negative spots, which thus appear red.
The spark having passed over the pitch surface, so that a dust
gure would have appeared if it had been immediately dusted, no
gure will be formed if the pitch surface is first exposed for a second
o the flame of a spirit lamp, by which the electricity is removed from
he plate.
The simplest mode of producing dust figures is the following, used
lso by Riess: A copper plate, covered on one side only with pitch, is
bebe by a conductor, and an insulated metallic point is placed on
he pitch surface. The upper end of the point being touched by the
knob of a positively charged jar, remove the insulated point, and on
owdering with the above described mixture a round yellow sun, with
ense rays, will appear.

The experiment being conducted in the same manner with a nega-
ively charged jar, a perfectly red circular disk will appear.

This diversity in the appearance of the figures is well known; but
iess has directed attention to another remarkable distinction, namely,
hat the positive figure is much larger than the negative, though
qually strong charges have been used.

With a given positive charge of the jar the yellow sun had (as a
mean of 3 experiments) a diameter of 16.1 millimetres.

With an equally strong negative charge the red disk had a diame-

ter (also a mean of 3 experiments) of 5.8 millimetres.

The diameters of the negative and positive figures, produced by

360 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

equally strong charges of the jar, are, consequently, in the ratio of 1)
to 2.77, or the surfaces covered by them are as 1 to 7.67. an
A plate, coated on both sides with pitch, on being brought betwe |
the insulated point and the conducting wire, and subjected to the
above process, the positive figure appears on one side and the negative
on the other. a |
When the jar was charged with negative electricity, the disk ap-.
peared above and the sun below, but the yellow sun in this case wag;
only 2.2 times as large as the red disk, Mp |
The cause of the negative figures being relatively greater than in)
the previous experiment was owing to the excess of negative elec
tricity, which was transmitted te the upper surface ; in fact, a sun
peared on the upper side, which was 3.3 times as great as the red
disk on the under side, when a positively charged jar was used ina
similar experiment.
Riess has shown that the dust figures appear only when the passage:
of electricity on the insulating plate is accompanied by a discontinu
discharge, which may be recognized generally by a peculiar hissing,
By holding the pitched plate to the knob of a charged jar a s
passes with a crashing noise; a discontinuous discharge thus t s'
place, and a figure appears on dusting; but the plate being placed
at such a distance from the knob of the yar that a spark cannot pass,
some electricity still gradually goes over, producing a continuous dis-
charge. If the plate is dusted after standing from 30 to 70 minutes
opposite the knob of the jar, a number of round spots appear irr
larly distributed—yellow, if the jar had a positive, red, if a negative
charge. These spots exhibit no trace of rays ; they are perfectly alik ke
in size and form for both electricities.

Fence, electrical dust figures appear when electricity is transmitted b by
a discontinuous dischar ge to an insulating plate. o

Upon this fact Riess founds a very ingenious explanation of #
difference between positive and negative dust figures. In a discon
tinuous discharge passing over the surface of an insulator the con
densed atmosphere, which covers the surface of all bodies, is forcibly)
penetrated, and a part of the stratum, containing vapor of water, it
projected with violence against the surface of the body. ;

But Faraday has shown that, if moist air impinges forcibly agail
any body, the latter is negatively electrified; thus, then, in this case%
the surface of the plate becomes negatively electrified in consequenct
of the discharge which takes place over the surface; the remainin
electricity of this discharge then has only to spread over a negatively
electrified insulating surface.

The surface being charged with negative electricity, it spreads fab
the point over an insulating surface already negative ; the circum
stances, therefore, not being favorable for the distribution of the nega
tive electricity the figure. cannot become enlarged, and a round cee
form is assumed,

The jar being positively charged, the remainder of the posite
charge spreads from the point over an insulating surface negatively

e

* The cae bs Faraday referred to, scarcely allow of such a conclusion. —(Sei
Report for 1856, p. 364.) G. C 0. 8.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 361

electrified by the discontinuous discharge; the fact that electricity is
already present on the surface, acting attractingly on that issuing
from the point, occasions a greater diffusion of the positive electricity ;
but the circumstance that the positive electricity spreading forth is
artially neutralized by the presence of the negative, causes the radia-
ting form of the positive dust figure.
i To sustain this view, Riess produced a modification of the phenome-
non in rarified air. Ona plate covered with pitch, placed under a
glass receiver, was placed the blunt end of a wire, which received a
spark from a jar charged with positive electricity. With the whole
ressure of the air the sun appeared on dusting the plate; but when
he air was exhausted to 27% lines pressure, only an irregular yellow
speck appeared ; negative electricity behaved in like manner. The
ifference between the positive and negative figures was no longer
bserved at this degree of rarifaction.

When the air was exhausted to 2 or 3 lines the end of the wire left
nly a point, which, with positive electricity was red, with negative,
ellow ; and consequently caused, not by the transmission of electricity
o the plate, but by induction.

The penetration of the stratum of air surrounding the plate is,
herefore, the origin of dust figures.

§ 74. Dust images.—If a stamp (as simple as possible, having a few
aised letters, and for this reason printing types will answer) be
laced on a single pitch plate, (so Riess calls a copper disk coated on
ne side only with pitch,) and electricity be communicated to the
tamp, it acts inductively on the pitch surface, the latter becoming
lectrified at the spot where touched ; and this electricity is opposite
o that of the stamp, for on removing it and powdering the plate with
he mixture mentioned already, a red image of the letter is obtained,
if the stamp is positive; a yellow one, if negative; for the ficur of
ulphur attaches itself to the positive, the minium powder to the nega-

tive spots of the resin plate.

The above described phenomenon underwent numerous modifica-

tions, according to the manner in which the stamp was electrified.

| The stamp being touched by the knob of a charged Leyden jar,
nd then removed in an insulated condition, leaves an image as above
ndicated ; it is, however, very little covered with dust; while the

round, by the formation of dust figures becomes yellow, if the letter

is red, or red, if the letter is yellow.

The stamp being removed uninsulated, the dust figure changes,

whereby the clearness of the image also suffers.

By electrifying too strongly, an actual passage of electricity in part
ccurs at the place where the stamp touches the plate, so that a dust
mage appears, partly red and partly yellow.

Then we have at the same time a dust image and dust figures. To
btain the dust image clearly, the formation of the dust figures must

be avoided, which Riess accomplished in various ways.

| The knob of a Leyden jar was exchanged for a four-inch ball, and

the jar fastened horizontally, so that the pitch plate and the stamp

could be placed under the ball ; the stem of the stamp was half an inch

from the ball. By the inductive action of the ball the end of the stamp

)

|
|
|

362 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. |

touching the pitch was electrified like the ball ; too strong an acev
lation of electricity was prevented by providing the stamp with a point
After the stamp had been exposed from 20 to 30 minutes to the indug i
tive action of the ball, a clear dust image appeared without any dust i
figure, but irregular spots appeared in the ground, which were not of .
the color of the image.
Similar results were obtained when the stamp was placed for several k
hours in connexion with one pole of a powerful dry pile, while the 1
electricity of the other pole was conducted off as completely as possible, «
In these cases, in which generally no dust figures appeared, it was a
indifferent whether the stamp was insulated or not, on its removal, |
The color of the irregular spots showed that they originated in the 1
electricity actually passing from the stamp to the pitch plate at the 1
places which admitted of a slight current. To avoid these, more ready _
passage to a conducting medium must be furnished for this electricity, »
as in the case when the dust images were produced in rarified air, 1
Riess obtained in this manner the most perfect dust images. nif
The dust figures and images, just considered, are, according to Ries
primary electrical delineations ; the figures and i images Now ‘to be oa
sidered are secondary electrical delineations.

§ 75. Electrical breath figures.—The surface of glass, mica, oh
over which an electrical discharge stroke has passed, gives, by breathing ;
upon it, peculiar ramified figures, which stand out from the ue
obscured by the breath with a mirror-lke lustre.

The breath figure indicates the path taken by the electrical Ft
charge over the surface; and its form differs therefore, according to
the nature of this surface. On metal, it appears as a round disk; on
resin, as serpentine stripes; on mica, as fine, many times ramified
lines. E
The breath figure is independent upon the kind of electricity em: |
ployed. ae
That these figures do not originate in the electricity which continues |
to adhere to the surface is established by the fact that they are seen }
on metallic surfaces, on which they appear after the breathing, as)
distinct circles, surrounded by more or less obscure rings ; the breath |
figures also appear a long time after the discharge stroke has passed «
over the surface, or after the surface has been passed over the flame of )
a spirit lamp. Hence, the breath figures cannot be owing to adherin
electricity ; they are to be ascribed to a chang ge of surface which the se ;
stance used has been subjected to, by the electrical discharge.

On a fresh surface of mica, that is on such as is obtained by a frail h
cleavage, breath figures do not appear. This depends upon a peculiar »
property of fresh mica surface, which Riess has described in the 67th |
volume of Poggendorf’s Annalen, page 354. ve

A clean plate of mica being breathed on, or held over evaporating |
water, the result is, as with all bodies, that it will be covered with a +
rapidly disappearing stratum of water, consisting of very small drops, +
which are not in contact with each other. .f

But when the mica has received a fresh surface by cleavage, it re- i
mains perfectly clear, shining and transparent after being breathed om. |

This phenomenon is by no means owing to the fresh surface not »

—o =

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 363

‘condensing vapor of water, for the breath causes it to show the colors
‘of thin plates ; ; it is consequently covered with a coherent stratum of
twater.

| A drop of water which stands at rest on an old surface of mica at
ionce spreads on a fresh surface, and completely covers it. Hence, a
mica surface made by cleavage possesses, in consequence of its great
purity, so great an attraction for the vapor of water that it condenses
‘the water into a coherent stratum, while, had the mica been exposed
ia long time to the air, it would have condensed the water in separate
‘drops.

_ While an old surface of mica is an excellent insulator of electricity

ja fresh surface discharges an electroscope in a few seconds; it acts

Ihygroscopically by condensing the vapor of water of the atmosphere
into a coherent stratum, which conducts electricity.

) This remarkable peculiarity of fresh mica is preserved but a short
time in the air ; in a few days it may be clouded by breathing upon it.
| Very powerful electrical discharges preduce not only a change in
‘the film of foreign matter covering the body, but they alter the surface
lof the body itself. This is the cause of the traces noticed in § 41, occa-
sioned by the discharge spark on glass and mica (electrical colored
istripes) and of the rings of Priestley, which occur when numerous dis-

_ \charges of a battery take place between a point and a polished metallic

surface, whereby oxidation of the metal forms many colored concentric
circles.

| §76. Karsten’s Electrical Figures.—The analogy which Riess de-
lastibes 5 in the VI volume of Dove’s Repertorium der Physik, between
lectrical breath figures and the images of Moser, occasioned Karsten
to examine whether such images could not be obtained in the electrical
way.
| For this purpose he placed (Pog. Ann., LVII, 492) a coin on a
mirror, resting on a discharging metal plate, and caused sparks to
\strike from the conductor of the machine upon the coin, thence passing
to the metal plate, (around the edge of the glass.) "After 100 revo-

_ llutions of the machine the coin was removed ; the glass plate seemed
wholly unchanged, but when breathed upon the image of the coin

appeared distinctly.

| Besides the memoir cited, Karsten has published two others, i in

(Poggendorf’s Annalen, (LVI, 115, and LX, 1,) on electrical images,
but as he has not succeeded in discovering their true nature, it is un-
necessary to go further into the details of these memoirs; and the more,
isince Riess, as we shall see, has correctly ascertained the condition for
producing electrical i images. The report upon Riess’ researches will
itheretore suffice to bring the facts at least, to the knowledge of the
reader.

/ We must, however, briefly notice, by the way, Karsten’s last treatise
kin one particular. In the beginning he adduces many experiments
‘which have been made to explain the cause of Moser’s images ; besides
‘Moser’s own theory, he presents the opinion of Hunt, Know, Fizeau,
'Daguerre, Masson and Moore. Why is the excellent work of Waideles
‘on this subject ignored ? it appears in the first half of the 59th vol-
‘ume of Poggendorf’s Annalen, and after these images had been the

364 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

i)
q

occasion of numerous theoretical extravaganzas, brought us ion ak

the basis of a rational treatment of the subject. Could Karsten not —
have known of this work in drawing up the papers in the 60th volume |
of the Annalen ? a

The explanation which Karsten gives of Moser’s images is altogether |
inadmissible and may be easily refuted. He thinks that, because similar +»
images can be produced by the aid of electricity, Moser’s images must {|
be of electrical origin. He thinks that ‘‘if two bodies, differing in any ;
respect from each other, come in contact, an electrical current is pro- _
duced !’’ and that this is the cause of Moser’s images. ‘4

t

v

The generation of an electrical current by the contact of two a :

a

geneous bodies, which Karsten seems to intimate in this passage, will
not be granted by the most zealous of the adherents of the contact
theory ; but granting even the existence of such a current, it could 1
not produce any image, as the researches of Riess prove. a,

That electrical tension alone, without repeated discharges between 1
the body and the plate, is not sufficient to produce electrical images 4
has been shown by Know in a paper ‘‘On electrical figures and ther- -
mography,’’ (Pog. Ann., LXI, 569,) in which he has proved the »
untenableness of Karsten’s view as to the electrical origin of Moser’s 3
images. a

The rest of the contents of Know’s memoir will be mentioned sub- —
sequently in the proper place. ,

§ 77. Electrical breath images.—Riess placed a metal stamp on a@ &
shining pitch surface, and upon the stamp a small metal weight con- -
nected by a silver wire with the knob of the spark micrometer, receiving {
electricity directly from the conductor of the machine, while the oth

—_

*)

knob of the spark micrometer, one-half line from the first, was in con= ~
ducting connexion with the ground. cl
The machine being now turned, electricity accumulates upon the —
first knob of the micrometer and upon the stamp, until a discharge
takes place by the passage of a spark between the two knobs ; con- ~
tinued turning will charge and discharge the stamp anew. The
discharges follow more rapidly the closer the knobs of the spark
micrometer are together. 4
- After several revolutions of the machine the stamp may be removed,
the plate breathed upon, when a shining image of the stamp shows
itself on the dull ground. &
It is indifferent for the success of this experiment which electricity
is used. ‘
Such images may also be produced on glass and mica, but on these ©
substances they are often imperfect. 4
The simple breath image, Riess says, in caused by repeated electri- ~
cal discharges taking place in opposite directions between the model
and the insulating plate. The electricity communicated to the model
passes over to the plate, then back to the model, when the latter 18
discharged by the spark micrometer ; thus a motion of the same kind
of electricity arises, first downward and thus upward. Since the dis- —
charges between a bad and a good conductor are never perfect, elec- —
tricity, both of the kind used and the opposite kind, remain upon the (

=

™

aS

——

__ a_ sae ees

| RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 365

insulating plates, which are therefore in the condition to produce dust
figures, often even dust images.
' By simply electrifying the stamp, the arrangement being the same
as for producing dust images, no breath image appears. The alter-
nate charge and discharge of the stamp are essentially necessary for
the formation of these images.
| By laying a plate of mica on a pitch plate, and placing a metal
stamp on this, a double discharge of the same kind of electricity takes
place in the same direction in electrifying the stamp, namely, from
the stamp to the upper surface of the mica, and from the under sur-
face of the mica to the pitch plate. When a spark is communicated
to the stamp from a positively charged jar, the pitch surface, when

usted, shows a yellow image of the stamp, surrounded by positive
dust figures. If, therefore, in this arrangement of the stamp alternate
charges and discharges are brought about, the conditions for forming
manifold breath images are fulfilled.
' A pitch surface being covered with a mica plate and a stamp placed
on it, the latter was charged and discharged by the spark micrometer.
After twenty revolutions the upper surface of the mica showed a per-
fect breath image, but the under surfaces and that of the pitch pre-
sented a most imperfect one.
| These images are so frequently imperfect because pitch and mica
adhere closely together in consequence of the electricity remaining
after each discharge and subsequent discharges is conveyed to places
which lie scattered beyond the image surface; but a metallic plate
being substituted for the pitch plate, a perfect breath image is ob-
tained on the upper and lower surfaces of the mica and on the metallic

urface.
| The visibility of the breath images is to be explained, according to
Riess, by the fact that the surfaces are freed by electrical discharges
irom the film of foreign matter with which they are generally covered ;
and he has even proved such a cleansing of the surface by images on
metal. Ona perfectly insulating mica surface Riess produced a breath
image, and the place where the image appeared conducted as well as
a fresh surface of mica, thus showing that it had been freed from the
stratum covering this spot. ;
' In most cases breath images are produced by such a cleansing
action, but they can be excited also by soiling the plate.
| Ona fresh mica surface an obscure image of a stamp was obtained
on ashining ground. On an old surface, which electrified by forty
revolutions, gave a bright breath image; one hundred revolutions
produced a dull image.
| The various kinds of dull breath images depend upon the condition
lof the plate used and of the stamp, and also upon the strength of the
‘electricity; the clear images appear more frequently only because
soiled plates and the Jeast possible electricity are generally used.
' The origin of the breath images, like that of the breath figures, is
ito be ascribed to a change which the electrical discharge produces in
‘the stratum covering the plate, and consists in an increase or diminu-
‘tion of this stratum, according to circumstances.

A spark thrown upon a metallic surface injures it when perfectly

|

366 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

clean, but leaves it unchanged if it is soiled or tarnished. Thisisthe
case, in forming breath images on metals. A very small number of dig-
charges having passed between a metallic surface and one of mica |
covering it, the intermitting discharge begins in the foreign stratum
on the surface of the metal, and the metal remains uninjured ; but
when the stratum is destroyed, and the breath image is produced, and
the discharges are continued, the latter then begin on the metal itself, _
which is thus changed. Such images, appearing without breathing,
and representing some parts of the stamp in brownish colors, Riess
produced on silver with from fifty to sixty revolutions.

§ 78. Electrolytic images.—If the blunt point of a platinum needle —
be placed on a paper moistened with a solution of iodide of potassium,
and lying on a metallic plate connected with the ground, a brown
spot will appear under the point if the needle is electrified positively, —
but there will be no spot if it be negatively electrified. Using positive
and negative electricity one after the other in any order, the coloring
remains even when the quantity of negative electricity far exceeds
that of the positive. |

This fact explains the electrolytic images, which Riess has invented —
for proving the correctness of the view presented above, on the formas —
tion of breath images by alternating discharges. :

A piece of card paper, moistened on one surface with a solution fs |
iodide of potassium, was laid on a metallic plate connected with the —
ground, and then covered with a plate of mica. A stamp was placed on |
the mica, and, being loaded with a weight of 2 to 14 ounces, was con-
nected with the spark micrometer, whose knobs were 3 a line asunder, |
After twenty revolutions of the machine, positive electricity continuing |
to pass between the knobs, a very sharp image appeared on the papell
in which the letters of the stamp appeared with a brown color. a

The explanation of this phenomenon, according to the above, is easy. _
As in breath images, the stamp being charged with positive electricity, —
it passes from the lower surface of the mica to the metal plate, and |
thence through the moist paper; by this passage of the + H to the ~
metal plate the iodide of potassium is decomposed; as soon as a dis-
charge takes place between the knobs of the spark micrometer, an op- —
posite current sets in between the metal plate and the mica; the +H -
now returns to the mica, and the —E through the moist disk to the
metal. While the + E goes to the metal the iodide of potassium is -
decomposed, and this effect is not destroyed by the discharge in the |
opposite direction. y

It is to be remarked that the passage of the + E from the mica to
the metal takes place gradually, while the discharge in the opposite |
direction happens instantaneously. we

The same experiment being repeated in the same manner with — H, |
no image is obtained, but only irregular brown spots.

This also may be easily explained; the negative electricity goes |
gradually to the metallic plate, while the passage in the opposite di-
rection is instantaneous; thus, a greater quantity of positive elec-
tricity returns at once to the metal plate, and passes more readily to |
such points as lie beyond the image surface.

To obtain an image with negative electricity, care has only to be

| RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS, 367
taken that the quantity of + E which returns on the discharge between
the knobs to the metal plate, shall be less, which is attained by bring-
ing the knobs of the spark micrometer closer together.

t

SECTION FOURTH.

ELECTRICAL SPARK AND BRUSH.

§ 79. Faraday’s researches on the spark and brush.—Without going
nto the theoretical disquisition, mentioned in another place,* which
Faraday has given upon the spark and brush, I will present here only
he most important facts which he has obtained in his experiments
pon these phenomena of light.—(Pog. Ann., XLVII and XLVIII.)
In order to compare the resistance which different gases presented
to the passage of sparks, with the corresponding resistance of the air,
araday used an apparatus, a sketch
of which is represented in fig. 72
Two small knobs, sand S, connected
with the conductor of an electrical
achine, were placed opposite to two
arger knobs, / and ZL, in conducting
connexion with the ground. The
diameter of the balls was as follows:

SS SAB uiiatt

The constant interval v between s
land 7 was 0.62 of an inch; the inter-
val u between S and Z was variable.

| It would have been better if the
two smali balls s and S had been
‘perfectly equal in size, and/ and Z
also equal; much more reliable con-
clusions could then have been drawn
from these experiments,

__ The two balls s and / were placed
‘inareceiver, which could be exhaust-
edand then filled with different gases.
_ The receiver being filled with air under the pressure of the atmos-
\phere, the sparks passed alternately at ~ and v, when the intervals at
uw were between 0.6 and 0.79 inches. When the interval at ~ was less
than 0.6 the sparks always passed here, but if it was greater than
(0.79 the sparks then always passed at v.

* See § 24 in the Report for 1856.
}

368 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS,

Similar results were obtained when other gases were in the receiv,
under the atmospheric pressure. There were two limits for the i
terval at uw, between which the spark passed at one time at w, at
another at v; the interval at u being less than the least of these lim- ©
iting numbers, the spark passed always at wu, but being greater than)
the greatest of these numbers it always took place at v. The follow- +
ing table indicates the limits at u for different gases, v having the,
constant value of 0.62 inch: |

Smallest. | Greatest.| Mean. aa. |
ATS RNS een ee sana a eet eee + 0.60 0.79 0. 695
— 0.59 0. 68 0. 635
Oxyceni rs ands seelesioee: ee selene + 0.41 0. 60 0, 505
— 0.50 0, 52 0.510
Mitrogen.jsiandiSieascere re ssei—- + 0,55 0. 68 0. 615
— 0.59 0.70 0. 645
Hydroren; @)and Beis 25-525 ose ce + 0.30 0,44 0), 370
= 05208 0. 30 0.275
Carbonic acid, s and S...--..----. + 0.56 0.72 0, 640
— 0.58 0, 60 0, 590
Olefiant gas, and S..--2..-.. <2: + 0.64 0. 86 0. 750
— 0.69 Ons 0.730
Coalisaaay sand S-escesciccetrec a = +. 0. 37 0. 61 0, 490
— 0.47 0.58 0, 525
Muriatic acid gas, s and §.-....... + 0.89 1. 32 1,105
— 0, 67 0.75 9.720

A similar series of experiments gave for—

Smallest. | Greatest. | Mean.
iyvdrogenj.<<=-— = 0,23 0,57 0, 400
Carbonic acid....--- sand § + 0.51 1.05 0. 780
Olefiant gas...-.---- 0. 66 127, 0, 965

which does not coincide very well with the former results, a proof that
these numbers do not afford sufficient grounds for forming a conclur
s1on.

That within certain limits of distance at w the spark takes pl
alternately at u or v, and consequently that there is not a single p
manent value of w for each gas, over which the spark always happe
at v, but under always at w, depends upon accidents (such as partic
of dust floating in the air) of which we can give no account. on

If at one of the intervals a spark once passed there was generally a
strong tendency in it to appear at the same interval again. a

It is a remarkable circumstance that the range of distance w should)
be much less when s and S are negative than when these balls arey

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 369

fen. This is exhibited in the following table, drawn from the
mer experiments. The range was—

| sand S.
)
| ay Tee
RE i= dale ae sce nate eee oan wen ese 0. 19 0, 09
0 LUBE BSS SESS Se Gmeo. 5 cb Soa eee 0. 19 0. 02
MUROGOD 2652 won't sic 5 uh caceinee s olde Soke 0.13 O11
LAG pa RR SC sak la nS 0. 14 0. 05
@asponic seldacu: cess. <stejesee ses case: 0. 16 0. 02
ALG ORR! © 6 5 oR in atone bee cian sacle s fees oe 0. 22 0, 08
[oe oe Om SO SMe nS ge eicae 0. 24 0.12
BMGNAG RUIN GAS, sc co ceyeeeninwes acts sae 0.43 0. 0S

Although, as Faraday himself remarks, these numbers require con-
erable correction, the general result is striking and the differences
several cases very great.

It appears clearly from these experiments that different gases have
‘t equal capacities for insulation. Considering the mean values of
(for positive charges of sand S,) we perceive that a stratum 0.62 of
inch of—

- \Oxygen ) f 0.505
\Nitrogen | 0.615
epaparogen insulates as well as a stratum | pee
: Se ged ¢ of air, whose thicknes }s gis

Olefiant gas 0.750
(Coal gas | 0.490

Muriatic acid gas | ee LS

at is, an electrical discharge passes as easily through a stratum of
0.370 of an inch thick, as through one of hydrogen of 0.62 of an
ich; an electrical spark penetrates astratum of air 1.105 inch thick as
ily as one of 0.62 of an inch of muriatic acid gas; an electrical
ark passes with decidedly more ease through oxygen, hydrogen, and
al gas than through an equal stratum of air; but muriatic acid
s and olefiant gas present a decidedly greater resistance to the trans-
ission of the spark than an equal thickness of air does.

imilar results were obtained from later but less reliable experi-
nts.—(Pog. Ann., XLVIII, 281.)

he mean values of « are not equal with positive and negative
arges of Sands; for many gases u has a greater mean value with

ositive charge of Sands than with a negative; for other gases it
Tie reverse ; but to draw the conclusion from these experiments that

ny gases more readily allow the negative and others the positive

charge through them, seems to me unwarranted, because the differ-

es of the above table in this respect are within the limit of errors
observation.
‘hus, according to the table given above, the mean value of wu with
ositive charge of s and S is, for—

24 8

a - os ee ey ee eee Pee eee ee

370 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

Hydrogen....... Lalas bie wee Ay Ua. Mp ieths 2 a 0.37 aay
Car Dome HOI ee iias iis antcnaren Meme ee. waste diuie ras oe. 0.645
Cet AIVE COG a iat 4u.ce eda onsen pentsatins £ shiinthicde sstnaie sie SiMaestne 0.75) a

while Faraday obtained from a subsequent serivs of experiments, sim- |
ilarly arranged, the following values:

TIGA TOPE. .v.oexcsnes suds ih ai AG an HOh eee asseanes fo - 09.40
APOC ACLCy see eeeum. sk cbeemanmmniee Lt A 2 aw 98 inde Tb Ei Pa
Oleh name oe eae ae eee. s a's He GRRE R AAS 0.96

Evidently the corresponding values of u, obtained by positive charges 2
of s and S, and which should be exactly equal, differ as much from
each other as the corresponding values for the positive and negative 7
charges of sand S; from which it appears that we are justified in assign- 3
ing no great value to these differences. But there is a further rea on
for ascribing these differences to errors of observation, arising from 4
the fact that when air is in the receiver, and thespark accordingly takes 2
place throughair, the positive and negative mean values for w are found |
unequal, namely: with s and § positive u = 0.695; with s and@ |
negative u = 0.635. These differences can be ascribed only to acci- |
dental disturbances, which produce the errors of observation; for why t
should the spark, with a positive charge of s and S, pass more?
easily through the air at v, and with a negative charge, more easily |
at u, also through the air? Air being in the receiver, and + and = +
charges imparted to s and S, the values for u would be nearly identi- i
cal, unless the errors of observation were too considerable. ge |

Faraday himself does not consider these experiments decisive in this |
respect, but brings forward some facts which seem to indicate some |
such difference between the positiveand thenegative discharge; making
u = 0.8 of an inch, and filling the receiver with muriatic acid gas, |
the discharge always took place, with a positive discharge of s and &, |
at uw, through air, but with a negative charge of s and S at v, through |
the muriatic acid gas. ae

It also appeared that when the conductor was connected only with i
the muriatic acid gas apparatus the discharge occurred more readily |
with a negative discharge of the small ball s than with a positive; for }
in the latter case much of the electricity passed off as brush dischaa (|
through the air from the connecting wire; but in the former case Ib 1

all seemed to go through the muriaticacid.—(Pog. Ann., XLVII, 287.)

§80. Unequal striking distances of positive and negative discharge.— 4
Many known phenomena coincide in showing that positive and nega- |
tive discharges do not take place with equal facility. When a small.
ball, connected with the conductor and thus made inductive, is placed
opposite a larger one, which is uninsulated, a spark is obtained twice (
as long, the conductor being charged positively, as when negatively |
charged. :

Faraday has closely investigated this phenomenon, and obtained
the following facts:

He passed the discharges between two balls of the respective diame- |
ters of 2 inches and 0.25 ofan inch. The larger ball being connected

gn 9 ne i

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 371

ith the conductor, and thus made inductive, there appeared with a
ion conductor—

parks alone up to an interval Of .........escsscssereceeerereseees 0.49 in.
legative brush, from the small ball alone, when the inter-
Val was greater than.......-.....e.00 gb isis Reb se aie main diet Sn 0.52 ‘

| With a negative conductor—

parks alone up to an interval Of ........... ...-eeeeseereeeenees ST
*ositive brush, from the small ball alone, when the interval
SE. CBD... oo osvcinwag gent iors as.ocndeeaeaghuaian sneha laa gi

Between these limits he obtained sparks and brushes mixed.

The balls were then exchanged, the small ball being connected with
he conductor, and the large one uninsulated. The result with a
ositive conductor was—

pparks alone to an interval Of.....ccc...ccesscesecconceeeenseeseeeve 0.4 in,
egative brush alone, when the interval was greater than.. 0.44 “*
From these experiments it follows that—

| 1. Longer sparks are obtained when the small ball is positively
slectrified. ;

2. Longer sparks are obtained when the large ball is the inducing,
nd the small one the inducteous ball.

When the small ball discharges electricity in the form of brushes,
hey are much more numerous, and each one seems to carry off much
ess electrical force when the discharged electricity is negative than
hen positive.

_ This appears to indicate that a small ball requires a greater tension
or discharging when positive than when negative.

To illustrate this important point, Faraday arranged an apparatus,
epresented in fig. 73. A fork, A,carryingalargeanda rig. 73.
mall ball, was connected with the conductor of amachine; _ ng

perfectly similar fork, B, was connected with a discharg-
ng train; the small ball on each fork was placed opposite
che larger one on the other. The intervals at m and o were
qual. The conductor being negative, the discharge al-
ays happened at n, which is not surprising, because the
egative charge of the small inducing ball at n is always
tronger than the positive charge of the small inductious
all ato. But had the discharge taken place at o with a
ositive charge of the conductor, it would have appeared
hat the weak negative charge of the small inducteous
all discharges with greater facility than the far stronger
ositive charge of the small inducing ball at », which
ould have been a decisive proof of the more facile dis-
harge of negative electricity. But such a decisive result
the experiments did not give ; when the intervals at n and
0 were 0.9 of an inch, or 0.6, the discharge always took
place at n, whether the conductor was positive or negative.

The interval » being made 0.79 and o 0.58 of an inch, if the con-
quctor was positive, the discharge at beth m and o was about equal,
put if negative, the discharges mostly happened at n, which signified,

|

a7? RECENT ‘PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

evidently, that the small ball discharged in the negative state so
what more easily than in the positive, yet their result is not perfectly |
decisive. |

A contrivance, similar to that of fig. 73, was placed inside a glass
vessel, which could be filled with different gases. With equal inter-|
vals at m and o, Faraday obtained quite decided results for carbonie|
acid. When the conductor was positive the discharge took place»)
mostly at o, when negative always at ; here, then, the negative dig- s
charge was ‘decidedly the more easy, and in coal gas the preponderance |
of the negative discharge was just as decided. In air and in oxygen 1
the gr eater facility of the negative discharge appeared -somewhat ,{
doubtful ; in nitrogen and in hydrogen there appeared some probability
of an opposite relation.

Belli has made experiments, from which it follows that negative
electricity escapes more easily into air than positive.—({Pog. “Ann, !
XXXV, 73.)

After fastening a quadrant electrometer on a horizontal ineulasel
conductor and electrifying it positively, he found, as a mean of three
experiments, that the electrometer required a period of ten minutes 3
to sink from 20° to 10°; but with negative electricity only 4. 5)
minutes were required. :

aA

§ 81. Sparks in different gases.—The phenomena attendant on sparks }
in different gases have been often observed and described. Farada
has made experiments on this subject also, and describes them in the )
twelfth series of his Experimental Researches. —(Pog. Ann. XLVI, ‘i
536.)

The gases were under the pressure of the atmosphere; the sparks
passed between brass balls.

“In atr,’’ says Faraday, ‘‘ the sparks have that intense light andl
bluish color which are so well known, and often have faint or dark
parts in their course, when the quantity of electricity passing is not”

reat, 8
ie In nitrogen they are very beautiful, having the same general ap-
pearance as in air, but have decidedly more color, of a bluish or purple
character, and, as I thought, were remarkably sonorous. j

“In oxygen the sparks were whiter than in air or nitrogen, and I_
think not so brilliant.

‘In hydrogen they had a very fine crimson color’’—‘‘ very little
sound was produced in this gas.
‘“In carbonic acid gas the color was similar to that of the spark in
air, but with a little green in it. The sparks were remarkably irregu- —

lar in form, more so than in common air.

‘‘In muriatic acid gas the spark was nearly white.- It was always
bright throughont, never presenting those dark spots which happen in
air, nitrogen, and other gases.

“Tn coal gas the spark was sometimes green, sometimes red, and
occasionally one part was green and another red ; black parts also
occurred very suddenly in the line of the spark.’’

Sparks may be obtained in media, which are far denser than air—
as in oil of turpentine, olive oil, resin, glass, spermaceti, water, &c.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 373

82. The electrical brush.—The most important facts which Fara-
ty has obtained in reference to the brush are the following,) Pog.
nn., XLVII:)

©The brush and spark gradually pass into each other.’ (Faraday
calls the electrical brush ‘‘a spark to air.’’) ‘* Making a small ball
positive by a good electrical machine with a large prime conductor,
tes approaching a large uninsulated discharging ball towards it, very

autiful variations from the spark to the brush may be obtained.
The drawings of long and powerful sparks, given by Van Marum,
lescription of the large machine in Taylor’s museum, German trans-
tion of 1786, Tab. III, fig. 1 ;) Harris, (Phila. Trans., 1834, p. 243,)
and others, also indicate the same phenomena,”’ namely, a ramification

| day's spark by which its transition to the brush is made.—(Fara-

y's Researches, § 1448.)

' “Tf an insulated conductor, connected with the positive conductor of
am electrical machine, have a metal rod 0.3 of an inch in diameter
projecting from it outwards from the machine and terminating by a
‘ounded end or a small ball, it will generally give good brushes ; or
if the machine be not in good action, then many ways of assisting
the formation of the brush can be resorted to; thus, the hand or any
large conducting surface may be approached towards the termination ;’’
“or the termination may be smaller and of badly conducting matter,
as wood ; or sparks may be taken between the prime conductor and
the secondary conductor, to which the termination giving brushes
Bo: ;’ ‘or the air around the termination may be rarefied.’’—
(1425.)

That the brush is not a continuous discharge is evinced in the
gradual transition of the spark to the brush. By proper proportion,
in the size of the small knob to the power of the machine, brushes are
obtained which show immediately that they consist of ramified sparks
rapidly following each other ; the machine being worked more rapidly,
or with the same working of the machine substituting a still smaller
discharging knob, the brush assumes a more uniform appearance,
Which Faraday very well describes in the following words: ‘‘ A short
conical bright part or root appeared at the middle part of the ball,
projecting directly from it, which, at a little distance from the ball,
broke out suddenly into a wide brush of pale ramifications, having a
quivering motion, and being accompanied at the same time with a
low, dull, chattering sound.’’—(1426.)

At first such a brush seems continuous, but Wheatstone has shown
that it consists of successive intermitting discharges, (Philos. Trans.,
1834, p. 586,) which was to be expected from the gradual transition
of the spark to the brush. Faraday gives a very simple method for
decomposing the apparently continuous brush into its elementary
parts without the help of Wheatstone’s rotating mirror; he says: ‘If
the eye be passed rapidly, not by a motion of the head, but of the
eyeball itself, across the direction of the brush, by first looking stead-
fastly about 10° or 15° above, and then instantly as much below it,
the general brush will be resolved into a number of individual
brushes.’’—(1427.) This method of analyzing has not succeeded
perfectly in my trials.

374 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

‘On using a smaller ball, the general brush was smaller, and the |
sound, though weaker, more continuous. On resolving the brush into ‘
its elementary parts as before these were found to occur at much |
shorter intervals.

‘‘ Rmploying a wire with a round end, the brush was still smaller, ©
but, as before, separable into successive discharges. The sound, thous H
feebler, was higher i in pitch, being a distinct musical note.’

The sound is in fact due to the recurrence of the noise of. ost
separate discharge, and these happening at intervals nearly equal,
under ordinary circumstances, cause a definite note to be head, whose :
pitch rises with the increased rapidity and regularity of thé discharge, .

‘¢By using wires with finer terminations, smaller brushes were |
obtained, until they could hardly be distinguished as brushes. Dut t
as long as sound was heard the discharge could be ascertained by the 4
eye to be intermitting g3 and when the sound ceased the light becantiy a
continuous as a glow.” wt

To those not accustomed to use the eye in the above-described man- -
ner, Wheatstone’s apparatus with the revolving mirror is recom=
mended. Another excellent process for analyzing the brush is to)
produce it on the end of a rod, held in the hand opposite to the prime}
conductor, and then move the "rod rapidly from side to side, whilst the >
eye remains still.—(1428—1423.) a

§ 83. Lhe brush in various gases.—The experiments on the brush in”
various gases Faraday made with brass rods, about one quarter of an
inch thick, and whose rounded ends were placed opposite each other »
in a glass globe of seven inches diameter, containing the gas. One
of these rods was connected with the prime conductor, the other with
the ground.—(Pog. Ann., XLVII, 553.) 1

‘* Air, Fine positive brushes are easily obtained in air, at common ~
pressures, possessing the well known purplish light. When the air |
is rarefied the ramifications are very long, filling the globe; the light _
is greatly increased and is of a beautiful purple color, with an occa- |
sional rose tint in it. )

‘“ Oxygen. At common pressures the brush is very close and com-
pressed, and of a dull whitish color. In rarefied oxygen the form and |
appearance are better; the color somewhat purplish, but all the char-
acters very poor compared to those in air.’ |

. ** Nitrogen gives brushes with great facility at the positive surface, far
beyond any other gas.’ ‘* They are almost always fine in form, light, |
and color, and in rarefied nitrogen are magnificent. They stirpass
the discharges i in any other gas as to the quantity of light evolved.””

‘¢ Hydrogen, at common pressures, gives a better brush than oxygen, _
but does not equal nitrogen; the color was greenish gray. In rare-
fied hydrogen the anions were very ned in form and distinctness,
but pale in color, with a soft and velvety appearance, and not at all
equal to those in nitrogen. In the rarest state of the gas the color
was a pale gray ereen,”

‘¢Qoal gas. The brushes were rather difficult to produce. 2”. They
were short and strong, generally of a greenish color.’’ ‘‘In rare
coal gag the brush forms were better, but “the light very poor and the
color gray.’

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 375

» “ Carbonic acid produces a very poor brush at common pressures.”’
‘Yn rarefied carbonic acid the brush is better in form, but weak as to
light, being of a dull greenish or purplish hue.’’
“* Muriatic acid gas. It is very difficult to obtain the brush in this
gas at common pressures. On gradually increasing the distance of
_the rounded ends the sparks suddenly ceased when the interval was
about an inch, and the discharge, which was still through the gas in
the globe, was silent and dark. Occasionally, a very short brush could,
for a few moments, be obtained, but it quickly disappeared. Even
when the intermitting spark current from the machine was used a
brush was obtained with difficulty, and that very short ;’’ ‘‘in the
‘mean time, magnificent brushes were passing off irom different parts of
the machine into the surrounding air. On rarefying the gas the forma-
tion of the brush was facilitated, but it was yet of a low, squat form,
very poor in light, and very similar on both the positive and negative
surfaces.”’ ‘‘On rarefying the gas still more a few large ramifica-
tions were obtained, of a pale bluish color, utterly unlike those in
nitrogen.’’—(1456—1462.)

§84. Brush in denser media.—Hlectrical brushes are produced, not
only in air and gases, but in far denser media. Faraday procured it
in owl of turpentine, (1452,) ‘“‘ from the end of a wire going through a
glass tube into the fluid, contained in a metal vessel. The brush was
small, and very difficult to obtain; the ramifications were simple,
and stretched out from each other, diverging very much. The light

was exceedingly feeble, a perfectly dark room being required for its
observation. When a few solid particles, as of dust or silk, were, in
the liquid, the brush was produced with much greater facility.’’

§ 85. Difference of the positive and negative brush discharge.—On this
subject I extract the following remarks by Faraday :

*¢ When the brush discharge is observed in air, at the positive and
negative surfaces, there is a very remarkable difference.’ The differ-
ence in question used to be expressed in former times by saying that
“a point charged positively gave brushes into the air, whilst the same
point charged negatively gave a star.’’ ‘This is true only of bad con-
ductors, or of metallic conductors charged intermittingly. If metallic
points project freely into the air the positive and negative light upon
them differ very little in appearance.”’

These phenomena vary exceedingly under different circumstances,
as Faraday shows:

“Tf a metallic wire, with a rounded termination in free air, be used
to produce the brushy discharge, then the brushes obtained when the
wire is charged negatively are very pour and small by comparison with
those produced when the charge is positive. Orifa large metal ball,
connected with the electrical machine, be charged positively, and a
fine uninsulated point be gradually brought towards it, a star appears
on the point when at a considerable distance, which, though it becomes
brighter, does not change its form of a star until it is close up to the
ball ; whereas, if the ball be charged negatively, the point, at a con-
siderable distance, has a star on it as before ; but when brought nearer,

°

e

376 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. '

a brush formed on it, extending to the negative ball ; and when |
still nearer, the brush ceased and bright sparks passed.’’ 4

As we have already seen, § 80, the spark discharge passes into the
brush at far less distances if the surface on which the discharge begins
(the small ball or the rounded end of a rod) is negative, than if itis
positive; but on going further into the succession of charges we find
that the positive brush passes into glow long before the negative. ,

“* A metal rod 0.3 of an inch in diameter, with a rounded end pro-
brush. It was ascertained, both by sight and sound, that the succesisve
jecting into the air, was charged negatively and gave a short noisy
discharges were very rapid in their recurrence, six or seven times more
numerous than when the rod was charged positively to an equal —
degree.’

“ When the rod was positive it was easy, by working the machine
a little quicker, to replace the brush by a glow, but when it was nega
tive no efforts could produce this change.’’—(1468.)

‘A point opposite the negative brush exhibited a star, and, as it was |
approximated, caused the size and sound of the brush to diminish, and
at last to cease, leaving the negative end silent and dark, yet effective ;
as to discharge. (1469, )

“When the round end of a smaller wire was advanced towards the
negative brush, it (becoming positive by induction) exhibited the quiet
glow at eight inches distance, the negative brush continuing. When
nearer, the pitch of the sound of the negative brush rose, indicating
quicker intermittances ; still nearer the positive end threw off ramifi-
cation and distinct brushes, at the same time the negative brush con-
tracted in its lateral direction and collected together, giving a peculiar,
narrow, longish brush, in shape like a hair pencil ; the two brushes
existing at once, but were very different in their form and appearance,
and especially i in the more rapid recurrence of the negative discharges
than of the positive. On using a smaller positive. wire for the same
experiment the glow first appeared in it and then the brush, and
the two at one distance became exceedingly alike in appearance.’’

1470.

| RS Ti air the superiority of the positive brush is well known. In
nitrogen it is as great or even greater than in air. In hydrogen the
positive brush loses a part of its superiority, not being so good as in
nitrogen or air, whilst the negative brush does not seem injured.
In oxygen the positive brush is compressed and poor, whilst the nega-
tive did not become less ; the two were so alike that the eye frequently
could not tell one from the other. In coal gas the brushes are
difficult of production ;’’ ‘‘and the positive not much superior to the
negative, either at common or low pressure. In carbonic acid this
approximation of character also occurred. In muriatic acid gas the
positive brush was very little better than the negative.’’—(1476.)

§ 86. Glow discharge.—The glow ‘‘ seems to depend upon a quick
and almost continuous charging of the air close to and in contact with
the conductor.’’—(Haraday’s Researches, 1526.) Faraday was never
able to separate it into visible intermitting elementary discharges.
The glow is produced by—

Ist. Diminution of the charging surface.—At the end of a metal rod

.

) RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. ei a

‘with a blunt conical point, a phosphorescent continuous glow is ob-
tained the more readily as the point is finer.

+ 2d. Increase of power in the machine.—Rounded ends, which give
only brushes when the machine is in weak action, give the glow readily
when the machine is in good order.

3d. Rarefaction of the air.—A brass ball 24 inches in diameter
being made positively inductive in an air-pump receiver, became
covered with glow in part, ‘‘ when the pressure was reduced to 4.4
inches. By a little adjustment the ball could be covered all over with
this light. Using a brass ball 1.25 inch in diameter, and making
it inducteously positive by an inductize negative point, the phenomena
were exceedingly beautiful. The glow came over the positive ball,
and gradually increased in brightness until it was at least very lu-
minous; and it also stood up, like a low flame, half an inch or more
in height.’’—(1529.)

The negative glow is difficult to obtain in air at common pressures ;
‘and it is as yet questionable whether, even on fine points, what is
called the negative star is not a very reduced, but still intermitting
brush, or a glow.’’—(1530.)

In rarefied air the negative glow can easily be obtained. If the
rounded ends of two metal rods about 0.2 of an inch in diameter
are about four inches apart in rarefied air, the glow can be easily ob-
tained on both rods, covering not only the ends but an inch or two of
the part behind. Balls are also covered with the negative glow in
rarefied air, whether their surface is inductive or inducteous.—(1531.)

The glow occurs in all the gases examined for it by Faraday. He
thought he obtained it also in oil of turpentine, though it was very
dull and smail.—(1534.)

‘The glowis alwaysaccompanied bya wind, proceeding either directly
out from the glowing part or directly towards it ; the former being the
most general case.’’ If the arrangements are made so that the ready
and regular access of air to a part exhibiting the glow be interfered
with or prevented the glow then disappears.—(1535.)

Frequently it is possible to change the brush given by the end of
a rod into a glow, by simply aiding the formation of a current of air
at its extremity.—(1535.)

§ 87. Dark discharge.—If to the rounded end of a metallic rod pro-
jecting from the prime conductor of a machine a similar rod be held
at a little distance, it is easy to obtain the appearance of light at the
ends of both rods, while the intervening space between the positive
and negative light remains dark ; besides this familiar phenomenon,
Faraday notices a very remarkable case of dark discharge.

“<< Two brass rods, 0.3 of an inch in diameter, entering a glass globe
on opposite sides, had their ends brought into contact, and the air
about them very much rarefied. A discharge of electricity from the
machine was then made through them, and while that continued the
ends were separated from each other. At the moment of separation
a continuous glow came over the end of the negative rod, the positive
termination remaining quite dark. As the distance was increased a
purple stream or haze appeared on the end of the positive rod, and
proceeded directly onward towards the negative rod, elongating as the

378 | RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

interval was enlarged, but never joining the negative glow, there bei
always a short dark space between. This space, of about one-sixteentho
one-twentieth of an inch was apparently invariable in its extent an
its position relative to the negative rod; nor did the negative glow von y
Whether the negative ends were inductive or inducteous the same effect
was produced,’’

Similar phenomena were obtained with balls instead of the rounded | |
ends of rods.

§ 88. Convective discharge.—The dielectric being penetrated by the
spark, the brush, and also by tke glow, Faraday calls this form of
discharge the disruptive discharge. “With the brush, and still more >
with the glow, another form of discharge appears, making itself mani- -
fest by the so-called electrical wind. This is owing to the particles of
the dielectric, in close contact with the charged conductor, (on the end |
of the electrified rod ,) receiving an electrical charge, in consequence of [
which they are repelled ; and by a repetition of this action the conduc. .
tor is discharged. i |
‘‘ Why a point should be so exceedingly favorable to the production
of currents is evident. Itis at the extremity of the point that the
intensity necessary to charge the air is first acquired ; it is from thence »
that the charged particle recedes ; and the mechanical force which it im- -
presses on the air to form a current is in every way favored by the shapes }
and position of the rod whose point forms the termination.’’—(1573.) —
Particles of dust floating in the air favor the escape of electricity. —
‘¢On using oil of turpentine as the dielectric, the action and course
of small conducting, carrying particles in it, can be well observed.”’ 7
A Ae very striking effect was produced on oil of turpentine, which,
whether it was due to the carrying power of the particles in it, or to.
any other action of them, is, perhaps, as yet doubtful. A por ‘tion of”
that fluid in a glass vessel had a large uninsulated silver dish at the
bottom, and an electrified metal rod, with a round termination, dip- | |
ping into it at the top. The insulation was very good. The rod end,
with a drop of gum water attached to it, was then electrified in the
fluid; the gum water soon spun off in fine threads, and was quickly
dissipated through the oil of turpentine. By the time that four drops”
had in this manner been commingled with a pint of the dielectric, the
latter had lost by far the greatest portion of its insulating power ;’’—
‘‘the fluid was slightly turbid. Upon being filtered through paper
only, it resumed its first clearness, and now insulated as well as be- |
fore.’’—(1571.)
‘‘Conducting fluid terminations, instead of rigid points, illustrate in |
a very beautiful manner the formation of the currents, with their
effects and influence in exalting the conditions under which they were
commenced. Let the rounded end ofa brass rod, 0.3 of an inch, or
thereabouts, in diameter, point downwards in free air ; let it be amal-
gamated and have a drop of mercury suspended from it, and then let
it be powerfully electrized, the mercury will present the phenomenon ©
of glow ; a current of air will rush along the rod and set off from the —
mercury directly downwards, and the form of the metallic drop will be
slightly affected, the convexity at a small part near the middle and
lower part becoming greater, whilst it diminishes all round at places
a little removed from this spot.’’—(1581.)

ee rp

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 379

* «Take next a drop of strong solution of muriate of lime; being
‘electrified, a part will probably be dissipated, but a con-
“siderable portion, if the electricity be not too powerful, will

“remain, forming a conical drop, (fig. 74,) accompanied by
‘a strong wind. If glow be produced the drop will be smooth
on the surface. If a short low brush is formed a minute
tremulous motion of the liquid will be visible.’’

‘¢ With a drop of water the effects were of the same kind, and
were best obtained when a portion of gum water or syrup hung
from a ball, (fig. 75.) When the machine was worked slowly a fine,
darge, quite conical drop, with concave lateral outline anda _ Fig. 75.
small rounded end, was produced, on which the glowappeared,
whilst a steady wind issued from the point of the cone of
‘sufficient force to depress the surface of uninsulated water
“held opposite to the termination. When the machine was
worked more rapidly some of the water was driven off, the
smaller pointed portion left was roughish on the surface,
‘and the sound of successive brush discharges was heard.
With still more electricity, more water was dispersed ; that which re-

mained was alternately elongated and contracted,’’ and ‘‘a stronger

brush discharge was heard. When water from beneath was brought

towards the drop, it did not indicate the same regular, strong, contracted

current of air as before; and when the distance was such that sparks

passed the water beneath was attracted rather than driven away, and
‘the current of air ceased.’’—(1584.)

*¢That the drop, when of water, or a better conductor than water,
is formed into acone principally by the current of air, is shown,
amongst other ways, thus: A sharp point being held opposite the coni-
cal drop, the latter soon lost its pointed form, was retracted and_be-
came round ; the current of air from it ceased, and was replaced by
one from the point beneath, which, if the latter was held near enough

to the drop actually blew it aside and rendered it concave in form.’’
With still worse conductors, as oil, or oil of turpentine, the fluid was
“¢spun out into threads and carried off, not only because the air rushing
over its surface helped to sweep it away, but also because its insulating
particles assumed the same changed state as the particles of air, and,
not being able to discharge to them in a much greater degree than
the air particles themselves could do, were carried off by the same causes
which urged these in their course. A similar effect with melted sealing-
wax ona metal point formsan old and well known experiment.’’—(1588.)

“<A drop of gum water in the exhausted receiver of the air pump
was not sensibly affected in its form when electrified,’’? which was
partly owing to the diminished current of air, and partly, perhaps, that
the tension of the electricity on the ball is not so great in rarefied as
in dense air.

‘¢That I many not be misunderstood,’’ says Faraday, ‘‘ I must ob-
serve here that I do not consider the cones produced as the result only
of the current of air or other insulating dielectrics over their surface.

When the drop is of badly conducting matter a part of the effect is
due to the electrified state of the particles,’ &c.—(1594.)

i
q

380 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

_ * When the phenomena of currents are observed in dense insulating '
dielectrics they present us with extraordinary degrees of mechanical}
force. Thus, if a pint of well rectified and filtered oil of turpentine )
be put into a glass vessel and two wires be dipped into it in differen
places, one leading to the electrical machine and the other to the dis
charging train, on working the machine, the fluid will be thrown into
violent motion, whilst, at the same time, it will rise 2, 3, or 4 inches up )
the machine wire, and dart off in jets from it into the air.’’—(1595.) J
‘* A drop of mercury being suspended from an amalgamated brass j
ball preserved its form almost unchanged in air, but when immersed |
in the oil of turpentine it became very pointed and even particles of ?
the metal could be spun out and carried off. The form of the liquid | \
metal was just like that of syrup in air.’’—(1597.) Wl
“If the mercury at the bottom of the fluid be connected with the
electrical machine, whilst a rod is held in the hand terminating, in a
ball three quarters of an inch in diameter, and the ball be dipped into
the electrified fluid, very striking appearances ensue. When the ball ;
is raised again so as to be at a level nearly out of the fluid, large por-
tions of the latter will seem to cling to it, (fig. 76.) If it be raised —

Fig. 76. Fig. 77. Fig. 78.

=

+
]

higher a column of the oil of turpentine will still connect it with ~
that in the basin below, (fig. 77.) If the machine be excited into ©
nore powerful action this will become more bulky, and may then also ~
be raised higher, assuming the form, (fig. 78.)

‘¢ A very remarkable effect is produced on these phenomena, con-~
nected with positive and negative charge and discharge, namely, that
a ball charged positively raises a much higher and larger column
of the oil of turpentine than when charged negatively.’’—(Faraday —
Researches, series XIII, 1600.)

§ 89. Laws of the brightness of the electrical spark.—Masson pub- —
lished in the 14th volume of the Anneles de Chimie et de Physique, —
page 129, (1845, 3d part,) his researches upon the brightness of the
electrical spark, under the title: ‘‘ Htudes de Photometrie Electrique.”’

The ordinary photometre can be used only for permanent and not for
momentary sources of light; for measuring the brightness of the elec-
trical spark, which gives only a momentary illumination, Masson was

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 381

j

jobliged to contrive a new photometric principle. In fact he solved

e problem in a very ingenious manner.

_ Ifa disk be divided into sectors equally large Fine 7h
and alternately black and white, as in fig. 79, ee

and be put into rapid rotation, the different
ectors cannot be distinguished when the disk &
; illuminated by a constant source of light; pp.
ut if it be illuminated by an electrical spark &
for an instant the sectors of the rotating disk |.
jwill become visible again, and as much more ®,
0 as the electrical spark is brighter. But if &
the illumination by the electrical spark be & &
adually weakened, while that from the con- ea
stant source of light remain the same, a point will be attained where
the sectors just cease to be distinguishable, and in this case the power
lof the illumination by the electrical spark is a determinate fraction
lof the illumination by the constant source, its magnitude depending
jupon the peculiarity of the observer’s eye.

} We will now consider in what manner this limit of the ability to
fdistinguish may be ascertained,

A part of a sector on a white disk, (fig.

80,) being blackened, and the disk turned Fig. 80.
rapidly about its centre, the black piece will m
form a ring somewhat darker than the white g
lground of the disk. The ring will appear as a
|much fainter as the black spot is narrower,

jand if the experiment be made with a series

of such disks, each successive one having a

narrower black end-portion of a sector mn,

we will at last find one in which the dark

ring ceases to be distinguishable.

‘Let us suppose this to be the case when
the breadth of the sector is ;1, of the entire
circumference; it is evident that the brightness of the ring is less
than the brightness of the disk by ;3,; in this case the eye cannot
distinguish a difference of ~}5 in illumination.

Masson made his experiments with disks upon which the breadth of
the sectors were +4, <5, 43. Joo Joo rtm ris Téa, Of the whole cir-
cumference, and by means of them he found that for weak eyes a
‘difference of illumination of 5 to ,j; was the limit of perceptibility.
For ordinary eyes this limit was jj to ;},; for very good eyes 735
to rh.

_ On varying the intensity of the illumination Masson found that
the sensibility for the same individual did not change if the illumi-
‘nation was sufficient for reading ordinary print.

The rotating plate being illuminated with colored light, Masson
found that the limit of perceptibility of difference of illumination is
independent of the color.

ee
a EIS

382 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSI2S.

We now pass to the particular object of Masson’s investigation, —
The arrangement of his experiments was essentially as follows: A

rotating disk, a b, fig. 81, (the rota- -
Fig. 81. tion being produced by clock-work,) )
divided into white and black sectors,
asin fig. 79, was illuminated in th
direction of A C by the constant ligh
of a lamp Z, which was movable in the!
line of this direction. This lamp was _
placed in a black case so that it could”
throw its light on the rotating disk”
only throngh a tube. In the direcs) |
tion of thie line B Ca movable spark
micrometre /’ was placed. One ot the ,
knobs of this micrometer was in con- |
ducting - connexion with the upper
coating ofa horizontal glass plate, the _
other knob with the lower coating; _
the spark always passed between the |

two knobs as soon as the charge of the plate had reached a certain
limit, which depended upon the distance of the knobs from each other, _

Masson first satisfied himself that, tor the instantaneous light of the _
electrical spark, the intensity of the illumination was also, as in other

cases, In the inverse ratio of the square of the distance.

|
The lamp Z being at a given distance from the disk a 6, the spark
micrometer was gradually removed from the disk, until at the passagall
of the spark the sectors of the rotating disk were no longer distin-
guishable, and the distance of the spark from the disk was determined.
The lamp was then moved, and the same experiment repeated, the

distance between the knobs of the spark micrometer remaining un-
changed. The following table gives the results of such an experi-
mental series; Z denotes the distance of the lamp, Y the correspond-
ing distance of the spark micrometer from the middle of the disk a b:

Z. ia Z
Wie
mm. mm.

540 407 ese
640 489 1.30
740 569 1.30
840 648 1.29
940 737 1.28
1040 826 EROS
MCaniejersicis|sicic sense srermete 1.29

Since Z and Y increase in an equal (or very nearly equal) ratio, it
is evident that, with increasing distances, the illumination for both
sources of light decreases according to the same law; hence the illu-

. mination by an electrical spark is likewise inversely proportional to |

the square of the distance.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 383

The same result was given by several other series of experiments,
ich Masson has arranged in tables. It will be sufficient to present
re only one of the many series, serving to establish each of the laws
etermined.
_ The values of Y, as given in the tables, are always the mean of two
experiments. After the distance Y of the spark micrometer from the
otating disk at which the sectors could be no longer distinguished
had been once determined the micrometer was brought considerably
earer the disk again, and then removed the second time, until the
sector disappeared. ‘The two values of Y, thus determined, differed in
the various series at most by one centimetre, a proof of the exactness
attainable by this method of observation.

§ 90. Variation of the brightness of the spark at different striking
distances.— On this point Masson made numerous experiments. The
following table contains the results of one of them:

es we xX
x
mm. mm.

925 318 127
325 447 127
4.5 572 127
5.5 697 196
6.5 830 127
1S 957 127
Mean.<.... 127

Here X denotes the striking distance, Y the corresponding distance
of the spark from the rotating disk, at which the sectors cannot be
distinguished, under the condition that the constant illumination of
the rotating disk from AC remained unchanged during the whole
series of experiments.

It is evident, from the above table, that the striking distance and
the corresponding distance of the spark from the rotating disk must
vary in a constant ratio, the illumination of the disk remaining the
same. Or, for double and treble striking distances, he spark must
be removed two and three times as far from the disk, if its illumina-
tion by the spark is to remain the same.

By doubling the distance, the intensity of the illumination becomes
four times feebler, but it remains unchanged if the striking distance
is doubled, consequently the brilliancy of the spark mus tbe four times
greater at double the striking distance. For the distance x the illu-
mination by the electrical spark is n? times feebler, but it remains
unchanged if the striking distance is made n times greater; hence,
for a striking distance the brilliancy of the spark must be n? times
greater, or in other words, the brightness of the electrical spark increases
as the square of the striking distance.

§ 91. Influence of the size and form of the surface of the condenser.—
The form of the condenser (that is, the glass plate with metallic coat-
ing on both sides, the discharge of which passes through the spark

384 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

micrometer) has no influence upon the brightness of the electrical
spark if the extent of the coating remain the same. ‘The size of the :
plate, however, has considerable influence.

With unchanged distance of the constant light and of the striking +
distance, and with the same thickness of glass, the surface of the |
coating was varied, and each time the corresponding distance of the .
spark from the rotating disk, at which the sectors just ceased to be
perceived, was observed. The results of such a series of observations
are given in the following table:

Surface in square Ratio. nya Y2, Ratio.
millimetres.

ae SUOMI || shatelandetetayetetsyersrs 314 QEDI GM NIC. tavataiiets alselatete
40000 Lid 420 176400 1.
60000 2.66 514 264196 2.67

The first vertical column contains the size of the surface of the coat-
ing, the second is the ratio of the first and second surfaces, and then
of the first and third. The third column gives the corresponding Y,
the fourth the square of this distance, and the last the ratio of the
numbers of the first Y? to the second, and of the first to the third.

Comparing the second and fifth columns we have very plainly

ypou™ (1)

that is, the superficial content F of the coating of the condenser is in
proportion to the square of the distance Y, the illumination of the
disk ab by the electrical spark remaining constant.

But the constant illumination of the disk is

i eevee

J denoting the intensity of the light of the spark, and ¢ a constant
factor, or

J
Y2 eee (ars ° (2)

Combining equations (1) and (2) we get
J=“°F :
n

or, the brightness of the electrical spark is proportional to the surface of
the coating.

§ 92. elation between the intensity of the electrical spark and the
thickness of the condenser.—The surface of the coating remaining the
same, the thickness of the glass plate was changed; and for each plate
the distance Y was observed at which the sectors just ceased to be
visible, the illumination by the lamp remaining constant. The fol-
lowing table contains a few of the results obtained.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 385

: No. | Thickness of | Square root of Ve
plate d. thickness Vv d.
mm. mm.
° 1 1.31 1.14 1044
2 1.83 1. 35 904
3 2.51 1. 57 775

Now, 125 — 1.18 and +24 = 1.15, that is, the two quotients are
7114 904 q

wa > :
nearly equal, or Var = yn ; moreover, 153 — 1.27 and 1944 = 1.35,
Vall! y!
or very nearly gigi Ba yn ; and, finally, 15% — 1.16, and 224 =
| a
Vall y"
1.17, or —— = —., therefore the values of Y are nearly in the in-
: VJ a!’ yu y

_yerse ratio of the square roots of the corresponding thicknesses of the
glass ; that is

| Or

— nN
Vides ap
or

et

d mea Y?
but we have J —c Y?, hence
axJ=c. p,
Bggne
: d

that is, the intensity of the spark is inversely proportional to the thick-
ness of the condenser.

The remaining experiments which Masson made on this point did
not coincide generally so well with the above deductions. This he
ascribes to the circumstance that he could not measure the thickness
of the glass with sufficient accuracy, and that the different condensers
may have had unequal “capacities for condensation.”

§ 93. Influence of the nature of the pole on the electrical spark.—Mas-
son found that the spark is somewhat more intense, if, under circum-
stances otherwise the same, it be passed between lead, zinc, and tin
balls, than when the balls (equal in size) are of copper, brass, or iron.
Masson thinks that this depends upon the unequal tenacity of the
metals. In all his experiments there were traces of a transportation
of the metal from one pole to the other ; now since lead, for example,
is less tenacious than copper, more lead will be carried otf than copper
with the same tension of the electricity ; the conducting circuit then
will have its capacity for conduction suddenly increased, and the light
must become more brilliant in consequence.

25 S

386 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

This opinion is sustained by the fact that the intensity of the spark |

is very considerably increased if polished brass balls be exchanged for ~
such as have their surface amalgamated, where evidently the trans-

ference is greatly facilitated.

The spark, with the carbon used for Bunsen’s battery, is very white »

in the middle, reddish at the edges, and looks a little like a flame.

§94, Nature of electrical light.—There are two hypotheses as to the ,

nature of the electrical spark ; the first regards it as a motion which
is communicated to the ether by the electrical spark ; according to the

second hypothesis, electrical light is produced by incandescent pon- -

derable matter transported by the electricity.

Masson inclines to the first hypothesis, with which also his experi- -

ments coincide, since the intensity of the spark depends in no respect
upon the fusibility or oxidibility of the balls, but upon their tenacity,
If, in consequence of the lower tenacity of the metals, more particles
are carried off, the facility of the circuit for conduction is increased ;
hence the same quantity of electricity is discharged in ashorter time,

whereby a more brilliant light is produced. All of the laws of the |
brightness of electrical light just mentioned are comprised by the _

following formula:

X*s
in which
J denotes the intensity of the spark ;
X the striking distance ;
s the surface of the condenser ;
Y the distance of the spark from the rotating disk of the photometer ;
e the thickness of the condenser, and H a constant factor depending
upon elements which are not yet determined.
hs
ay 3
Riess has shown that the striking distance is proportional to the elec-
trical density (§ 31), we have

Substituting in equation (1), X = p which is allowable, since

2 .
ery ae (2)

ep cis : :
by making om == m, that is, equal to a constant factor which is ad-
missible so long as the thickness e of the condenser does not vary.
Hence the intensity of the electrical light is proportional to a the

square of the electrical density, or which is the same, to the tension
ot the electricity and the surface s of the condenser.
Equation (1) may also be written

vl

Substituting for the last X its value pt, we get

H
J=fi Xo. (3)

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 387

or in words, the intensity of the spark is proportional to the striking
distance and quantity of electricity.
Accerding to equation (2),

Sa BP ES

ren k a
or gis pedi:
S

But Riess has shown that,
mec 6 te.
8

is the quantity of heat which is set free in the wire by discharging
through it a quantity of electricity ¢, collected on the surface s.

Hence if the discharge stroke of an electrical batcery produces a spark
at any interruption of the circuit, the intensity of the light is propor-
tional to the heat which the same discharge produces in a piece of wire
forming part of the circuit.

At the conclusion of his memoir, Masson proposes the spark gen-
erated under determinate conditions as the photometric unit, by
which it will be possible to compare the intensity of the most diverse
constant sources of light with a common standard.

SECTION FIFTH.

ELECTRICAL ODOR.

§ 95. Ozone and its reactions.—When we are in the neighborhood of
a powerful electrical machine we perceive, when the electricity issues
from points, or when a series of sparks are passed from the conductor,
a very peculiar odor, which, for sake of brevity, we will term electrical
odor, or ozone odor. This electrical odor is very probably that which
is observed after a stroke of lightning; and which, by those who do
not know how to characterize it properly, is termed a sulphurous smell.
Schénbein observed in the vicinity of a place where lightning had
struck a decided odor of ozone, even some time after the stroke.

Until recently we were quite in the dark as to the nature of this
odor. Some physicists supposed that it was owing to a peculiar aftec-
tion of the organs of smell, produced by electricity ; an explanation
which, in addition to its error, did great injury, by preventing further
investigation and discussion. __

Others advanced the hypothesis that electrical odor was owing to
fine metallic particles carried off by the escaping electricity. But this
view also is entirely inadmissible, because the nature of the emitting
points does not in the least change the nature of the odor.

388 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

Schénbein has the great credit of having restored this question to
the current of scientific activity. He has shown that the electrical odor
comes from a peculiar gas, produced during the electrical emission,
which he calls ozone. He has investigated the properties of this sub-
stance for years with the greatest zeal, and although, as yet, it has
not been obtained in an isolated state, many of its important chemical
and physical relations have been ascertained, and further researches
on the subject promise most interesting discoveries in the field of
chemistry.

The first memoir of Schénbein on ozone is in the ‘* Denkschriften
der Miincheuer Akademie.’’ It is also printed in Poggendorf’s Anna-
len. Bd. L. p. 616.

A small pamphlet with the title, ‘* On the production of ozone in the
chemical way,’’ evidently by Schénbein, was published in 1844 by
Schénbein & Schweighaiiser, in Basel.

The most important treatises on this subject which then followed
are to be found in Poggendorfs Annalen, by reference to the index of
names, appended to the LX XV volume.

In these papers the historical course of Schénbein’s discoveries may
be followed out. I will omit this historical investigation on account
of its great extent, and I will not refer to the contents of the separate
papers, but describe the most essential experiments which show the
nature and most important relations of ozone, in the order in which
Professor Schénbein had the goodness to show them to me in the year
1849, and, passing over their earlier phases, present his views upon
its nature as now held, after many years investigation.

The prime conductor of an electrical machine being provided at the

Fig. 82. end with a round-pointed wire, a, b, about 1 line in
diameter, (fig. 82.) When the machine is turned the
peculiar electrical odor will be perceived in the vicinity
of the end a of the wire.

That this odor is not to be ascribed to a mere subjec-
tive affection of the organ cf smell, but is owing toa
peculiar gas, is certain from the fact that this odorous
principle produces a series of chemical and physical
effects, having the greatest similarity to the chemical
reactions and physical relations of other gases. Indeed,
Schénbein has succeeded in preparing this odorous prin-
ciple, ozone, in a purely chemical way, and in producing
_ the same reactions with it which are observed when elec-
tricity is issuing from points.

If we hold before the point, at the distance of about 4 or 1 inch, a
piece of paper covered with a paste of starch and iodide of potassium,
the paste will at once turn blue.

To make this preparation two teaspoons full of starch with a small
crystal of iodide of potassium are to be boiled to a paste, with ten
times their volume of water.

The ozone acts upon this paste as chlorine does ; it decomposes the
iodide of potassium, and the iodine set free, colors the starch blue.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 389

* This phenomenon (of turning the paste of iodide of potassium blue)
takes place in the same manner whether the point emit positive or
negative electricity ; it is also perfectly immaterial of what substance
the point is made, if only an emission of electricity occurs, thus re-
futing the view of those earlier physicists who maintained that the
odtr was owing to metallic particles carried off by the issuing elec-
tricity.

On holding a platinum or gold plate before the point while the
machine is turned, the plate has imparted to it negative galvanic po-
larization, which can be demonstrated in the following manner :

Connect the two mercury cups a and b, Fig. 83, with the wire ends
of a multiplier. Into the cup a dip a copper ade,
wire, to the other end of which a platinum é
plate p is fastened, the plate having been
first soldered with gold to a platinum wire,
and this to the copper wire at nm. This pla-
tinum plate hangs in a glass vessel contain-
ing water slightly acidified.

After having exposed a perfectly similar
platinum plate for a time to the electricity
issuing from a point, immerse it also in the
water of the glass vessel, and as soon as the
copper wire of the second plate is immersed
into the cup of mercury 6, a considerable
divergence of the galvanometer needle takes place, and in a direction
which indicates that the platinum plate which had been exposed to
ozone behaves negatively toward the other; that is, the deflection is
in the same direction which would have been indicated had a zinc wire
been placed in a, a copper wire in 0, and these wires then immersed
in the liquid of the glass vessel. This current, however, is only
transient.

The whole subject of galvanic polarization we will discuss in an-
other place ;* it is only mentioned here as one of the effects which
accompany the emission of electricity from points.

All these reactions disappear when sulphuretted hydrogen, ammo-
nia, olefiant gas, &c., are diffused in the air of the room where the
experiment is made.

If the emitting point be raised by the flame of a spirit lamp to a
red heat, and the machine put in operation immediately after the
removal of the lamp, all the above described phenomena, which had
accompanied the escape of electricity, disappear; that is, the elec-
trical odor is no longer perceived, the iodine preparation does not turn
blue, platinum or gold plates are not polarized. All the phenomena
reappear, however, gradually, as the point cools.

fa order to make the experiment distinct, with reference to the odor,
it must be made with wires of one of the precious metals, because the
easily oxidable metals diffuse a peculiar smell simply by being heated.
Very thin wires are not suitable for this experiment; but as thick

* See report for 1855, p. 377.

390 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. |
|
ones may not always be at hand, it will do to use a thin platinum )
wire having its end fused into a small knob about one line in diameter, .

§ 96. Electrical odor in the electrolysis of water.—The electrical |
odor appears not only on the escape of electricity from points, but i
also in the electrolytic decomposition of water, where we find it ac |
companied by the same reaction and effects which were considered in |
the preceding paragraph. ' |

On closer investigation it appears that electrical odor manifests 5

i

itself at the positive pole, where oxygen is given off ; for on collecting +

the gases resulting from the decomposition of water separately, the »
odor in question was perceived only in that vessel which contained the »
oxygen, no trace of it being found in the one containing the hydrogen. —

‘Lhe gases when obtained together have the electrical odor. al

On suspending a paper covered with the paste of iodide of potas- -
sium in oxygen, or in the mixed gases to which the ozone odor has |
been imparted by electrolysis, the paper turns blue. A platinum
plate exposed for a time to the action of this, gas indicates the same —
electro-negative polarization as though it had been acted on by the
electrical brush.

Chemically pure oxygen gas produces none of these effects ; it has
not the odor, does not turn the iodide paste blue, and is not in the
condition to polarize a platinum plate negatively.

The gas obtained by electrolytic decomposition produces, in all
these cases, the same effects as the air which issues from a strongly
electrified point.

§ 94. Production of ozone in the chemical way.—The so-called electri-
cal odor can be produced by purely chemical means without any aid
from electricity. A piece of phosphorus made perfectly dry by blotting
paper, so that it has a clean surface, emits a peculiar alliaceous odor.
Placing such a piece of phosphorus in a jar of air, the vapor of phos-
phorus will in the cold soon diffuse itself through the whole jar. A
platinum plate being then suspended in the jar a short time it will
be polarized positively.

The polarization of the platinum plate is to be ascribed to the phos-
phoric vapor diffused in the jar, but the odor very probably is due to
the phosphoric acid, which is formed by the partial oxidation of the
phosphorus vapor.

If a little water be now introduced into the jar, (as much as will
half cover the piece of phosphorus,) the phosphoric odor becomes
weaker and weaker, and at length wholly disappears, and in its place
a decided ozone odor will be perceived. At rather high temperatures
the ozone smell appears very soon.

This odor is not to be distinguished from that produced in the
electrical way, and it is accompanied by all the reactions and effects
which characterize the agency of the electrical odor. A paper with the
iodide paste on it becomes blue when suspended in the jar, anda
platinum plate exposed to its action is polarized electro-negatively.

With the ozone obtained in the chemical way the reactions can be
produced almost exactly in the same form as with a point emitting
electricity. For this purpose a bottle of the capacity of several quarts

i}

Sor ee ye

.

4

|
|

|
|

exposed to the jet is polarized electro-nega-

; RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 39:1.

is filled with air containing ozone, and closed with a cork, (Fig. 84.)
having two holes bored in it. Through one
of the holes a tube passes nearly to the
bottom, having a funnel at its upper end;
through the other hole a tube passes, which
merely goes through the cork, and above
the cork is bent horizontally, ending in a
tolerably fine opening ; water being poured
through the funnel in a regulated stream,
the air containing the ozone is driven out
through the point of the other tube. This
point now behaves exactly like a metallic
point from which an electrical brush issues.
By holding the nose to it the electrical odor
will be observed; the iodide paper held
before it turns blue, and a platinum plate

Fig. 84.

tively.

We have seen above that all the effects of
ozone disappear when the point emitting the
brush is heated, in like manner all the re-
actions of ozone disappear as soon as the horizontal part of the escape
tube is strongly heated by a spirit lamp. The air which escapes from
the opening of the hot tube has no longer any smell, it will not turn
the iodide paper blue, nor polarize the platinum plate. But all these
effects reappear on the cooling of the tube.

§ 98. Chemical naiure of ozone.—Schinbein, the discoverer of ozone,
has observed and investigated for years, with unwearied industry, the
relations of this remarkable substance, and has found that it bears the
greatest resemblance to the hyper oxides; he has finally come to
the opinion that ozone is nothing else than a gaseous peroxide of
hydrogen.*

Ozone is therefore formed by a further oxidation of the vapor of
water contained in theair. Thus it is explained why water, or rather
the vapor of water, is absolutely necessary to the formation of ozone.
In perfectly dry air ozone cannot be obtained by means of phosphorus,

Electricity prepares the vapor of the atmosphere to oxidize further

* At the present time, however, the view of nearly all of the chemists who have studied
this subject is different from that given by the author. It is now generally conceded that
ozone is nothing but oxygen, but there are two different views in regard to its nature ;
according to one, ozcne is simply oxygen thrown into a condition of activity by the instru-
mentality of electricity or other agents above named.

The other view considers ozone as formed of two or more equivalents of oxygen. If, as
some hold, gaseous oxygen be 0,, it could be easily shown that this double molecule under-
going decomposition, (even by reducing agenis as phosphorus, the essential oils, &c.,) sets
free o,, (oxygen in the nascent state,) which might unite with 0, to form O 0g, similar in
properties to S o,, (sulphurous acid,) sulphur and oxygen being elements capable of re-
placing each other to form analogous compounds as in the sulphurets and oxides.

We deem it moreover quite possible, ia a measure, to reconcile’ the views of Schonbein
with those last named, but this whole subject, being a purely chemical question, would be
out of place in a report upon physical science, and has only been mentioned because the

bare statement in the text might lead those not familiar with the matter into erroneous
views. Ge Uae

392 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

and form ozone; in like manner phosphorus effects the combination of
the vapor of water with oxygen, but, as yet, we are not able to tell
how it is done.

Ozone is decomposed into its components, oxygen and hydrogen, by
heat, as shown by the experiment noticed above.

De la Rive and Berzelius, indeed, regarded ozone as modified
oxygen, and maintained that it could be produced by an electrical jet
in dry oxygen, but this is contrary to all Schénbein’s analogies,
Schénbein presented the following experiment as the most striking
proof of the presence of hydrogen in ozone: if air containing ozone
be dried as perfectly as possible and then heated, it yields water on
cooling to hydroscopic bodies over which it is passed. The ozone is
decomposed by heat, and the vapor of water which it contained is set
free.

Ozone is one of the most powerful means of producing oxidation
which is known. Air containing ozone being passed for a long time
over finely divided metallic silver, the latter is converted into perowide
of silver. The vapor of phosphorus is rapidly oxidized under the in-
fluence of ozone, and converted into phosphorous acid and phosphoric
acid.

The fact that the passage of the electrical spark through moist atmo-
spheric air forms nitric acid was discovered by Cavendish, in the year
1785. Schénbein has proved that under like circumstances ozone also
is always formed.

Since ozone can be produced in moist oxygen by the help of the elec-
tric spark, it is evident that the formation of ozone is independent of
that of nitricacid. On the contrary, Schénbein has made it appear
highly probable that the formation of nitric acid is not a direct effect
of electricity, but a secondary effect produced by the oxidizing
influence of ozone on the nitrugen of the atmosphere.

The formation of nitric acid by electricity may be shown in the
simplest manner, by exposing, foratime, a paper moistened with a
solution of carbonate of potash to a jet of electricity escaping from a
wire; the carbonate, under these circumstances, is converted in part
into nitrate of potash.

The ozone formed by means of phosphorus also produces nitric acid.
The mixture of phosphorous and phosphoric acids, which forms in a
receiver containing a piece of phosphorus, water, and atmospheric air,
is absorbed by water. If this water be colored by a solution of indigo,
the color of the latter is immediately destroyed, an effect which neither
phosphorous nor phosphoric acid alone can produce. The decoloring
is effected by a small quantity of nitric acid, which, formed under the
influence of the ozone, is also dissolved in the water.

That it is actually nitric acid which is here in question is proved by
shaking the water with milk of lime; insoluble salts of lime are
formed with the phosphorous and phosphoric acids, while a nitrate of
lime remains in solution.

Davy observed that traces of nitric acid appeared at the positive pole
of a pile when a voltaic current passed through water containing air or
nitrogen. Here, also, the formation of nitric acid isa secondary effect

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 393

‘of electricity. Ozone is first formed by the action of the current, and
the ozone then oxidizes the nitrogen.

§99. Illumination of phosphorus produced by ozone.—It is well known
that at low temperatures, slow combustion of phosphorus does not take
iplace in air free from ozone, and tnere is therefore no illumination in
ithe dark; this, however, appears as soon as ozone is brought into con-
tact with the phosphorus. In a receiver containing ‘ozonized air
phosphorus shines at a very low temperature.

Schénbein has shown this very beautifully by presenting a stick of
phosphorus, at a low temperature, to an electrical brush, which, in
accordance with the above, determines the formation of ozone. The
manner in which the experiment was made is as follows: (Pog. Ann.,
Axvili, 38.)

A piece of phosphorus an inch long, having a clear surface, was
placed on a board in conducting connexion with the earth, and the
freeend of a wire, connected with the conductor ofan electrical machine,
brought w:thin a few lines of the phosphorus, Ata temperature of
—2° the phosphorus by itself did not shine in the dark; but when the
‘machine was put in motion, so that an electrical brush played against
the piece of phosphorus, a light flame at once issued from its whole
length, and, like the tail of a comet, extended far beyond the piece of
phosphorus. If the machine be stopped the illumination of the phos-
phorus ceases in a few seconds.

Schénbein obtained a very beautiful illumination by the following
arrangement: A copper wire was coiled around a stick of phosphorus
an inch long, so that the end of the wire extended about a line beyond
the phosphorus, as shown in fig. 85. The Had 0
other end of the wire is connected with the
conductor of an electrical machine. Ata
temperature below U° the phosphorus did
not shine at all in the greatest darkness ;
but in turning the electrical machine, so that a strong brush appeared
at the end of the coil, a luminous cone protruded from the middle of
the brush, which attained a length varying from a few inches to some
feet, according to circumstances. The longest cone obtained by Schén-
bein was 2} feet. With powerful machines such cones should be
obtained of still greater length.

It may be assumed without hesitation that this luminous train is
nothing else than the vapor of phosphorus in slow combustion.

The luminous train vanishes with the electrical brush,

GALVANISM.

[Continued from page 423 of the Report ot 1855.]

SECTION FOURTH.

GALVANIC PHENOMENA OF LIGHT AND HEAT.

§ 54. Production of heat by the galvanic current—The laws of the
development of heat produced by the galvanic current in metallic
wires, have been investigated by Joule, (Phil. Magazine, Oct., 1841,),
and by Lenz, (P. A. LIX, pp. 203 & 407, LXI, p. 18.)

The memoir of Joule not being within my reach, I shall only reponi
on the researches of Lenz, and this will be sufficient, since the results:
of the Russian and of the English physicist agreee.

The first. two sections of the memoir of Lenz, in vol, LIX of Pog. .
Ann., contain only introductory matter, to which we shall but briefly y
refer. |

To measure the strength of the current Lenz made use of a Nerv--
ander’s tangent compass, which was most carefully constructed and!
tested. He found by accurate experiments that up to 40° the strengths»
of the currents are proportional to the tangents of the angles of de--
flection.

Lenz also compared his tangent compass with the decomposition of!)
water. It results, from his numerous and accurate experiments, that!
the tangent of the observed angle of deflection is to be multiplied by”
39.3 in order to obtain the reduced quantity of detonating gas from)
the same current per minute, expressed in cubic-centimetres. Leng‘
takes for his unit a current which causes a deflection in his tangent '
compass of 1°, and this produces 0.686 c. c. of the mixed gases in a Hh
minute. Since our unit of current is that which gives 1c. c. per”
minute, it is evident that Lenz’s values of strength of current must:
be multiplied by 0.686 to reduce them to our unit. In what follows {
I shall always make use of the reduced values for the strength of cur- »
rent, instead of those of Lenz. i

As the unit of resistance Lenz takes the resistance of one wind of |
his rheostat (agometre) of German silver, which, according to his —
statement, is equal to the resistanee of a copper wire of 6.358 English |
feet in length, and 0.0336 English inch in diameter. Hence, it appears |
that this unit of resistance is equal to 2.66 of our own ; the values of | |

Lenz must therefore be multiplied by 2.66 to reduce them to our
unit. |

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 395

_ To measure the heat produced by the galvanic current in a metallic
_ tire, Lenz used the apparatus represented in Fig. 47.
- In the middle of the board is fastened the Fig. 47.
Jass stopper B, ground to fit into the neck
faglass jar which, by means of some grease,
aay be fitted upon it air and water-tight.
A brass clamp, omitted in the figure, presses
he lower rim of the neck of the jar to the
joard, so that it cannot be displaced even by
riolent motions of the apparatus. The jar
jas ground in its bo.tom a cylindrical hole,
to which the fluid can be poured, and
through which, also, a thermometer can be
inserted by means of a cork. The thermom-
bter used was divided to + of a degree. Two
mee of wire of about 1 line in diameter are

assed through perforations in the glass stopper and cemented there.
eir upper extremities projecting into the jar are somewhat conical,
na made of platinum ; these platinum cones are soldered to copper
wires of equal diameter, which, Jet into the board, pass to the screw-
clamps s, into which the conducting wires from the poles of the battery
are screwed. ‘The wire to be heated is previously coiled into a spiral
around a cylinder of 1—2 lines in diameter, and has its ends clamped
‘upon the cones by means of two little pieces of platinum. It remains
‘erect by its own elasticity, its coils not touching anywhere.
| The fluid with which the jar was filled, so far at least as en-
tirely to cover the wire-spiral, was spirit of wine containing 85 to 86
per cent. of alcohol, for water is so good a conductor that a part of the
current would pass through it and not through the wire, as becomes
‘immediately apparent from the feeble evolution of gas.

After the wire-spiral was properly fastened and a measured quantity
of spirit of wine poured into the jar the apparatus, together with the
multiplier (Nervander’s tangent compass) and the rheostat, were
inserted in the circuit of a Daniell’s battery. By means of the rheo-
stat the current was always kept at a constant strength; and then the
time required to raise the thermometer in the spirit of wine a certain
number of degrees was noted. By turning round the apparatus in a
small circle, the fluid was made to rotate, whereby an equal distribu-
tion of the temperature throughout its mass was produced.

In order to avoid the errors arising from the loss of heat to sur-
rounding bodies, the spirit of wine was previously cooled below the
temperature of the air, and the experiment finished when its tempera-
ture was just as many degrees above that of the surrounding air as it
had been below it at the commencement.

To give a clear idea of the course of the investigation, the individual
steps for one series of experiments will be described at length.

The temperature of the air being 16° R, the spirit of wine was
cooled by means of ice down to 7° and poured into the jar; the circuit
was closed and the needle by means of the rheostat constantly kept at
35° ; next, with a watch marking seconds, the exact instant was ob-
served when the temperature of the spirit was 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and

396 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS, |

degrees. In this way it was found that the time required to raise th
temperature of the spirit of wine from—

io ce Ay Yin: 2) was

k
15 degrees, and also the instant when it was 16, 17, 18, &c., to i
1.05 minutes. |

14 c¢ 18 (a4 4 ¢ a ¢é

13 ce 19 a4 6 6¢ uy
4.
5.

ce

12 a4 9() ce 8 ce
ia ce Pall ce 10 ce
1G cabal read EE Mang ie! |
and hence it follows that the time ¢, necessary to raise the temperat
ture of the spirit of wine 1°, was on an average 0.542 minutes.

The resistance to conduction of the spiral wire was ascertained byl
observing, (after the removal of the apparatus of fig. 47 from thel
circuit,) how many turns of the rheostat had to be inserted, in order:
to bring the current again to the same strength that it had with thel
heating apparatus in the circuit. 4

The following table contains the results of a great number of such:
experiments:

05
22
Eig eed Sul
30
42

ce

SZ "
$5 5 |
ag : ‘ > |
bac Kind of wire. 8 t. i.
o ©
Lew, Gorman sily er, sa. seo ait 3 <i 6.93 1. 349 3. 50
7G, || Seapets 1 sn eee 10.53 0.571 95. 63
oO, Alene eee 6 KC eae aii! wn 14.3 0. 300 93.94
Aen. Gernanieilvenr,ooe eee eee 10.53 0.920 58. 76
5: lass ee ORs py bi roe oot 14. 30 0.481 58. 64
Os tile ere (OKO eR aS 18. 32 0.288 59,01
Mie: a ets sence dO aoe ane eee 14, 30 0.457 60. 16
5. German siverscsae see eee. 18. 32 0. 384 44,59
9.) a Platina 32 sey seee sss 14, 30 0. 555 50. 45
10. jo Opt on SE et ed a 18. 32 0. 325 51.41
AL Usa | ILE O20 sess eae eee een ee 22.69 0.435 24, 92
To Mt Copperte ee ce ceeee ce cee 18, 32 1.301 13290
13. Fe does k SOG sates ae Ais 22. 69 0. 835 13.90
D4. etherep SC Opel ie Spe aes ae (as ico at 27, 52 0.575 13, 92
Ds Al eS Oa SR ee Se ee 32.98 0. 381 14. 01
VG ee On poets on nema 2 meee 27,52 0. 544 14. 31

Three different wires of German silver were used in the experiments;
that designated by a was the thinnest ; 0 was a little thicker than a
and ¢ a little thicker than bd.

In this table s denotes the force of the current; / the resistance to
conduction of the wire, expressed in units; and ¢ is the time neces-
sary to raise the temperature of the spirit of wine 1°. How the value
of ¢ was determined each time froma series of experiments has already
been stated above.

The quantity of spirit of wine poured into the jar was always nearly
the same, or 90 grammes on an average.

If we compare all those series of experiments in which the force of

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 397

ae current was the same, it appears that the product of ¢ and? re-
hains pretty nearly constant. It is—

‘or the current 10.53:

| Oe. PoGerman: silver, Gi... s.......ccccaddessicieees tl = 53.46
Soy Grotinan) sil ver; 0.. 82. a8... .e6c00.d.deadew. ti = 54,06
“or the current 14.30:
fo) German silver, @...........0.. dikgiltehccats PES 2818
mmerureriman Silver, Ok... i... ete eee: Pee 28, bl
Mee ercrman silver, B..2p i. iio. seeds senoes bien AG
ES VABITVETE 54 abso sa peenoesss vot y ane stvet Sears tl = 28.00
For the current 18.32:
| Memrereriman silver, O.2s.Jicc. cts cebstacsenes ¢t 16799
(8.) German silver, ¢ Set ees conv asnnes vos Saumoeee ae Miami gt
I SUTTON 5.050. tn. fetnces vos ocoucguorceennete Ce eat
PEO DDE ccc cucsccoter recess cocensdveseawaeens ¢¢ SSe18108
Por the current 22.69:
nro s Suse teen ae caceent ee A ee
| BCL cnc enascecnrecoden sradecs x cee ¢¢ ="1 5.60

The equality of the values of ¢7 for one and the same current is so
apparent that we may safely assume that the time of heating is in-
versely proportional to the resistance to conduction, or in other words,
that the heat produced in a given time is directly proportional to the
resistance to cond:ction, and independent upon other properties of the
metal.

In order to find out how the production of heat depends on the force
lof the current, we must compare the experiments that were made with
‘the same wire, and with different currents ; from these it appears that
‘the value of s?¢ is nearly constant for the same wire. The results are
as follows:

For the German silver wire a:

|
}

EES A PR al FEES iy oe $24 — i438
SRR ie ARERR Dera ie neh A cate s’?t= 63.3
len crc hat DES a sticks sb a ae nen 926: +613
| For the German silver wire 0
EE TE ts SE ENS ENE a eft. 102.0
Re ere eee Pe ee a eo act 98.4
ES CE RRS Pet ee sig OG
| 1d SE RACINE YE See So Grete dieters Ct eS
_ For the platinum wire:
J - e 87%. 113.5
| at eee. 2 .. 62¢ = 109.1
For the copper wire :
TES. oo. « ctapeanne eae deeded Se eae, Se 87& = 436.6
DR Tost. in ideo inta gddacasebeiad tiaibicaites tend S?hi=3A4 29-9
os Le £5 abate hanno cain oa She ets ae e247 —— 435.5
a! 2 Ee Pe a Oe ee . 8?t = 414.2
BF i is as ainsn win niathe weigh a atts elign sine SUN a s?¢ = 412.0

By these experiments, therefore, it is aie ei that:
1. The production of heat is proportional to the resistance ¢* the wires

to conduction. -

398 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS,

2. The production of heat is proportional to the squares of the fore
of the currents. Oh

If, therefore, ¢ denotes the time which is required for the current)
wath the Fesictanes to conduction /, to raise the temperature of a give
quantity of spirit of wine 1° R. then s?¢1 will be the time necessary f
produce the same amount of heat in the same quantity of spirit, b
the unit of the strength of current with the unit of resistance to con
duction. Since now in all the experiments the quantity of spirit ¢
wine was nearly the same, the product s?¢/ must also be nearly th:
same for all of the series in the above table. The product s aa
the following values for the different series of experiments :

Series. S250.
IR Me EOS ter Bcc EREI NaSeis on eRaahioy acGn beseide onaRaal 6059
ee Ne ERE cate LEO Ae | sina peieins Misalsic pie\ccud copia 5927
ee RA ES Ce os inn SIAR a's On! aiespinisiolite bisks ais deisel epee 5758
“11 ASE 4p) si Seale onde eet SRS ES PEPE DPE: 5. ert 5994
PEEP See Te eR ee ess dassins ssasstsiocis sels mis eet 5770
Grter sh or heey Ut ALE Nas SA AED 2 22 2 5 Gazasidant casas nots MAREE 5706
Retest tet Cea at ACTS? (cet shaes thi sec aes Sa Me 5625
OU EEE ns SUAS eee ERA RUT}, 162 8in oe Qaais baBER hash Vocaiale db Mele 5747
Oe ee tan en Re. tak aa Wek, le, cae aoe 5726

UO pee lddant haat eile A GACiS d. Leber eek disilelealdiSe dkide Clip pigadshian Sd 5609
Boke 5. GAVE SSP OE TS MCG eee aM Mag ee Leceresa een ae» 5975
A eRe Bey, SLY SSE TELM oly Lhe chil. wcll aiiaicdamsanitale’ 6069
Dee eects A BD er co aa GR AU aiahere do's Noitbia kee oe 5976
72 SPRAY Tee @ rssh Ce arte ieiwee ine. Weal ote), bien xg 6062
CES PRIRS” So geeate” G2: 2h Oe Ad eR OPE EERE ES OWNS TTY ERT Se Pr 5803
5, NR FO eT) ARMs, bei DAMA AAE UN AY CMR ADEN) FERYN? Okt Aer 5896

Mean... eee ER Se ee et eee 5896

The quantity of spirit heated in these experiments together with
that of the glass, reduced by the relation of the specific heats to spirit!
was 118 grammes.

The unit of the force of current produces, therefore, when passing)
through a wire which offers the unit of resistance to conduction, aa
much heat as would be required to raise the femupofahura of a |
grammes of spirit of wine 1° R. in 5856 minutes.

The specific heat of the spirit used in the above experiments is 0. T!
to raise, therefore, the temperature of 118 grammes of spirit to a giver!
degree requires the same quantity of heat as to raise 118.07 = 82.6!
grammes of water to the same degree. For 1 gramme of water!
therefore, that time amounts to:

5856

82.6
or if instead of Reaumer’s scale that of Celsius is employed, 70,9 . 0,
= 56.72 minutes,* 7. e., when the unit of the force of current passes’
through a wire, the resistance of which is equal to that of a copper
wire of 1 meter in length and 1™” in diameter, the quantity of heat’
produced is such as would raise the temperature of 1 gramme of water’
1° C. in 563 minutes. |

* InNhe memoir of Lenz, an error occurs in this calculation, (Pog. Ann., LXI, 42,) occas,
sioned probably by mistaking minutes for seconds,

= 70.9 minutes;

|

|

| RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS, 399

| If we take for the unit of heat, as is usually done, that quantity
which raises the temperature of one kilogramme of water 1°, then it
follows from the above investigations that the unit of the force of cur-
‘ent, in passing through the unit of resistance produces in it 0.001057
units of heat in one hour and 0.0000176 in one minute.

| §55. Observations on the results obtained by Lenz.—After Lenz had
determined the relation between the force of current and the production
of heat in a metallic circuit, the idea naturally occurs that we might
compare the heat produced in the circuit wire with the quantity of
fdetonating gas produced by decomposition of water in the exciting
jeells, but a more intimate study of the subject soon proves that such a
jcomparison cannot lead to a constant result.

| If there be a fixed relation between the quantity of detonating gas
/and the production of heat for any given arrangement of the Voltaic
battery and a given closing wire, it will be changed as soon as—ceteris
| paribus—either the specific resistance to conduction of the battery or
jits electromotive force is changed ; for by either of these changes the
| strength of current is altered, and the evolution of gas changes pro-
|portionally with the force of current, while the production of heat

/ increases as the squares of this force; and the relation between the

quantity of gas and the heat developed must necessarily become dif-
‘ferent from what it was before. The heat produced in the closing
circuit, therefore, can by no means be considered as a thermal equiva-
lent of the detonating gas evolved in the exciting cells, and con-
sequently there can be no definite relation between the heat produced
by exploding a certain quantity of detonating gas, and that set free in
the closing circuit during the evolution of an equal quantity of gas
in the exciting cells of a galvanic battery.

The attempt to compare, even with only approximate correctness,
the quantity of electricity of the electrical machine with that of Volta’s

apparatus, has always, hitherto, been unsuccessful. After Lenz’s
accurate researches on the production of heat by the galvanic current,

and Riess’ reliable quantitative determinations of the heat set free in

a wire by the passage of the discharge of a Leyden jar, at first sight
- it would seem that a basis was found for this comparison. But here
- too the result on examination is a negative one.

From the rather large quantity of heat produced in metallic wires
by the discharge of the jar, we should be disposed to infer that a rather
large quantity of electricity was brought into action thereby ; according
to the experiments before mentioned* the increase of heat in the pla-

2
tinum wire of the air thermometer for . == 1 is equal to 0.3787, or

in round numbers equal to 0.4. That wire had a diameter of 0.072’
and a length of 59.7” and therefore it weighed about 60 milligrammes ;
to raise the temperature of this wire 0.4° requires, as can easily be
computed, 0.000000768 units of heat.

Let us now consider what quantity of heat would have been set free
in the same platinum wire by the unit of galvanic current. In the

* See Report of 1856, p. 437.

400 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS,

unit of resistance, the unit of current produces 0.6000176 units of heat,
per minute ; but the resistance to conduction of such a platinum wire, |
as can easily be calculated, is equal to 6 and consequently by the unit
of current, 0.0000176 x 6= 0.0001 units of heat would have been |
produced in it. The increase of Sennen in the platinum wire |

from the discharge of the jar for — 1, viz: 0.000000768 is there- |

fore nearly ;}5 of that produced iy the unit of force of the current |
during one minute in the same wire. Whens= 1, 7. e. when the .
electricity i is accumulated in one of the jars (mentioned i in the experi- i
ment above quoted,) g must also be equal to 1. Fors=1and q = 10, )
v.e. when the jar is charged with 10 sparks from the measuring jar ,
under the circumstances formerly explained, then its discharge must :
produce in a metallic wire an increase of heat nearly equal to that .
produced by the unit of current during one minute in the same wire, :
But to charge the jar with q = 10, the machine will scarcely require \
to be turned for one minute, and therefore the inference might be
drawn from a superficial investigation of the production of heat, that ,
turning the machine for one minute would produce a quantity of elec- :
tricity equal to the chemical unit of the galvanic current.

But that such a comparison, or rather such a conclusion from the ¢
comparison can not at all be admitted, is evident from the fact, that /
by means of the electrical machine no perceptible decomposition of |
water can be obtained, while one cubic centimetre of detonating gas |
ought to be readily evolved per minute.

But a more careful investigation soon shows that the discharge of |
the jar and the galvanic current act under entirely different and not !
comparable conditions, in producing heat in the wire.

The same charge of the jar when passing more slowly through @ i
wire produces less heat in it, and the increase of temperature becomes |
imperceptible as soon as the time of discharge reaches a measurable |
duration; if, therefore, the quantity of electricity, obtained by turning ;
the machine for one minute, when accumulated in the jar produces by )
its discharge perceptible heat, the same quantity of electricity dis- -
charged through the wire in a ‘continuous current during one minate, ,
will not perceptibly raise the temperature of the wire. But only such 1
a current can be compared with the galvanic. In order to compare ¢
the electricity of the machine with that of the battery in relation to )
quantity, we should be able to measure the quantity of heat which is §
produced in a metallic wire by the electricity passing through it from }
the conductor of the machine. The instantaneous discharge of an)
accumulated quantity of electricity cannot directly be compared with ©
a continuous current. ‘That the process by which heat is evolved in i
the discharge of the Leyden jar is entirely different from that of the»
galvanic current, is also evident from the fact, that with the former!
not only the quantity of electricity discharged through them is con-~
cerned, but also the area of surface upon which it was previously »
distributed ; thus, in the production of heat by the discharge of the »
jar, factors come into question which with the current do not appa
at all. The galvanic current and the discharge of the jar have, as far ||
as regards the production of heat in metallic wires only this in com-

|

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 401

mon, that the rise of temperature is proportional to the square of the
quantity of electricity and to the resistance of the conducting wire.

§56. Ignition of metallic wires by the galvanic current.—While the
phenomena of the ignition of metallic wires by means of the discharge
of the Leyden jar have been elucidated by the ingenious researches of
Riess, corresponding investigations are wanting in reference to the
galvanic current, though the latter might probably offer less diffi-
sulties than the former.

In Casselmann’s treatise (already mentioned) ‘‘On the galvanic
earbon-zinc battery, Marburg, 1844,’’ the following remark occurs on

age 43:

ee A platinum wire of considerable length used for closing the
circuit, does not become red hot, but when shortened to a certain
length it does. Lessening this, however, by shortening it more and
more it reaches finally a length at which it does not become red hot
any more, and from this it follows that the ignition of the closing
wire reaches a maximum only when its resistance to conduction bears
a certain proportion to the quantity of electricity forcing its way
through it.”’

If the current of a battery makes a wire red hot by passing through
it, still the force of this current must increase by shortening the wire,
and it therefore appears not quite probable that the stronger current
should no longer heat the shorter piece of wire to redness. To throw
some light on this point, I made a series of experiments myself, since,
as above remarked, no thorough investigations have been made on this
law of ignition in the galvanic current.

My experiments were made in the following manner: In the circuit
of the battery S (fig. 48) there was inserted at H, a wire-holder,
which will next be described, and at B,a tangent compass. At Q
there was a little mercury cup, by means of which the circuit could
readily be opened and closed.

The wire-holder is represented in fig. 49. Upon a board two brass
rods were fastened, on each of which were two screw clamps capable:
of sliding up and down.

Fig. 48.

402 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

In one of the clamps a, the connecting wire from one pole of the)
battery was screwed and in the other that leading to the tangent-)
compass. Between the clamps 6, the experimental wires were ex-.
tended and this was always done before closing the battery. Thecon-
necting wires between S, H, B, Q and S, were copper wires about $3
line in diameter, and of a total length not exceeding 5 metres, to
that their resistance was not considerable.

After the wire to be experimented upon was properly inserted at a
and all the other connexions properly made, the circuit was closed ati
@; and, after the compass needle had come to rest, its deflection wag;
observed and at the same time the appearance of the ignition in thel
wire. |
The course of the experiments will become evident from the follow-:
ing tables which contain the results of the observations. |

The first three sets of experiments were made with platinum wire)
of 0.45 millimetres in diameter,

FIRS SERIES.

Battery of 40 carbon-zine cups.

Length of | Deflection of com- Appearance of ignition.

wire. pass needle.

Metres. 2
155 45
1.3 46 Feeble, only in some spots.
hal 47 Feeble throughout the whole length.
1.0 48 Red hot.
0.8 50 Bright red. |
0.5 56 Nearly white hot. ht

‘et |

SECOND SERIES. A

Battery of 24 carbon-zine cups.

0.6 44

0.5 45 Feeble, only in some spots.

0.4 46 Somewhat increased.

0.3 48 Red hot throughout the whole length.
O-L 51 Bright red.

THIRD SERIES.

Battery of 12 carbon-zine cups.

0.3 46 Feeble, nearly throughout the whole length.
0.3 AT Still feeble throughout.

0.2 48 Red hot.

Ot 50 Bright red.

7|
| RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS 403
}

| Two series of experiments with an iron wire of 0.42 millimetre in
_iameter gave the following results:

} FOURTH SERIES.

} e

i Battery of 24 carbon-zine cups.

}
.

| ™
| Length of | Deflection of com- Appearance of ignition.
! wire. pass needle.
M |
7 Metres 2.
j 1 32 In some places.
| 0.8 33 Not quite throughout the entire length.
| 0.6 34 Red hot.
0. 4 35 Bright red.
US SUC Melted.

FIFTH SERIES.

Battery of 12 carbon-zine cups.

i 0.5 32 In some places,

/ 0.4 33 Somewhat increased.
| 0.2 35 Intensely red hot.

} ULL a eee — Melted.

| In reference to the experiments with iron wire it is to be remarked
hat in each one a new piece was inserted, because by ignition the
urface was oxydized, and consequently the wire was altered.

These experiments prove that one and the same wire produces, with
he same strength of current, the same phenomena of ignition, whatever
nay be its length.

In the platinum wire of 0.45 metre in diameter a partial ignition
s produced by a strength of current corresponding to a deflection of
15° to 46°. With 40 elements this is effected in a wire of 1.3
netre in length, with 24 cups in one of 0.5 metre, and with 12 cups
‘n one of 0.4 metre.

The red heat appears in all these experiments with a force of cur-
rent of 48°, while in the first series the length of wire is 1 metre, in
she second 0.3 metre, and in the third 0.2 metre.

The light red heat occurs with a strength of current of 50 to 51°.

| Quite similar are the results from the experiments with the iron wire.
Partial ignition appears with a force of current of 32° to 33°, intense red
heat with 35°. These experiments therefore do not show the pecu-
liarity mentioned by Casselmann. It is to be regretted that he gives
no more exact details, from which perhaps the reason of the anomaly
observed by him could be explained. I presume, however, that it is
caused by the great conduction of heat by the mass of the metal in the
wire clamps, which has a considerable influence with very short wires.

j
|
,
}
|
|

404. RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.
|

IK
By observing attentively a wire held by it while it is red mort
perceive that in the immediate vicinity of the clamps its glow is cor’
siderably less than in the middle. If now the wire be so far shortene!
that the cooling influence of the clamps extends to its middle it seem
easy to explain how, by shortening the length of the wire, the phe
nomena of ignition finally disappear. This is also seen from th
following observation :

A platinum wire 0.21 metre in diameter was inserted in the cireux
of a single carbon-zinc cup. With a length of 3 centimetres it be
came feebly red hot, while the tangent compass indicated 26°; by
when the same wire was shortened to 1 centimetre no ignition way
produced, even with a current of 34°. 7 |

When, instead of the single element, two Bunsen’s cups were used
the appearances of ignition were entirely identical with the length
of both 3 and 1 centimetre, though the corresponding deflection i
the former case was 34°, and in the latter (the shorter wire) 44°,

§ 57. Ltelation between the diameter and force of current in metal
wires ignited by the galvanic current.—The above experiments do no
illustrate the relation between the force of current and the diamete
of the wires, as corresponding to a certain degree of ignition, becaus’
only the length, but not the diameter of the wire, was varied.

The following table gives the results of a set of experiments mad
with platinum wires of 1 decimetre in length and variable diameters:

Casselmann used a wire-holder similar to that represented in fig 4

|
I!
|

=o
2 ab
sf Degree of ignition. 2 eS =
i?) 5) o
: Pale
—_ o (=)

A = a i
mm ° 7
ORS ae Al BES) et hi elaine Ma ah 34 | 47.18] 163.9

Red hogsseesk 2 Cae SI 2s5 See 36 50, 82 169. 4 at
Bight: res soet -gsels ogee 33 54, 67 182. 2 23) We
Verybtight med. -52.262- 3, 42 63, 00 210. 0 ay
0.39). || Peeble. 2.52. saree sean see 43 65. 24 163, 7
Red Hot... seep one ase 01 46 | 72.45| 185.5
Brighsined 2220208 266 AK 1 48 77.77 199.5
0.452) cPeebleticuca dso cee canis. - 47 75. 06 166. 6
(Red Hobs oe e nmin reps wnt 48 CITIES 172, 2
Briphtiwred's .eseees.e ce. 50.3] 84.42 1=7.6
Nearly white hot...-........ 56 | 103.74 230.3
0°75; *'|pRedshot- <2. ee-seer coneee 60 | 121.24 161.7
Brightired’..--< 4.2 9ss2- 05-6 - 66 | 157.22 209. 3

The experiments marked * are taken from the former series, (0)
page 420.)

Krom this series of experiments we may assume that, in order t
produce the same degree of ignition, the force of current must increas
proportionally to the diameter of the wires. According to this law, fo

j

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 405

same degree of ignition the quotient of the diameter of the wire
the corresponding force of current should be a constant quantity.
last column of the previous table contains this quotient. It is:

),

For feeble ignition—
With the diameter. Deviation from the mean.
0.3 163.9 — 0.
0.39 163.7 — 1.0
| 0.45 166.6 Ta Sl
| Mean......00. 164.7
For red heat—
. 0.3 169.4 — 2.8
| 0.39 185.5 + 13.3
0.45 172.2 0
0.75 161.7 — 10.5
MOAN . cnc. vs 172.2
For bright red heat—
3 182.2 — 12.4
0.39 199.5 + 49
0.45 187.6 — 7.0
| 0.75 209.3 + 14.7
. Mean... 194.6
For very bright red, nearly white heat—
0.3 210.0 — 10
0.45 230.0 + 10

Meatiss iiss cas 220.0

‘The deviations from the mean are so irregularly distributed, in
ispect to their quantity as well as to their sign, that without hesita-
on we may attribute them to errors of observation. That these
eviations are so considerable, varying up to 7 per cent. of the cor-
‘sponding quotients, will not surprise us if we consider that the
»grees of ignition are not measured, but only estimated.

A set of experiments similar to the above, with iron wire, gave the
llowing results :

Diameter. Degree of ignition, Deflection. Force of current. s

v. s= 70, tang. v. inf
0.2 Feeble. 19° 24.08 120.4
pf Red. 20 25.41 127.0
0.255 Feeble. _ 24 31.15 122.1
‘id Red. 25 32.62 127 9
0.38 Feeble. 34 47.18 124.1
ni Red. 38 55.67 146.1
iS * Feeble. 52 89.6 119.4
- Red. 56 103.74 131.3

406 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

The quotient > is therefore: r ‘
For feeble ignition— mai]
With the diameter. Deviation from the mean.
OZ 120.4 a lt.)
- 0.255 222.1 + 0.6
0.38 124-1. + 2.6
0.75 119.4 — 2,1
Meanwi2.5... 121.5 ’
For red heat— fit
0.2 127.0 — 7.8 "
0.255 127.9 —— ifs
0.38 146.1 + 11.3
0.75 138.3 + 3.5
Meany .% 134.8

This series therefore confirms the results we obtained from the ex!
periments with the platinum wire.

With copper wire the following results were obtained :

Diameter. Degree of ignition. Deflection. Force of current. a
‘1D, Bs — 70, tang. ev.
0.2 Feeble. 48° Lie ied 388.8
cd Red. 52 89.60 448.0
0.255 Red. 59 116.48 418.3
With silver wire: ‘i
0.2 Red.* 51 86.45 432.2 |
0.255 Feeble. BT 107.80 422. aa

§ 58. Comparison of the laws of galvanic ignition with those of Len
Sor the development of heat.— According to the laws of Lenz, the qual
tity of heat liberated in a metallic wire increases proportionally +
the square of the force of the current, and to the resistance to cox
duction of the wire. But with equal length the resistance to condui,
tion is inversely proportional to the square of the diameter. I
therefore—al] the other conditions remaining unchanged—the fora
of current increases as the diameter of the wire, the quantity of hee
developed must remain the same.

But if in a thicker wire just as much heat is evolved as in a thinne
one, we should certainly expect that the former would not attain th
same degree of ignition as the latter, because the thicker wire impart
more heat to the surrounding air; therefore, in order to obtain a
equal degree of ignition in a wire of times the diameter, we shoul
have to employ a current more than 2 times stronger, while accordin
to the above experiments a current with m times increased force |
sufficient.

Let us more accurately determine this relation. According to th
researches of Lenz, above discussed, the heat produced in metall)

* Melted after a while.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 407

vires by a galvanic current is proportional to the square of the force
of current and to the resistance to conduction of the wire. We can,

therefore, put
WieSaya?) Late Say

where W denotes the quantity of heat produced (within a given time)
‘na wire, the resistance of which is/ for the strength of current s.
We may now consider W the quantity of heat which must be produced
in a given time in the wire in order to make it red hot. If this
wire be replaced by one of the same metal and of equal iength, but »
times the diameter, its surface will also be m times as great, and this
surface gives to the surrounding air—ceteris paribus—n times as
much heat, and therefore n times as much heat, viz: » W, must be
evolved in the thicker wire in order to produce the same appearance of
red heat. But the resistance to conductions of the wire of n times

| : bagel ,
greater diameter is i Denoting by s’ the strength of current

which makes it red hot, we obtain the equation:

A geen ae

| n-

‘therefore, W = 8? A PNB 32 Ne 2)
n*

| and by combining the equations 1) and 2)
| si? = 3 5?
or ge ae V8 a eee Sire

' Thus, according to this reasoning, a current of 2.83 and 5.19 times
| the strength should be necessary in order to make red hot, wires, the
| iameter of which is twice or three times as great, while, according
_to my observations, a two and three times stronger current proves sut-
, ficient ; in short, instead of equation 3), according to my observations,
| that of s) = ns holds good. The deviations are far too considerable

‘to allow of the supposition that they proceed from errors of obser-
vation.
How this difference is to be accounted for I am at present unable to
| decide. It is, indeed, conceivable that with thicker wires and an equal
_ strength of current the outermost stratum reaches so low a tem-
| perature that the loss of heat is not greater than from thin wires, but
_ that towards the interior the temperature increases so rapidly that
the outer colder strata have no perceptible influence upon the appear-
ance of the wire. Small differences, too, are lost by the defective esti-
mation of ignition, and it is therefore to be expected that deviations
from the above law relating to the thickness will be found, when the
diameter is more varied than in these experiments. I intend to con-
| tinue the investigation of this subject.

The laws of ignition by the galvanic battery and by the discharge
of the Leyden jar differ entirely. While the strength of current must
be increased in equal, or at least nearly equal proportions to the
diameter, the charge in the Leyden jar has to be augmented in pro-
portion to the fourth power of it, if the degree of ignition is to be

— se

408 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. .

kept unchanged. This difference already shows that the galvanic .
ignition is essentially of another nature from that produced by the
discharge of the jar.

§ 59. Determination of the voltaic combination required to produce .
ignition in given metallic wires.—The mean values above obtained for ;

the quotient * indicate the force of current necessary to bring a wire »
D

of 1 millimetre in diameter into the corresponding degree of ignition. .
Therefore, for a platinum wire 1 millimetre in diameter, to makeit ¢
feebly red the force of current required is 165; to make it red hot the »
force of current required is 172 ; to make it nearly white hot the force >
of current required is 220.

For an iron wire 1 millimetre in diameter to make it feebly red the »
necessary force of current is 121 ; to make it red hot the necessary force }
of current is 135. To make a copper wire | millimetre in diameter red _
hot a force of current of 433 is required ; for silver this value is 432,

I consider these numerical values only as first approximations.

Denoting by s the force of current which is required to bring a wire
1 millimetre in diameter to a certain state of ignition, thens.d indicates
the force required to produce an equal amount of heat in a wire of the |
same metal whose diameter is d.

If once we know the force of current a required to produce a.
certain degree of ignition in a piece of wire of given diameter, and also |
the resistance to conduction 7, which this wire in connexion with the |
other part of the closing circuit offers, then it is easily computed
what com- bination of voltaic elements, of a known nature, has to be
employed for the purpose.

Let e denote the electro motive force, wthe specific resistance of one
of the cups employed. These have to be so combined that they form
a battery of ~ elements, each consisting of m cups placed together.
Now, the values of » and m are to be determined.

The cups must be so combined that the resistance of the battery is
equal to that of the closing wire ; the total resistance, therefore, must
be equal to 27. We have, therefore,

ne ee

Bie pro?
2ra

and n = ;

But the specific resistance of our battery is

n
—_W =TY.,

Therefore, mn Ww ;

and the value for n being substituted,
iris 2wa

—_———

é

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 409

If, for instance, a platinum wire of 1.5 metre in length and 0.5

millimetre in diameter is to be heated to redness, how many Bunsen’s
cups, of the electro motive force of 800 and the resistance of 10, must
be used and how are they to be combined?

The resistance to conduction of a copper wire 1 millimetre in diameter
and 1.5 metre in length is 1.5; thatof alike platinum wireis 5.1,5 1,5.
But the resistance of a wire of one-half the diameter is four times as
great, viz: 30. This would be the resistance at the usual tempera-
ture; but when the wire is red hot it is at least twice as great, viz :
60. If we suppose that the resistance of the other part of the closing
circuit is comparatively so little that it may be neglected, we have
yr = 60, and, for our case, a = 172.0,5 =86. Therefore,

n.800
es 86, consequently, n = 12,9

ands 10 = 60, consequently, m = 2,1;

from which it follows that a battery of 12 double elements has to be
employed.

It is evident from this example that in the above mentioned exper-
iments the arrangement was not the most advantageous.

Ifa copper wire 1 millimetre in diameter and 0.5 metre in length is to
be heated to redness, its resistance would be 1, supposing it to be twice
as great at a red heat as it is at the usual temperature. If the resist-
ance of the rest of the closing circuit is also equal to 1, its total will
be equal to 2; but a in this case is 433, and therefore

m = 2.16, m= 10.8,

We have, therefore, to use a battery of two elements, each of which
consists of 11 cups.

A more accurate knowledge of the resistance to conduction of metals
at a red heat would be necessary to give a greater degree of exactness
to these calculations.

In general more cups in a series will be required for producing igni-
tion if the wires are bad conductors and of greater length, and more
cups, side by side in each element, if they are good conductors and of
greater diameter.

§ 60. Ignition of metallic wires in different gases.—Grove has made the
remarkable observation that platinum wire heated to redness by the
voltaic current in atmospheric air, is apparently extinguished when
covered with a bell-glass, filled with hydrogen.—(Phil. Transact.,
1847, pt. 1; Pog. Ann., LXXI, 196.) Since the resistance to con-
duction is greater in a wire intensely ignited than in one the heat of
which is less intense, it was to be expected that, ceteris paribus, the
same wire when in hydrogen would conduct a stronger current than in
atmospheric air.

Grove proved the correctness of this conclusion in the following

410 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

manner: In the circuit of a constant battery besides a platinum wire,
which could conveniently be surrounded by an atmosphere of different
gases, a voltameter was inserted. The intensity of ignition in the pla-
tinum wire was found to be very different in the different gases, but, at
the same time, the rate of the decomposition of water in the voltameter
was also changed, so that in equal times the quantity of detonating
gas obtained was greater as the heat evolved by the wire was less. The
following quantities of detonating gas were obtained per minute in
the voltameter when the platinum was immersed in the gases enume-
ated :

A AEB C0 9 2 pa Ag A Ot 7.7 cubic inches.
QUOT AMIE PAE <u casauransacctecenese ha0 "
ETON CSTE, sv iainnss seca ccna 6.6 pd
CoE OMe OCIA ance tee won set 5. Or: 6.6 x
ISVS CN ach a's tax nisine +o ~+nemact» 6.5 i.
MOOS EM ae vce e svat seine tia 6.4 is
ALMOSPNOLIC GIT o.ote videos .ddt~ 6.4 Pe
do. condensed.......... see ae 6.5 si
CMe SP UTTRCO ot cans ope « RE m3) ee
ela Be i (5 Nia eel Ne 6.1 =

With the appearance of light in the wire, the heat produced in it
also is greater, as is demonstrated by the following experiment: The
bulb of a thermometer was placed at a certain distance from a coil of
wire, which was heated to redness by a battery of 4 cells. When the
coil remained in atmospheric air the thermometer rose 15° in five min-
utes, but when it was immersed in hydrogen the rise, during the same
interval, was only 7.5°.

Poggendorf, in a note, expresses the opinion that this phenomenon
may be connected with the observation formerly made by Dulong and
Petit, that a heated body is more rapidly cooled in hydrogen than in
atmospheric air. To me this view seems inadmissible, for if the wire
in hydrogen gives out more rapidly the heat developed in it, the
thermometer ought to rise more rapidly when the wire is placed in
this gas, provided the quantity of heat produced in the wire by the
galvanic current is always the same in whatever gas it is placed.

This experiment, however, is not yet decisive; but another one,
described by Grove in a later memoir on the same subject, beyond a
doubt refutes the above explanation of Poggendorf.—(Phil. Magazine,
XXXV, 114; Pog. Ann. LXXVIII, 366.) Two glass tubes, A and

Fig. 50. B, fig. 50, 1.5 inch in length

A B and 0.3 inch interior diame-

ter, were closed at both ends
with corks, which were
penetrated by copper wires,
= connected inside of the tube
ee by a spiral of platinum wire
qa) te fi in diameter and 3.7
inchesinlength. The tube

A was filled with oxygen, B with hydrogen, and the tubes were then
placed in separate vessels, similar in every respect, and containing

) y/
SUT ZA >

=) a B

3

p= Zane

‘i
E

=) a=
SS" TTT

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICs. All

about 3 ounces of water. A thermometer was immersed in the water
of each of the vessels, and the copper wires were so connected that they
formed part of the closing circuit of a constant zinc-platinum battery
of 8 cells, each of 8 square inches acting surface.

When the battery was closed the wire in the oxygen became incan-
descent, while that in the hydrogen was not visibly ignited. The
temperature of the water, which was 60° F. in both vessels at the
beginning of the experiment, rose within 5 minutes to 70° in that
around the hydrogen tube, and to 81° in that around the one contain-
ing the oxygen.

When both the tubes were filled with the same kind of gas the
temperature in both vessels rose to the same degree.

This experiment decidedly proves that the appearance of less heat
in the wire immersed in hydrogen, with perfectly identical strength
of current, cannot be caused by a more rapid absorption of heat by
the hydrogen, because then, on the contrary, the water surrounding
the hydrogen tube ought to be heated sooner. All this indicates that,
in fact, a less production of heat takes place in the wire when sur-
rounded by hydrogen.

Grove has proved that this phenomenon is net caused by a small
amount of conduction of electricity by the hydrogen; he has also de-
monstrated that it cannot be brought into any connexion with the
other physical properties of the gases, their density, specific heat, &c.

As to the explanation of this peculiar fact, Grove endeavored in
vain to find a tolerable one, and in the course of his somewhat dilated
and obscure discussion arrives himself quite inconceivably at the con-
jecture that the difference of the gases might have a similar effect to
a difference in the condition of the surfaces. This would essentially
coincide with Poggendorf’s above mentioned opinion, which was pro-
pounded, however, before the experiment with the two glass tubes of
fig. 50, which in the most distinct manner refutes such a view, was
known to him. But Grove gives his consent to it immediately after
he has himself made and described the experiment, which proves that
this basis of explanation is inadmissible, and that the phenomenon
cannot be deduced from differences in conduction and radiation of heat.

In my opinion the phenomenon is still entirely isolated and unex-
plained. [do not think it profitable in such cases to cover up our
want of knowledge with dilated disquisition, in which the physical
scape-goat of our days, molecular action, has to play the principal part.

§ 61. Effect of ignited platinum wires on different gases.—It is a
known fact that some of the compound gases suffer decomposition in
red hot tubes. Grove has produced similar effects upon these gases
by the action of ignited platinum wires.—(Phil. Trans., 1847, pt. 1;
Pogg. Ann. LX XI, 194.) The following is the apparatus he used for
this purpose :

Into the upper end of an eudiometer tube, fig. 51, a curved plati-
num wire was fused, from whose extremities copper wires conducted to
the two mercury cups which connected them with the poles of the
battery. The gas to be examined was confined over water, and, to
prevent the glass from becoming too much heated, the whole eudiome-

412 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

ter tube was immersed in a wider vessel filled with water. Sometimes
the water was covered with a layer of oil one inch in depth.

Fig. 51.

When the gases had to be confined over mercury, or when a longer
continuation of the ignition was necessary, the apparatus of fig. 52
was used. Here the eudiometer tube is bent, and its closed end, con-
taining the platinum wire, immersed in a vessel filled with water or
oil ; the open end dipping into another vessel containing the water or
mercury, used for confining the gases. With this apparatus the
following results were obtained :

Nitric oxide, over distilled water, contracted in varying proportions
to the heat. (The volume, of course, was not measured betore the
apparatus had entirely cooled.) In the best experiments the contrac-
tion amounted to one-third of the original volume. The remaining
gas was nitrogen, and nitric acid was found dissolved in the water.

Nitrous oxide was decomposed into nitrogen and oxygen; the
volume increased by 0.35 of the original. The full equivalent pro-
portion or 0.5 could not be obtained. :

Carbonic acid did not show any perceptible change.

Ammonia increased to double its original volume ; the gas could no
longer be absorbed by water, and consisted of 3 vol. of hydrogen and
1 vol. of nitrogen.

Olefiant gas contracted a little, and deposited carbon. The re-
mainder was hydrogen and olefiant gas; the greater the heat the
more hydrogen was formed.

Nitrogen remained unchanged.

Oxygen contracted but very little, about one-fiftieth of its volume ;
it might, perhaps, have contained a minute quantity of hydrogen.

Chlorine over water gave white fumes, and a grayish-yellow insolu-
ble powder collected on the sides of the tube, near the platinum wire;
this was afterwards found to be chloride of platinum. The greatest
part of the chlorine combined with the hydrogen of the aqueous vapor,
and the muriatic acid formed was absorbed by the water. When the
experiment was finished the volume of gas was reduced to about one-
half, and the remainder was oxygen.

With bromine and iodide of chlorine oxygen was evolved, (how the
experiments with these bodies were performed I could not perfectly

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 413

understand.) The residue could not be examined, because it acted
both upon the platinum and upon the glass.

Hydrogen contracted very much, sometimes to one-tenth of the
original volume. The cause of this contraction was a small quantity
of oxygen, with which hydrogen gas is nearly always contaminated.
Phosphorus bronght in to the most carefully prepared hydrogen emits
vapors of phosphorous acid, shines in the dark, and produces a slight
contraction. But even after this, the ignited wire produces a further
contraction. The phosphorus, therefore, cannot remove all the oxygen
from the hydrogen.

After this experience Grove doubts the correctness of the values
ascertained for the atomic weight of hydrogen.

According to these experiments it seems that it would be more
advantageous to use the platinum wire ignited by the galvanic cur-
rent, than the electrical spark in eudiometric experiments.

Hydrogen and carbonic acid mixed in equal volumes were easily
affected by the ignited wire. They contracted to 0.48 of the original
volume; the residue was carbonic oxide. One equivalent of oxygen
and 1 of hydrogen had, therefore, combined together.

Carbonic oxide exhibited a remarkable phenomenon. Carefully
purified from any carbonic acid, it was exposed to the action of the
ignited wire over distilled water, and its volume increased from one-
fifth to one-third, according to the intensity of ignition.

When the gas was dry and confined over mercury, this increase of
volume did not take place; it must have been dependent, therefore,
upon the presence of aqueous vapor; and, in fact, the increase of
volume was found to be caused by the formation of carbonic acid. By
agitation with caustic potash or lime water the gas was reduced to
exactly its former volume; but then it was found to be mixed with
a volume of hydrogen equal to that of the carbonic acid absorbed.
This is explained in the following manner: ‘‘ Half a volume or one
equivalent of oxygen derived from the vapor of the water had com-
bined with one volume or equivalent of carbonic oxide, and formed
one volume or equivalent of carbonic acid, leaving in place of the car-
bonic oxide, with which it had combined, the one volume or equiva-
lent of hydrogen with which it had been originally associated.”’

On comparing this experiment with the previous one, the singular
inversion of affinity under circumstances so nearly similar will appear
surprising; in the former case hydrogen abstracted oxygen from car-
bonic acid in order to form water, leaving carbonic oxide, while in the
latter the carbonic oxide takes the oxygen from the aqueous vapor to
form carbonic acid and leaves hydrogen.

A more exact idea of the nature of these reactions has not yet been
obtained. By the latter experiment, in which a decomposition of
aqueous vapor also took place, Grove was led to the idea that it might
be possible to decompose aqueous vapor and produce detonating gas
simply by means of the ignited wire. He succeeded in this as will be
seen in the following:

§ 62. Decomposition of aqueous vapor by ignited platinum wire.—
Grove discusses the decomposition of aqueous vapor into its elements
in the same memoir in which he treats of the action of the ignited

414 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

wire upon the different gases. After many unsuccessful experiments
this decomposition was effected by means of the following apparatus :
A bent glass tube,
Fie? open at one end, (fig.
53) was connected at
its other end by a nar-
row neck, with a bulb
into which the plati-
num wire passed, as
represented in the fig-
ure. The whole tube
was filled with water
previously freed from
air, and its open end
immersed in a vessel of water. On applying a battery of two zinc-plati-
num cells, the air in the bulb was expanded and expelled so that the
water entered it and then soon boiled, and at a certain period the wire
became ignited in the vapor. ‘‘At this instant a tremulous motion
was perceptible, and separate bubbles of the size of pin-heads ascended
and collected in the bend of the tube. it was nota continuous evolu-
tion of gas as in electrolysis, but appeared to be a series of jerks; the
water in returning through the narrow neck formed a natural valve,
which cut off by an intermitting action portions of the atmosphere
surrounding the wire.’’ The collected gas was detonating gas.

That this evolution of detonating gas can certainly not be attributed
to electrolysis has been satisfactorily demonstrated by Grove. I give
below the most important of his arguments.

1. A battery of two cups produces in distilled water, even under
the most favorable conditions, a scarcely perceptible electrolysis.

2. The decomposition did not commence until the wire became
ignited.

3. When the wire was divided no gas was evolved.

Grove now endeavored to produce the decomposition of aqueous
vapor in such a manner that the red hot platinum wire could only
come in contact with the vapor. A glass tube, as in fig. 54, which

at its closed end had a curved platinum

Fig. 54, wire melted in, was filled with water

which had been carefully freed from air
by long boiling and the air pump; it was
then inverted in a vessel of the same
water, and a spirit lamp applied to its
closed extremity until the upper half was
filled with vapor, which therefore sur-
rounded the platinum wire. The wire
was then brought to full ignition. After
the connexion was broken and the lamp
removed, the water gradually ascended
again, but a bubble of the size of a mustard seed remained in the
tube, and detonated when touched by a lighted match at the surface
of the water trough. The experiment was repeated, the wire being

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 415

kept ignited for a longer time, but the gas could not be increased
beyond a very limited quantity.

The experiment just described was repeated and the gas bubble
transferred to another tube, the wire was then again ignited in vapor,
the bubble formed again removed, until a sufficient quantity of gag
was collected for analysis, which required the labor of ten hours.
This gas was now detonated in a eudiometer and left a residue of
0.35 of its original volume, which consisted of nitrogen. The experi-
ment was repeated several times with the same result; sometimes a
trace of oxygen was found in the residue.

Here electrolysis was completely excluded ; the wire was ignited in
dry steam.

When in the apparatus of fig. 55 the
sparks of a large hydro-electric machine
were passed between platinum points
through the vapor, a small bubble of de-
tonating gas was also formed.

As in the previous experiments a whole
day’s work did not increase the bubble,
but when it was transferred, another in-
stantly formed. The gas similarly col-
lected detonated and left a residue of 0.4
of its original volume of nitrogen with a trace of oxygen.

By an estimation, which could of course only be approximate, the
detonating gas formed, was found to be about =, of the volume of
the vapor.

Grove considered this evolution of detonating gas not to be a spe-
cific effect of electricity at all, but of heat alone, and indeed, succeeded
also in decomposing aqueous vapor merely by heat without electricity.

Omitting the less successful experiments, we shall at once proceed to
those that gave very decisive results. With a constant battery of 30
zinc-platinum cells the end of a thick platinum wire was melted into
a globule of the size of a pepper corn; between this and the carbon
point of the negative pole the voltaic arc was taken until the gobule
was again near its melting point. It was then rapidly plunged into
water, freed from air, that was kept boiling by means ot a spirit lamp,
and into which a tube filled with the same water was inverted. Sepa-
rate bubbles of gas rose into the tube. This process was repeated
until a sufficient quantity of gas was collected, which, after explosion,
once left a residue of 0.4; another time only 0.25 of the original
volume, consisting, as usual, of nitrogen and traces of oxyen. The
galvanic battery here served evidently only to bring the platinum to
ignition. When melted and heated by means of the oxy-hydrogen
blow-pipe, it acted exactly in the same manner. In this way more than
4 cubic inch of detonating gas was obtained.

The heated globule is evidently, when immersed in the water,
immediately surrounded by a stratum of vapor, from which then the
small quantity of detonating gas is developed.

Fig. 55.

Al6 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

To obtain acontinuous evolution of the mixed gases from water sub-
jected to the action of heat alone, Grove constructed the apparatus
Fig. 56. shown in fig. 56; a and b
are tubes of silver 4 inches
in length and 0.3 in diam-
eter, connected by two pla-
tinum caps to a tube of a
perforated platinum wire
0.125 inches diameter, the
bore having the diameter of
a large pin; @ is closed at
the extremity, and to the
extremity of 6 is fitted, by
means of a coiled strip of
bladder, the bent glass tube d. The whole apparatus is filled with
water freed from air, and, after having expelled the air from a by
heat, the end of the glass tube was immersed in a vessel of boiling
water. Heat is now applied by a spirit lamp, first tod and then to a,
until the whole boils; after this the flame of an oxy-hydrogen blow-
pipe is directed upon the middle part of the platinum tube c, and when
this has obtained a high degree of ignition gas is evolved which, mixed
with vapor, soon fills the whole apparatus, and escapes through the
open end either into the open air or into a gas collector.

The gas thus obtained left, after its detonation, a residue of 0.3 of
its volume, consisting of nitrogen and a trace of oxygen.

That, in all these cases, the remnant consists of nitrogen is caused
by the great difficulty or even impossibility of absolutely removing all
the air from the water.

This series of phenomena is very remarkable. While the detonating
gas, under the influence of heat, is condensed to vapor of water, we
have here exactly the opposite action, though toa very limited extent
only. The elaboration of the more intimate conditions and relations
of this decomposition of aqueous vapor, which might lead to an explan-
ation of the phenomenon, we must leave to the future.

When Grove says ‘‘ that these experiments afford some promise of
our being, at no distant period, able to produce mixed gases for pur-
poses of illumination, &c., by simply boiling water and passing it
through highly ignited platinum tubes, or by other methods,’’ I cannot
help expressing my doubts whether, even if the manufacture on a
large scale should succeed, the detonating gas thus produced could
give more light and heat than the fuel consumed in its formation.

§ 63. Application of galvanic ignition to blasting rocks.—It has for a
long time been known that gunpowder can be ignited by the electric
spark, as shown long ago by Franklin, and still repeated as one of the
usual experiments in the lecture room. But, although blasting by
means of frictional electricity is therefore possible, still there are too
many difficulties in the way of the process to allow us to expect its
introduction into practice.

Hare was the first to employ the ignition of metallic wires by the
galvanic current in blasting. But his apparatus was too complex and

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. AIT

unsuited for every day use by common laborers, and, therefore never
was used to a great extent.* In consequence of the many fatal
accidents in mines and quarries, Roberts, of England, directed his
attention to this subject. After many endeavors he succeeded in
making the application of the galvanic current to blasting so simple
that his process deserves general commendation. It was first described
in the Mechanics’ Magazine, May, 1842, p. 353.—(Dingler’s Polytech.
Journal, LXXXV, 275.) We shall be .brief in this notice, as pro-
bably much that is contained in the article mentioned is well known.
_ In order to avoid the necessity of arranging before each charge the
fine iron wire between the conductors, Roberts invented cartridges, a
number of which can always be prepared in advance. They are made
in the following manner: two copper wires, each 10 feet long and 1 line
thick, well covered with waxed cotton or woolen yarn, are placed side
by side close together; at one end they are twisted together for abont
6 inches, as represented in Fig. 57, and their extremities left to form
a fork, a little over } inch long, with its extremities }
inch apart; the ends of this fork are then laid bare,
cleaned by filing, and the fine iron wire is stretched
between them. The iron wire is wound around the
extremities of the copper wires, and may then be soldered
with tin.

The iron igniting wire is, of course, destroyed by each
explosion; to save the conducting copper wires they
are firmly tied together with twine, as indicated in the
ficure, and then wound around with fine binding wire.

The body of the cartridge is a tin tube, 3 inches in
length and ? to 1 inch in width, soldered and perfectly
water tight. (A glass tube might probably answer.)
The fine iron or steel wire is placed at about the middle of
the cylinder, and is kept in its place by means of a cork
which closes the cylinder, and through which the
twisted copper wires pass. It is best to cut this cork
lengthwise, and after putting the wire between the
two halves, to press them into the tube. But on account
of the thickness of the conducting wires it will probably
be found more convenient to make a groove in the cork
| for their reception. The cork being put in so that the
| fork is nowhere in contact with the sides of the tube, it
|is covered with a good cement. Roberts recommends a
mixture of one part beeswax and two parts rosin.

_ The tube is then to be filled through its open end
with dry sporting powder, and closed by another cork,
which must also be covered with the cement.

Figure 58 represents the entire cartridge. Figure 59 shows how
the cartridge is placed in the hole.

——.

* Our author could not possibly have seen Dr. Hare’s description of his apparatus when
he wrote this sentence. The original notice (Am. Jour. Science and Arts, vol. 21, p. 139,
- 1832,) shows that Dr. Hare’s apparatus was not complex, and that it was essentially the
Same ag that here described as the contrivance of Roberts. G. C. 8.

27 8

4i8 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

After ail dast and moisture are properly removed from it, one half

of the intended charge is put into the hole, the cartridge is inser
and the remaining gunpowder As
Fig. 89; filled in above it. Thus, the
cartridge is in the middle of the
charge, and the long conducting
wires still project several feet
above the rock. The charge is

not tamped in the usual way.

A wadding of straw or tow is
carefully pushed down the hole,
so that a space filled with air, of
variable size according to circum-
stances, remains between it and
the charge. Upon this wad dry
sand is poured until the bore is
entirely filled.

The two separate ends of the cartridge wires
must now be brought into connexion by con-
ducting wires with the battery 60 to 90 feet
off. The conductors are also covered wires
about one line in diameter, plaved side by side
and kept close together by being wound over
with twine throughout their whole length, a
with the exception of their extremities, where they are to be connected
with the battery and with the car tridge wires, ;

It is sometimes necessary that the person who has to ignite the
- charge should still be further off from the charge than the battery i is,
and for this purpose an arrangement must be made by which the
circuit may be closed from a distance.

Roberts contrived the following arr angement for this purpose : upow ‘4
two opposite ends of the box which contains the battery two wooden
posts are erected, connected above by a wooden rod of one inch in
diameter. At one end a tin disk, A, fig. 60, three to four inches im

diameter, is fastened, to which a wire is soldered conducting to one, -
say the positive pole of the battery. Another tin disk, B, is fastened
to a tin tube, made to slide easily on the rod, and this is kept from
A by aspiral spring. One end, D, of this spiral i is connected with
one of the conducting wires, while the other conducting wire leads to
the negative pole of the battery. The disk B is therefore connected

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. Ai19

through along circuit, including the fine igniting’wires, with the nega-
five pole, so thateB may be considered the negative pole and A the
positive. The current circulates and produces ignition in the iron
wire as soon as A and B come into contact.

In order to pull the disk B towards A from a distance, two pieces of

twine fastened to B pass through holes in the disk A, and at E are
‘connected with the long string that reaches to the place whence the
|person who is to close the circuit stands. An accidental discharge
is prevented by a peg F between A and B, which must be removed
Detore the two disks can come in contact. But besides lessening the
|danger this method of blasting offers other considerable advantages;
| it enables us without much difficulty to explode powder under water.
For this purpose the entire charge is to be enclosed in a water-tight
‘tin box and this put in the place where its action is desired.
The application of galvanic ignition is also very advantageous when
|great masses of rock are to be blasted. Formerly, in such cases, it
was necessary to use a heavy charge in one great mine, but several
smaller properly distributed charges would produce a much greater
effect if they could be ignited simultaneously. This can now be done
| by the aid of the galvanic current; the connecting wires have only to
be so arranged that all the holes are at the same time in the circuit.
In this way immense effects have been obtained in England.

What power the battery must have in each case can easily be ascer-
tained from preceding sections. From section 59 can be ascertained what
force of current is required to make the thin iron wire incandescent,
‘(the diameter of which must of course be known,) and after computing
|the resistance in the conducting wires, it is easy to determine how
many cups or pairs of plates of any give point must be used and how
‘they must be arranged to produce this force of current.

| §64. The voliaic are.—By the construction of the constant battery,
|} the production of the arc of hight which Davy was the first to observe
| is greatly facilitated, and hence this interesting phenomenon has beer
) several times investigated, though much is still left for further
_ researches.

De la Rive paid great attention to the galvanic arc; we take the
| following from his elaborate treatise on this subject, published in
Phil. Trans., f. 1847, (Pogg. Ann., LXXVI, 170.)

The voltaic arc can be produced not only between carbon points but
also between points of different metals. Itis greater with the more
| fusible or oxydisable metals, as zinc or iron, than with platinum or
| silver. The size of the arc of light is proportioned to the greater or
| less facility with which the substance of the electrode disintegrates ;
| for since this phenomenon is produced by minute particles ot
matter carried over from one electrode to the other, its formation must
| necessarily be favored by a less cohesion of the electrodes; this is also
| the reason why, under otherwise like conditions, the greatest arc of
| light is always obtained between carbon points. The transference of
the matter is always from the positive to the negative pole. In the

air and with metallic electrodes, the deposit upon the negative pole

420 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

always consists of oxydized particles of the metal used as the positi
electrode. :

If the negative pole has the form of a plate, while the positive po
is a point, the deposit of the transferred matter upon the plate
forms a very regular ring, the centre of which is the projection of the —
point upon the plate. oo

When the are of light is taken between a metallic point and an
opposite surface of mercury, the latter, when positive rises In a cone, —
but forms a cavity when negative. In this case it is very difficult to —
observe accurately the minutiz of the phenomenon, on account of the
great quantity of mercurial vapor evolved. "

De la Rive made experiments with plates and points of platinum, ~
iron, silver, and copper, but I cannot enter upon the details of the —
experiments, because there is much that is not clear to my mind; in~
many cases, for instance, I cannot see in the individual experiments”
the proof and confirmation of the generalizations announced. A
repetition of these experiments and an accurate description, illustrated
when practicable with figures, seems therefore very desirable.

§ 65. Intensity of light of the voltaic arc.—Casselmann has made ~
experiments upon the intensity of light of the voltaic arc, which have-
been described in the memoir already mentioned. They were after-
wards also copied into Poggendorf’s Annals.—(Pog. Ann., LXIII, ”
576.) The photometer used in his experiments was constructed upon
the same principles as that described in the third edition of my Lehr-
buch der Physik, vol. IL, 674. The carbon pieces, between which the
arc was taken, were of the same composition as that. used in the cylin-
ders of Bunsen’s battery, but prepared also in other ways, as some of 7
them were saturated in solutions of nitrate of strontium, boracic acid,
&c., and then intensely ignited. Thus prepared they gave a very”
steady light, differently colored, according to the solution employed;
and the carbon points could (with a Bunsen battery of 44 cups) be re-_
moved to a distance of 7 to 8 millimetres before it disappeared, while
the unsteady light of unprepared carbon went out at a distance of 5
millimetres. q

A tangent compass was at the same time inserted into the circuit,
so that for each measurement of the intensity of light the correspond-_
ing force of current could be determined. 4

The brightest parts of the whole light, it is well known, are at the’
points of the two pieces of carbon, upon which the arc rests. In the
following table the intensity of the whole light is compared with that_
of a stearine candle, and for each kind of carbon, with the points once -
ata very small, and then at the greatest possible distance. The values”
of the force of current are reduced to the chemical unit. |

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. | 431

a se [gps
he ie Bae Bas
B82 o§ aa
Bs a og gq oo
a Ouls = 24
2 eae all a
} mm
Sumunepareaicarpon...0.-.).0. 2.501220 bk 0.5 95 932
; 4.5 68 139
Menu with nitrate of strontium -.....1...-...------<--. 0.5 120 353
6.75 88 274
} Bambartenithecaustic potash’...< <i. sadecss ede acee bua. sha 225 101 150
8.0 82 (3)
fervor with eliloride of zinc... ~..--L..--2--.--2.---=-- 1.0 80 624
5.0 67 159
merpon with borax in sulph. acid..........-----.---.---- 1.5 72 1171
Dag 64 165

This table shows that on increasing the distance of the points the
intensity of light and the force of current decrease. By most of the
‘substances with which the carbon had been prepared, the arc of light
was made more steady and allowed of a greater distance of the points,
but the intensity was not greater, except with the carbon prepared
with borax and sulphuric acid.

| But the results in the above table are only approximately accurate,
since the changeable position of the most brilliant points at the origin
‘of the arc may have prevented the light from acting with its full in-
‘tensity upon the photometer. In another series of experiments, an
‘abstract of which is given in the following table, this error was
avoided, the arc of light having been directed towards the photometer
‘by means of a magnet. In these experiments only 34 Bunsen’s cups
were used, the distance of the carbon points was not changed, and the
intensity of the light was measured for different degrees of force of
) current.

l Nl
| Force of cur- | Intensity of
rent. light,
Ftd Sy
‘ea 41 198
BERIBOR With “DOrAcic’ ACIC. ~- 2 sacaceeScamessi-nscece- sees] 52 252
57 | 298
| { 38 178
j! 5
f Carbon with salphate of soda......---.-- its Me 4 Fs | re
L 69 | 460

The carbon saturated with sulphate of soda was not heated to red-
ness before use.

It follows from these experiments that the intensity of light in-
| creases in a somewhat greater ratio than the force of the current.

422 ' RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

It is to be regretted that we have no measures of the intensities of !
the galvanic light, when different metals are used instead of the
carbon points. Bis)

Fizeau and Foucault have also made comparative experiments on
intensity of the galvanic are light, but from another point of view.— }
(Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. ser. II, T. XI, pp. 370; Pog.. Anny
LXIII, 463.) They did not compare the intensity of the light fro
different sources, but its chemical effect. In this way they compareg
the galvanic light with that of the sun, and of lime incandescent it
detonating gas. The experiment was conducted in the followmg »

© (iota

manner: An iodized silver plate was inserted in a camera obscura, im }

the place where the image of the sun or of the light, emanating from 3
image of the object was shown upon the prepared silver plate beside”
bath and examined, in order to find which one of the images can
in the iodide of silver, which is necessary for the condensation of the

the carbon or lime, was formed. After a short action of the light the
camera obscura was closed, and the position changed, so that another ;
the first one; the exposure was somewhat longer than before; for @ |
third place still longer, &c. The plate was then put into the merew 4
visible by the action of the mercurial vapor. In this way it was ascer= .
tained how long the light had to act in order to produce that change »
mercurial vapor. rs

If all the other circumstances were entirely identical, the time Tes)
quired for the production of the Daguerrean image would be nearly |

“s

=e

inversely proportional to the chemical intensity of the corresponding |
sources of light. my

But Fizeau and Foucault used for their experiments with the arte
ficial light lens of shorter focus than for obtaining images of the sum} |
the aperture of the lens also was varied by means of diaphragms,”
These circumstances have, therefore, to be taken into account. ee

If the image is n times further from the lens, it will, ceteris |
paribus, be n times greater in its linear dimensions, and will, there>_
fore, cover a surface n2 times as large, and consequently the im=”
tensity of light at each point of the image will be n* times less,”
The chemical power of the source of light may, therefore, be com-
sidered proportional to the square of the distance of the image formed ~
from the lens. ae

But it is also, as easily perceived, inversely proportional to the sure”
face of the opening of the lens, 7. e., to the square of its radius, and
therefore tis

=

i=]

ad?
tg
when J denotes the chemical power of the source of light, d the dis-
tance of the image from the lens, r the radius of its opening, and ¢
the time required to produce a Daguerrean image.
If we denote by a the angle which the radius of the aperture of the
lens subtends at the place of the image, then

=

a tang. @

1

a
therefore yp sp ce
t. tang. a

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 423

_ By this, or rather by a similar equivalent formula, Fizeau and
Foucault computed the results of their observations, and thus obtained
the following relative values for the intensity of the sources of light.

Sun-light, in August and September, at noon, with a clear sky 1000
Carbon-light, produced by 46 Bunsen’s zinc-carbon cups........ 235
Toe igo ees fe wns t don signe vne ts ee ie cdavndety tase ; 6.8

| The lime-light appears to be surprisingly little; but Fizeau
| and Foucault found with the common photometrical method a similar
elation between the lights from lime and carbon. No other com-
parative measurements are known to which these can be referred; a
careful experimental re-examination of the matter is, therefore, de-
sirable.
| In reference to the change of the intensity of the carbon-light with
the number and magnitude of the galvanic elements we find the fol-
| lowing data in this memoir: While a battery of 46 Bunsen’s elements
| gave an intensity of light of 235, this was increased to 238 only when
the number of cups was augmented to 80; but a battery of 46 triple
cups gave an intensity of 385, after having been already in action
for one hour.
In consequence of the rapid alteration of the fluid—the diluted sul-
phuric acid becoming gradually a solution of sulphate of zinc—the
force of the battery, and with it the intensity of the arc of light pro-
duced by it, decreases rapidly. While 80 cups afforded at first an
intensity of 238, this after three hours was diminished to 159.
It is to be regretted that these physicists have not measured the
force of current corresponding to the intensity of light, whereby
the value of the above given numerical relations would have been
very much enhanced.

§ 66. Production of heat by the voltaic arc.—The heat developed at
} the poles, between which the arc is taken, is entirely too great to be
attributed to the mere passage of the electric current through these
conductors. According to the experiments mentioned in § 57, a cur-
rent, to make a platinum wire of 0.75 mm. in diameter incandescent
| by its passage, must have at least a force of 160. Therefore, to make
a platinum wire of 3 mm. in diameter only white-hot requires, at the
| very least, the enormous force of current of 640; and yet with the cur-
Tent of a Bunsen’s battery of 44 cups and a force of 80 to 100, we can
produce an arc in which the point of a platinum wire of more than 3
| mm. in diameter may easily be melted into a globule, if used as one
_ pole of the battery while the other is formed by a carbon point. The
combustion of carbon is so trifling that it cannot essentially contribute
_ to the great heat produced ; besides, the fusion of the platinum wire
by the galvanic arc takes place in a vacuum as readily as in the open
air.
The electric current, therefore, besides producing heat by its mere
passage through the conductors, in forming the arc must act at the
ole itself to produce heat in some other way, of which as yet we
now nothing,
The development of heat is not equal at the two poles of the are ;
it is greater at the positive than in the negative. De la Rive, in his

424 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

treatise already mentioned, in § 64, adds, in reference to this fact, the
following observations: . iB

When, in forming the arc, a positive metallic point is opposite to&, .

negative plate, the point becomes ignited throughout, while on invert-
ing the poles the negative point is “heated at its extremity only. a

If two points of the same metal are opposed to each other the |
tive one becomes more intensely ignited, and over a greater length.
If they are of different metals, of course that one becomes most in-
tensely ignited which is made of the worst conducting metal. i

To this category belongs also an observation of Walker, made wil
a Daniell’s battery of 160 cups.—(Trans. of the Lond. Electr. Soe. » Pp.
65 and 71; Pog. Ann., LV, 62.) He laid the pole wires crosswise,
but so that after the contact they were again moved to a little distance :
from each other, and a shortarc of light passed between them. Under ©
these circumstances the positive end of the wire, from the point of |
crossing, became so intensely hot that it softened and bent, while the |
negative end remained comparatively cold. i

Experiments on the heating effects of the voltaic arc have been
made on the greatest scale by Despretz. He collected, in Paris, 500
zine-carbon cups, and arranged a battery of 124 elements, each con- —
sisting of four Bunsen’s cups. When a piece of sugar carbon, in a
glass globe exhausted to 5 millimetres, was brought between the poles |
it became intensely ignited and the globe was covered with a dry,”
crystalline black powder. Carbon from gas retorts produced the same _
effects. This shows a sublimation of the carbon.

Despretz thinks too that he observed. traces of fusion of the carbon}
At any rate his experiments show that carbon evaporates more readily
than it melts. He believes that it could be melted in metallic vessels
in an atmosphere of compressed nitrogen. Similar in behavior to
carbon are lime, magnesia, oxide of zinc, &c. Alumina, rutil,”
anatase, nigrine, oxide of iron, &c., form at first small globules, but
afterwards evaporate.

Previous to these experiments with 496 cups Despretz had used a bat-
tery of 165 elements, and combined the heat of its arc with that of the
oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe and of the sun concentrated through a sec-
tional lens 90 centimetres in diameter. The effect of the galvanic
battery was increased by the addition of the other sources of heat.—_
(Comptes Rendus, July, 1849, No. 3; Dingler’s Polytechnic Jour-
nal, CXIV, 342.) |

§ 67. Influence of magnetism upon the voltaic arc.—That magnetic
forces have an influence upon the position and form of the are has
already been observed by Davy, and it is known that this arc is
affected by a magnet in the same manner as a movable conductor when —
a galvanic current is passing through it; the terrestrial magnetism, —
therefore, must also act upon it. By the motion of the heated air the |
arc of light is always carried upwards, so as to form a curve, convex |
above. If we conceive a perpendicular plane to be passed through |
the carbon points lying horizontally, the action of terrestrial magnet- |
ism will be such that the highest point of ‘the arc will never be in this
plane, but on one side or the other. |

RECENT PROGRESS 1N PHYSICS. 425

. Casselmann, in his treatise already mentioned, in § 56, gives ex-
periments on this subject. If, with opposite horizontal carbon points,
the current was passing—

From The deviation of the apex was towaids
N. to 8. ae oi
W. to E. Ne
S. to N. W.
E. to W. 8

This can be easily deduced. In fig. 61 aand 6b represent the two
horizontal carbon points between which the
arc is produced. If now we imagine a per-
pendicular plane passed through a and 8, |

Fig. 61.

and a straight line to pass perpendicularly
through the plane between these points, as
indicated by the arrow, then a steel needle |
placed in this line would be magnetized by |}
the current of the arc, and its N. end would |g
be at the point of the arrow when the posi-
tive current is passed from a through the arc towards b. But by the
influence of the terrestrial magnetism the N. end of the needle would
dip, and in like manner also the arc will be inclined from the vertical
plane towards the direction of the N. end of the needle.

If ais to the west, and 0 east, the inclination will be toward the
north when the current is passing from a to b; but with a direction
of the current from east to west, the north end of the supposed mag-
netic needle would be on the south side of the arc, and the latier,
therefore, would incline toward the south.

By means of this supposed magnetic needle we can, under all cir-
cumstances, determine in what manner the arc will be affected by
terrestrial magnetism or either pole of a magnet, or what must be its
position when placed between the two poles of a horse-shoe magnet.

If, instead of one of the carbon poles, a magnetic bar is used, so that
the arc is formed between carbon and steel, the arc rotates around the
magnetic pole according to the same laws which apply when a mova-
ble current rotates around a fixed magnet. The first notice in refer-
ence to this rotation of the arc is given by Walker, in the ‘‘ Transac-
tions of the London Electrical Society’’ from 1837 to 1840.—(Pog.
Ann., LIV, 514.) De la Rive also has made experiments on the in-
fluence of magnetism upon the voltaic arc, but in a different way.
Their description is found in the memoir mentioned already in § 64. |

“I shall quote here from De la Rive’s memoir literally, in order to
give a characteristic example of his want of precision in writing, by
which his papers are frequently rendered obscure, as before men-
tioned :

“If two points of soft iron, acting as electrodes, be both placed
within a helix formed of thick copper wire of several coils, the voltaic
are developed between the two points of iron ceases the moment a
strong current is passed through the wire of the helices, and reappears
if this current be arrested ‘before the points have become cold. The
are cannot be formed between the two iron points when they are mag-
netized, whether by the action of the helices or by that of a powerful

soatasa Sbeals {

426 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. ‘ee

magnet, unless they be brought much nearer to one another, and the
appearance of the phenomenon is then entirely different. The trans- |
ported particles appear to disengage themselves with difficulty from —
the positive electrode, sparks fly with noise in all directions, while in |
the former case it was a vivid light without sparks and without noise, —
accompanied by the transfer of a liquid mass, and this appeared to be
effected with the greatest ease. It is of little moment with respect to
the result of the experiment whether the two rods of magnetized iron
present to that part of their extremities between which the luminous
arc springs the same magnetic poles or different poles. ee
‘¢The positive electrode of iron, when it is strongly magnetized, —
produces, the moment that the voltaic arc is formed between it and a ~
negative electrode of whatever nature, a very intense noise, analogous —
to the sharp hissing sound of steam issuing from a locomotive engine, —
This noise ceases simultaneously with the magnetization. Cae
‘‘For the purpose of better analyzing these different phenomena,
I placed an electro-magnet of large dimensions and great power In”
such a manner as to enable me to place on each of its poles, or be=
tween them, different metals destined to form one of the electrodes
of the pile, while one point of the same metal, or another substance,
acted as the other electrode. I have alike employed as electrodes, -
placing them in the same circumstances, two points of the same metal, —
or of different metals. The following are the results which I have
obtained: A plate of platinum was placed on one of the poles of the
electro-magnet, and a point of the same metal was placed vertically
above it; the voltaic arc was produced between the plate and the ©
point, the plate being positive and the point negative. As soon as <
the electro-magnet was charged a sharp hissing was heard. It be- 7
came necessary to bring the point nearer to the plate to enable the are”
to continue, and the bluish circular spot which the platinum plate ©
presented became larger than when the experiment was made beyond ©
the influence of the electro-magnet. ;
+ ‘* The plate was made negative, and the point positive. The effect
was then totally different. The luminous arc no longer maintained —
its vertical direction when the electro-magnet was charged, but took
an oblique direction, as if it had been projected outwards towards the ©
margin of the plate.t{ Itwas broken incessantly, each time accompa- —
nied by a sharp and sudden noise, similar to the discharge of a Leyden
jar. ‘he direction in which the luminous arc is projected depends
upon the direction of the current producing it, as likewise on the po- —
sition of the plate on one or other of the two poles, or between the poles
of the electro-magnet. A plate and a point of silver, a plate and a
point of copper, and generally a plate and a point of any other metal,
provided it be not metal too easily fused, present the same phenomena.
‘Copper, and still more silver, present a remarkable peculiarity.
Plates of these two metals retain on their surfaces the impression of the
action that took place in the experiments just described. Thus, when
the plate is positive, that portion of its surface lying beneath the nega-
tive point presents a spot in the form of a helix, as if the melted metal
in this locality had undergone a gyratory motion around a centre, at the

SS eS Se

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 427

am time that it was uplifted in the shape of a cone towards the
int.

The first part of this is clear; not so the last two paragraphs. The
‘passage between f and +f appears to indicate that the oblique direc-
tion of the arc of light only occurs when the plate is negative and
the point positive ; but somewhat further on we read that the direc-
tion in which the luminous arc is projected depends upon that of the
exciting current. It should, therefore, take place when the plate is
positive and the point negative. Besides, an obscure allusion to the
rotation of the are is found in this passage, but so obscure that one
not previously acquainted with the phenomenon could form no idea
of it from this representation. That the Genevan physicist, in penning
this passage, actually had this rotation in view is evident from the
conclusion of the last paragraph. Similar faults frequently occur in
De la Rive’s treatises ; his description rarely gives a clear and intelli-
gible representation of the phenomenon. It is much to be regretted
that in this way the results of many a beautiful and difficult experi-
mental research are only imperfectly presented to those engaged in
physical studies.

§ 68. Use of the galvanic light for illumination.—It was to be expected
that the great intensity of the galvanic carbon light would soon lead
to the idea of employing it for illumination after its production was
so much facilitated by the invention of tle constant batteries.

Deleuil several times made public experiments with this kind of

Hlumination. At first he illuminated the pavilion of a mansion at
the Pontneuf, in Paris, with 98 zinc-carbon elements. Acherau made
Similar experiments in the Place dela Concord.—(Dingler’s Polytech.
Journal, vol. 91, p. 324.)
- Though the intensity of the galvanic carbon light is enormous, and
although a battery of 48 Bunsen’s elements produces as much light as
63 common gas burners, yet the use of the galvanic light for public
illumination appears unfit for practical application for the following
reasons :

An immense quantity of light is here emanating from one single
point, and therefore very strong contrasts between light and shade
will be produced ; the darkness in the shade will be the more unpleasant
just on account of its contrast to the dazzling light. At any rate, the
illumination obtained from 63 gas burners, pertectly distributed, will
be more uniform and agreeable than an equivalent light concentrated
in one point.

Another objection to the application of the galvanic carbon light,
is the difficulty of keeping its intensity uniform for a long time.

In consequence of the formation of sulphate of zinc the conducting
power of the fluid decreases so rapidly that the force of the current,
even in half an hour, becomes considerably weaker than it was at the
beginning. But, apart from this, the maintenance of the battery is
extremely expensive, because much more zine is consumed than the
current itself requires, and the nitric acid acts destructively upon the
metallic rings around the carbon cylinders. It is true the disadvan-
“tages of this action of the nitric acid could be avoided by the use of
Daniell’s elements, but then the battery must be considerably enlarged
to obtain the same effect.

428 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

In an economical point of view, therefore, the galvanic illumina- |
tion of streets, halls, theatres, &c., does not appear advantageous,
But there is yet another difficulty ; the management of the battery
and of the whole apparatus is too complicated to be confided to such,
persons as generally have charge of the illumination; the carbon —
points are continually changing, and their position, therefore, must —
be continually regulated in order to keep the light uniform and pre-—
vent its extinction. It is difficult to accomplish this regulation by
mechanical means, though different contrivances have been proposed —
for the purpose. Le Molt, for instance, obtained a patent in England, |
in 1848, for an apparatus for galvanic illumination, in which carbon |

rig. 2. disks, with the form represented in fig. 62, take the place
of the points. Two of these disks are placed with their
sharp edges opposite each other; their axes rotate uni-
formly by means of clock work, and their distances are /
regulated by a metallic spring. t

It is therefore scarcely to be expected that the applica-
tion of galvanism to public illumination will have any —
practical success. But Donné and Foucault have obtained very
favorable results from their experiments, in which the galvanic carbon ~
light was substituted for the incandescent lime in the so called gas
microscope.

A tolerably complete description of the photo-electric microscope of
Donné and Foucault may be found in the 4th edition of Ponillet, Hle-
ments de Physique Experimentale, &c., vol. I], pp. 746. We can —
here only indicate the most essential parts of the apparatus. The
luminous are is produced between sticks of carbon cut from the hard

carbon of gas retorts; they are made

Bie Ge. in the shape represented in fig. 63, the

negative electrode being pointed and

the positive blunt. These carbon pieces

are so held that their position can
easily be regulated.

A general idea of the arrangement of the illuminating apparatus
of this microscope may be gathered from the diagram fig. 64. a isa

concave mirror of an aperture of about
Hie Se i decimetre, and a radius of 1.6 de-
cimetre. The carbon light is at b,a
little nearer to the mirror than ce, the
centre of its curvature, and somewhat
higher, so that the rays emanating
from 6 are collected at /, where the
minute object to be magnified is in-
tensely illuminated. The system of
lens through which the magnified
image of the object is thrown upon a
screen 4 to5 metres distant is precisely the same as in the solar
microscope.

To diminish the great heat at 7, a vessel is placed between the
mirror and 0, the sides of which are made of polished plate glass; it
it is filled with a solution of alum by which a great part of the calo-

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 429

ey is absorbed without sensibly lessening the intensity of the

«hight.

, The image of the arc of light itself, as produced at / by the concave
mirror, may be taken as the object to be magnified through the lens, but

_ then the magnifying power must be lower. Thus, a highly magnified
image of the arc of light is obtaine] upon the white screen, and all
the phenomena accompanying it can be observed with ease.
_ But the magnified image of the galvanic arc of light can also be
produced by much simpler means; it has only to be brought directly
near the focus of a lens of 1 to 3 centimetre focal distance. Of course,
care must be taken that the carbon light is so inclosed that no light
falls upon the screen, except that which passes through the lens.

§ 69. Galvanic Wumination of mines.—The remarks on galvanic

illumination in general are also applicable to the proposal to illumi-
nate mines by the light produced by means of galvanism; there is
scarcely much practical success to be expected. Because the galvanic
carbon light can be produced in a’ vacuum and even under water.
Boussingault believed that it could be used instead of Davy’s safety
lamp in mines where inflammable gases make open lamps dangerous.
But in mines an intense light at any one place is never wanted, but
a feeble one at many different places. The same objection is to be
made to De la Rive’s proposal to pass in a hermetically closed glass
balloon the positive current from an upright carbon cylinder to a me-
tallic one placed vertically above it.—(Dingler’s Polyt. Journal,
XCVIII, p. 158, and 232; Moniteur industr., 1845, No. 961 & 965.)

Grove proposed, instead’of the carbon light, the ignition of a pla-
tinum wire by galvanism in a hermetically closed glass vessel.—
(Dingler’s Polytechnic Journal, XCIX, p. 201; Phil. Magazine, Dec.,
1845, p. 442.) He gives to the wire the form of a spiral, and thus
employs a greater length of it in a smaller space ; and this arrange-
ment has the further advantage that on account of the less rapid cool-
ing the coiled wire is more intensely heated with an equal force of
current than the same wire when extended in a straight line.

Grove does not give any details as to the length and diameter of
the wire used, or of the precise construction of the spiral. With two
to three constant elements a uniform light was obtained during several
hours. Grove experimented (and read) by this light ; but this notice
gives only a very imperfect idea of the illuminating power of the
apparatus. In mines this light will probably be sufficient, and the
proposition therefore appears to be a more practical one than the ap-
plication of the carbon light, especially on account of the small
number of constant elements required for the purpose. But still, even
this apparatus will be more expensive and complicated than Davy’s
safety lamp, and consequently its general introduction into use is
scarcely to be expected.

King uses, instead of the platinum spiral, a strip of very thin pla-
tinum foil, and makes it incandescent by the galvanic current.—
(London Journal of Arts, June, 1846, p. 348; Dingler’s Polytechnic
Journal, CI, p. 12.)

~ §%0. The galvanic spark.—Most of the observers who have experi-
mented with the galvanic arc have noticed that the two poles must first

a

430 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 4
7

be brought into contact before the current can be produced. After be
the carbon points have once been in contact, they may be separated :
from each other and then the luminous arc is formed. The arc also —
can be produced by discharging the spark of a Leyden jar between the (
carbon points, instead of ‘bringing them into contact, as has been
observed by Daniell, (Phil. Trans., 1839, 89; Pog. Ann. LX, 3798 ‘
and previously by Stur geon, —(Ann. of Electr.. VLU, 0 te Pos. Anaya
XLIX, 122.) The latter believes that this " experiment originated
with Herschel. The formation of the current in this case is evidently —
caused by conducting particles carried from one pole to the other bys
the spark.

Even the powerful batteries which have been used to produce the —
luminous are have not yet sufficient tension to effect the passage of a
spark through the smallest distance.

Jacobi found by accurate measurement that the poles of a battery —
of 12 zinc-platinum elements could be brought to within 0.00005 inch ~
of each other without a spark passing. —(Bulletin of the Petersbingaaa
Academy; Pog. Ann., XLIV, 633 |

Gassiot obtained distinct pack from his great water battery aaa
(Phil. Trans., f. 1844, pt. I, pp. 39; Pog. Ann , LXV, 476.) This
remarkable battery consisted of 3,520 glass tumblers, each containing
a zinc rod and a copper cylinder. They were charged with rain
water. The tumblers were distributed upon 44 oaken boards, every
11 of which were combined in a stand, similar to the shelves of a book
case, and were supported by four strong pillars. Especial care was
taken to secure perfect insulation, the glasses were varnished and
placed upon glass plates, and these as well as the boards were in like
manner covered with varnish.

It might be expected that this battery, when the circuit was unclosed,
should exhibit in a decided manner the phenomenon of tension, and,
in fact, the leaves of a gold leaf electroscope diverged already, when
yet at a distance of 2 or 3 inches from one of the poles.

As soon, however, as the battery was closed, all signs of tension
disappear ed. When the poles of the battery were brought within
0.02 inch of each other sparks continually passed between “them. In
one case this phenomenon continued day and night for five weeks
without interruption. Several months after its construction the
battery showed no signs of decrease in strength.

since the ordinary galvanic batteries have no striking distance at
all, it is evident that the appearance of light observed in opening and
closing even simple batteries, must be an entirely different phenomenon
from that of the common electric spark.

In the memoir just mentioned, Jacobi states it as his opinion that
the usual galvanic spark is a phenomenon of ignition and combustion ;
the extremely fine points which first come into contact and permit the
conduction of the current, become incandescent and burn, and thus pro-
duce, according to Jacobi’s opinion, the phenomenon of ight. ‘There
is no doubt that with more vivid sparks such ignition and combustion
really do occur, but then the phenomenon is no longer a simple one ; ’
in closing and opening a battery the spark is observed under circum-.
stances which make ignition and combustion very improbable.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. A3l

Neef has shown that this appearance of light, when occurring
simply without the action of secondary currents, is neither a common
electric spark, viz., a spark passing from one pole to the other, nor
can it be attributed to a combustion of metal.—(P. A. LXVI, 414.)

In his so called magnet electrometer, as described in the 3d edition
of my ‘‘ Lehrbuch der Physik,’’ vol. Il, p. 251, a continual closing
and breaking of the current takes place at c which is accompanied by
a corresponding appearance of the light. But in this form of the
apparatus the observation of the phenomenon is rendered difficult by
the width of the hammer which strikes the platinum plate. In avery
convenient modification of this apparatus by Desaga, in Heidelberg,
which will be described hereaiter, a platinum point is substituted for
the hammer, so that the contact is made and broken in rapid alterna-
tion between a platinum: point and plate.

When the apparatus is in action, light is observed, at the place of
separation, which, on account of the rapidity of the oscillation, seems
to be continuous. To the naked eye, when protected from the day-
light, the light appears violet, whether the positive current pass from
the point to the plate or inversely ; but the point of light is so ex-
tremely small that Neef was induced to examine the phenomenon with
the microscope. By the aid of this instrument he found that the light
always appears at the negative pole only.

These observations are best made with a microscope which magnifies
25 to 50 times, which permits the objective to be removed to at least 14
inch from the point of light.

When the positive current passes from the plate to the point, the
latter appears enveloped in violet light, while the plate remains en-
tirely dark.

At the lowest extremity of the point within the continuous violet
light there appear single, extremely fine, dots of dazzling white light
with a sort of swarming motion ; and towards the upper extremity of
the violet envelope there is also seen light of the same color but of
much greater intensity, flashing out, and yet no passage to the other
pole could be observed. The last mentioned flashing gradually dis-
appears as the force of the current decreases.

When the current passes in the opposite direction, and the point, con-
sequently, is positive, it remains quite dark and the violet light is
spread upon the plate around the point of nearest approach. In this
case, too, there is no spark, strictly so called, to be observed, and the
uniform violet glimmering light can scarcely be attributed to a com-
bustion of the platinum. Besides, Neef also especially remarks that
this phenomenon of light takes place at the negative pole only, while
the greatest heat is always developed at the positive pole.

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CONTENDS.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Bmmetnescocretary to Congress... 22.2. os... cecccscccccc acces ceccceus
@eeanarom the Chancellor and Secretary.... ....-s...ccess cccccs cous cocces cose
Peeeenerents) of the Istitution.<--...---. c-.ase<cedcecseccalccocedeaas
Members ex officio and Honorary members of the Institution............--..-----
CREAN AR GON 12 2 o's ens ewedinn ow win sn onjedeaen cobedeaneneaaaneans
Benen olessor tenry for 1857 ----. ssgce~ tens co mccconsaseeaees detenecees
mepoert of Professor Baird, Assistant Secretary..........-- ..---- 0+ ---- scene
List of Meteorological Stations and Observers..........-...----- 2-20. eo-- coee

Mmeartie Executive Committee... -..<¢ so. so-so soe oecnces cons seeeec ccc
Se Eilding Committed. .ec. vse case once oud cece coum cone code mati cone

Journal of the Board of Regents from March 16, 1857, to May 19, 1858......-...-.

APPENDIX.

eeees.—On “Coal.” By Prof. Jos. ie Conre....c..s22 205 veces ee cecs seun
On the ‘“ Vastness of the Visible Creation.” By Prof. S. ALEXANDER. -
Mereorotocy.—Colonia Tovar, Venezuela. By A. FENDLER.-.----.--------.----
Sacramento, California. By Dr. T. M. Locan....-..----.-.-----

On the best hours of daily observation to find the mean tempera-

ture of the year. By Prof. C. Dewry...-.----..-----------

Observations and results in the District of Columbia. By J. Wiss-

Observations on Natural Phenomena. By Stirtman MasTerman-

Report on recent progress in Physics. By Prof. J. Miruzr:
Blectricity...--. ..cce- cen nse nen nee coe ne cen nn s cece es coe nns wena ene
GalvaANIRM cos ses oes se csee sesese sec cne sew menaceess teseesleasccalwce=

28s

119
169
179
283

310

317
323

333
394

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INDEX.

Agassiz, L., Natural History of the United States.... 2... nn ceccee ceccen socces ae
Albany Academy, Henry’s Telegraphic Experiments in....-....-.--. 2.222. seeeee 96, 105
Alexander, Prof. S., Lecture on the Vastness of the Visible Creation....-...----. 169
ENCaery sn. S82 bees 22h. Vet A ee eee eee 100
Bppendix to the Report, Remarks concerning.........--. --.- ----22 nee eee nec ene 20
ECS 3. see 7 eS ee eee eee 68
DEY SE periments... 22. 2. Sa tha tees Chae eae eoe eee ee eee. 100
Beeacianions tor study of Natural History, &c!.2--. 2-2. 2ccdbscccccceccdes sone 25, 26
Bey Gy GHORAl VOWS: Of- 22s 55> cates GL ste SSk SEL EL ie ences eee once 119
neeoranlis. Observations: Ofs2sss 55262 s25625ec anes L255 Be ee 327
Bailey, Professor J. W., Resolutions respecting...... .----- .----+ eo-cee ence cece 7
Baird, 8. F., Report on Publications, Exchanges, and Museum.-.---......-.-.---- 38
menk Note Counterfeiting Investigation...... .-.. 2-2. -2--2. cseces cone nee cacene 30
SRUDEA UB ATOD 2, ew ccwwrnue saectsee Vles BOSE see a gene dees 104
DE HIGUENY ObSOrvations: wan cecner nude elf}. eR ea 285
Barometer, Half-hourly observations.........-....----- 206, 255, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 282
ener ot Carbon investipation .-../.5.2022..° -. 2. e222 i ee ee 30
Sennunievienozucla,: South Ameri¢as.=-~=sss- Soe. s2e etek Lees SSS LS eee 186, 222
Bowen, Rev. T. J., Grammar and Dictionary of Yoruba.--..---. .---.----.--------
Rear tied eM. Memoir on Oology tists. tas s2- teen ne sees ceeo cece secs cess 18
marmdaieoe, Report-Ofsc. fos coun oo Se Se ioe ecco geen cen wcne 71
Beuena Meteorological observations ates cco e- fs oo- lee pac eeeeeecce concche-- 27
Cass, Lewis, Letter relative to Miss Contaxaki’s present...--...---..----..----- 78
rem tenes >> StALCMeN tt Olse es eee eee Meee oe cae eee cet es Sacco coace® 90
Beicd Eouguet trom Mass'Contaxahisls. fore. «ec-c- sooscessecu~ one ce~ one 32
ERO OTA] 52 ees See eee Ce ae ee rete i case secwes Gama 283, 300
Sener ecuires on, by Prof Jos: Whe Wonter 22555 22 222- ssc con ne ce eeen coeens cone 119
Seecnousror the: Exploring Hxpeuition.<22-< sac ons --- cote woos. c.ccescs enccus 14
molonia Tovar, Venezuela, Meteorology of---. ..-------. -----6 w2n- -cocecs ---=-0 179
Communication from Prof. Henry relative to Mr. Morse....--. ..----.-----.----- 85
mine: resents ORY to oe see Cae eee ee a nt. em ens Seen ees 32, 77, 79
INNING dren te eat tae at aa ae oe ons Seen aes eee 33
meen Udine Grindors’In. Venesuela.--2- Sosa. te cece ence 219
MEMUMETDGHSIA V OHOHUOIA onto s aa sao oe A tee oe eas Sees secces coeesceece seocee 221
wave, Captain C. H., Translation of Gauss... V2.2 - soe een oe cane cee coee ones 21
Deposition of Joseph Henry in telegraph suit..--...----. -----.-..----- -------- 107
Dewey, Professor Chester, On the best hours of daily observation.....----..----- 310
SE Caan ae O85 25s soe aera toes sede wands Sane reas scnae seena= 24
Bennet ofColumbia, Moteorelopy Of st-rsacese soe etes seacteecec. cose cece severe 317
Sere to. Musaunnd uring 1850 conc. cecece comet ewew A) RISES ce. Cals 50

PEER CMACINIAMROUHtHOG. Of. <2 acne sone cone ocean coer en coc ces seen cnnsconsensses 30

436 INDEX.

Page.
Blectticty, .Mullora report G0 ooo sec cen san'b on cS sae ame wis aamipemticcieeet caeeee 333
The Leyden Jar, and effects of the discharge......---..----- ------------ 323
PlectricaliSparkiand Bush o5 eee ce niemerie saci seer = ee eee eee 367
IDeA LOGI eae aceone peace ObA> So dSSo HeegOOGerS Sue Senora ase6 or 387
Entomology, Study, Of...06 sasccsj- se a5. me eae bas is gecse semces pecions aeeicose 25
SIShNALeH Of “ADPFePTIAvIONS OT TSO ap. oeee poeta see aes eee ia . 68
Hxecutiye:Committes, Report Ofc s <tc nn mtcmieeemecoamesnds Sactew ons sesce ae 66
Exchanges, System, and Operations -..-....------..----.------ 28, 33, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44
Expeditions.on (Governments < Se <- - csc cyem in cee ase en sacs cep ieen oe ice mice a 46, 47, 48
PEaGnd bles GUILIN E 10d ee ae ine oats Reese eon ane eae oie ae ees ree 67
xp loratiONs Wj cecs sewers ae eee wee tesa sbememioenet miter seemant selena 29
Felton, Prof. C. C., Report on the Present of Miss Contaxaki..............---.- 79
Fendler, A, Meteorology of Colonia Tovar, South America ....-..----- --------- 179
Bossils of South Carolinds oe o.cc << c/s ac nce cece ceejn niet exinsic- iae.--steekte See See 21
Gale, Dr. L. D., Letter of April 7, 1856, relative to Morse’s Invention....---. .--- :* 198
Gale, Dr. L. D, letter of Aug. 7, 1857, relative to his interest in Morse’s Telegraph 93
Gallery of “Art: -Additionsit0 s<so0asc~01s 2220 coc apc ae cee cece See eee 30
Galvanisi ee pOniG8 (csc omiee nie oom on nies elena Boe ea Eee eS ce 394
Gauss, Theory of the Motion of the Heavenly Bodies ...----..----.----- -------- 21
Geplogy; General VibWe\ Oto. = spac Lie = nye anh Oe woe cine S Se See aoe 119
Gibbs & Genth, Researches and Memoir, by.----, .-~--- -2-0 coe cannes conn eee 16
Goddard, G. HY, Meteorological Observations. ----- socemcueminenyam an aes eee 300
Guyot, A., Meteorological and Physical Tables...--...-... .----- 2-20-- ---- sees 24
Half-hourly Barometrical Observations....---. - 206, 208, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 282
Hall, Prof. James, Letter of January 19, 1856, relative to Henry's Discoveries and
IQeggemeary as iy Mee Merc oco aon aoc anOmeIISee 29 o> Igaaseg onoose S08 96
Hall, Prof: James, Revision of Droost’s: Memoir, ybyac-ee'- os osee eee ace oe 24
Hare, Dr. Robert, Resolutions relative to the death of ..---. .... 2-2. ---- ---- enone 84
Harvey, Wr: \W).ui.; Memoir onvAll pee: Sento. eloeet tale ein ote eaten cision 17
Henry, Prof., Communication relative to Mr. Morse...... .--..-----.----2------ 85
Deposition in Leleprap hi Case ma aim cei pei pete (olla elle ale iol 107
Ep GriMeNntsiDY soca cio note ecto tates See aloe ecto islet cee tere cele tenetre 101, 102
Report of Committee on Communication of....-......- .5252-sc2= sans ao-e 83
History. of the Telegraph ...~ cece cmisccistemewes ican mies cess mee eee ees 99
Ehigard, Dr: M:,; Experiments: by see areata eee ele eta oie = ee 30
Holmes, F. §., and M. Tuomey, on the Fossils of S. C. -.-..----- -------.------- 22
Honorary Members of the Institution <2) 2 st epae selene a aeieie = moose seme seal 6
Indian Portraits, Stanley’s Gallery 22 -ssseeee aayem ne tmene cela hell Saceyeae a 36, 82
Journal of Proceedings of the Board of Regeuts -........-.--.-.--------------- 72
Kane; Dr. HE: K-) Resolutions raspectingecsos 2-4 ee =e een e emcee eerie 74
WabOratOny ae - alee eae oe oe a eel ele oe le mea el ete ieee ae nl 30
MeiConte, Prof. Jos:, ectureson’ Coal 2sse5s-cscos--5 cece see eal eee dg ee Rs 119
ihectures'during season 1657-8) se oe en ote ae eee ie eee eet ee eee 36, 37
Bectures on Coal;'by Prof. Jos: ae’ Conte’ -- oe ae tooeeieen pease eee a ae : iyi)
Lecture on the Vastness of the Visible Creation, by Prof. S. Alexander...--...-.. 169
Tietter of the Secretary to) Congress) 22-2. o-- | se eee eee eee eee reer 3
Mibrary, Donations received - 2c \e scence aa eee aa a ee eee eee te eee ol
Mibrary, New Arrangements ins. ..\ee- =n aleeeindee mn eehaem ere einer ee aerate 31

INDEX. 437

Page.
Little & Brown, Publications by.-.....--. -.-.----- o autererss AS See AS Hack 21
Logan, Dr. Thomas M., Meteorology of California .-.--- .--. ---.---2-+ +--+ 20+. 283
MamneiiG OUROnVAatIONS 10) MeXxiGD ouewe esas Jus- -- ~~ tis wceceenes one nerinanalosa\~ 29
Magnetic Self-registering Apparatus. ..-. peas cote S Soe eel ach aerate 30
Marine Algz, Descriptions of .. 22-2. -200 2-222. coc nee cee ene come ee eens coc ene 18
Mason, Hon. Charles, Letter of March 31, 1856, relative to extension of Morse’s
AHEM tras no oa ce aa ds tos oe ean ERE RES ee eee coe a eee eee a ateaate 97
Masterman, S., Observations on Natural Phenomena..-.-.-.....--. .----------- ---- 323
SMP StH 2222 22.5 5 Soot eaee sane ce ow cae tee eee tote eegne ne aie ewe 324
PRUE eee ae cla eee Seca re aera ras aa ee eee: eaten ees 327
Bt UI 2 ho Sete on eo eens pons acon oat ami erin ee ee eee 332
aicueneni. Wi, Researches and Memoir, by---s--+ sces)---5 enon soos sarsscieeniaeera- 15
Meteorological Stations and Observers in 1857 ..---. .....----------- ------ ----- 55
Mrriearolopical Tables, by J Wissner!.--.-. -----. . 02. conn e meena eee esien nn 317
Meteorology, Professor Dewey on the best Hours of Observation.-..------------ 310
Perrin GT MOATHCHN -5.- ¢ 2-026 toss cones ease te bece tonnes wae ceeieegeee@ nian : 279
Meteorology of Colonia Tovar, South America ..---...--.. -----. 220+ -- 2-22 eeee- LAS
Meteorology of Sacramento, California........-...-------- ---- eee -e- 2+ eee --- 283, 300
Meteorology, Smithsonian System described ..-...--...----- ---- ------ o--- 22 phe a7
Morse, Prof. S. F B., Communication from Prof. Henry relative to..---..------- 8d
Morse, Prof. S. F. B , Report of Committee on article of....-..----- ------------ 88
Muller, Baron, Magnetic Observations in Mexico. .----. ------------ ---- -------- 29
ole erer don, Keport. On HLectriclty ..-- =. -<<0<penq maw son/scina opacien am mn = ant
Report On Galvaniee, 9 one noc ee, on coe ays acem neem a eeinn = = 394
Museum, ‘Condition in January, 1858..---. ..---- 0. 2a. oo ene ca nnne «2 ~~ 02 one --= 46, 49
iia Ok DOnAtlONA CO) sacs cates ame aces epee ae cleo anne 50
SOO OE cn an a erm mn ineneen Mu sedel sails dive Shag ire nen ener Samia 33
Se STs ee aa a oe een ree eee a 99
DiniceEROmine, INSGELtON-2)<,2.<21..cj8coeeeee= sole ee oe oso eSleiseeee eels aaa i)
ETI, AN a cine Almeria a a mmembiel allele eee okie sein = eens 18
CURLD. Se Se sing 22 Oe et oc See ane EET mos et. mts 2 387
Marramnns. of Oreanizition 3. ...5---. <1 29 Saiae hes stiew.s sclesecectiow= a= E 7
eH CATR at ens tltlilON ceeceeu esr mace cn ace acedeeme ewes es sent we aeet Sif 015. 38
Conlin, Gy Weis] Pe ee ee ee sie sae eT Eee ee ee, 209, 253
Redfield, Wm. C., Resolutions respecting...... ..---. ------ eee nee eee ween eee 74
eee, ETD COCGINIS Of. 6 ace 3. «ania acinmepsm mane, aaah teense see seen eR eyem = 72
Report of Committee en Purchase of Stanley’s Indiau Gallery..-..--------------- 82
Menort of Prof. Henry for 1857..~.<- «4225 -usamers she tanec rae me nen easiness 13
Report of Special Committee on Prof. Henry’s Communication relative to Morse... &8
Report of the Building Committee....... ..--.- 2-222 ---- 0+ -- 2-22 cere ee eee eee 71
Report of the Executive Committee...--. ..---. .----- ------ 22-2 eee eee eee eee 66
TRS nCre Le ene Se eo I Oe eee eC eRe Seen eee mace are 29, 34
Resolutions of the Regents, Jan. 15, 1855 -.---- .-.--- ------ ween ne fees eee eee 12
Resolutions of Board of Regents relative to Prof. Henry.--.-....-----.--------- 98
Resolutions relative to Prof. Bailey, Dr. Kane, and Mr. Redfield. ..-....-...----- 73,74
(DVIS hits) GSe ES Sueer bos site Be Ceee ee See eae oeereen- 84
Runkle, J. D., Tables by ...22. 22-22. ------ ene cee sew ene cen nne coe nee noes enees a4

Sacken, Baron Osten, Catalogue of the Diptera..--.~-..----..++--++----+ -+--+- 24

438 INDEX.

Page.
Sacramento,’Cal:,- Meteorology stessctteseccsecedesecsanen se. ceess 2 Dorge 283, 300
Schaeffer, Prof. G. C., Translation of Muller on Electricity. ....-..----- ---. ---. 333
i oniGalyanisms22s25- SS ieo see eee 394
Seulptured:Rocks,in, Venezuela)... 23 co20 sees 32 ESS a eee 218
Shooting Stars, ‘Observations of. ..22..2 sc .scees eaeces = csc cte-beaeies eae eae 324
Smithson’sipersonal effects sa ss-sseaej0. ase bh ae edd Se secs 5. Soest one 34
Spence, C.S8., Letter relative to Miss Contaxaki's present .-....---. ---- -a2 --- 78
Stanley" Collection of Indian Portraits. ---o246 eee sce a ce eee nn eeieacer > Se ce 36
tanley, J. M., Letter offering Indian Gallery for sale....--.....---..--...----.. 75
Stanley Gallery, Report on purchase Ofjo-----sees socace soesec ec ces et aeeoesere 82
Statement of Prof. Henry in relation to the history of the Telegraph......------ 99
Sallwater,wMinneésotas.Observationsiadtresess-ceseeccs caoeettms seoacc oe emcees Bey)
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Hables;,’ Meteorological’ and Physicaljsn222-fesccc-+ eno eesene sense soet esoseese 24
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Lelegraphic Reports of the: Weather 22..-2-5-. 0s. -0 .<aidber: ccs ca cen- ness one 26
‘Thermometer, Hourly Observations’ --2-5. 6 sooseeseccce aa saeis naan eeeem eee <90
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Vastoess:of the Visible*Creation: Gectureones/ sce sesctcan sehen ae ele eee 169
Walker, Sears C., Account of interview with Morse and Henry--.-..-----...-.. 3 94
Washington, D.yC.,,: Meteorological Vables ssc uncese a2 3s ees cease tec omer es 317
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