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36TH CONGRESS, SENATE. Mis. Doc. 1st Session.
ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
BOARD OF REGENTS
OF FHE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
SHOWING THE
OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR 1859.
WASHINGTON:
THOMAS H. FORD, PRINTER. 1860.
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LETTER
OF THE
SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
COMMUNICATING
The Annual Report of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1859.
JUNE 11, 1860.—Read and ordered to lie on the table. June 14, 1860.—5,000 copies ordered to be printed, 2,000 of which for the Institution, and 3,000 for the Senate.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, June 9, 1860. Sir: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to submit to the House of Representatives of the United States the Annual Report of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Smith- sonian Institution for the year 1859. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary Smithsonian Institution. Hon. Joun C. BRECKINRIDGE, President of the Senate of the United States.
ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
BOARD OF REGENTS
OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
SHOWING
THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION UP TO JANUARY 1, 1860, AND THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD UP TO APRIL 8, 1860.
To the Senate and House of Representatives :
In obedience to the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, establishing the Smithsonian Institution, the undersigned, in behalf of the Regents, submit to Congress, as a report of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution, the following documents:
1. The Annual Report of the Secretary, giving an account of the operations of the Institution during the year 1859.
2. Report of the Executive Committee, giving a general statement of the proceeds and disposition of the Smithsonian fund, and also an account of the expenditures for the year 1859.
3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents up to April 8, 1860.
4, Appendix.
Respectfully submitted.
R. B. TANEY, Chancellor. JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary.
OFFICERS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
JAMES BUCHANAN, £ officio Presiding3Officer of the Institution. ROGER B. TANEY, Chancellor of the Institution.
JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary of the Institution. SPENCER F. BAIRD, Assistant Secretary.
W. W. SEATON, Treasurer.
WILLIAM J. RHEES, Chief Clerk.
JAMES A. PEARCE, A. D. BACHE, {eas Committee. JOSEPH G. TOTTEN,
REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.
‘JOHN C. BRECKINRIDGE, Vice President of the United States. ROGER B. TANEY, Chief Justice of the United States.
JAMES G. BERRET, Mayor of the City of Washington.
JAMES A. PEARCE, member of the Senate of the United States. JAMES M. MASON, member of the Senate of the United States. STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS, member of the Senate of the United States. WILLIAM H. ENGLISH, member of the House of Representatives. L. J. GARTRELL, member of the House of Representatives. BENJAMIN STANTON, member of the House of Representatives, GIDEON HAWLEY, citizen of New York.
—— (Vacancy occasioned by the death of Hon. Richard Rush.) GEORGE E. BADGER, citizen of North Carolina.
CORNELIUS C. FELTON, citizen of Massachusetts. ALEXANDER D. BACHE, citizen of Washington.
JOSEPH G. TOTTEN, citizen of Washington.
MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.
JAMES BUCHANAN, President of the United States. JOHN C. BRECKINRIDGE, Vice President of the United States. LEWIS CASS, Secretary of State.
HOWELL COBB, Secretary of the Treasury.
JOHN B. FLOYD, Secretary of War.
ISAAC TOUCEY, Secretary of the Navy.
JOSEPH HOLT, Postmaster General.
J. S. BLACK, Attorney General.
ROGER B. TANEY, Chief Justice of the United States. Pp. F. THOMAS, Commissioner of Patents.
JAMES G. BERRET, Mayor of the City of Washington.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, of Connecticut. A. B. LONGSTREET, of Mississippi. JACOB THOMPSON, Secretary of the Interior.
PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION
OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
(PRESENTED IN THE FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SEORETARY, AND ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF REGENTS, DECEMBER 13, 1847.]
INTRODUCTION.
General considerations which should serve as a guide in adopting « Plan of Organization.
1. Witt or Smitason. The property is bequeathed to the United States of America, ‘‘to found at Washington, under the name of the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, an establishment for the increase and diffu- sion of knowledge among men.’’
2. The bequest is for the benefit of mankind. The government of the United States is merely a trustee to carry out the design of the testator.
3. The Institution is not a national establishment, as is frequently supposed, but the establishment of an individual, and is to bear and perpetuate his name.
4. The objects of the inanieattan are, first, to increase, and second, to diffuse knowledge among men.
5. These two objects should not be confounded with one another. The first is to enlarge the existing stock of knowledge by the addition of new truths; and the second, to disseminate knowledge, thus in- creased, among men.
6. The will makes no restriction in favor of any particular kind of knowledge; hence all branches are entitled to a share of attention.
7. Knowledge can be increased by different methods of facilitating and promoting the discovery of new truths; and can be most exten- sively diffused among men by means of the press.
8. To effect the greatest amount of good, the organization should | be such as to enable the Institution to produce results, in the way of increasing and diffusing knowledge, which cannot be produced either at all or so efficiently by the existing institutions in our country.
9. The organization should also be such as can be adopted pro- visionally, can be easily reduced to practice, receive modifications, or be abandoned, in whole or in part, without a sacrifice of the funds.
10. In order to compensate, in some measure, for the loss of time occasioned by the delay of eight years in establishing the Institution,
Ig
8 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.
a considerable portion of the interest which has accrued should be added to the principal.
11. In proportion to the wide field of knowledge to be cultivated, the funds are small. Economy should therefore be consulted in the construction of the building; and not only the first cost of the edifice should be considered, but also the continual expense of keeping it in repair, and of the support of the establishment necessarily connected with it. There should also be but few individuals permanently sup- ported by the Institution. ns bbe
12. The plan and dimensions of the building should be determined by the plan of organization, and not the converse.
13. It should be recollected that mankind in general are to be benefited by the bequest, and that, therefore, all unnecessary ex- penditure on local objects would be a perversion of the trust.
14. Besides the foregoing considerations deduced immediately from the will of Smithson, regard must be had to certain requirements of the act of Congress establishing the Institution. These are, a library, a museum, and a gallery of art, with a building on a liberal scale to contain them.
SECTION I.
Plan of Organization of the Institution in accordance with the foregoing deductions from the will of Smithson.
To INcREASE KNowLeDGE. It is proposed—
1. To stimulate men of talent to make original researches, by offer- ing suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths; and
2. To appropriate annually a portion of the income for particular researches, under the direction of suitable persons.
To Dirruse Know.epce. It is proposed— 1. To publish a series of periodical reports on the progress of the different branches of knowledge; and
2. To publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general interest.
DETAILS OF THE PLAN TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE.
I.—By stimulating researches.
1. Facilities afforded for the production of original memoirs on all branches of knowledge.
2. The memoirs thus obtained to be published in a series of volumes, a quarto form, and entitled Smithsonian Contributions to Know- edge. .
3. No memoir on subjects of physical science to be accepted for publication which does not furnish a positive addition to human knowledge, resting on original research; and all unverified specula- tions to be rejected.
4, Each memoir presented to the Institution to be submitted for examination to a commission of persons of reputation for learning in
PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 9
the branch to which the memoir pertains; and to be accepted for publication only in case the report of this commission is favorable.
5. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the Institution, and the name of the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless a favorable decision be made.
6. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the transactions of literary and scientific societies, and copies to be given to all the colleges and principal libraries in this country. One part of the remaining copies may be offered for sale; and the other carefully pre- served, to form complete sets of the work, to supply the demand from new institutions. ~ 7. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of these memoirs to be given to the public through the annual report of the Regents to Congress.
Il.—By appropriating a part of the income, annually, to special objects of research, under the direction of suitable persons.
1. The objects, and the amount appropriated, to be recommended by counsellors of the Institution.
2. Appropriations in different years to different objects, so that, in course of time, each branch of knowledge may receive a share.
3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published with the memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smith- sonian Contributions to Knowledge.
4, Examples of objects for which appropriations may be made.
(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving the problem of American storms.
(2.) Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geological, magnetical, and topographical surveys, to collect materials for the formation of a Physical Atlas of the United States.
(3.) Solution of experimental problems, such asa new determination of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and of light; chemical analyses of soils and plants; collection and publication of scientific facts, accumulated in the offices of government.
(4.) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical, moral, and political subjects.
(5.) Historical researches and accurate surveys of places celebrated in American history.
(6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the different races of men in North America; also, explorations and accu- rate surveys of the mounds and other remains of the ancient people of our country.
DETAILS OF THE PLAN FOR DIFFUSING KNOWLEDGE.
I.—By the publication of a series of reports, giving an account of the new discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year in all branches of knowledge not strictly professional.
1, Thgse reports will diffuse a kind of knowledge generally inter- esting, but which, at present, is inaccessible to the public. Some of
10 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.
the reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals, as the income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of know- ledge may indicate.
2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators eminent in the different branches of knowledge.
3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publica- tions, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his report; to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on the title- page of the report.
4. The reports to be published in separate parts, so that persons interested in a particular branch can procure the parts relating to it without purchasing the whole.
5. These reports may be presented to Congress for partial distri- bution, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific institutions, and sold to individuals for a moderate price.
The following are some of the subjects which may be embraced in the reports:
I. PHYSICAL CLASS.
1. Physics, including astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry, and meteorology.
2. Natural history, including botany, zoology, geology, &c.
3. Agriculture.
4, Application of science to arts:
II. MORAL AND POLITICAL CLASS.
. 0. Hthnology, including particular history, comparative philology, antiquities, &c.
6. Statistics and political economy.
7. Mental and moral philosophy.
8. A survey of the political events of the world, penal reform, &c.
Ill. LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS.
9. Modern literature. 10. The fine arts, and their application to the useful arts. 11. Bibliography. 12. Obituary notices of distinguished individuals.
Il.—-By the publication of separate treatises on subjects of general interest.
1. These treatises may occasionally consist of valuable memoirs translated from foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the direction of the Institution, or procured by offering premiums for the best exposition of a given subject.
2. The treatises should in all cases be submitted to a commission _ of competent judges previous to their publication.
)
PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 1
3. As examples of these treatises, expositions may be obtained of the present state of the several branches of know ledge mentioned in the table of reports.
SECTION II.
Plan of organization, in accordance with the terms of the resolutions of the Board of Regents providing for the two modes of imereasing and diffusing knowledge.
1. The act of Congress establishing the Institution contemplated the formation of a library and a museum; and the Board of Regents, including these objects in the plan of organization, resolved to divide the income* into two equal parts.
2. One part to be appropriated to increase and diffuse knowledge by means of publications and researches, agreeably to the scheme before given. The other part to be appropriated to the formation of a library and a collection of objects of nature and of art.
3. These two plans are not incompatible one with another.
4. To carry out the plan before described, a library will be required, consisting, Ist, of a complete collection of the transactions and pro- ceedings of all the learned societies in the world; 2d, of the more important current periodical publications, and other works necessary in preparing the periodical reports.
5. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of objects to illustrate and verify its own publications.
6. Also, a collection of instruments of research in all branches of experimental science.
7. With reference to the collection of books, other than those men- tioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in the United States should be procured, in order that the valuable books first pur- chased may be such as are not to be found in the United States.
8. Also, catalogues of memoirs, and of books and other materials, should be collected for rendering the Institution a centre of biblio- graphical knowledge, whence the student may be directed to any work which he may require.
9. It is believed that the collections in natural history will increase by donation as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make pro- vision for their reception, and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary to purchase articles of this kind.
10. Attempts should be made to procure for the gallery of art casts of the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.
11. The arts may be encouraged by providing a room, free of ex- pense, for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union and other similar societies.
* The amount of the Smithsonian bequest received into the treasury of
therUiniteds Stuteswice= see ree ie. oases ae eae s ceemet Co Sate oS $515, 169 00 Interest on the same to July 1, 1846, (devoted to the erection of the building) aS See: ree eee ee Se ro eee ea tice eRe 242,129 00
Annualsincome trom) the bequest-aa=s-.-sssseesee essa = as -s—<is = 30,910 14
iD PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.
12. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of antiquities, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &c.
13. For the present, or until the building is fully completed, besides the Secretary, no permanent assistant will be required, except one, to act as librarian.
14. The Secretary, by the law of Congress, is alone responsible to the Regents. He shall take charge of the building and property, keep a record of proceedings, discharge the duties of librarian and keeper of tlf€ museum, and may, with the consent of the Regents, employ assistants.
15. The Secretary and his assistants, during the session of Con- cress, will be required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and to exhibit new objects of art; distinguished individuals should also be invited to give lectures on subjects of general interest.
This programme, which was at first adopted provisionally, has be- come the settled policy of the Institution. The only material change is that expressed by the following resolutions, adopted January 15, 1855, viz:
Resolved, That the Tth resolution, passed by the Board of Regents on the 26th of January, 1847, requiring an equal division of the income between the active operations and the museum and library, when the buildings are completed, be and it is hereby repealed.
Resolved, That hereafter the annual appropriations shall be appor- tioned specifically among the different objects and operations of the Institution in such manner as may, in the judgment of the Regents, be necessary and proper for each, according to its intrinsic import- ance, and a compliance in good faith with the law.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY FOR 1859.
To the Board of Regents:
GENTLEMEN: I have the honor again to present to you the history of the transactions of the Smithsonian Institution for another year, and I am happy to be able, at the beginning of my report, to state that nothing has occurred since your last session to interfere with the successful prosecution of the several objects embraced in the plan of organization.
The funds of the establishment are still in a good condition: the original bequest of Smithson remains in the treasury of the United States; the extra fund which was saved from the annual income, is still invested in State stocks, which have since the last meeting of the Board considerably increased in marketable value, and could now be sold for more than was paid for them. The accumulation of half a year’s income in the treasury at the beginning of last year has enabled us to pay in cash for all the materials purchased and labor performed on account of the Institution, and has thus not only been the means of © a saving by reduction in the cost of the operations, but also of pre- venting the embarrassment and anxiety which has sometimes been felt on account of outstanding debts, besides enabling us more readily to adapt the expenditures to the several items of appropriation.
The Institution, during the past year, by its publications, exchanges, researches, &c., has sustained the reputation it had previously ac- quired, and has continued gradually to extend the sphere of its influence and usefulness. By its persevering efforts to carry out the will of the founder, it has succeeded in rendering familiar to the public mind in the United States the three fundamental distinctions in regard to knowledge, which must have an important bearing on the future advance of science in this country: namely, the increase of knowledge, the diffusion of knowledge, and the practical application of knowledge to useful purposes in the arts.
It is of the highest importance to the well-being of our race that each of these distinctions should be recognized, and that each of the pro- cesses to which they relate should receive encouragement and support.
14 | REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
In our country, however, they have not all met with an equal share of attention, and at the beginning of this Institution the confusion of ideas on this subject was so great that in the interpretation of the will, even by some of our prominent and enlightened men, the diffu- sion of knowledge was identified with its increase; and it was con- tended that Smithson had used the terms as synonymous, and desired by the one merely to enforce the other. But that this was not the case may be gathered from the meaning attached to these terms hy the class of mento which he belonged. ‘‘ While we may truly exult,”’ says one of his eminent contemporaries, * national intellect, we must remember that diffusion and advancement
‘Cin the awakening of the
are two very different processes, and that each may exist independvat of the other. It is very essential, therefore, when we speak of the diffusion or extension of science, that we do not confound these stages of development with discovery or advancement, since the latter may be as different from the former as depth is from shallowness.’
That the diffusion of knowledge has been an object of solicitude to the enlightened legislatures of almost every State in the Union is evinced by the provision which has been made for libraries, schools, academies, and colleges. The practical application of science to the useful arts has received direct encouragement from the general gov- ernment by the enactment of patent laws and the establishment of the Patent Office. The fact, however, does not appear to have been so constantly before the public mind that the advance of science or the discovery of new truths, irrespective of their immediate application, is also a matter of great importance, and eminently worthy of patron- age and support. The progress of society and the increase of the comfort and happiness of the human family depend as a basis on the degree of our knowledge of the laws by which Divine Wisdom con- ducts the affairs of the universe. He has created us with rational souls, and endowed us with faculties to comprehend in some measure the modes in which the operations of nature are effected; and just in proportion to the advance we make by patient and persevering study, in the knowledge of those modes or laws, are we enabled to apply the forces of nature to our own use, and to avert the dangers to which we are exposed from our ignorance of their varied influences.
“Myr. Swainson. Cabinet Cyclopedia, 1834.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. pane 35)
Nearly all the great inventions which distinguish the present cen- tury are the results, immediately or remotely, of the application of scientific principles to practical purposes, and in most cases these applications have been suggested by the student of nature, whose primary object was the discovery of abstract truth. The statement cannot be too often repeated that each branch of knowledge is con- nected with every other, and that no light can be gained in regard to one which is not reflected upon all. Thus researches which at first sight appear the farthest removed from useful application, are in time found to have an important bearing on the advance of art, and conse- quently on the progress of society. To illustrate this position, I shall take the liberty of trespassing on your time with a few instances gleaned from the history of inventions.
Astronomy was not studied by Kepler, Galileo, or Newton for the practical applications which might result from it, but to enlarge the bounds of knowledge, to furnish new objects of thought and contem- plation in regard to the universe of which we form a part; yet how remarkable the influence which this science, apparently so far removed from the sphere of our material interests, has exerted on the desti- nies of the world! Without its guidance what would navigation have remained but a timid exploration of coasts and inlets, leaving the fairest portions of the earth to be the heritage of rude and idolatrous tribes? The steam-engine, in its improved form, is due to the labo- rious scientific researches of Black, Watt, and Robinson, and the new theory of heat, which is now occupying so much of the attention of the abstract physicist, has lately served to modify our views of this agent, and to develop new and important facts in regard to it which will tend to economize its power, and increase the means of rendering it more effectually the obedient slave of intelligent man.
In the year 1739, the Rev. Dr. Clayton communicated to the Royal Society his discovery of what he called the ‘‘spirit of coal,’’? which he confined in a bladder, and showed its burning powers as it issued from a puncture in the membrane. Sixty years after this Mr. Murdock, of Manchester, applhed this discovery to the purpose of illumination; and what was at first a mere object of scientific research has now become, from its almost universal employment, a necessity of civilized life.
Early in the present century Davy published an account of a dis- covery he had made of the effect produced on the nervous system by
16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
the respiration of nitrous oxide, a substance due to chemical research. It was ascertained that the inhalation of the vapor of ether, another chemical product, produced a similar effect, and these facts, many years afterwards, were applied by Jackson and Morton, in our own country, for the purpose of producing insensibility to pain, and thus to relieve an incalculable amount of human misery, and to ameliorate in a measure the original curse to which our race has been subjected.
Dr. Priestley, in the course of a laborious series of investigations relative to the different kinds of air, subjected, on the Ist of August, 1774, to the heat of a burning lens (which is now, through the liber- ality of one of his grandsons, the property of this institution) a quantity of calcined mercury, and evolved from it a gas since known by the name of oxygen, a discovery which led to a knowledge of the composition of the atmosphere, and finally to the improvement of almost the entire circle of the chemical arts.
About the middle of the last century Franklin devoted his sagacious mind to what was deemed by some of his friends a trifling pursuit— the study of the phenomena produced by the friction of different substances when rubbed together. But from this investigation he deduced his admirable theory of electrical induction, and the fact: of the action of points at a distance, on which was founded the pro- tection of buildings from lightning, and which, with the additional discoveries of Volta, Oersted, and others, has given to the world the electrical telegraph.
These are instances of investigations commenced without any idea of immediate practical utility. They exemplify discoveries made by men who studied science for its own sake, and received no other reward than the consciousness of enlarging the bounds of human thought, while it was left to others to gather a rich pecuniary har- vest from what they had so effectually sown.
‘‘Tt is the destiny of the sciences,’’ says Fontanelle, ‘‘ which must necessarily be in the hands of a few, that the utility of their progress should be invisible to the greater part of mankind, especially if those sciences are associated with unobtrusive pursuits. Let a greater facility in using our navigable waters and opening new lines of com- munication but once exist, simply because at present we know vastly better how to level the ground and construct locks and flood-gates— what does it amount to? The workmen have had their labors lightened, but they themselves have not the least idea of the skill of the
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17
geometer who directed them; they have been put in motion nearly as the body is by a soul of which it knows nothing; the rest of the world has even less perception of the genius which presided over the enterprise, and enjoys the success it has attained only with a species of ingratitude.”’
But it is not alone the material advantages which the world enjoys from the study of abstract science on which its claims are founded. Were all further applications of its principles to practical purposes to cease, it would still be entitled to commendation and support on account of its more important effects upon the general mind. It offers unbounded fields of pleasurable, healthful, and ennobling ex- ercise to the restless intellect of man, expanding his powers and enlarging his conceptions of the wisdom, the energy, and the benefi- cence of the Great Ruler of the universe.
From these considerations, then, and others of a like kind, I am fully justified in the assertion that this Institution has done good service in placing prominently before the country the importance of original research, and that its directors are entitled to commendation for having so uniformly and persistently kept in view the fact that it was not intended for educational or immediately practical purposes, but for the encouragement of the study of theoretical principles and the advancement of abstract knowledge.
Smithson declares his bequest to be for the increase of knowledge and the diffusion of this among men, being well aware that a single new truth added to the general stock must affect man for good in all times and all places. We doubt not that when the importance of the abstract speculations of science is more generally and more justly appreciated, individuals who are favored by Providence with those peculiarities of mind which fit them for the advancement of science will be set apart as the priests or interpreters of nature, and be furnished liberally with the means necessary to benefit their fellow men by the discovery of new principles. The grand philosophical vision of the father of modern science, which has waited so long for its ful- filment, will then be realized, ‘‘by the union and co-operation of all in building up and perfecting’ that House of Solomon, (as Bacon quaintly termed it,) ‘‘the end of which is the knowledge of causes and of the secret motions of things, and the enlarging of the bounds of human empire to the effecting of all things possible.’’
9
«d
”
18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
\
Publications. —The publications of the Institution are now divided
7 mm quarto
into three classes: the ‘‘ Contributions to Knowledge,’ form; the ‘‘ Annual Reports’’ to Congress, and the ‘‘ Miscellaneous Collections,’’ in octavo.
The eleventh volume of Smithsonian Contributions is nearly ready for distribution, and will contain a number of origimal memoirs, which are presented to the world as additions to knowledge of sufficient importance to warrant their publication by the funds of the Institu- tion. The fact, however, should be recollected that the Institution does not merely publish these volumes, but, as a general rule, extends its assistance to the original researches of which the papers published contain the results, sometimes by furnishing the subjects or materials of observation, and sometimes by defraying the whole or a part of the expenses incident to such researches.
The first memoir contained in this volume is on North American Oology, by Dr. Thomas M. Brewer, of Boston, an account of which was given in a previous report. ‘The text of this work was printed in 1857, but the preparation of the plates to accompany it not being completed, it could not be included in any volume previous to the eleventh. Copies, however, of the paper had been presented sepa- rately to some of the principal naturalists of this country and Hurope, and the work has been received with approbation as an important. addition to the branch of natural history on which it treats.
The second paper is on the total eclipse of the sun, September T, 1858, as observed near Olmos, Peru, by Lieutenant Gilliss, United States navy, illustrated by a plate of the appearance of the sun during the total obscuration. A full account of this paper is given in the last report of the Institution.
The third memoir in the eleventh volume has the following title: ‘*Discussion of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations made at the Girard College Observatory, Philadelphia, from 1840 to 1845, by A. D. Bache, LL.D.” ~ Part 15 Investigation of the eleven- year period in the amplitude of the solar-diurnal variation, and of the disturbances of the magnetic declination.
About twenty years ago the British Association organized a series of cotemporaneous magnetic and meteorological observations at dif- ferent colonial positions in the British empire, with which most of the civilized governments of the world co-operated. No assistance,
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19
however, was rendered to the enterprise in this country,, except in the instance here referred to, in which the observations were con- ducted by Dr. Bache, at Philadelphia, by means of funds supplied by the members of the American Philosophical Society and the Topo- eraphical Bureau of the United States, and with instruments furnished by Girard College. This series of observations commenced in May, 1840, and, with short interruptions, terminated in June, 1845, thus furnishing a record extending over five years, for three or four months of which the observations were made bi-hourly, and for the remainder of the time hourly. A general reduction of these observa- tions was published in 1847, by order of Congress, in three octavo volumes, with an atlas of diagrams. The records, however, contained facts of great interest, which, owing to the laborious duties of Pro- fessor Bache, could not then be deduced from them, and he has since renewed the investigation, with the aid of Mr. Schott, and the present paper gives an account of the first results which have thus been obtained. _ To present the bearing of the interesting researches exhibited in this paper on the progress of science, it may be proper to state that the magnetic force of the earth is almost constantly disturbed, both in direction and intensity.
1. It is subject to a change which appears to complete its cycle in a large number of years, for the determination of which it is necessary to know the magnetic state of various places on the globe simul- taneously at a given epoch, and again after the lapse of several years. 2. It is subjected to a change which is completed in the course of a year; and 3d, another which runs through its course in a single day.
Beside these regular disturbances, there is another series of varia- tions, large in magnitude, denominated magnetic storms, which have been, until lately, considered as fitful, appearing to observe no law, but which were manifest over a considerable part of the earth’s surface. These, however apparently irregular as to the individual instances, are in all probability, as has been shown by General Sabine, subject to a law of more frequency of occurrence in certain years.
The object of Professor Bache’s paper is to investigate from the data furnished by the Girard observations, the law of recurrence of the latter disturbances. Since this has not as yet been accurately ascertained, and every independent series of observations when pro- perly discussed is of great value in giving more precision to our
20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
knowledge of one of the most remarkable classes of phenomena pre- sented in the whole course of physical science, the results of this discussion cannot but be received with much interest by the scientific world.
As the magnetic needle, for example, may be considered as sub- jected at the same time to different forces, each tending to produce one of the variations we have mentioned, it becomes a subject of nice inquiry to eliminate the several effects, and to obtain the magnitude and period of each separately. In the case under consideration it was necessary to separate more especially the large apparently fitful variations from the regular daily ones. To effect this, the process proposed by Professor Peirce, of Cambridge, and founded on the doctrine of probabilities, was employed as a criterion in judging as to the magnitude of a disturbance which should be considered as be- longing to the class under consideration, and it was finally concluded that all disturbances which exceeded 3/.64 of an arc were abnormal, and accordingly all observations differing by that amount or more from their mean monthly values were marked. Next, a new hourly mean was taken, omitting the values so marked; and each observation again examined in reference to deviations from this new mean, and so on— the last mean thus obtained for each hour during each month gave what was considered the normal daily curve.
From this it appears that the north end of the needle reaches its ‘greatest eastern position between 7 and 8 o’clock in the forenoon, and its greatest western deviation about 1 o’ clock in the afternoon.
The author next proceeds to discuss the large disturbances, and from these he deduces the fact that a principal maximum of disturb- ances occurs in October, a smaller one in April, and the two minima, mearly equal to each other, occur in the months of February and June.
The diurnal variation arising from the large disturbances presents one maximum and one minimum; its most prominent feature is the easterly deflection, which occurs about a quarter after 8 o'clock p. m., at which hour the maximum deflection amounts to 32” of an arc; the great westerly deflection takes place at a quarter past 6 a.m., and en an average amounts to 14”.
These variations are compared with deductions made from similar observations at Toronto, and are found to be the same in kind, but less in magnitude.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Ze
The whole discussion clearly indicates a law of recurrence in the frequency of the large disturbances, although the period over which the observations extend was not sufficient to determine the interval. The observations, however, indicate with great precision the time of the minimum, the rate of diminution as the disturbances diminish in approaching this period, and their increase as they recede from it. The minimum thus found, of frequency of large disturbances, occurred in August, 1843.
The establishment of the elements of a law of periodicity in rela- tion to changes of the magnetic force which, from the time they were first noticed until within a few years past, were regarded as entirely irregular, is in its relation to terrestrial magnetism a fact of import- ance; but the value of this is highly increased when it is found that these disturbances are connected with changes in matter foreign to our earth. To realize this, we must refer to a series of persevering observations made day by day for thirty years on the spots of the sun, by an astronomer named Schwabe, in an obscure town of Ger- many. This devotion to an apparently unfertile field of inquiry was finally rewarded by the discovery that the spots on the sun’s disc are subject to a regular law of recurrence, and that they pass through the phases of periods of greatest and least frequency in about eleven years; but strange to say, it was afterwards announced by General Sabine that the period of recurrence of large magnetic disturbances coincides both in duration and its epoch of maximum with the period discovered by Schwabe in reference to the solar spots; that is, that at the period of greatest disturbances there occurs the maximum number of spots, and vice versa. The investigations of Professor Bache serve to establish this conclusion, and to furnish additional elements for amore accurate comparison. From these results it is clear that the sun exerts an influence on the magnetism of the earth which depends on the existing state of its own luminous atmosphere, affording another example to be added to other illustrations of the same truth, that scientific researches, if skilfully and perseveringly continued, will always lead to valuable results, and often to those which could not have been anticipated by any previous conceptions.
The volumes of records of the Girard observations, which present on casual examination immense series of tabulated figures in which no law or regularity is observable, when scientifically studied and properly interpreted, are thus found to yield truths of the highest
22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
interest. Professor Bache proposes to continue his inquiries and ex- tend his investigation to the influence of the moon and other agents on the magnetism of the earth. He has already finished a second paper on these discussions, and has a third in a state of considerable advancement. These will probably forma part of the twelfth volume of the Contributions.
The eleventh volume also contains a second series of the discussions of the physical observations made by Dr. Kane during his last voyage to the Arctic regions, the first part of which, or that relating to ter- restrial magnetism, was published in the tenth volume of Contributions. This second part relates to meteorology, and was prepared for publi- cation in the intervals of his official duties by Chas. A. Schott, esq., assistant in the United States Coast Survey, under the direction of Prof. Bache, and at the expense of the Smithsonian funds. This memoir not only forms an interesting and important addition to meteorology, which will tend to connect the name of our lamented countryman with this branch of science, but also furnishes a model for imitation, of the method in which observations of this character ought to be reduced and discussed in order that they may best sub- serve the advancement of science.
The following account of some of the points of the memoir and of the facts developed will probably be generally interesting and serve to illustrate its value:
The observations were made at Van Rensselaer harbor, on the western coast of Greenland, and extend over a period of two winters and a considerable part of two summers, during which the vessel was constantly frozen in the ice.
They show in a very striking manner the constant and laborious occupation of the little party in their lone abode, records having been made at every hour of the day and night during the whole period. It would be out of place in this report to, give a full account of all the subjects discussed in this memoir, and I shall therefore only glance at a few of the most prominent points, referring to the paper itself for a full exposition of its more valuable contents. It consists of three parts-—the first is on temperature, the second on winds, the third on atmospheric pressure. The first part, viz. that on temperature, gives the observations for every hour, from which are deduced the diurnal and annual variations of the thermometer, the influence of the different winds on the temperature, and an
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23
analysis of the recurrence of cold periods during the winter; tables deduced from the daily observations for ascertaining the corrections required to be applied to observations made only once or twice a day in order to obtain the mean temperature of places within the arctic circle; and, finally, observations to determine the diminution of temperature with an increase of elevation.
Beside the corrected records of the motion of the air, the second part of the memoir contains the resultant direction, the average force, the mean velocity, the quantity, the frequency, and the dura- tion of the winds. The third part contains not only the record of the pressure, but also a comparison of the mercurial and aneroid barometers, the diurnal and annual variation, the regular fluctuations of the monthly and annual extremes of pressure.
The expedition was supplied with thirty-six mercurial thermome- ters, four maximum and minimum thermometers, twenty-four spirit thermometers of different sizes, including two standards and a regis- ter thermometer of thirty-six inches in length. A laborious series of the different readings of these instruments, particularly at low tem- peratures, was made, from which have been deduced corrections to be applied to the records prepared for publication. The differences exhibited by the spirit thermometers at low temperatures was referred to the unequal contraction of colored alcohol not chemically pure. This liquid, when exposed to a great degree of cold, appeared to change its condition, the coloring matter being deposited on the sides of the tube. The lowest temperature observed during the first winter, 1853-54, was, February 6, —66°.4; and during the second winter, 185455, occurred, January 8, —65 .5.
The highest temperature observed was July 23, 1854, +51°, giving an absolute difference of 1179.4. The diurnal maximum or highest temperature of the day occurred in October and November, about one hour before noon, and in April and May, three hours after noon.
In the months of October, November, and December there are two points of low temperature each day—one at 6 a. m., and the other at about 9 p. m.; during the remaining months of the year there is one minimum during the twenty-four hours, which occurs at 1 a. m.
It was a fortunate circumstance that the observations extended over two winters, and thus gave a more exact mean for that season. The warmest month is July, the coldest March; the temperature of December, however, does not differ much from the latter. The
24 REPORT OF THE SECRETALE
highest mean monthly temperature seems to occur almost exactly in the middle of July, and the lowest point would probably have been found in February if the series had been extended over several winters. The méan temperature of winter, namely, of December,
January, and February, was —28°.59; of spring, —10°.59; sum- mer, 33°.38; autumn, —4°.03. The mean temperature for the whole year was —2°.46. The temperature was always lowest
during calms, and rose with the springing up of a wind from any quarter.
There is also a great regularity in the elevation of temperature during the hours of the fall of snow; on an average the sensible heat was increased during this period 7°.7. In seventeen months it snowed during six hundred and eighty hours, and rained during sixty hours.
A series of recurring periods of cold was observed, which Dr. Kane seemed inclined to consider as intimately connected with the phases of the moon, and on this point a series of elaborate investigations was made by Mr. Schott, from which it was found that in a period of six days on an average the cycle was completed, and that the lowest temperatures are reached about the time of full moon. Setting aside some small deviations in the regularity of the curves of tem- perature, there is not a single exception to the correspondence of the greatest cold near the epoch of full moon, and of least cold near the time of the new moon. It*should be observed, however, that since, from the observations made at this Institution, the waves, as it were, of cold air which reduce the temperature of the United States, frequently begin several days earlier at the extreme west, the same coincidence as to identity of occurrence of the maximum cold with any particular phase of the moon cannot be true of all points on the surface of the earth, although the period of recurrence may, as in the case of the tides at different places, be governed by that luminary.
A series of comparative observations at the level of the sea and at the top of the mast of the brig, at eighty feet elevation, was taken during the months of August, September, and October, from which is deduced a diminution of temperature of 1° for two hundred and ten feet of elevation. ,
The direction of the wind was noted in the original records with reference to the magnetic points of the compass, and the mean results:
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25
determined in regard to the true north. It appears from all the observations that the true direction of the wind is from the eastward, varying in the several months northward and southward. There is but one exception, namely, in June; the wind then veers round to the westward of south. The resulting direction for the whole year is almost exactly east; in winter it is E.N.E. and in summer S.E. by 8.
The greatest quantity of air which moves over the place during the year comes from a direction north of east. é
The predominance of calms is a circumstance quite characteristic of this region. The number of hours of winds recorded was 3,697, and those of still weather 5,063.
The snow or rain wind is between N.N.E. and E.S.E., or from the direction of the Spitzbergen sea, and also from the opposite direction of S.S.W., or that of the upper Baffin’s bay. From the northwestern quarter there was hardly any precipitation.
During the whole period there were recorded thirteen gales, with a duration of not less than two hours. They do not appear to be confined to any particular season of the year, and on the average continue about seven hours.
These records are of great interest in enabling us to ascertain whether the great storms which pass over the United States can be traced into the Arctic regions.
For observations on atmospheric pressure the expedition was pro- vided with amercurial barometer and two aneroids, and from a series of reductions of the observations of these instruments it is concluded that the indications of the aneroid may generally be relied on to within nearly one hundredth of an inch.
Owing to the small amplitude in the oscillations of the barometer, and the magnitude of occasional disturbances, the law of diurnal variation is apparently subject to considerable fluctuations. The principal maximum is reached about one o'clock p. m.; the evening maximum at about ten p. m., in conformity with the general law deduced from observations in the northern hemisphere. The one p.m. minimum seems to occur about three hours earlier than is indicated at more southern stations.
_ The average maximum height of the barometer is above the mean in the months of January, February, March, April, and May, and descends below the mean in the remaining summerand autumn months. The general law observed in other parts of the world, that the height
26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
of the barometer is less in summer than in winter, is prominently exhibited.
The mean height of the barometer for the whole time was 29.775 inches, which is less than that for places under the tropics; and it should be stated that Van Rensselaer harbor is fourteen degrees farther north than the latitude 64° in which the height of the barometer is a minimum.
The fluctuations in the height of the barometer were greater in winter than in summer. The greatest pressure, 30.97 inches, oc- curred in the morning of January 22, 1855; the lowest, 28.84 inches, occurred near noon of February 19, 1854. Little change was ob- served in the barometer during the fall of snow.
The barometer fell during the blowing of all the winds except those from about north by east and southeast.
The observations indicate that the hottest winds are from the north- east, one-half east, and the maximum atmospheric pressure nearly east.
This memoir was referred for critical examination to Professor Peirce, of Cambridge, and Professor Chauvenet, of St. Louis.
The next memoir is by Dr. John Le Conte, of Philadelphia, and is intended to give a catalogue of the Coleoptera or beetles known to inhabit the middle and eastern portions of the great central region of temperate North America. The province here treated of includes Kansas, a portion of Nebraska, and the eastern part of New Mexico. Tis eastern limit is well defined, but its other boundaries are indefinite, since it there fades imperceptibly into other provinces of the samegreat zoological district. The descriptions of new species are principally from specimens furnished through the Smithsonian Institution from collections made by different explorers connected with the surveys of the officers of the United States army.
Before proceeding to describe the special materials used in the preparation of the memoir, the author gives a short sketch of the results already obtained in regard to the geographical distribution of coleopterous insects in this country, illustrated by a map on which the several regions are distinguished by different colors. From this map it appears that the whole area of the United States is divided by nearly meridianal lines into three or perhaps four zoological districts, distinguished each by numerous peculiar genera and species, which, with few exceptions, do not extend into the contiguous districts.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. page
These districts are divided into a number of provinces of unequal size, which are limited by differences in climate, and are therefore some- times distinctly and sometimes vaguely defined.
The mode of distribution of species in the Atlantic and Pacific districts is entirely different. Inthe Atlantic districts a large number of species are distributed over a great extent of country; many species are of rare occurrence, and in passing over a distance of several hun- dred miles but small variation will be found to exist. In the Pacific district a small number of species are confined to a limited region of country. Most species occur in considerable number, and in travel- ling even one hundred miles it is found that the most abundant species are replaced by others, but of a similar character.
The object of the memoir is to give an account of what is known of this class of insects in Kansas, upper Texas, and Arizona, and to furnish means for facilitating the further exploration of the whole country in regard to the same animals.
This will undoubtedly be considered a valuable addition to a branch of zoology which, however insignificant it may appear to the popular mind, is not only connected with questions of interest in relation to abstract science, but also with the economical resources of the country.
The memoir, beside the colored map to which we have alluded, is illustrated by two engraved plates.
The next paper consists of the result of magnetical and hypsomet- rical observations in Mexico, to which is appended notes on the volcano of Popocatepetl and its vicinity.
In 1856 Baron Von Muller undertook an exploration of Mexico in reference to its natural history, and proposed to the Smithsonian Institution to make in its behalf a magnetic survey of the same country. This offer having been accepted, an appropriation was made from the Smithsonian fund to pay a portion of the salary of Mr. Sonntag, the assistant of Baron Von Muller; and the magnetic instruments which had been previously lent to Dr. Kane, and used by Mr. Sonntag himself, as one of the assistants of that lamented explorer in his last Arctic exploration, were furnished to the expedition for the contem- plated survey. Several records of the unreduced observations made at a number of places in Mexico, were at different times transmitted to the Institution previous to the return of Baron Von Muller to Germany, after which nothing more was obtained; and after considerable delay
28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
we were informed by him that he had been robbed in Mexico, and that the instruments had been captured and destroyed. Not having re- ceived a final report from Baron Von Miiller, to render the observa- tions which had been obtained from Mexico available to science, they were placed in the hands of Mr. Sonntag on his return to Washington, and have been reduced by him at the expense of the Institution. He has also appended a series of notes relative to the volcano of Popo- catepetl and its vicinity, and also a series of barometrical and trigo- nometrical measurements of heights of various places in the vicinity of the city of Mexico. The observations included those for the declination or variation, the inclination or dip, and, lastly, those for the relative intensity of the magnetic force. A series of observations for each of these elements was made at the following places; namely, Vera Cruz, Potrero, Cocolapam, San Andres, Mirador, city of Mexico, Chalco, and Tlamacas. The average variation of the needle from the whole series of observations was about 83° east; at the city of Mexico it was 8° 46’ east. The average dip for the whole region was about 423°, and for the city of Mexico 41° 26’.
The interesting fact is noted in the appendix that the southwestern wall of all the recent Mexican craters observed by the author is higher than the northeastern wall—a phenomenon probably due to the action of the trade-winds constantly impelling the ashes and cinders from the northeast to the southwest. The elevation of eleven different places was determined, including the city of Mexico and the highest peak of Popocatepetl. The former was 7,472.8 feet, and the latter 17, 817.6 feet.
We regret very much the loss of the ree instruments, not only on account of the use which might be made of them in deter- mining the magnetic elements of different portions of the American continent, but also on account of the interest which attaches to them from ae been employed in the observations by Dr. Kane. They have, however, done good service; and although the result of the co-operation of Baron Von Miiller has not been as fortunate as we could have wished, still it has added something of considerable value to our knowledge of the terrestrial magnetism of this continent.
Another memoir, which will form a part of the 11th volume of ‘*Contributions,’’ is on the American storm of December 20, 1836, and the European storm of December 25 of the same year, by Pro- fessor Elias Loomis, of the University of New York.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29
About twenty years ago this industrious meteorologist presented to the American Philosophical Society an investigation of the first of the above-mentioned storms, which extended from the Gulf of Mexico to an unknown distance to the north. The area covered by the ob- servations, and to which consequently the investigation was confined, included only the southern part of the storm, and therefore the au- thor regarded the results he had obtained, though of sufficient interest to warrant publication, as not entirely satisfactory. Having since obtained additional information, and adopted with success in the study of similar storms a method of investigation which consists in representing the disturbances of the atmosphere by lines and colors on charts, he concluded to review his former labors, and to publish all his results illustrated by a series of colored maps, which he is now enabled to do through the provision made for this purpose by the Smithsonian Institution.
The author first presents a summary of the observations of the barometer at each of the American stations from which information in regard to the indications of this instrument was derived. The average height of the barometer at each of the stations is given, and the fluctuations from this height during the storm, as well as imme- diately before and after it. With these data a series of lines is drawn on five charts, exhibiting the progress of the storm for as many suc- cessive periods, namely, for December 19, at 8 o’clock p. m.; Decem- ber 20, at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m.; December 21, at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m. On each chart is drawn a line indicating the places of mean pressure of the atmosphere, or those where the pressure is in a normal con- dition, also a line indicating two-tenths of an inch of mercury above the mean, &c. :
In examining these lines on each map, it is apparent that there exists a large area over which the barometer was below its mean height, which on the evening of the 20th of December extended 980 miles from west to east. On the morning of December 21 it extended 770 miles, and on the evening of the 21st it had become reduced to 600 miles in the same direction. It is evident, also, that toward the north the limit of low barometer extended much beyond the map, and, since the lowest point was found at Quebec, it is inferred that it extended as far north as it did south of this point, and would, there- fore, be on the 21st of December at least 3,000 miles in length from north to south. The area, therefore, of least pressure was in the
30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
form of an oval figure, having a length of three times its breadth, and, from the inspection of the several maps, it will appear that it travelled constantly eastward.
A similar table of observations is given in reference to the ther- mometer as observed at fifty-seven places, and lines corresponding to the mean temperature to ten degrees above and ten degrees below, &e., are drawn on each of the maps. From these it appears that on the evening of the 19th the area of greatest temperature extended from 800 to 1,100 miles in an east and west direction. The centre of this area of high thermometer did not coincide with the centre of Jow barometer, but was uniformly somewhat to the east of it.
On the same charts the condition of the weather at different inter- vals as to clearness, cloudiness, rain, &c., is represented by different colors, and from these it will be seen that on the evening of the 19th of December rain or snow was falling over the entire region west of the Mississippi as far as the map extends, and that a cloud covered the whole of the United States except that part bordering on the Atlantic ocean. On the evening of the 20th the rain had reached Washington, and on the morning of the 21st the cloud had covered the whole of the eastern portion of the country, while the sky had cleared off as far as Cincinnati, at the same time that rain was falling in the whole of New England except the State of Maine. On the evening of the 21st the storm was confined to a small portion of the eastern part of the chart, while the sky over nearly the whole United States, with a few exceptions of spots of limited extent, was free from clouds.
The direction of the wind is indicated by arrows, and its intensity shown by their length; and from these it is seen that during the en- tire period within the area of rain and snow the direction of the wind in the rear of the storm was from the west, northwest, or north, and that in the southwest part of the United States the winds were some- what more northerly than in the northwest part of the country. In front of the storm the winds generally blew from « southerly point, the average of which was 10° east of south, while in the south and northern parts of the country in front of the storm the wind was easterly. There was thus along a meridian line of at least 1,200 miles in length a violent wind from a point on an average 30° north of west, and on the east side a strong current from a point 10° east of south. These two contrary winds blew with great violence for at
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ol least forty-eight hours, indicating an ascending current of air and a tendency to rotation contrary to the motion of the hands of a watch.
The author next proceeds to offer some suggestions as to the origin of the storm, which in the main agree with the exposition of the phe- nomena as given in the theory of Espy, namely, the upward motion of the air at the point of lowest barometer, the evolution of latent heat by the condensation of the vapor which it contains, and the transfer eastward of the whole disturbance by the flow of the upper current in that direction. He attributes the principal cause of the cold experienced to the upper current descending to the surface of the earth. :
The European storm of the 25th of December of the same year is investigated in the same manner, and the results illustrated by means of eight separate maps, one for each day, commencing with Decem- ber 21, including the beginning and ending of the disturbance. It was at first supposed that this storm was a continuation of that of the 20th experienced in America; the rate of progress, however, of the latter was such that it could not have reached Europe before the 27th, whereas the storm of the 25th was fully organized on the 23d, and, indeed, its first movements can be distinctly traced in Germany on the 22d. The European storm evidently originated in Europe, and the American storm wasted itself in the Atlantic. It was, however, the possible connexion of these two storms that induced Professor Loomis to collect particularly, during a visit to Europe in 1856— 57, records of meteorological observations for this period. The whole number of stations from which he obtained data was nearly fifty.
It was mentioned in the last report that the Institution had con- cluded to publish in full detail several series of meteorological obser- vations made for long periods in different parts of the United States.
The 12th volume of Contributions will contain the first of these series, by Professor A. Caswell, of Brown University. The observa- tions commence with December 1, 1831, and end with December 31, 1859,* including a period of a little more than twenty-eight years.
These observations were made three times daily, embracing the thermometer, barometer, the direction and force of the wind, the
These tables have been extended to June, 1860.
32 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
degree of cloudiness, the amount of precipitation, and, for a portion of the time, the psychrometer.
In addition to these fixed and regular observations, daily and special notice was taken of all phenomena connected with atmospherica changes, with storms, the aurora, &c. The barometrical observa- tions are reduced to the level of the sea and the temperature of 32° Fahrenheit.
The author has given a series of general summaries deduced from the whole period; and when a sufficient number of similar observa- tions for long periods are collected and published, they will be sub- mitted to the process of exhaustive investigation similar to those to which the observations of Dr. Kane have been subjected, in order to determine peculiar points of interest relative to the climate of the United States.
We have found that the printing of papers of this character re- quires much time and is very expensive, since they are composed almost entirely of rule and figure work. We think, however, the value which will be attached to them will fully warrant the expendi- ture on account of their publication. They will afford the data for answering many questions which are propounded to the meteorolo- gist, such as the period of recurrence of storms, the connexion of the changes of the weather with the phases of the moon, &c. The means of ascertaining the state of the atmosphere over a considerable portion of the United States on any day for the last quarter of a century will be interesting in many cases, independent of scientific considerations.
The report of the Regents to Congress for 1858, besides an ex- position of the condition and operations of the Institution for that year, was, as usual, accompanied by an appendix containing the report of lectures, and other matter which has proved highly acceptable to a large number of intelligent persons in every part of the country. These reports, copies of which are especially solicited by teachers, besides furnishing valuable knowledge not otherwise readily attain- able, serve to diffuse information as to the operations of the Institu- tion which tends to increase the number of its friends and co-opera- tors, and to elevate popular conceptions in reference to science, as well as to increase the number of its cultivators.
The number of copies of the report ordered to be printed at the last session was less than that of the preceding year, yet the supply
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 303 to the Institution was the same. Indeed it is'a gratifying evidence of the public estimation in which the Institution is held, that Con- gress has been so favorably disposed, even during the depressed con- dition of the treasury, towards the distribution of this document.
It was mentioned in the last Report that the Institution had made arrangements for the preparation of elementary treatises on the dif- ferent orders of insects found in North America, with a view to identify the species and facilitate the study of their relation and habits. Considerable progress has been made in this work, and sev- eral parts are either in the press or ready to be given to the printer. These treatises will afford the means of instructing the farmer in regard to the character of the insect enemies with which he has to contend, and will enable him by watching their habits, time of ap- pearance, and mode of propagation, to add much valuable informa- tion to what is already known relative to the method of guarding against their ravages.
But before anything of this kind can be done systematically, we must be able to recognize the insects, since the same animais are known in different countries by different names. If, therefore, we would avail ourselves of the facts which have already been gathered by patient study in. this branch of natural history, we must be assured of the identity of the species; and if we would make the knowledge which already exists in this country generally available, the insects must be described with that scientific precision which will enable them to be immediately recognized with certainty in every part of the world.
These treatises or catalogues will be illustrated by wood-cuts, and published as a part of the Miscellaneous Collections of the Institu- tion.
The last Report contains a series of instructions for collecting and preserving specimens of insects, prepared by the following gentle- men, viz: Dr. John L. Le Conte, of Philadelphia; Dr. B. Clemens, of Easton, Pa.; Dr. P. Uhler, of Baltimore; and Baron R. Osten Sacken, of the Russian Legation. These instructions have not only directed attention to the subject, but furnished the means by which a large number of specimens have been obtained for scientific inves- tigation.
It will be recollected that it is one of the objects of the Institution
3
34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
to induce as many individuals as possible, in various parts of the country, to devote their leisure hours to special objects of natural history—to point out to them the pleasures derived from studies of this kind systematically pursued, and the important results which will flow from their labors when combined with those of other per- sons in the same line, and also to facilitate by catalogues, descriptions, and correspondence, the progress of the student in the elementary part of his studies. In connexion with this object, circulars have been distributed directing special attention to different points, among which we may mention one on American grasshoppers, an insect to the ravages of which a large portion of the United States is frequently subjected, and relative to which every well authenticated fact is of considerable interest. Another circular has been issued in regard to the collection of nests and eggs of birds, to furnish the material for a continuation of Dr. Brewer’s work on Oology.
The fact was stated in a previous report that materials had been collected for a new edition of a report on the libraries of this country, originally prepared by Professor C. C. Jewett. This work was en- trusted to Mr. William J. Rhees, chief clerk of this Institution, to be done out of the usual hours of his official duties; but the materials which were collected contained so much information relative to edu- cational and other institutions, which was thought too important to be omitted, that the report when completed was found to exceed the limits assigned by the Institution; and rather than abridge it by leaving out a part of the material which had cost so much labor, Mr. Rhees offered to publish it on his own account; and such an arrangement being compatible with the general policy of the Institu- tion, the proposition was agreed to, and the work has accordingly been issued under his own name and responsibility. It forms a volume of 700 octavo pages, and contains a large amount of very in- teresting and valuable matter which has cost the author a much greater amount of labor than can ever be repaid by even an extensive sale of the work.
In this connexion we may mention that a list of the libraries, soci- eties, and institutions in North America, has also been prepared by Mr. Rhees and printed for the use of the Institution. It forms an octavo pamphlet of 81 pages, and is found of much value in facili- tating the distribution of our several classes of publications and in directing circulars, &c.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 30
Researches. —Mr. L. W. Meech has continued his mathematical re- searches in regard to the light and heat of the sun, and, since the date of the last Report, has succeeded in integrating some of the an- alytical expressions which had previously appeared likely to prove exceedingly troublesome, and the analysis is now sufficiently advanced for another publication. His next memoir will treat of the relative intensity of the sun’s rays after passing through the air to the earth’s surface. It will be recollected that his former memoir presented, in tables and curves, the intensity of the sun’s rays at the exterior of the atmosphere. The primary formula, to be given in this memoir, has been demonstrated and verified, and the derived formule are mostly made out for the range and other phases of the intensity of the light and heat. These depend on what are called elliptical func- tions, and are much more complicated than those of the former paper. Before curves can be drawn from them, the numerical values for every five degrees of latitude are to be computed and checked, which will require the labor of several months. To defray the expense of this, another small appropriation will be required. The success of the previous labors of Mr. Meech warrants this expenditure, from funds intended for the increase of knowledge, since the results which can. now be obtained from his formula will, in all probability, be consid- ered standard elements in the physical theory of heat.
Dr. Wolcott Gibbs has continued his chemical researches, and a paper in relation to them will probably appear in the next volume of Con- tributions. It will present new processes for the separation of all the platinum metals in a state of absolute purity. These are very simple, and easy of execution, and not only apply to the separation, but to the quantitative analysis of mixtures of the different metals of this group in almost any proportion. The researches also involve the preparation and properties of a new and remarkable series of salts, which, it is thought, will remove the difficulties with which the sub- ject has hitherto been surrounded.
It was stated in the last Report that one of the most important op- erations in which the Institution had been engaged during the previ- ous year was the construction of a map to present at one view the arable, forest, and sterile portions of the United States. The design at first was merely to exhibit the limits or boundaries of these por- tions of the country, and this has been faithfully executed by Dr. J. G. Cooper, to whom the work was intrusted, as far as the materials
36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
could be gathered from all the accessible published data, the records of the Land Office, and other sources. The facts presented at once to the eye by this map are in striking accordance, as we have before mentioned, with the deductions from the meteorological materials whicn have been collected at this Institution, and serve to place in a clear point of view the connexion of climate with the natural produe- tions of different parts of the earth. The plan has, however, since been enlarged, and Dr. Cooper now proposes, with the aid of the Institution, to construct a map which shall give in detail the distribu- tion of the several kinds of trees and shrubs found in different por- tions of the country; and, in view of this, he has prepared an article, which has been published and widely distributed by the Institution, containing a list of the localities of the most important and useful trees and shrubs, as far as known, and asking additional information. The chief difficult:; in carrying out the plan has been the want of definite knowledge as to the locality of different plants; for example, a plant is mentioned as occurring in Virginia, but this statement is not sufficiently precise, since this State occupies a large surface, on asmall portion of which only the plant may be found. Facts are also required as to the abundance of trees in a given locality.
The collection of the material for a map of this kind, in connexion with a work on the forest trees of America, still in progress by Dr. Asa Gray, of Cambridge, is a very important matter both in a politi- cal and an economical point of view, and the work might be materially aided, without much expense to the government, by appending a few additional queries to the questions propounded by the marshals who collect the statistics of the census. The outline map, which has al- ready been prepared at the expense of the Institution, has excited much interest, and the proposition to enlarge the plan of the work has been received with commendation.
As an interesting object in regard to physical geography, and intimately connected with meterology and various branches of natural history, a commencement has been made, in connexion with the Coast Survey, in collecting materials for the construction of a hypso- metrical map of the United States.
No part of the surface of the earth, of equal dimensions, has been so extensively traversed by lines of explorations for canals, railways, and river improvements, as the United States. The materials, how- ever, which are afforded by these, for constructing a map of the ele-
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. BY
vations and depressions of the surface of the country are widely scat- tered, and unless an effort be made to collect them will ultimately be lost. Previous to the connexion of the Institution with this enterprise, circulars were sent by the Coast Survey to engineers and directors of public works, m answer to which replies were received giving the elevation of a large number of points. Since this connexion another circular has been issued, to which a large additional number of an- swers have been received. The whole number of points heard from is about 9,000. Many of the replies to the circulars have been ac- companied by valuable topographical information and maps, some of which, as testified by the contributors, were rescued from the obliv- ion which has been the fate of the records of many of the earlier sur- veys. For the exhibition of these points, in connexion with the to- pography of the country, it is proposed to have them plotted on a map consisting of two sheets, with a projection of spp5¢500- One sheet is to show the surface east of the Rocky mountains, the lines of water courses, and is to be filled up from the best existing maps; the western sheet is to be copied from the map of the same scale, issued from the office of the Pacific Railroad explorations. An accurate out- line map of the United States on this scale will be of great import- ance as a base-chart on which to delineate the result of various other statistical inquiries which have been instituted by this establishment.
Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, of Rochester, New York, having studied for several years the ethnological peculiarities of the Indians of the North American continent, has discovered among them a system of relationship which he wishes to compare with the systems of con- sanguinity existing among the natives of other countries, and the Institution, at his request, in order to aid in this research, has dis- tributed circulars to our consuls, missionaries, and ethnologists in various parts of the world. The peculiar system of relationship of the Iroquois, one of the principal families of American Indians first attracted the attention of Mr. Morgan. The fundamental idea of this system, which is carried cut with great logical rigor, is, that the bond of consanguinity is never suffered to lose itself in the ever diverging collateral lines—the degrees of relationship are never allowed to pass beyond that of first cousins; after that the collateral lines are merged in the lineal lines, so that the son of a cousin becomes a nephew, and the son of this nephew becomes a grandson. This principle ex- tends upwards as well as downwards, so that the brother of a man’s
38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
father becomes his father, and the brother of his grandfather be- comes also his grandfather. At first Mr. Morgan supposed this ; peculiar system to be confined to the Iroquois, but subsequent inves- tigation developed the fact that the same system in its complexity and precision is common to all the Indian tribes of North America. It therefore becomes an object of interest to inquire whether the same system exists among the natives of any other country. It is proper to remark that, at the request of the Institution, General Cass, the Secretary of State, has given to this interesting inquiry the official sanction of his Department, and in a letter appended to our circular, has commended it to all the diplomatic agents of the gov- ernment abroad.
Laboratory.—During the last year the laboratory has been under the direction of Dr. B. F. Craig, of this city, and, as in former years, a considerable number of specimens of the products of different parts of the country have been examined. The policy adopted from the first in regard to examinations of this kind is to furnish a report free of cost to the parties asking for the information, provided it is of general interest and immediately connected with the advance of science, and can be afforded at little expense to the Institution. If, however, the examination is required principally to promote private interests, a charge is made suflicient to cover the expense of the in- vestigation. By the adoption of this policy, the laboratory is kept in operation by means of a small appropriation for chemicals and ap- paratus.
It may be proper to mention that during the year Dr. Craig has been engaged in investigations, on his own account, in the laboratory, and that Mr. J. H. Lane has made a series of experiments relative to different points connected with the Atlantic telegraph.
Magnetic Observatory.—The remaining instruments necessary to complete the equipment of the magnetic observatory established at the joint expense of the Institution and the Coast Survey were re- ceived and put into operation in the early part of the year; but as it has been found that the changes in the direction and intensity of the elements of terrestrial magnetism at Toronto, Philadelphia, and Washington are almost precisely the same, it has been considered that more important service would be rendered to the inquiries now being made in regard to this branch of physics, if the instruments were
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. a9 placed in some more distant position, and it has been determined to send them to the Tortugas, a group of islands within the Gulf of Mexico, at which the United States coast survey has also a tidal station. A single instrument, however, is still to be kept in opera- tion at the observatory to record the changes in declination and to exhibit the perturbations connected with the appearance of the aurora borealis.
Exchanges. —The general system of international exchange, which has been the subject of so much attention heretofore, continues to increase in magnitude and importance. By reference to the special report on this subject, it will be seen that the operations have been more exten- sive in 1859 than during any preceding year. The facilities afforded to the operations of the Institution in the department of exchanges and of natural history by various transportation express companies, as referred to in the preceding reports, have been continued throughout the year. The steamers of the North German Lloyd have carried a large amount of freight for the Institution, free of charge, between Bremen and New York, as promised by their directors, at the in- stance of Mr. Schleiden, minister from Bremen, resident in Wash- ington. The steamer lines to California, consisting of the Unitsp States Matt Co., M. O. Roberts, President; the Panama RaILRosD Co., David Hoadley, president; and the Paciric Mat Co., W. H. Davidge, president, transported a large amount of material for the Institution up to the expiration of their mail contract in October, when the NortH ATLANTIC STEAMSHIP Co., I. W. Raymond, president, re- placed the United States Mail Co. in the line, which has since continued the same favors. Mr. Bartlett, of New York, has offered the use of his line of ships to the west coast of South America, and the exchanges with Chili are now carried on chiefly through his ves- sels. The steamer Isabel, Messrs. Mordecai & Co., of Charleston, agents, has transported a number of packages for the Institution be- tween Charleston and Key West, free of charge, and Messrs. Russell, Major & Waddel, army contractors of transportation to Utah, have also rendered valuable service in this line. The Adams Express Co., through Mr. Shoemaker, the superintendent of its southern division, has also exhibited liberality in reducing its charges greatly on heavy freights, and in carrying small parcels free of cost. It is difficult to esti- mate the value to the Institution of all these services. They are interesting as exhibiting a high appreciation of the mission and operations of the Institution, at the same time that they disclose a
40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
spirit of liberality as gratifying as it is beneficial. It is believed that an amount of at least $1,500 has been saved by these free freights dur- ing the year, a sum which in effect may be considered as having been added to the income of the Institution, and thereby correspondingly increasing its means of usefulness. Acknowledgments are due to a number of persons in the United States who have assisted without charge in distributing the volumes of Smithsonian Contributions, viz: Hickling, Swan & Brewer, of Boston; D. Appleton & Co., New York; J.B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia; Russell & Jones, Charleston; Robert Clarke & Co., Cincinnati; and Bloomfield, Steele & Co., in New Orleans. Messrs. J. W. Raymond and Mr. W. H. Wickham, of New York, and Mr. A. B. Forbes, of San Francisco, agents of the California lines referred to above, have rendered services of a similar character.
It is gratifying to be able to repeat the statement made in previous. reports, that all Smithsonian packages are allowed to pass free of duty and without examination at the custom-houses of all the civil- ized countries with which the Institution is in correspondence.
Library.—During the past year the plan adopted in regard to the increase of the library has been constantly kept in view, namely, to procure as perfect and extensive a series as possible of the transac- tions and proceedings of all the learned societies which now exist or have existed in different parts of the world. The library, in this respect, is now perhaps the first in the United States, and has in- creased, since the date of the last Report, not only by the addition of the current publications but by a number of new series and of volumes. to complete sets hitherto imperfect.
The catalogue of the serial publications of foreign learned societies, State governments, universities, public libraries, and private parties, contained in the library, mentioned in the last report, has been pub- lished. It forms a book of 259 octavo pages and includes all the collections of the kind above mentioned, down to the middle of the year 1859. Copies of this have been sent to all the foreign societies, with a request that deficient series of volumes or parts of volumes be supplied, and that any works of the same kind which are not to be found in the catalogue be furnished from duplicates at the disposal - of any of the establishments with which the Institution is in cor- respondence.
The distribution of this catalogue to the principal institutions of this country and abroad will not only facilitate the completion of the:
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design of forming as perfect a collection as possible of transactions, but will also render the library more generally useful to the cultiva- tors of science in the United States. But the most important means of facilitating the use of a special library of this class of works will be that of the publication of the classified index of all the physical papers contained in the transactions, now in progress at the expense and under the direction of the Royal Society of London. This index is confined to papers relating to astronomy, mathematics, and general. physics, and even with this restriction will include about 250,000 titles.
Professor J. Victor Carus, of Leipsic, informs us that during the last two years he has been collecting materials towards a general catalogue of zoological literature, from 1750 up to the present day, including not only all the separately published works, books, and pamphlets, but also and especially all the papers, notices, and articles contained in periodicals, the number of which is increasing every year. The titles and references will be arranged systematically, not according to the alphabet of authors, but within the classes and groups according to the alphabet of the genera, so that at a glance the whole literature of a particular genus may be found. The author calls for aid in obtaining information as to American zoological papers contained in periodicals difficult of access, and any one who can assist in this desirable object would confer a favor by forwarding to him, through the Institution, information bearing on this subject.
To assist in the same general plan of facilitating the acquisition of a knowledge of what has been done in different branches of science, the Institution has authorized the preparation of a bibliography of American botany, by Mr. Thurber, of New York, under the direction of Dr. Torrey.
Since the date of the last Report, the act amendatory of the law relating to the disposition of books intended for copyright has gone into operation. This act merely requires that one copy of every article intended to be secured to the author by copyright is to be deposited with the clerk of the district court from whom the certifi- cate is obtained, and repeals the requirement that a copy should be presented to the library of Congress and to that of the Smithsonian Institution. All the books which have heretofore been deposited with the district clerks, and those which may be obtained in future, are to be arranged in the Patent Office, where they will form an
AI REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
extensive collection, the support and preservation of which,. however interesting to the bibliographer, are not in accordance with the gen- eral objects of the Smithsonian Institution, although as the means of securing evidence of title they are in strict conformity with the design of the Patent Office.
Few, comparatively, of the books which were received by the In- stitution under the operation of the copyright law were of any scientific value, and by far the greater number, consisting of ele- mentary school books and publications designed especially for children, were entirely foreign to the plan of the library, and yet they have cost the Institution for postage, certificates, entries, care, &c., several thou- sand dollars. It now becomes a matter of consideration as to their disposition, and petitions have been received from the Washington Library and that of the Young Men’s Christian Association, of this city, that they may be placed in their charge. Without expressing any opinion as to the propriety of complying with these requests, I beg to submit these propositions to the Board.
The operation of the former law of copyright illustrates the neces- sity of caution, on the part of the Institution, in receiving miscel- laneous donations into a special collection without careful discrimi- nation, particularly if the gift is coupled with the condition that the articles are to be perpetually preserved. Without care in this respect a large amount of trash must inevitably accumulate, which will interfere with the extension of the collection in the desired direction.
Among the special donations to the library are a series of expensive illustrated works from the Duke of Northumberland, privately printed by him as materials for the history of the county which bears his name. They include a survey of the Roman wall which was built across the north of England, a description of coins of the Roman families, some of which were found in that locality, and an‘account of some ancient castles which possess historical interest.
Another portion of the great work of Lepsius on Egypt has been presented by the King of Prussia, and valuable donations in the way of completing our transactions have been received from different societies.
The purchases for the library have been principally in the way of completing such transactions and of supplying such additional series as we have failed to obtain through our exchanges.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43
The library now contains a very large collection of the catalogues and reports of different public institutions in this country, which have been classified and arranged in a separate apartment so as to be readily accessible for statistical inquiries; and we trust that this collection will continually be enlarged by additions of the current reports, particularly those of all institutions which receive the Smith- sonian publications.
Meteorology. —The arrangement between the Patent Office and this Institution in relation the collection of meteorological statistics still continues. The amount appropriated, however, by the former has been less than in previous years. The observers have very much in- creased in number, and are now divided into three classes—the first making records with a full set of instruments, the second with a thermometer and rain gage, and the third without instruments; all, however, reporting the state of the sky, the direction of the wind, beginning and ending of storms, and casual phenomena. All the observations which have been taken since 1854 have been reduced, and are uow in the hands of the Commissioner of Patents to be pre- sented to Congress as an Appendix to his Agricultural Report. It is presumed they will be ordered to be printed since they form an in- teresting part of the agricultural statistics called for by the Depart- ment of the Interior.
The several systems of observations made in different parts of the American continent have been continued and extended during the past year. Those under the direction of the Surgeon General of the United States have been made to include the new military posts of the army, and a series of investigations of much interest has been prosecuted in California by Lieut. R. S. Williamson, of the topo- eraphical corps, relative to the diurnal changes, the diminution of temperature depending upon elevation, and the extent of simultaneous barometrical fluctuations.
Observations have also been made by the following surveying and exploring parties, sent out under different departments of the gov- ernment, viz:
Under the INTERIOR DEPARTMENT:
The Wagon Road Expedition from South Pass to California, under command of F. W. Lander.
The survey of the boundary between Texas and New Mexico, John H. Clark, commissioner.
44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Under the Stare DEPARTMENT:
The northwestern boundary survey, Archibald Campbell, commis- sioner.
Under the War DEPARTMENT:
Explorations in Utah, by Captain J. H. Simpson, U. S. A.
Explorations of the head waters of the Missouri and Yellowstone, by Captain W. F. Raynolds, U.S. A.
The Wagon Road Expedition from Walla-Walla to Fort Benton, Lieutenant John Mullan, U.S. A.
Exploration of San Juan and Upper Colorado, by Capt. J. N. Ma- comb, U. S. Top. Engs.
Observations for determining the rise and fall of the lake surface, by Capt. A. W. Whipple, U.S. Top. Engs.
Survey of the northern and northwestern lakes,.by Capt. G. G. Meade, U. S. Top. Engs.
Strate oF Texas. Geological survey of the State, B. F. Shumard, State geologist.
In addition to the regular observations, the following were re- ceived by the Institution during the year 1859:
From Dr. 8. P. Hildreth, Marietta, Ohio, observations for forty- two years, from 1818 to 1859, inclusive, on the barometer, thermom- eter, and amount of rain, with remarks on the weather.
From Professor A. Caswell, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, observations for twenty-eight years, from 1832 to 1859 inclusive, on barometer, thermometer, winds, rain, and remarks on the weather.
From Dr. Nathan D. Smith, near Washington, Arkansas, observa- tious for twenty years, from 1840 to 1859, inclusive, on thermometer, rain, and remarks on the weather.
From Hiram A. Cutting, Lunenburg, Vermont, abstracts of ther- mometer observations, from 1848 to 1858, inclusive.
From Henry Connelly, Rigolet, Esquimaux bay, Labrador, observa- tions on barometer and thermometer, from November, 1857, to May, 1859, inclusive.
From Abram Van Doren, Falmouth, Virginia, psychrometrical ob- servations at Mount Langton, Bermuda, from November, 1847, to May, 1848, and from November, 1848, to March, 1850, inclusive.
From Dr. John F. Posey, Savannah, Georgia, hourly barometrical and thermometrical observations during half the day for about ten days in each month, from May, 1858, to September, 1859, inclusive.
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From Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada West, summary of ob- servations for 1858.
The observations from Captain George G. Meade, noted on the opposite page, consist of fifty-eight sheets, made with full sets of instruments, on the northern and northwestern lakes, from June, 1858, to November, 1859, inclusive. The continuation of these will be of much value in regard to the climate of this region. Those from Captain A. W. Whipple were made at Oswego harbor, Detroit river, St. Clair flats, and Lake George, of St. Mary’s river, for the purpose of determining the rise and fall of the lake surface, from the year 1854 to 1859, inclusive.
Between four and five thousand newspaper notices of the weather of 1859 have been cut out and preserved. Besides the papers re- ceived by the Institution, a large number of exchange papers are obtained from the office of the Evening Star. These two sources together furnish the means, either by original or copied articles, of obtaining popular notices of the principal changes of weather and meteorological phenomena in nearly all parts of the country. The method of preserving the scraps is to paste them on sheets arranged, not by the date of the paper, but by that of the occurrence noted. ‘By this arrangement all notices of any storm, hot or cold terms, aurora, earthquake, or any other phenomenon, are brought together, no matter how widely apart may be the place of publication. It would be an acceptable donation if all readers, when they meet with any meteorological scrap worthy of preservation, would send the paper containing it to the Institution, or the article cut out, with the name, date, and place of publication of the paper plainly marked on the slip. Without these marks it would be sometimes impossible to identify either time or locality. The preferable mode is to send the entire paper.
A general distribution of blanks is made twice a year. In this distribution twelve blanks are sent to each observer, one for each month, to be retained for his own use, and one to be returned to the Institution.
As the registers come from all parts of the country, and arrive at different times, a number are received every day, sometimes as many as thirty or forty. A book is kept containing the names of all the observers, with their place of observation; and when the registers are received, an entry of each one is made in this book, so that, by inspection, it can be seen at any time for what months registers have
46 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
been received from each observer. A memorandum is also made of deficiencies, omissions, instruments used, discontinuance, change of address, or such other items as may be necessary for reference or to show the character of the observations. The date of the reception is marked in red ink on each register, and they are placed on shelves, those for each month being kept together. With the re- gisters, letters are often received asking for information on meteor- ological and other subjects. These embrace a very wide range of inquiry, and, with the other letters received, make large demands on the time of the secretary. When a number of registers have accu- mulated, they are sent to Professor Coffin, at Haston, Pennsylvania, who, with his corps of assistants, makes the reductions and prepares them for publication.
Early in March, when a sufficient time is supposed to have elapsed to allow all, or nearly all, the registers for the preceding year to be received by due course of mail, an examination of the record is made, and a notice is segt to each observer, whose register for any month may not have reached us, informing him of the deficiency, and requesting that, if possible, it may be supplied.
It sometimes happens that through loss in the mail or other causes the blanks fail to reach some of the observers, and their stock, there- fore, becomes exhausted before the time for the semi-annual distri- bution. In such cases, as soon as the Institution is informed of the fact, a new supply is forwarded.
Three forms of blanks are now distributed, corresponding to the three classes of observers: First, a large blank, marked No. 1, which contains columns for the records of the barometer, its observed height, attached thermometer, and height reduced to the freezing point; of the thermometer in the open air; the psychrometer, or wet and dry bulb thermometer; the depth of each rain and snow, with the time of beginning and ending; the direction and force of winds; the kind, amount, and motion of clouds; and also for the force of vapor and relative humidity of the atmosphere as deduced from the observations with the wet and dry bulb thermometers.
Second, a blank half the size of the former, marked No. 2, and contaiming all the columns which are on the first blank, except those for the barometer and psychrometer, and the deductions from them.
Third, a blank the same size as the second, marked No. 3, and
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containing columns for such observations only as may be made without any instruments, viz: the amount, kind, and motion of clouds; the time of beginning and ending of rain and snow, the direction and force of wind by estimation, and general remarks on the weather. On the reverse of all the blanks is a place for remarks on casual phenomena, as tornadoes, auroras, meteors, &c.
The importance of such meteorological records as may be kept with-
out instruments seems to be much underrated, and many persons have declined to make or continue observations unless supplied with full ssets of instruments, assigning as a reason that such records can be of no value. But a little reflection will show that these observations may furnish interesting and important information. If kept daily and in all parts of the country and sent to the Institution, they would, without the aid of any other record, enable an investigator to deter- mine the direction and rate of motion of every storm, hurricane, tornado, and thunder shower in the United States, and also the time and place of their origin and termination when these occurred within the limits of the observers.
They would enable him to mark out with accurate lines the districts most subject to these atmospheric disturbances, and those free from them or only partially visited, and also the portions of the year at which they are most or least frequent. They would enable him to ascertain the number, extent, and principal phenomena of all the auroras, earthquakes, and meteors; the occurrence of the first, last, and severe frosts, the comparative duration of clear and cloudy weather, and the prevailing winds, both surface and upper current. If to ascertain these points in the meteorology of every part of North America is important, then the keeping such records as may be made without instruments ought not to be omitted. While there are persons in every neighborhood in this country who could faith- fully and accurately fill these blanks, the number who can obtain instruments and properly observe them must be comparatively limited,
Frequent applications are made to the Institution offering to record meteorological observations for a reasonable pecuniary compensation. But the policy originally adopted, on account of the want of means, of declining to pay observers, has been uniformly adhered to. To depart from this policy, while it might here and there secure an addi- tional observer, would involve difficulties of discrimination altogether disproportionate to the advantage gained. While, however, no
A8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
pecuniary compensation is made to observers, the facilities exten ed to them, besides the reports and other documents occasionally dis- tributed, though not expected to be a remuneration for the time and labor devoted to the subject, are still of some value. An inducement also exists in the pleasure to be derived from the study of the changes of the phenomena of nature, besides the consciousness of co-operating with many others in a system intended to advance an important branch of science.
Although the information derived from the system of observations, under the immediate direction of the Institution, is exceedingly* valuable in many points, it is to be regretted that changes in the observers are so frequent. The value in determining the great ques- tion as to the periodicity of the weather and its average conditions as to heat, moisture, cloudiness, occurrence of frosts, &c., other things being the same, depend upon the length of time the series of observa- tions have been continued, and results which may be relied upon as the element of insurance against failure of crops and disasters by storms are valuable strictly in proportion to the number of years embraced in the observations.
The reason why meteorology is not further advanced is not on account of the want of observations, but of extended series at a number of properly chosen places. From observations of this kind it is found that much of the apparent irregularity and caprice of the weather is due to our limited vision, and that by extending the records and properly studying them, many phenomena which are apparently fitful and exempt from all law will be reduced to order and periodicity.
According to Mr. Glaisher’s investigations of the records made at the Royal Observatory for a long series of years, there is a rotation in the character of the weather at London about every fifteen years, the seasons growing warmer and warmer until they reach a maximum of temperature, and then gradually colder until they come to the lowest point, when they begin a new cycle of temperature. A series of meteorological tables may appear to the casual observer a mere mass of dull, uninteresting figures, yet a little study will enable us, says a popular writer of the day, to read in them the past history of ‘‘rich harvests, prosperous commerce, good health, plenty, and con- tentment; or, perhaps, the gloomier side of the picture, scanty crops and high prices, stagnant trade and social irritation, prevalent diseases and busy death;”’ and, it might be added, a still greater interest is
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49
inspired by the prospect they afford, that in the course of time they will not only reflect the past but foreshow the future, and enable us by their timely monitions to avail ourselves of the benignity, or guard against the ravage of the coming day.
During the year 1859 a remarkable exhibition of the Aurora Borealis occurred, and special efforts have been made to collect all the reliable observations which could be obtained in regard to this phenomenon. The materials thus accumulated have: been arranged and will be published in order to render them generally accessible. ‘The occurrence of the Aurora, as is well known from the observa- tions of Arago and others, is attended with a remarkable disturbance of the magnetic needle; and since the latter, as has been shown in the account of the paper of Dr. Bache, is connected with the spots on the sun, it would follow that the Aurora, although apparently of electrical origin, is connected with influences entirely exterior to our planet, and hence precise information as to its appearance over so wide an area as that in which it was exhibited about the beginning of September last, must be specially acceptable to the student of terrestrial physics.
Two remarkable meteors have appeared during the last year, one of which exploded near the boundary between New York and Mas- sachusetts, and the other apparently descended to the earth either in Delaware bay or in the ocean in its vicinity. All the facts collected in regard to these mysterious visitants of our atmosphere have been referred to scientific gentlemen for critical examination, the results of which will be published either by the Institution or in the Ameri- ean Journal of Science.
The reduction of the current observations is continued by Professor Coffin, who is also engaged, with the assistance of the Institution, in the investigation of the winds of the southern hemisphere and in the extension of his previous researches in regard to those in the northern hemisphere.
The office duties of distributing the blanks; arranging the meteoro- logical material and returns received from-observers; of superintend- ing the observations made at the Institution, and in assisting in the Smithsonian publications relative to meteorology, are assigned to Mr. William Q. Force, of Washington, and to his industry, ingenuity, and efficiency the system owes many improvements.
4
50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Musewm.—During the year 1859 the labelling and repairing the specimens received from the Patent Office, and setting up and classi- fying new specimens collected by the Institution, or deposited by dif- ferent government explorations, have been uninterruptedly continued under the immediate direction of Professor Baird.
The extensive series of corals collected during the United States: exploring expedition have been arranged and labelled by Professor Dana, of New Haven, by whom they were originally described, and. now constitute an interesting and attractive part of the general mu- seum. We have also employed a distinguished conchologist, Mr. P. P. Carpenter, of Warrington, England, to classify and label the ex- tensive collection of shells, and have been favored in this work with the co-operation of the principal gentlemen most distinguished in this country for their original investigations in this branch of natural history. Mr. Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia, assisted by Dr. Foreman, has named the Unionide; Mr. Binney, of New Jersey, the Helicide; Mr. Stimpson, the shells of the eastern coast of the United States; and Dr. Gould has identified the new species of the exploring expe- dition, and rendered aid in the classification of the collection gene- rally. Assistance has also been rendered by Mr. J. G. Anthony, Mr. James Lewis, Dr. Newcomb, and Mr. Lapham.
A taxidermist has been constantly engaged in going over the col- lection. He has mounted several hundred new specimens of birds, and set up a considerable number of large quadrupeds.
According to the statement of Professor Baird, the number of en- tries in the record books, of additions to the museum, in the line of zoology, during the year 1859, amounts to 11,691, and the whole number of records in all the books is 87,197; but, as explained in previous reports, this number is far from exhibiting the aggregate of specimens catalogued; each entry frequently includes all the speci- mens of any one species received at one time from one locality, and, in some cases, embraces several hundred individual objects. It will not be too high if we estimate five specimens on the average to each entry, and we shall then have 185,985 as the aggregate of these ob- _ jects now in the museum. In addition to the foregoing, there is a large collection of specimens in ethnology, botany, mineralogy, and geology.
The object of the Institution in obtaining so large a number of du- plicates is, that they may be distributed for the advancement of
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. DF
knowledge to persons who may be engaged in original investigations in natural history, to museums for the completion of their lists, and also to colleges for the purposes of education.
As it is not a part of the policy of the Institution to form a general collection like that of the British museum, which can only be the work of the general government, but to assist in advancing and diffusing a knowledge of the natural history of North America, we have been anxious to distribute the duplicates in such a manner as to render them subservient to the objects in view, and it is hoped that we shall begin the work of distribution within the present year. As usual, a number of young gentlemen have availed themselves of the facilities offered by the library and collections of the Institution to prosecute their researches in different branches of natural history; and in some cases, in which such confidence seemed fully justified, series of specimens have been intrusted for examination to indi- viduals at a distance. Although the primary object of the Institu- tion is not educational, yet the museum is arranged with especial reference to the study of the elements of different branches of science; and the distribution of the extra specimens will furnish the means of diffusing a knowledge of natural history more generally throughout the country.
Explorations—A number of expeditions sent out by the general covernment have been furnished with instructions, and in some cases with apparatus for the collection of objects of natural history, and several explorations have been undertaken by individuals under the immediate auspices of the Institution. I need only mention in this place that conducted by Mr. Robert Kennicott in the regions of the Hudson’s Bay territory and in Russian America. This young gentle- man is assisted by the Smithsonian Institution, the University of Michigan, the Audubon Club and Academy of Sciences of Chicago, and a number of liberal-minded persons interested in natural history. His labors have been greatly facilitated by the cordial co-operation of Sir George Simpson, governor, and the other officers of the Hud- son’s Bay Company, to whom we are also indebted for valuable dona- tions of specimens and records of meteorological observations.
For a detailed account of the explorations and the museum, I refer to the report of Professor Baird hereto appended.
52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Lectures. —The following lectures were delivered during the winter of 1859-60:
Six lectures by Professor SamueL W. Jounson, of Yale College, on Agricultural Chemistry:
1. The Plant, its Structure and Composition.
2. The Atmosphere and Water in their relation to Vegetable Growth.
3. The Soil, as related to Agricultural Productions.
4. The Improvement of the Soil by Tillage, Drainage, Amendments, and Fertilizers.
5. The Conversion of Vegetable into Animal Produce.
6. Systems of Farm Practice Viewed in the Light of Agricultural Science; Rotation of Crops; Exhaustion and Maintenance of Agricul- tural Resources.
Three lectures by Pattip P. Carpentse, esq., of Hngland:
1. Shells of the Gulf of California.
2. The Cuttle Fish Tribe, their Forms and Habits in the Ancient and Existing Seas; including the Paper and Pearly Nautilus, &c.
3. Crawling Shells.
One lecture by Professor Henry Coppéz, of the University of Pennsylvania, on Coincidences in the Conquests of Mexico.
Four lectures by Professor Benjamin Perrce, of Harvard College, Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Two on The Diversities in Mathematical Powers of Different Races .and Nationalities;
Two on Comets.
‘Three lectures by Dr. Bensamin A. Goup, of Cambridge, Massa- -chusetts, on Chance, Probability, Accident.
Three lectures by Professor A. T. BLEDSOE, of the University of Virginia, on The Social Destiny of Man.
Three lectures by the Rt. Rev. M. J. Spautpine, Bishop of Louis- wille, Kentucky, on The Elements and History of Modern Civilization.
@ne lecture by WiLuiaAm Giuprn, esq., of Missouri, on The Charac- teristics and Physical Geography of the Western Portion of North America.
Five lectures by T. Sterry Hunt, F. R.S., of the Geological Survey of Canada:
1. On Chemical and Physical Geology; Introduction of Geological Agencies.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5S
. Chemistry of the Earth’s Crust.
. Life in its Geological Relations.
. Geology of the Metals, Mineral Springs, Metamorphism. . Igneous Rocks, Volcanoes, Mountain Chains.
or Hw © bO
The interest is still kept up in the lectures, although they occasion- ally called forth criticisms on account of the character of particular courses, which, while they are received with much interest by one class of hearers, are not in accordance with the taste of those whose pursuits or reading lie in an opposite direction.
While a large number of persons regularly attend the lectures for the sake of the advantage to be derived from them, others, and par- ticularly young persons, attend as a mere pastime, or assemble in the lecture room as a convenient place of resort, and by their whispering annoy those who sit near them. Frequent complaints have been made on this account, and it has been suggested that it might be well to try, as an experiment, a plan similar to that adopted at the Lowell Institute, in which, as in the case of the Smithsonian Institu- tion, free lectures are given to a promiscuous audience. To secure proper order, and to prevent the interruption of the speaker by per- sons arriving after the lecturer has commenced, a series of numbered tickets may be distributed at the commencement of the season, and the names of the persons who receive them entered in a book, oppo- site the number of the ticket; and in addition to this, the doors may be closed a few minutes after the lecture commences.
Respectfully submitted. JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary. JANUARY, 1860.
54 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, December 31, 1859.
Sir: I have the honor herewith to present a report, for 1859, of the operations you have intrusted to my charge, namely, those which relate to the printing, the exchanges, and to the collections of natural history.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
SPENCER F. BAIRD, Assistant Secretary Smithsonian Institution. Prof. Jos—epH Henry, LL.D. Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
PUBLICATIONS.
The publications of the Institution during the past year have been as follows:
Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year 1858. One volume, 8vo., pp. 448.
An account of the Total Eclipse of the Sun on September 7. 1858, as observed near Olmos, Peru. By Lieutenant J. M. Gilliss, United States navy. 4to. pp. 24, and one plate.
Catalogue of Publications of Societies and of other Periodical Works in the Library of the.Smithsonian Institution. July 1, 1858. Part 1. Foreign works. 8vo. pp. 260.
Appendix to the Catalogue of Described Diptera of North America. By Baron R. Osten Sacken. 8vo. pp. 4.
Directions for Collecting, Preserving, and Transporting Specimens of Natural History, prepared for the use of the Smithsonian Institu- tion. Third edition. 8vo. pp. 40.
Discussion of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations made at the Girard College Observatory, Philadelphia, in 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843, 1844, and 1845. Part 1. Investigations of the Eleven-Year Peried in the Amplitude of the Solar-diurnal Variation, and of the Disturbances of the Magnetic Declination. By A. D. Bache, LL.D. Pages 22. Quarto.
Meteorological Observations in the Arctic Seas. By Elisha Kent Kane, M. D., United States navy. Made during the second Grinnell expedition in search of Sir John Franklin, in 1853, 1854, and 1855, at Van Rensselaer harbor, and other points on the west coast of Greenland. Reduced and discussed by Charles A. Schott, assistant United States Coast Survey. Pages 120. Quarto.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 55
The Coleoptera of Kansas and Eastern New Mexico. By John L. Leconte, M. D. Pages 66, and three plates. Quarto.
Observations on Terrestrial Magnetism in Mexico, conducted under the direction of Baron Von Miiller, with notes and illustrations of the volcano Popocatapetl and its vicinity. By August Sonntag. Pages 92, and one plate. Quarto.
Observations on Certain Storms in Europe and America, in De- cember, 1836. By Elias Loomis, LL.D., professor of natural phi- losophy in the University of the city of New York. Pages 28, and thirteen plates. Quarto.
In addition to the preceding publications, the following are in an advanced stage of printing, and will be ready for distribution in a short time:
Catalogue of the Described Lepidoptera of North America. By Rey. Dr. John G. Morris. Octavo.
Check Lists of the Shells—land, fresh water, and marine—of North America. Octavo.
Meteorological Observations made at Providence, Rhode Island. By Prof. A. Caswell. Quarto.
Meteorological Observations made near Washington, Arkansas. By Dr. Nathan D. Smith. , Quarto.
New Edition of the List of Foreign Institutions in Correspondence with the Smithsonian Institution. Octavo.
Circular in reference to the collection of facts relating to the grass- hopper tribes of North America. Octavo.
Circular in reference to the collecting of nests and eggs of North American birds. Octavo.
Circular in reference to the collecting of North American shells. Octavo.
EXCHANGES.
As in previous years, a continuous increase and expansion of ope- rations has taken place in this department. The annexed tables will give a better account of their magnitude than any general remarks on the subject. It will be sufficient to say that the number of insti- tutions and individuals in the United States availing themselves of the Smithsonian facilities now embraces nearly all those publishing works of a scientific and literary character.
The expenses of the system of exchanges conducted by the Insti- tution have, of course, increased with the expansion of operations, and but for the free facilities so generously accorded by various par- ties would have arisen to such an amount as to render it necessary to call on each of the institutions benefited for a share of the cost. This has not yet been done, except in the case of the United States Coast Survey, which has greatly exceeded all the rest in the bulk of its transmissions; but it may soon be required from other parties.
The thanks of the Smithsonian Institution for free freights of pack- ages containing exchanges and specimens of natural history are espe- cially due to the following companies:
56 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
The North German Lloyd steamers, running between Bremen and New York, of which Messrs. Gelpcke, Keutgen, and Reichelt, 84 Broadway, are agents. This line has carried 250 cubic feet for the Institution at a single trip, without charge.
The California steamer line, consisting of the Pacific Mail Steam- ship Company, between San Francisco and Panama, (as well as between San Francisco and the ports of Oregon and Washington Territory,) of which Mr. W. A. Davidge is president; the Panama Railroad Company, David Hoadley, president; from Aspinwall to New York the line at first consisted of the United States Mail Steamship Company, M. O. Roberts, president, up to the 5th of October last, when it was replaced in the route by the North Atlantic Steamship Company, I. W. Raymond, president. Theagents of thisline, Mr. W.. H. Wickham, at New York, and Mr. A. B. Forbes, assisted by Mr. Samuel Hubbard, at San Francisco, have also been very zealous im their attentions to the interests of the Institution.
Messrs. Adams & Co., through the superintendent of the southern division, Mr. S. M. Shoemaker, of Baltimore, and the Washington agent, Mr. A. J. Falls, have very materially aided the Institution by a reduction of freights on heavy goods, and their remission entirely on small packages. This has also been done by Messrs. Wells, Fargo & Co. in California. ;
The line of sailing vessels between New York and the west coast of South America, belonging to Mr. Bartlett, 110 Wall street, has continued to carry our Chilean exchanges free of charge.
To Mr. Edward Cunard, of New York, the Institution is indebted for the offer to carry a specified amount of freight from New York to Liverpool by his steamers, free of charge—a privilege which has al- ready, in part, been made use of.
The Isabel steamer, running between Charleston, Key West, and Havana, has also continued to carry packages free of charge, through the liberality of the agents, Messrs. Mordecai & Co., of Charleston.
Messrs. Russell & Jones, contractors of army transportation to Utah, and through Kansas and Nebraska, have also kindly extended the facilities of their line to the Institution.
Considering the large amount of freight which some of the above- mentioned lines transport annually for the Smithsonian Institution, it will readily be understood how much they have assisted in carrying out its objects, as, with a fixed income, the expenses of the ex- changes and natural history operations conducted by the Institution would be entirely beyond its present means.
A.
Receipt of books, &e., by exchange, in 1859.
V ol nrese CCA VO. cis Set errr es coe “la cue wie. crank ote among 659 Quarto hislbehelinlie, louleiis)'s s > - sl viisii sie siielis olieioletenelvalelelialie 303 POG reke eheweteliensilectesiats ole s:0's! ele la'le obs lon eat eee neat ice 60
Parts of volumes and pamphlets:
Oieyesidoh on cotdiob dooco Oooo b eo foot o 1,696
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. QUaTtO - eee ee eee ee cece ee eee e ee wees ne Folio <) 0, (ehint aele —o Oe; Cero) 8/61 vue ele) eeieiiniele..a) es /epetlelverlale: Jellies Maps and charts ++++-++-++ees eee eee: aes shonbapie' id «
of volumes.
MO tall steneistorcnene Me
7s ee oe
Being an increase over the year 1858 of 1,062 volumes and parts The number of separate donations amounted to 1,252. It will be remembered that this does not include the volumes pur-
chased for the current researches and operations of the Institution, or for the completion of such series of transactions and periodicals as could not otherwise be obtained.
Nos. of packages,
Nos. of boxes.
Bulk of boxes in cubic feet.
eee eee
cere meee
Weight of boxes in pounds.
B. Showing the statistics of foreign exchanges of the Smithsonian Institution in 1859. g o oS Agent and country. i S g % 1. Dr. Fetrx Fricen, Leipsic— SWeGentore sae cee ot See ee eee Y2 Norway terse hea haem eee ew 5 DenmMatkyee= oe aoe sae Sen oenee sees 12 RSG een aie aes ea Ee ye es ee 38 dha Ye oye bas ep are oe oe A Re 33 Germany ess sae cscee eae eens ncsacis 3 Switzerland ae eee melee wea eo od 294 Bel oiumpssee eee eee eee nee eno 12 Total 22h. Soe oe ee eee 437 2. H. Bossancr, Paris— , rane a teece cee tas eee 105 Maly sc Seee Sete Vecete sete See 55 Porturalcat eames sccers saanwabmenee 3 Spain See eee eee ccicma ace see ecminee 6 Wo eA 8 SS IS oe aS Sue 169 3. Henry Stevens, London— Great Britain and Ireland ............ 151 TRO GAN ware ee ee teint a ieraretee 151 4 RESTON THES WORLD. oa cee mance nes aa cimie 68 Grand) totalee asses ee eee ee 825
1, 054
29, 480
58 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
The great increase in the number and bulk of packages of books sent abroad during the period reported on is owing to several causes. Among these may be mentioned the fact that the table embraces the statistics of three different transmissions, rendered necessary by the accumulation of materials in the Smithsonian building. A large pro- portion of the works sent consisted of such publications of the United States government as the Pacific Railroad Report, the Mexi- can Boundary Report, the Report on Commercial Relations, the Coast Survey Report, &e.
Of the Pacific Railroad Report alone, over one hundred sets were sent, in behalf of the War Department, to the principal public libra- ries and societies in Europe, and more than three hundred copies of the Coast Survey Report to similar institutions. The Patent Office exchanges with parties in Europe also occupied a very large bulk.
C.
Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from parties in America for foreign distribution in 1859.
Number of packages. Albany, N. Y.— PO LESSOL see) se eV eal Satie ah ere agers kt coy eames eed ra 98 Boston— American Academyior Arts and@Sciences. --2-+-+-5-s4+c2s-+cece cee Ut Socrebyrof Naturalvblistonys cas see eee ee eee ee ea a Seen 40 Cambridge, Mass.— American Association for the Advancement of Science..---.........- 64 ProfessOrs Grayevecee tee sales ers aaa ae wa eee acta ato Sate Serta eae 15 Charleston, S. C.— Hihote Society of Natural (history. 2-25 oo eee oan te annem 27 Columbia, Mo.— BrofessSOT Swell owas sve er ae ree ta tee ea ei ae ae 17 Columbus, Ohio— StateyAgriculturall Socletyiessassceeeoe oe ee ee. eee eee eee ee ee 100 Des Moines, Iowa— tA bE Ot TO wea sane a ae Sa hes ee te i a Te og dS 193 Georgetown, D, C.— . Collere sa 2nee es. ali ie ek OUTS ep ete ret fiat ce eR 2S ohne ny Wrecal F ' 6 New Haven, Conn.— Amienicany J Oumslvor Science se aaene oa ee een ay een Le 12 AT ETICA MOLLE MbAln SOCLS byes see ee ee ty re 19 BLOfessOr J.) Dl Dantes Gensco alan See eet Bis a clan alisha 20 AEE IUIG HO I eg) Sa es pa ae RTS aed a ae el ee ee ee ee 2 Little Rock, Ark.— ShatevonvArkansas jon6 soa5 soc mS cos aoe eee one ho kin a eee ee 800 New York— New York Lyceum of Natural History.......-.-- Sed sciclslapeioeiem saieicicis 74. Philadelphia— Acad emygoreNaburalpsclen ces <5 so-celan aes oe aioe ere 325 Amenicany Ebilosophicall Soclety-csja.- os seeeeeises sass eee eee eee eee 132 Tsaac Wea te se sie ein sais Str Stai Go ae ee een Sms ats kM ee anc pea 134 Dr. Joseph eid yas na coc nn <n wo since «isc cee Seen eee 30 Wi. Sharswood same tema cee nee ois See oa ac 5 ee rs 30
Providence, R. I.— State of-Rhodé-slandacstsesnsiceennccessawenceueseeeseseemese ass 6
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
C—Continued.
St. Louis, Mo.—
D9
Number of packages.
DraGeorrewinrelmanns eno), .c see eee sees see ee eee otees
DP SOWAZIZCNUS tenimmis aie a jan sis cnjmaitine aes ent See eee eee Washington, D. C.—
United: States sPatent’ Office’... 3. oo So ee atone eee eens ee
Wnited:States) Coast, Surveyc<.. 22 2/ds~/sstin eee eeeeeee see weeleels
Secretaryn Of | Wats cinco comocmtioumesensccmen ase eeeseene see saa
TieutenantG. 1. Warren 5. cance anos a oeiscapa esas Seen Eee ne Miscellaneous: Se...5.s-cc2acce eae coe eo hese e ances seeeecese eee eae
Addressed packages received by the Snuthsonian Institution from Europe
for distribution in America in 1859.
Albany, N. Y.—
Albanyalnstitute=e-eee sees aece sane eset eee eae ee eae
Dudley, Observatory: ances niccn econ cecesinasee ne eeeee ome =e
News Yorks Statedbibrany veo e = ona scion ane eens se oe Seeyaae eee y=
New: Yorks StaterAgniculturalsSociety< =s22ee¢ thse. eoeseoseee ase
News work StateyMedicaliSocietyo 4. 2— a -eo sree oce eee eee eee
ProfessomJames#ialli=-2e essen eee eS ee ee oe eee clee a eeiaiees Amherst, Mass.—
Amherst: Colleve caste Repeei eet ons tccee Os acetane cteeeareescceee Ann Arbor, Mich.—
Observatoty<=222- enone eet ee acest nase mere ae Reae are eae ae as Annapolis, Md.—
United StatessNaval Schoolassesseees=" =<" 2-2 acces ere ese eee eee Atlanta, Ga.—
Medical:@ollesassssccsscsccslescor oes sessetescee ses econ nee
UisiversityaotlGeortiasces—-acs seen see eee ee eee eee ee ae eee Baltimore, Md.—
Maryland! HistonicaliSociety2==s2sssssssseeScrrcessseses ese sas. |
Bloomington, Ind.— indianawUniversityessss=s"4+ 2255 fof ce seemetsseee cea. teases cae Boston, Mass.— American: Academy of Arts and Sciences: 22--2282-222 7-22-22 <- 5-2. American) Statistical Association=..\5-= oo oeeae eee atsmiass sae eeete nial
Boston-Society. of« Natural-History 3222s sseceeee = oes -- See e ec eaee-- |
Bowditchulotbrany, oer eseee sass ccsce ees SABRC SE eee. Sese
MistoncallSocietysasseaeosacccias lo tese aera se cee aie sae ae aerein =
RrisonyDiciplinesSocletyaseasa= se2-c eee aaacctese access aeeaee
Publicdhibraryasss.ssesoeeese sn nao oetaemacscccce ee roe scene cseen
State IuaibranysofeMassachusettsa=ss2-2-s-2sesse2+> -++s22s~——--— === Brunswick, Me.—
Bowdoin Colleper ast acen eee se eet eanc alsa ns.cae.o se =)= <niniemmine icin
Number of packages.
“Th OO > bw
|
| 2
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
D—Continued,
Buriington, Vi.—
UniversibyonaVviermonta. sso 00. 8 case aecsn scoop eee eee
Cambridge, Mass.—
American Association for the Advancement of Science..-....-.-...-. CambridzerAstronomicallJourmall 8-2 5-- sce oe ae ce noon sean Cambrid “el prema tor yeaa ann = cn ciate a = ere se ibranygorukHarvard Colleges anno le Pe oe nofessonulitr Ae aSeiZ pc jara ste ater era i ial ei Oe 8 rl ia ot IPT OfessOTeARal Gass mre eet eta sadam a2 Sella e oe mri cic ete eee ee IProfessOL Dekel COee can me meena co eames conn twas koe cde smnehiae
Charlottesville, Va.—
WniversityfotmVineinigmecnes =e hee Seneca nce nca an seman mee
Charleston, S. C.—
HliothSocietyors Naturalebistonyaeseeine aes ceesete socetas Scsciece Bui plat raaypeeereye era ee cen Serene eer a utes twee) or phat Socicuyslbibrahyas eee ie ccc se ene awa see seed sanes sansa jeeameeseee
Cincinnati, Ohio—
Mercantilesmibranyieesemccem aie ccis tener ccinccessceccceesmscscesee Obsenvatonyessmertey aoe ees eco Saka Sane ee omaha seine See ace ae Bubucwibianyes-- = eeae eee eee ant Sake ine Sau bamanie stds sce tin
Columbia, Mo.—
Professors Gran Ore Swell O Wika tere eee Sate aie iciel S crcicre eich amiemicve Mite
Columbia, S. C.—
SouthiC@arolina;Colleve2 se seme eon mae aeie oc cetne ceo ceeewiss ase eee
Columbus, Ohio—
Ohio State boardsoreANcniculitte sss aso. ecne ese eeeneasmeeecsemins
Chapa Hill, N. C.—
Universityvote North Carolingeeas ea = cos ese sane emcee
Chicago, 1ll.—
WMechantcayeln stilt te state rte te rt a ets eee ee
Detroit, Mich.—
Michigan State Agricultural Society, <.- <--s-cec--cec-=--eenss--nac
Easton, Pa.—
Lafayette;Collese ince oo eee ae = saennisee te San nw atamioeSaeceee
Frankfort, Ky.—
Geological Surveyor Wentuchy i. ccoccnen pec an eee See
Gambier, Ohio—
Kenyon Collec eh a au seme ae a i ee a ie ais nate ee
Georgetown, D. C.—
Georretowny Colle mere mee teeta ae see iat rat ee eet ree
Hanover, N. H.—
Dartmouth) Colleve'.~ 2. csesccues som eces canister cence cc menicle cir
Harrisburg, Pa.—
State Library......... Soacoss cadbdttpsadasec Soned cedetsescaesas
Hartford, Ct.—
MounpwiMenisunstitute: = o6 oe —. So eee See neo eneiniae lo wie cic ieee
Jacksonville, Ill.—
Mlinois\College oes noc. s ec cc eae neces se eesc cisco ceeaeeees
Madison, Wis.—
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society -....-.------ ~-------- Sccooos HustoricaltSociety, of Wisconsin = Sane en Wee eee eciena a see cme
Milledgeville, Ga.—
OslethorpesWUniversitvyees-seee esse cee eee ss] sssceeee eee eee
Montreal, Canada—
Naturaliaiistonyscocletyae= esate eee een ale m aeolian
Natchez, Miss.—
Public Library-....- eee iN fa a8 aha hs erage ate lates tee
| Number of packages.
bo = = OF ODO — GQ
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 61
D—Continued. ¥ Number of packages. New Brunswick, N. J.— ibrotessorsG@eorge EH. Cook... 22te eee eee ee eees wootOeit es Ree 8 New Harmony, Ind.— Dre De Owents nt See Se ee a ee eee 5 New Haven, Ct.— American*Journal’ of (Science sss. ace ee eee 10 American Oriental Society soos ase secu see oe ee ee 8 Professor JOY Dana coors seer saicesrsocossatsig saw ee EES: 41 Professor sSillintansessososcoews se oe has ceSsesee ees eee 25 Male;Colleger torso eo oad ees ee See 17
Newark, Del.— Delaware’Collegesesscosscscoscesecssesessse SP eae L New Orleans, La.—
New, Orleans/Academy of Natural: Science- 222222228205... 3. 22 S222 31
University of Louisiana......... Jawscsorcasseseeweseeeosee ees ys Newport, R. L—
Redwood Library ....... swiccsciaas ceSdencies Soe ete aS eS I New York—
AmericanyHithnologicaliSocietyjeaeeee eee eee ee eee ee eee 7
American Geographical and Statistical Society ......... ....-------- 37
American institutesssae sence sees eee See eee Sassou 8
Astor fiibrary:c<.csenusendecccdscstatacekcest BIIe ae ees 3
Mercantile: Library. Association ..c.-odceeue ss eesencee oe eee 7
New? York Lyceum of: Natural: Historyy= ross tet eee ees See 29 Oregon city, O.—
University of: Oregon tueceket eee eeeeen tee eee ce ee ee 1 Philadalphia, Pa.—
Academy-of Natural Sciences seuwejoee eC ce oe ee 105
Ametican: Philosophical Society 222d eo 2 2 ee Be 67
Central" High School of Philadelphiac<wa2e..<o-e ced ee ee Se 6
RranklinMnstitutess 4, 1seoose cs cen oe Sek sek, a eee 17
Historical Society; of Pennsylvanialy.< 22 Se La L
Penusylvania Institute forthe Blind! beesooue bake eee ee eee «
Philadelphia*CollecetofPharmacywoosoe assesses eases Se a Sess wow cn
Philadelphia; Library. Company. 2-5. 326k e cee so ee eee 11
University of Penusyl vaninesssacessors ee Leone eo ee 1
Weapner i ree Institutes eeres: eee ee wee ee een eel un) wil 10
AsdaeWien) 242225 22ers seeeeeeyaeerosinsss sass sa seen ae 16
Dresolndeconte ==. Sian alee Sen) Bo ee ee 5
DreJosepht Leidy =: 2 = s22sesaseeeses sosassacseseoee er 19
Wallinnitshanwood! 5... 2.222 see eee te ee per 13 Princeton, N. J.—
ColleselofNewtdersey 2: 2 s2esscce ee ee eee ee BOE COMO p See e Soa 4 Providence, R. I —
Brown sWimiyersityya ss so oS Se Be oe See cg oer belle ee I Richmond, Va.-—
Staterbibranyaeeeee. so s8 2) oss cae ey ol ee eee RL ud 1 Rochester, N. Y.—
University ...... ele Re eins ale a ses aCe we eae AE i San Francisco, Cal.—
California Academy of Natural Sciences..ci..2..-.-..--2-<-------- 23
Geolovical Survey ofiGalitomiat solu caste cece< cc ecole ese seek ct 1 Savannah, Ga.—
Georinsristorical Soclcupameman cs caeeeeoes tae Ls calc. cee L St. Louie, Mo.— : ;
Whe aGaiswA cad em y Obescieneen mn... eee cicien a eeeicc so cuss cece 70
Win versity eee eS espe Nene ace cea ey We at atctarrcshe Sas seeeee 11
Dre HS hmimandhs epee ee ee Ln. be aieleme nee a Seeene 5
Pie COlcemilecl Malena gee. sah we oc cscencclesesacoctmaneabon< 7
62 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
D—Continued. Number of packages.
Santiago, Chile—
WmiversibynOL Chile Vso jo ia sa mew winteln mi ira reer ees ee see meen mee 6
Obsenvatonyestene cet te cee s maeiee ace peicain comm cess a aiae cameos 1 Springfield, 1ll.—
Mlmnoisistate:Acricultural Society=.4-sseese=seece eee se pees ones 1 Tallahassee, F'la.—
Publichiibranyen casos scene ese gaigqo rossi see ee eee 1 Toronto, Cunada—
Canadianunstitdteysjoscniecinneine neces osorciasaae aes eee ee 4. Tuscaloosa, Ala.—
UniversityroteMabamasenen sn cse nan sae cae cain onoceciac cence ae 1 Washington, D. C.—
PresidentsofatheyWimited States js 202 <4 sie ats ee ss eee oma 1
United: StatessPatent Ofiee tesa secs Hee ace eC l SSSR ee ee 72
OrdnancetBureauvssstssac acs ovewaeroceee see u cesT See 3
liehtenousesboardet seo. sasclsscacecesce cocecect cnet ec eer ees a eae 11
UnitedyStates:CoastiSurveyio-snca'scanessecasc esa sae sos aloe eae oe 3
IBTOLESSO Tap Da Cl Cetera a aietetetemtaja a} vaitete rate aster ais ata eee emia ate a eee 44
National Obseryatorye sconce mtc coos sees ete oee oe ee 27
DenutenantyMaunyssseeees eee ces oe eee eee eee et ee oe aeeeeeee 54
SecretanysoinWari nua eels us eo Skule a eeeonetsscecleeneeeees 3
Commissioner.ofeindian vAtfairsy <4 aa 2 a ee eicleaini ae 1
Surgeon, Generale 52 cactesssceccsn ace me cee eae eee cae ee coemes 3
Conpress: Wibrany sso ae oot sono OSES OS Soe O ees oe! 15
hicutenantp) seMeGillliss sees setters oe ete ela a oeleinie co clsiee ewes 31
National Institute #23 1s Saedos contests a sues seashell ee 3 Waterville, Me.—
Waterville Collegelsssaasseeececan sme waweose naa aenhae Someries u Worcester, Mass. —
American Antiquanian§Socletypane acseatiese se eeeeaee soe ca ae mae 6 Individuals mot.inentioned aboyesss-ses aeons eee 246 Miscellaneous societies, &c., not mentioned ---.....--. pe a pS er 76
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 63
MUSEUM. ADDITIONS TO THE MUSEUM.
Extensive as were the additions to the museum in 1858, (exclusive of those transferred from the Patent Office,) those of 1859 have ex- ceeded them in magnitude and extent. The number of separate do- nations amounted to 301, (127 in 1858,) embracing nearly 500 different packages. A detailed list of these donations will be found at the end of this report, to which I would refer, and I will proceed here to mention more in detail such of the collections received as from their importance appear to require it.
As heretofore, most of the large collections were received from officers in charge of parties under different departments of the gov- ernment. Although the number of these parties has not been as great as in some other years, the results attained by them are in no way inferior in importance.
EXPLORATIONS UNDER THE WAR DEPARTMENT.
1. Construction of wagon road from Walla- Walla, Oregon, to Fort Benton, under Lieutenant John Mullan, U. S. A.—This expedition, with Dr. Mullan as medical officer, went to California in the spring, by steamer, and thence to Walla- Walla, the starting point. Supplies were sent up the Missouri by the steamers of the American Fur Company of St. Louis, one of which made the first trip through to Fort Benton. The supplies were accompanied by Mr. John Pear- sall, an assistant of Lieutenant Mullan, who made large collections of nests, eggs, birds, insects, and fossils. Collections were also made by Lieutenant Mullan, between Walla-Walla and his winter camp, near Fort Owen, not far from the Bitter Root valley, where he was established at the last advices.
2. Exploration of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone. under Cap- tain J. W. Raynolds, U. S. A.—This expedition, accompanied by Dr. “Hayden as geologist and naturalist, went up the Missouri in the steam- boat of the Fur Company, in June last, and disembarked at Fort Pierre. From this starting point they proceeded across to the Yel- lowstone, at Fort Sarpy, and thence, after various lateral explora- tions, to their winter quarters on Deer creek, at the crossing of the Platte, about 100 miles west of Fort Laramie, and in the immediate vicinity of the Upper Platte Indian agency, in charge of Major Twiss. During the winter, excursions have been made in different directions for the purpose of geological explorations, and large collections se- cured in all departments of natural history. The collections received in Washington from Captain Raynolds consist mainly of the zoolo- gical series gathered up to the arrival of his party at Fort Sarpy, and embrace specimens of birds, eggs, insects, &c.
64 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
3. Exploration of the San Juan river and Upper Colorado, under Captain J. N. Macomb, U. S. A.—This party, accompanied by Dr. Newberry as geologist and naturalist, did not get into the field until a late period in the summer, and returned before winter to the east. The principal results of the expedition, independently of interesting geographical discoveries, are to be found in the department of geology, in which Dr. Newberry was enabled to extend his observations made while on the Colorado expedition under Lieut. Ives. Among other fossils, Dr. Newberry obtained remains of a new genus and species of extinct lizard, larger than any formerly found in North America.
4. Explorations with the army in Utah, under Captain Simpson, U. S. A.—This party, under Captain Simpson, accompanied by Mr. Charles 8S. McCarthy as collector, left Fort Leavenworth for Camp Floyd, in May, 1858, reaching its destination in September. From this time until March, 1859, the party was occupied in making roads between Camp Floyd and Fort Bridger, and in marking reservations. From May to August, 1859, Captain Simpson explored two wagon road routes between Camp Floyd and Genoa, in Carson valley, which shorten very much the distance from Salt Lake City to California.
As much of this region had never been before traversed by scien- tific men, the results were very interesting, consisting of several new and peculiar forms of fishes, as also of reptiles, insects, &c. Many rare birds, with their eggs, were also procured.
The party left Camp Floyd for Leavenworth in August, by way of the Timpanogos, the Uintah mountains and the valley of the Green river.
In addition to large zoological collections made by Mr. McCarthy, Mr. Engelmann, the geologist of the expedition, made some important geological discoveries, and brought in many fossils and plants.
UNDER THE STATE DEPARTMENT.
5. Survey of the northwest boundary: Archibald Campbell, esq.. com- missioner.—This expedition, with Dr. Kennerly as the surgeon and nat- uralist, and Mr. George Gibbs as geologist, has already been referred to in previous reports. ‘These gentlemen have continued to make large collections during the year, those received filling twelve boxes. The specimens gathered about the Chiloweyuck depot proved parti- cularly interesting, from including a new salmon, Anodonta, and other species of animals. The collections also embrace skins and skulls of the Aploceras montanus, or Rocky mountain goat, the only ones known in American collections; also of Lagomys princeps, or little chief hare, and skins of Lagopus leucurus, the white-tailed ptarmigan, and of the black-throated diver, Colymbus arcticus, in adult summer dress.
UNDER THE NAVY DEPARTMENT.
6. Exploration of the Parana and its tributaries, under Captain T’. J. Page, U. S. N.—This survey, in continuation of that prosecuted
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 65
by Captain Page several years ago, is accompanied by Mr. Christopher Wood as taxidermist, and has already sent home quite a large collec- tion of birds, embracing several rare and perhaps new species.
UNDER THE INTERIOR DEPARTMENT.
T. Wagon road from El Paso to Fort Yuma, under Colonel Leech.— This expedition returned to Washington in 1858, but the collections did not arrive until early in 1859. These were made by Dr. 8. Hayes, and consisted chiefly of a large and valuable herbarium, embracing several new species of plants.
8. Wagon road from the South Pass to California, under Colonel F. W. Lander.—This party passed so rapidly over the country as to be unable to do much in the collecting of specimens of natural history. Mr. James A. Snyder, who had charge of this department, among other duties, succeeded in obtaining specimens, both in skin and in alcohol, of the very rare Lagomys princeps, or ‘‘coney’’ of the Mormons. These were captured in the Wahsatch mountains, to which, according to Colonel Lander, they appear to be chiefly confined.
IN CONNEXION WITH THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
9. Exploration of the vicinity of Fort Tejon and of Cape St. Lucas, by Mr. John Xantus.—Among the very important researches in the natural history of America, the explorations of Mr. John Xantus de- serve particular mention. In previous reports, the collections made by Mr. Xantus at Fort Tejon have been referred to. During a resi- dence there of about sixteen months, from the summer of 1857 to the autumn of 1858, although constantly occupied with official duties, he has exhausted the natural history of the vicinity of the fort in the most thorough manner. All departments are fully represented in his collections, which filled thirty-five boxes ; the birds alone embracing nearly 2,000 specimens and 144 species.
Professor Bache, the Superintendent of the United States Coast Sur- vey, having determined to establish a tidal station at Cape St. Lucas, Lower California, Mr. Xantus was placed in charge, and reached the Cape in April last. He has since that time made, in the intervals of his official duties, and forwarded to Washington, collections which vie in thoroughness with those of Fort Tejon, and exceed them in number of species, embracing as they do the marine as well as the fresh water and land forms. Of 42 species of birds first received from him, 8 are new; of crustaceans, there are over 100 species, many of them new; while in all other departments the collections have been proportion- ately great.
The results obtained at Cape St. Lucas by Mr. Xantus add another to the many benefits to natural history as well as to physical science rendered incidentally by the operations of the United States Coe t Survey, as shown previously in the important collections of Lieutenant Trowbridge, Mr. Wurdemann, Mr. Cassidy, Mr. Wayne and others.
5
66 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
10. Explorations of the Hudson's Bay Territory, by Mr. Robert Ken- nicott.—Mr. Kennicott, under the patronage of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, and by the assistance of the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, the Audubon Club of Chicago, the Chicago Academy of Sci- ences, and a number of gentlemen interested in the natural history of the Arctic regions, has ‘been during the past year engaged in an ex- ploration of the north, which promises results of no ordinary import- ance. His labors have been greatly facilitated by the cordial co- operation of Sir George Simpson, governor of the territory, and the officers of the service, especially of Mr. Barnston, of Michipicoten, and Mr. B. R. Ross, of Fort Simpson. Mr. Kennicott left in May for Lake Superior, via Toronto and Collingwood. From Fort William, on Lake Superior, he was conveyed to Norway House in the Company’s 8 boats, and thence towards.Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie. At the latest advices, of July 29, he had reached Methy or La Loche Portage, and, in company with Mr. Ross, it was his expectation to proceed in a few days to Fort Simpson, there to winter. He intends inthe spring to go to Great Slave or Bear Lake to collect eggs, and hopes to re- main long enough in the north to spend another spring and summer on the Youkon of Russian America, and another on the shores of the Arctic ecean, north of Great Bear Lake.
A small portion only of the collections made by Mr. Kennicott have yet reached Washington; those gathered between Norway House and Portage La Loche having arrived at Pembina too late to come down this year. Among the specimens received, however, is a fine skin of the rare Larus Sabini, or the fork-tailed gull, shot on Lake Winnipeg.
Mr. Kennicott was accompanied to Lake Winnipeg by Mr. Charles A. Hubbard, of Milwaukie, who returned home in the fall, by way of Fort Garry and Pembina, from whom the Institution received a val- uable collection of eggs, and through him, from Mr. Donald Gunn, a number of birds and of specimens in alcohol.
11. Explorations on the Saskatchewan, by Captain Blakiston, Ra A.— The Institution has also received some interesting collections made on the Saskatchewan, by Captain Thomas Blakiston, R. A., through the Royal Artillery Institution at Woolwich, London. These consist of eggs and skins of birds, several of the former of which are rare and new to our museum. |
Dr. Rae, the celebrated Arctic traveller, presented to the Institution specimens of Spermophilus parryi from Repulse bay, latitude 56° 30’ north, thus supplying an important addition to the collection of North American mammals.
12. Various other points on the west coast.—Other collections of in- terest consist of nests, eggs, and skins of birds, and of other animals from Fort Umpqua, sent by Dr. Vollum; of skeletons of the sea otter, by Mr. R. W. Dunbar; of specimens in alcohol, by Mr. Alexander Tay- lor; and of eggs, by Dr. C. A. Canfield.
13. Explorations of Fort Crook, by John Feilner, esqg.—Mr. Feilner during the past year has made large coliections of birds and mam- mals at Fort Crook, rivalling those of Mr. Xantus at Fort Tejon.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 67
Among them are good specimens of such rare birds as Picus william- sont, albolarvatus, thyroideus, ke.
14. Exploration in the Rocky mountain region.—In addition to the government collections of Captain Simpson and Captain Macomb, Dr. Wdersan U.S. A., has continued to send a number of rare birds froin Cantonment Burgwin. Dr. Irwin, U.S. A., at Fort Buchanan, has also made large collections for the Institution, none of which, however, have yet been received except one box of birds. Dr. George Suckley, U.S. A., while accompanying a detachment of troops from Leaven- worth to Camp Floyd, made some interesting collections, including the eggs of the Rocky mountain plover. Several rare animals have also been received from Colonel Vaughan, Indian agent for the’ Blackfeet, near Fort Benton-
Dr. Brewer, U.S. A., presented to the collection, through Captain J. H. Simpson, some rare reptiles and shells from southern Utah.
15. Explorations in and near Florida.—Dr. H. Bryant and Mr. Wil- liam Cooper spent the winter in the Bahamas chiefly in and about Nassau, and made rich collections of animals, series of which were pre- sented by them to the Institution.
Dr. J. G. Cooper visited Key West in March, and thence proceeded to Cape Florida, where he spent two months, and another month om Indian River and the St. John’s. In addition to extensive zoological collections, Dr. Cooper paid particular attention to the trees of Florida, and succeeded in obtaining several West Indian and tropical species. not previously known to occur in the United States.
A large number of marine animals in alcohol, and of birds and their eggs, were collected at the Tortugas for the Institution by Captaim Woodbury, U.S. A., and by Dr. Whitehurst.
Dr. Bean, of Micanopy, Florida, has also furnished a collection of the eggs, reptiles, and fishes of the State. Among the first are the only eggs of the glossy ibis,' [bis ordit, yet detected within our limits.
In connexion with Florida explorations, with which he was so clcesely associated, itis my painful duty to mention the death, during the past year, of Mr. Gustavus Wurdemann, a tidal observer of the United States Coast Survey, and for many years an active correspondent of the Smithsonian Institution. Occupied with the important scientific duties incident to his place in the Coast Survey, Mr. Wurdemann yet found time for attention to natural history; and at his different stations, of St. Joseph’s islands, Texas; Calcasieu,* Louisiana; Fort Morgan, Alabama; and Key West, Tortugas, Indian Key, Key Biscayne, Char- lotte Harbor, &c., Florida, made collections “rine have proved of the greatest service in supplying information concerning the zoology of the Gulf region. Independently of the many new and little known crustacea, shells, and other marine animals collected by Mr. Wurde- mann, he succeeded in adding several species of birds to the fauna of the United States; among others, Larus cucullatus, Certliola fla- veola, Quiscalus baritus, Cor vus Americanus var. floridanus, Ardea Wiirdemanni, &e.
16. Miscellaneous localities. —A collection of eggs and birds of II- linois was received from Mr. Tolman; of insects and reptiles of
68 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
Kansas, from Mr. H. Brandt; and of eggs, reptiles, and shells,. from St. Charles’s College, Louisiana. Mr. Theodore Gill, during a vist to Newfoundland, obtained a collection of fishes and invertebrates for the Institution. Mr. Willis, of Halifax, has also furnished valuable collections of eggs and shells. For a statement of many other im- portant additions to the Smithsonian Museum from private sources, I beg leave to refer to the list hereunto appended.
17. Other parts of the world.—A series of skins of the tropic-birds, and of eggs of birds breeding on the Bermudas, has proved of much interest for comparison with North American. These were presented by Chief Justice Darrell; a collection of fishes and reptiles from Nicaragua, presented by Dr. H. C. Caldwell, United States navy, embraced several species new to the Smithsonian collection. Mr. McLeannan, of the Panama Railroad Co., has presented to the Institution many species of birds taken on the Isthmus not before in the museum. Captain Dow, of the same company, has also sup- plied a pair of living curassows.
18. Miscellaneous collections.—One of the most important additions to the museum during the year has been made by Mr. William Stimp- son, embracing, among other specimens, the whole of his collection of shells of the Atlantic coast, including the types of his ‘‘shells of New England,’”’ and the ‘‘marine invertebrates of Grand Manan.’ A large portion of the collection consists of specimens in alcohol, of many species, the animals of which are almost entirely unknown elsewhere.
With this collection and that of the exploring expedition, and other parties from the west coast, the Smithsonian Institution has within its walls the best single collection extant of the marine shells of North America.
Dr. Jan has presented, on the part of the Museo Civico, Milan, of which he is director, a large number of species of snakes, for the most part types of his great work on serpents. ;
From the zoological museum of the University of Copenhagen, Dr. J. J. Steenstrup, director, the Institution has received types of various species of radiates, crustacea, &c., described by C. F. Liitken, Dr. H. Kroyer and others.
WORK DONE IN CONNEXION WITH THE COLLECTIONS.
Much progress has been made during the year in putting the speci- mens already exhibited in the museum in order, in adding additional ones, and in properly labelling and arranging the whole. So much, however, is required to be done, that it is not to be wondered at if the amount actually accomplished is not at first fully realized by the visitor. The taxidermist has completed the change of stands of all the mammals and of the North American birds on the south side of the hall, and is now engaged on the exotic birds. He has also mounted several hundred birds, chiefly from fresh specimens, for the purpose of exhibiting deficient species of more special interest.
A considerable number of large quadrupeds have also been
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 69
mounted and put in place—such as two grizzly bears, a cinnamon bear, an antelope, a pair of mule deer, several wolves, &c.
The labor of cataloguing, entering, and arranging the collections has also been diligently continued during the year, as shown by the accompanying table. Much assistance in this has been derived from the voluntary services of Mr. Robert Kennicott, Mr. E. Coues, Mr. Prentice, Mr. A. J. Falls, and others.
Table exhibiting the entries in the record books of the Smithsonian Museum in 1859, in continuation of previous years.
1851. | 1852. | 1853. | 1854. | 1855. | 1856. | 1857. | 1858. | 1859. Mammals .....+.. EU See Sea ERE. ot 114 198 351 | 1,200 2,046 | 3,200 | 3,226] 3,750 Birds tyteistenfelos.ctsideisisitersaisteiisiel sisereiseicell isctetersierll Sieeis veos| 45353 | 4,425 | 5,855 | 8,756 | 11,390] 15,913 Reptiles/t cmos scasace meee ets eA es fate Sac aeeell Noses cae esate’ 106 239 | 4,370 | 4,616 Mishes cdot ese cocesa reac: Men eccousealtaseaces cngeeed| faa one lesenetas 155| 613] 1,136| 1,740 Skeletons and skulls .... esses: 911 | 1,074} 1,190] 1,275 | 2,050 | 3,060 | 3,340 | 3,413| 3,650 Hoes ofsbirdaaesceeesteenenleces|eesaieses||tecerae S Seeccae cma cece PEER rcrerstelatilisieete sse| 1,032] 25595 GEDStACE Ras Aeesnicjsinisicloteysicicielcieleie)||arels elstieist] (*ferclatoiatn)elllataterelelete’etl nieisietelels’s iaveferelateltiet|(aieiate Sonoljsooo 000. 939 939 Moll asks taki. teistaleytse clesieicisis| sorsieteteies | esse seelever eee |eree wees |-sccanss|eseessee|ooresees|oeaveres 2,000 Adi AES plese lcicte sins mersisieiolalepeivia'sy)||e sie visisvelll Feteleteleleie sieieieeeie> iste viele [Peietoistate ater | Selo ol stetsls||lsfeVareverstoteil(atete stctetets 1,100 OSHIIi ein cicseleisls\e.isiaiseisielniciele.e/s'|isle\s\e elsie(n\ llslofalajeinieci|ie sielevetete(elltareleletaferetel| a's evsjalsialel|leials'<lele\e(eii|sievela laterals 171 Minerals 0.060 o ccc wees cvecercclecvccese| sees cccelescccece|ress cose [fereiatelleleleis|fareivielefetsts||/eleielefaleiers sajareloreisie 793 eee | AE EL es tee heals ome Motallyeieeas|cemeterecie ets 9il| 1,188 | 1,388| 4,979 | 7,675 | 11,222 | 16,158 | 25,506 | 37,197 I
The actual number of entries during the year amounts to 11,691, being the difference between the aggregates of 1858 and 1859, and 2,343 more than the entries of 1858. As explained in previous re- ports, these numbers are far from exhibiting the aggregate of speci- mens catalogued, except in the case of mammals, birds, and osteolo- gical preparations.
Hach entry generally includes all specimens of the same species re- ceived at one time from a given locality, and may embrace hundreds of individual objects. Thus in the oological catalogue, one number covers 242 eggs of the white ibis, Ibis alba, received from Dr. Bean. In a similar manner one entry of shells may embrace hundreds or even thousands of specimens. It will not be too high an estimate, probably far below it, to assume 5 specimens as the average to each number, making 185,985 as the aggregate of objects entered on the record books.
At the present time there remain to be catalogued as many, proba- bly, as 10,000 jars of fishes and other alcoholic specimens, independ- ently of the entire series of the crustacea, radiates, &c., collected by the North Pacific and Behring Straits Expedition; the fishes of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition, in the hands of Professor Agassiz, embracing over a thousand species; the skins of the birds of the same expedition; and the shells, radiates, &c.; many thousand series of fossils, vegeta- ble and animal, both vertebrate and invertebrate; all the insects,
70 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
worms, microscopical preparations, &.; a large portion of the eth- nological collections, the entire herbarium, &c., amounting, in all probability, to 100,000 numbers.
The series of skins and eggs of North American birds has been entirely rearranged during the year to accommodate the large increase both of the species and the specimens. This has only been done ap- proximately in regard to the mammals, as the additions have been so great, since their first arrangement in 1857, as to require a study of the entire class in order properly to determine their names.
The corals have all been arranged and fully labelled by Professor J. D. Dana during the year, and now constitute a highly interesting and important feature of the public collection.
During the, year the services of Mr. P. P. Carpenter, the well known conchologist, having been secured, he is now at work upon the arrangement and labelling ‘the shells, the whole labor of which will probably be completed in 1860. The co- operation of all the Ameri- can conchologists, known as original investigators, has also been ob-
tained, and the objects of their especial attention ‘submitted to them
for determination; the Unionide to Mr. Lea, assisted by Dr. E. Foreman; the Helicide to Mr. Binney; the east-coast shells to Mr. Stimpson; the west-coast to Mr. Carpenter himself; while Dr. Gould has identified the new species of the exploring expedition, and ren- dered aid in the criticism of the collection generally. Much assist- ance has also been rendered by Mr. J. G. Anthony, } Mr. James Lewis, Dr. Newcomb, Mr. Lapham, and other gentlemen, who have ma ude conchology a speciality.
In the proposed method of arrangement of the shells, the types of descriptions, and a good representative of each species in different ages and varieties, w rill be cemented to square plates of glass; the se- ries, illustrating geographical distribution, being kept in trays.
A specimen of each species of North American shell will be ex- hibited on the glass plates in table cases, lined on the bottom with black paper; but of exotic shells there will only be table surface enough for a type of each genus. The other portions of the series will be kept in drawers below the tables. It is also proposed, for the more ready appreciation of points connected with geograplucal dis- tribution, to keep in separate series the shells of northern China, Japan, and the North Pacific; the boreal shells of the west coast as far south as San Diego; the marine shells from San Diego to Panama; the marine shells of the west coast of South America; the marine shells of the Atlantic coast to Fernandina, Florida; the marine shells of Florida, the West Indies, and the Gulf of Mexico; and the different American land and fresh water species. The shells of the rest of the world, with a few exceptions, will probably be arranged in one systematic series.
As stated in the last report, a large portion of the collections in charge of the Smithsonian Institution are in the hands of various eminent naturalists for determination. Professor Agassiz and Mr. J. C. Brevoort have different portions of the series of fishes; Mr. Bar- nard, certain Echini; Professor Agassiz, the turtles; Mr. Cassin the South American birds; Mr. Lyman, the Ophiuride; Mr. Putnam, the
/
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. ut
Etheostomoids; Drs. Torrey and Gray, the exploring expedition plants, &c. None of the collections, stated last year to be out of the build- ing, have yet been returned.
Much progress has been made upon the descriptive works on North American Diptera, by Dr. Loew and Baron Osten Sacken; on Newroptera, by Dr. Hagen; on Hymenoptera, by Mr. De Saussure; on Coleoptera, by Dr. Leconte; on Hemiptera, by Mr. Uhler; and on Lepidoptera, by Dr. Morris, based, toa greater or less extent, on specimens supplied by the Smithsonian Institution. Itis hoped that nearly all these works will be submitted to the Institution during 1860; and their publication can- not fail to give an impetus to the “study of entomology, so important in its application to the interests of agriculture. In this connexion it may be proper to state that a circular has been drawn up by Mr. Uhler,and published by the Institution, embodying numerous queries, having for their object the eliciting such information respecting the habits and history of the grasshopper tribes of North Americaas may serve as a basis of operations in restraining their ravages.
A circular intended to secure contributions of shells from different localities in North America, and a new edition of the circular in ref- erence to North American eggs, have also been prepared for distribu- tion.
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE COLLECTIONS.
In the last report I presented a list of all the great collections constituting the bulk of the museum of the Smithsonian Institution, and the additions since then are enumerated in the following pages.*
* For convenience of reference, it may be well to continue the enumeration here from page 55 of the report for 1858 :
50. Collections made in Kansas, Nebraska, and Utah, by Captain J. H. Simpson, U.S. A.
51. Collections made on the South Pass wagon-road route, under I’. W. Lander, esq.
52. Collections made on the El Paso and Fort Yuma wagon-road route, by J. B. Leech, esq.
53. Collections made on the wagon-road reute from Walla-Walla to Fort Benton, by Lieutenant John Muilan, U.S. A.
54. Collections made during an exploration of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone, by ‘Captain J. W. Raynolds, U.S. A.
55. Collections made during the exploration of the San Juan and Upper Colorado, by Captain J. N. Macomb, U.S. A.
56. Collection made in an exploration of Cape St. Lucis, Lower California, by John Xantus, esq.
57. Collections made at Fort Crook, by John Feilner, esq.
58. Collections made in the Arctic regions, by Robert Kennicott, esq.
59. Collections made in Illinois, by J. W. Tolman, esq.
60. Collections made in Central Florida, by Dr. J. B. Bean.
61. Collections made in-Kansas, Nebraska, and Utah, by Dr. Suckley, U.S. A.
62. Collections made in the Bahamas, by Mr. William Cooper.
63. Collections made in the Bahamas, by Dr. H. Bryant.
64. Collections made in South Florida, by Dr. J. G. Cooper.
65. Collections made in the Tortugas, by Captain H. G. Wright, U.S. A.
66. Collections made in the Tortugas, by Captain D. P. Woodbury, U.5. A.
67. Collections made in the Tortugas, by Dr. Whitehurst.
68. Collections made in Louisiana, by the professors and students of St. Charles College
69. Collections made on the Isthmus of Panama, by James McLeannan, esq.
‘70. Collections made in the West Indies and in Newfoundland, by Theodore Gill.
71. Collections from the Saskatchawan, by Captain John Blakiston, R, A.
72. Collections made by Commodore Perry on the Japan expedition.
fe REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
The more prominent results of additions to the museum during the current year are to be seen in the approach to completion of the series of North American mammals and birds by the reception of such rare species as Lagomys princeps, Aploceros montanus, &. Specimens of the musk ox, barren ground bear, and reindeer, with other species, collected by Mr. B. R. Ross for the Institution, were detained at Pem- bina with Mr. Kennicott’s collections, having reached that point too late in the season to come through to St. Paul.
Among the species of birds added in 1859 may be mentioned Phaeton Havirostris, Puffinus obscurus, Xema sabini, Rosthramus sociabilis, Vireo altiloquus, Sula personata, Tetrao richardsonit, Lagopus leucurus, and adult Colymbus arcticus and Podiceps arcticus, in summer dress, with the numerous novelties from Cape St. Lucas sent by Mr. Xantus.
The series of South American birds has been largely increased in number of species. Many very rare North American eggs have been added to the collection. The other specimens received, with the exception of Mr. Stimpson’s Atlantic coast shells, have served to fill up slight gaps in speciés or localities, rather than to bring any to a condition of completeness.
LIST OF DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM DURING 1859.
Abbott, William.—Skins of birds from Florida.
Adams, Alvin.—Bark of giant tree of California (Sequoia gigantea.)
Adams, Alvin, William R. Patterson, Dr. Nichols, Dr. Emmerson, Dr. Emmerton, Dr. Thorndyke, Dr. Shrady, Dr. Robinson, and Dr. Hells. —Stalactite from the ‘‘Gothic Chapel” of the Mammoth Cave.
Akhurst, J.—Skins of birds from Central America, eggs of European and American birds, bats in alcohol from the West Indies.
Amherst College. —Eges of Massachusetts birds.
Anderson, Dr. W. W., United States army.—Skins of birds and mam- mals from Rocky mountains.
Andrews, Professor £. B.—Fishes and reptiles in alcohol, Ohio.
Arnold, Benjamin. —Indian relics from Rhode Island.
Ashmead, Samuel.—Set of marine algae of United States Sabet
Ashton, T, B.—Box of birds’ egos from New York.
Audubon Naturalists Club of Chicago. —Mounted specimen of Grus americana, or whooping crane.
Ayres, Dr.—Birds? eges of California.
Baird, -S. F.—Skin of Arctomys monax, New York.
Baird, William M.—Heges of birds of New Jersey.
Baker, £. £B.—Al\coholic collections, skins of birds, and egg of Pandion ? Charlotte Harbor, Florida.
Barnston, George. —Skins of fishes, birds’ eggs, &c., specimens in al- cohol, from Lake Superior.
Beadle, Delos W:—Fifteen bottles alcoholic collections, Canada.
Bean, Jr. J. B.—iggs of birds; reptiles, fishes, &c., from Florida.
Bedford, Alexander.—Fossils, Michigan.
Bellman, C.—Reptiles, fishes, &c., from Mississippi.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. ie
Benners, Henry.—Specimens in alcohol from Tortugas.
Berthoud, Dr. E. L.—Fossils from Kansas and Isthmus of Panama.
Blake, W. P.—Minerals, and eggs of birds from Georgia.
Blanc, Rev. A.—Eggs of birds of Louisiana and other zoological col- lections.
Bloomfield, Captain R. N.—Box of ‘‘coca’’ leaves.
Bossard, P.—Box of shells from Ohio.
Boston Society of Natural History.—Series of plants collected in Cali- fornia, by E. Samuels.
Brackett, George H.—Skin of star-nosed mole.
Brandt, H.—Box of insects, reptiles, and mammals, Kansas.
Brewer, Dr. T. M.—Egegs of fifty-seven species of European birds.
Brewster, Miss L.—Nests, eggs of birds from Massachusetts.
Brown, Dr. George C.—Skins of Pityop his melanoleucus, New Jersey ; eges of birds.
Brugger, Samuel.—Nests and eggs of birds, and mammals, Centre county, Pennsylvania.
Bryant, Dr. H.—Fishes, skins of birds, and eggs from the Bahamas.
Caldwell, Dr. H. C., United States navy.—Birds and alcoholic collec- tions from Nicaragua.
Campbell, A.—Nine boxes natural history collections from northwest boundary survey, near Puget’s Sound, collected by Dr. Kennerly, and one collected by George Gibbs.
Canfield, Dr. C. A.—Collection of eggs of Californian birds.
Carleton, Major J. H., United States army.—Shells from the Colorado desert.
Carter, B. F.—Shells from Texas.
Catley, H.—Lepidopterous insects from Oregon.
Churchill, R. C.—Eggs and birds from Maryland.
Clark, J. H.—Coal from Rabbit-ear Creek, Texas.
Clark, Wiliam.—Centipede; Van Buren, Arkansas.
Clark, W. P.—Box of eggs and can of fishes from Ohio.
Cope, H. D.—Type specimens of Desmognathus ochrophea, Pennsylva- nia.
Copenhagen Zoological Museum.—Type specimens of marine inverte- brates of North Seas and West Indies.
Cooper, W.—Fifty-nine species of shells of Bahamas, &e., collection of Bahama fishes; shells and echinoderms of the Atlantic coast of the United States.
Cooper, Dr. J. G.—Specimens of woods, reptiles in alcohol, and eggs of Pipiry flycatcher from Florida.
Corey, O. W.—Box of fossil crinoids from Indiana.
Craig, Dr., United States army.—Skin of black wolf of Washington Territory.
Curley, Professor.—Gordius or hair worm in alcohol.
Danker, Henry A—Nests and skins of birds from New Y ae
Davis, ‘William A. —Fossils; Ilinois.
Davrell, Chief Justice.—Skins and eggs of Bermuda birds; reptiles in alcohol.
Dawson, Professor J. W.—Fossil Pupa vetusta from Nova Scotia.
74 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
Day, Mrs. Thomas W.—Collection of eggs from California.
Diggs, Captain.—Skin of otter, Washington Territory.
Dorsey, William.—Minerals from Chile. ; 4 Dow, Captain J. M.—Alcoholic specimens, Nicaragua; and silver ore from San Salvador; two living Curassows, Central America.
Drexler, C.—Mounted birds and fishes.
Dunbar, R. W.—Skeleton of sea otter; specimens of woods and In- dian curiosities, coast of Oregon.
Dunham, Ed.—Mounted specimens of curlew and grayback snipe.
Duval, Alfred.cSeeds, silk cotton, minerals, &c.; Payta, Peru.
Eastman, S. C.—Egegs of birds from Labrador.
Edwards, W. A.—Kggs of frigate pelican, echini and crustacea, Cen- tral America.
Edwards, Amory.—Brazilian ‘‘ coal.”’
Falls, A. J.—¥resh birds, Washington.
Fisher, Dr. G. J.—Eggs of hawks from New York.
Flint, C. L.—Nest of golden crowned thrush.
Force, Colonel P.—Hornets’ nest; Washington.
Gantt, Dr. W. H.—Nests and eggs of birds from Texas.
Gardiner, Capt. J. W., United States army.—Skin and skeleton of Fisher (Mustela pennantii;) Indian nets, Fort Crook, California.
Gary, Jacob S.—Fossil wood, Ohio.
Gerhardt, A.—Skins and eggs of birds from Georgia, with alcoholic specimens.
Gibbs, George.—Seeds of Coniferae; Puget’s Sound.
Gibbes, Professor L. &.—Box of fresh shrips.
Gill, Theo.—Birds, reptiles, fishes, &c., of Trinidad and Newfound- land.
Gilliss, Lieutenant J. M., United States navy.—Hye of Loligo, from a grave at Areca, Peru; Htheostoma from Washington.
Gilpin, Dr.—Mammals and reptiles in alcohol from Nova Scotia.
Glover, T.—Living sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) with zoological collections in alcohol, Florida.
Godfrey, Mrs. A. D.—Skin of snow goose from Puget’s Sound.
Gordon, Dr. H. N.—Skin of young cinnamon bear (Ursus America- nus,) Illinois.
Goss, B. F.—Keges of birds and skins of mammals from Kansas.
Grayson, A. J—Two boxes of skins and eggs of birds, and bottle of reptiles from California.
Gunn, Donald.—Skins of birds and mammals from North Red River.
Hall, Dr. J.—Uiving Anolis carolinensis, Alabama.
Hampton, W. C.—Seeds of Australian plants.
Harvey, Prof. W. H.—Collection of Australian marine algae.
Hayden, Dr. I. V.—(See Captain Raynolds.)
Hayes, Dr. S.—Mezquite gum and alcoholic collections; dried plants Western Texas, New Mexico, and California; skins of birds; Scalops latimanus in aleohol, &¢., Fort Belknap, Texas.
Hayes, Dr. S.—(See Colonel Leech.)
Hoy, Dr. P. &.—Skins of rare birds of Wisconsin.
Haymond, Dr. R.—Nests and eges of birds of Indiana.
a
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 7
Hepburn, J.—Skins and eggs of California birds.
Fine, D.—Cannel coal, Ohio.
Hinman, W. M.—Package of plants from Laramie Peak.
Holden, W.—Thirty-six species of Uniwvalve shells from Ohio.
Hoopes, B. A.—Reptiles and mammals in alcohol, Lake Superior.
Hopkins, Prof. Wm.—Birds’ eggs, New York.
Hopkins, Arch.—Birds’ eggs, Massachusetts.
Hubbard, Chas. A.—Skins and eggs of birds from the Red River of the North.
Hunter, Dr, C. L.—Arvicola pinetorum from North Carolina.
Interior Department.—(See Colonel Leech.)
Irwin, Dr., U. S. A.—Box of birds from New Mexico.
Jan, Dr. C.—Type series of exotic serpents from the Museo Civico, Milan.
Jardine, Sir W. ‘rophanes lapponica from Arctic America.
Jenkins, J. Hi Shells of, 'W. ashington Territory.
Johns, Dr. U. S. A.-—Fragments s of Mastodon remains from Scott's Bluffs.
Kellogg, F.—Tertiary shells from Texas.
Kennedy, J. M.—Four specimens of birds from New Mexico.
Kennerly, Dr.—Seeds of T huya gigantea, Washington Territory. See also A. Campbell.
Kennicott, R.—Zoological collections made between Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg.
King, Dr. W. S., U. 8. .A.—Skin of Spermophile and Mexican weasel from Texas.
Kohler, W.—Wead ores from Union mines, Austinville, Virginia.
Krider, John.—Egegs of fish hawk.
Kuhn, Dr. L. de B.—Skull of bears, shells, insects, &c., Washington Territory.
Latchford, Tiomas.—F¥ossil bones from Laurel Factory.
Lawrence, Geo. N.—Skins of birds from the Atlantic coast.
Leech, Colonel.—Collections of plants made by Dr. Hayes on the El Paso wagon road expedition in Texas, New Mexico, and California.
LTnbhart, J. J.—Box of birds’ eggs, Pennsylvania.
Loomis, Miss M.—Fossil seeds from Burlington, Vermont.
LTnther, Dr. S. M.—Shells and birds’ eggs of Ohio.
McCarthy, Charles S.—See Captain J. H. Simpson.
McCown, Captain J. P.,U. §. A—Box of Kansas birds.
He Cur dy, Dr. Samuel.—Skins of harlequin duck, Washington Terri- tory.
McCurdy, S. B.—Curiously marked wood.
McIlvaine, J. H.—Eggs of birds.
McKee, Dr. J. Cooper, U. S. .A.—Skins of mammais and birds, Fort Defiance.
McLain, William M,—Birds and eggs from Maryland; fish hook used by ‘the natives of the Sandwich Islands.
McLeannan, James.—Sixty species birds from Isthmus of Panama.
Me Williams, Di.—Skins of blue grosbeak and yellow-billed cuckoo.
Mallet, Prof. J. W.—¥ossils from Alabama.
76 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
Martin, T. S.—Skins of birds of California.
Merrill, Lieut., U. S. A.—Box fossils from Green Bay, Wisconsin.
Moore, Miss J.—Living hawk moth from near Washington.
Moore, Dr. George F.—Birds’ nests and eggs from North Carolina.
Morris, Rev. Dr. John G.—Box European eggs.
Mullan, Lt. John, U. S. A.—Three boxes zoological and geological collections made by John Pearsall on the Upper Missouri.
Nichols, Dr. C. H.—Armadillo from Paraguay.
Nunn, R. J.—Can of crustacea from Georgia.
D Oca, R. Montes—Mammals; reptiles of Mexico.
Odell, B. F.—ULiving rattlesnake from Iowa.
Packard, A. S.—Reptiles and mammals in alcohol; eggs of birds from Maine.
Page, Captain, T. J., U. S. N.—Sixty species of birds from Paraguay.
Paine, Charles S.—Box of birds’ eggs from Vermont.
Paine, H. M.—Kgegs of birds from New York.
Poey, Prof. F.—Lucifuga subterranea, a new blind fish of Cuba.
Pearsall, John.—See Lieutenant Mullan.
Pena, Don F. de.—Box of ‘‘coca’’ leaves.
Peters, f.—Skin of Cotton rat, (Sigmodon hispidum, ) Georgia.
Peters, T’.. M.—Ferns,. ( Trichomanes, ) from Alabama.
Piers, Dr., Royal navy.—Skin of Thalassidroma furcata from Barclay sound, northwest coast.
Plummer, Captain J. B., U. S. A.—Skins of birds, reptiles and fossils from Texas.
Porter, Prof. T. C.—Bottle of fishes, (Rhinichthys, ) Pennsylvania.
Postell, J. P.—Specimens of Unio spinosus from Georgia.
Prentiss, D. W.—Skin of Sorex from near Washington.
Putnam, F. W.—Nest and eggs of birds, Massachusetts.
hae, Recah of Spermophilus parryi, Repulse bay, latitude 56° vo iN.
Raymond, C.—Birds and other animals, Peru. .
Raynolds, Captain W. F., U. S. A.—Zoological collections made in the Upper Missouri region by Dr. F. V. Hayden.
Reid, Peter.—Eges of Hawk.
Richard, J. H.—Mounted European birds.
Roanoke Library Association.—Fossil bone from the green sand of North Carolina.
Robinson, L. S.—Nests and eggs from Mississippi.
St. Louis Academy of Science.—Serpent in alcohol, (Oeluta vermis, ) supposed to have been found in a block of stone.
Samuels, H.—Mounted microscopical preparations.
Sclater, P. I.—Mexican and Central American birds.
Simpson, Captain J. H., U. 8. A.—Zoological collections made in Utah by Charles 8. McCarthy.
Simpson, Dr., U. S. A.—Mounted snow owl, Rhode Island.
Smith, A. C., M. D.—Can of fishes from Ohio.
Smith, J. W.—Boring and other shells from Puget’s Sound.
Sowthwick, Dr.—Skins of Scturus abertii, Fort Union, New Mexico.
Spence, Mrs. David.—Collection of eggs from California.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. T7
Steele, Judge.—File fish in alcohol from Florida.
Stimpson, William.—Type series of marine invertebrates of Atlantic coast.
Stockton, Natural History Society.w—Nests and eggs of California birds.
Suckley, Dr. George.—Harpoon used by Indians in catching whales on northwest coast, with other Indian curiosities. Zoological speci- mens from Kansas.
Swift, Dr., U. S. A.—Skin and skull of bighorn and horns of elk from Rocky mountains.
Taylor, A. S.—Box of crustaceans and shells, with other zoological collections from California; skull of grizzly bear.
Tolman, J. W.—Two boxes birds’ eggs from Illinois.
Trask, Dr.—Crustaceans of California.
Trembley, Dr. J. B.—Shells and eggs from Ohio.
Tuley, Colonel James.—Fresh skin of elk.
Tully, Bernard.—Stalactites from Weir's Cave.
Vagnier, Thomas.—Nests and eggs of birds from Indiana.
Van Bokkelen, Lieutenant J. J—Skin of puffin, Washington Territory.
Vaughan, Colonel A. J.—Foetal beaver and fossil coral; skulls of mam- mals and skins of birds from Upper Missouri.
Vickary, N.—Nests and skins of birds from Massachusetts.
Vialleton, Rev. F. and Rev. A. Blanc. —Collections of shells, eggs, in- sects, and reptiles from Louisiana.
Vollum, Dr. E.—Box of zoological specimens in alcohol, skins of ani- mals, and birds’ eggs from the coast of Oregon.
Vortisch, Rev. L.—Aboriginal stone hammer of greenstone, Germany.
Walsh, Benjamin D.—Skin of bat and nest of humming bird from Tllinois. .
Walton, Hon. E. P., M. C.—Spawn of conch from Buzzard bay, Massachusetts.
Warren, Lieutenant J. R., U. §S. A.—Box of Indian curiosities, (deposited. )
Waugh, A. Townsend.—-Box insects, Maryland.
Weeks, W.—Bottle of fishes from Connecticut river.
Welch, George.—Eges of birds of Massachusetts.
White, Lieutenant J. W., and officers of the ‘‘ Jeff. Davis.’ —Zoological collections, chiefly invertebrates, from Puget’s Sound.
Whitehurst, Dr. D. W.—Eegegs of birds and specimens in alcohol from
2 Tortugas:
Williams, BE. C.—Warge plank cut from redwood tree, (Sequoia sem- pervirens,) Cape Mendocino, California.
Willis, J. R.—Nests and eggs of birds from Nova Scotia.
Wilson, Dr. L. N.—Skins of carrion crow, (Cathartes atratus;) white ibis, &c., and dried grasses from Georgia.
Wolcott, F. H.—Box of ‘‘ vegetable eggs.’’
Wood, Dr. W.—Birds’ eggs from Connecticut.
Woodbury, Captain D. P., U. S. A.—Fishes and marine invertebrates in alcohol; skins and eggs of birds, and dried corals from Tortugas.
78 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
Wright, Charies.—Minerals and fossil radiates from Cuba. .
Wiirdemann, G.—Twelve skins of birds, Florida.
Xantus, John. —Twenty boxes of natural history collections from Fort Tejon, California.
Unknown.—Box of coal; Indian remains from Scioto river; larvae of Telephorus? from the surface of snow in Oneida county, New York; package auriferous earth from Pike’s Peak.
LIST OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS
* FOR THE YEAR 1859.
BRITISH AMERICA.
| ie ae Bedi 3 g ‘ = $ Name of observer. | Station. = = ss g : : 5 Z = se 4 Oe Oa Feet. Baker Jin Oca scccic= ss Stanbridge, Canada Hast,(P.O.| 45 08 SBM MNAGe A SSeS at | Saxe’s Mills, Vt.) Connelly, Henry-..-..| Rigolet yinabradoree sense eiain = aeeintsinl | atat= aioe ee eres Bsa, Craicsie Drews sss >= Hamilton, Canada West.---- | 43 15 Woy Da | ees ae Boel. Delany, Edward M. J.-'Colonial Building, St. John’s,|. 47 35 52 41 iO) |B ER. Newfoundland. Gunn, Donald_--.---.. ‘Red River Settlement, Hud-) 50 06 97 00 853 IT. | son’s Bay ‘Territory. Hall, Dr Archibald... Montreal, Canada Hast ...---| 45 30 73 36 57 JA. Hartt, Chas. Fred’ k__. Acadia College, Wolfvilie,Nova 45 06 | 64 25 95 |A. | Scotia. Hensley, Rev. J. M...-|Ki ng’s College, Windsor, Noval 44 59 64 07 200 |A. | Scotia. Magnetic Observatory ./Toronto, Canada West ------ 43 39 wo 20 108 |A. Mackenzie, WosRs ase ‘Moose Factory, Hudson’s Bay SIMS Mees OR om ae aaa Bale Territory. Ross, Bernard R-.---.- \Bort Simpson, Hudson’s Bay GTS 2 2 Sina ea ee dlc Territory. Roval Engineers. ...-- Halifax, Nova Scotia-.------ | 44 39 G3e3t) 8 jA. Smallwood, Dr.Charles.|St. Martin, Isle Jesus, Can. E. 45 32 iid 36 118 |A. ALABAMA. A © eZ Z E 5 Name of observer. Station. County. pa Ba = E acs eS "Ep Be) . . 2 fe Z = an) a OR ts Feet. Alison eke, bi. 1) sae Carlowville --|Dallas....--.. o2) LON) SStuelo 400 |T. R. CobbssiRev. Rh. Ames se Union Town=|Perry ==. ---- SOMO OM We Oi) Lalla) ses N. Foster, William L.--.-. Montgomery .|Montgomery-| 32 22 | 86 31 |..-.-.--. iN. Hurt; Ashley? Ds. 22 224. Moulton. ....|Lawrence---.| 34 32 | 87 25 643 |A.
: _ Selma=-se= 32 25) 86 51 200 | f.P-R Jennings, Dr. S. K...4 (orvintos . f/Oallas----- } | 32 24 | 87 06 |... IT.P.R, Nicholson, Rev. J. J.---|Mobile...._- Mobiles .ses- 30 30 88 30 188 |B. T. Shepherd, Rev. J. Avery-|Montgomery -|/Montgomery -|----.---|--------|-------- rR. Smith, Rey. Stephen U--|Livingston--.|Sumter------ 32 30 88 16 180 |T. P. Troy, Matthew, M. D---|Cahaba.._-.-|Dallas....... Sy) 1S) I) 7 WD ecasSese ie Tutwiler, Henry. ...-.- Havana --|Greenes. se. 32. 50} 87 46 500 |T.R. Waller, Robert B. ...--- Greensboro’ ..|Greene.-.--- 32 40 | 87 34 350 JA.
*
“ce “ce se
A B th R N
signifies Barometer, Thermometer, Psychrometer, and Rain Gage. Oe Barometer.
Thermometer.
Rain Gage.
No instrument,
80
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
ARKANSAS. s za = = e 5 S “oy oO Name of observer. Station. County. = 2 3 8 is = "2 5 Q : oS Z Z = ss 5 ORs rtd Feet. Barlow, Dennis-....-.- Arkadelphia -|Clark. -....- 34 08 93) 00M eseneees N. Blackwell, Wi. H=-2-2 3 Perryville. .-|Perry. ---.-- 35:05) |) (938 TGs |r ss22e ee Ne CoulteryBs be. . 2 5-253 Brownsville. -|Prairie -..... Sys a) | SAR) | SEs oe N. Davies, James T....--- Gainesville --|Greene_....-|-.....-- 90 00 500 |N. Featherston, Geo. W.---|Waldron ----|Scott..-..... 34 53 94 00M Ses 4oe2 N. Finley, 2) tee Spring Hill -:/Hempstead -.| 33 30] 93 40 |....---- at Flippin, Wi, Bes== ==-== Mellvillevs—.. | Marioneaess-| 13005071) 93000 1,000 |N. Graham), Panleese eee Bentonville ..|/Benton...... 36 23 94 10 1,790 IN. Martin, G. Alex., M. D..|Jacksonport.-|Jackson. -.--| 35 56 | 91 16 |.---.--- a ReynoldsyJpeesse-eee es Spring Hill ..|Hempstead --/ 33 30] 93 40 |....-..- Aue Smith SDipsNep essen Washington..|Hempstead --| 33 44 | 93 41 |._._---- enkv. Weast; ei Wiese ce sceen Yellville ..../Marion...--- S67 S0MI 19300 Te OO0OnINE Younger, Armistead ..-.|Buck Horn--.)Independence. 34 30 92 00 650 |N. CALIFORNIA. * Ayres, W.O., M. D....|San Francisco.{San Francisco.) 37 48 | 122 27 130 |A. > DeLCheiy Wiel Ceeeayania= |Marysville. ../Yuba- ~-.-- 39 29 | 121 30 80 |T. Boucher, Wesley K...-- ‘Mokelumne /|Calaveras_-..| 38 18 | 120 28 1,502 |N. | SH: Cantield, Colbert A.,M.D.|Monterey-...|Monterey.-.-| 36 36 | 121 54 40 |T. Frombes, Prof. Oliver S.. Santa Clara.-|Santa Clara--| 37 18 | 122 00 100 |A. Gordon, Robert.......- jAntbirias- —.|\Placersecesa. 38 54°) 221 12 as Urea.“ Gould, Lewis A......-- Santa Clara..|Santa Clara..| 37 20 | 122 00 98 |N. Logan, Thos. M., M. D. Sacramento --|Sacramento-.| 38 35 | 121 28 41 jA. Randall, Robert B..2..- Crescent City.|Del Norte. -.| 41 45 | 124 11 12) Nae Slaven,’ James... ....-- HMoncut.e-s=- Vinbaecoeos SON 25 AAS OB een T. BR. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Smithsonian Institution.|Washington -|Washington -| 38 53 | 177 01 | 60 n CONNECTICUT. Hamnisonmbeny. basses. |Wallingford..]/New Haven_.| 41 27 72 50 133 |A. Hunt, Rev. Daniel_.....|Pomfret.....|Windham .--| 41 52 72 23 587 |A. Johnston, Prof. John-_-.-|Middletown--|Middlesex. -_| 41 32 72 39 175 |A. Rankine James... i225 - Saybrook ....|Middlesex -..| 41 18 72 20 TOs Yeomans, William H_--/Columbia...-|Polland. ..._] 41 40 HPA? io gle ent ah ey | DACOTAH. Norvell], Freeman.....- Greenwood - as 2 ars 42 52] 98 24 | Le 900g ia:
* The names of these observers were accidentally omitted in the list for 1858.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
ioe) pi
DELAWARE. el tena a < 4 = 2 = Name of observer. Station. County. = an is FI ; = g 2 |é ‘ : oes B Z = se 5 Our Os Maul dibs Wie sac Georgetown ...|Sursex ---..-|..-sie---|-<0ce=s= jatosewel R. | FLORIDA. aael Abert ihayern=ssssc cl Warrington..|Escambia .--| 30 21 87 16 9 JA. Bailey, James B-------- Gainesville -.|/Alachua----- 29 35 82 26 184 |T.R. Baldwin, A. S., M. D..--|Jacksonville -|Duval..-...- 30 15 82 00 14 jA. Bean, Dr. James B-.--- Micanopy .---|Alachua..--- 29 35) 82 3 78 |A. Dennis, Wm. C..---..---| Key West ---|Monroe .---- 24 33 |} 81 28 16 |B. TR. Gibbon, Lardner--.-..... Tallahassee ..|Leon - --.--- 30 29 S4N0Ts | Pos2- es i: Ives, Edward R..---.--- Lake City ---|Columbia....| 30 12 82 37 | JOS Dd ain Mauran, P. B, M. D__._ St. Augustine|St. John’s-.-| 29 48 | 81 35 8 |B. T.R. Steele, Judge Aug__---- i\Atsena) Otie:=.|Levy 22. -—- 29 08 83 04 Ly Beeler. Whitner, Benj. F --.--- Tallahassee -.|Leon 222252. 30 24 84 17 70 |T. GEORGIA. Anderson, Jas., M. D ---/Thomaston -..|/Upson ...-.- 32 56 | 84 30 750 |A. Arnolds eVirstidl) is see ee Zepulone seasleikers, Suse 33 07 S4° 260 los cece ies Campy Benjie kia eeee Covington ...j/Newton ._--- 33 40 84 00 763 |N. Doughty, Dr. Wm. H---|Augusta.-_--- Richmond ~..| 383 27 81 33. 152 JA. Easter, Prof. John D.---|Athens------ Olarkemt =.= 2 | 33 58 83 35 350 |A. Gibson, RiP. 22222525 Savannah - --|Chatham....| 32 02 | 81 01 18 |T.R. Granteawe bMS De ssee ‘Thomson ..--|Columbia....| 33 26 S2e2Z Cal seeeeeee Baba: Pendleton, E. M., M. D-|Sparta ......|Hancock .-..| 33 17 | 83 09 550. |T. R. Posey, John F., M. D-..|Savannah . -.|Chatham--..) 32 05 | 81 07 42, 1A, Stanford, Col. John R..-|Clarksville...|Habersham --| 34 40 |.---.---|---.---- N. Van Buren, Jarvis..-....- (Clarksville _-|Habersham -.| 34 35 | 83 31 | 1,632 |T.P. Westmoreland,J.G., M.D./Atlanta ..--. ‘Pulton 2 Sepa as. 25 84 31 1050) | Baclok ILLINOIS. Aldnichs Vientyae- se ITiskilwa.---- (Bureaus =a 5 N. Alison weSSE s2=—\o= 5— Bloomington-|McLean ..--- N. Babcock, Andrew J--.-.- AUROTaE see MARC 4c — 41 41 88 17 650 IT. R. IS NOS Diggesacoooese Rileyaeneceas) McHenry - --| 42 11; 88 20 760 |. R. IBiveohaly Il) ees as See Willow Creek.|Lee...-.---- { 41 45 88 56 1,040 |T. BallouwNawE:, MAD. -3-- Sandwich . ..|De Kalb ----| 41 31] 88 3 575) |. Re Bassett, George R -..... Woodstock ../McHenry - --; 42 18 | 88 30 |.------- rR: Bowman, Dr. E. H_---- \Edgington.--.)Rock Island../" 41 25 | 90 46 | 686 | CR. Brendel, Fred’k, M. D_-|Peoria --.-.-- Reoriasos. es | 40 43 89 30 | 460 |T.P.R. Brookes, Samuel ----.-- \Chicago ----- Cookwysase4 | Ze OW) 1 te Sa cacec IB Cantril, Joshua E------ Waynesville -|De Witt.---.) 40 16 S907, (Sa sceeee Deeks Capen Bases se es Lone (Batavia ...-.| Kameese sa alt? 88 20 | GaOnibeabe Cobleigh, N. E.-.....-- iLebanon _._-|St. Clair. 2---| 387137 -(- 18995 6) aa ene Ba RS
82
ILLINOIS—Continued.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
o : 3 = 3 ale 5 Name of observer. Station. County. = &p is =| | rs e “Sp E : : 5 a ZA = so i Ont Ore Feet. Bell, Mrs. E. M. A---- a : Pe eMee Wire fsi Cae) eae (J ee LR. Wallace, Sam’] Jacob- | Carthage ene Collier, Prof. Geo. H..--| Wheaton. ---|Du Page-.--. 41 49 | 88 06 682 |A. Eldredge, Rev. William V.|Newton - ---- Jasper .-.-.-|---=----|--------||-------<- TR Ellsworth, Lewis------- Naperville-_-.-|Du Page. ..-- 41 46 SB aseeee N. Ellsworth, Milton S----- Naperville ...|Du Page .---| 41 46 838° 11) |Seeeee=- mr Grant, John...--------|Manchester - -|Scott - ---.-- 39 33 | 90 34 683 |A. Haeuser, Emil--------- Galena . --.-\Jo. Daviess --|--------|--------|-------- N. Harris) IOs, Ma De=a5- Ottawazias eo hai Salless: = Al 20 | 88 47 500 |T. R. James, John, M.D -.-- |Upper Alton- Madison... --- 39 00 SOLS OE |e aeeeeer A. hittlenJs Thomas. <== Dixon ssa COetecd esa AIGA Sie SO lelee es oe N. MeadsSiB:, at. Desc s=- |Augusta.-.-- Hancock ----| 40 12] 91 45 *203 |T.P.R Mead, Dr. Thompson...) Batavia ----- Rane asses a. 41 52 88 20 636 |A. Newcomb, John B-..---- Bleinjecs ees Wanesseseeia= 42 00 |} 88 15 TI7,\A. RibletwIwH co -sceeeees Pekines asia Tazewellis2 5) 40364589 45a sae aes Re Rogers, O. P. & J.8.---- Marengo ..--|McHenry- --| 42 14 | 88 38 842 |B. T.R. Smith, Chas. HE -.--..--- Evanston . --|Cook - --.--- 42 10 | 87 30 718 |T. Smith, Geo. O., M. D.-.-|Ottawa....-- Ear Sallexeees 40 57 | 87 55 551 |T. R. Swain, John, M. D------ West Urbana-.|Champaign --| 40 09 88 17 727 VA. Thomas, Mrs. Win. S ---|Carbon Cliff..|Rock Island..; 41 33 90 29 688 IN. Mitze, Henty AY. ---2se+ West Salem..|Edwards ----}| 38 30] 88 60 |.---...- Rs Tolman, James W------| Winnebago Depotee-=- Winnebago --| 42 17 | 89 11 800 |T. R. INDIANA. Andersons be Hs eae oe tockville Sap Rarkereae ses 36 C0 Si 00m eee N. IATISting Wey Wis seocieo ss Richmond ~.-.|Wayne------ 39 47 | 84 47 800 jT. Bartlett, Isaac ..--.----j|Logansport ..|Cass -..-.--- 40 45 86 13 600 | .R. Bullocktrds Descesaeese ‘Shelbyville --|Shelby....-- 39.00) SiO 0M eee : Chappellsmith, John....|New Harmony|Posey ----.-- 38 08 | 87 50 320 |A. Maines JOhN sa si<sire = 1 Richmond --.|Wayne....-- ah) Bante GW loseeGese Bea Parapee = WAM bea mses Green Castle-|/Putnam_..-.| 39 30 | 86 47 |..-....: N. Martina ry Nex ye mia cc New Albany -|Floyd --.-.- 38 17 BSH) CeO SAE se Ale Menifield, Geo. C.------ Mishawaka ..|St. Joseph ---| 41 37 | 86 02 685 |T.R. Moore, Joseph_...----- Richmond .-|Wayne...--- 39 47| 8447 | 800 |A. Smith, Hamilton, jr----|Cannelton --_-|Perry -----.- 37 57 86 42 450 |A. Sutton, George, M. D --|Aurora.....- \Deatbornmeees| mei | ee vas 5 idl Ma eae Belek Tomer! A; Pe jesersnis= Patokas scours \GibSOn Se rracwl> sae cuan| seme ae eeeeoee N. Vagnier, Prof. Thos. ...-|Notre Dame -|St. Joseph ---| 41 40 | 87 10 |-------- Bonne Webb hiissiG. <2-—---- South Bend--|St. Joseph.--| 41 45 | 86 20 |.-._._-- N.
* Above low water mark at Quincy. t Above Lake Michigan,
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 83
IOWA. Nl = i 3 eB | 5 Name of observer. | Station. Connty. & ‘Sp as q i a al a Zz E tH iG | | Orn Ce een ph ecean Nil Beal, Dexteri.=3------- Grove Hill...|Bremer ..--- eae: Sa atl ee 05) | apes eee 1M Beeman, Carlisle D. ----|Rossville .-..|Allamakee_..| 43 10 | 91 20 | 1,400 |T.R. Corse, John M. 22225202 ‘Burlington -.|/Des Moines--| 40 53 | 91 10 #486 |T. Rie IDOVAGY Jub Ise See Resa \Waterloo <<. -|Black Hawk -| 42°30!) 92 31) |-....-=- iN. IDA ey, Welsh aes Gaootee ‘Davenport .../Scott ..-.--- 41 30} 90 38 | 555 |N. Bory, JohniC. oc semonce Bellevue ._--|Jackson --_-- AO aifssahe Onde ay |e (ER. Goss, William K. --..-- Border Plains |\Webster-.--- AD OOM 940 00s eeeaeeee iB. T.R. lala, VAC EIDE) pee eee (Dubuque --.-|Dubuque--.-| 42 30 | 90 52 * 666 |A. Edson yAwel., Mi ao ayON Serine Clintons. s=- 41 50 90 10 401 |R McBeth, Miss Sue ------/|Fairfield ...-|Jefferson ....| 41 01] 91 57 940 IN. McConnel, Townsend .--|Pleasant Plain|Jefferson --..| 41 07 | 94 54 950 |T. R. McCready, Daniel-_----- Fort Madison|Lee..-...--- AO MOM no La28 ieee enae rR McKenzie, John M. .-..|Fayette ...-- Payette 5---- 42 51 Syst 1,000 |T. Odell, Rev. Benj. F. .--- [Plum Spring-|Delaware...-| 42 40] 91 21 |........ iN Parvin, Theodore 8. ...-|Muscatine ---|/Muscatine ...| 41 25 | 92 02 586 |A. Shaffer, J. M., M. D. .... \Fairfield ....|Jefferson -.--| 41 01 | 91 57 940 |A. Sheldon, Daniel -...--- |Rorestwalle: |<“! Delawares-=-| 422405)5"'91" 50) |-seoseee fit KANSAS. Berthoud yh. se = op ss. Leavenworth |Leavenworth| 39 19 | 94 50 809 |R. Brown Ga sess sstae ee Lawrence...-|Douglas___-- 38 58 | 95 12 800 |N T.B Clarkson, Rev. David---.|Fort Riley ---|Riley -...... 39 00 96 30 1,300 |N Colliers Css ss S24 = Denyer\Cityr-|Arapanos=.)-:|s2 e525 sea sees nee oeene ae Drummond, Rev. J. H..|Celestville. ..|Lykins....-- SOTA Om lmiOo GMa = ames N Hiss Win.) Tse ccts Lecompton --|Douglas ----. 39 03 95 10 760 |T. Hish Uueian <2.) saceaa Buntieeamne- 2 Shawnee) soe.) sae ee |e = asco ees ky Goodnow, Isaac T_...-- Manhattan --|Riley .....-- 39 13} 96 45 1,000 |T. R. GOSS aD tient once siees Neosho Falls-|Woodson----| 38 03 ae) Gal eee ss ty By Bo MMeCartyvkeeD ea =s sae Leavenworth |Leavenworth.| 39 20} 94 33 | 1,342 |A. Millers dohn) Hess --=- |Wyandot..--|/Wyandot.---| 39 08 | 94 3 707 |T.R. Preston, Rev. N. O----- |Manhattan ..|Riley ---..-- 39.13 | 96 45 |._-..-.-/N. ee Peele ce t Moneka .---- Wain cesta 38 3 ISA008| == eseeee Eevee KENTUCKY. | | Beatty! Ovsss-e senses Danville -.\-|Boyle.. == =. 37 40 | 8430! 950 arr. edie ats Bardstown.--|Nelson--...- 3v 52 |- 85 18 cteteeee SA. Mattison, Andrew..-.-- Paducah ...-|Mt. Cracken .| 37 00 | $7 Die |e A eee N Ra yanli Gene hep een Parissesssse Bourhon-=22-|/" 38) 16" 84207 800 |B.T.R. Savage, Rev. G.S., M. D.|Millersburg../Bourbon ----| 38 40 | 84 27 | 8€4 (B.T.R. Walker, Mrs: Mary A: )\\.2.c2eseeas|eneasooclanee jon cccteclesJedecs|eeeaness Barbage, Joshua C.--- t Hardinsburg -|Breckenridge.| 37 40 | 86 15 500 IN Sens K Louisville ...\Jefferson ----| 38 03 | 85 30 452 EEE REN 8 R.. | Lexington - -.-.|Fayette ...-- gueSmOO4|a 84.18.) 2c oaeae A. Young, Mrs. Lawrence--|Louisville. ---|Jefferson ....| 38 07 85 24 | 570 jA | | | |
* Above low water in the Mississippi.
84
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
LOUISIANA. NN : S eb | g 2 z Name of observer. Station. County. = Be 3 5 iS s "a0 5 . S o ee Z = as A ol Oh. 4 Feet. Jackson, A. W., M. D.--/|Falls River .-,Point Coupee | 30 20 60) Hees 3 18 ol eet ss epee N. Kilpatrick, A. R., M. D. Trinity------ \Concordia...| 31 30 91 46 108 |T. R. Swasey, Col. C. B.--.-- Independence |Livingston ..| 30 3 90 3 50 |N. Taylor, Lewes B..------ New Orleans- Orleans --.--- PAS) sy PE EI Bees aes A. MAINE. oe Adams, John W.------- Portland ....|Cumberland .| 43 39 | 70 00 180 |N. Bickford, Calvin ------- Wranrengs=ose \Lincoln ..... AAS OV Oz Oa ere a N. Brackett, G. Emerson---|Belfast- -.--- i\Wialdorsaaas 44 23 69808" | s22e25-— pve Brown, E. E., and others.|Hartland....|Somerset ----| 45 00 | 69 3 200 |N. Buller pHwAj assesses Freedom -~.--.|Waldo .....- ALES Oh OMS OF eee tee N. AANA MWe - caisson ss = North Perry..|Washington .} 45 00 67 06 100 |B.T.R. Gardinershwe Hoses see Gardiner ..../Kennebec -..| 44 40 69 46 90 |A. GapulleGeWreescss==— = Cornishville .|York -.----- 43 40 | 70 44 800 |T. R. Johnson, Warren.-.----- Topsham ....|Sagadahoc..-| 44 00 70 00 100 |P. HOTA AWis Greessac esos Limington—..| Mork 2.225 43 40 | 70 45 500 |N. Moore, Asa P...-...-.: isbony sje |Androscoggin| 44 00 | 70 04 130 |. R. : Newcastle -../Lincoln ..... 44 07 69 35 88 |T. Nichols, Charles L..--. Bangor.--.-.- (Penobscot)- |) 44.48)" 68) 47) | oes ie Parker Jit) ..<s ae see Steuben. ....|Washington .| 44 44 | 67 50 50 |A. Van Blarcom, James ---|Vassalboro’../Kennebec ---| 44 28 694A ASS Seeeee 1B WerrillGeaWee jt oes Norway -----|Oxford...... He Ze IO WO Reese N. AViestaSilasta=s-sse cee Cormish™)-==< York -....-- 43 40 70 44 784 |T.R. WalburiBenys Es sesoe= Dextermecase |Penobscot -..]| 44 55 69 32 700 |R. WillisHenny, 222 =s2—-- Portland ....|Cumberland -| 43 39 OVENS 87 |A. Wyman, AH. 2S 20225 N’th Belgrade|Kennebec .-.| 44 30 0) 00 Wa eeee a N. MARYLAND. Baer MISciele Mis a sere Sykesville -..|Carroll. --..- 39 23 76 57 700 'T. R. Belly JacovpWs——=<<ss-- Leitersburg ..|Washington.-| 39 35 GTO Nass 2 pewkvs Goodman, Wm. h-.-..-- Annapolis -../Anne Arundel} 38 59 | 76 29 | 20 |A. Hanshew, Henry E-.---- i\Wrederick . ../"rederick.---| 39 24 Til Z @ wie eee A, Lowndes, Benj. O--_--- Bladensburg .|PrinceGeorge.| 38 57 76 58 70 |T. BR. Mayer, Prof. Alfred M --|Baltimore. ..|Baltimore---} 39 18 UO BUT ea soace A. MeWilliams, Dr. Alex’r- Leonardtown . St. Mary’s.-.-| 38 17 oe een Ba. Stephenson, Rev. Jas... |St. Inigoes.-_|St. Mary’s...| 38 10 76 41 45 jA. SuttonwRevaAsessaace Chestertown -|Kent . -...-- A aay BE) Wesooscae A. MASSACHUSETTS. Adams, Edward L....-- Bostonyie ss sunk ee | AZeZOM ML OS ul eae es Boke Alcott, William P.... | | Berger, M. L...... |Williamstown|Berkshire....| 42 43) 73 13 725 |B.T.B. Morley, John H. -. | | |
METEOROLOGICAL
OBSERVERS.
MASSA CHUSETTS—Continued.
ie : LE E Name of observer. Station. County. & ep 3 g 2 = @ | & : : ‘Oo ema Z E m | (Cg On ON Feet. | Bacon Walliams seca Richmond -.-|Berkshire...-| 42 23 | 73 20 1,190 /|T.R. Brewer, Francis A..-... Springfield...|,Hampden~-.| 42 06 UP Nepeecebs INE Colliers Alfred = 5-25 -=.. South Groton.|/Middlesex .._| 42 30 }.-.----- 300 |T. Davis, Rev. Emerson -.-|Westfield..../Hampden~--| 42 06 72 48 180 |A. Hallonedohniae sees ce Lawrence.-_-.-.|Essex _....-- 42 42 Gla 133 |A. Felt, Charles W.....- Hanna, George B.. Bridgewater -|Plymouth.-.| 42 00 71 00 150 |A. Parsons, Benj’n W.- HarvardColl. Observatory|Cambridge..-|Middlesex -..; 42 23 | 71 07 80 jA. Mack A Wiese = acters Danvers... HISS@xcpneieiets oi 42 35 a Ss SS 2 Bawls Metcalf, Jno. G., M. D..|/Mendon. ~...)/Worcester -..| 42 06 fA ONS $3 cl as eee a peeks Mitchell, Hon. Wm ....|Nantucket...|Nantucket...}| 41 17 70 06 30 jA. Rodman, Samuel---....-. New Bedford. Bristol -..-.- 41 39 70 56 90 |A. Prentiss, Dr. Henry C..-|Worcester . .-|Worcester _.-| 42 16 | 71 48 537 |A. Snell SProfe ha Sees seee Amherst. ..-- ‘Hampshire ..| 42 22 72 34 267 |A. Tirrell, N. Q., M. D..-.|Weymouth.-.-|Norfolk . .... 42 10 71 00 150 |B.T.R. Whitcomb; Hoses ae Florida - =so-(Beenelines 42 40 73 10 2,000 |N. MICHIGAN. Abbe, Cleveland ----.-- Lansing .---- Ingham ---.-- 42 44 | 80 00 850 IN. Allen,/James, jr= 2-5: Port..Huron--)St. Clair. .--- 42 58 82 24 606 |T. Blaker, Dr. G. H., jr. --|Marquette. --/Marquette.--| 46 32 87 41 630 |A. Bowlsby, Geo. Wi eae Monroe= === - Monroe. +---| 41.56) 83 30 584 |B.T.R. Campbell, Wm. M., M.D.|Battle Creek -|Calhoun--_--- 42 20} 85 10 825 |B.T.R. Coffin, Matthew--_..---- Otsego ...---- Allegan -.-.--| 42 28 85 42 662 (N. Crosbya Jey beacasieaaae New Buffalo..|Berrien _ -..-| 41 45 | 86 46 661 |B.T.R. FOMMES lt Crsem ane ae Lansing --.-- Ingham ..---!| 42 44} 84 15 750 (|B.T.R. ae Gr | [Detwotttes 222 Wayne. ....- 42 24| 8258| 597 |A. Strengy, Liye Ss - 225 ee Grand Rapids.|Kent - ------ | 43 00 | 86 00 680 |T. R. Webb MissiG= =-=se see Ypsilanti ....| Washtenaw .-| 41 45 | 86 20 600 |N. Whelpley, Miss H. I----|Monroe.----- Monroe. -..-}| 4156} 83 238 590 iT... Woodard iC. \S2=222=22- Ypsilanti ..-.|Washtenaw. -| 42 15] 83 47 751 jA. MINNESOTA. Clark Thomas == —=—- Beaver Bay--|Lake._..---- Ahi 91a LO 657 |A. Garrison, ,O.eb ea see a= Princeton - .-/Benton-...-- 45 50 93n 4 On Eco e ase hints 1B G1} oYo} yo WAY WN Se ee (Burlington ..|/Lake.......- 47 O1 92 30 | 645 iT. R. Riggs Reve Sie ase oa = Pajutazee----|Brown .-.---- 45 00 948008 Scena iT. R. Shitay AG Ob Saas adsase Forest City..-|Muker -...-- 45 45 | 96 00 | Speecoce i. R. Thickstuneel.s hess ae ee i\Chatheldl sa pbillmore) coesleseccese|~-so~ === #325) ieee Wieland) Henry -..-.--|beaver Bay, --|Dake--...2-- ATT), 91eZ5 850 |T. P.
* Above La Crosse.
86 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
MISSISSIPPI.
S 3
3 = 3
Name of observer. Station. | County. Be} = Pe St
| is S SD =
| a ° > wR
| Z = ss 5
OF ass On Feet. Aribbsyd. kh. --osce= = Westville_--.-|Simpson.---- S73 041. OU WOH leGsocses ie Johnston, Wm. M., M. D.|Hernando .--|De Soto -.--- 34 45 90 15 =70 |A. Gull-jJames)S\~ <2 sa-2—- Columbus -..|Lowndes ----| 33 30 88 29 227 \A. McCary, Robert---..--- Natchez ...--jAdams --..-. 31 34 91 25 264 |B. T.R. Moore, Prof. Albert. -.-- Grenada...../Yalobusha---| 33 45 9000) | Set seee- N. Robinson, Rev. E. S. ” Prarie Bi | Jasper Lae 32 20 | 89 20 |.....--- iN MISSOURI. ele se) ee ee ee eee
BatleyaiSas; 1. 6 sseces Dundee .-..-|Franklin ....| 38 30 | 91 10 536 |T. Bowles, S. B., M. D.---- Greenfield ..-/Dade.....--- 3722) | 93 41 1,800 [N. Byrns, Robert, M. D. ---|Kirksville ---|Adair --.....|--------|--------|-------- N. Campbell, John....---- \Carrollton .-.|Carroll ..---- SG ee BM eo N. @hristian, John=~--.5.-- Harrisonville: |Cage ~onceeee | anase ae ae reall ceierereetots INé Conkling, Thos. J. ----- \Trenton ....- Grundy) 2=—2 AQ WUST mom OOMectemees N. Daltons OM Dense sec cee Greenville -sc| Waynes. coeclosaece ol eee a|senenoe N. DodsonsByDisssooesos (Yoronto ...-- \Camden ....- Bafisy: bal ee) Si0 al ere eas N. Englemann, George ----\St. Louis --..|St. Louis-..-| 38 37 90 16 481 |jA. Fendler, Augustus.--.---|St. Louis -...|St. Louis....| 38 37 | 90 16 470 |. HinleykeW. «42 -~----|Richmond 2 = |hay eee oye se ONG pees Oh) Meeaood N. Force, Nathan P.-..--- \Farmington-..|St. Francis...) 37 48 eZee ceeene N. Hamaker, Marion F.-.-- \Warrenton...|Warren -..-- B8E45 Me Gilenl hy eee ae ies Hanan pba scam eee (Litmanyrae stores Clarkes 222522 AORZ8 7) see ole see eet R. Fleaston;eD disteiaeiatoeel= |Bethany - ---- Harrisons eo. 40S o4 OOM teases Ne Horners Web. = oosee oe Hornersville -|Dunklin...-- 36 03 SORO0n seaeea=- N. Huffakers ojeoae sees (Carrollton ---|Carroll -..--- 39 30 Sol |eeee see N. Ki erm Weib. iaaeeisc= sae |Emerson ----|Marion ...... 40 00 9260.0 eee eee N. WingOwaBaG ese eae see |Waynesville -jPulaski.....| 37 45 | 92 13 |.-.-..-- N. Lumpkin, Wm. M, .---- \Tuscumbia-.-|Miller.-...-- 38 30 | 91 59 600 |N. Mallinckroot, Conrad---|Augustus -...|St. Charles...| 38 30 90 46 780 iT. MERU AEW sek yccsetesoee |\PaTisieehcoes Monroe <-2-2 39 3 92 00 700 |T. Miyerssarhecen cease Kirksville -..|/Adair’.- 2222+ 40 38 92 50 1,000 |N. Sutherland, Norris --.-- \Boonville....) Coopersaice ce SONODE |) MOAN SOM aa metsterets N. Tidswell, Mary Alice ...|Warrenton...|Warren -.--- Sono lh Oleh 825 |T. Wankink Wied etccicese (Bolivar -7->-|Pollky-=- 22° y(n) O24 bu eee eee N.
WogeliChas tes eos cice (Rhineland ...|Montgomery -} 38 42 | 91 41 300 |T. R. Weatherford, John M. --|Lancaster_-..|Schuyler-.... 40 30 92 4 ON eae eats N. Weber Philipps seessee |Hermann .... Gasconade .--| 38 40} 91 27 598 IN.
Weellsiwimi ses eae occ. Stockton ....|Cedar-.--..- 39 36 93 48 800 |T.R. Wilson, Joseph A......- \Lexington ...|Lafayette....| 3915 | 93 45 |.-_...-. N.
Wiynicky Mabe. teeccne \Cassville ...-|Barry ..----- 36 41 3 57 | 3,000 |T.R.
* Above low water mark at Memphis.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 87 NEBRASKA. = Ss | B Name of observer. Station. County. s “Ep & FI Ss i | Ep é ; ae eames 2 Z Z hy 5 haar en| Oni! oa Feet. Bowen, Anna M. J..---- Elkhorn City -|Douglas ...-.- 41 22 96 12 | 1,000 /T. Byers, William N -.---- Omaha - ...-|Douglas...--| 41,15 | 96 10 | 1,300 |T. RB. BHyansWJObnessseseceae Fontanelle -.|/Dodge ....-- 40 31 | 96 45 oer ate Hamilton, Rev. Wm....|Bellevue ----|Sarpy . -..-- 41 08 QS OOF apsete ret fakes Mason, Edgar E.--....- Nebraska City|Otoe-.---.-- 40 40 95 44 1, 050 ie R. MilleryiCh Hs: sess S. Pass Wagon|Road Exped’n} 42 28 | 108 40 SP Baek. Rain JOnnEG Ss. -sicets cee Omaha - ..../Douglas_...- Al 20.| 95 57 1,400 |T. R. Smith, Charles B-.....- Brownville .~.|Nemaha-_-_-- 40 30 96 (00M Rese eeee ike Twiss, Major Thos. S...-|Deer Creek --|P.O. Fort La-) 42 50 | 105 50 | 5,000 /T. R. | ramie. | White, Bela_...-.. won| Kenosha... |Cassyeceneae. | 4051} 95 54 | 1,050 ! i i NEW HAMPSHIRE. Bell, Samuel N....-.... Manchester --|Hillsborough-| 42 59 | 71 28 S00F Baa: Brown; Branch --.- . =-|Stratford ....|Coos = -.-..- 44 08 TL 34 1,000 'T. R. Chase;Anthur ..-2 225-52 Claremont ..-|Sullivan...-- Be22ee 72, 21 5359 Be Lan Halls Joseph H sasseses Top of Mount|Coos....-.-- 4415 | 7116] 6,285 |A. Washingt’n | Hoyt, Peter L., M. D.---| Wentworth --/Grafton ..--- SwAO RH T2005 |e cae RS Odell; Hletcher 22. S522. Shelburne ~..|Coos's- S222 AA 23m sol A068 700 |B. T. Smiths Rutus sos. oes ae N. Littleton -|Grafton --_-- ALISON NAO | se sae N. Wiggin, Andrew. c-ccc~ Psa .---|Rockingham -| 43 00 | 73 3 100 |N. NEW JERSEY... | | | | Allen, Edwin-.--...--- |New Brunsw’k Middlesex ---| 40 39 | 75 31 | 90 IN. Parry William’ -2. 2.5.) (Cinnaminson. Burlington -.-| 40 00 1501, 83 IN, Thornton, Miss E. E.---|Moorestown -|Burlington. --| 39 58 74 13} 104 |B. T.P. Watson, George.......- | Woodstown-.|Salem......- | 89°39 | 75 20 | 30 it Jey Whitehead, W. A....-. (Newark ..... HHSSexeetye ae | 40 45 74 10 | 35 |B.T. Wallis SiO eS sesecta n= |Freehold -...|Monmouth -.| 40 15 | 74 21 |....---- Tr NEW YORK. Arden, Thomas B...--..- Garrison’s 2. 4Putnam. oseoh)) 4023 74102) 180 |T.R. Aubier,"John.o.so0---- Fordham ....|Westchester..| 40 54 | 73 57 Pa A. Bowman, John. -..----- Baldwinsville |Onondaga....| 43 04 | 76 41 |....----/T. Brown, Rev. John J..-.|Dansville..../Livingston...| 42 38 | 77 44 672 |A. Dayton tA eae ee oe |Madrid . ..._|St. Lawrence-| 44 43 | 75 33 280 |B.T. P. Denning, William H-.-|Fishkill Land-|Dutchess.....| 41 33 | 74 18 | 42 |B.T.R. ing. | Dewey, Prof. Chester, | | Trai a Clarkese ere Rochester....|Monroe...... AS 08 ) 775k | 516 |IB.T.R Pe puiMere aes |
* Six miles east of summit of South Pass,
88
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
NEW YORK—Continued.
o : 3 Z - = sa o Name of observer. Station. County. 2 = 43 S 2 2 "Sp = ru : cs a A = ae 3 Cre Gi Feet. Hlleston, Job=....++--- Geneva....-. Ontario Yiea| sees sees |eaea ete sae eee ts iWrostuOole bia Osssee a= Havana. _-.-|Schuyler ----| 42 30 76 31 1,041 |T. Graeme Wises 2e t Spencertown -|Columbia....| 42 18 | 73 32{ 700 |A. Alexander, James M-- Guest aWoliee=coen ete Ogdensburg... St. Lawrence 44 43 (oyu 232 |R. Holmes, He S-skecee eee Wilson....-- Niagara. ..-.| 43 20 78 56 250) |/E. House) John 2.222222 Waterford ...|Saratoga...-. 42 47 73 39 70 |A. Howell-Rrsseessscecse Nicholso—_o-|Liogastee. 2 AD OO GW a2 eee eee Abe Ingersoll JD iess25e= ions soe Herkimer....| 43 00 Ow a Sae See N. TvesowWilliamessssnee se. Buftaloweeeee Hrieseieve si: 42 50 | 78 56 600 |A. SEE Fe { Schenectady. Schenectady..| 42 49 | 73 55 300 |T. Kelsey, Kathalo......- Great Valley.|/Cattaraugus..| 42 12 | 78 45 |.....--- N. handon, Anna S2s-s-< Hden= secre Hriessseveene 42 30 79 11 700 |T. Mackie, Matthew....... Clydeste2c=- Wayne.tece. ASP 1OF| che LO 400 |B. T. MalcommiWmos -</-iim52 Oswego...... jOswego...--. 43 28 76 30 250 |B. T.R. Matthews, M. M., M. D_|Rochester....;Monroe. -..-| 43 08 Well 525 |A. Morris, Professor O. W..|New York...)/New York--.| 40 43 74 05 25 |A. Paine SHep Mer eM. D2 -2 = Clinton ..\...|Oneidai ss 222. AZA0 3M Os 500 |T. P.R. Rotter, ChD) M.D eee. Adams Centre|Jefferson ....| 43 48 | 75 52 32 |R. Riker;) Walter-H- 222.22! Saratoga...../Saratoga....-| 43 06 74 00 306 |A. Sartwell, Dr. H. P.....- Penn Yan= <.|Wates -2s-ae 42 62 | 77 11 740 |A. Sias, Professor Solomon-.|Fort Edward_|Washington.-| 43 13 | 73 42 |..._.--- A. Spooner, Dr. Stillman...|/Wampsville..|Madison- .--. 43 041} 75 50 500 |T.R. Sylvester, Dr. E. Ware. .|Lyons.----.- Wayletaten. ut eee eee oe Gels See B. T. Titus, Henry Wm.-..-.-- \Bellport_--.- Suffolk ac... 40 44 | 72 54 15 |A. Tompkins, William. ---- Germantown |Columbias--. |<<. 2s=|=se5=-— 175 |N. Van Kleek, Rev. R. D_-|Flatbush ..._|Kings-.-..-- 40 37 74 01 54 |B. TR. Wadsworth, A. S....... East Henrietta|Monroe...-.. 3 06 higow 600 |B. T.P. Wihtte:Aaron= ss ecacces Cazenovia. -.|Madison_.--- 42 55 75 46 1,260 |A. Yaley Walter D2. - 25 Houseville...|Lewis. ...... ASA 0 a) lowa2ea|seeeee== ft R. Young, Jude M..._...- West Day. -.|Saratoga. ---- 43 20 (a ule 1,200 |T. ZaepHel, Joseph.----..- West Morisa- |Westchester.-; 40 53 | 74 01 190 |" nia. Zimmerman, Godfrey. .-|Pine Hill..._/Erie.-_. -..- 42 45 79 06 680 |N. NORTH CAROLINA. Pe eines (Baleich <=] Wakol ee: | 3540] 7852] 317 IN. Kerr, Professor W. C.-- aes Col-/Mecklenburg.| 35 30] 80 54 850 |B. T.R ege. McDowell, Rev. A..-..- Murfreesboro’ |Hertford.-_-.- 36 30 el Olen eee A. Moore, Geo. F.,M. D --/Green Plains.|Northampton| 36 32 | 77 45 |.------- TR. Phillips, Prof. James, D.D.|Chapel Hill--|Orange--.--- 35 54 TS Ti! Wi fo famesh eee Beak Westbrook, Samuel W-..|Greensboro’..|Guilford....- 37 00 | 80 O01 840 |N.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 89 OHIO. a i ae & 3 2 a Name of observer. Station. County. = 5p 3 | 3 Ss Te E ! Ca % et a Pal = bn a | OD! Oa Feet. Abell BB atwenas see cio Welshfield ..-|Geauga.----| 41 23 | 8112] 1,205 |T.R. Ammen fees ac= sete see Ripley =.= - Brownyeeue=s Bi) Bit |) eB HE eeeeooe Baler: Anthony, Newton------ Mount Union.|Stark -.-..-- ADW54 Sd Sh | cosa ee is Atkinge Rew) lS se ao Madison _.--- Lake sssisecs 41 49 S000 sees fits Benner; Jew. oc scee oe New Lisbon_-|Columbiana.-|} 40 45 80 45 961 |B.T.R. Bennett, Sarah E.------ Toledow@ee-- (Wucaseesia. 41 49 3 o4u eee De Bowens Wim.) hase se Sharonville --|Hamilton.-.| 39 19 | 84 30 | 800 |N. Boy Ch Sieber eem eee eee [beria 222252 Morrow ...-- 40 46 | 82 52 1,160 |T. R. Chasesh sos 22h ee ek Marion’ .222|Maxionss.s2 40 30 832 Ziletesze sees N. ClarkaiWinebesssemece = Medinas2.3=2 \Medina.....| 41 07 SIVAT A TAZ DRA. Colbrunn, Edward -.---! Cleveland ..-|Cuyahoga -..| 41 30 | 81 40 665 |T. Cotton, D. B., M. D...-|Portsmouth-.|Scioto.....-- 38 45 82 50 529 \B.T. R. CranenGeoteW 225 See Bethelioe 2a Clermont_...| 39 00 84 00 S5 ovo. Davadson-H. Mosse oe) Freedom ....|Portage ...-. 41 13 81 08 1,100 |B.1. RB. Davis aWeehe os -eS ee Lancaster....|Fainfield -- ..| 39 41 82 37 1,020 |B.T. R. Dilletwaisraci= <--> = Newark -.... |Licking --..- 40 07 82 21 | 825 |T. Gamblen Jen Wisse see cee Russell’s Sta’n)/Highland....| 39 13 83 36 1,000 IN. Hammitt, John W ----- College Hill _|Hamilton..-.| 39 19 84 25 800 |N. Hampton eweiCoasenoe= Mt. Victory --|Hardin._.-.- 40 35 83 36 1,500 |N. Harper, Geo. W.-2-25-=" Cincinnati ___|Hamilton....| 39 06 84 27 | 500 j|A. Haywood, Prof John.--|Westerville _.|Franklin ---.| 40 04 | 83 00 |.------- |A. A We) Grete oe Dallasburg . .|Warren ..... 39030)" 84:3 800 |N. Hillier, Spencer L..-..-| Breckville ...|Cuyahoga --.| 41 15 | 81 30 800 |A. Huntington, Geo. C...-|Kelley’s Isl’nd|Erie -...---- 41 36 | 82 42 | 587 |B.T. R. Hyde, Gustavus A....-- \Cleveland ...|Cuyahoga -..| 41 38 81 40 | 643 |B.T. R. Ingram, John, M. D..--/Savannah..../Ashland_..-- 41 12 82 31 1,098 |A. Johnson, Bnoch Dos] 222 psec ea = ~~ | Monroenesas = 39 30 81 00 | 540 IT. R. King, Mrs. Ardelia C_..|Madison- ---- |Lakevaseris- 41 562; 81 00} 620 |T. R. bubhersS avis. Se a \Eirams ee 252 Portage ...-- 41 20} 81 08 1, 290 |T. R. Mathews, J. McD.. D. D.|Hillsborough |Highland.-..| 39 13; 83 30 1,134 /A. McClung, Charles L. ---- Proves ae Miamijao22.. 40 03 | 84 06 “404 |B.T.R MeMellanasi) Bi. a5 22 \East Fairfield|Columbiana_.| 40 47 80 44 1,152 |A. Peck Wark M.D-t2-2 Bowl’g Green| Wood -- ---- 41 15 83 40 | 700 |B.T.R Peters,pAdam 2-2 522-22 iZanesvilleys..|Muskingumse|Ses—seoe| Seo ses lee eem ee iD: Phillips, R. C. and J. H./Cincinnati ...|Hamilton..--| 39 06 | 8&4 27 540 |B.T. R. Raffensperger, E. B_..-- Poledo~sasse |bvicasinje aoe 40 30 ay AVM Sp oeeoe N. Rhoades, Dr. John -.--- Hocking Port-|Athens--..-- 39 00 SIZ OR eeo cease N. Shaw; Joseph. =. 2-22. 6- Bellefontaine_|Logan ~. __-- 40 21 83 20 | 1,040 |T.R. Ree a Aye Bellecentre ..|Logan ....-- 4030) 8345) 1,170 |BT.R Treat, Samuel W.-.....- |Windham -..|Portage -_.-- 41 10 81 05 939 |I- Tweedy, David H..-...- Mt. Pleasant-|Jefferson -.--; 40 20 SS 34elisecosee N. Ward Reve bah 2 soe Atvonesseeee Lorain PP ay 41 27 82 04 | 800 JA. Warder, A. A._...--.--|Cincinnati ...|Hamilton....| 39 08 | 84 365 | 800 |T. R. Williams, Prof. M. G...|Urbana_----- Champaign -.| 40 06 Seashell OLSa|B kek WalsontyProinJesceee College Hill..|Hamilton...-; 39 19 84 26 800 |B.T. R. See ae | Hudson oes ‘Summit -...- 4115| 81 24) 1,187 [BTR OREGON. | } | | Stebbins, George H...-- ‘Portland ---.|Multnomah.-} 45 24 | 121 80 | 170 R.
|
* Above Ohio river at Cincinnati.
a --- —_”
90
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
PENNSYLVANIA. oad a a oe : ie] 2 Name of observer. Station. County. & ee es | ei 2 ) ee : . ‘oO a2 Zi = ca i ica | Alsop;) Samuel _.-- 2-2: Westchester.../Shester. ----| 39 57 | 75 34 550 |A. Baird mkohne H's s-cesiac= Tarentum. .--|Alleghany..-.| 40 358 79 46 950 <r. Barrett, James.-------- Linden...... Lycoming..--| 41 14 | 77 11 514 JA. iBoversssWensaensia= === Altoona ----- Blairs sss s2 AOPSONG 7187314 TAGS siBileR: Brewster, Wm., M. D.--|Huntingdon ..|Huntingdon -| 40 35 | 78 03 734 \B.T.R. Brugger, Samuel_...... Fleming. ---- Centre....-.- 40 55'| 77 53 780 IT.R. Burrell, J. Ilgen..--.-- Bellefonte -..|Centre....... AOS O Ni oil Mi Sere pee ee Coffin, Selden J..-.-- Sai - : ; al anaes Easton ------ Northampton.| 40 43 | 75 16 320 A. Cook, Thos. E. & Sons --|Bendersville..|/Adams ...-.-|.-------|-------: seseiersese N. Darlington, Fenelon..--|Parkersville--|Chester-----| 39 54 | 75 37 218 |T.R. Hegert, John......-.-- Berwick....=- Columbia.---| 41 05 | 76 15 583 jA. at sl see aes = Meee yee i Shamokin ~..|Northumber’d} 40 15 76 30 700 |T. RB. Hance, Ebenezer-.----- Morrisville. ..|Bucks. .----- 40 12 | 74 48 30 |B.T.R HAnVveyin mi taaasamtsctee Nazareth.. --|Northampton.| 40 43 | 78 41 530 |B.T.R Heckerman, Henry..-.- Bedford ..--- Bedford se.6 AQMO GE iSeo On asee ane PSR. Heisely, Dr. John...... Harrisburg .--|Dauphin. ---- AQWUG ATG Sig saaece es B.T.R. Heyser, William, jr.---- Chambersburg|Franklin...-- SOOO a4 618 jA. CKO Wel Oe ay atetare Harrisburg..-|Dauphin -..-| 40 20 | 76 50 320 (A. Hoffer, Dr. Jacob R.---- Mount Joy.--|Lancaster.---| 40 08 (ErSOn sao See iA. Jacobs Reva Mas. 282222 Gettysburg. --|Adams.-..-- 39 49 Uihs Jes) 624 |B.T.R James, Prof. Charies S..-|Lewisburg ---|Union ~--.-- 40 58 UO DomMaqecioass |A. Kirkpatrick, Prof. J. A.--|Philadelphia -|Philadelphia -| 39 57 ise 1 50 |A. Kohler, Edward.---.--- Whitehall st’njLehigh....-.. 40 40 | 75 26 250 |T. Meehan, Thomas--:--.- Germantown'=|Philadelphias: |2caaaos- |e aswe es eee iN. Moore, Mahlon.-....... Morrisville2.2|Buckst 22s. o|-22 Sen ee eee eters N. Mowry, George.....---- Somerset ----|Somerset --.-| 40 00] 79 03 | 2,195 jA. » Ralston, Rev. J. Grier---|Norristown.--!Montgomery .| 40 08 75 19 153 JA. Scott, sSamuelia. =3 222 28 Worthington.|/Armstrong.._| 41 50 79 31 TRO Omens Smedley, John H.-....- lima 222-7 Delawaress 2) 5397550 1h 975025 226 \T.P.R SmithsiwWim, DD) Dress s22 Canonsburg. -|Washington..| 40 17 80 10 936 jA. Speer, Alex. M., M. D.--|Pittsburg ---.| Alleghany..--| 40 32 80 02 850 B.T.R Stewart, Thos. Hi. -..... Murrysville .-|Westmorela’d| 40 28 19°35 960 |A. SwiiteOrbanless aaeece W. Haverford|Delaware...-| 40 00 owen 400 T. R. Tracy, James K......--|E. Smithfield_|Bradford ._-- - 41 58 | 76 37 1,000 \N. Travell, John To. 35. 222 |Sewickleyville|Alleghany...-| 40 38 | 80 14 |....----|B.T.R Wilson Prof.W.:C..-2 2 Carlisleso S22 Cumberland .| 40 12 Chie 500 |A. RHODE ISLAND. Caswell, Prof. A.-...-.- Providence...|Providence .-| 41 49 WL 25 120 jA.
: oe] a Name of observer. Station. County. = 43 EI Re “Ep 5 Zi ss ie o) Feet. Barton, E. H., M. D----jColumbia-.-.-|Richland....- 33 33 |A. Cornish, Rev. John H...|Aiken....... Barnwell...-- 33 565 IT. R. Glennie, Rev. Alex’r.---/Georgetown.-/All Saints.---} 3 20 jA. Pa aaa a Charleston...|Charleston. ..| 32 20 |B.T.R. Ravenel, Thomas P.---.- Black Oak. -.|Charleston....| 33 50 A. Superintendent Arsenal |Columbia..--|Richland. ---.- 34 00 295 JA. Academy. TENNESSEE. Barney, Chas), Rica-aec= |University Pl.|Franklin..--- 3512) 86,00} 2,000 iT. R. Blakes Jnshiveoe ssasaes {are Guirao. ro) Hes yie bbe erste sta western eterna ate ta eters Bel Rs Dodge, J. W. & Son..-..|Pomona--..- Cumberland -| 36 00 85 00 2,200 |T. Houghtony S37 Wies-.=--2 Winchester...|Franklin. ---- Sy LUO etek) JUS econ T.R. Stewart, Prof. Wm. M--.|Clarkesville. -|Montgomery -| 36 28 | 87 13 481 |A. AUG KW hetkdle 5) cy re Sei np au < 9 ne { Memphis. _.|Shelby-- ---- 35 08 | 90 00 262 |A. | TEXAS. | Allis, Melvin H.....-.. Gonzales .... |\Gonzales -2.5|. .29):35).1 9730) |-.ceccce IN. Colman, William. ...... Mexanag=a sa sclJacksOno. > -o 29 00 96 30 60 IN. Crockett, Jno. M --.---.|Dallas ---.-- (Dallaswea ss Dae AO) nO Of AG i este ele IT. Cunningham, J. D..-.-.- \Bastrop ----- |Bastropae tos .|leaeeceen Cae 225 onl Soaeeer Ne De Graffenried, W. G., M.|Columbus -..|Colorado ..--; 29 43 | 96 36 198 |N.
D. LeJernett, R., M. D .-.-/Greenville..-|/Hunt .....-- Sol Oo ee oulaseeeeee N. D7Spain,; wor. yess eile c s mee NTS oe ee Tarrant -...-|Hopkins.-.-..- 33 3 SORA IN eee meer N. Hppersons Wek so a2 ee \Jeiferson ...2|\Cass--2- 2... 32 30 | 94 38 65 IN. reese, | Greeacmics Gon ittets Boston ...--..| BOWilesciasclnr 33 25 94 40 600 {N. Friedrich, Otto -------- New Braun- |Comal --.-..- 29 41 SOuml Oi ee aete ser Batons
fels.
Gaffney, James O ---.-.. ‘San Patricio -|San Patricio -| 27 45 | 98 31 |.------- IR. Gantt, Dr. Wm. H.....- Union. 25. - \Washington -| 30 11] 96 3 540 |T.R. GardinenyJass-<- oo-s- Port La Vaca. Calhoun.-..- 28 38 96 37 25 IN. Gills tule Sine alata mia Etumtsyil lea so | \Wiallkence aca) Serene een iain ore ee iR. Glascoy JMG, oo22 Soo 2c iGilmers= 2c |Upshuriecs = 32 46 | 94 49 (Ofc Kapp ebimsts.-secec ane Sisterdale....|Blanco ...... 29 54} 98 35 1,000 |A. Rellog Miya o-ssemeecinae Wheelock ~.-;Robertson ..-| 30 50] 96 30 450 JR. Moke, Dr. James H-.--- |Woodboro’ ..|Grayson....- SOMA 29,0115,0) leetoiaseee N. Palm Swantes. soso. Auptinyss oss Drawvisireeersiae 30 15 97 AT, | -2 28282 iA. RayalJast@ a se5 se Kaufman ....| Kanfman ....| 32 30 96:400n|-Seeeees iN. Hucker; -B> Hi L253: Washington .|Washington -| 30 26] 96 15 |....---- iBYLeRs Schuman, Bruno-....... (Roundtop ..-/Fayette -...- ZOK0GE | | 96037 | -eaeeee IT. R. Sias, Prof. Solomon ....|/Bonham..... |Fannin...... 33 40 96 13 435 JA.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
SOUTH CAROLINA.
Jl
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
TEX AS—Continued.
Name of observer. Station. County. 5 2 < 2 3 = | 80 teh aes Re sete Zz = an) = oF, Y Ore Feet. TurnerwrA = --sciss Springfield -.|Limestone ..-| 31 30 | 96 15 | 4,500 \N. Van Nostrand, J-.----- Atastinys= so (Dravisieeee= 30 20 | 97 46 650 |T.P.R. Wradestiais oe siocte a's ae Cross Roads.-|Williamson-.| 30 29 97 26 672 iT. R. WiestaiDrwNinib = s-sa see Burkeville...|Newton .-.-- 3100))). 930310 | eeese abs Yellowby, Prof. C. W---|/Webberville ./Travis -...-- BOOLOR Oo asile) eee Byte. Yoakumiyph, G2 22. 22. \Larissa...... Cherokee! 2... |, (Sl 45.12 95.20) eeeee ae TsP:R. UTAH. | helps aWeaWwieenseo aa Great Salt} Salt Lake-.-| 40 45; 111 26 | 4,250 /A. Lake City. | VERMONT. Buckland, David...-..- iBrandon _-_--|/Rutland_-.-- | 43 45 TSRO 0K eee ee cea Cutting, Hiram A--.... Lunenburg --|Essex Te 44 28 71 41 1,124 |A. Fairbanks, Franklin.-.-|St. Johnsbury|Caledonia....; 44 25 | 72 00 640 |B. T.R. Jackman, Prof. A .....- Norwich..... Windsor ..-.| 43 42 Cee oilen| Sera cece ‘B. Paddock, James A....-- Craftsbury ---|Orleans ----- 44 40 72 29 1, 100) |aeR: Parker JOsepheejeeeacs West Ravert-|Bennington.-, 43 15 | 73 11 750 \T. Retiyay Mickey esses. =- Burlington -./Chittenden -.| 44 27 | 73 10 367 \A VIRGINIA. Abell JsRallsser sees Charlottesv’le|Albemarle_../ 38 00 | 78 31 521 |T. R. Astrop Col RK: BY occsoe Crichton’s Brunswick ..-} 36 40 77 46 500 |T. R. Store Boyers-eWin. hae see os Buffaloss-se Rutnameee se (I SSeo OM Sled 480 |B.T. R. Dickinson, George C....|CobhamDepot/Albemarle...| 38 05 78 21 450 |T. R. IBIS ARID Ee ateimtnim saree Wardensville |Hardy .....- 39°30) %8 03. ayr20e Ben: HraservJaMmessaoeass cee New England.|Wood-....... 39420) - 8100 |es2eeee— N. Hotchkiss, Jed--.2-.5.- Stribling Augusta. ...- 38 20 | 79 05 1,600 |T. Springs. JonesssilasiBe oe secee fork Union..|Fluvanna ...| 37 40 82210 | Eaaee oe N. Kendall, James E......- KanawhaC, H/Kanawha..-.-| 38 20 | 81 30 720 |T. R. Lockwood, George P__--.|Wheeling..._|Ohio._..__.- 41 09 80) 46nooe eee ADS Re MackiesReva@ Base Anna see ease Hairfaxtetee 38 56 77 O04 180 |T.R. Meriwether, Chas. I’..-_|Richmond ..-_jHenrico .....}.-....--|.-----4-1 Asse eee ERs Marvin. Johnuweeooneee Winchester ._|Frederick....| 39 15 7810) eset ae aR Pickett; Johnesseeee see The Plains ...|Nauquier!=.--|'_ 3850! 77 Sl |e yee iT’. Purdie, John R., M. D._.|Smithfield _--|Isle of Wight.| 37 02 | 76 37 100 |T.R. Reynolds; Wi Csseenece. Kanawha Sa-|Kanawha.-.-} 38 30 S30) eceeeeee TPR: lines. Robeys Chass Hi. 222 au Fredericksb’g |Spottsylvania} 38 30] 77 30 600 N. Ruffin, Julian ©. 22.222 ‘(Garysville -..!Prince George} 37 21 | 77 3 100 'B.T.R.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
VIRGINIA—Continued.
: c # oy fe 5 o} na o Name of observer. Station. County. Be Sp a0 =| E is) = ie Bs : oS z Z = hy 4 Oey Ori Feet. Sanders; Bap ee so ssc cce Wellsburg:-:|Brooketee. caleasseeeoleemseeerl= assem os Au ley. Slaven, James..-.-.-..-- Meadow Dale.|Highland....| 38 23 | 79 36 1,800 |T.R. Spence, Edward E.--.-- Montross ---.|Westmoreland) 38 07 76 46 ZOO Ee ie Stalnaker, J. W., M. D_--|Lewisburg ---|Greenbrier...| 37 49 80 28 2,000 |f. R. Upshaw, George W...-- loydisatcss I DISIS{e cee pea a an (ey Re | a Ne eek: Van Doren, Abram ...-- Falmouth _../|Stafford ...-- 38 15 77 34 Ayah) kde ey Webster, Prof. N. B_..-.- Portsmouth--|Norfolk -.-.- 36 50 76 19 12 |B.T.R WISCONSIN. Armstrong Sse. ecc es cce ‘Pardeeville -- SE AME 43 44 SOP OM iy pee te Atwood isaac asmee ae Lake Mills..-|Jefferson -.-.| 43 00 SOOO Rese sees N. Bean, Professor 8. A.---- \Waukeska.--| Waukesha...) 42 50 88 1l 833) (Bie. Clarke, Prof. Ambrose W.|Delafield -...|Waukesha...| 43 20 88 31 900 |B. T. Curtis; Wo We scecn clans Rocky Run -.|Columbia_...| -43 26 |). 89 20 |--.-5... bau ea Doylewls pHs seas = Otsegosecee- Columbia ss! 43) S04 |eeeccces lbeoeteee = N. Ellis, Edwin, M. D.--...- Whittlesey. ..|/La Pointe....| 46 33 91 00 658 |T. Rh. Gordon, W. A., M. D....)/Wausau ----- Marathon)==-) 45 00) 89) 30: |-22-22-- Dp: Gridley, Rev. Johns 52 Kenosha ..--|/Kenosha --..; 42 35 | 87 50 600 |B.T. R. Haeusernphmiles= saree Black River|Jackson .-.--| 44 17 GOSS 0k ee cee ik Falls. | Johnson AG Kase caeeee| Platteville. _.|Grant....... | 45 00 90 00m ss Saanae iar Kellogg, George J--..-.- Janesvillet=2s|Rock. sees s22 42 43 89 90 780 |L. Lapham, Increase A ...-|Milwaukie--~-.|Milwaukie.-_| 43 03 87 54 5950 Bars e Larkin, Prof. E. P......- Milwaukie .--|Milwaukie.-. 43 02 | 87 55 684 |B.T. MiUps Wacoba= cee ee ees |Manitowoc...|Manitowoc...; 44 07 | 87 45 = 80 |B.T. Mann Wimesss ao se aces Superior. .--- Douglass. ---- | 46 46 92 03 680 |T. R. Mason) ProfoR.Zice focae Appleton...-|Outagamie...| 44 10 | 88 35 800 JA. Matthews; Disses sa scas Burlington. ..|Racine -...-- | 42 39 |.-..---- 700 IN. Nourse, J. Harvey .----- Bayfield.....|La Pointe....| 47 00 | 91 00 |.----..- Te Pashley,.J:i5., Mi. DE. 2. Mosinee ..--.- Marathon -..) 44 44 890359) See ee Pickard, Jdu),,,00. DEes- \Platteville...|Grant......- | 42 45 90) 00) Boa noes. esaR Pomeroy eC sseecasss Milwaukie- --|Milwaukie_..! 43 03 87 57 658 |T. Porters Brot wim) esses iBeloitz- <=. .< Rockeesenaa| 42 30 89 04 750 |B.T.R Sterling, Prof: J.. Wi... -- Madison. ---- Danersaae ass 43 05 89 25 1,068 |A. Underwood, Col. D..--- (Green bay. -|Browai-=.-- 6 44 3 88 00 584 IT. R. Winkler, (\C:, Mo Dezeeae Milwaukie. -./Milwaukie--- 3 08 87 57 600 |B.T.R
‘
* Above Lake Michigan.
94 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
MEXICO. a | 3 + o “S) oS Name of observer. Station. 3 2 a E 6 g = wm 3 S i a OF RG ya Feet. Berendt, German, M. D.} Vera Cruz, Vera Cruz..----- LOM te9. Gul09 26 A. 1sbEWoy, Wo doe aeooooS Cordova, Vera Cruzscecesce Rtv AND | Pe ore 2,820 |B, T.R. : Minititlan, Tehuantepec ----) 17 59 | 94 07 60 |A. Laszlo, Charles. ---- i Chinamaca, Tehuantepec....|_ 18 02 | 94 15 100 /A. Sartorius, Charles*..--} Mirador, Vera Cruz......--- 19 15; 96 25 | 3,600 |A. CENTRAL AMERICA. Canudas, Antonio ---- Gaal, Gusta... 1430) ORSON Saoseane A. WEST INDIES. Haynewda) bases seeeee Morkisyisland S2ee cece ee | seeateee | shag ates | Rete Baus BERMUDA. Royal Engineers, (inthe} Centre Signal Station, St. |-.....-.|/....----|.-..-..- A. Royal Gazette. ) George’s. SOUTH AMERICA. Dorsey, Edward B.---- Chanarcillo, Chile.........- 27 8 70 28 | 3,860 lb. 7. Henney Cals ccmeenes Plantation Catharina Sophia, 5 48 SbnaT. | Poa A. Colony of Surinam, Dutch Guiana. ASIA arclay, R. G@., M. D_-| Jerusalem, Palestine .-...-- ol 47 | 35 1 2,610 lA.
* Sent observations also for 1858,
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 95
METEOROLOGICAL RECORDS RECEIVED FROM PERSONS NOT REGULAR OBSERVERS.
From ANDREW Scotr.—Copy of journal kept at the public library, Nassau, N. P., Bahamas, lat. 25° 05’, long. 17° 21’, by A. M. Smita, Librarian, January, 1858, to August, 1859, observations of barometer, thermometer, and wind.
‘From Dr. Epwarp P. Voiium, U. 8. A.—Twenty-four slips ozone paper, kept at Fort Umpqua, Oregon, from June 12 to August 5, 1859.
From Captain A. W. Wuippne, U. §. A.—Observations of ba- rometer, thermometer, psychrometer, rain, clouds, and winds, from May 16 to September 30, 1859, made at Lake George, Chippewa county, Michigan. The observations for May were taken by J. H. Foster; for July, August, and September by Epwarp PERRAULT.
From A. Mattison, Paducah, Ky.—Observations made at Bogota, South America, on barometer, thermometer, and rain, by EZEQUIEL Uricorecuea, for June, 1857, and March, April, and May, 1859. Printed slips.
From Lieutenant Jonn Muuuayn, U.S. A., in charge of the military wagon road expedition from Fort Walla-Walla to Fort Benton. Ob- servations made on barometer and thermometer at Cantonment Jordan, in the valley of the St. Francis Borgia river, for December, 1859, by W. W. Jounson.
From B. F. Saumarp, Austin, Texas. —Observations en barometer, thermometer, winds, and clouds, for the year 1859, made on the geo- logical and agricultural survey of Texas, under his direction, by GEORGE G. SHUMARD, M. D.
From JoHn H. Cuark, commissioner, United States and Texas boundary survey.—Barometric record from January 15 to September 21, 1859; the record not continuous, but made from time to time at the various astronomical stations. Received through the Interior Department.
From 8. T. Ancrer, of Columbia, Texas.—Desultory notes of weather made in Sussex county, Virginia, during the year 1820.
From Captain Joun Popr, U. 8. A.—Observations with full set of instruments on expedition in Texas and New Mexico, made by James M. Reape, from March, 1855, to December, 1857.
Stations from which Telegraphic Reports of the weather were received at the Smithsonian Institution in the year 1859.
New York, N. Y. Philadelphia, Pa. Pittsburg, Pa. Baltimore, Md. Frederick, Md. Hagerstown, Md. Cumberland, Md. Richmond, Va. Petersburg, Va. Norfolk, Va. Staunton, Va.
Charlottesville, Va.
Lynchburgh, Va.
Wytheville, Va. Grafton, Va. Wheeling, Va. Parkersburg, Va. Marietta, Ohio. Chillicothe, Ohio. Cincinnati, Ohio. 3ristol, Tenn. Knoxville, Tenn.
Chatanooga, Tenn.
Raleigh, N. C.
Wilmington, N. C.
Columbia, 8. C.
Charleston, S. C. Augusta, Ga. Savannah, Ga. Macon, Ga. Columbus, Ga. Atlanta, Ga. Prairie Bluff, Ala. Montgomery, Ala.
Lower Peach Tree, Ala.
Mobile, Ala. Gainesville, Miss. Jackson, Miss. New Orleans, La,
96 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
DEATHS OF OBSERVERS.
SamugL Brown, Bedford, Pa., died in end of 1858 or beginning of 1859. He commenced observing before 1854. The last register re- ceived from him was for October, 1858.
Joun Lerrerts, observer at Farmer, Seneca county, N. Y., died on the 14th of January, 1859.
WitiiamM Crancu Bonn, an eminent American astronomer and di- rector of the Cambridge observatory, died on the 29th of January, 1859, in the 69th year of his age.
Dr. J. W. Tuck, secretary of the Board of Health, Memphis, Tenn., died about the first of June, 1859. Observer since 1857.
Dr. E. H. Barron, formerly of New Orleans, died at Charleston, S. C., in September, 1859.
Dr. Joun James, Upper Alton, Illinois, observer since 1854, died October 11, 1859.
Dr. Joun F. Posey, Savannah, Ga., died in January, 1860. Ob- server since previous to 1854.
REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.
on
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
—___
The Executive Committee respectfully submit to the Board of Re- gents the following report of the receipts and expenditures of the Smithsonian Institution during the year 1859, with estimates for the
year 1860: Receipts.
The whole amount of Smithson’s bequest deposited in the treasury of the United States is $515,169, from which an annual income, at six per cent., is derived, of
Extra fund of unexpended income, invested as
follows:
In $75,000 Indiana 5 per cent. bonds, piling: Gk WANs, Fe) days « «1.0 wegen In $53,500 Virginia 6 per cent. bonds, yielding Rees Rn “eaegh esis y 16insi's coy SuSE In $7,000 Tennessee 6 per cent. bonds, yielding I SER OI OEE Soc! ch ane In $500 Georgia 6 per cent. bonds, yielding aisihs:, atten akes gah chlevige sh eicka) «or sh qu pmanteuelrenet ts In $100 Washington 6 per cent. bonds, yielding skein RURSMIS wie ioples ©) onus euaktckee sana ev eicen &
Balance in the hands of the Treasurer January i, BOR eels 5 cciualigiewepel lee voce
Expenditures.
For building, furniture, and fixtures.--. For items common to the different objects
Of the DrSlHtutiOn sae sce den eee. For publications, researches, and lectures For library, museum, and gallery of art. -
$3,750 00 3,210 00 420 00 30 00
6 00
$1,720 57
11,519 04 11,072 32.
10,521 46.
Balance in the hands of the Treasurer January 1, 1860,. including $5,000 of the extra fund not yet invested: -.
i
$30,910 14
7,416 00
38,326 14
16,141 36
54,467, 50
34,833 39»
19,634 11
—_—-——_
— +
98 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.
Statement in detail of the expenditures in 1859.
BUILDING, FURNITURE, AND FIXTURES.
Repairs and inementals v-.. << SPs to $1,054 28 Furniture and fixtures in COMMON+-++-++ seers 274 28 Furniture and fixtures for museum: +--+ ++++:+- 135 21 Mapnetic observatory: si. + seis tos ace 256 80
Se 20no7
GENERAL EXPENSES.
Meetings of the Board --+--+++++ess sess eres $14 50 Lighting and heating «--+--* 2+: ++2se+++es-s 902 68 Postage Soha ewe, cehechmleneks Robe ke toMet site te teliane)e) fouieiselin)1.6), such 558 65 Transportation and exchange +++-+++++++++++++ 1,458 34 Stationery «+ +--+ cece ee cece ee eee ee cece eee 289 37 General printing Uses Buta Re el cD elokcnains), folisfiegeieis noe 569 60 Apparatus Bey AGIOS NS SSIES Pane ae RR WG ic a oreo Reue 766 13 Laboratory Bites eb -rPChOLGs OF DI Ons De RO On aca SECT CLO IAG 68 36 Incidentals general... ++ seers eee eee eee ees 570 06 Salaries—Secretary +++ + +++ sess see e eee eens 3,500 00
(Olanvent @ieidie oibegdo coodpo Gob doce aoe 1,400 00
Book-keeper, janitor, &c- +++. ++++-- 1,064 00 Bixtray clerks ie lteteler -iekoitons) ch tcienste Nich ol shreaiotot mail fetcr 35T 35
PUBLICATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND LECTURES.
Smithsonian Contributions. -++-+++++++++eeeees 3,964 15 Reports on progress of knowledge.---+-+++-+-+ 1,831 19 Other publications OC SOO ok Ooo oO 686 37 Meteorology sireBate anasotig dat ote oy ols Maho R Ie te eMeme: ie eeevowes: 8 cae 3; IAT 36 Investigations, computations, and researches-- 464 065 IGANGA oboe o606 DOGomS bOo0 DOdbbC 8d oD OGo8 879 20
LIBRARY, MUSEUM, AND GALLERY OF ART.
Library—Cost of books ---.+- see. e cece eee. 2,530 83 Pay of assistants.-++++ eee. cece eee 1,347 00 Transportation «+++. esse ee eee eee 217 74 Inetdentallig(cs «ccs. s.<igerales oe cnslba eee rene 25 00
Museum—Salary of Assistant Secretary: --.--- 2,000 00 Explorations. . .. see osietemctioats eters 315 65 CollectYons* =... . etx aeeeaee Se Se 16 87 Incidentals, jars, alcohol, &c-...--- 1,115 65 Assistants and labor «---.. 2.5. ..05 2,378 38 Transportation DOGO Canddo Hoon UGE6 544 34
Gallery Of Art ++ 22.5 6.5 snyeiinirc ccna n cw ese 30 00
11,519 04
11,072 32
Lists calle VAIO OA AG
—_—
34,833 39
eee
Total expenditure ay slate Nan cheliat so) allege’ a0 a LON eT eee
REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 99
The estimated income for the year 1859, inclusive of the balance in the hands of the Treasurer, was $54,495 56, and the actual income $54,467 50; showing a difference of $28 06 less than the estimate. This difference arises from the fact that in the previous reports the whole amount of $3,210 interest on Virginia stock was ‘assumed to have been placed to the credit of the Treasurer, although Riggs & Co. retained $16 06 for commission, &c., at the time of the purchase.
In addition to the above, the interest for two years on the Wash- ington corporation stock, amounting to $12, was considered as in the hands of the treasurer, although it had not actually been drawn.
The estimated expenditure was $38,000. The actual expenditure $34,833 39; showing a difference of $3,166 61 less than the esti- mate, due principally to a less expenditure on the building, furniture, and the publications.
The amount of income above that of the expenditure was $3,492 75, which, added to the actual balance ($16,141 36) in the hands of the Treasurer at the beginning of the year 1859, makes $19,634 11. It is necessary to mention that $5,000 of this belongs to the extra fund, which has not yet been invested.
The annual appropriation from Congress for keeping the museum of the exploring expedition has been expended, under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, in assisting to pay the extra ex- penses of assistants and the cost of preserving and arranging the specimens.
An appropriation has also been continued during the past year by the Patent Office for the collection of meteorological statistics for the Agricultural Report.
It is believed the expenditures under these heads have been eco- nomically and judiciously made, and that the services rendered to government have been strictly and faithfully performed.
The specimens intrusted to the care of the Institution are now undergoing a thorough examination, and, being scientifically arranged, are in a better condition to meet the wants of the naturalist, and to interest the public, than ever before.
The committee respectfully submit the following estimate of the expenditures for the year 1860:
Estimate of appropriations for the year 1860.
BUILDING, FURNITURE, AND FIXTURES.
Repairs and incidentals --+++--ee+eee ee eres $1,500 00
Furniture and fixtures .----- +--+ e+e +e: 800 00
Magnetic observatory --++++ sess cree eters 350 00 —___—__—. $7, 650 00
Meetings of the Board. +-+-- s+. +++. eeeeee 250 00 Lighting and heating aeraNadiaif's) Toi fattartsietslysile {eso/.« site) =) s\iei-s 1,000 00
100 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.
Postage tte haa Weeobep etal w. sllebere stacis ole) «Monge eiene «%= $600 00 Transportation and exchange «+--+ +++-++* +: 1,500 00 Stationery fae SA Re ois ccstarveikesenuoyohierene pipel sale vse 300 00 ; General printing ..--+-+++++++ errr tet 600 00 Apparatus Nem i) nly et aaveliet« jeliel atohe ren os 800 00 Laboratory Fee ey SE HERE LONS CROECE CM LONGER. Cho OrO/0 Gl 100 00 Incidentals general ----- Oc au 00 Orne 00.0. 500 00 Salaries. —-cecretary ---2+ 2: = 22-2 tee ses oc 3,500 00 Chief clerk, messenger, book-keeper, laborers, &C-++++s esse eset res 3,000 00
Extra clerk hire «---+-+- +++: eeeee? 500 00 OS UE
PUBLICATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND LECTURES.
Smithsonian Contributions:+---+++++: errs: 6,000 .00 Reporisyom PROGTESS api sys par reso op 500 00 Miscellaneous collections. +++++++++sssrreee 1,000 00 Meteorology BEN Oe Veen Ta hy arcuate tetebaperte: execs! ‘onshs te 3,000 00 Investigations « Ginhe doech Ore me Geprorokouano, Us ows Gad) Ge ONS 700 00 SGU AIG Sisisueks “usller=yebole ae ore) washieh ain pease aliens 800 00 — 12,000 00 LIBRARY, MUSEUM, AND GALLERY OF ART. Library.—Cost of books-----+-+++++++e+++:- 2,500 00 Pay of assistants. ++-++ veee eeeeee 1,500 00 Transportation +--+ -++++ ees. sees 250 00 line Gani! GoaaoG Godagtios so5co0 50 00 Museum.—Salary of Assistant Secretary: ---- 2,000 00 Explorations BR MeHO! Gc, Gar “ONO ENGL OIG a O oge 300 00 (OONINEGuVeINS coo 6 couo os CboGKs cmos 200 00 IMeTdenitalSiets sier- ote els siekede tte. 1,000 00 Assistants and labor..---------- 2,000 00 Transportation «+--+ s++eee eee eee 600 00 Gallery MNeIMGAROCo6 So CHD O OCHO OO A Obd Ooo D000 300 00 -—— 10,700 00 38,000 00
The committee have carefully examined all the books and accounts of the Institution for the past year, and find them to be correct. Respectfully submitted. J. A. PEARCE, A. D. BACHE,
Executive Committec.* W ASHINGTON.
: me General Totten, the other member of the Executive Committee, is temporarily absent in California on official duty. ;
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 101
JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS
OF
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
WASHINGTON, January 18, 1860.
In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution fixing the time of the beginning of their an- nual sessicn on the third Wednesday of January of each year, the Board met this day in the Regents’ room of the Institution.
Present : Hon. Jas. A. Pearce, Hon. W. H. English, and the Sec- retary.
No quorum being present, the Board adjourned to meet on the 28th of January. JANUARY 28, 1860.
The Board of Regents met this day, at 103 o’clock a. m., in the Regents’ room,
Present: Hon. Mr. Breckinridge, Hon. James A. Pearce, Hon. J. M. Mason, Professor C. C. Felton, Professor A. D. Bache, Hon. J. G. Berret, W. W. Seaton, esq., Treasurer, and the Secretary.
The Secretary announced the reappointment, by the Vice-Presi- dent, under a resolution of the Senate, of the Hon. 8. A. Douglas, as a Regent for the term of six years, and stated that the House of Rep- resentatives not having organized, the vacancies in the Board from that body had not been filled. He regretted to state that the Chan- cellor of the Institution, Chief Justice Taney, was confined to his bed by temporary illness; that Mr. Hawley, of Albany, was unable to at- tend on account of bad health, and that since the last meeting of the Regents a vacancy had occurred in the Board by the death of the Hon. Richard Rush, of Philadelphia.
Hon. Mr. Pearce then made the following remarks:
Since the last meeting of the Board of Regents, as announced by the Secretary, one of its earliest and most distinguished members, the Hon. RicHarp Rusu, has departed this life.
The history of his public career is familiar to all the Regents, to
102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
whom I need scarcely detail even its more prominent incidents; but T may remark that it is seldom the good fortune of any man to fill so many important offices,* and to execute so many responsible public trusts, not only with credit, honor, and usefulness, but with ever-in- creasing reputation. Mr. Rush’s life was along one, and he entered into the service of his country while yet in the spring of manhood. He was Comptroller of fhe Treasury at a time when the fiscal affairs of the government were in disorder, when the public accounts were numerous and complicated, and often required difficult legal adjust- ment. He was next Attorney General. Soon after the peace of 1815 he was minister to England, and occupied that important post during eight years, when various national questions of difficulty and delicacy required for their proper settlement diplomatic skill, firmness, and caution. He was Secretary of the Treasury when measures of rev- enue were violently disputed; minister to France when the mon- archy was a second time overthrown and a republic again proclaimed. To these great and varied employments he brought integrity, ability, intelligence, firmness, courtesy, and a directness of purpose which scorned all finesse, and which served his country to the full extent of all that could have been demanded or hoped. He was a good scholar, having graduated at Princeton College, and cultivated literature, as wellas the severer studies of his profession, with great zeal and success.
Withal he was remarkable for the kindness of his temper, the amenity of his manners, and the charms of his conversation.
With this establishment he had the earliest connexion, having, under the authority of the government, caused the institution. of legal proceedings in England for the recovery of the fund with which it was founded and endowed, and superintended their progress to the close.
The act of Congress of 1846 having established the Smithsonian Institution, he was appointed one of its first Regents, and was con- stantly continued by Congress a member of their Board. His zeal for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men, and_ his sound judgment, contributed to the adoption of the system of opera- tions which, so far, has borne the happiest fruits; and his interest in and care for its successful management furnished one of the enjoyments of a tranquil old age, ‘‘ attended by reverence and troops of friends.”’
I offer the following resolutions:
fesolved, That the Board of Regents have learned with deep regret the death of the Hon. Richard Rush, one of their members, whose long and distinguished career of public usefulness commanded their entire respect, and whose moral and social worth won their highest esteem and regard.
Resolved, That a copy of this resolution be transmitted to the family of the deceased.
The resolutions were unanimously adopted.
On motion of Mr. Mason, it was ordered that a copy of the remarks of Mr. Pearce be included in the proceedings, and also transmitted to the family.
The Treasurer presented the account of receipts and expenditures
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 103
for the year 1859, and a general statement of the finances, which were read and referred to the Executive Committee.
The Secretary read the following letter from the Duke of North- umberland, and presented the books to which it refers:
NORTHUMBERLAND Houses, July 4, 1859.
Sir: Permit me to present to the Smithsonian Institution some books which I have had privately printed as materials for the history of the county of Northumberland. There is a survey of the Roman wall which was built across the north of England; coins of the Roman families, some of which were found in this country; and an account of some ancient castles which have historical interest.
I again beg to express my thanks to the members of the Smith- sonian Institution for the valuable publications which they have had the kindness to send me.
Iam, sir, your obedient servant,
NORTHUMBERLAND.
The Secretary exhibited a burning lens and a condensing air- pump, which had been presented to the Institution by J. R. Priest- ley, esq., of Northumberland, Pa., a grandson of the celebrated Dr. Priestley, and made the following remarks:
This lens is undoubtedly connected with the history of one of the most important chemical discoveries of the latter part of the last century. Dr. Priestley, who has been styled the father of pneumatic chemistry, made a series of experiments on different kinds of air, which greatly extended the science of chemistry, and has been of material importance in the improvement of various practical arts.
‘“At the time of my first publication,’ [says Dr. Priestley, ]* ‘‘I was not possessed of a burning lens of any considerable force, and for want of one I could not possibly make many of the experiments which I had projected, and which in theory appeared very promising. But having afterwards procured a lens of twelve inches diameter and twenty inches focal distance, I proceeded with great alacrity to ex- amine by the help of it what kind of air a great variety of substances, natural and factitious, would yield, putting them into glass vessels, which I filled with quicksilver, and kept them inverted in a_ basin of the same. With this apparatus, after a variety of other experi- ments, on the Ist of August, 1774, I endeavored to extract air from mercurius calcinatus per se, and I presently found that by means of this lens air was expelled from it very readily. Having got three or four timesas much [air] as the bulk of my materials, [admitted water to it, and found that it was not imbibed by it. But what surprised me more than I can well express was, that a candle burned in this air with a remarkably vigorous flame.’’
The gas thus discovered, to which he gave the name of ‘‘ dephlo- gisticated air,’’ was what is now known as OXYGEN.
* Experiments and observations on different kinds of air, &c., by Jos. Priestly : vol. ii, pp. 106-112. Birmingham, 1790.
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Dr. Priestley, however, though he made a large number of experi- ments in regard to it, remained in ignorance of its true nature until March, 1775; but in the course of this month, says he, ‘‘I not only ascertained the nature of this kind of air, though very gradually, but was led by it, as I then thought, to the complete discovery of the con- stitution of the air we breathe.”’
That the lens now exhibited to the Board is the one with which this important discovery was made cannot be doubted, since, accord- ing to the statement of his grandson, it has never been out of the family—is twelve inches diameter, and has a focal length of precisely twenty inches.
The annual report of the operations and condition of the Institu- tion was presented by the Secretary, and read in part.
On motion of Mr. Pearce, the Board then adjourned to meet on
Saturday next, at 10 o'clock. SaturpDay, Lebruary 4, 1860.
A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day, at 100’ clock a.m.
Present: Hon. John C. Breckinridge, Hon. James A. Pearce, Hon. S. A. Douglas, Professor C. C. Felton, Professor A. D. Bache, Hon. J. G. Berret, and the Secretary.
Mr. Breckinridge was called to the chair.
The minutes were read and approved.
The Secretary announced the death of the following persons who had been connected officially and otherwise with the operations of the Institution: Washington Irving, an honorary member; Professor Par- ker Cleaveland, also an honorary member; Professor W. W. Turner, Professor James P. Espy, and G. Wiirdemann, esq.
Professor Felton then addressed the Board as follows:
Mr. CHANCELLOR: The year 1859 will be memorable in the history of civilization for the number of illustrious men who have passed away from the scene of their earthly labor in its course. The year 1769 was remarkable for the number of men born in it, who have changed the whole aspect of science and letters and the political condition of the world. Of the great men born in that year, one, Humboldt, the
most eminent of all, lived to the year 1859, thus spanning over the interval between them by a life of 90 years consecrated to the highest objects of human pursuits.
The Smithsonian Institution has to lament an unusual number of those connected with it among the distinguished dead of the past year. The venerable Mr. Rush has already been fitly commemorated by a member of the Board. I take the liberty of offering a few re- marks upon two others whose death the country deplores.
Professor W. W. Turner was born in England in 1810. At the age of five years he was brought by his father to the United States. The fortunes of his family being humble, he learned the trade of a carpen-
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ter; but at the age of nineteen he became a printer. During his youth and early manhood he exhibited an ardent love of knowledge,
and devoted every moment he could spare from the necessary labors of his trade to its acquisition. His taste led him especially to the study of philology, and his acquisitions in this department of knowl- edge were surprising. He studied not only the ancient languages, including the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Samaritan, Coptic and San- scrit, but the modern EKuropean and Oriental tongues. To these rich and varied accomplishments he added an extensive knowledge of the dialects of the American aborigines, which form a group so peculiar in their characteristics, and so important in their bearings upon com- parative philology. But Mr. Turner possessed not merely the talent of learning languages. His mind was of a philosophical cast; he mastered easily and rapidly the general principles of the science of comparative philology, which has become within the present age one of the surest guides in tracing the history and affinities of the different branches of the human race. ‘This science but few men of his age have so thoroughly explored as our departed friend.
In 1842 Mr. Turner was elected professor of Oriental literature in the Union Theological Seminary of the city of New York. The duties of this office he dischar ged with signal ability for ten years. In 1852 the Commissioner of Patents invited him to W ashington to take charge of the library in that department. His labors in forming a library for the special use of the department and adequate to its wants have been highly appreciated by those who knew them best.
His literary activity has been various and effective. He assisted the learned Dr. Nordheimer in the preparation of his Hebrew gram- mar. He executed the greater part of the translation of Freund’s Latin Lexicon from the German for the American edition. He wrote
many valuable papers for the ‘‘ Bibliotheca Sacra’’ and other kindred periodical publications. A few years ago an inscription was found near the ancient Sidon, cut on the lid of the sarcophagus of an ancient king of that city, and copies of it having been transmitted to this country by the American missionaries, it attracted the earnest atten- tion of Oriental scholars, and among the rest, of Professor Turner. The discovery was important, because the inscription contains the longest continuous text yet known in the Phenician language: a lan- guage closely connected with the Hebrew. The labors of Professor Turner upon this curious document were among the last of his life.
Two of the principal philological works published by the Smith- sonian Institution were moulded into their present shape by Professor Turner: the Dacota grammar and dictionary, and the grammar of
the Yoruba language. The materials furnished him were elaborated
with great skill and learning; and these two admirable volumes form an inter esting addition to philological science—the Dacota grammar illustrating in a philosophical manner the characteristic peculiarities of the American type of the agglutinating or polysynthetic languages, and the Yoruba grammar illustrating the African type of the same great division in the classification of human speech.
The unremitting labors of Professor Turner gradually undermined his constitution. In October last he visited New York, vartly for the
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benefit of his impaired health, and partly to attend a meeting of the American Oriental Society, of which he was an active member. On his return to Washington, in November, he rapidly declined, and on Tuesday, the 29th of that month, expired, without pain, at the age of 49 years. bi
Professor Turner was not only distinguished for his abilities as a scholar, his extraordinary capacity for labor, his great power of grasp- ing the generalization of the science to which he was devoted, but his private life was marked by singular purity. His manners were simple and cordial; his conversation lively and instructive. He was modest, without reserve; he was unobtrusive, but always ready to 1m- yart his affluent knowledge whenever the occasion seemed to call for it. he death of such a man is a loss to science and the country. I move the adoption of the following resolution:
Resolved, That this Board have learned with deep regret of the death of Professor W. W. Turner, a scholar of rare gifts and large acquirements, whose abilities and learning have in many ways been of great value to the Smithsonian Institution. As a philologist, he had but few equals; as an earnest laborer in the pursuit of knowledge, he was a high example to American students. As a public officer, he was upright, conscientious, and prompt in the discharge of every duty. His social virtues endeared him to his friends in no common measure. By his death American scholarship has sustained a heavy loss, this Institution has been deprived of an efficient collaborator, and the com- munity at large of a virtuous and distinguished citizen.
On motion of Hon. J. G. Berret, it was
Resolved, That a copy of this resolution, with the introductory remarks, be transmitted to the family of the deceased. The resolutions were adopted.
Professor Felton then addressed the Board as follows:
I have also, Mr. Chancellor, to call the attention of the Board to the death of an honorary member of the Smithsonian Institution—the beloved and illustrious Washington Irving, the most venerated repre- sentative of American literature. He was born April 8, 1783, in New York, and died at his residence, at Sunnyside, on the banks of the Hudson, November 28, 1859, in the T7th year of hisage. His literary career extends over a period of more than half a century. For many years he has stood undoubtedly at the head of American literature. He enjoyed only the common opportunities of education in his youth; but the oldest universities of England and America honored themselves by conferring their highest honors on him in his manhood. At an early age he commenced the study of the law. His health failing, he travelled two years in Europe, and resuming his professional studies on his return, was admitted to the bar. Not finding the practice of the profession congenial to his tastes, he relinquished it, and became a partner in a mercantile house with his brother. But he was not destined to remain long in the career of trade; the failure of the house in the crisis that followed the peace of 1815 turned his attention to literature as a permanent pursuit. He had already shown by the
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most decided proofs that nature had endowed him with the richest gifts of genius. His early writings, especially his contributions to Salmagundi, and Knickerbocker’s ‘History of New York, exhibit the keenest power of observation, the most brilliant wit, and an English style at once pure, copious, and expressive. But when he vesolaad to devote himself to letters as the business of his life, instead of the amusement of his leisure hours, he gave to the culture of style the thought, care, and labor that the painter and the sculptor expend in acquiring a mastery over the materials, principles, and processes of their respective arts. In the choice of his words and the structure of his sentences he exercised a refined taste and a delicate discrimination, allowing nothing to escape him which was not justified by the most fastidious judgment. He studied the best authors of the best ages in English literature, and disciplined his genius by a strict conformity to the ‘esiabliahed idiom of the mother tong: ue. Oddity and extravagance of expression, which some writers of our age mistake for originality of genius, found no favor with him. His genial nature, his sensibility to all that is beautiful in the works of God, his ready sympathy with the best affections of the human heart, were thus embodied in a style of marvellous grace, purity, and harmony. His imagination, gentle yet powerful, brightened everything it fell upon; his wit exhilarated and gladdened; his humor charmed by its sparkling play; his pathos, so true, so tender, colored with the unforgotten sorrow of his own early bereavement, touched the chords of sympathy in every heart. He was an elegant essayist, a delightful biographer, a profound and brilliant historian, and his whole life was loyal to the highest interests of humanity. In private friendships he was faithful and genereus. He had all the excellencies of the literary character, with none of its defects. He had no rivalries to disturb the serenity of his days, no jealousies to irritate his temper. While enjoying his own brilliant success, with a modest appreciation of its value, he rejoiced in the successes of others, and delighted to aid them with his powerful influ- ence. He never had an enemy, for all men were his friends. He never uttered a word that could wound the feelings of the most sensi- tive; he never wrote a sentence that could offend the most delicate; he never printed a line which, dying, he could wish to blot. His genius has been recognized throughout the civilized world; his works are read and his name revered wherever a cultivated language has been the organ of a national literature. The legends of Spain and Italy have furnished congenial subjects for his pen. The manners and life of England have been more brilliantly illustrated by him than by any English writer of our time. His native land, however, has been crowned by the richer and mature products of his genius. The picturesque banks of the Hudson have been made classical by the charm with which his creations—poetical in all but the form—have invested them. It is his peculiar felicity to have built the most enduring monument to the discoverer of America and to the Father of his Country, with the latter of whom he was associated by his baptismal name.
Mr. Irving took a lively interest in all that concerned the intellectual progress of the country; in all that concerned humanity, beyond the
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circle of his own literary interests. He was the first named trustee of the Astor Library under the will of its munificent founder, and for many years acted as the president of the board. He served as a director in the Savings Bank in the place of his residence until his death; and he was an officer of the village church, from which his own lifeless remains were borne to their final resting place by his mother’s side. He had the prospects of this Institution much at heart, and gave his constant attendance to its proceedings during a whole season passed by him in Washington. Ripe in age, crowned with the most enduring honors of the world and with the warmest affections of his countrymen, having finished the work which was given him to do and laid aside his pen forever, after a short period of repose in the midst of his friends, at the close of an evening of social and domestic enjoyment, he passed away in a moment by a blessed euthanasia. We cannot be surprised at such an event, though it excites our sensibility. His death was in beautiful harmony with his life, for he died as he had lived, the beloved of men and the favored of Heaven.
Thinking thus, Mr. Chancellor, of Mr. Irving’s life, character, and death, I offer the following resolutions:
Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution recognize in the character of their late associate, Washington Irving, a conspicuous example of the noblest virtues and the most generous qualities that belong to human nature.
Resolved, That while lamenting his death with the peculiar sorrow of countrymen and associates in this Institution, yet, in common with the whole civilized world, they gratefully appreciate the services he has rendered to literature, and hold in reverent remembrance his long career of labors as an author no less loyal to truth and virtue than brilliant with the gift of genius and graced with the amenities.and courtesies that are the fairest ornaments of social life.
On motion of Senator Douglas, it was
Resolved, That a copy of the above resolutions, together with the remarks that preceded them, be transmitted to the family of the deceased. :
The resolutions were then adopted.
Professor Bache made the following remarks:
James P. Espy, one of the most original and successful meteor- ologists of the present time, died in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 24th of January, 1860, in the seventy-fifth year of his age, after an illness of a week, at the residence of his nephew, John Westcott.
The early career of Mr. Espy as an instructor was marked by the qualities which led to his later distinction in science. He was one of the best classical and mathematical instructors in Philadelphia, which at that day numbered Dr. Wylie, Mr. Sanderson, and Mr. Crawford among its teachers.
Impressed by the researches and writings of Dalton and of Daniell on meteorology, Mr. Espy began to observe the phenomena, and then to experiment on the facts which form the groundwork of the science.
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As he observed, experimented, and studied, his enthusiasm grew, and his desire to devote himself exclusively to the increase and diffusion of the science finally became so strong that he determined to give up his school, and to rely for the means of prosecuting his researches ‘upon his slender savings and the success of his lectures, probably the most original which have ever been delivered on this subject. His first course was delivered before the Franklin Institute of Penn- sylvania, of which he had long been an active member, and where he met kindred spirits, ready to discuss the principles or the applica- tions of science, and prepared to extend their views over the whole horizon of physical and mechanical research. As chairman of the committee on meteorology, Mr. Espy had a large share in the organi- zation of the complete system of meteorological observations carried on by the institute under the auspices and within the limits of the State of Pennsylvania.
Mr. Exspy’s theory of storms was developed in successive memoirs in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, containing discussions of the changes of temperature, pressure, and moisture of the air, and in the direction and force of the wind and other phenomena attending re- markable storms in the United States and on the ocean adjacent to the Atlantic and Gulf coast. Assuming great simplicity as it was developed, and founded on the established laws of physics and upon ingenious and well-directed original experiments, this theory drew general attention to itself, especially in the United States. A me- moir submitted anonymously to the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia gained for Mr. Espy the award of the Magellanic premium in the year 1836, after a discussion remarkable for ingenuity and closeness inits progress, and for the almost unanimity of its result.
Mr. Espy was eminently social in his mental habits, full of bonhom- mie. and of enthusiasm, easily kindling into a glow by social mental action. In the meetings and free discussions in a club formed for promoting research, and especially for scrutinizing the labors of its members—and of which Sears C. Walker, Professor Henry, Henry D. Rogers, and myself were members—Mr. KEspy found the mental stimulus that he needed, and thegriticism which he courted, the best aids and checks on his observations, speculations, and experiments. But there was one person who had more influence upon him than all others besides, stimulating him to progress, and urging him forward in each step with a zeal which never flagged—this was his wife. Having no children to occupy her care, and being of high mental en- dowment and of enthusiastic temperament, she found a never-failing source of interest and gratification in watching the development of Mr. Espy’s scientific ideasy the progress of his experiments, and the results of his reading and studies; the collection and collation of ob- servations of natural phenomena in the poetical region of the storm, the tornado, and of the aurora. Mrs. Espy’s mind was essentially literary, and she could not aid her husband in his scientific inquiries or experiments: her health was delicate, and she could not assist him in his out-door observations; but she supplied what was of more im- portance than these aids—a genial and loving interest ever manifested in his pursuits and successes, and in his very failures. Alere flam-
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mam was the office of her delicate and poetical temperament. Younger than Mr. Espy, she nevertheless died several years before him, (in 1850,) leaving him to struggle alone in the decline of life without the sustaining power of her devoted and enthusiastic nature.
Having ina great degree matured his theory of storms; having made numerous inductions from observations, and having written a great deal in regard to it, Mr. Espy took the bold resolution, though past middle age, to throw himself into a new career, laying aside all ordinary employments, and devoting himself to the diffusion of the knowledge which he had collected and increased, by lecturing in the towns, villages, and cities of the United States. This proved a suc- cessful undertaking, and by its originality attracted more attention to his views than could have been obtained, probably, in any other way. He soon showed remarkable power in explaining his ideas. His simplicity and clearness enabled his hearers to follow him without too great effort, and the earnestness with which he spoke out his con- victions carried them away in favor of his theory. The same power which enabled him to succeed in his lecturing career procured sub- sequently for Mr. Espy the support and encouragement of some of the leading men in Congress, and especially in the Senate, and also in the executive departments. Their attention was arrested by the originality of his views and his warmth in presenting them, and he imparted so much of his conviction of their truth as to induce many of our statesmen and official persons to exert themselves to procure for him, under the patronage of the government, continued oppor- tunities for study, research, and the comparison of observations. To the consistent support of his scientific friends, and particularly of the Secretary of this Institution, Mr. Espy owed also much in obtaining the opportunities of keeping in a scientific career. His reports to the surgeon general of the army, to Congress, and to the Secretary of the Navy, are among his latest efforts in this direction.
The earnest and deep convictions of the truth of his theory in all its parts, and his glowing enthusiasm in regard to it; perhaps, also, the age which he had reached, prevented Mr. Espy from passing beyond a certain point in the develgpment of his theory. The same constitution of mind rendered his inductions from observation often unsafe. His views were positive and his conclusions absolute, and so was the expression of them. He was not prone to examine and re-examine premises and conclusions, but considered what had once been passed upon by his judgment as finally settled. Hence his views did not make that impression upon cooler temperaments among men of science to which they were entitled—obtaining more credit among scholars and men of general reading,in our country than among scientific men, and making but little progress abroad.
Feeling that his bodily vigor was failing, and that his life must soon close, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution induced him to re-examine the various parts of his meteorological theories of storms, tornadoes, and water-spouts, and to insert in his last report, while it was going through the press, an account of his most mature views. I trust that the Secretary will, in one of his reports, give usa thorough and critical examination of the works and services of this remarkable
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contributor to a branch of science, the knowledge of which the Smith- sonian Institution has already done so much to advance and to diffuse.
On motion of Professor Bache, the following resolutions were adop- ted:
Resolved, That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution have learned with deep regret the decease of James P. Espy, one of the most useful and zealous of the meteorologists co-operating with the Institution, and whose labors in both the increase and diffusion of knowledge of meteorology have merited the highest honors of science at home and have added to the reputation of our country abroad.
Resolved, That the Regents offer to the relatives of Mr. Espy their sincere condolence in the loss which they have sustained.
On motion of Mr. Pearce, it was resolved that the remarks of Pro- fessor Bache be entered in the proceedings.
The Secretary introduced the subject of warming the Smithsonian . building, stating that it was important to provide better means for this purpose, to insure the safety of those parts of the building which are not fire-proof. The subject was referred to the Executive Committee, and the Secretary was instructed to procure estimates for the intro- duction of steam or hot-water apparatus.
The reading of the report of the Secretary was continued.
The Board then adjourned.
SatuRDAY, March 17, 1860.
The Board of Regents met this day, at 10 o'clock a. m.
Present: Hon. John C. Breckinridge, Hon. James M. Mason, Hon. James A. Pearce, Hon. 8. A. Douglas, Hon. William H. English, Hon. Benjamin Stanton, Hon. J. G. Berret, Prof. A. D. Bache, Mr. Seaton, Treasurer, and the Secretary.
Mr. Breckinridge was called to the chair.
The minutes were read and approved.
The Secretary announced the reappointment, by the Speaker of the House of Representatives, of Hon. William H. English, of Indiana; Hon. Benjamin Stanton, of Ohio; and Hon. L. J. Gartrell, of Georgia, as Regents for the term of two years.
The Secretary presented the following letter from Kdward Cunard, Esq. :
New York, February 25, 1860.
Dear Sir: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 16th instant, and, in reply, I beg to inform you that I shall have much pleasure in conveying in our steamers fr om New York to Liverpool every fortnight one or more cases from the Smithsonian Institution to
the extent HE half a ton or 20 cubic feet measurement. ‘The cases to be addressed to your agent in Liverpool, or to his care. The
WE PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
arrangement of free cases is intended only to apply to those shipped by you from this side of the water. Your obedient servant, HE. CUNARD. JosePpH Henry, Esq., Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington.
The Secretary presented the following letter from Sir W. E, Logan: MontreEAL, March, 1860.
My Dear Sir: Understanding that the shells of the United States exploring expedition are being arranged, and that there are many duplicates, I should be rejoiced if a set of them could be obtained for our Provincial Museum. It may be the case that what we may be able to return for them may not equal their value; but the Canadian territory is a large one, and we shall have duplicates of our fossils from various parts, extending from Labrador to Lake Superior.
In our geological expeditions to the eastern part of the province, advantage has been taken of the opportunity to dredge in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and we shall undoubtedly have duplicates of many of the specimens obtained. This season I hope to send an exploring party to the Straits of Belle Isle.
We are so much pressed with work at present that it may be a little time before our duplicates are ready, particularly as the pro- tracted want of Professor Hali’s third volume of the paleontology of New York disables us from naming many of our fossils according to his authority, while a regard for him prevents us from naming them for ourselves: Our Lower Silurian fossils will be the first that will be ready.
I am, my dear sir, very truly yours, W. KE. LOGAN:
Professor HENRY,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington.
A letter was read from Hon. Alfred Ely, chairman of the Com- mittee of Claims of the House of Representatives, relative to an application of an officer of the navy for remuneration for specimens of natural history, &., collected by the United States exploring ex- pedition.
The subject was discussed, and referred to the Secretary and the Executive Committee.
A letter was read from Sir George Simpson, governor of the Hud- son’s Bay Territory, offering to aid the Institution in collecting me- teorological and other information.
A letter was read from C. Zimmerman, of Columbia, South Caro- lina, on the subject of the preparation by the Institution of manuals on entomology.
The Secretary stated that a proposition had been made by Lieu-
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tenant Gilliss relative to an expedition to the coast of Labrador to observe the total eclipse of July 18, if the necessary means could be secured to defray the expenses, towards which, if the Institution would subscribe $500, the balance, it was believed, could be secured from individuals.
Professor Bache addressed the Board, commending highly the pro- posed expedition, and stating the advantages which would result to science if the observations could be made.
On motion of Professor Bache, it was
Resolved, That an appropriation be made, not exceeding $500, to aid in the proposed expedition to observe the eclipse of July 18, 1860,
The Secretary called the attention of the Board to another expe- dition, proposed by Dr. I. I. Hayes to the Arctic regions, and sug- gested the propriety of aid in furnishing that gentleman with the requisite instruments of observation.
On motion of Mr. Pearce, it was
Resolved, That the Secretary of the Institution be authorized to furnish such aid to the expedition of Dr. Hayes, in the way of instru- ments, as may be deemed advisable.
The Secretary introduced the subject of the Stanley gallery of In- dian paintings, and stated that Mr. Stanley asked for an allowance of one hundred dollars a year to pay the interest on a debt he had in- curred to prevent the sacrifice of the paintings by sale.
The subject was referred to the Secretary and the Executive Com- mittee. i
A letter from Professor Secchi, of Rome, was read, stating that he had obtained permission for the Institution to procure casts or moulds of celebrated works of art in that city.
The Secretary stated that Mr. Corcoran, of Washington, was about to found a gallery of art, and it was very desirable that the Institu- tion should co-operate with him, especially in relation to copies of works of art from Italy.
The subject was referred to the Secretary and the Executive Com- mittee.
The Secretary presented the continuation of his annual report; which was read.
The opinion was expressed by several of the Regents that a less number of lectures should be given than heretofore, twelve being considered sufficient for each season.
The Board then adjourned.
8
114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
SaturDAy, April 1, 1860. The Board of Regents met this day at 10 o’clock a.m. Present: Hon. James A. Pearce, Hon. 8. A, Douglas, Hon. W. H. English Hon. Benjamin Stanton, Hon. George E. Badger, Professor Bache,
and the Secretary. Mr. Pearce was called to the chair.
The minutes were read and approved. Mr. Pearce presented the Report of the Executive, Committee
which was accepted, and the estimates for the year 1860 adopted. On motion of Mr. Douglas, it was
Resolved, That the Executive Committee invest the five thousand dollars now in the hands of the Treasurer, belonging to the extra
fund. The Secretary laid before the Board the eleventh volume of Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge, which had just been issued.
The Secretary brought before the Board the subject of the pay of the assistants; which, after some remarks, was referred to the Secre- tary and the Executive Committee.
Professor Bache made the following remarks:
Mr. Gustavus Wurdemann, in charge of the tidal observations of the Coast Survey on the Florida reefs and Gulf of Mexico, died at his home in New Jersey on the 30th of September. His health had been failing for some years, and during the last year he had discharged his duties with ereat difficulty, owing to great physical debility. Mr. Wurdemann entered the survey under my predecessor, and served, throughout a somewhat extended career with a fidelity and single- ness of purpose that has never been exceeded. Exact truthfulness was the leading trait of his character, and his observations, even the most minute, were always reliable. It is easily seen that it is no exaggeration to say that such a man was invaluable in his place, and an example worthy to be held up as the type of faith- fulness. During the discharge of his laborious duties he found time and opportunity to make collections in natural history, which have been acknowledged by the Smithsonian Institution as among the most valuable contributions to the knowledge of the fauna of Florida.
On motion of Professor Bache, the following resolution was unani- mously adopted:
Resolved, That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution have learned with regret the decease of Gustavus Wurdeman, tidal ob- server in the Coast Survey, whose collections of specimens from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and especially of the birds of Florida, liberally furnished to the Smithsonian Institution, have proved of great importance in increasing our knowledge of the natural history of the southern part of the United States.
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Resolved, That this resolution be communicated to the widow of Mr. Wurdemann.
The Secretary read the following authentic notice, which had ap- peared in a recent periodical, respecting the late Professor Cleave-
land :
‘Professor Parker Cleaveland died on the 15th of October, 1858. He was born in Rowley (Byfield parish)Massachusetts, January 15, 1780, graduated at Harvard College in 1799, taught school and studied law until 1803, when he was appointed tutor in mathematics in Har- vard College. He was made professor of mathematics and natural philosophy, chemistry and mineralogy in Bowdoin College in 1805, and discharged with distinguished ability the extended duties of that professorship until 1828, when a professor of mathematics was ap- pointed, and he was relieved from that part of hislabor. He contin- ued to be the professor in the other departments until hisdeath. He became widely known in the United States, and in Europe, by his early and successful treatise on mineralogy and geology, published in 1816, and in a second edition in 1822. A third was called for, and he labored in its preparation more or less for thirty-five years, leav- ing it nearly ready for the press. His high reputation as a lecturer was spread through the country by a succession of graduates of Bow- doin College of more than fifty years. He was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and of many literary and scientific societies in this country and in Europe. In 1824, the hon- orary degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred on him by Bowdoin College. In private life he was universally respected for his unblem- ished moral character, and his genial and affable disposition. His death called forth unusual and remarkable demonstrations of respect. to his character and memory. In June, 1853, he was elected an honorary member of the Smithsonian Institution.’
On motion of Mr. Douglas, the following resolutions were adopted:
Resolved, That the Regents of this Institution have learned with deep regret of the decease of Professor Parker Cleveland, of Bow- doin College, one of the honorary members of this establishment, who was highly esteemed on account of his labors as a man of science and a teacher, and whose memory will be held in grateful remembrance.
Resolved, That the Regents offer to the family of the deceased their sincere condolence at the loss which they and the country have sustained.
The Secretary presented the following letter from Mr. Ross, chief factor of the Hudson’s Bay Company:
Fort SIMpPson, McKenzies river, 30th November, 1859.
Dear Str: At the period of the departure of our usual winter ex- press I sit down to write you a few lines upon the subjects mentioned
116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
in your communicatiofi of the 2d of April, 1859. I trust that the various cases sent you last summer from Portage La Loche reached you in safety, and that the contents proved satisfactory and of in terest. It will be my endeavor during the present and succeeding seasons to collect the animals mentioned as being wished for by the Smithsonian Institution, but I will not merely restrict myself to these particular objects of research, the whole field of either science or curiosity will be considered in all contributions which I may here- after forward to your collection.
The Meteorological Register for the months of September, October, and November, will be forwarded by this conveyance, and I will en- deavor to organize a systematic series of observations at all the posts throughout this district. -These of course will vary as to complete- ness and accuracy according to the tastes and acquirements of the officer who conducts the registry, as there are very wide differences in the education and talents of the various persons in the progressive grades of our service. A series of spirit thermometers of assured correctness would be useful, in fact are absolutely necessary for this purpose.
As my attention will hereafter be particularly directed to ethno- logical pursuits; and my public duties in conducting the affairs of this large district are not very light, it will be impossible to keep the regular series of meteorological observations here myself, but I will delegate this duty to Mr. Andrew Flett, a very careful and intelligent person, though not of a finished eduction; but any extraordinary phenomena I will note myself in addition.
By the usual summer boats a packet will be forwarded to your ad- dress, containing such observations as I can collect in our journals, and a complete Auroral and Weather Register taken by myself for Colonel Lefroy in 1850 ~ 51, if I can find the latter.
In conclusion I will merely say that all that lies in my power will be done to oblige you in any way. Every facility will be given to Mr. R. Kennicott to collect and forward specimens of natural history; free passage will be allowed him from post to post throughout the district, and to all his plans the various officers under my command will, [am sure, gladly render assistance.
I have the honor to remain, dear sir, yours faithfully,
BERNARD R. ROSS.
Proressor Henry,
Snuthsonian Institution.
The reading of the report of the Secretary was then continued.
On motion of Mr. Badger, the following resolution was adopted:
Resolved, That the thanks of the Board of Regents are hereby given to the various companies and individuals who have generously aided in advancing the objects of the Smithsonian Institution and the promotion of science, by the facilities they have afforded in the trans- portation of books, specimens, &c., free of charge.
The Board then adjourned to meet at the call of the Secretary.
GENERAL APPENDIX |
TO THE
REPORT FOR 1859.
The object of this Appendix is to illustrate the operations of the Institution by the reports of lectures and extracts from correspond- ence, as well as to furnish information of a character suited especially to the meteorological observers and other persons interested in the promotion of knowledge.
LECTURES ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
BY PROFESSOR SAMUEL W. JOHNSON, OF YALE COLLEGE, CONNECTICUT.
LECTURE I. - THE COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE PLANT.
The objects of agriculture are the production of certain plants and certain animals which are employed to feed and clothe the human race. The first object in all cases is the production of plants.
Nature has made the most extensive provision for the spontaneous growth of an immense variety of vegetation; but, except in rare cases, man is obliged to employ art to provide himself with the kinds and quantities of vegetable produce which: his necessities or luxuries demand. In this defect, or rather neglect of nature, agriculture has its origin.
The art of agriculture consists in certain practices and operations which have grown out of an observation and imitation of the best efforts of nature, or have been hit upon accidentally.
We distinguish here between agri-cultwre, or the culture (improve- ment) of the field, and farming, which may be anything but the imita- tion of nature, which often is the grossest violation of her plain precepts.
The science of agriculture is the rational theory and exposition of the successful art.
Nothing is more evident than that agricultural art impedes its own growth by holding aloof from science. In many respects the Egyptians, the Romans, and the Chinese, had, centuries ago, as perfect an agri- cultural practice as we now possess; but this fact so demonstrates the extreme slowness with which an empirical art progresses, that incal- culable advantage must be anticipated from yoking it with the rapidly- developing sciences. In fact, the history of the last fifty years has proved the benefits of this union; and no farmer who by the help of science has mastered but one of the old difficulties of his art that for all time have been tormenting the thoughtful with doubt and misleading every one into a wasteful expenditur e of labor or material would willingly return to the days of pure empiricism. On the other hand, those who at- tempt to unfold the laws of production from considerations founded mere- ly in the pure sciences, without regard to, or knowledge of, the truths of practice, are sure to go astray and bring discredit on their efforts.
Agriculture, 7. e. field culture, not husbandry or farm management in the widest sense, is a natural science, and is based principally upon physics, chemistry, and physiology.
By physics (natural philosophy) is meant the science of matter con- sidered in relation to those forces which act among masses, or among
120 LECTURES ON
particles, (atoms,) in such a manner as not to alter their essential characters.
The forces of cohesion, gravitation, heat, light, electricity, and magnetism, are physical forces. A thousand fragments of iron, for example, may be made to cohere together or gravitate to the earth, may be changed in temperature, illuminated, electrified or magnetized, with- out any permanent change in that assemblage of properties which constitutes this metal.
Chemistry is the science of chemical force or affinity, which causes two or more bodies to unite with the production of a compound pos- sessing essentially new characters. Thus a hard lump of quicklime when brought in contact with water greedily absorbs it, with the pro- duction of great heat, and falls to powder. In slacking, it has combined chemically with water.
Physiology is the science of the processes of life, which require, in addition to the chemical and most of the physical forces, the co-opera- tion and superintendence of the vital principle.
The first inquiries in the natural science of agriculture are: What is the plant? Out of what materials, and under what conditions is it formed ?
The plant is the result of an organism, the germ, which under certain influences begins an independent life, and grows by con- structively adding to itself or assimilating surrounding matter.
The simplest plant is a single cell, a microscopic vesicle of globular shape, which, after expanding to a certain size, usually produces another similar cell division either by lateral growth or by its own.
In the chemist’s laboratory it is constantly happening that, in the clearest solutions of salts, like the sulphates of soda and magnesia, a flocculent mould, sometimes red, sometimes green, most often white, is formed, which, under the microscope, is seen to be a vege- tation consisting of single cells. The yeast plant (fig. 1) is nothing more
than a collection of such cells now existing singly, now connected in one line or variously branched.
The cell is the type of all vege- tation. The most complex plant, a stalk of cane or an oak, is nothing nore than anaggregation of myriads of such cells, very variously modi- fied indeed in shape and function, but still all referable to this simple typical form.
In the same manner that the yeast plant enlarges by budding or splitting into new cells, so do all other plants increase in mass; and thus growth is simply the formation of new cells.
So far as the studies of the vegetable physiologist enable us to judge, all vegetable cells consist, at least in the early stages of their existence, of an external, thin, but continuous (imperforate) membrane, the cell-wall, consisting of a substance called cellulose, and an interior lining membrane of slimy or half liquid character, variously called the protoplasm, the formative layer, or the primodial utricle, (fig. 2.)
6 6,
“408
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. BLA
At one or several places, the formative layer is thickened to the so-called nucleus, (a fig. 2) the point from which growth and transformations proceed. Within the cell thus constructed exists a liquid, Ip the cell-contents, from which, in course -—6// of time, solid cell contents of various a character are found to develope. =
In a chemical sense, not less than in a atiichter the single globu- lar cell is the type of ‘all vegetation.
The outer wall of the cell is formed of that material which is itself the most abundant product of vegetable life, and which rep- resents an important group of bodies, that are familiar to all, as large ingredients of our daily food.
The table which here follows gives the names and the chemical » formule of what we may term the CELLULOSE GROUP or the VEGETAL CARBO-HYDRATES.
Welllmlose veces: a elielelelenieislisi hela Cr lcs 0, SIAN OOO Gos DODO GoUSa Sod Ce 1 bs oH Tnulin =) @(ef.e 6 (0, © 40,6) e).0 6) 0) @).@ (0' 0 e) e\.0 Ci EL OF Demir woretciswekenioveterereren cnet iotene (OFF EE, Or, GrUlimusreter keneucceionh seicuer omen eremsaniene Cr Ee OF Cane SUGAT + +25 se++ os eeece Cis 15 ae OF Fruit SULAT+ sores e eee ee eee Cie lel Or Grape sugar--+-+-++- +++ eee. C.. is By Om,
Cellulose is the body already alluded to as constituting the material of the outer coating of the cells. It often accumulates in some parts of the plant by the thickening of the cell Pie ae: walls, thus forming the greater share of the wood (fig. - 4) of trees and shrubs. ®y Linen,hemp,(B fig.3) and cotton (A fig. 3)are nearly or quite pure cellulose. It exists largely in the stones or shells of fruits andnuts. The so-called vege- table ivory is chiefly a very compact form of cellulose. In general, this proximate organic element is the frame-work of the plant, and the material that gives. toughness and solidity to its parts.
Cellulose is characterized by its great indifference to most ordinary solvents. Water, alcohol, &c., do not dissolve it, and the stronger rea- gents of the chemist rarely take it up without occasioning essential changes in its constitution.* | With strong nitric acid it yields nitro-cel- 4 ~
*According to Pelouze, cellulose is dissolved by strong hydrochloric acid, and separates again in part (part is converted into sugar) on dilution. Schweitzer has recently made the
122 LECTURES ON
lulose or gun cotton. By the continued action of oxydizing agents itiis converted into that series of brown bodies known under the 3 name of Humus, or finally into oxalic and carbonic acid.
Next to cellulose, starch (fig. 5) is the most abundant vegetable body. It usually occurs as micro- scopic grains, which for many spe-
“0 99 cies of plants possess a character- ii/ ; ' rc 5 v ¢ ~ istic form and size, being some-
timesangular asin maize,but most often oval or spherical as in the other grains, the potato, &c.
Starch is insoluble in and un- affected by cold water; in hot water it swells up and forms a translucent jelly, and in this state is employed for stiffening linen.
Starch is always enclosed in the cells of the plant as seen in the ac- EIEN companying figure 6, and is exceedingly abundant, existing not only in the grains and esculent roots, but also in the trunks of trees, especially the sago-palm, and throughout nearly the whole tissue of the
~ higher orders of plants.
Inulin closely resembles starch in many points, appearing to replace. that body in the roots of the artichoke, elecam- pane, dahlia, dandelion, and other com- posite plants. It occurs in the form of small
\ round transparent grains, which dissolve \ easily in boiling water, and mostly sepa- rate again as the water cools. Unlike starch, inulin exists in a liquid form in the roots above named, and separates in grains from the clear pressed juice when this is kept some time. The juice of the dahlia tuber becomes a semi-solid white mass in this way, after reposing 12 hours from the separation of 8 per cent. of this interesting substance, (Bouchardat. )
Dextria is a colorless transparent body, soluble in water, and it appears universally distributed in the juices of plants, though existing in but small amount compared with the previously de- scribed proximate principles. The solution of an impure and arti- ficially prepared dextrin, called British gum, is largely employed in calico printing, as a substitute for the more expensive natural gums, and closely resembles them in its adhesive properties. It is an im-
Fig. 5.
interesting observation, that a solution of oxyd of copper in ammonia dissolves cellulose to a clear liquid, from which the cellulose may again be thrown down by an acid.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 123 portant ingredient of bread, being formed in the loaf by the process of baking, from the transformation of starch.
Gum is a generic term, and includes a number of substances, as gum tragacanth, gum Arabic, gum Senegal, cherry gum, &c,, which, though unlike in some respects, agree in composition, and have the property either of dissolving or swelling up in water with the forma- tion of an adhesive mucilage or paste. In the bread grains there is usually found a small quantity of gum soluble in water, and in meal from the seed of millet it has been observed to the amount of 10 per cent.
The sugars are so familiar that they scarcely require special notice.
Cane sugar or sucrose is the intensely sweet soluble crystallizable principle found in the juice of the cane, maple, and sugar beet. It is found, besides, in many other plants.
Fruit sugar or fructose is uncrystallizable, and exists in the juice of acid fruits, in honey and in the bread grains.
Grape sugar or glucose is found solid and crystallized in dried fruits, especially in the grape. It gradually separates from honey as the latter candies.
In the young cell this group of bodies is represented by cellulose, as the cell wall, and by dextrin and the sugars existing in its fluid contents.
The machinery of the vegetable organism, which all the while operates as perfectly in the single cell as in the complex mass of cells, has the power to transform most if not all these bodies into every other one, and we find them all in every individual of the higher orders of plants—at least in some stage of its growth. From dex- trin, which is dissolved in the juice of a parent cell, is moulded the cellulose which envelopes a new cell.
From starch, and perhaps cellulose in the stem of the maple, cane sugar is formed in the changeful temperature of spring, and, as the buds swell, this sugar is reorganized again into cellulose and starch.
The analysis of the cereal grains oftentimes reveals the presence of dextrin, but no sugar or gum; while at other times the latter are found, but not the former.
It is easy to imitate many of these transformations outside of the vegetable organism. By the agency of heat, acids, and ferments, either singly or jointly, we may effect a number of remarkable changes.
Cellulose and starch are converted, first, into dextrin, and finally into grape sugar, by boiling with a dilute acid. In this way glucose is largely manufactured from potato starch, and has, in fact, been made from saw-dust. This transformation is also effected by the digestive apparatus of herbivorous animals, and in case of starch by a roasting or baking heat. So, too, in the sprouting of seed, the same changes occur, as exemplified in the preparation of malt.
By heat and acids inulin is also converted into a kind of sugar, but without the intermediate formation of dextrin. The same is true of the gums. By these agencies cane sugar is converted into fruit sugar, and this spontaneously passes into grape sugar.
124 LECTURES ON
Grape sugar is thus seen to be the final product of the transfor- mation of the carbo-hydrates, either in the vessels of the chemist or in the digestive process of animals. It is the form in which the carbo-hydrates of the food pass into the blood, and, in consequence, it is a constant ingredient of the latter.
It will be noticed that while physical and chemical agencies pro- duce these metamorphoses in one direction, it is only with the assist- ance of the vital principle that they can be accomplished in the reverse manner.
In the laboratory we can only reduce from a higher, organized, or more complex constitution, to a lower and simpler one. In the vege- table cell, however, all these changes, and many more, take place with the greatest facility.
The ready convertibility of one member of this group into another is to some extent explained by the identical or similar composition of these bodies. It will be observed by reference to the table that they are all composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
That they contain carbon is made evident by their yielding charcoal when heated with imperfect access of air. When heated they also yield water, which, as all know, is a compound of oxygen and hydro- gen.
Furthermore, several of these bodies contain the same proportions of these elements. The formule of cellulose, starch, inulin, and dextrin are identical. The remaining compounds only differ by the elements of one or several atoms of water.
The term carbo-hydrates (very convenient for our present purpose, though to the chemist absurd) was applied here because we may in a certain sense consider all these substances as hydrates of carbon. They are, in fact, composed of carbon and the elements of water.
These bodies in their transformations have merely to undergo a rearrangement of atoms, just as the rearrangement of a few blocks enables the child to build a variety of toy-houses; or at most they need only lose or assume a few atoms of water—an omnipresent body, characterized by the facility with which it enters into all manner of combinations—and the work is accomplished.
To furnish a more complete illustration of the typifying of all vege- tation by the single cell, and at the same time to extend our inquiry into the composition of the plant, we may now advert to the lining membrane of the cell-wall, or, as physiologists term it, the pro- toplasm, formative-layer, or primordial utricle. This. consists chiefly of some body that differs in chemical composition from the group just described by containing, in addition to the three elements that form the carbo-hydrates, about 16 per cent. of a fourth element, nitrogen, and small quantities of sulphur, and perhaps sometimes phosphorus.
The following table gives the names and percentage composition of the most important.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 125
Albuminoids or Nitrogenous Vegetal Principles. Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Sulphu.
Vegetal albumin---.--+++-- 54.8 5: 21.1 15.9 0.9 Vegetal fibrin, or gluten--- 54.0 ied 22.3 15.7 0.7 Vegetal casein-++++++-+--- 54.6 T.4 | 15.8 0.5
These bodies differ considerably in certain characters, though their similarity in others is very strongly marked. In composition they are almost identical. From the difficulty of obtaining them in the pure state their precise composition is not definitely known. The figures in the table represent the mean results of the best analyses.
The names albumin and casein originated from animal substances, and in fact we find in the animal kingdom a series of bodies corres- ponding almost perfectly with the vegetable nitrogenous principles.
In the white of the egg, in the serum of blood, and in many diseased animal secretions, we meet with albumin which has the property of passing from its usual fluid condition into the solid form on the appli- cation of heat. It is said to coagulate.
In the vegetable, albumin exists in much smaller relative quantity than in the animal; but it may be found in the juice of nearly all plants. If potatoes, turnips, or flour be digested for some time in water and the liquid then allowed to clear by settling, it contains a minute quantity of albumin in solution, as may be made evident by heating it, when a coagulum of this body separates.
Casein 18 an ingredient of the milk of animals. Heat does not coagulate it, but acids have this effect. Cheese has casein for its characteristic constituent.
In the seeds of leguminous plants, as the peaand bean; in the pea- nut and almond, this body exists very abundantly.
If crushed peas are soaked some hours in warm water, to which a little ammonia is added, they yield casein to the liquid, and on the addition of an acid it is separated as a curdy matter like the casein of milk. In Chinaa kind of cheese is thus largely manufactured. In smaller quantity casein is found in all the grains and seeds used as food.
Gluten exists in wheat, and may be obtained by slowly washing a dough made from wheat flour, whereby the star ch is removed and a glutinous mass remains which is the substance in question. As thus seen, it is mingled with more or less albumin and casein, as well as oil and starch. Gluten is the characteristic ingredient of those grains from the flour of which a light raised bread may be made. Liebig has given to gluten the name vegetable fibrin, from its analogies with the fibre of flesh or animal fibrin.
The albuminoids, like the carbo-hydrates, are easily susceptible of mutuak transformation. In the animal the casein of milk or beans, the albumin of eggs or of vegetables, and gluten, are converted first into albumin and ‘liquid fibrin in the shape of blood, and afterward into the solid flesh. So, too, in the plant, similar changes, without doubt, occur.
To some extent these conversions may take place outside the or- ganism. If, for example, animal fibrin be exposed with water to the
126 ° LECTURES ON
air for some days in a warm place, it disappears or dissolves; if now Fig. 7. the liquid be heated to near boiling, a
coagulum separates, having all the char- acters of albumin. After removing the albumin, the addition of an acid causes another coagulation, separating a body that agrees in its properties with casein. As has been already stated, the albu- minoid bodies form the hning membrane of the young cell and are diffused in the dissolved state throughout its liquid con- tents. In those parts of the plant where these bodies accumulate, they are found nearly filling entire cells and series of cells.
e, fig. T. : meee to Hartig (Entwickelungsgeschichte des Planzen Keims) the albuminoids exist in the seed in an organized form, usually in Fig. 8. grains that are scarcely to be dis- tinguished from starch by the eye, (A, fig. 8) often, however, in per- fect polyhedral crystals. (Fig. 8, _ Band C.) This alewron, as Hartig |) \\y terms it, is not a pure albuminoid;
YY as according to an analysis made from material prepared by him, it contains but 9.46 per cent. of nitrogen. The aleuron grains dur- ing the hfe of the plant suffer metamorphosis into starch and other organized matters, of course undergoing radical chemical chan- ges at the same time. .
While the two great classes of organic proximate elements, just considered, make up the larger share of vegetation, and suflice to show in the most beautiful manner how the single cell represents the whole plant, both structurally and chemically, we should stop short of the object of these lectures did we not consider some other vegetal principles of great importance both to the vegetable and ani- mal economy, which agree with the cellulose group in consisting only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but differ again from the carbo-hy- drates in the fact that their hydrogen and oxygen are not in the pro- portions to form water.
We may notice these substances under three divisions, viz:
Pectose and its derivatives.
The vegetal acids.
The oils and fats.
The pectose group includes pectose, pectin, pectosic, and pectic acids. These bodies exist principally in fleshy fruits and berries, and in the roots of the turnip, beet, and carrot. They are an important part of the food of men and domestic animals. :
Pectose is the designation of a body which occurs with cellulose in
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, . 127
the flesh of unripe fruits, and of the roots just mentioned. Its prop- erties in the pure state are quite unknown, since we have no method of separating it from the associated cellulose. Nearly the entire mass of green fruits and of these roots consists of pectose, which is rec- ognized to be a special organic body by the products which it yields when submitted, either naturally or artificially, to the action of vari- ous chemical or physical agents.
Pectin is prepared from pectose in a way analogous to that by which cellulose or starch yields dextrin, viz: by the action of heat, acids, and ferments. When the fruits or roots that contain pectose are subjected to the action of gentle heat and an acid, the cellulose they contain is more or less changed into dextrin and sugar, and at the same time tho firm pectose begins to soften, and in a little time becomes soluble in water, being converted into pectin. In the baking or roasting of apples and pears, and in the boiling of turnips and beets, it is precisely this transformation that occtrs. When fruit ripens, either on the tree or, as happens with winter apples and pears, after being gathered, the same metamorphosis takes place. The hard pectose, under the influ- ence of the acid (or ferment) that exists in greater or less quantity in the fruits, gradually softens and passes into pectin. If the clear juice of ripe pears be mixed with alcohol the pectin, which cannot dissolve in the latter liquid, is separated as a stringy gelatinous mass, that, on drying, remains as a white body, easily reducible to a fine white powder. The concentrated solution of pectin in water has a viscid or gummy consistence as seen in the juice that exudes from baked apples. :
Under the further action of heat, acids, and ferments, pectin itself undergoes other transformations. We shall only notice its conver- sion into pectosic and pectic acids. These bodies, chiefly the first, together with sugar and flavoring matter, compose the delicious fruit jellies, which, as is well known, are prepared by gently heating for some time the expressed juice of strawberries and raspberries, or the juice obtained by stewing apples, pears, grapes, currants, gooseberries, plums, &c. They are both insoluble in cold water, and remain sus- pended in it as a gelatinous mass. Pectosie acid is soluble in boiling water, and hence most fruit jellies become liquid when heated to 212°. On cooling, its solution gelatinizes again. Pectic acid is insoluble even in boiling water. It is also formed when the pulp of fruits or roots containing pectose is acted upon by alkalies or by ammonia- oxyd of copper. This reagent (which dissolves cellulose) converts pectose directly into pectic acid that remains in insoluble combina- tion with oxyd of copper. )
Our knowledge of the composition of the bodies of the pectose group is very imperfect, from the difficulty or impossibility of pre- paring them in a state of purity. Below is a table of their composi- tion according to the most recent investigations:
IPEGEORES cuatehe) «jo! 0) ele stohatiel +a cues '> or ede @ Wal.
IPaeiiiio els g's aos 65. weeeee eee Oy lala O, + 4HO. Pectosic acid -+--+++ ese.s.---- Oe Hs 7 On rs oa Pechicacid: s,- - <eiselhaepagesiaae Oey) dlgy Og eo.
io 4)
bo oa)
128 ; LECTURES ON
From the best analyses, and from analogy with cellulose, it is prob- able that pectose has the same composition as pectin, or, like the pectic and pectosic acids, differs from it only by one or more equiva- lents of water. This relatedness of composition assists us here, asin case of the preceding groups of organie principles, to comprehend, in some measure, the ease with which the transformations of these bodies are effected.
It will be perceived, by a glance at the composition of the pectose group, that their oxygen exceeds the quantity necessary to form water with their hydrogens by eight equivalents.
The vegetal acids are exceedingly numerous. They are found in all classes of plants, and nearly every family in the vegetable kingdom has one or more acids peculiar to itself.
Those we shall now notice are few in number, but of almost uni- versal distribution. They are oxalic, tartaric, citric, and malic acids. In plants they never occur in the free or pure state, but always com- bined with lime, potash, ammonia, &c. They are most often accumu- lated in large quantity in fruits.
Oxalic acid exists largely in the common sorrel, and, according to the best observers, is found in greater or less quantity in nearly all plants. The pure acid presents itself in the form of colorless bril- liant transparent crystals not unlike Epsom salts in appearance, but having an intensely sour taste. It is prepared for commerce by sub- jecting starch or cane and grape sugar to rapid oxydation, generally by means of nitric acid. Salt of sorrel, employed to remove ink- stains from cloth and leather, is an oxalate of potash and water.
Tartaric acid is especially abundant in the grape, from the juice of which during fermentation it is deposited in combination with potash, as argol, which, by purification, yields the cream of tartar of com- merce. Tartaric acid, when pure, occurs in large glassy crystals very sour to the taste. It has recently been observed by Liebig as one of the products of the artificial oxydation by nitric acid, of the peculiar sugar found in milk, and is also probably a result of the oxydation of gum by the same reagent.
Malic acid is the chief sour principle of apples, currants, gooseber- ries, and many other fruits. It exists in large quantity in the garden rhubarb, in the berries of the mountain ash and barberry, and in the leaves of the beet and tobacco plants.
Citric acid is most abundant in the juice of the lemon, lime, and cranberry.
All these acids usually occur together in our ordinary fruits, and in some cases it is certain that they are converted the one into another during the development of the plant.
Their composition is expressed in the following table: |
Oca varendiaeee eters scsyeisie cana bepens. « C, O, + 2 HO. Malic acid cede ets am. 4 C, HH, Oe aloe Tartaric acid --------......... O, H, 0, + 2 HO. Citric acid---. ------......... ©, H, 0, +3 HO.
The vegetal acids exert an important influence in the plant as
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, 129
well as in the food of animals, by effecting the transformation of cel- lulose and starch into dextrin and sugar, and of pectose into pectin.
Tn all plants, and in nearly all parts of plants, we find some fixed oil, fat (or wax;) but it is chiefly in certain seeds that they occur most abundantly. Thus the seeds of maize, oats, hemp, flax (fig. 7 /), colza, cotton, pea-nut, beech, almond, sunflower, &c., contain from 6 to 70 per cent. of oil, which may be in great part removed by pressure. In some plants, as the African palm and the Nicaraguan tallow-tree, the oil is solid at ordinary temperatures, while many plants yield small quantities of wax, which either coats their leaves or forms a ‘‘bloom’’ upon their fruit. The oils differ exceedingly in taste, odor, and consistency, as well as in their chemical composition.
They all contain much carbon, and less oxygen than is requisite to form water with their hydrogen.
The oil or fat of plants appears to be, in many cases, a product of the transformation of starch or other member of the cellulose group, for the oily seeds when immature contain starch, which vanishes as they ripen, and in the sugar-cane the quantity of wax-is always largest when the sugar is least abundant, and vice versa.
It has long been known that the ‘brain and nervous tissue of ani- mals contain several oils of which phosphorus is an essential ingredi- ent. Recently Knop has discovered that the sugar-pea yields a sim- ilar oil containing 1.25 per cent. of phosphorus, in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The bodies to which attention has thus been briefly directed, con- stitute by far the larger share of the solid matter pot only of the young cell but of all vegetation. ‘They comprise, nearly all, those vegetable substances which are employed as food or otherwise pos- sess any considerable agricultural significance. The numberless acids, alkaloids, resins, volatile oils, coloring matters, and other principles existing in small quantity in the vegetable world, are unimportant to our present purpose.
We find under the microscope that certain of these bodies have an organized structure; such are cellulose, starch, inulin, and gluten, (aleuron of Hartig;) while others, as dextrin, gum, sugar, albumin, and casein, are the products of the disorganization of those above mentioned—the structureless materials, out of which the organized portions of the plant renew themselves.
To return to the cell. As the life of the plant progresses, not only does the form of the cell greatly change in many cases, but it under- goes very marked internal transformations. The liquid that fills the young cell contains both dextrin and albumin; from the former 1s elaborated the walls of new cells, or else the existing cells are filled up more or less completely with some solid carbo-hydrate resulting from the transformation of dextrin. Thus in the potato tuber the cells are almost entirely occupied with starch. In the stem of trees the cells are lengthened and thickened by the continuous deposit of cellulose with other ill-defined bodies, and the result is wood. In the seeds of the cereal grains and numerous other plants we find the
cells densely crowded, (hence polyhedral in figure.) and filled with 9
130 LECTURES ON
starch and gluten, the latter often crystallized. In leguminous seeds casein accumulates; while in the exterior portions of most seeds occur cells containing, in addition to these bodies, numerous droplets of fixed oil.—(See the figures already given.) Some cells are largely occupied with coloring matier, which is green in leaves, red, yellow, &e., in petals. In many cells we meet with crystals of salts; some are compounds of vegetal acids with lime and magnesia; others are phos- phates and sulphates.
In every plant, and in each cell, there may be found, by chemical analysis, though generally not by the microscope alone, a certain, never-failing content of mineral matters, which remains as ash when the vegetable is burned. The ashes of all agricultural plants contain the following mineral matters, to which in the table are appended their chemical symbols:
Ingredients of the ash of plants.
eal i2Ne A eS Ses HERIINS he cae Cee ds KO oy ae SiG bas sec a Re ene aca oe caer eens de Na O Athaline earths. {MOU ge : Oxyd of Tron sees ee cee eee eee eee eee ees Fe, O Metallic oxyds , 1 Oxyd of MANGANESE - ++ eee eee ee cece ces Mn, O, (Pind vemlocsso ooes Soon Go - Aid eG ore Ut ec CO,
Mare : Sulphuric Ae ren Gio Bosc oie Btcdotc us Cras SO, en Pica pnOre Seta sere eet cs ocr PO, SiGe s & aeee en amo ce halberd eae. Sune Socc Si OF
jf eae og Carne cia ook aera ct Se Cl.
These matters taken together form but a small part of the plant— usually from one to five per cent. of its weight—yet they are indis- pensable to its development, as is evident from their constant presence, and as has been likewise proved by the most careful and extended synthetic experiments. Without the co-operation of all these earthy and saline matters it is impossible for plants of the higher orders to develop themselves. ;
The Prince Salm Horstmar, of Brunswick, has made the function of the mineral food of the plant the subject of a most extended and laborious investigation. In experiments with the oat he found that when silica was absent from the soil, everything else being supplied, the plant remained smooth, pale, dwarfed, and prostrate.
Without lime the plant died in the second leaf. .
Without potash or soda it reached a height of but three inches.
Without magnesia it was very weak and prostrate.
Without phosphoric acid it remained very weak, but erect and of normal figure, bearing fruit.
Without sulphuric acid it was still weaker; was erect and of normal figure, but without fruit.
Without iron it was very pale, weak, and disproportioned.
Without manganese it did not attain perfect development, and bore but few flowers.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 131
Other experiments proved that chlorine is essential to the growth of wheat.
Wiegmann and Polstorff found that when seeds of cress (Lepidium sativum) were sown in minced platinum wire, contained in a platinum crucible, and moistened with distilled water, the experiment being conducted under a glass shade, out of reach of dust, they germinated and grew naturally during twenty-six days, when, having reached a height of three inches, they began to turn yellow and to die down. On burning the plants thus produced, their ash was found to weigh exactly as much as was obtained from a number of seeds equal to that sown. Prince Salm Horstmar found that oats grown with addition of fixed mineral matters (ash ingredients) only, gave four times the mass of vegetable matter that was obtained when these were withheld.
The plant, as we have seen, is an assemblage of cells, which are situated in more or less close contact with each other. The plants that consist of but a few cells, like yeast, simply lie or float in the medium in which they are naturally found. Agricultural plants, how- ° ever, and the higher orders generally, possess roots, whose functions are performed underground, and stems, leaves, and flowers, that exist in the air.
The yeast plant finds its food in the fermenting solution, and the cells have a power of absorbing their nutriment out of this solution.
Marine plants wholly immersed in the ocean abstract their food from the sea water.
The higher land plants derive the materials from which their cells are multiplied, partly from the soz/, by their roots, and partly from the atmosphere, by their foliage.
In the living plant, then, there is provision for the access of liquids into the cells from without, and for the transmission of the same from one end of the plant to the other, or in any direction; for if we plant a seed in pure sand mingled with ashes and duly watered, we shall find in a few weeks that a plant has resulted containing in every por- tion of it carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, which could only kave been derived from the atmosphere, and also saline and earthy matters, which must have been imbibed from the ashes and carried upward to the points of its branches and leaves.
The young cell, though its wall reveals no perforation to the most powerful magnifier, is porous; and though the older cells, which form the cuticle of a somewhat developed plant, are often impermeable to water and air, from the fact that they are indurated or glazed by the formation of a corky or waxy coating, yet the young cells that are continually forming at the extremities of the advancing rootlets, and those of the still fresh leaves, are highly porous, and no more oppose resistance to the passage of water or of air than does a sieve.
We have only to immerse the roots of a vigorous plant in a solution colored with some harmless pigment, and in a short time we can trace its diffusion throughout the plant.
If liquids thus easily permeate these tissues, there is every reason to suppose that they may admit the vastly more subtle particles of a gas; and of this we have abundant experimental evidence, as will be set forth bye and bye.
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LECTURE II.
THE ATMOSPHERE AND WATER IN THEIR RELATIONS TO VEGETABLE LIFE.
In the former lecture we have seen that the plant is a collection of cells, and the residence of an organizing up-building agency—the vital principle. We have seen that the cells. are composed of, or occupied with, carbo-hydrates, albuminoids, fats, and salts. The structure of the plant admits the entrance of gases and liquids, and their diffusion throughout its mass.
We are now prepared to inquire what are the materials employed by the plant in its development—what is the food of vegetation?
A seed sown in a moist sand may grow into a perfect plant, and
roduce a hundred new seeds, each as large and complete as the first, although the sand, the water, and the air, which only can have nourished the plant, contain no traces of cellulose or starch, of al- bumen or oil. .
These proximate elements of vegetation are then obviously con structed by the plant out of other forms or combinations of matter belonging to the mineral world, and to be sought in the atmosphere, in water, and in the soil.
Of the entire mass of the plant, but a small portion is derived from the soil, ninety-five to ninety-nine per cent. of it coming originally from the atmosphere.
The general composition of the pure and dry atmosphere, according to the most reliable data is, by weight, as follows: (To the names of the ingredients are appended their chemical symbols.)
Oxygen, O---- seer eee eee eee eee Ly aces els Nitrogen, N---+ s+e2++ cree cece tee ee eee eee 76.82 100.00
Besides the above ingredients, whose proportion is very constant, there occur in it the following substances in more variable quantity:
Water, (as vapor,) HO, average 1-hundredth.
Carbonic acid, CO,, average 6 ten-thousandths.
Ammonia, NH,, average 23 billionths.
Nitric acid, NO,?
Carburetted hydrogen, CH?
Nitrous oxyd NO?
Let us now inquire with reference to each of these substances, how is it related to the nourishment of the plant? A number of ex- ceedingly ingenious experiments have been instituted from time to time for the purpose of throwing light on this subject, and we are thus fortunately able to present it in a quite satisfactory manner.
As to oxygen, we have no evidence that it directly feeds the plant, or is assimilated, so as to increase the mass of its organic matter. On the contrary, plants when growing exhale oxygen, separating it from the carbon and hydrogen of their proper food.
The presence of oxygen in the atmosphere is, however, in many
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 133
ways, essential to the perfection of the plant; for in its absence seeds cannot germinate, flowers cannot yield fruit, and fruits cannot ripen. In germination the larger bulk of the seed, the cotyledons, by the absorption of oxygen, are disorganized and converted into structure- less and soluble bodies, which become the food of the smaller part of the seed, the embryo, a and by its vital operations are again organized as the young plant. In the process of flowering, matters stored in organized form in other parts of the plant are transported to the blossom to serve for its rapid development. The flower itself cannot absorb food from without; and in the transformation of the already elaborated food from the stem and leaves of the plant into the new forms required by the flowers, oxygen plays an essential part. The reawakening of life in the tree at spring time, and the ripening of fruits, are accompanied with changes of a similar character, and from them result many oxydized products. Vegetable physiologists have furnished microscopic evidence that similar alternations of the orga- nizing and disorganizing processes take place in the individual cells, SO that we are warranted in assuming that oxygen (whether that of the free atmosphere or that evolved in the cells themselves is in- different) plays an important and unceasing part in the development of vegetation.
Nitrogen in the free state also appears to be incapable of direct assimilation. Within a few years the subject has been studied by various investigators, but with contradictory results. Ville, of Paris, in 1853, published a volume describing his experiments, which led to the conclusion already arrived at by Priestley, in 1779, viz:. that nitrogen is assimilated. Other investigators, however, by means of trials carried out under conditions less complicated and more adapted to yield reliable evidence, have uniformly been conducted to the opposite view.
Especially to Boussingault do we owe a most careful investigation of this question. His plan of experi- Fig. 9. ment was simply to cause plants : to grow in circumstances where, every other condition of develop- ment being supplied, the only source of nitrogen at their command, be- sides that contained in the seed it- self, should be the free nitrogen of the atmosphere. For this purpose he prepared a soil consisting of pumice stone and the ashes of clover, freed by heat and acid from all compounds of nitrogen. This soil he placed at: the bottom of a large glass globe, (see figure 9,) of 15 ‘to 20g gallons capacity. Seeds of cress or of other plants were deposited inf the soil, and pure water supplied to 7 them. After germination, a small ““””7” glass vessel (D) filled with carbonic acid (to eigally carbon) was secured
134 LECTURES ON
air-tight to the mouth of the large globe, and, the apparatus being disposed in a suitably lighted place, was left to itself until the plants began to turn yellow and show signs of decay. Then they were re- moved, separated from the soil, and, by chemical analysis, the amount of nitrogen in them was ascertained. It was found in every instance (the experiment being several times repeated) that the nitrogen in the plants thus raised was no more than that contained in the seed from which they had grown. Our ingenious countryman, Dr. Evan Pugh, now president of the Farmers’ College of Pennsylvania, while resi- dent in England a few years since, made an elaborate investigation of this subject, with results confirming those of Boussingault.
So far from the external free nitrogen being assimilated, it appears, especially from the researches of Dr. Draper, of New York, that plants constantly evolve this substance in the gaseous form; al- though, according to the investigations of Unger and Knop, made more recently, and with more exact methods, the nitrogen found by various observers in the exhaled air of plants comes only from the atmospheric air absorbed by them.
It thus appears that the two gases which, together, make up ninety-nine per cent. or more of the atmosphere, do not constitute in any way the direct food of vegetation. It is, in fact, in the small quantity of other and somewhat variable ingredients that we must look for the atmospheric nutriment of the vegetable kingdom.
Water in the vaporized form we find never absent from the air, and it is especially abundant in the warm period of the year when vegetation is active. Its presence is made evident by its deposition in the states of dew, fog, rain, and snow, when the temperature of the atmosphere is reduced.
It has been universally taught that the watery vapor which is thus in perpetual contact with the leaves of plants is readily and largely absorbed by them. According to Unger and Duchartre, however, it is never imbibed by foliage in even the slightest degree. On the contrary, under all circumstances there occurs a constant loss of water by evaporation from the leaves, which does not wholly cease even when they are confined in an atmosphere saturated with moisture. Duchartre admits that liquid water in contact with the leaves is slightly absorbed; but it would appear that the root is the organ of absorption for water, and that the soil must perform the function of supplying this indispensable body to the plant. 4
It has long been known that water is absorbed by the roots in large quantity, and exhaled through the leaves into the atmosphere. The well-known trials of Hales prove this. He found, in one in- stance, that a single cabbage exhaled 25 ounces of water in 24 hours. We owe to Mr. Lawes, of Rothamstead, England, a series of experi- ments on the transpiration of water through wheat, barley, beans, peas, and clover, continued throughout nearly the whole period of the growth of these plants. The result was, that for every grain of solid matter added to the mass of the plant 150 to 270 grains of water passed through it. From these, and especially from very recent in- vestigations of Knop and Sachs, it is seen that the transpiration is
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 135
very variable, as might be anticipated. It takes place most rapidly in a dry, warm air, but is not absolutely checked when the atmosphere is saturated with moisture. Transpiration is remarkably diminished by the presence of many soluble salts, and of the alkalies, in the water of the soil; while free acids increase its rapidity and amount.
As is well known, water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen; although we have no direct evidence, the inference is fully warranted that a portion of the water which enters the plant by the roots is arrested in its upward path, to become itself a part of the tissues. It is either held in the form of hygroscopic moisture, or is united chemically to carbon; or, finally, it is decomposed, its hydrogen being retained, and its oxygen eliminated wholly or in part. In fact, we must regard water as the chief source of the hydrogen which is a com- ponent of almost every vegetable principle.
Carbonic acid is a compound of carbon and oxygen. It exists in immense quantities in solid combination with lime in the various mar- bles, limestones and marls, and in chalk. Separated from these bodies by pouring on them sulphuric or nitric acid, it may be collected as a gas, which, unrecognizable by the other senses, is agreeably sour to the taste; is two and a half times heavier than common air, and con- siderably soluble in water. This gas is never absent from the air, and although it occurs there in relatively small quantity, its absolute amount is so great that, taking the atmosphere up to its entire height, we have no less than seven tons of carbonic acid over every acre of surface.
A plant confined in an atmosphere free from this gas cannot enlarge itself.* Some plants will live and grow in a confined space, as for example, sealed up in a bottle ; but in this case the carbonic acid con- sumed by the growing parts of the plant is supplied by the decay of the lower leaves.
Priestly and Saussure long ago, furnished experimental evidence that carbonic acid is absorbed by growing plants, and Boussingault has described the following illustration of the rapidity with which the gas is imbibed by the foliage of vegetation. Into one of the orifices in a three-necked glass globe he introduced the branch of a living vine bearing twenty leaves; with another opening he connected an apparatus by means of which-a slow current of air, containing a small, accurately known proportion of carbonic acid could be passed into the globe. This air after streaming over the vine leaves, escaped by the third neck into an arrangement for collecting and weighing the car- bonic acid that remained in it. The experiment being set in process in the sun-light, it was found that the enclosed foliage removed from the current of air three-fourths of the carbonic acid it at first con- tained.
The absorption of the gas in question by the leaves is found to take place only under the influence of the light of the sun, or of the accom- panying chemical rays. Through the roofs, carbonic acid, when held in sohition of water, may be absorbed at all times.
* Unless, indeed, as is probable, carburetted hydrogen may, to a small extent, be an actual source of carbon to plants, a point not yet satisfactorily determined.
136 LECTURES ON
It is, however, only in the sun-light, and with many plants (accord- ing to the recent researches of Corenwinder) only in direct sun-light that carbonic acid or, more properly, carbon is assimilated. We have already alluded to ‘he fact that oxygen is exhaled by the plant. This oxygen comes from the decomposition of carbonic acid (and water) in the interior of the plant. The vegetable cell aided by the sun has the power of separating the elements of this compound with the great- est ease, and it retains the carbon to add to its structure while the oxygen escapes entirely or in part into the general atmosphere.
As already mentioned, however, oxygen itself, under certain cireum- stances, more particularly at certain stages of vegetable development, is absorbed; and as a consequence of this and at just the same time, carbonic acid is evolved. This separation of carbonic acid may be observed in all young plants (still depending upon the disorganization of the parent seed) when situated in the shade; and some plants exhale it at all periods of their growth when not exposed to direct sun-light.
All plants exhale carbonic acid during the night or in the entire absence of sun-light; but the amount of this eas that is absorbed and decomposed by day vastly exceeds that evolved by night. In fact, one hour or half hour of direct sunshine enables it to absorb and de- compose more than has escaped from it in a whole night.
Carbonic acid gas is unquestionably the chief source of the carbon of agricultural plants. Some writers, with Liebig, consider it to be practically the exclusive means of supplyi ing this element. Others, after Saussure and Mulder, regard the slightly soluble compounds re- resulting from the decay ae vegetable matter (humus) in the soil, as
capable “of directly supplying a portion of carbon to a new generation of plants. While there is perhaps no satisfactory evidence that humus is entirely excluded from immediately nourishing vegetation, it is plain from considerations founded in the growth of forests and prairie grasses that the atmosphere, and indeed carbonic acid is now entitled to rank as the great storehouse of carbon for this purpose, as once, before humus existed, it must have been the exclusive source of this element.
From what has been already remarked with regard to the compo- sition of the vegetable carbo-hydrates, it is seen that a certain general theoretical view of their formation in the plant may be at once gath- ered from the facts now set forth. In order to form the members of the cellulose group, it is only needful that the carbon retained by the cells from the carbonic acid which they decompose so readily, should enter into union with adue amount of the water that perpetually streams upward through them. By the elimination of a portion of oxygen from the water itself, we have remaining the elements that form the fats and fixed oils. To yield the vegetable acids and the pectose group, it suffices that a portion of oxygen be retained or be reabsorbed. These considerations are purely hypothetical, yet, although the real processes of decomposition and organization are in many cases vastly more complex, they possess great interest in a survey of the economy of vegetation.
For the elaboration of the albuminoids, a source of nitrogen must be present tothe plant. This essential element is supplied, so far as the
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. Hai
atmosphere is concerned, almost entirely in the form of ammonia. This substance, familiar under the common name of hartshorn or spirits of hartshorn, is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen, and is charac- terized by its alkaline or basic properties, having a caustic burning taste and uniting with avidity to acids, forming a large class of salts.
In the atmosphere, in presence of an excess of carbonic acid, it cannot occur in the free state, but always exists as bicarbonate of ammonia, the same form in which it usually constitutes ‘* salt of harts- horn’”’ or ‘‘smelling salts.’’
Bicarbonate of ammonia may not only occur in the solid state as a white powder, but also readily assumes the condition of a gas, as 1s evident from the volatile pungency of smelling salts. It is readily dissolved to a very great extent by water ; but as readily evaporates from solution again, leaving the water almost entirely free from it. For this reason its amount in the atmosphere is so variable and so small, it being removed by every shower of rain or deposition of dew and again restored by warmth and wind, or such causes as favor vaporization.
In fact it is not by examining the air itself that we gain any ade- quate idea of the amount of ammonia it may furnish to vegetation. We must rather look to the atmospheric waters, to dews, rains, and fogs, in order to estimate this matter rightly. In rain water (the entire fall) the quantity of ammonia is also quite variable, ranging in the country from 4 to 19 parts in ten millions; while in the rain falling in cities a 10 times larger amount has been observed.—(Boussingault, Bineau, and Way.)
In the first. portions of rain or in slight showers, as well as in fog and dew, the proportion of ammonia is considerably larger. Thus, in the first 10th of a slow falling rain, Boussingault found 66 parts in 10 million of water; in dew, he found 62, and in fog 72, and in one extraordinary instance 497 parts of ammonia in 10 million of water.
Way has determined the entire amount of ammonia contained in the rain water that fell during the years 1855 and 1856 at Rotham- stead, 20 miles from Linden. He found that the water which fell on an acre of surface contained in 1855, 7.11 pownds, and in 1856, 9.53 pounds of ammonia.
The evidence that ammonia is capable of absorption and assimila- tion by the plant is as various as it is conclusive. Numerous field ex- periments made with artificial ammonia-compounds, as well as the fact that all animal manures in the very process of decay, whereby they appear first to acquire their full activity, yield this body in abundance—practically establish the point; nor are there wanting more precise investigations.
Ville especially, also Chlebodarow, have shown that the addition of ammonia to the ordinary atmosphere, as well as watering with its dilute solution greatly increases the mass of vegetation produced, and makes the same much richer in albuminoids. Ville has intro- duced the use of ammonia into conservatories with quite striking effect, diffusing into the air of the green-house from two to four 10- thousandths of its weight of carbonate of ammonia by placing a lump of this salt upon the steam pipes that supply the space with heat.
138 LECTURES ON
Nitric acid, the well-known compound of nitrogen and oxygen, oc- curs in the atmosphere in very minute quantity, usually in the form of nitrate of ammonia. This body being incapable of existing in vapor, and readily soluble in water, is brought to the earth in dews and rains. Its quantity is even more minute than that of ammonia. The most trustworthy estimations are those of Way, who found in the waters that fell upon an acre at Rothamstead, in 1855, 2.98 pounds, and in that of 1856, 2.80 pounds of nitrie acid, or about one part of nitric acid to two million parts of water.
In the soil, nitric acid often occurs in considerable quantity, (the result of chemical processes which we shall presently notice.) Here it exists in combination with various bases, usually as nitrates of lime, soda, and potash. The fertility of soils in which nitrates accumu- late, and the remarkable effects of their application as fertilizers, are evidence that nitric acid feeds vegetation.
Fig. Ul. Fig. 10. It is again to Boussingault qe that we owe the more careful | study of its effects. Among other experiments he made the following: Two seeds of Helianthus argophyllus were planted in each of three pots, the soil of which, consisting of a mixture of brick-dust and asand, as wellas the pots them- “selves, had been thoroughly freed from all nitrogenous com- pounds by ignition and washing with distilled water. To the soil of the pot A, fig. 10, nothing was added save the two seeds, and distilled water, with which all the plants were watered from time totime. With the soil of pot C (fig.12)were incorporated small quantities of phosphate of lime, of ashes of clover and bicarbonate of potash, in or- der that the plants growing in it might have an abundant supply of all the mineral mat- ters they needed. Finally, the soil of pot B, fig. 11, received the same mineral matters as } pot C, and in addition, a small quantity of nitric acid as ni- trate of potash. The seeds were sown on the 5th of July, and on the 30th September, the plants had the relative size and appearance seen in the figures, re- duced to one-sixth of the natural dimensions.
0) 4 Tp 3 Ep LOTT Ant GE PETG \ Wi =: y a ‘
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 139
This striking experiment demonstrates that nitric acid directly serves to supply nitrogen to plants. In fact, it appears to equal ammonia in its assimilability.
Liebig was formerly of the opinion that ammonia was the only form in which vegetation could be supplied with nitrogen, and that nitric acid was not appropriated by the plant untilafter it had become con- verted into ammonia in the soil. We know that under the influence of certain bodies having strong affinities for oxygen, nitric acid is transformed into ammonia, hydrogen displacing oxvgen. This change was supposed to occur in the soil by virtue of the action of the car- bonaceous matters (humus) there present. Now, while this may actually happen under certain circumstances, it is well ascertained that the soil and natural waters more generally contain nitrates than salts of ammonia, and the actual conversion of ammonia into nitrates in the soil has been experimentally traced.
The presence of nitrous oxyd in the atmosphere is not as yet directly proved, from want of a proper method of detecting it when forming but a small proportion of a gaseous mixture; but Knop has shown the probability of its occurrence there, and has proved that it may serve as a source of nitrogen to plants. What may be its significance in the actual nourishment of vegetation remains to be determined.
The important questions now arise, what are the sources of the water, carbonic acid, ammonia, and nitric acid, that exist in the atmos- phere? are these minute quantities liable to exhaustion? are they sufficient to supply vegetation with carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen?
The time was—so the reasonings of geology convince us—when the soil, having scarcely cooled down from a state of fusion by fire, could contain no carbon, or at least no nitrogen, ina form capable of feeding plants. Consequently, at this period all the nitrogen, and by far the larger share of the carbon, destined to aid the growth of plants must have existed in the air; and although processes subsequently came into operation whereby portions of these substances were incorporated with the soil, the final result of natural operations is to restore them in great part to the atmosphere.
The effect of oxygen, as manifested in the processes of decay, com- bustion, and animal nutrition, is to bring down the vegetable organism to the inorganic level—to convert the carbo-hydrates, the albuminoids and other proximate principles of vegetation, into carbonic acid, water, ammonia, and nitric acid, the very materials out of which, under the influence of the vital principle, they were constructed.
These three varieties of chemical disorganization, which were par- allel with the vital up-building of vegetation, deserve a somewhat extended notice.
Decay is a general term expressing the wasting or destruction of organic bodies under the influence of warmth, oxygen, and water.
The carbo-hydrates, when perfectly pure and dry, may be preserved indefinitely without undergoing any change. This we know in the case of cellulose, (cotton, paper,) sugar, starch, &c. In presence of a certain amount of water, and exposed to the air at a warm tempera- ture, they undergo change; which, in case of cellulose, is very slow,
140 LECTURES ON
in sugar is more rapid. The oils in the pure state, as well-as the
organic acids, are extremely slow in alteration. The albuminoids,
also, when dry may be kept at ordinary temperatures for an indefinite
time with no symptoms of change. If, however, they be exposed to warm air in the moist state, they speedily undergo the process of putrefaction; they decay with great rapidity, and with the production
of volatile bodies having a most intense and noisome odor.
The albuminoids are highly complex in their chemical composition; their atoms are, so to speak, delicately poised, and in a condition of unstable equilibrium, and, for this reason, liable to easy disturbance by any external agency. Hence, they at once break up into several less complex and more stable compounds when heat and oxygen act upon them with the intervention of water. Not only so, but in their fall they entangle the carbo-hydrates, the oils, the acids, and in fact all the organic constituents of the plant. In this way the soluble albuminoids act as ferments. Sugar dissolved in water is slow to change, until a decaying albuminoid, furnished by yeast, be added, when it is rapidly transformed into alcohol or acetic acid and carbonic acid. Butter, if carefully made, keeps sweet a long time; but if the casein of the milk be not thoroughly removed, it speedily becomes rancid, when air and warmth act upon it.
It is possible that the carbo-hydrates, if they could be absolutely separated and protected from matter containing nitrogen, would be found capable of perpetual preservation, even in contact with water, for in the presence of a minute quantity of some metallic salt, or other body that makes insoluble (inactive) compounds with the albuminoids, they do remain unaffected for long periods. Thus wood, which, though chiefly consisting of cellulose or other non-nitrogenous bodies, is not free from albumin, when exposed to the weather—7. e., to oxygen, water, and warmth—undergoes that form of slow decay known as mouldering or humifaction, the immediate visible result of which is vegetable mould or humus. If, however, the wood be first saturated with corrosive sublimate (kyanized) or blue vitrol, it resists decay for a long time.
As it happens naturally, with very few exceptions, the organic matter of vegetation, or of animals that have subsisted upon and been formed from vegetation, falling upon the surface of the earth or buried a little way beneath it, find just the conditions of decay; and their nitrogenized ingredients yielding first to the sway of oxygen, involve with them the whole organism, so that nothing but their mineral matters, which are already oxyds, escape the destruction.
The process of decay, thus sketched in outline, includes, however, numberless intermediate stages. Thus wood in its decay yields a large series of bodies which have the collective name of humus, but are distinguished into several groups, as the humic acids, ulmic acids, and geic acids, the latter comprising crenic and apocrenic acids. These bodies all differ from wood, out of which they originated, by containing much less hydrogen and oxygen compared to carbon. We can, in fact, trace the gradual removal of these elements up to a certain point, after which other products arise from the simple oxydation of those first
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 141
formed. The fact that hydrogen is more susceptible of oxydation than carbon, to a certain extent explains the production of these bodies.
In the decay of sugar under the action of ferments there appears in an analogous manner a series of intermediate bodies, which differ in character according to the circumstances under which the fermen- tation is conducted.
The intermediate products of the decay of vegetable matters, wood, &c., accumulate in large masses, especially where submersion in water cuts off the free access of oxygen and keeps the temperature reduced. In this way the peat of swamps and bogs is formed, and the immense coal beds now buried in the rock strata of the earth are doubtless nothing but the peat of a former geological epoch altered in its character by further chemical agencies.
The final products of complete decay are universally the same, whatever may be the intervening stages. The carbon of organic bodies is oxydized to carbonic acid. The hydr ogen is mainly converted into water. Nitrogen unites more or less with hydrogen, forming am- monia; in part, however, it escapes in the free state. Sulphur and phos- phorus are converted into sulphuric and phosphoric acids. The jixed mineral eeu remain.
Combustion, or burning, is likewise a process of oxydation. It differs from ee in the rapidity with which it occurs, and in the different intermediate products that result; but otherwise it is the same, its final issues being identical with those of decay. Combus- tion may, in fact, be called a quick decay, as decay has been termed by Liebig, a slow burning—eremecausis. It is easy to illustrate, by simple experiments, the ioe mation of water, carbonic acid, and am- monia in the burning of organic substances.
When burning non-nitrogenous bodies, as the wax and cotton of a lighted taper, are looked upon, under ordinary circumstances, we gain the impression, indeed, that they themselves waste away, but we perceive no result of the fire except light and heat. If, how- ever, an inverted dry glass bottle be lowered over the flame, and held so for a time, a mist presently gathers on its interior walls, and after a little drops of a liquid may be collected which are pure water. The bottle still being kept in the same position, we shortly see the flame becoming smaller, and its light dimmer, making it evident that something in the air which feeds the flame is being exhausted from the limited space that surrounds it. If, now, the bottle be removed, and have a little clear lime-water agitated in it, there will at once be formed a copious precipitate, as the chemist technically designates it, of carbonate of lime, the lime-water having served to make the in- visible carbonic acid that resulted from the union of atmospheric oxygen with the carbon of the wax, evident to the sense of sight.
During the combustion ofa nitrogenous body, in addition to water and carbonic eal we may detect ammonia. Thus, if the smoke ofa cigar be puffed against moist turmeric paper, (paper saturated with the yellow coloring principle of the turmeric or curcuma root, which is turned brown by alkalies,) the change of color at once shows the presence of ammonia. This body is always found in the soot of chimneys, where
142 LECTURES ON
wood is burned. It is collected, too, in great quanties in the gas- works of large cities, being formed from the nitrogen of the bitumin- ous coal which is distilled and imperfectly burned in the gas retorts. The common name, spirits of hartshorn, originated in the fact of the preparation of this substance from the horn of deer, (hart.)
When combustion goes on with full access of oxygen a good deal of nitrogen escapes in the free state, the hydrogen it might unite with to form ammonia being chiefly appropriated by the more active oxygen. In proportion as the burning proceeds with a limited sup- ply of oxygen, and at a lower temperature, more ammonia is proba- bly formed. In presence of a fixed alkali, as potash, soda, or lime, all the nitrogen of organic bodies may be converted into ammonia; and it is by an ingenious use of this fact that the chemist is enabled to determine with the greatest ease and accuracy the proportions of nitrogen which organic bodies contain.
As in decay, so in combustion, it easily happens that numerous in- termediate products occur, especially when the supply of oxygen is deficient. The oil, tar, smoke, and soot of ordinary fires are ex- amples. All these substances, however, by access of more oxygen at the proper temperature, may be fully consumed into the same final products as mentioned under decay. The mineral matters of organic bodies remain in this process as ashes.
The third means of restoring to the gaseous state the elements so- lidified by vegetation is found in the results of the animal functions, viz: in nutrition and respiration.
The non-nitrogenous food of animals, consisting always of the vege- table carbo-hydrates, oils, &c., or of certain products of their trans- formation, are chiefly burned in the body by the oxygen that the lungs inhale, and the carbonic acid and water thus formed are thrown out of the system with the exhaled air. If one breathes through a tube into a glass bottle, the deposition of moisture proves the existence of water in the expired air; and by forcing the breath through lime-water the formation of the white precipitate of carbo- nate of lime reveals the presence of carbonic acid.
The lungs and the skin, which also constantly throw off the same substances by perspiration, are the agencies whereby the gaseous products of the oxydation of the food are restored to the atmosphere. The kidneys and lower intestines remove a portion of the waste; the former in the liquid, the latter in the solid form. A small part of the nitrogen, of which animals require constant supplies in their nutriment, is exhaled as ammonia from the lungs and skin; but as the caustic characters possessed by this body, even when in combi- nation with carbonic acid, would not be compatible with its copious separation in the gaseous form, we must look to the liquid or solid dejections for the excretion of nitrogen. In animals we find that the kidneys dispose of this element. In the blood of man and quadru- peds there may be detected a substance which the kidneys collect and discharge from the body in large quantities through the urine. This substance, from its occurrence, is termed wea. When pure, it 1s a colorless or white body that may be procured in beautiful erys-
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 13
tals, and has a not unpleasant saline taste. In a state of purity its solution in water may be kept indefinitely without change; but in presence of a ferment, (an oxydizing albuminoid,) with which it is always naturally associated, it speedily undergoes decomposition; and by simply involving a certain amount of water in its change falls into the same substances which we have so often referred to as among the termini of vegetable and animal disorganization, viz: c: iene acid and ammonia. The following scheme illustrates this change:
One atom urea --+++--+--+-+.+++.+... = C, N, H, O, Two atoms water «+--+. -..- .ss.s.-. = EO, STR IMAyios cice bs ten susbee ieueuadawe) were eme coos Fax ODN els I O, Equal to— Two atoms carbonic acid.---...-...- =O, O WO; AbONIS AMMONIA, «+5 <5 <j. «ss oye oe — NESE OUI Poke o enero oterer aces ea ener Nal ea
Besides urea there occurs in the urine of man, and in large quan- tity in that of herbivorous animals, a body containing nitrogen which bears the name Aippuric acid. In the urine of carnivorous animals, and especially in the solid urine of birds and reptiles, is found wrie acid. Both these substances readily undergo conversion into carbo- nate of ammonia.
In the solid excrement of animals are found other bodies contain- ing nitrogen, which by decay shortly restore the same to the atmos- phere.
The processes we have thus briefly noticed do not, as already inti- mated, fully and immediately change the organized matter of vegeta. bles and animals back again into the substances which, according to our present knowledge, are to be regarded as the food of the plant. In the immense coal beds of former epochs and in the vast deposits of peat and sunken drift-wood that are now accumulating in marshes and river deltas, an enormous quantity of carbon and of nitr ogen too, is, so far as the historical age is concerned, permanently set aside from the great circulation of matter.
What is of more agriculturai importance, a large amount of nitro- gen escapes in the free state into the atmosphere, and thus becomes lost. to the staves of: nutriment for plants. But there are other re- sources provided in nature’s economy to maintain the requisite equi- librium.
The numerous voleanoes from which the smoke of central fires is perpetually escaping, pour daily into the atmosphere vast volumes of carbonic acid and not a little ammonia. In many regions, not in the usual sense volcanic, the earth is full of fissures that give forth un- ceasing streams of these gases. In the district of the Eifel, on the west- ern shore of the Rhine, it has been estimated that 100,000 tons of carbonic acid are annually thrown into the atmosphere.
But the principal means of resupplying carbonic acid and ammonia consists in the combustion of the coal and peat that represent the
144 LECTURES ON
vegetation of former times, or, indeed, of pre-Adamite epochs. It it is calculated that the carbonic acid yearly produced by the consump- tion of bituminous and anthracite coals in Great Britain amounts to fifty millions of tons, a quantity capable of supplying carbon to seven- eichths of all the cultivated crops of that country.
‘The deficit of nitrogen-compounds is made up in part by electrical discharges in the atmosphere. Cavendish was the first to notice that the electric spark causes nitrogen and oxygen, In a state of mixture, to combine into nitric acid. In accordance with this observation, it is found that the rain which falis during thunder storms contains more nitric acid than at other times. Although in our latitude the amount of plant food thus formed may be very trifling, it is possibly other- wise in tropical regions, where, according to the testimony of trav- ellers, the rumbling of thunder may be heard at any hour of the day during a considerable portion of the year.
The conversion of free nitrogen into ammonia is not known to take place in the atmosphere, nor are we certain that it is accomplished in the soil. It has, indeed, been asserted by Hermann and Mulder that, during the decay of wood, hydrogen is evolved, which, at the mo- ment of liberation, unites itself to nitrogen with the production of ammonia, but the experiments on which this assumption was based do not now appear to be worthy of confidence. .
In the soil, however, there does occur a constant formation of nitric acid, especially where lime or other alkaline bodies are present that may combine with it. It appears, indeed, that the greater share of this nitric acid results from the oxydation of the nitrogen of organic debris, but 1t is probable that the free atmospheric njtrogen is, to some extent, involved.
When electrical discharges are made to pass through the air or through pure oxygen gas, the latter shortly acquires entirely new properties. The most remarkable change it undergoes consists in its obtaining a powerful and peculiar odor, the same which is so often perceived near where lightning has struck. The oxygen, thus modi- fied, is found to be capable of much more rapid and intense action upon other bodies than is exerted by ordinary oxygen. It at once oxydizes ammonia to nitric acid and water, and also, in presence of an alkali or lime, unites direct with free nitrogen producing a nitrate. Oxygen thus altered, and intensified in its affinities, is termed ozone — or active oxygen, and not only is it produced by electiicity, but like- — wise by certain processes of oxydation. When phosphorus slowly oxydizes in the air, when the oils of turpentine and bitter almonds are exposed to the atmosphere for atime, the same ozonization oc- curs. Schoenbein, to whose assiduous researches we owe these highly interesting facts, is of the opinion that all instances of nitrification are due to the action of ozone. Although we are not as yet able to make a probable estimate of the amount of free nitrogen that is thus oxydized in any given time, or to form any notion of the quantitative importance of the effects of this agent, we have the satisfaction of standing on a threshold which promises us an entrance into the full
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 145
understanding of the processes by which the element nitrogen is made assimilable to vegetation.
Within a few years numerous investigations relative to this subject have been made. Luca has observed that when air (freed from am- monia) is passed through a solution of potash, nitrate of potash is formed, in case the air has been in previous contact with the foliage of plants, but not otherwise; thus indicating that the oxygen is ozon- ized by the oxydations going on in or about living vegetation (espe- cially when ethereal oils are exhaled?) and, according to Pless and Pierre, ozone is also produced in the decay of the organic matters of the soil.
If, as thus appears probable, it is the case that the very existence of living plants, and certain later stages of their destruction by decay, are means of recombining nitrogen to an extent equal to or slightly greater than that to which this element is placed beyond the reach of vegetable assimilation in the earlier steps of organic decom- position, we see that the vegetable germ carries with it, so far as this element is concerned, the possibility of an almost unlimited, reproduc- tion or expansion.
Allusion has already been made to the possibility of the occurrence of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere, but we have as yet no positive evidence of the fact.
Having thus shown the origin of the compounds out of which, for the most part, the plant organizes itself, and explained, so far as the present state of science allows, how the supplies that are continually being consumed are as continually maintained, we now come properly to consider the question, Are the atmospheric stores sufficient for the purposes of vegetation ?
To this inquiry we must undoubtedly reply, that while the quantity of carbonic acid absolutely contained in the atmosphere is so large as to feed an abundant vegetation, it being experimentally shown that some plants are able to grow well with none other than the ordinary atmospheric supplies, it appears that a concentration of this substance in the vicinity of the absorbing organs not only develops, but is essen- tial to the intense growth which characterizes agricultural production.
Liebig and others have instanced forests and prairies as proving the sufficiency of the atmosphere in this respect, for, say they, under the occupancy of trees and grasses the soil is constantly enriched in car- bon drawn from the atmosphere by these plants and annually deposited upon the soil as fallen foliage. In our view, however, the fact that a forest does not come into its most vigorous growth before the soil has been covered with decaying leaves, proves that the general atmos- phere is insufficient, not indeed in the amount, but in the rapidity of its provision, and that an atmosphere more highly charged than usual with the products of vegetable decay, near or in the soil, is essential to the full supply of carbonic acid. The same doctrine must obtain with reference to the other forms of plant-food. It is, in fact, needful that the soil become a medium for the condensation and more speedy transmission into the plant of the originally purely atmospheric sup- plies. We shall recur to this subject in subsequent pages,
10
146 LECTURES ON
Closing here our study of the atmosphere considered as a source of the food of plants, we still need to remark somewhat upon the physi- cal properties of gases in relation to vegetable life; so far, at least, as may give some idea of the means by which they gain access into the
lant.
: Whenever two or more gases are brought into contact in a confined space, they instantly begin to intermingle, and continue so to do until, in a short time, they are each equally diffused throughout the room they occupy or pass into a condition of osmotic equilibrium. If two vessels, one filled with carbonic acid, the other with hydrogen, be con- nected by a tube no wider than a straw, and be placed so that the heavy
Fig. 13. carbonic acid is below the fifteen times lighter hy- drogen, we shall find after the lapse of a few hours that the two bodies are in a state of uniform mix- ture. On closer study of this phenomenon it has been discovered that gases diffuse with a rapidity proportioned to their lightness. Hence, by inter- posing a porous membrane between two gases of unequal density, the lighter passing more rapidly into the denser than the latter into the former, the space on one side of the membrane is overfilled while the other side is partially emptied of gas. This fact is taken advantage of for the visible illus- tration of the fact of gaseous diffusion.
In the accompanying figure 13 is represented along glass tube 6 widened above into a funnel, and having cemented upon this an inverted cylindrical cup of unglazed porcelaina. The funnel rests ina round aperture made in the horizontal arm of the support while the tube below dips beneath the surface of some water Contained in the wine glass. The porous cup, funnel, and tube being occupied with common air, a glass bell cis filled with hydrogen gas and placed over the cup as shown in the figure. In- stantly bubbles begin to escape rapidly from the bottom of the tube through the water of the wine J glass, thus demonstrating that hydrogen passes into the cup faster than air can escape outward through its pores. If the bell be removed, the cup is at once bathed again externally in common air, the light hydrogen floating instantly upward, and now the water begins to rise in the tube in consequence of the return to the outer atmosphere of the hydrogen which before had diffused into the cup.
It is the perpetual action of this diffusive, or, as it is scientifically termed, osmotic tendency, which maintains the atmosphere in a state of such uniform mixture that accurate analyses of it give for oxygen and nitrogen almost identical figures, at all times of the day, at all seasons, all altitudes, and all situations, except near the central sur- face of large bodies of still water. Here the fact that oxygen is more largely absorbed by water than nitrogen diminishes by a minute amount the usual proportion of the former gas.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 147
If into a limited volume of several gases be placed a body in the solid or liquid form, which is capable of uniting with chemically, or otherwise destroying the gaseous condition of one of the gases, it will at once absorb those particles of this gas which lie in its immediate vicinity and thus disturb the osmotic equilibrium of the remaining mixture. This equilibrium is at once restored by diffusion of a por- tion of the unabsorbed gas into the space that has been deprived of it and thus the absorption and the diflusion keep pace with each other until all the absorbable air is removed from the gaseous mixture and condensed or fixed in the absorbent.
In this manner a portion of the atmosphere enclosed in a large glass vessel may be perfectly freed from watery vapor and carbonic acid by a small fragment of caustic potash. A piece of phosphorus will in a few hours absorb all its oxygen, and an ignited mass of the rare metal titanium will remove its nitrogen.
A few words will now suffice to apply these facts to the absorption of the nutritive gases by vegetation.
The cells of plants are permeable to gases, as is especially manifest from what has been stated regarding the separation or evaporation of gaseous water from leaves. They too, or some portions of their con- tents, absorb or condense carbonic acid and ammonia in a similar way, or at least with the same effect as potash absorbs carbonic acid. As fast as these bodies are removed from the atmosphere surrounding or occupying the cells, so fast they are re-supplied by diffusion from without; so that although the quantities of gaseous plant-food con- tained in the air are, relatively considered, very small, they are by this grand natural law made to flow in continuous streams toward every growing vegetable cell.
LECTURE III.
THE SOIL AS RELATED TO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION.
No agricultural plant flourishes naturally except its roots are sit- uated inasoil. The soil is that upon which the farmer spends his labor; the atmosphere, the weather, he cannot control. His art enables him, however, so to modify and adapt the soil that all the deficiencies of the atmosphere or the vicissitudes of climate cannot deprive him of a reward for his exertions.
The soil has a two-fold function. In the first instance, it forms the appropriate support and home of the plant, is its birthplace, the station where it runs through all the stages of its development, and the protection beneath which its roots or seeds survive the desolation of winter to gladden every spring-time with renewed growth. In the second place, it is the exclusive source of an indispensable part of the food of all agricultural plants, and the medium through which another larger share of their nutriment is accumulated and presented to them.
In nature we observe a vast variety of soils, which often differ as much in their fertility as they do in their appearance. We find large
148 LECTURES ON
tracts of country covered with barren, drifting sands, on whose arid bosom only a few stunted pines or shrivelled grasses find nourish- ment. Again there occur in the highlands of Scotland, Bavaria, Prussia, and other temperate countries, enormous stretches of moor- land, bearing a nearly useless growth of heath or moss. In Southern Russia occurs a vast tract, two hundred millions of acres in extent, of the tschornosem, or black earth, which is remarkable for its extra- ordinary and persistent fertility. The prairies of our own west, the bottom lands of the Scioto and other rivers of Ohio, are other ex- amples of peculiar soils; while on every farm, almost, may be found numerous gradations from clay to sand, from vegetable mould to gravel—gradations in color, consistence, composition, and produc- tiveness.
Some consideration of the origin of soils is adapted to assist in understanding the reasons of their fertility. Geological studies give us reasons to believe that what is now soil was once, in chief part, solid rock. We find in nearly all soils fragments of rock, recogniza- ble as such by the eye, and by help of the microscope it is often easy to perceive that those portions of the soil which are impalpable to the feel are only minuter grains of the same rock.
We have space for only the merest general outline of what was probably the original condition of the earth, and of the successive changes that have wrought it to its present state. During the lapse of the uncounted ages that have been forming our globe, rocks have been ground to soil, and soil has been recemented into rock, and to- day the same transformations are slowly and silently proceeding. When the earth first cooled down from the primal heat, it had no soil, in the proper sense of that word, but was a mass of crystalline granitic rocks and volcanic scoriw, incapable of supporting vegeta- tion. When the vapors condensed upon its surface, began that strife between fire and water which, under the mild forms we call weather, has never since ceased. Rains then began to fall upon the mountain wrinkles produced by the contraction of the cooling crust. Streams flowed downward into the valleys, cracking the still hot rock, whirling fragments along in their courses until they settled as gravel, sand, or finer powder to the bottom of some quiet sea, or were dissolved in boiling wells. In later epochs vegetation began to flourish; then, after slow centuries had passed, animal life was set in process; each department of organized éxistence, in its own way, adding to the list of changes. From the first the atmospheric oxygen was omnipresent, and carbonic acid too, began to act upon the rocks; and as the result of the solvent, decomposing, breaking-up, and commingling course of operations, thus carried on through long periods of continual action, we have the soil in its present characters and aspects.
The mechanical force of running water has been among the most effective agencies in the pulverization of rocks. During what is termed the diluvial or drift period, a current of water passed from north to south over the northern portion of this continent, wearing down the rocks, and bearing with it an enormous mass of solid matters, which now remain as then deposited, constituting gravelly hills, and
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 149
soils which are filled with pebbles or boulders, that were then rounded and polished in their transit from distant nothern latitudes.
Since the opening of the human epoch, lesser local floods in the waters of rivers have made numberless so-called alluvial deposits (river bottoms and deltas) in like manner.
Changes of temperature, especially the alternate freezing and thaw- ing of water, exercise great influence in the pulverization of rocks. Water, as is well known, expands with great force in the act of freez- ing, and by insinuating itself while liquid into the fine cleavage rifts of rocks, and there congealing, breaks asunder the particles. The dense limestone of the Jura formation, as found in polished nodules in the soil near Munich, in Bavaria, if moistened with water and ex- posed to frost a single night is so disintegrated that, as the ice melts, it yields a water turbid with the loosened atoms of rock.
Oxygen exerts a perpetual disintegrating effect, by uniting with the protoxyd of iron, which occurs in nearly all rocks, setting free the acids and bases before in combination with it, and yielding peroxyd of iron. Sulphid (sulphuret) of iron is an exceedingly abundant ingredient of rocks, and, under the influence of oxygen, is readily converted into soluble sulphate of iron—a product which, in turn, reacts upon other constituents of rocks to dissolve or alter them. Carbonic acid, especially in conjunction with water, dissolves or com- bines with the alkalies and earths existing in rocks, and thus destroys their integrity and causes them to crumble away to soil.
The composition and chemical characters of soils depend upon the kind of rock or rocks from which they originate. A glance at the nature of these will therefore be of service tous. As to chemical ingredients, we find that the most abundant and widely diffused are precisely those which are found in the ash of plants. They mostly occur in certain definite combinations, and form the minerals, quartz, feldspar, hornblende, augite, mica, serpentine, kaolin, zeolite, carbo- nate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and numerous others of less im- portance. ‘The composition of specimens of these minerals is given in the annexed table. They occur, however, in very numerous varie- ties, and vary greatly in the kind as well as proportions of their in- eredients.* It is seen from the table that many of them contain nearly all the inorganic ingredients of plants.
* This fact may appear to stand in contradiction to the statement above made that these minerals are definite combinations. In the infancy of mineralogy great perplexity arose from the numberless varieties of minerals that were found—varieties that agreed together in cer- tain characteristics, but widely differed in others. In 1830, Mitscherlich, a Prussian phi- losopher, discovered that a number of the elementary bodies are capable of replacing each other in combination, from the fact of their natural crystalline form being identical; they being, as he termed it, isomorphous, or of like shape. Thus, magnesia, lime, protoxyd of iron, and protoxyd of manganese; potash, soda; silica, and alumina may replace each other in such a way as to greatly affect the composition without altering the constitution of a mineral. Of the mineral hornblende, for example, there are known a great number of varieties ; some pure white in color, containing, in addition to silica, magnesia and lime ; others pale green, a small portion of magnesia being replaced by protoxyd of iron; others black, containing alumina in place of a portion of silica, and with oxides of iron and man- ganese in large proportion. All these minerals, however, admit of one expression of their constitution, for the amount of oxygen in the bases, no matter what they are, or what their proportions, bears a constant relation to the oxygen of the silica (and alumina) they con- tain, the ratio being 4: 9.
LECTURES ON
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AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 151
These minerals, while they make up the chief bulk of rocks or of the soil, are always associated with minute quantities of other com- pounds, such as phosphates, chlorids, sulphates, or bodies yielding sulphates, &c., upon which the geologist scarcely bestows attention, which are, however, for the scientific agriculturist of great moment.
In consequence of this wise provision and of the beneficent inter- mingling of the fragments of rock from widely distant regions, during the drift period and by alluvial agencies, it has resulted that, almost everywhere, there exist in the soil all those mineral bodies which are found in plants. Some one has been, indeed, so impressed with the universality of the distribution of each elementary form of matter as to offer the opinion that all the sixty simple bodies which constitute the globe might be found in every handful of soil or cup of water existing on its surface did we but possess sufficiently delicate tests.
It sometimes happens, indeed, that where a soil is in place, i. e., has not been transported, but lies covering the rock from which it has been formed, it is very poor and supports only a sparse vegeta- tion, or, perhaps, is totally naked and destitute of all organic life. But these instances are comparatively rare, and their infertility is more often due to want of water, or some external cause, than to the absolute deficiency of those ingredients which are needful in a pro- ductive soil.
It often happens that a close connexion exists between the rock and the overlying soil; as often, however, the one serves as no indi- cation to the value of the other.
The mechanical analysis of any soil separates it into portions of different fineness. A coarse sieve removes gravel, consisting of the larger fragments of rock; a finer one, coarse sand; by washing with water, fine sand is left, while the turbid washings deposit after a time a quantity of impalpable matter which may consist in part of the exceedingly fine particles of rock, and in part of clay, or it may be entirely formed of the latter.
In most inferior soils the gravel and sand, when abundant, are an- gular fragments of quartz, feldspar, hornblende, augite, and mica, or of rocks consisting of these minerals. It is only these harder and less easily decomposable minerals that can resist the pulverizing agencies through which a large share of our soils have passed. In the more fertile soils, formed from secondary limestones and slates, the fragments of these stratified rocks occur as flattened pebbles and rounded grains.
The fine portion of the soil bears, either in quantity or composition, the most direct relation to its fertility. It is this which is capable of yielding to the growing plant the food it requires. The coarser parts of the soil are a vast store of materials in reserve for the distant fu- ture, since, by their slow disintegration, they themselves gradually become so comminuted as to serve the wants of vegetation.
Clay, which is almost invariably a chief part of the impalpable matter of the soil, has been marked by us asa mineral, and its general composition indicated in the table (p. 150.) It is a product of the action of water and carbonic acid upon such minerals as feldspar, mica, hornblende, and augite. Under the influence of these agents,
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the silicates of alumina and potash, lime, &c., yield carbonates of potash, lime, &c., which dissolve and wash away, while a silicate of alumina and water, mingled with free silica, and mechanically retain- ing more or less of the other substances remains, and this is clay.
When formed from feldspar alone it is often pure white in color, | and bears the name kaolin. This, the purest form of clay, is the material which constitutes the basis of porcelain. In mines, excavated through feldspathic rocks, nothing is more common than to find masses of the whitest kaolin in the fissures or cavities, which give a down- ward passage to the percolating water. The clay of ordinary soils, is, however, a material greatly admixed with other substances, and therefore exceedingly different and variable in its composition, and all the better adapted by this for its agricultural applications.
Many soils contain much carbonate of lime in an impalpable form, having been derived chiefly from the mechanical wearing down of lime rocks, as marble and chalk—from the shells of mollusks or coral branches, or, finally, being clays that have originated by the chemi- cal decomposition of feldspathic rocks containing much lime.
Organic matter, especially the debris of former vegetation, is almost never absent from the impalpable portion of the soil, existing there in some of the many forms assumed by the Protean humus.
From consideration of the relative proportions of the principal me- chanical ingredients has chiefly arisen the customary classification and nomenclature of soils. Silicious sand (grains of quartz, feldspar, &c.) and clay make up the chief proportion of many soils. The mixture of the two forms a loam which may be sandy (light) or clayey (heavy.) A further division is into loamy sand and loamy clay. When, in ad- dition to these, lime is present the soil is said to be a marl, either sandy, clayey, loamy, &c., according to the relative quantities of the ingredients.
Soils containing organic matter to the amount of 5 to 10 per cent. are termed vegetable moulds; if this ingredient exceeds 10 per cent., which rarely occurs, except in wet situations, we have a peaty soil.
If coarse rounded fragments of rock be present in large quantity the soil is gravelly. Where much oxyd of iron exists, as evinced by a red or yellow color, the soil is ochery. The epithets peaty, gravelly, ochery, come then, in many cases, to further modify the designations of sands, clays, marls, and moulds. '
Other divisions are current among practical men, as, for example, surface and sub-soil, active and inert soil, tilth, and hard pan. These terms mostly explain themselves. When, at the depth of four inches to one foot or more, the soil assumes a different color and texture, these distinctions have meaning. The surface soil, active soil, or tilth, is the portion that is wrought by the instruments of tillage— that which is moistened by the rains, warmed by the sun, permeated by the atmosphere, in which the plant extends its roots, gathers its soil food, and which, by the decay of the subterranean organs of vegetation, acquires a content of humus. Where the soil originally had the same characters to a great depth, it often becomes modified down to a certain point, by the agencies just enumerated, in such a
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 153
manner that the eye at once makes the distinction into surface-soil and sub-soil. In many soils, however, such distinctions are entirely ar- bitrary, the earth changing its appearance gradually or even remain- ing uniform to a considerable depth.
Again, the surface soil may have a greater downward extent than the active soil, or the tilth may extend into the sub-soil.
Hard-pan is the appropriate name of a dense, almost impenetra- ble, crust or stratum of ochery clay or compacted gravel, often under- lying a fairly fruitful soil. It is the soil reverting torock. The parti- cles once disjointed are being cemented together again by the solu- tions of lime, iron or alkali-silicates that descend from the surface soil. Such a stratum often separates the surface soil from a deep gravel bed, and peat swamps thus exist in basins formed on the most porous soils by a thin layer of moor-bed-pan.
With these general notions regarding the origin and characters of soils, we may proceed to a somewhat extended notice of the pro- perties of the soil as influencing fertility. These divide themselves into physical characters—those which externally affect the growth of the plant; and chemical characters—those which provide it with food.
Among the physical characters* we first notice the state of division in which the soil is found.
On the surface of a block of granite only a few lichens and mosses can exist; crush the block to a coarse powder and a more abundant vegetation can be supported on it; if it is reduced to a very fine dust and duly watered, even the cereal grains will grow and perfect fruit on it. Thus two soils may have the same chemical composition, and yet one be almost inexhaustibly fertile, and the other almost hope- lessly barren. There are sandy soils in the Eastern States, which, without manure, yield only the most meagre crops of rye or buck- wheat; and there are sandy soils in Ohio, which, without manure, yield on an average 80 bushels of Indian corn per acre, and have yielded this for twenty to fifty years in unbroken succession. Ac- cording to David A. Wells, (American Journal of Science, July, 1852,) these two kinds of soil yield very similar, practically identical, results on chemical analysis, so far as their inorganic ingredients are concerned. What is the cause of the difference of fertility? Our present knowledge can point to no other éxplanation than is furnished by the different fineness of the particles. The barren sandy soils consist in great part of coarse grains, while the Ohio soil is an ex- ceedingly fine powder.
It is true, as a general rule, that all fertile soils contain a large proportion of very fine or impalpable matter. How the extreme division of the particles of the soil is connected with its fertility is not difficult to understand. The food of the plant must enter it in a state of solution, or if undissolved, the particles must be smaller
In treating of the physical characters of the soil, the writer employs an essay on this subject, contributed by him to vol. XVI of the Transactions of the N. Y. State Agricul- tural Society.
154 © LECTURES ON
than we can discover with the best optical aids, because the pores of the roots of plants are not discernible by any microscope. The mineral matters of the soil must be dissolved or diffused in water. The rapidity of their solution is in direct proportion to the extent of their surface. The finer the particles, the more abundantly will the plant be supplied with its necessary nourishment. In the Scioto valley soils the water which is transpired by the crops comes in con- tact with such an extent of surface that it is able to dissolve the soil- ingredients in as large quantity and as rapidly as the crop requires. In the coarse-grained soils this is not the case. Soluble matters (manures) must be applied to them by the farmer, or his crops refuse to yield handsomely.
It is furthermore obvious, that, other things being equal, the finer the particles of the soil the more space the growing roots have in which to expand themselves, and the more numerously are they able to present their absorbent surfaces to the supplies which the soil contains.
It will presently appear that other very important properties of the soil are more or less related to its state of mechanical division.
The soil has, secondly, a power of withdrawing from the air vapor of water and condensing the same in rts pores. It is, in other words, hygroscopic.
This property of a soil is of the utmost agricultural importance, because, 1st, it is connected with the permanent moisture which is necessary to vegetable existence, and, 2d, since the absorption of water-vapor determines the absorption of other vapors and gases.
In the following table from Schiibler we have the results of a series of experiments carried out by that philosopher for the pur- pose of determining the absorptive power of different kinds of earths and soils.
The column of figures gives in thousandths the quantity of moisture absorbed by the previously dried soil, under the same circumstances, in twenty-four hours:
Quartz sand, CODTSE Hisraeee Sobt Ciera greene inal aittaltetahouadonysy caeWe Ttomren cea toie 0 Gry OSIM Newt crete: wale: Soave egal ors av atiatio els eke fat neta tOneAUCNCNE tee cram 1 (aici (outer his PCAs Ge Le eer Si oor SRL RL Ay 3 Plouginland!\..%s.o5' eee ashi Sees Nes Re ae eee morte 93 Glayssoilt(C0" per Contsiclay) a0. vs v= serene steteh soles eee ere 98 MA Ly MIME Lessa eave votecurec 5, aealcrs Mhatetas g Site cat eveeme ATR URE ye 33 OLIN esate tesco e eas aisha 55g tes GRRE NAS CL ke ee 35 Binexcarbonatovof limes > cass Soke seen eee 35 Heavy clay soil, (80 per cent. Clay) +--+. sees were ee eee 4} Garden mould, (7 per cent. Fitamaus)) >< «285 2 ue ee Sloane hoon te Pure clay eure [eRorrelied's cei foiei's)sn: “6) sel ecetio io treda ie tee celal afore tema SICH Io rratat one 49 Carbonate of magnesia, (fine powder) ----..+...-+e+ ences 82 Tamas veictees ects ates es AOR Ons Be, A ee ee 120
® An obvious practical result follows from the facts expressed in the above table, viz: that sandy soils which have little attractive force for watery vapor, and are therefore dry and arid, may be meliorated in this respect by admixture with clay, or better with humus, as
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 155
is done by green manuring. The table gives us proof that gypsum does not exert any beneficial action in consequence of directly attract- ing moisture. Humus, or decaying vegetable matter, it will be seen, surpasses every other ingredient of the soil in absorbing moisture. This is doubtless in some degree connected with its extraordinary porosity or amount of surface. How the extent of surface alone may act is made evident by comparing the absorbent power of carbonate of lime in the two states of sand and of an impalpable powder. The latter it is seen, absorbed twelve times as much vapor of water as the former. Carbonate of magnesia stands next to humus, and it is worthy of note that it is a very light and fine powder.
Finally, it is a matter of observation that ‘‘silica and lime in the form of coarse sand make the soil in which they predominate so dry and hot that vegetation perishes from want of moisture; when, however, they occur as fine dust, they form too wet a soil, in which plants perish from the opposite cause.’’—(Hamm’s Landwirthschaft.)
In the fact that soils have a physical absorbing power for the vapor of water, we have an illustration of a general principle, viz: That the surfaces of liquid and solid matter attract the particles of other kinds of matter. In the same way that water is absorbed, oxygen gas is con- densed, especially in certain highly porous bodies. Platinum, copper, lead, and iron, when in the state of fine sponge, exert a remarkable condensing power on oxygen, and it is probable that thereby this element is ozonized. Platinum sponge exhibits the characters of a body charged with ozone, and it is to be anticipated that investiga- tion will shortly demonstrate the occurrence of gaseous condensa- tions in the soil, the effect of which is to produce chemical changes of the most important character. It is not unlikely that the organic matters of the soil, which possess the extremest porosity may thereby acquire their power of ozonizing the oxygen which combines so readily with them, and thus accomplish the formation of nitric acid from atmospheric nitrogen.
Of exceeding influence on the fertility of the soil is, thirdly, its permeability to iquid water.
A soilis permeable to water when it allows that liquid to soak into or run through it. To be permeable is of course to be porous. On the size of the pores depends its degree of permeability. Coarse sands, and soils which have few but large pores or interspaces, allow water to run through them readily—water percolates them. When, instead of running through, the water is largely absorbed and held by the soil, the latter is said to possess great capillary power; such a soil has many and minute pores. The cause of capillarity is the same surface attraction which has been already mentioned.
When a narrow vial is partly filled with water, it will be seen that the liquid adheres to its sides, and if it be not more than one-half inch in diameter, the surface of the liquid will be curved or concave. In a very narrow tube the liquid will rise to a considerable height. In these cases the surface attraction of the glass for the water neu- tralizes or overcomes the weight of (earth’s attraction for) the latter.
The pores of a sponge raise and hold water in them, in the same
156 LECTURES ON
way that these narrow (capillary*) tubes support it. When a body has pores so fine (surfaces so near each other) that their surface attrac- tion is greater than the gravitating tendency of water, then the body will suck up and hold water—will exhibit capillarity; a lump of salt or sugar, a lamp-wick, are familiar examples. When the pores of a body are so large (the surfaces so distant) that they cannot fill them- selves or keep themselves full, the body allows the water to run through or to percolate.
Sand is most easily permeable to water, and to a higher degree the coarser its particles. Clay, on the other hand, is the least pene- trable, and the less so the purer and more plastic it is.
When a soil is too coarsely porous it is said to be leachy or hungry. The rains that fall upon it quickly soak through, and it shortly becomes dry. On such a soil, the manures that may be ap- plied in the spring are to some degree washed down below the reach of vegetation, and in the droughts of summer plants suffer and perish from want of moisture.
When the texture of a soil is too fine, its pores too small, as happens in a heavy clay, the rains penetrate it too slowly; they flow off the surface, if the latter be inclined, or remain as pools for days and even weeks in the hollows. Ina soil of proper texture the rains neither soak off into the under earth nor stagnate on the surface, but the soil always (except in excessive wet or drought) maintains the moistness which is salutary to most of our cultivated plants.
The part which the capillarity of the soil plays in the nutrition of the plant deserves a moment’s notice.
Ifa wick be put into a lamp containing oil, the oil, by capillary action, gradually permeates its whole length, that which is above as well as that below the surface of the liquid. When the lamp is set burning, the oil at the flame is consumed, and as each particle disap- pears its place is supplied by a new one, until the lamp is empty or the flame extinquished.
Something quite analogous occurs in the soil, by which the plant (corresponding to the flame in our illustration) is fed. The soil is at once lamp and wick, and the water of the soil represents the oil. Let evaporation of water from the surface of the soil or of the plant take place of the combustion of the oil from a wick and the matter stands thus: Let us suppose dew or rain to have saturated the ground with moisture for some depth. On recurrence of a dry atmosphere with sunshine and wind, the surface of the soil rapidly dries; but as each particle of water escapes (by evaporation) into the atmosphere, its place is supplied (by capillarity) from the stores below. The ascending water brings along with it the soluble matters of the soil, and thus the roots of plants are situated in a stream of their appropriate food. The movement proceeds in this way so long as the surface is dryer than the deeper soil. When, by rain or otherwise, the surface is saturated, it is like letting a thin stream of oil run upon the apex of the lamp-
a Et EE ee
_ “From capillus the Latin word for hair, because as fine as hair; (but a hair is no tube, as is often supposed. )
=
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 157
wick—no more evaporation into the air can occur, and consequently there is no longer any ascent of water; on the contrary, the water, by its own weight, penetrates the soil, and if the underlying ground be not saturated with moisture, as can happen where the subterranean fountains yield a meagre supply, then capillarity will aid gravity in its downward distribution.
The most rational conclusion from all the facts at our command is that all the mineral matters, as well as a portion of the organic bodies, which feed the plant, are carried into it by water. So long as evapora- tion goes on from the surface of the soil, so long there is a constant upward flow of saline matters. Those portions which do not enter vegetation accumulate on or near the surface of the ground; when a rain falls, they are washed down again to a certain depth, and thus are kept constantly changing their place with the water, which is the vehicle of their distribution. In regions where rain falls periodically or not at all, this upward flow of the soil-water often causes an accumu- lation of salts on the surface of the ground. Thus in Bengal many soils which in the wet season produce the most luxuriant crops, during the rainless portion of the year become covered with white crusts of saltpetre. Doubtless the beds of nitrate of soda that are found in Peru have accumulated in the same manner. So in our western caves the earth sheltered from rains is saturated with salts—epsom salts, glauber salts, and saltpetre, or mixtures of these. Often the rich soil of gardens is slightly incrusted in this manner in our summer weather; but the saline matters are carried into the soil with the next rain.
It is easy to see how, in a good soil, capillarity thus.acts in keeping the roots of plants constantly immersed in a stream of water or moist- ure that is now ascending, now descending, but never at rest, and how the food of the plant is thus made to circulate around the organs fitted for absorbing it.
The same causes that maintain this perpetual supply of water and food to the plant are also efficacious in constantly preparing new sup- plies of food. As before explained, the materials of the soil are always undergoing decomposition, whereby the silica, lime, phosphoric acid, potash, &c., of the insoluble fragments of rock, become soluble in water and accessible to the plant. Water charged with carbonic acid and oxygen, is the chief agent in these chemical changes. The more extensive and rapid the circulation of water in the soil, the more matters will be rendered soluble in a given time, and, other things being equal, the less will the soil be dependent on manures to keep up its fertility.
No matter how favorable the structure of the soil may be to the circulation of water in it, no continuous upward movement can take place without evaporation. The ease and rapidity of evaporation, while mainly depending on the condition of the atmosphere and on the sun’s heat, are to a certain degree influenced by the soil itself. We have already seen that the soil possesses a power of absorbing watery vapor from the atmosphere, a power which is related both to
158 LECTURES ON
the kind of material that forms the soil and to its state of division. This absorptive power opposes evaporation. Again, different soils manifest widely different capacities for imbibing liquid water—capa- cities mainly connected with their porosity. Obviously too, the quantity of liquid in a given volume of soil affects not only the rapidity, but also the duration of evaporation. bea
The following tables by Schiibler illustrate the peculiarities of dif- ferent soils in these respects. The first column gives the per cents of water absorbed by the completely dry soil. In these experiments the soils were thoroughly wet with water, the excess allowed to drip off, and the increase of weight determined. In the second column are given the per cents of water that evaporated during the space of one hour from the saturated soil spread over a given surface:
Quartz sand sielielietiotel sirsiejielehelclie/leie lee) isiteilelelaile/.e)l <lie/elelelielisiielenetene 95 88.4 Gypsum Rete aoa It eowerodseheia ton ie) aneiaons ercoxeveliouelieh ai eievon oleae sreleders OT Tie ANNE EBINOld 64agloo bo bous Con 6 GUUS con ouD sooo SuonUs 299 75.9 Slaty IVAN lioMoto lay stellar e ers: iiegehe: « ; oe shisllislieheielile)iohelfehlelieve eehohelielene me Bate Clay soil, (sixty per cent. clay,)-----++++++ sees eeeee :
iene pease So G6 Bo Ooo Teer ca, i BY ies 51 45.7 Plomen Vande oss ok coches reece eee 52 ~—s«:882.0 Heavy clay, (eighty per cent. clay,)- +--+ ++++++e+-ee- 61 34.9 Pure gray clay 5 OOOO GOGO UOb.O ONO U OUG.0 COOSOd GID OO bGOC 70 31.9 HN OECATDOMATGMO ET MLLINIG Tolle. siasieie stirs, eile lo lake relloliot olla gemete!suel) seicee 85 28.0 ‘oanclerm: miowliGl a aoloo cooobe OCGuOor oD COU MoCo oUD ddooDe 89 94.3 lSkigTTIER oOo Glo to olGts Cade 000,00.C1080.00.0 doo BOIS OID OSE Gude 181 95.5 Fine carbonate of magnesia-.+++++ sees seers cece eee 256 10.8
It is obvious that these two columns express nearly the same thing in different ways. The amount of water retained increases from quartz sand to magnesia. The rapidity of drying in the air, diminishes in the same direction.
The want of retentive power for water in the case of coarse sand is undeniably one of the chief reasons of its unfruitfulness. The best soils possess a medium retentive power. In them, therefore, are best united the conditions for the regular distribution of the soil-water under all circumstances. In them this process is not hindered too much either by wet or dry weather. The retaining power of humus is seen to be more than double that of clay. This result might appear at first sight to be in contradiction to ordinary observations, for we are accustomed to see water standing on the surface of clay but not on humus. It must be borne in mind that clay, from its imperviousness, holds water like a vessel, the water remaining apparent; but humus retains it invisibly, its action being nearly like that of a sponge.
One chief cause of the value of a layer of humus on the surface of the soil doubtless consists in this great retaining power for water, and the success that has attended the practice of green manuring, as a means of renovating almost worthless shifting sands, is in a great degree to be attributed to this cause. The advantages of mulching are explained in the same way.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 159
The relations of the soil to heat are of the utmost importance in affecting its fertility. The distribution of plants in general, is deter- mined by differences of mean temperature. In the same climate and locality, however, we find the farmer distinguishing between cold and warm soils.
The temperature of the soil varies to a certain depth with that of the air; yet its changes occur more slowly, are confined to a narrower range of temperature, and diminish downward in rapidity and amount, until at a certain depth a point is reached where the temperature is invariable.
In summer the temperature of the soil is higher in day time than that of the air; at night the temperature of the surface rapidly falls, especially when the sky is clear.
In temperate climates, at a depth of three feet, the temperature remains unchanged from day to night; at a depth of 20 feet the an- nual temperature varies but a degree or two; at 75 feet below the surface, the thermometer remains perfectly stationary. In the vaults of the Paris Observatory, 80 feet deep, the temperature is 50° Fah- renheit. In tropical regions the point of nearly unvarying tempera- ture is reached at a depth of one foot.
The mean annual temperature of the soil is the same as, or in higher latitudes a degree above, that of the air. The nature and position of the soil must considerably influence its temperature.
The sources of that heat which is found in the soil are two, viz: first, an internal one, the chemical process of oxydation or decay; second, an external one, the rays of the sun.
The heat evolved by the decay of organic matters is not inconsid- erable in porous soils containing much vegetable remains; but this decay cannot proceed rapidly until the external temperature has reached a point favorable to vegetation, and therefore this source of heat probably has no appreciable effect one way or the other on the welfare of the plant. The warmth of the soil, so far as it favors ve- getable growth, appears then to depend exclusively on the heat of the sun.
The earth has within itself a source of heat, which maintains its interior at a high temperature; but which escapes so rapidly from the surface that the soil would be constantly frozen but for the external supply of heat from the sun.
The direct rays of the sun are the immediate cause of the warmth of the earth’s surface. The temperature of the soil near the surface changes progressively with the season; but at a certain depth the loss from the interior and the gain from the sun compensate each other, and, as has been previously mentioned, the temperature remains unchanged throughout the year.
During a summer day the heat of the sun reaches the earth directly, and it is absorbed by the soil and the solid objects on its surface, and also by the air and water. But these different bodies, and also the different kinds of soil, have very different ability to ab- sorb or become warmed by the sun’s heat. Air and water are almost incapable of being warmed by heat applied above them. Through
160 LECTURES ON
the air especially, heat radiates without being scarcely absorbed. The soil and solid bodies become warmed according to their individ- ual capacity, and from them the air receives the heat which warms it. Ftom the moist surface of the soil goes on a rapid evaporation, which renders latent* a large amount of heat, so that the tempera- ture of the soil is not rapidly but gradually elevated. The ascent of water from the sub-soil to supply the place of that evaporated goes on as before described. The liquid water of the soil has combined with (rendered latent) a vast amount of heat therefrom, and passed as gaseous water (vapor) into the air. Whenthe sun declines, the process diminishes in intensity, and when it sets, the reverse takes place. The heat that had accumulated on the surface of the earth radiates into the cooler atmosphere and planetary space, the temperature of the surface rapidly diminishes, and the air itself becomes cooler by convection.t As the cooling goes on, the vapor suspended in the at- mosphere begins to condense upon cool objects, while its latent heat becoming free hinders the too sudden reduction of temperature. The condensed water collects in drops—it is dew; or in the colder seasons it crystallizes as hoar-frost.
The special nature of the surface of the soil is closely connected with the maintenance of a uniform temperature, with the prevention
% When a piece of ice is placed in a vessel whose temperature is increasing, by means of a lamp, at the rate of one degree of the thermometer every minute, it will be found that the temperature of the ice rises until it attains 32°. When this point is reached, it be- gins to melt, but does not suddenly become fluid: the melting goes on very gradually. A thermometer placed in the water remains constantly at 32° so long as a fragment of ice is present. ‘The moment the ice disappears, the temperature begins to rise again, at the rate of one degree per minute. The time during which the temperature of the ice and water remains at 32° is 140 minutes. During each of these minutes one degree of heat enters the mixture, but is not indicated by the thermometer—the mercury remains stationary; 140° of heat have thus passed into the ice and become hidden, Jatent; at the same time the solid ice has become liquid water. The difference, then, between ice and water consists in the heat that is latent in the latter. If we now proceed with the above experi- ment, allowing the heat to increase with the same rapidity, we find that the temperature of the water rises constantly for 180 minutes. The thermometer then indicates a temper- ature of 212, (32-+180,) and the water boils. Proceeding with the experiment, the water evaporates away, but the thermometer continues stationary so long as any liquid remains. After the lapse of 972 minutes, it is completely evaporated. Water in becoming steam renders, therefore, still another portion, 972°, of heat latent. The heat latent in steam is indispensable to the existence of the latter. If this heat be removed by bringing the steam into a cold space, water is reproduced. If, by means of pressure or cold, steam be condensed, the heat originally latent in it becomes sensible, free, and capable of affecting the thermometer. If, also, water be converted into ice, as much heat is evolved and made sensible as was absorbed and made latent. It is seen thus that the processes of liquefac- tion and vaporization are cooling processes; for the heat rendered latent by them must be derived from surrounding objects, and thus these become cooled. On the contrary, solidi- fication, freezing, and vapor-condensation are warming processes, since in them large quan- tities of heat cease to be latent and are made sensible, thus warming surrounding bodies.
+ Though liquids and gases are almost perfect non-conductors of heat, yet it can diffuse through them rapidly, if advantage be taken of the fact that by heating they expand and therefore become specifically lighter. If heat be applied to the upper surface of liquids or gases, they remain for a long time nearly unaffected; if it be applied beneath them, the lower layers of particles become heated and rise, their place is supplied by others, and so currents upward and downward are established, whereby the heat is rapidly and uniformly distrib- uted. This process of convection can rarely have any influence in the soil. What we have stated concerning it shows, however, in what way the atmosphere may constantly act in removing heat from the surface of the soil.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, 161
of too great heat by day and cold by night, and with the watering or vegetation by means of dew. It is, however, in many cases only for a little space after seed-time that the soil is greatly concerned in these processes. So soon as it becomes covered with vegetation the character of the latter determines to a certain degree the nature of the atmospheric changes. In case of many crops the soil is but par- tially covered, and its peculiarities are then of direct influence on the vegetation it bears. Among these qualities the following may be noticed: ,
1. The color of the soil.—It is usually stated that black or dark co- lored soils are sooner warmed by the sun’s rays than those of lighter color, and remain constantly of a higher temperature so long as the sun acts on them. An elevation of several degrees in the tempera- ture of a light colored soil may be caused by strewing its surface with peat, charcoal powder, or vegetable mould. To this influence may be partly ascribed the following facts. Lampadius was able to ripen melons even in the coolest summers in Friberg, Saxony, by strewing a coating of coal dust an inch deep over the surface of the soil. In Belgium and on the Rhine, it is found that the grape matures best when the soil is covered with fragments of black clay slate. Girar- din found in a series of experiments on the cultivation of potatoes, that the time of their ripening varied eight to fourteen days, accord- ing to the color of the soil. He found on August 25th, in a very dark humus soil, twenty-six varieties ripe; in sandy soil, twenty; in clay, nineteen; and in white lime soil, only sixteen. It is not difficult to assign other causes that will account in part for the results here men- tioned; and although it has been observed that dark soils range from three to eight degrees higher in temperature than contiguous soils having a lighter color, it is not to color so much as to other qualities that the soil owes its peculiar temperature, as is proved by the recent observations of Malaguti and Durocher. They found that the tem- perature of a garden soil, just below the surface, was on the average 6° Fahrenheit higher than that of the air, but that this higher tem- perature diminished at a greater depth.. A thermometer buried four inches indicated a mean temperature only 3° above that of the atmos- phere. Besides the garden earth, just mentioned, which had a dark gray color, and was a mixture of sand and gravel containing but little clay, with about five per cent. humus, the thermometric characters of the following soils were observed, viz: a grayish-white quartz sand; a grayish-brown granite sand; a fine light-gray clay (pipe clay;) a yellow sandy clay; and, finally, four lime soils of different physical qualities.
It was found that when the exposure was alike, the dark-gray granite sand became the warmest, and next to this the grayish-white quartz sand. ‘The latter, notwithstanding its lighter color, often ac- quired a higher temperature when at a depth of four inches than the former, a fact to be ascribed to its better conducting power. The black soils never became so warm as the two just mentioned, demon- strating that color does not influence the absorption of heat so much as other qualities. After the black soils, the others came in the fol-
va
162 LECTURES ON
lowing order: Garden soil; yellow sandy clay; pipe clay; lime soils having crystalline grains; and, lastly, a pulverulent chalk soil.
To show what different degrees of warmth soils may acquire, under the same circumstances, the following maximum temperatures may be adduced: At noon of a July day, when the temperature of the air was 90°, a thermometer placed at a depth of a little more than one inch, gave these results: .
In quartz AT Glen aie: o's isi st steve allel allele’ s elfelic!'s s ekalle) of elicteicl cl clay coc eilieiens oo 126° In crystalline lihancGiuba Sebad od odiaid WG oon bo oo ODad DOI Codd oUC 115° In garden RO kwco bo OUOn Obed Dodo DOC KO OoOd ooo BbIoe B65 a croc 114° In yellow sandy Clay: + -+++ sere ee ee eee cece eee eee eee 100° In pipe clay: +--+ sete eect tee te eee eee e eee ee ee AO lige Send itarsoy hocks CRBS Oo CU OUGnOIS Olds iotnbio ls can cue bagioioiG Hignoie Glo oa Jo)
Here we observe a difference of nearly 40° in the temperature of the coarse quartz and the chalk soil. The experimenters do not men- tion the influence of water in affecting these results; they do not state the degree of dryness of these soils. It will be seen, however, that ‘the warmest soils are those that retain least water, and doubtless something of the slowness with which the fine soils increase in warmth is connected with the fact that they retain much water, which, in evaporating, appropriates and renders latent a large quantity of heat.
The chalk soil is seen to be the coolest of all, its temperature in these observations being three degrees lower than that of the atmos- phere at noon day. In hot climates this coolness is sometimes of great advantage as appears to happen in Spain, near Cadiz, where the Sherry vineyards flourish. ‘‘The Don said the Sherry wine district was very small, not more than twelve miles square. The sherry grape grew only on certain low chalky hills where the earth being light- colored, is not so much burnt; did not chap and split so much by the sun as darker and heavier soils do. A mile beyond these hills the grape deteriorates.’’ —(Dickens’ Household Words, November 13, 1858.)
In explanation of these observations we must recall to mind the fact that all bodies are capable of absorbing and radiating as well as reflecting heat. These properties, although never disassociated from color, are not necessarily dependent upon it. They chiefly depend upon the character of the surface of bodies. Smooth polished sur- faces absorb and radiate heat least readily ; they reflect it most per- fectly. Radiation and absorption are opposed to each other, and the power of any body to radiate is precisely equal to its faculty of absorb- ing heat. It must be understood, however, that bodies may differ in their power of absorbing or radiating heat of different degrees of intensity. Lampblack absorbs and radiates heat of all intensities in the same degree. White lead absorbs heat of low intensity (such as radiates from a vessel filled with boiling water) as fully as lampblack, but of the intense heat of a lamp it absorbs only about one-half as much. Snow seems to resemble white-lead in this respect. If a black cloth or black paper be spread on the surface of snow, upon which thé sun is shining, it will melt much faster under the cloth than elsewhere, and this too if the cloth be not in contact with, but suspended above
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 163
the snow. In our latitude every one has had opportunity to observe that snow thaws most rapidly when covered by or lying on black earth. The reason is that snow absorbs heat of low intensity with greatest facility. The heat of the sun is converted from a high to a low intensity by being absorbed and then radiated by the black mate- rial. But it is not color that deteymines this difference of absorptive Power, for indigo and Prussian blife, though of nearly the same color, have very different absorptive powers. So far, however, as our observations extend, it appears that usually, dark colored soils absorb heat most rapidly, and that the sun’s rays have least effect on light colored soils.
2. The degree of moisture present is of great influence on the tem- perature of the soil. All soils when thoroughly wet seem to be nearly alike in their power of absorbing and retaining warmth. The vast quantity of heat needful to gratify the demand of the vapor that is constantly forming, explains this. From this cause the difference in temperature between dry and wet soil may often amount from 10° to 18°. According to the observation of Dickinson, made at Abbot’s Hill, Hertfordshire, England, and continued through eight years, 90 per cent. of the water falling between April Ist and October Ist, evapo- rates from the surface of the soil, only 10 per cent. finding its way into drains laid three and four feet deep. The total quantity of water that fell during this time, amounted to about 2,900,000 lbs. per acre; of this more than 2,600,000 evaporated from the surface. It has been calculated that to evaporate-artificially this enormous mass of water, more than seventy-five tons of coal must be consumed.
Thorough draining, by loosening the soil and causing a rapid re- moval from below of the surplus water, has a most decided influence, especially in spring time, in warming the soil and bringing it into a suitable condition for the support of vegetation.
It is plain then that even if we knew with accuracy what are the physical characters of a surface soil, and if we were able to estimate correctly the influence of these characters on its fertility, still we must investigate those circumstances which affect its wetness or dryness, whether they be an impervious sub-soil, or springs coming to the sur- face, or the amount and frequency of rain-falls, taken in connexion with other meteorological causes. We cannot decide that a clay is too wet or a sand too dry, until we know its situation and the climate it is subjected to.
The great deserts of the globe do not owe their barrenness to neces- sary poverty of soil, but to meteorological influences—to the continued prevalence of parching winds, and the absence of mountains to con- dense the atmospheric water and establish a system of rivers and streams. This is not the place to enter into a discussion of the causes that may determine or modify climate, but to illustrate the effect that may be produced by means within human control, it may be stated that previous to the year 1821, the French district Provence was a fertile and well-watered region. In 1822, the olive trees which were largely cultivated there were injured by frost, and the inhabitants began to cut them up root and branch. This amounted to clearing off a forest,
164 LECTURES ON
and in consequence the streams dried up, and the productiveness of the country was seriously diminished.
3. The angle at which the sun’s rays strike a soil is of great influence on its temperature. The more this approaches a right angle the greater the heating effect. In the latitude of England the sun’s heat acts most powerfully on surfaces having a southern exposure, and which are inclined at an angle of @6° and 30°. The best vineyards of the Rhine and Neckar are also on hill-sides, so situated. In Lap- land and Spitzbergen the southern side of hills are often seen covered with vegetation, while lasting or even perpetual snow lies on their northern inclinations.
4. The influence of a wall or other reflecting surface upon the warmth of a soil lying to the south of. it, was observed in the case of garden soil by Malaguti and Durocher. The highest temperature indicated by a thermometer placed in this soil at a distance of six inches from the wall, during a series of observations lasting seven days, (April, 1852,) was 32° Fahrenheit higher at the surface, and 18° higher at a depth of four inches than in the same soil on the north side of the wall. The average temperature of the former during this time was 8° higher than that of the latter.
In the Rhine district grape vines are kept low and as near the soil as possible, so that the heat of the sun be reflected back upon them from the ground, and the ripening is then carried through the nights by the heat radiated from the earth.—(Jowrnal Highland and Agricul- tural Society, July 1858, p. 347.)
5. Malaguti and Durocher also studied the effect of a sod on the temperature of the soil. They observed that it hindered the warm- ing of the soil, and indeed to about the same extent as a layer of earth of three inches depth. Thusa thermometer four inches deep in green- sward acquires the same temperature as one seven inches deep in the same soil not grassed.
It is to be remembered that the soils that warm most quickly, also cool correspondingly fast, and thus are subjected to the most exten- sive and rapid changes of temperature. The greensward which warms slowly, retains its warmth most tenaciously, and the sands that become hottest at noon-day, are coldest at midnight.
Of no little practical importance is the shrinking of soils on drying.— This shrinking is of course offset by an increase of bulk when the soil becomes wet. In variable weather we have therefore constant changes of volume occurring. Soils rich in humus experience these changes to the greatest degree. The surfaces of moors often rise and fall with the wet or dry season, through a space of several inches. In ordinary light soils containing but little humus no change of bulk is evident. Otherwise, it is in clay soils that shrinking is most per- ceptible; since these soils only dry superficially they do not appear to settle much, but become full of cracks and rifts. Heavy clays may lose one-tenth or more of their volume on drying, and since at the same time they harden about the rootlets which are imbedded in them, it is plain that these indispensable organs of the plant must thereby
e ruptured during the protracted dry weather. Sand, on the other
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 165
hand, does not change its bulk by wetting or drying, and when present to a considerable extent in the soil, its particles being interposed be- tween those of the clay, prevent the adhesion of the latter, so that, although a sandy loam shrinks not inconsiderably on drying, yet the lines of separation are vastly more numerous and less wide than in purer clays. Such a soil does not ‘‘cake,’’ but remains friable and powdery.
Marly soils (containing carbonate of lime) are especially prone to fall to a fine powder during drying, since the carbonate of lime, which like sand, shrinks very little, is itself in a state of extreme division, and therefore more effectually separates the clayey particles. The unequal shrinking of these two intimately mixed ingredients accom- plishes a perfect pulverization of such soils. Professor Wolff, of the Academy of Agriculture, at Hohenheim, Wirtemberg, states that on the cold heavy soils of Upper Lusatia, in Germany, the application of lime has been attended with excellent results, and he thinks that the larger share of the benefit is to be accounted for by the improve- ment in the texture of those soils which follows liming. The car- bonate of lime is considerably soluble in water charged with carbonic acid, as is the water of a soil containing vegetable matter, and this agency of distribution in connection with the mechanical operations of tillage, must in a short time effect an intimate mixture of the lime with the whole soil. A tenacious clay is thus by a heavy liming made to approach the condition of a friable marl.
We may give a moment’s notice to the cohesiveness of the soil.— A soil is said to be heavy or light, not as it weighs more or less, but as it is easy or diflicult to work. The state of dryness has great influ- ence on this quality. Sand, lime, and humus have very little cohesion when dry, but considerable when wet. Soils in which they pre- dominate are usually easy to work. But clay has entirely different characters, and upon them almost exclusively depends the tenacity of a soil. Dry clay, when powdered, has hardly more consist- ence than sand, but when thoroughly moistened its particles adhere together to a soft and plastic, but tenacious mass; and in drying away, at a certain point it becomes very hard, and requires a good deal of force to penetrate it. In this condition it offers great resist- ance to the instruments used in tillage, and when thrown up by the plough it forms lumps which require repeated harrowings to break them down. Since the cohesiveness of the soil depends so greatly upon the quantity of water contained in it, it follows that thorough draining, combined with deep tillage, whereby sooner or later the stiffest clays become readily permeable to water, must have the best effects in making such soils easy to work.
The English practice of burning clays speedily accomplishes the same purpose. When clay is burned and then crushed the particles no longer adhere tenaciously together on moistening, and the mass does not acquire again the unctuous plasticity peculiar to unburned . Clay.
Mixing sand with clay, or incorporating vegetable matter with it,
166 LECTURES ON serves to separate the particles from each other, and thus remedies too great cohesiveness.
When water freezes its volume increases, as 1s well known. The alternate freezing and thawing of the water which impregnates the soil during the colder part of the year plays thus an important part in overcoming its cohesion. The. effect is mostly apparent in the spring, immediately after ‘‘the frost leaves the ground,’’ but is usually not durable, the soil recovering its former consistence by the operations of tillage. Fall-ploughing of stiff soils has been recom- mended, in order to expose them to the disintegrating effects of frost.
In turning now to the chemical characters of the soil, we have first to notice its composition. It being understood that the soil is the exclusive source of mineral food to the plant, we of course expect to find all the ingredients of the ash of plants in every soil that is able to maintain vegetation. Great differences however, are found to exist in the proportions, and especially in the condition as regards solubility of these matters, as seen from the following analyses:
Ist. Analysis of a productive wheat soil (clay) from Renfrewshire, Scotland, by Dr. Anderson:
Cage ise Sl, CRT AY 0.0231 Teer eee Se a a 4, 0.0475 Chlorid of calcium .-...-+....e.--- 0.0205 Chlorid of magnesium.---+.-..+++- 0.0061 Chlorid of potassium.-.-.-+-++.++. 0.0003 Chiorid of sodium.+.- 5.5... 0-.- "O20015 Sulphuric EW OIG Gr SCRE RIOR MACON SLO CRcMEREtC 0.0309 Organic TVA EST oreo rere Cle a aeliene ten tereere 0.2084 0.3373 Soluble in actd— SUG area ac ue teers ay cuca ewes ania ls Me geniclaay eatye 0.0838 PAN aimmatineasetchercteuene ddrects Makan wiie, athomenheet eeewe 1.6104 Peroxyd of iron----.-.- sess eee, 3.4676 Palanan Alten ee ea 8 oo Bn RE PE ciate 3 1.0771 Magnesia BS Oe Sy SOO ene eee ey OTe 0.1262 IBotashecs-scpechui se Geel hie eee 0.0469 SO eiraneysesieie ds cae yekte oR p ano Ae eR orto 0.0920 Sulplrumie ta cideiess-naei-! 9h<p-/ane en eae 0.0039 Phosphoric acid....-....+--+.-.-- 0.0749 ————— §, 5828 Insoluble in acids— Silncameaee ees! Op as ae 74.4890 WATT aeeeteetne vk erate te ele ce oteeeena 7.2540 MOTOR VGUGE ATOM «16 sj. eats ees. chores 1.4167 Mitek. Sees OI ee a 0.3150 Magnesia CMAs ibenelis ss ou ateWs wicevia ere ean ee 0.4043
: 83.8790
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 167
Organic matter— e
Insoluble organic matter---------- 6.1209. aA sa CiGlsle's wie sare chosceterens hs in | hea Apocrenic acid++-. +--+ ++++++-++++ 0.1280 ENGI Ch OIC booth Cncl GO Gnord oicln-Sko: cites citar RCI Oe Way ieied da 5. OCU NO O10 Ooo, pag rod vl 2.0930 9.2471 99.9462
Amount of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in 100 parts of soil—
Garb OMiieiectel'slecotelesetols ciewe as! ketamine 3.1400
Oxygen a's 6 Sal. suey st ode Jevloiaiiee sbetolio te palseeronetenade te 3.5060 Nitrogen aaa aire oat sineke caneatotate ereate 0.1428 Hydrogen Sie Si bh let eteuel ion sheveu or ewerclede we Rater ene 0.4200
2d. Analysis, by the writer, of sterile soil from the upper Palati- nate, Bavaria— :
\WGhetRG Go Gb 6 OID G Oo 6000 Cobo do door 0.535
Organic WATLOL taicte/cetoharereceternere RAN 1.850
ST SONAR MIN RTE Sey i UNUM aN! hae 0.016
Oxyd of iron and alumina-------.. 1.640
| RA eat Mam PPR! Vib k aen chant 0.096 Magnesias--++- +++ seer eee ab trace. OarboniGraclaieios cho cickoWenoleneratesisienerete trace. Phosphoric acid-+-+.+ +++. sees ees - trace. Glalkerancvsecroris Gio een onl ODM ole ooo trace.
/\ilrea iene vee seapicionG Gis 6, Ioiaeimou So uw none.
Quartz and insoluble silicates...--- 95.863
100.000
In fertile soils there is always to be found a quantity of fixed min- eral as well as organic matters that are soluble in pure water. In the wheat soil this quantity amounted to but three parts in 1,000, and in this Dr. Anderson found no phosphoric acid and no oxyd of iron, although all the other mineral ingredients of plants were present. In the sterile soil nothing weighable, when, as was the case, but a small sample was operated on, could be separated by water alone, but as even this soil supported some vegetation—the whortleberry and various grasses as well as lichens, all the minerals found in vegeta- tion might have been detected by exhausting a sufficiently large quantity. In the fertile soil is found a larger amount of matters solu- ble in acid, in the above instance six and a half per cent.; and here the analyst had no difficulty in finding all the mineral food of vegeta- tion. In the sterile soil but little more than four per cent. of matters were dissolyed by acids, and in this phosphoric acid and alkalies were not present in appreciable quantity. Finally, the larger share of the soilin both cases resists the solvent action of acids nearly altogether.
168 LECTURES ON
The portion soluble in water represents*the presently available stock of plant food in the soil. As already intimated, plants receive their nutriment either as gas or as liquid. The fixed mineral matters of the soil are taken up by the plant from solution in water. If we examine the soil with sufficient care, we do not fail to find everything in it in a soluble state that is needed by vegetation.
Quite recently, Grouven and Stéckhardt have given renewed proof of this statement. Below is a tabular view of the matters found by these chemists in three soils—one poor, the others very productive:
Grouven. Stockhardt. 1,000 parts of soil yielded to
water. Poor Rich Very rich clover sandy soil, from | garden soil, from soil, from St. Bickendorf. Heidelberg. Martin, Tyrol. Carbonic acid.....--.-.------- 0. 0920 OPTLOL Sy) PR 1s courant Silicapese+ceee reese eceeesses= 0. 1992 0. 384 0. 110 Sulphuriclacidieeesse-- eee se 0. 0152 0. 009 - 0.055 Chlorine 3. ee eseec cee onese es 0. 0007 0.015 0. 012 Phosphoriciacidesseseeaseemieeee trace. 0.014 | 0. 021 Oxydlof iron Sacco ecee anes OOO Feely taping mes t 0. 052
lamina ee ees eee cee cee ONOOSi em eee ¥ Lime ene eae aes See 0. 0840 0. 234 0. 182 Mapnesia- ioc ccestenicesiciscinatec 0. 0062 * 0.016 0. 020 Potashe-camecccensnam ees ceee 0. 0050 0. 069 0.131 Soda esse seetescccee ces osse 0. 0357 0. 046 0. 083
Organic matter containing nitric
ee en cou t 0. 1010 0. 306 0. 530 Nitrogenase sets emacs ee cel eile gey o nieeision Pbalwee ® aakemtes 0. 160 0.529 1. 156 1, 356
That portion which comes into solution only by the use of strong acids represents the reserve forces of the soil. Here we find stores of plant food, which, under natural agencies, require many years to become fully available to vegetation; but which are, nevertheless, constantly, though very slowly, contributing to the fertility of the soil. The least soluble matters, again, do not wholly escape slow alteration and partial solution, and, as analyses show, often contain alkalies, lime, &c.
As to the solubility of the food of the plant in water, it may be remarked that while the analyses quoted sufficiently demonstrate the general fact, science enables us to comprehend, to some extent, the detail of the processes which bring about this result. The chemist is in the habit of considering certain bodies, viz: silica, oxide of iron, and phosphate of iron or phosphoric acid in presence of oxide of iron, as absolutely insoluble, and under most circumstances’ they are so, in pure water, when alone. But in presence of other bodies, especially when the mixture is so complicated as in the soil, they manifest a very different action. Many bodies which do not yield to the solvent action of pure water are very perceptibily taken up by car-
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 169
bonated water, (i. e., water saturated with carbonic acid.) Thus, to use a well-known instance, carbonate of lime is as good as insoluble in pure water, but in carbonated water it dissolves quite readily. Salts of ammonia dissolve phosphate of lime to a very appreciable extent, as has long been known, and as Liebig has recently shown by quantitative trials. Silica is not absent from natural waters, although the conditions of its solution are not well understood. The chemist has succeeded in preparing strong solutions of silica in pure water, artificially, and the so-called infusoria of all fresh water streams, which sometimes have accumulated to form beds of many miles in ex- tent and many feet in depth, are but the silicious skeletons of micro- scopic vegetable organisms that collected their silica from the clearest and purest water. Phosphate of iron is soluble, or at least yields its phosphoric acid, under the conjoint action of carbonate or silicate of lime and carbonated water. Sulphate of baryta, even, is decomposed in the soil, and yields its sulphuric acid to a growing plant.
Allusion has already been made to the importance of those matters which, originally belonging to the atmosphere, have become a portion of the soil.
Pulverized rocks do not constitute a good soil until they have be- come weathered—4. e., chemically decomposed, so as to contain a portion of soluble matters, and also acquire a certain content of car- bon and nitrogen. - It happens that these two effects are conjointly brought about. The neighborhood of a volcano affords opportunity for tracing the formation of a fertile soil in a manner analogous to, or identical with what occured over all the land before the human epoch. The lava that lies on the slopes or fills the con- tiguous valleys, once melted rock, remains after cooling, almost bare for years. Then lichens begin to cover its surface. These succeed each other for generations, slowly increasing in number and size, hastening by their decay the disintegration of the rock, and causing the accumulation of humus and nitrates. So the weath- ering of the rock, the use and enrichment of the sparse soil, goes on, perhaps, for centuries before the earth is deep and fertile enough to produce low shrubs. After another similar period a forest is formed, with a soil rich in all that is needed for agriculture, being stored with the fixed minerals that have been detached or solved from the original lava, and having gathered during these ages mate- rials from the atmosphere to make up the complement of fertility.
We often see railroad cuttings through beds of gravel or clay which perfectly resemble the adjacent productive soil, but which remain for years perfectly naked and barren, and only after a long period of time assume a state of tolerable fertility.
The humus of the fertile soil, as already stated, does not, perhaps, act to much extent in directly feeding vegetation, although we have no positive evidence against the assumption that it is thus useful in some degree. It does, however, in many indirect ways contribute to the welfare of the plant. Its influence on the physical characters of the soil, its mediating agency in maintaining the proper consistency, moisture, and warmth of the earth, has been already noticed. The
170 LECTURES ON
carbonic acid resulting from its ceaseless oxydation is of vast import- ance, both as a supply of this form of plant food, in more ‘abundant measure than the atmosphere alone could yield, and as the most pow- erful means of maintaining the requisite store of solved saline and earthy food in the soil.
The general statement that humus, or, in other words, condensed atmo- spheric plant food, is needful in the soil, requires some qualification. It is not essential to all, even, of the so-called higher orders of plants, or, indeed, to all agricultural plants. The cactus has its home on the most naked arid sands. Pines and firs flourish in soil equally destitute of humus. Buckwheat commonly grows on light, poor soils; and it is asserted that in Peru and Chili, maize prospers in soils free from humus, if started by a little guano, and afterward supplied with water. We may, however, safely assert, that in temperate climates, for the usual course of crops, a soil to be productive, in a practical sense, must either contain originally, or have added to it, nitrogen and carbon in assimilable form. Natural growth, in soil, destitute of atmospheric ingredients, either of those plants just mentioned, whose proper habitat is such a soil, or of the grains and common agricul- tural plants, is, other things being equal, invariably too slow for the purposes of agriculture. Not, indeed, for all purposes of agricul- ture, for in what is called agriculture many very inferior crops are annually reaped; but for the general purposes of a culture which seeks to be ina high degree remunerative, the telluric elements are insufficient.
The same holds true of the atmospheric as of the earthy ingre- acne of soil in respect of varying quantity and different assimila-
ility.
In the poorest sand, analysis reveals the presence of nitrogen, often one hundred times as much as is needed by the largest grain crop; while in good soil the quantity of this element may amount to from one to two thousandths of the entire weight. Of this nitrogen, a portion exists as ammonia, another as nitric acid, but another and far larger share of it, is in a form that is insoluble in water and una- vailable to the plant.
In a rich garden soil that had been cultivated for many years, Boussingault found in 100 parts—
Nitrogen ohetohar erence caettenetetre 0.261 Ammonia -+-++ +++. 4+... 0.0022 Containing nitrogen ----0.00181 INIEGRCHACT stage er tree + oh soe 0.00034 Containing nitrogen ----0.00009
By actual trial with this soil, the same distinguished experimenter found that only the small amount of nitrogen existing as ammonia and nitric acid was of present use to vegetation; the remainder, 96-100 of the whole, being for the time quite inert.
The inert nitrogen appears to exist chiefly in the humus of the soil, in a form analogous to that assumed by the same element in bituminous or anthracite coal. It is, however, most probable not utterly unassimilable; but, as the carbon and hydrogen which are combined with it oxydize, it appears in the form of nitric acid,
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. ail
especially in presence of lime or alkalies, or perhaps under other conditions as ammonia.
As to the amount of assimilable matters needful to constitute a fertile soil, we have hardly any just notion, nor, indeed, can we easily form one.
If we assume what is as yet not altogether warranted, the right of distinguishing between the assimilable and non-assimilable parts of the soil by the solvent action of carbonated water, we still en- counter the variable influence of physical characters as affecting the distribution of the plant-food, and above all, there stands in our way the capital fact that as the growth of the plant is progressive, so are its wants, and likewise those solving mediating agencies which supply its food. So that we cannot, by observations made at any one mo- ment, determine the value of ingredients which extend their action over a considerable period of time.
The same soil may vary exceedingly at different times in its con- tent of soluble matters, as analysis has proved. In the garden soil above alluded to the content of nitric acid given is that found in June; but Boussingault informs us that in the following September the same earth contained near thirty times as much of this ingredient.
There is doubtless a rigorous reciprocal relation between the quantities of soluble (assimilable) matters in the soil and the mass of soil needed to feed a plant during the vegetative period.
The greater the proportion of soluble matters, the less volume of earth is neeeded to sustain a given crop. In practice it is found that each kind of plant requires a certain and pretty large quantity of soil for its development. The farmer has his rules as to the space which shall intervene between individual plants of wheat, of potatoes, of maize, &c.; and in regions widely distant from each other these rules, adopted as the best result of experience, are more or less unlike, varying with climate, soil, and other circumstances. It is found, also, that on a given soil nearly the same crop is obtained, whether the plants be closer to, or farther from each other, within certain limits. In case of fewer plants, each one is more vigorous, and gives a larger return; while in the other instance, the smaller individual yield is made up by the greater number of plants.
Boussingault, to whose numerous and admirable researches the student of scientific agriculture must constantly make reference, found by actual measurement that, according to the rules of garden culture as practiced near Strasburg, a dwarf bean had at its disposition 65 pounds of soil; a potatoe plant, (hill?) 190 pounds; a tobacco plant, 480 pounds; and a hop plant, 3,000 pounds.
In respect to chemical composition, we may assert that the absence of several, or even of one essential form of plant-food, must stamp a soil with utter infertility, no matter how abundant its other ingre- dients may be. It is equally true that the absence of one ingredient in assimilable condition must constitute:a soil barren and worthless.
We may likewise lay down the proposition that the deficiency, up to to acertain point, of one or several substances in available form, renders a soil infertile. On the other hand we cannot, with any
riz LECTURES ON
hope of success, undertake to show what is this certain potnt or define the limits which, over-passed, make the soil unproductive.
It not unfrequently happens that the presence of noxious com- pounds greatly injures an otherwise excellent soil. Soluble salts of iron and alumina, especially the sulphates of these bases, are, so far as we now know, the principal causes of this kind of mischief. Some soils are formed from rocks that contain numerous grains and larger masses of iron pyrites or sulphid of iron, which, exposed to the weather, oxydize to sulphate of iron (copperas) and the solution of this salt in a certain stage of concentration destroys the vegetable tissues, and thereby renders the soil in which it exists unfavorable to growth. Ina specimen of peat from Brooklyn, Conn., the writer found a not inconsiderable quantity of sulphate of iron, and likewise sulphate of alumina. Both these salts have a powerful decomposing effect on the rootlets of plants.
The importance which attaches to the proper availability or solu- bility of the nutriment in the soil leads at once to the inquiry, may not the soluble matters be washed out and lost by rains, or may they not accumulate in too great quantity ?
There are certain influences external to the soil, which, acting re- ciprocally, tend to maintain in it a nearly constant content of soluble matter. On the one hand the disintegration of the soil, the decay of vegetation, rain, and dew, are perpetually enriching; while vegetable growth, springs, and streams, (rain that has passed through the mould, ) and evaporation, are as continually wasting the soil. Since the mass of soil is so great, and the most rapid and exhausting of these pro- cesses operate so slowly, their effect is in general to leave the soil in possession of the requisite small amount of soluble matters, and only in exceptional cases can positive excess or deficiency occur.
In the soil itself we find, however, a remarkable property which enables it to convert excess of soluble matters into an appropriate quantity. and at the same time to store up this excess against what might otherwise be a period of want. The soil has, in fact, a power of regulating its supplies to vegetation, in a manner that was not dreamed of but a decade since.
The fact has been already alluded to, in treating of the physical characters of the soil, that it has a power of absorbing vapor of water, and in general other gaseous bodies—a power shared by the soil to more or less extent with all porous bodies.
Besides this purely physical quality, we find the soil to possess another absorptive capacity, which, though not independent of phy- sical conditions, appears to be chemical in its nature, that is, depends upon the presence of certain kinds or combinations of matter.
Without this chemical absorption the other quality would be of little avail in directly nutrifying the plant, because water alone is capable of nullifying the latter, and at the same time performing any office that it might appear to exercise in a much more effectual man- ner. Ammonia has long been known to be taken up by the soil, and to be retained init. Previous to the year 1850 it was supposed that this gas underwent absorption by surface condensation, exerted by
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 1%
the more porous ingredients of the soil, namely, humus, oxyd of iron and alumina; an agency which is exhibited most strikingly in case of ammonia by charcoal, which, when freshly ignited, may absorb as much as ninety times its bulk of this gas. The ammonia thus con- densed is, however, easily removed. Water or exposure to moist air at once displaces it, for it is only the absolutely dry charcoal that absorbs ammonia. Common moist charcoal has no appreciable faculty of this kind, its pores being already fully occupied, having satisfied their absorptive power on vapor of water and the ingredients of the atmosphere.
Liebig, reasoning from these facts, asserted in his ‘‘ Chemistry applied to Agriculture and Physiology,’’ that ‘‘the ammonia absorbed by clay or ferruginous oxyds is separated by every shower of rain and conveyéd in solution to the soil.”’
The chemical absorption consists in the fixation and retention in the soil of volatile or dissolved matters, by their entering into com- paratively insoluble combinations. This fixation is not, however, absolute, as we shall presently see.
Thompson and Way of England, in 1850, (see Journal Royal Agri- cultural Society of England for that year,) first began to develope the interesting facts which relate to this subject. Since the date of their investigations Liebig, Voelcker, Henneberg & Stohmann, Eichhorn, and Brustlein, have occupied themselves with its study.
The main facts are, briefly stated, as follows:
Free ammonia and lime, and their carbonates, are absorbed and chemically retained by the organic acids, (humic, crenic, &c.,) the ammonia in a non-volatile, but to some extent soluble form. Am- monia is also absorbed by oxyd of iron and alumina, and held in a non-volatile and very slightly soluble state.
Salts of ammonia, namely, sulphate hydrochlorate and nitrate, are at once decomposed by the soil when their dilute solutions are agitated with or filtered through it; the ammonia being retained, the acid re- maining in solution united to lime. ~
The same salts of potash are likewise decomposed as above; the potash being retained, the acids uniting with lime.
Salts of lime, in general, are not absorbed, especially when added alone to the soil, or when the soil is rich in lime; but in several of Voelcker’s experiments the liquor from a dung-heap containing a con- siderable quantity of sulphate of lime lost this ingredient nearly or entirely by filtration through a sandy soil, and at the same time the amount of carbonate of lime in the solution was diminished.
Salts of soda and magnesia are also retained, though usually in a less degree.
When solutions of phosphates and silicates of the alkalies are em- ployed in these experiments, we find that the acids are also retained; and from the trials of Voelcker already referred to, we have evidence that sulphuric and hydrochloric acids are also liable to absorption. In no instance has a fixation of nitric acid been observed.
According to Brustlein’s late researches, the retention of the bases when employed in saline combinations cannot occur except in presence of carbonate of lime. This view is, however, erroneous.
174 LECTURES ON
Way, after studying separately as far as possible the effect of each ingredient of the soil without arriving at any satisfactory conclusion as to the seat of this peculiar absorptive power, as a last resort inves- tigated the relations of the silicates to saline solutions. Silicates con- taining but one base he found ineffectual, and next had recourse to compound silicates. He experimented then with feldspar, but found that it was without action on solutions of ammonia salts, and hence concluded that the powder of granitic rocks is not the agent of these decompositions. Hisnextstepwasamoresuccessfulone. Heattempted to imitate the compound silicates that may occur in the soil as products of the weathering of rocks, such as most probably exist in all soils to a greater or less degree. He artificially prepared silicates of alumina with potash, soda, lime, and ammonia, respectively; and these he found to possess the property of suffering decomposition in saline solutions, with the mutual replacement (fixation) of isomorphous bases.
But it was reserved for Hichhorn, in 1858, to set forth in a true light the action of the double alumina-silicates. This experimenter, in cognizance of the fact that Way’s artificial silicates contained water as an essential ingredient, was led to make trials with natural compounds ofasimilarcharacter. Heselected for this purpose the zeolites, chaba- zite, and natrolite, whose composition is given among those minerals from which soils originate in the table on page 150. The chabazite he employed was essentially a silicate of alumina, lime, and water. The fine powder of this mineral being agitated and digested for some days with hydrochlorates (chlorids*) of potash, soda, dilute solutions of ammonia, lime, &c., fixed in the solid and nearly insoluble form a portion of the basic ingredient of these salts, while the acid was found in the solution combined with a quantity of lime equivalent to the absorbed base. In one experiment the powdered chabazite was digested for ten days with a dilute solution containing a known amount of pure common salt. The mineral was then found to have a composition, compared with that it originally possessed, as follows:
Composition of Chabazite.
re Before digestion After ¢ digestion in solution of common salt. in solution of common salt. aT Gen selec ici Biche Seat ohlT aR eed ens AT*44 48°31 ASIAN ese None ek 20°69 21-04 1 BEC oY 2” a SH Bi cakes mre nee oh teh Geen See 10°37 6°65 ADO GSA ea cio fey « <sho gel aoc 5'e ys rereeemoee oie 0°65 “ 0°64 Gis ch: SEV OR a dees iegeilidnat cs 0-42 5-40 ARGH Sip SGN SISO RIE plea ieee ere Rat 90.18 18°33 99°75 100.37
Comparing the two statements, we see that nearly one-half the lime of the original mineral is replaced by soda. A loss of water also has occurred. The solution separated from the mineral contained nothing but soda, lime, and chlorine, and the latter in precisely its original quantity.
PVR evans BORE: SUEDE 3S U7 pe) ea) 81 ly e Ee REESE RST Scs «In chemistry the hydrochlorate of an oxzyd signifies the same as the chloride of a meal; thus hydrochlorate of soda and chlorid or chloride of sodium mean the same thing.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 175
By acting on chabazite with dilute chlorid of ammonium for ten days the mineral was altered, and contained 3°33 per cent. of ammonia. Digested twenty-one days, the mineral yielded 6:94 per cent. of ammonia, and also had lost water.
Hichhorn found that the artificial soda-chabazite re-exchanged soda for lime when digested in a solution of chlorid of calcium; in solution of chlorid of.potassium both soda and lime were separated from it and replaced by potash. So, the ammonia-chabazite in solution of chlorid of calcium exchanged ammonia for lime, and in solutions of chlorids of potassium and sodium both ammonia and lime passed into the liquid. The ammonia-chabazite in solution of sulphate of magnesia lost ammonia but not lime, though doubtless the latter base would have been found in the liquid had the digestion been continued longer.
It thus appears that in the case of chabazite all the protoxyd bases may mutually replace each other, time being the only element of differences in the exchanges.
In experimenting on natrolite, however, Hichhorn found that it was not affected by solution of chlorid of calcium, owing perhaps to some peculiarity in the constitution of this mineral, its soda being probably more firmly combined than that of chabazite.
These valuable researches, though serving but as an introduction to the study of a highly-complicated subject, present so close an analogy to what is observed in case of the soil, no matter whether it be fertile or barren, clay or sand, that we are fully warranted in assuming the presence in all soils of hydrous double silicates which determine the absorption and retention of potash, ammonia, &c., from solutions of their salts.
As regards the fixation of the acids, we know that oxyd of iron and alumina, as well as lime and magnesia under certain conditions, form insoluble phosphates and silicates; we are also acquainted with an insoluble chlorine compound, viz: chloro-phosphate of lime, which occurs abundantly as the mineral apatite, while sulphuric acid forms insoluble combinations with excess of peroxyd of iron anda lumina. We know, however, no insoluble compounds of nitric acid with any of the bases found in the soil, excepting oxyd of iron and alumina, and these require a high temperature for their formation.
The fixation of the bases in the circumstances described, both in the soil and with hydrated aluminous silicates, is influenced by a variety of conditions, physical and chemical. The only points which further require notice are: 1st. That an ordinary soil is capable of fixing a vastly larger quantity of ammonia, potash, or phosphoric agid—the three generally most rare, and therefore most precious forms of plant food—than is ever likely to be brought into the soil either by natural or artificial means. 2d. That the soil never completely removes any of these bodies from even the most dilute solution. 3d. The soil which has saturated itself from a solution of these bodies restores them again slowly to pure water or to a weaker solution.
Way, Russell, and Liebig, from a partial apprehension of the nature of this absorption, drew the premature inference that land plants do not receive their food from solutions, but themselves attack and solve
176 LECTURES ON
the soil. In the light of the facts we have set forth, this view is not for a moment admissible.
In seeking the means by which the dissolved matters of the soil find entrance into the plant, we must have recourse to the same agency which accounts for the imbibition of its gaseous food. Differ- ent liquids or solutions of different solids in the same liquid, if capable of mixture at all, exhibit the osmotic or diffusive tendency, which has been considered in case of gases.
If a tall vessel be partly filled with salt and then completely with water, the salt as it dissolves forms a solution much heavier than pure water, which therefore tends to remain unmixed at the bottom of the vessel. In fact it is easy to add the water so carefully that at first no salt shall be perceptible by taste or otherwise near the surface. In time, however, although every possible means of mechanical admixture be perfectly avoided, the salt will diffuse into the pure water until every portion of the liquid be uniform in composition.
Diffusion will take place equally well through porous membranes, provided they are capable of being wetted by (have surface attraction for) at least one of the liquids.
The apparatus shown in figure 14 is one commonly employed to
Fig. 14. illustrate the fact of liquid diffusion. The tube a
F is fastened to the neck of a bladder filled with brine,
solution of sugar, or other dense Jiquid, and the
latter is immersed in the water of the large vessel.
Immediately water passes inwardly to the brine
(endosmose) and salt passes outwardly to the water
(exosmose.) The endosmose being more rapid than
the exosmose, the brine shortly rises in the tube to a considerable height.
The rapidity and even the direction of the osmose _ is greatly dependant on the nature of the membrane. Alcohol and water diffuse into each other without difficulty when brought into direct contact; if we separate them by a bladder we find that water will rapidly pass into the alcohol, but the reverse flow will take place with great slowness, for the reason that alcohol cannot wet the surface of this membrane. On the other hand india-rubber is readily moistened by alcohol but not by water; and if a thin sheet of this substance be interposed between these liquids, it will be seen that alcohol passes the membrane into the water much more rapidly than water tra- verses in the opposite direction.
Schacbt has made observations on the cell-mem- brane of the Caulerpa prolifera, a plant presenting ———— single cells of sufficient size for ‘such purposes, and fou that it admitted of all the phenomena of diffusion exactly as manifested by other membranes.
The rootlets of a plant being immersed in the water (or moisture) of the soil, act towards it as the bladder filled with brine in our
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. jr ed
figure. The liquids of the root-cells being of different composition roue the soil-water, and the cell-membranes ‘admitting (having surface attraction for) the soil-water, the latter with its contents penetrates the cells, so long as difference of composition or want of equilibrium in the surface attractions, either of the membrane for the liquid, or of the dissolved matters for the solvent, exist. The diffusion goes on from cell to cell in the same manner throughout the whole plant, as long as any cause produces inequality in the toutual surface attractions of any two of its ingredients, whether solid or liquid.
Since perpetual changes are progressing in every part of the grow- ing vegetable organism, we have no difficulty in finding the causes which keep up diffusion in or into the plant.
Let us suppose that in any cell there exists at the moment a liquid containing in solution all the food of vegetation. If now carbonic acid and water unite to form dextrin, and this solidifies in the shape of starch or cellulose, there is foumed in this cell a vacuum which disturbs the nee equilibrium of the whole plant, and determines a movement towards this cell of carbonic acid from the leaf cells and of water from the root cells to restore the same.
An atom of lime coming in contact with newly formed oxalic acid combines with it to form an insoluble salt; the lime thus removed from solution is at once replaced from an adjacent cell; this again supplies itself from another in the direction of the soil, until the extremity of a rootlet is reached, and here an atom passes in from the soil water, this again to be replaced from the surrounding stores.
The vast amount of water that is removed by evaporation (the attraction of dry air for water) from the foliage of vegetation is in the same manner supplied from the soil, and it traverses in its upward way all the cells of the plant. The supply of saline matters is however partially or wholly independent of this ascending current of water, for it must be very greatly checked in circumstances where the atmosphere is saturated with moisture, as in a conservatory or Wardian case, although here growth goes on with the greatest vigor.
It thus appears that whenever any chemical or physical change occurs in the plant, we have the origin of a disturbance which may set in motion the juices of the cells, the water, and dissolved matters of the soil, and the gases of the atmosphere.
In this manner our cultivated plants are able to gather their food from solutions like the water of springs and wells, or the aqueous extract of soils, which are so dilute that but one part of potash or phosphoric acid is present in one or even twenty thousand parts of water. So, too, we may find in plants, substances which it is im- possible to detect in the soil, and it is not a little interesting that iodine, a substance largely employed in medicine and photography, is almost entirely procured from the ashes of sea-weeds, although it has never yet been detected with certainty in sea-water, even by the use of methods that would enable the chemist to.find it, did it. form but one part in a million.
12
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LECTURE IV.
IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL BY TILLAGE, DRAINAGE, AMENDMENTS, AND FERTILIZERS.
Having attempted to define at length the reasons of fertility in the soil, we may appropriately recapitulate this part of our subject in order to set in a clearer light the means of improvement.
1. A fertile soil must contain all the mineral matters (ash) of the plant.
2. It must include a certain store of atmospheric ingredients, viz: organic matters or their equivalents—ammonia or nitrates—in short, some store of nitrogen, and usually of carbon.
3. It must contain these matters in an available or assimilable form, i. €., ina certain degree of solubility in water, thus yielding them to vegetation as rapidly as required.
4. The soil must be free from noxious substances.
5. Must possess favorable physical characters, be neither too porous nor compact, neither too wet nor too dry; must afford a congenial home and lodgment for the plant.
It is comparatively rare that these conditions are perfectly fulfilled in nature, or if they exist in any given place at a certain time they suffer disturbance after a longer or shorter period. Hence the ancient and wide spread art of cultivation or improving the soil. Hence, too, the immense practical importance of a scientific, 7. e., accurate and complete understanding of the conditions of fertility and of the means of communicating or restoring them.
The method of improvement, like the characters of the soil, fall naturally into the two classes, mechanical or physical, and chemical.
The first class of improvement comprehends tillage, drainage, and mixture.
In the second class is included whatever contributes to the nourish- ing qualities of the soil, either by direct addition of the food of plants, or of agents that collect, solve, or otherwise prepare this food, as manures and amendments.
This division, though warranted for convenience of study, has no practical existence, for the chemical and physical phenomena of nature are always so intimately associated that their rigorous sepa- ration 1s, In most cases, impossible.
In a very fertile soil it is only needful to deposit the seed in favor- able circumstances as regards temperature and weather, and in due time the harvest is ready. In such a soil there is a suflicient store of plant food, and all the external conditions of rapid vegetable growth. In the poorer soil, in most soils, in fact, there is some want to be supplied, some improvement to be attempted. The first step in meliorating the soil, the one almost universally indispensable even in fertile soils, as a preparation for the seed and young plant—the step always first made in practice and the one in general first required by enlightened theory, is tillage.
Z AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 179
The operations of tillage, viz: spading, ploughing, harrowing, &c., have the mechanical effect to break up and admix the earth. They convert the surface compacted by rain and sun into a loose and friable mould suitable for the deposition of the seed and for the enlargement of the roots of the young plant. Beyond this, these operations, “really, though but to a slight extent, mechanically lessen the size and increase the number of the e earthy particles.
It is chiefly the loosening of the earth and the consequent better admission of water and air, which facilitate the disintegrating effect of these atmospheric agents, whereby, as already explained, the rock fragments are decomposed and dissolved with perpetual increase of the stores of assimilable food.
Tillage likewise assists, in the same manner, in converting any poisonous matters into innocuous or even salubrious forms. Soluble salts of protoxyd of iron, which might accumulate in the deeper soil, are, by exposure to oxygen, changed into insoluble and harmless com- binations. E ixposure e of the soil by tillage to the atmosphere also has the effect to increase the absorption of ammonia, and to hasten the process of nitrification.
Finally, the circulation of water and the consequent distribution of plant food, the removal of excessive moisture after rains, and the absorption of water vapor after droughts, as well as the regulation of the temperature of the soil, are promoted to a most advantageous degree.
In that stage of agricultural which first follows upon pastoral or migratory husbandry, the simplest modes of cultivation are the only ones practiced ; the amount of tillage is small, just sufficient to prepare way for the seed, and it is accomplished by the rudest implements.
With the progress of the arts, ploughing, harrowing, &c., are em- ployed to a greater extent. The implements used in these operations are improved in construction, and adapted to all varieties and situa- tions of soil, so that they may be worked at a greater depth and more frequently, as well as at a reduced cost.
A matter of great importance in tillage is to secure a proper depth of soil. It is obvious that, other things being equal, the deeper the soil the more space the roots of crops have in which to extend them- selves, and the more food lies at their disposal. By deep culture new farms are discovered beneath the old, and it is possible to realize the apparent absurdity of ‘‘more land to the acre.’’
Deep culture is one of the most efficacious means of counteracting drought, as we shall notice presently in discussing drainage.
Deep tillage is not, however, always practiced. The grain fields of Germany, even in the most carefully tilled provinces, as Saxony, are to this day mostly ploughed with rude wooden tools often not unlike those figured in classical dictionaries as in vogue among the ancients, which merely score up the soil to the depth of two, three, or rarely four inches. In our country, which surpasses every other in the real merit of its agricultural implements, and where the means of deep tilth are in the hands of every farmer, tillage is notwithstanding
180 LECTURES ON
shallow im the main, and our agricultural journals are often occupied with discussions as to the advantage or disadvantage of deep culture.
There are, indeed, some instances in which deep ploughing is in- jurious, either permanently, or as most generally happens for a short period. In the latter case the temporary injury most often turns out to be a lasting benefit.
Where a thin surface soil of fair quality rests upon a gravel or other leachy stratum, too cae ploughing may, so to speak, knock the bottom out of the po . é., by breaking through into the open sub- soil, may injure the vain capacity of the upper soil for water and manures. In case ie sub-soil is of a ‘‘cold’’ ochery, noxious char- acter, the bringing it to the surface may occasion detriment for the time.
The plough is the instrument most extensively employed for tillage, and the one to which recourse must be had whenever large fields are to be broken up. In ordinary ploughing the soil is inverted, and ac- cording to its texture more or less pulverized and mellowed to a depth of from three to six inches. Trench ploughing consists in a similar in- versing of the soil to a considerably greater depth, as far as one foot or more, ‘and is practiced to advantage where the soil is good to this depth, especially with the view of bringing up manures which are sup- posed to descend and accumulate below. Sub-soil ploughing is intended merely to break up and loosen the lower soil without bringing it to the surface. The sub-soil plough is merely a narrow share or wedge that follows the furrow of the common plough, and disturbs the ordinary plough bed to the depth of several inches. Itse Senos ae is expen- sive and less in vogue than it was a few years ago. It is mainly useful where the sub-soil is with diflic ulty penetrable to water.
In garden culture, or even in field culture in certain countries, as in parts of sae where labor is cheap, spading and forking are em- ployed instead of ploughing, and with great advantages in heavy soils, because the tread of beasts of draught is entirely avoided, and the
soil is much more throughly pulverized, intermixed and loosened up.
After ploughing and if need be cross- ploughing, the harrow, scarifier or cultivator, some form of toothed implement, is drawn over the field to accomplish a sufiiciently perfect comminution and levelling of the surface for the seed-bed. On heavy clays which, especially in wet weather, are thrown up by the plough in tenacious lumps that further harden in the wind and sun, the clod crusher, a system of toothed disks revolving at a little distance from each other on a com- mon center, at right angles to the line of draught is employed.
On very light soils. the roller is used to make the earth more com- pact, especially above the seed. 7
In late years a countless number of modifications and not a few improvements in the implements and methods of tillage have been suggested, and to a greater or less degree employed, in practical agri- culture; but it is not the place here to enter further into details.
Tn seis localities, tillage may completely and profitably replace all other means of improving the soil.
It is obvious that with each harvest there is removed from the soil
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 181
a quantity of potash, lime, phosphoric acid, and other fixed mineral matters, and likewise more or less ammonia and nitric acid. With every crop the field yields, its own stores of fertility are drawn upon, and, in fact, lessened, and after a certain number of crops are gath- ered, the available food of most soils is so far diminished that the succeeding crops fail of full development; in other words, the soil 1s exhausted. By exhaustion ina practical sense is meant, be it noticed, no absolute removal of plant food, but such a relative diminution as eauses the harvests to fall below a medium or standard yield.
It is the business of culture to replace this spent material, to restore the capacity of the soil, to keep it up year after year to a remunera- tive degree of productiveness.
Jethro Tull, a distinguished Englishman, who worked and wrote in the last century, was led to adopt the theory—not at all improbable, viewed from the scientific stand-point of his day—that the impalpably fine particles of earth are the real food of vegetation. and accordingly he sought to fit the soil fora more rapid and perfect nutrition by pulverizing it. He introduced the horse-hoe, or cultivator, into English husbandry, and actually succeeded, by the diligent use of his improved implements, and by a peculiar mode of oceupying his field, in obviating the necessity of any manures and in raising successive crops on the same field uninterruptedly for twelve years. He failed, however, in maintaining this system for a longer time, having adopted one fatal rule, ‘‘never plough below the staple.’ It is but just to the memory of this eminent agricultural philosopher to explain why he adhered to a notion to us so absurd. Tull was aware of the im- portant part played by the atmosphere in the nutrition of plants. The use of stirring and pulverizing the soil was to enable the parti- cles of earth to attract from the atmosphere ‘‘the nitre or acid spirit of the air,’’ which, in his view, further dissolves and prepares the soil to support vegetation. He had no chemistry to teach him that the indispensable mineral matters of the soil exist in it in such minute quantity, and are therefore liable to exhaustion. He had no analytical data to reveal the difference between the chemical statics of the vineyard—from the sagacious observation of which his theory originated—and the wheat field, which more largely robs the soil of alkalies and phosphates, and so he found it reasonable to use only that portion of the soil—the staple or usual tilth—to which the at mos- phere has obvious access.
The system of Tull has, however, been revived, and, with the modi- fications suggested by.modern science, has been eminently successful in the hand of its ingenious advocate, the Rev. S. Smith, of Lois Weedon, Northamptonshire, England. Mr. Smith has produced large wheat crops continuously on the same soil for a series of years by simply laying off his fields in strips five feet wide, and growing his crops in drills, with frequent and deep hoeing, on alternate strips in successive years. The tillage of the vacant strip this year prepares it to sustain a crop next year—enables the solution and absorption of ‘food enough to feed a full crop.
By this plan of culture Mr. Smith raised the yield of his wheat
182 LECTURES ON
grounds from 16 bushels to an average (for ten years) of 34° bushels per acre. Although he asserts that he has never known this pl n— which differs from Tull’s chiefly in the depth of tillage—to fail where carried out according to his directions, it is easy to see that not every soil will admit of its successful application, even independently of considerations of cost. This method demands for its success that the soil be so deep and so readily decomposable that the plant may find its needful supplies in one-half the accustomed superficies, and there- fore must possess physical properties that, under the treatment, are in the highest degree favorable to vegetation.
On large holdings the maintenance of such an amount of assimilable food as constitutes the soil fertile, is often profitably accomplished by the ancient practice of summer-fallow, which is the same thing for a whole farm as the vacant strips in the Lois Weedon system are for the wheat fields. A field is left void of crops, and is repeatedly ploughed and harrowed during the whole of one summer, generally re- ceiving the seed of some winter grain in the autumn. The fallow is thus an extra period of rest for the soil—enables it te accumulate within itself a store of fertility against future harvests, and is often attended with collateral advantages that alone are sufficient to war- rant its employment, viz., the destruction of weeds, insects, and the improvement of the texture of the soil.
In many situations these processes of tillage are so laborious or in- effectual that recourse must be had to other operations to change® radically the characters of the soil.
Heavy clays, especially in a moist climate, are very difficult of tillage from their peculiar physical qualities. In spring time they become so exceedingly tenacious and compacted by the rains, that they dry with extreme slowness.- While wet they resist any attempt at pulverization, because if ploughed in that condition the plastic up- turned masses harden in drying to intractable clods. It hence results that heavy clays need to be tilled when they have arrived at a certain stage of dryness, and then the operation of ploughing is exceedingly laborious, while the full preparation of the seed-bed is brought late into the season. As clay soils dry, the surface is baked into a crust which impedes the circulation of water, and which, shrinking and cracking apart in innumerable places, ruptures the rootlets of plants. Is is especially difficult to induce a deep tilth in such soils, so that during protracted drought the crops suffer greatly on them.
When clays are not continuous in depth, but rest upon a gravelly and open sub-soil; or when, by art, underground channels are pro- vided for the removal of surplus water, these impediments to tillage and to profitable culture are greatly lessened or entirely removed.
Many soils of lighter character, and in wet climates, sandy soils even, are remarkably benefited by artificial provision for the removal of surplus or bottom water.
It is but a few years since the introduction into general practice of a system of drainage intended to effect this purpose took place in Great Britain, James Smith, of Deanston, Scotland, led by an in- ductive study of the evils, and the true means to be employed in the
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 1838
improvement of cold soils, devised what, under the name of Thorough Drainage, has become one of the most ‘useful appliances in cultiva- tion.
Thorough drainage consists essentially in constructing underground channels, ‘sufficient in number and size, for the re moval of surplus water down to a certain depth. * A, clay field, for example, has a system of parallel ditches dug in it, three or four feet in depth, and sixteen to thirty feet apart. These have such an inclination, and so connect with cross or main ditches, as to give the water th: it may collect in them a ready discharge. The bottoms of the ditches are then filled with small stones to the pete of about one foot, or have carefully laid in them a pipe of baked clay, (drain tile,) one to three inches in diameter, and are thereupon filled up with earth. These channels at once discharge the water of rains and melting snows when the soil is sufficiently porous; and if at first, as happens with clays, the soil is too retentive to allow the ready renova of water, this evil mends itself in a year or two. We know that a mass of clay exposed to the air in dry weather gradually dries off superficially, and ap- pears full of minute fissures or larger rifts. In time it becomes entirely friable; and if water be poured on it the liquid, for the most part, rapidly filters through. It is only by a prolonged immersion in water that the dried clay | absorbs so much of it as to become tenacious and plastic again. The under drains are the effectual means of drying out the clay soil to such a point that excess of water flows off without hindrance, and they are no less effectual in preventing the recurrence of a too retentive state.
The fact that we are in possession of extended treatises on drain- age, renders it unnecessary to do more here than to allude to some of the more striking results of this s¥stem which have been observed in practice, and to indicate their scientific explanation.
One of the most important effects of thorough drainage consists in tempering the extremes of moisture and dryness, of heat and cold, so that a drained soil is dryer in the wet seasons and moister in the dry seasons—is warmer in cold weather, and cooler in hot weather, than an undrained soil.
The result of the rapid removal of surplus water on the soil is such as enables it to be tilled from two to four weeks earlier in the spring than might otherwise happen, a gain which, in cold climates or back- ward spring-times, is often the saving of a crop.
The vast mass of water that is thus removed without evaporation corresponds to a large increase in the amount of heat which may accumulate in the soil, an increase that isnot only perceived in the
rapid growth of veg etation after the ground is prepared for seed, but also is manifest in the earlier melting “of snows. The official inquiries of the Royal College of Rural Economy of Prussia show that the snow in that country thaws away on the average one week earlier on drained than on contiguous undrained land.
It is said that Smith, of Deanston, was led to his study of drainage by an observation made on ridged fields. From time immemorial it has been a custom in some countries, especially in those overrun by
184 LECTURES ON
Roman civilization, to ridge up the fields by the plough, thus bringing the soil into beds of a rod or thereabouts in width, which are several inches higher in the centre than at the edges. It was observed that in time of dry weather the plants stationed upon the centre of the ridges fared best, while those at the borders were liable to suffer, although it might be supposed they occupied the most favorable position, so far as access to the subterranean moisture is concerned, On a moment’s reflection, it is obvious that the deeper the ‘‘staple’’ or penetrable friable soil is, the greater space will be occupied by the rootlets of plants, and the larger will be the supplies of capillary moisture; so that if the soil under the influence of protracted drought becomes surface-dry to the depth of one inch or two inches, less in- jury will accrue to the crop whose roots are diffused through a deep soil than to one stationed in a shallow tilth. The fact seen in the ridged fields is far more plainly exhibited on comparing drained and undrained lands. In fact, drainage is recognized, among practical farmers, as the best protection against drought. Not only does it regulate the use of the water which falls upon the fields as rain, but by exposing an immense amount of absorbent surface to the atmos- phere, which freely permeates the drained soil, large quantities of water are collected and condensed from the vapor of the air. It has been recently observed at Hinxworth, England, that the flow of ‘water from drains sometimes increases considerably when the baro- meter falls, although no rain-fall has occurred. :
The various chemical advantages that have been already attributed to tillage, viz: aeration of the soil, solution and preparation of plant- food, oxydation of unwholesome matters, are evidently to be antici- pated from drainage in an eminent degree. In wet climates it is found to be the best preparation for effectual tillage, and where the condition of the soil requires it, the indispensable pre-requisite to profitable husbandry,
The tenacious and intractable characters of clay soils are also effec- tually overcome by the operation of heat—by burning the clay. A heat of redness expels the combined water of clay, and destroys for- ever its tenacity. A part of the soil is converted into something like brick-dust, and the admixture of a small proportion of this is suffi- cient to amend the heaviest soils. The same burning likewise makes soluble the alkalies, and, in fact, nearly all the fixed mineral matters of the clay, thus rendering it more fertile by increasing its power of feeding vegetation.
It often happens that contiguous soils are greatly improved by mixing together. A few loads of clay remedy the too great porosity of a sand, and vice versa.
The physical characters of the soil being set to rights, the next point is to feed the plant. So soon as crops fall below a certain unre- munerative rate of yield, which, in most soils, happens in a few years, other means of improvement, viz: manures, are called into requisition.
We have already spoken of tillage as a substitute for manure; but the word manure originally included tillage, coming from the French
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 185
maneuvrer, (main ouvrer,) or Latin manus operor, signifying to work with the hands, a sense in which it was employed by Milton. The term manure is now used in a general way to signily any substance added to the soil to make it more productive.
Substances added in large quantity often act chiefly by qualifying the physical properties of the sou, and are then appropriately termed Amendments. Matters which operate in the main by feeding vegeta- tion are more properly Fer tilizers. These again May nouri ish, directly, by supplying at once to the growing plant one or all the nutrient in- gredients it requires; or indirectly, “by making soluble the stores of the soil, or otherwise disposing them to assume assimilable forms, or by absorbing matters from the atmosphere. Most manures combine these various offices to a greater or less degree.
While the popular name of those materials that are successfully employed as manures is legion, the chemist, by his analysis, recog- nizes in them all only the same ‘dozen kinds of matter which consti- tute plants and soils.
The use of manures has been known from the earliest times, and there has been no lack of attempts to explain their effects; but it is only after the sciences of chemistry and vegetable physiology had entered upon the modern development that it was possible to begin understanding their mode of action. So difficult is the subject that We are as yet by no means advanced to its full comprehension, which requires a complete knowledge of the relations of each nutritive element and compound with the plant, with the soil, and with the atmosphere.
During all the centuries in which agricultural experience, with reference to the operation of manures, has accumulated, we find that the opinions of practical farmers have been almost endlessly at variance; and as these conflicting opinions have faithfully reflected the facts and phenomena which have presented themselves to agri- culturists, we are prepared to find that at the present day there is a constant recurrence of endlessly differing results in the use and estimate of manures. We find in our current agricultural journals abundant examples of crops being benefited by application of nearly every one of the ash ingredients of the plant, as well as by ammonia and nitrates, or bodies yielding these; and, on the other hand, re- peated instances of their failure. <A scientific consideration of these results enables us to explain much that is obscure, and reconcile much that is conflicting, by taking into the account differences of soil, climate, and crop; and by a careful study of the circumstances which alter cases to sucha great degree, it will be possible, in time, to unfold every mystery and elucidate every variety of effect.
The space at command here does not allow any detail with refer- ence to the action of manures, except as may illustrate some of the general principles which alone can serve to initiate us into the method of their operation.
185 LECTURES ON
These general principles are the following:
1. Plants require various kinds of fixed mineral matters, and derive the same exclusively from the soil.
The only exceptions to this statement are, perhaps, to be found in case of chlorine and sodium, which appear to be carried inland from the sea in the direction of prevailing winds, both in the spray and dissolved in the vapor that ascends from the ocean.
2. Some plants which, in the natural state, derive a large portion of the volatile elements of their ydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen—from the air, must be supplied with much more of these matters Jrom the soil, in agricultural production.
As already remarked, the increased supply of these matters by the soil is requisite only to insure that rapid and abundant growth which constitutes agricultural production.
The very fact of an artificially increased supply of food to plants, in connexion with the care otherwise provided by cultivation, in a few generations enlarges their capacity for assimilating nutriment, greatly increases the mass of vegetable matter that can . develop on a given surface, and, in consequence, makes a fertile soil necessary for exhib- iting the capabilities of the crop. Many of our agricultural plants are the result of high cultivation, including, as one of its most efficient factors, a fertile, and, in most cases, artificially fertilized soil. The wretched weeds from which our numerous varieties of turnip, ruta- baga, kohl rabi, cauliflower, broccoli, and cabbage have been derived, are hardly recognizable as the originals of so many useful plants, and these, as well as the wild e egilops of southern Europe, from which the w Hea grain appears to have come, are no less inferior to the cul- tivated plants, in appearance and value, than is the soil required for their natural development, to that demanded in their agricultural pro- awevion:
3. Different plants require different proportions of these substances for their luxuriant growth.
4. Different plants require different absolute quantities of food to ma- ture a full crop.
These propositions are illustrated by the accompanying table, which represents, in average figures, the weight, in pounds, of total produce, and of the chief ingredients, removed ‘annually from an acre of good land, in case of several of the more commonly cultivated crops.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 187
i cs 3 3 & ha : a "Sa oS wu [>| a ° ral 4 o a . A ~ a0 o Q, a on] . 3 fe) = a D © a RN encore pl cet AT A peme V eah MVi | Zi cs) a ow a w Wheat— Grain eae cece eeises sealsicciaes 1,840 34 32 15 10 5 4 SUA Wae eee wee eee ees cstiee cs. 4,600 14 207 8 39 TAB Nh ess Mota iat ahs ens ns ok 6, 440 48 239 23 49 | 16 1454 Rye— Pea EG, eae Graineeecee ees eteests a teeenicle 1,470 28 25 12 9 4 DSttaae aise eee ee ee aid mina ties 3.500 12 140 4 27 9 93 Totals eae eee oes 4,970 40 165 16 36 13 934 Beans— iguana GCOS e osic a trattate ara Seimyaiselslateae as 1,840 76 60 20 27 8 4 DtlLaWaneoe es ose eSee eee cae | 2,700 33 138 14 34 50 134 Motal idee: Meat he ciate | 4640 |. 209'|) 19sehapBat | wer}. SS.) 414 ——— Beets— | TROQOS Rode SO eee OOOO OBOEECaC | 36, 800 88 353 22 158 40 20 Tops: :=--- aces ea sebicsesosics 9,200 26 173 iui 69 28 12 Rota a mecs see eee ee 46,000 114 526 33 227 68 32 Clowerscs- 2 esas Weiaioe ete wise 6,000 150 390 25 105 121 21 Meadowscrassis oon See see cee coe 4,000 53 | 246 13 58 62 78
This table shows, that, other things being supposed equal, a supply of nitrogen sufficient for a full rye crop would answer but for one- third of a clover or beet crop; the phosphoric acid sufficient for a meadow is but little more than half enough for a wheat field, and only one-third as much as a crop of beans requires. It appears that the potash which would fully nourish a crop of wheat is nearly enough for grass or beans; while for clover twice, and for beets four-and-a- half times as much is needful. A clover crop demands almost ten times as much lime and magnesia as suffices for rye, and a wheat crop must have more than ten times as much silica as serves the growth of an equal yield of beans.
The erroneous conclusions which a hasty deduction might bring out of the foregoing instructive table are checked by the fact ex- pressed in the next proposition, viz:
5. Different plants, from peculiarities in their structure, draw differ- ently on the same stores of nutriment.
There are some plants which flourish on the poorest soils, being adapted to resist the extremes of drought, and accumulate their food
188 LECTURES ON
under what are, for nearly all agricultural plants, the most unfavor- able conditions. Rye, for example, will grow well where wheat is utterly unprofitable. Buckwheat yields a fair crop on exceedingly poor soils; and the lupine is so extraordinary in this respect that by its help the farmer may cover the most desolate blowing sands with a luxuriant vegetation.
On the other hand, some crops are easily spoiled by overfeeding. Thus wheat, and the slender-stemmed grains generally, are unremu- nerative on the newly broken up prairies of our west, while maize flourishes even on the richest soils, being in practical language ‘‘a rank feeder.”’
It is plain that, other things being equal, a plant with long-branch- ing numerous roots does not require so rich a soil as one with these organs short and few, because it has a greater mass of earth at its disposal out of which to collect its food.
Again, those plants which expose to the air a large leaf surface should, other things being equal, flourish better than the sparsely- leaved plants in a soil poor in atmospheric elements.
A plant which is of slow, regular, and protracted growth may, in the same manner, organize more vegetable matter on a given soil during a summer than one which quickly runs through all the stages of its life, and therefore requires more rapid supplies of food—de-
mands more in a given time.
In general, also, those crops which produce seed require a better soil for their continuous production than such as yield only foliage.
6. Different soils abound or are deficient, to a greater or less degree, m one or more needful ingredients im assimilable for m.
With the original differences of soils are to be likewise classed the changes in condition which tillage and cropping are perpetually inducing. By the continued removal of crops the soul suffers a dimi- nution of its resources, and often some one or a few of the nutritive elements are soon brought to a minimum, while the others still remain in quantity sufficient for hundreds of harvests. According to the original composition of the soil, the failing ingredient may be potash in one case, sulphuric acid in another lime i in another; and applica- tion of these substances, respectively, may then form the most profit: able manuring.
T. Jt appears from experience that the ingredients which are rarest in the soull—which are therefore most liable to exhaustion, and most needful to be replaced—are, in general, phosphoric acid, assimilable nitrogen, (be tt in the form of ammonia or nitric acid,) and potash.
The substances just named are therefore important ingredients in all those manures by whose continued and exclusive use the soil is kept fertile, and constitute the chief part of such fertilizers as bring up exhausted lands to immediate and remarkable, though it be tem- porary, productiveness.
The above is intended as a very general statement, the truth of which, as such, is not invalidated. by the numerous and important exceptions which occur.
In examining the question of the direct action of manures, we have first to notice the value of deductions from the composition of a sub-
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. \ 189
stance as to its fertilizing effect. Can we, by the study of the com- position of a crop, decide what manure is most likely to benefit it ? or can we determine, from the composition of a manure, what crop it is best adapted for? The answer to these questions is, in many cases, No! In laying down the general principles which are to be regarded in a rational theory of manuring, we have had frequent occasion to make the truth of a proposition depend upon ‘‘ other things being equal.’’ Now it happens, unfortunately for the sim- plicity of our science, that ‘‘other things’’ are often in the highest degree unequal and unlike, so that we must busy ourselves with the slow work of induction from facts mostly yet to be extricated by toil- some experiment from their present confusion, rather than incumber theory and disgust practice by generalizing de ductions that cannot fail to be premature and erroneous. There are many cases in which the effect of a fertilizer can be immediately connected with its com- position. It not unfrequently happens that pasture lands from which the only matters agriculturally removed are the ingredients of cheese, after long use, deteriorate, refuse to nourish dairy animals, and be- come nearly worthless. The’ use of bones or phosphatic manures restores such fields to perfect pasturage; and the explanation afforded by chemistry—viz: that all the phosphate of lime put in the milk as a provision for the formation of the bones of a young animal is permanently alienated from the soil in the exports of cheese, so that exhaustion of this substance is caused, unless phosphates be ap- plied—is entirely satisfactory.
The leguminous plants, though the richest in nitrogen of all our crops, do not by any means require nitrogenous manure to the extent demanded by wheat, which removes from the soil but one-half as much, or less, of this substance. The difference here is obviously due to the fact that the leguminous plants have deeper roots, more foliage, and a longer period of growth.
Leguminous plants are rich in lime and sulphur, and hence are often remarkably grateful for applications of gypsum. Fruit and shade trees yield an ash largely consisting of carbonate of lime, and their growth, especially on meager sandy soils, is often wonderfully enhanced by the accident of some oyster shells or old mortar being thrown on the ground over their roots.
The grasses and grains contain a large amount of silica in their stems and leaves; but the artificial use of soluble silicates of potash and soda has rarely been attended with more benefit than that of the corresponding chlorids, and for the reason that silica is so universally distributed.
Mr. Lawes, of England, found that on his farm wheat might be grown for a dozen years or more in succession on the same field, and give an average crop of 17 bushels per acre, without manure; while a contiguous field, planted in turnips, in three years came to yield scarcely anything. Mr. Lawes then found that, by the use of nitro- genous manures, the wheat crop was at once doubled, while the turnip crop was hardly affected; and, on the other hand, a mixture of sulphate and soluble phosphate of lime (super-phosphate of lime)
190 LECTURES ON
had little influence on the wheat crop, but at once raised the turnip field to a considerable degree of productiveness. These facts, borne out by the quite general result of practice, indicate the conclusion which some eminent authorities have unhesitatingly adopted, that soluble phosphate of lime exercises a specific action on the turnip, indepen- dent of the actual need of this plant for phosphates. There are, however, such grounds for doubting this doctrine that, until further investigations give us more complete data for judgment, a decision must be suspended.
Some recently described experiments of Mr. Lawes on the effect of fertilizers upon meadows are very interesting. He found that when a manure consisting of phosphates and sulphates of lime, potash, soda, and magnesia was applied to grass land, the development of clover was at once astonishingly increased; while, when nitrogenous manures were used, either alone or in addition to the above mixture, the true grasses maintained the mastery.
The attempt made not long since to manure, plants with mixtures representing what is taken off the field by a crop, turned out unsatis- factorily, as the facts we have instanced make evident such a scheme must; and we are led every day more and more to seek explanations of the anomalous effects of manures in their indirect action.
The most familiar instance of indirect action is that of gypsum or sulphate of lime. In contact with carbonate of ammonia, with so much water as to make the mixture wet, an interchange of ingredients takes place, so that sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime are formed; and Liebig accounted in part for the beneficial operation of gypsum by assuming that it thus ‘‘fixed’’ the volatile carbonate of ammonia of rains and dews, and held it in the soil for the use of vegetation.
On the other hand, Boussingault showed that when the mixture of sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime, from being wet, dries so far that it is only moist, like the soil is ordinarily, the reverse decom- position ensues, and the ammonia once fixed, is unfixed. While we can conceive of circumstances in which both these properties come into play, beneficially or otherwise, it must be remembered that the more late discovered absorbent power of the soil sets these effects of gypsum quite out of the account in nearly all cases.
Humus, which, in the form of peat or swamp muck, or as resulting from the decay of litter and the carbonacious ingredients of the ex- crements of cattle, is a most common and useful manure, doubtless accomplishes more hy indirect than by immediate action. It is the most energetic absorbent of ammonia, as carbonate (according to Brustlein, not of other salts) is the source of carbonic acid in the sou, thus, by its presence, setting in operation the endless train of changes whose result is the solution of mineral matters, and by its hygroscopic character it assists to maintain the proper physical con- dition of the soil.
_ Lime, which is one of the greatest renovators in use in agriculture, 1s, In a similar manner, of more indirect than immediate effect. Its influence is especially manifest in fluxing the insoluble stores of plant-
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 191 food, and compelling the soil to yield its ingredients to the support of vegetation.
Ammonia, when acting on the soil as carbonate, (coming from the decomposition of urea, uric acid, and other nitrogenous bodies, ) is not inferior to lime in its solvent effects.
Gypsum, common salt, carbonate of lime, nitrates of potash and soda, and in fact all the saline compounds which are incorporated with the soil in manures, may exert important physiological effects on the plant in addition to their mere nutritive function.
We have already intimated that the transpiration of water through the plant is very remarkably hindered when lime, potash, or the salts just named are present in the absorbed liquid. This fact, observed for the first time by Mr. Lawes, in 1850, and recently brought again more strikingly into notice by Dr. Sachs, of Tharand, Saxony, appears to be of great importance in the theory of manures. Dr. Sachs experimented on various plants, viz: beans, squashes, tobacco, and maize, and observed their transpiration in weak solutions (mostly containing one per cent.) of nitre, common salt, gypsum, (one-fifth per cent. solution) and sulphate of ammonia. He also experimented with maize in a mixed solution of phosphate and silicate of potash, sulphates of lime and magnesia, and common salt, and likewise ob- served the effect of free nitric acid and free potash on the squash plant. The young plants were either germinated in the soil, then re- moved from it and set with their rootlets in the solution, or else were kept in the soil and watered with the solution. The glass vessel containing the plant and solution was closed above around the stem of the plant by glass plates and cement, so that no loss of water could occur except through the plant itself, and this loss was ascertained by daily weighings. The result was that all the solutions mentioned, except that of free nitric acid, quite uniformly retarded transpiration to a degree varying from 10 to 90 per cent., while the free acid ac- celerated the transpiration in a corresponding manner.
As the processes of elaboration—the chemical and structural me- tamorphoses going on within the cells of the plant require time for their performance, we can easily perceive that a too rapid upward current of liquid, by diluting the juices, might measurably interfere with the assimilation of the food, and that the presence of a body may be no less useful by its regulating influence on the circulation of the water than by contributing an ingredient necessary for the forma- tion of the substance ot the plant itself.
It is also obvious that if a substance added to the soil retard the transpiration of water through vegetation, a given store of hygro- scopic moisture in the soil will serve the needs of vegetation longer will reach further into time of drought than it otherwise could. Dr. Sachs found that gypsum exerted the greatest effect in preventing loss of water, and this observation gives a scientific ground of evi- dence to the opinion long maintained among farmers, but rejected by men of science, (and very properly, as no cause could be discovered for such an effect, and the effect is not capable of measurement in
192 LECTURES ON field culture,) that gypsum has the influence of a body that attracts moisture.
The facts brought to light by the researches of Way, Hichhorn, and Voelcker, already described, indicate another general mode by which fertilizers, especially soluble saline bodies, may operate indi- rectly. The investigations referred to, show that the bases (and acids?) may replace each other in insoluble or slightly soluble combi- nations, 7. e., soluble lime may displace insoluble ‘potash, making this soluble and becoming insoluble itself. Soda may, in the same manner, displace lime or potash, or ammonia, the rule being that the body in excess goes into combination and expels those before combined. We observe here a tendency to bring all the bases into what we may designate as an equilibrium of solution. This principle appears adapted more than any other yet discovered to generalize the phenomena of indirect action, and enables us to forsee and explain them. Proofs are not wanting of the actual operation of this principle in the soil.
Wollf (Naturgesetzlichen Grundlagen des Ackerbaues, 3d ed., p. 148,) found in fact that the ashes of the straw of buckwheat grown with a large supply of common salt, compared with the ashes of the same part ‘of that plant grown on the same soil minus this addition, con- tained less chlorid of sodium but much more chlorid of potassium, there having occurred an exchange of bases in the soil.
Closely connected in many points with these phenomena of dis- placement, yet in many respects different and peculiar, are the sol- vent effects of saline bodies, alkalies, and carbonic acid in dilute watery solution, to which allusion has been so frequently made in the foregoing pages. We refer to this subject once more in this place in order to give the results of some actual trials as to the disintegrat- ing effect of these substances on soils and rocks. Dietrich, to whom we owe these investigations, found that from a diluvial loamy soil con- taining humus, the amount of matters rendered soluble by a dilute solution of carbonate of ammonia (containing one per cent. of the salt) was twice as great as that set free by water saturated with carbonic acid, and of the alkalies, potash and soda, four times as much were dissolved by the former as by the latter liquid. Solution of sulphate of ammonia dissolved six times as much as carbonated water.
The action of carbonated water and carbonate of ammonia extended chiefly to the alkalies. Sulphate of ammonia, while equally effective in their solution, likewise dissolved a large amount of lime and mag- nesia as sulphates. Caustic lime (one per cent.) in most cases pro- duced a remarkable increase of volume in the earths submitted to its action; the loam just mentioned became nearly three times as bulky as it was at first, a decomposition of the silicates having taken place. Carbonate of lime, in solution in carbonated water, had the most vigorous action in eliminating the alkalies. Even gypsum, (sulphate of lime,) in moist contact with powdered basaltic rock, sets free a considerable amount of alkalies in a few days. Ammonia salts exert a strong action on insoluble silicates, the ammonia and silica being partially set free, the other acids and bases remaining in soluble com- binations.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 193
The most abundant, most generally employed, and most permanently useful manures are the excrements and waste of animals. These matters are, in fact, the residue, more or less concentrated, that remains from the oxydation of vegetables which have served as food. By the vital processes, the hydrogen and carbon of the vegetable nutrient principles are chiefly consumed to the gaseous form, while a portion of these, together with nearly all the nitrogen and all the fixed mineral matters, are separated from the animal in the liquid or solid shape, either immediately prepared, or under the agencies of warmth and moisture speedily assuming a suitable condition for nourishing a new vegetation.
The excrements of domestic animals, containing, as they do, all the ingredients of plants, and those in greatest relative amount which veget: ition is obliged to seek for in the soil, constitute the most gen- erally and durably efficient manure in countries like our ow n, where cattle are largely depended upon as means of supplying food. The dejections of man are amore concentrated and more powerful fertilizer, and. though less adapted for maintaining the fertility of large farms tilled by a few hands, because they are not associated with matters that amend and modify the physical characters of the soil, are a main reliance in countries like China, where the dense population subsists almost exclusively on vegetable food, and under any circumstances are an invaluable adjunct to the resources of the farmer. Human excreta should never be suffered to waste so long as the soil is capable of stimulation to higher productiveness.
Certain animal manures, viz., those very rich in nitrogen, though usually exhibiting great energy of action, are liable to abuse, and often ultimately impoverish the farmer. Peruvian guano, the excrement of piscivorous sea-fowl, yielding sixteen per cent. of ammonia by the decomposition of its uric acid, and the flesh, blood, hair, and wool of animals are manures of this character. Nitrogen i is their principal active ingredient; it passes into ammonia or nitric acid, excites a quick growth of vegetation by furnishing abundance of material for cell development, and at the same time rapidly solves the fixed minerals of the sol. The latter, being as rapidly removed by the vigorous vegetation, soon fall into a state of relative deficiency, especially on the poor soils where these applications exhibit their effects most strikingly; and unless restored by some other manure, the absence of them produces the phenomenon of exhaustion.
It is an objection, indeed, commonly raised against manures con- taining but one or a few nutritive ingredients, that they exhaust the
soil. “Obviously it is the crops, or ‘what is taken off ‘the soil, that exhaust it; and if a manure assists a crop to rob a field, the abetting farmer cannot rightfully complain, so long as the price of the produce goes into his pocket, although, to be sure, there are various ways of exhausting land, some of which are vastly more profitable than others.
The great practical lessons taught by experience and confirmed by science, relative to the use of manures, are, save all refuse which contains any of the elements of vegetation ; apply abundantly the mixed ingredients of the dung and compost heaps. As concerns commercial
194 LECTURES.
and saline manures, such as guano, salt, plaster, lime, &c., experiment with them repeatedly and accurately on the small scale, so as to learn what the crops say about their value. Where phosphates have been heavily applied, it is probable that ammonia or nitrogenous manures, or per- haps lime or potash, may next exert the most beneficial action, and vice versa. Be sure of enough, not only as regards the quantities, but also the kinds of matters applied.
But our subject requires treatment which only a volume can give space for. The recent progress of knowledge, thanks to the scientific farmers and agricultural philosophers of England, Germany, and France, demands a series of chapters on manures that are as yet unwritten, but, when rightly produced, will be alike novel, interesting, and useful to the true American farmer, who cultivates with equal assiduity the ‘‘soil and the mind.’’
LECTURES ON THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA.
BY PHILIP P. CARPENTER, OF WARRINGTON, ENGLAND.
The pearl fishery carried on by the Spaniards in the ‘*Sea of Cortez’’ during the 17th and 18th centuries, bore testimony to its richness in molluscan life. To obtain the ‘‘pearl oysters,’’ eight hundred divers were regularly employed, and the annnal value of the exports was $60,000. So exhaustive was this fishery that it was gradually abandoned; and the very limited trade between the gulf ports and the Old World did not lead to more than the most fragmen- tary knowledge of its marine fauna. A few of the shells of Acapulco had been brought home by Humboldt and Bonpland as early as 1803; and collections had been made at various stations on the Central American coast by Captain Beechy and Lieutenant Belcher, R. N., in the voyage of the Blossom, 1825-1828 ; by MM. Du Petit Thouars, La Perouse, and Chiron, in the Venus, 1836-1859 ; and in the Sulphur, by Sir EH. Belcher and Mr. Hinds, in 1836-1842. The shells of Panama and the coast of Ecuador, closely related to those of the Gulf of California, had been obtained in great abundance by Hugh Cuming, esq., whose vast collection of shells is not only by far the largest in the world, but, through the generous courtesy of its owner, the most accessible to students of every nation. Scarcely any shells, however, had been collected in the gulf, and indeed the records of scientific voyages, rich as they are in additions to our knowledge of fresh forms, rarely afford satisfactory data as to the fauna of any particular district. Unfortunately, it has been the custom, in the accounts of these voy- ages, only to describe the (supposed) new species ; besides which, the locality marks, even if accurately noted at the time, are exposed to many chances of error before the information is made accessible to the scientific world.* Whether the shells of the gulf most resembled those of Panama or those of California, (which were described by Mr. Conrad from collections made by the late Mr. Nuttall in 1854,) was still a matter of doubt up to the period of the Mexican war in 1846~8. When Major Rich and Captain Green visited Mazatlan, they became acquainted with a Belgian gentleman, M. Reigen, who had been em- ploying himself in making a vast collection of the shells of that region. This collection ultimately passed into the hands of a merchant who
* The works of Mr. Hinds are, however, in every respect reliable, in consequence of the great skill and accuracy of the Jamented author.
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divided it into two portions: the smaller was sent to Havre; the larger, occupying no less than 560 cubic feet, to Liverpool.
A collection of such magnitude, known to have been made only at one spot, had never before been thrown open to the public ; and, knowing that its contents were likely to afford very valuable informa- tion in reference to the geographical distribution of species, I em- braced the opportunity which circumstances afforded me to pass the whole under careful review. The result of my labors will be found in # ‘report on the present state of our knowledge of the mollusca of the wést coast of North America,’”’ prepared at the request of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and published in the volume of transactions for 1856; and, in a more detailed form, in the ‘‘descriptive catalogue of the Reigen collection of Mazatlan mol- lusca’’ printed by order of the trustees of the British Museum, 1857.* The best duplicate series, amounting to about 6,500 shells, I have lately given to the State of New York. Having come to this country to arrange it in the natural history rooms at Albany, Professor Henry requested me to visit Washington, and arrange the shells of the United States exploring expedition. For this difficult task, the sorting out of the Mazatlan shells, amounting probably to 100,000 specimens, was perhaps no unfit preparation.
In the present lecture, it is proposed to confine our attention to a single shell from this collection. It belongs to a group nearly related to the oysters, and still retains the name of Spondylus given to it by Aristotle more than two thousand years ago, from the resemblance of the thorny processes outside the valves to the vertebra of the higher animals. Ihave named the species calcifer, from the use made of it by the natives, who dive for it in order to burn for lime. _ Its solid, ponderous growth affords a striking contrast to the great ‘‘ water-clam ” of the Pacific islands, in which the shell-layers are generally separate from each other.t Unfortunately the cumbrous size of these shells led the Liverpool dealer to dispose of the whole stock before I had an opportunity of examining them; their ignominious fate being to adorn the ‘‘museum’’ of a large drinking saloon, the owner of which had no idea of their scientific interest, and was unwilling to part with any of his duplicates. The very few which fell into my possession proved, however, to be a little museum in themselves; each specimen so abounding in parasites, within and without, that I have described upwards of a hundred entirely new forms of molluscan life derived from this source alone; besides about 250 others which had been pre- viously investigated, or which are not yet determined; and a variety of Annelids, Crustaceans, Zoophytes, Sponges, Protozoas, Protophytes,
= Both of these works are in the library of the Smithsonian Institution. In order to aid in their compilation, Mr. Herbert Thomas purchased for me what remained of the Reigen collection. The first fruits of this, amounting to nearly 9,000 specimens, I presented to the British Museum.
} A very remarkable specimen of this shell was brought home by the United States ex- ploring expedition, in which the free as well as the attached valve displays the long, flat,
triangular ligament area, presenting somewhat the appearance of the gigantic fossil Pla- giostomata.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 197
and alga, which are yet awaiting the attention of naturalists acquainted with those special departments. We propose first to examine the creatures which make their abode on the outside of these oyster valves.
Certain smooth, oval spaces bear testimony to the former presence of many kinds of limpets. Some of those creatures, (as e.g. the Pa- tella Mexicana, or giant limpet, which is sometimes a foot in length and large enough for a basin) prefer to live on the rocks; others are always found on dead shells; others again always adhere to living ones. The irculation of water caused by the breathing currents of the larger animal is no doubt congenial to their tastes. Most mollusks have the power not only of forming, but also of absorbing shelly matter ; and these limpets, by the constant action of their strong muscular foot, eat into the shell of the spondylus and leave a mark by which each species can generally be recognized. Some of them make regular excursions to browse on the alge and nullipore which they rasp off with their thousand-toothed lingual ribbon, always returning to their own hole to sleep; but others appear to lead a sedentary life, depending, like the bivalves, on whatever nutriment the water brings within their reach. These, which go by the common names of ‘‘bon- net,’’ ‘‘slipper,’’ or ‘‘cup-and-saucer’’ limpets, are more highly or- ganized than their more active neighbors; the gill being a delicate little comb at the back of the neck, and the sexes being distinct. The Calyptreids (‘‘slipper’’ and ‘‘ cup-and-saucer’’ limpets) found on the Spondylus valves are the most beautiful and varied that are known in any part of the world. The shells are large and thin, delicately fur- rowed, and as it were engine-turned with a profusion of tubercles, which sometimes rise up into long hollow spines. ‘The colors vary from white to a rich black-brown, or are variously mottled with sienna, while the shape may be either an elevated cone or a widely spreading disk. Sometimes the same individual will begin with one form and sculpture-pattern, and suddenly change to ancther ; others again seem to develop permanent and widely differing varieties. Occasionally a starved or diseased Mazatlanian will present the aspect which is normal on the colder shores of South America; exchanging its thin texture and delicate sculpture for a coarse, solid, and nearly smooth shell. So far the views lately propounded with such ability by the celebrated author of the.‘‘ Voyage of the Beagle’’ meet with sufficient confirmation ; and yet, amid all its changes, there is a habit of growth, hard to describe and yet easily recognized by the practised eye, which not only unites the most aberrant forms, but at once separates them from neighboring species found on the same coast and appearing very similar to the common observer. The ordinary plan of only preserv- ing in collections a few picked specimens displaying marked pecu- liarities, is by no means favorable to the elimination of truth im reference to specific variation. These extreme forms are very natu- rally described ag distinct species, the intermediate connecting links not passing before the view of the naturalist. On showing to a dis- tinguished author a carefully eliminated suite of Mazatlan specimens connecting the smooth, thin, flat Crepidula squama, Brod. with the
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coarse, arched, laminated C. Lessonii, passing through the forms C. nivea, C. B. Ad.and C. striolata, Wke., he complained that I had ‘‘kept all the puzzling shells.’’ In the very useful work of Messrs. H. and A. Adams on the genera of recent Mollusca, these forms appear under different subgenera.*- It is not fair to blame authors for these mis- takes, which naturally result from the imperfection of the material on which they work. But the prevalence of such errors should lead us to embrace every opportunity of studying large numbers of specimens, both from the same and from different localities. Patience, accuracy, and honesty may thus render as valuable service to sciencé as brilliant genius, and may supply the materials from which some master-mind may hereafter develop the most important generalizations.
Those who describe species from minute differences founded on in- dividual specimens, might do well to study the plates appended to the ‘‘B. A. report on the West Coast Mollusca” before quoted. Take, e.g., the Crucibulum spinosum, pl. 9. The shell is at first spiral, like asnail. It then surrounds its entire margin with a rim, which is the first beginning of what in the adult becomes the ‘*saucer,’’ or outside shell; that is, the hardened skin of the animal's body; (for shells are not to be regarded as a house constructed for the animal to live in, but as an integral part of the animal itself, like the feathers of birds or our own nails and hair.) At the same time it raises a slight lamina from the labium, or ‘‘pillar-lip,’? which ultimately becomes the ‘‘cup.” At first, however, it is like the ‘‘deck”’’ in the slipper limpets, from some species of which it can scarcely be then distinguished. The Crepidule, however, continue their deck in a horizontal direction, while the Cru-
Fig. 1. cibulum turns the edges upwards at a more or less obtuse angle.’ Gradually, during the progress of adolescence, this angle becomes right and then acute; the outer shell mean- while taking various forms, round, oblong, or irregular, according to the nature of the sur- face to which it has chosen to adhere. Often this immature state is continued to a late period; if permanent, it would belong to the subgenus Dispotea (Say) of Messrs. Adams. But, normally, the sides of the cup close in,
Crucitbulum imbricatum, jun. ani S si payde = . ra 1 Ten ee siowicptis anise hile its body becomes greatly swollen in beginning to double in. front. This cup now assumes the form which
is always characteristic of the species under every modification of ex- ternal growth ; being well rounded in C. imbricatum, angular at the side in C. spinosum, and with the sides flattened against each other in C. radiatum. In C. rude, the adolescent stage is very soon com- pleted, and the cup is permanently detached from the side of the shell, forming a veritable ‘‘cup and saucer,’’ one, too, after the fashion so prevalent in America, where the cup-handle has never been formed.
*The plan adopted by D’Orbigny in his classification of Foraminifera, was to pick out from a large mass of material the leading forms; which he grouped into genera, families, and orders. In my brother’s papers on Orbitolites, &c , in the transactions of the Royal Society, it is shown that individuals belonging, according to D’Orbigny, to different orders are really aberrant forms of the same species,
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 199
It is a remarkable fact in geographical distribution, that the forms imbricatum and rude, which are typical in the west tropical fauna of Central America, reappear, but very sparingly on the Caribbean shores; while C. spinosum, which is far more common, more variable, and more widely distributed, being found (under various names) from California to Chili, has not yet been discovered on the eastern side. Again, the C. radiatum, which is the most delicately formed of the whole group, confines itself to the equatorial western seas, not having been found further north than the Panama district.
An extremely remarkable specimen of C. spinosum was dredged by Mr. Cuming in comparatively deep water. The net brought up a large stone ’with a small hole in it, on looking down which Mr. C. perceived a number of spines as though a sea-urchin was lodging there. A blow of the hammer discovered the existence of a large
cavity within, communicating with the external world only through this narrow opening. In the hollow of this cavity lay the limpet, turned, as it were, nearly inside out. The creature had gone to live there when young, and being of sedentary habits it did not occur to him that he might be imprisoned for life by his own corpulence, else he would probably have made his escape before he had grown too large. As it was he grew larger and larger, and as the walls of his prison rose up round him on every side, he was obliged to flatten out his shell till it became a plate instead of acone. «At the same time, his body protruding into the hollow, the cup protruded along with it till it stood considerably beyond the shell, of which it was normally an inside partition. Thus our Calyptreid was fixed as immovably as any Pholas, but with this difference in their condition: that the Pholas, being designed for that kind of life, is not troubled with use- less head and eyes, and, moreover, is furnished with two long pipes to convey the water to and from the mouth and gills; while the Cruci- bulum had eyes simply to stare at the wall in the dark, feelers to push tke stone, and a long ribbon tongue, armed with hundreds of teeth, to rasp the water. And while encumbered with these unneces- sary appendages, he had not the bgnefit of water pipes to bring what alone this lock-jawed subject had to feed upon. For this want, however, the economy of the animal provided a remedy. The C. spinocum, in its normal growth, is either spinose or not; the flatter forms being almost always smooth. The spines are developed from prolongations of the mantle, (or thin shell-bearing skin of the animal, ) which appear at irregular intervals, though in a regular pattern. Sometimes the whole shell is covered with crowded prickles, (C. his- pidum, Brod.,) sometimes a very few long spines appear at the edge on one side of the otherwise smooth shell. Sometimes the spines are few, large, and hollow, (C. tubiferum, Less.,) each of the outer row communicating through a hole with the inner margin, which is after- wards filled up. Our prisoner worked for his living by constructing very large, long, and open spine pipes, which, instead of standing up at right angles to the shell, were directed back towards the narrow
opening in the stone. It w ould appear that by this means the animal was amply supplied with nourishment, for the shell was above the ordinary size.
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The most common Calyptreid on the backs of our Spondylus valves, however, was Crepidula aculeata, Gmel. It was first described from West Indian specimens, which are generally dead and worn, in col- lections, and afterwards re-described from fine West Coast shells as C. hystrix and C. echinus, Brod. The stunted Northern form was named ©. Californica by Nuttall. The rule is laid down by some American authors of great celebrity that no species can be common to the Atlantic and Pacific waters. Accordingly, when the same form reappears on the wrong shore, it is their custom to re-describe it, there being always differences by which a few individuals can be separated from each other. But it is well known by those who have examined extensive series from different localities that each locality may present the same species under very different aspects. A large number of British shells live also in the Mediterranean, but in a mixed collection it is generally easy to pick out northern specimens from their southern congeners. So again the Panama shells (of iden- tical species) can generally be separated from the Mazatlan; and these again from those of Acapulco and Cape St. Lucas. Now if the east and west coast shells do not differ more than those of Panama and Mazatlan; nay, do not differ so much as those of either place among themselves; it appears an argumentum ad ignorantiam to describe them as distinct species, merely because we cannot tell how they have become distributed. On comparing Dr. Gould’s descriptions of Pur- pura pansa (Pacific) and P. patula, (West Indian,) with my own well authenticated specimens, it appeared to me that the diagnosis of patula was exactly fitted to the Mazatlan shells, while that of pansa belonged rather to the shells collected by my brother at St. Vincent’s. Our knowledge of the fauna of each region is as yet too meagre to speak on doubtful matters with any dogmatism, but the researches of modern geology have already determined the fact that in the tertiary (Miocene) epoch there was a communication between the two oceans; that very remarkable Pacific shell, Malea ringens, having been found f6ssil on the Atlantic coast. This interesting solution of a doubtful problem is due to the research of Dr. New berry, and is an instructive e example of the light which different branches of study throw upon each other. ;
We may now be allowed to predicate that old species, which have survived since the Miocene epoch, may be expected to appear on both sides of the peninsula; while those of modern creation may be ex- pees to be distinct. Furthermore, the old species may be expected to have more power of living under varied influences, and, therefore, to be more variable in shape, and more widely diffused than those more constant and local in their characters. The history of British shells, which are more thoroughly known than those of any other district in the world, furnishes. many instructive instances of these facts. In Mr. Searles Wood’s work on the Crag Mollusca* the newer tertiaries are divided into the Coralline crag, the Red crag, and the Mammaliferous crag, (answering perhaps to the Miocene, Pleiocene,
* Published in three parts by the British Paleontographical Society, of which a copy is in the Smithsonian Liban
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 201
and Pleistocene of American authors,) in each of which we have species represented still living in the same seas or in the Mediter- ranean or Boreal districts. If the species is in mature vigor, it may still be found widely diffused. If, on the other hand, it be dying out in its general area, it may preserve a lingering existence in very remote localities which once were connected. Thus the Orbitolites of the Paris basin is still living in the East Indies, although now unknown in European seas; while the common gulf weed of the modern Atlantic is believed by Prof. Forbes to be a further develop- ment of the very same plant which floated (as now) in huge masses in the ancient ocean of the Eocene.
When the tertiary fossils on each side of the Rocky mountains shall have been thoroughly explored, when the age of these moun- tains in the narrow isthmus shall be better understood, when the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific coast shall have been well dredged, we may be in a position to speak with confidence on the points of similarity and of contrast in the two oceans. At pres- ent we can do little more than accumulate facts for future explanation.
In the case of Crepidula aculeata, however, the perfect specimens brought by Mr. Dyson from Honduras correspond so exactly with those from Mazatlan that it is hardly possible to resist the impression that they are identical. Specimens from South Africa, from Sydney, (Australia,) and from the Pacific islands also present no marks of specific distinction. It appears to be one of the ubiquitous species, of which several are found in various genera, and some are known to have existed far back in time. Of this number is Saxicava arctica, which has been found in all the three epochs of the English crag; is now flourishing in the boreal as well as the temperate regions of Ku- rope and America; has been found in the China seas and in Australia, (C. testo, Forbes,) and attains respectable dimensions in the cavities of our Mazatlan Spondylus. The Crepidula not only undergoes the changes of form from nearly flat to deeply arched, from obese to elon- gate, which every observer of the common slipper-limpet of the At- lantic (C. fornicata, abundant from the icy shores of the St. Lawrence to the tropical waters of the Gulf of Mexico) knows to prevail in that species; but in sculpture it may either be crowded with short spines (C. echinus, Brod. ;) or have afew radiating lines of longer spines with nodulous interstices (C. hystrix, Brod.;) or be covered with an irregu- lar mass of spiny knobs (normal state;) or lose the spines altogether in roughened striew (smooth-water form;) or even become almost des- titute of sculpture, like some northern specimens of the stunted va- riety (C. Californica, Nuttall.) Through all these changes it is recog- nized by its spiral stomatelloid growth, exemplifying a section of the genus the extreme forms of which approach Trochita; and by its beautifully waved deck-margin, which resembles a —*—. The pointed centre, as the shell increases in size, generally leaves a char- acteristic line on the surface of the deck, passing up to the vertex. But often the point is rounded off, and even degenerates into a broad wave. In one specimen, co-ordinate with this degeneracy, a sharp angle was abnormally formed on one of the sides, so as to give the margin the
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aspect of a brace turned the wrong way—thus —~—~ ; a very good specific distinction, if no intermediate specimens had been found. A series of deck margins, belonging to this and the following species, will be found represented on plate 8 of the British Association report, fiesial ys, Big: :
Fig. 2.
The best means of distinguishing the species of slipper- limpets from each other was found to be
Deck margins of Crepidula aculeata. The straight line represents the situa- the shape of the nu- tion of the medial rib. clear portion and the -mode of growth of the very young shell. Whatever be the abnormal character of the adult, it did not appear that the offspring had a ten- dency to the same degeneracy, but rather to the resumption of the normal type. In the case of local varieties, the peculiarities are repro- duced, because they depend on circumstances which affect all alike. But in such cases as those under consideration, where the extremes and all the intermediate forms of variation are found in the same local- ity, the changes depending on the accidents of the individual, it is not yet proved that the idiosyncracies are transmitted. In fact, the frequent instances in which the individual itself changes its form and sculp- ture at different periods of its life is against such a hypothesis. In the higher animals, where there is, as it were, an innate vital power shaped according to the species, with an additional power shaped ac- cording to the individual, and these powers are to no slight extent irrespective of the immediate external surroundings, there is a much stronger tendency in the offspring to imitate the parent—as in the black faces of the Southdown sheep, or the stump-tailed cats of the Isle of Man. This tendency on the part of the parent to reproduce itsel7, and even that particular phase of self which obtains at the pe- riods of conception and gestation, culminates in man; who, of all ani- mals, is the most independent of external circumstances. But, in the lower forms of life, the nature both of the species and the individual becomes more and more plastic, responding to the accidents of the moment; there is accordingly proportionally less of the innate power which leads to the transmission of variety. As instances of this plas- ticity the reader is referred to Dr. W. B. Carpenter’s papers on Or- bitolites and other forms of Rhizopods in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London.
It is a fact worth noticing, that while some species of shells are extremely variable, others, inhabiting the same localities, are very constant in their characters. These are seldom widely diffused, and are often rare in individuals. A few young specimens of such spe- cies were found among the slipper-limpets on the Spondyli; but the bulk of the specimens belonged either to ©. aculeata, which, as we have seen, is a somewhat ubiquitous species, or to OG. nivea, which, under many shapes and many names, spreads over the principal part
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA, 203
of the Pacific coast of America, representing there the very distinct* C. fornicata of the Atlantic. Two extreme forms were first described by Broderip, from Mr. Cuming’s collection: the one, C. squama, thin, flat, and smooth; the other, C. lessonii, solid, often arched, and coy- ered with concentric lamine. These sometimes appear at regular intervals, and then seem to be the normal and unique sculpture of the shell. It appears, however, that C. squama, (which is the calm water form,) if exposed to rougher influences, arches its back, adds layer after layer of porcellanous matter, hiding the color rays, and leaving the margin like the edge of a quire of paper. Nowif, co-ordinate with this laying on of extra coats, the creature advances forward, turning up the previous portion, the form Lessonii is produced: in general very roughly and irregularly, which is the C. striolata of Menke, but sometimes very delicately, with fine sculpture between the lamina, as described by Brod. It is common to find shells living for* some time as squama, and suddenly plunging into the Lessonii types, with one or two strong lamine. Every stage of intermediate form was found among the Mazatlan shells. The degraded specimens of the Chilian seas form a part of the C. protea of D’ Orbigny—a convenient receptacle, as the type specimens in the British Museum show, for the dead and puzzling shells which the author did not know where else to place. The ordinary condition, intermediate between the extremes first described, is the C. nivea of C. B. Adams. As it is the normal state, the usual rules of priority have been set aside, and C. nivea taken for the name of the species, leaving squama and Les- sonii for the principal varieties. The White Slipper is known under all forms (when in good condition) by its shaggy, light-green skin, and by the very peculiar character of the nuclear whirls. These are remarkably small, though the shell is large, standing out from the surface, of areddish tinge, and crowded with regular transverse ribs. The characters have Fig. 3.
been observed in specimens of all the forms, although the influences which pro- duce Lessonu, draw- ing the shell away from the vertex, gen- erally lead to its ab- rasion. Sometimes the White Shpper goes to live, when young, inthe empty burrow of a boring mussel. In these cases, as soon as it has grown to the Crepidula nivea, jun.—Outside. a, nuclear spiral portion, ribbed; 4, 5, width of its cave, margin of deck, seen through the transparent shell.
_
© It does not follow, because certain aberrant forms from different localities resemble each other, that the species are] therefore identical, if the normal state and general habit
204 ; LECTURES ON
it is obliged to develop itself longitudinally, at the same time turn- ing up its sides in the vain attempt to get more room. The corre- sponding slipper limpet of the Californian coast appears to have a special fancy for this mode of life, as most of the specimens sent have assumed the form now described. It was first found by Mr. Nuttall, and distributed by him as C. exuviata. It was so published in Dr, Jay’s catalogue. Dr. Gould, however, figured and described it as C. explanata. It had been previously figured by Valenciennes, in the Voyage de la Venus, as C. perforans, that author supposing that it had made the burrow in which it was found. The designation repre- senting an untruth, it must yield to the latest name, which alone is accompanied by a description.* A very singular groove, not found in the Mazatlan specimens, appears in all the specimens of C. expla- nata, and gives name to the shell. It is, however, a mere accident of growth, differing in every individual, and often not appearing till the animal approaches maturity. A specimen, 7m situ, in the Smith- sonian Institution fortunately reveals the cause of this unique appear- ance. The creature goes to live at the outer or pipe-end of the burrew of a bivalve,t which remains at the other end after the ant- mal has perished. The growth of the shell is normal till it has attained the breadth of the pipe, be that greater or less. It then increases down the pipe, the vertex of the shell being always turned towards the outer end. There is no groove at this period of its growth; and when the vertex is rubbed off, (as it generally is in elon- gated specimens, ) it can hardly be distinguished from similar speci- mens of the White Slipper. But as soon as it has reached the bottom of the pipe, where the dead bivalve (generally a Petricola, a creature with rather short siphons) still remains undecomposed, it suddenly encounters an unexpected obstacle. It wedges itself under this (to it) mighty globe, and turns its delicate mantle, exuding the shelly skin, up the sides of the new-moon-shaped cavity, but in vain. There is nothing for it but to retrace its steps, and back out. As it does 80, every new portion, formed under the arched bivalve, repeats the previous concave impression, and the Grooved Slipper is the result. The sharp instrument of the ‘‘explanation’’ of one author, and the ‘‘ perforation’ of the other, is nothing but the little rounded ‘‘ clam,’’ tightly wedged at the bottom of its burrow; and the same slipper- limpet, freely developed under unconstrained influences, is probably the C. navicelloides of Nuttall, to ascertain the characters of which we are still in want of perfect specimens.
To return to the White Slippers on the back of our Thorn-Oyster. Among the young shells which appeared to the naked eye to be the
are essentially distinct. Man is not a monkey, although certain unhappy idiots may appear less highly organized than the lower order.
* It is greatly to be regretted that in this country, where type series, named by Mr. Nuttall himself, were readily accessible, his labors should have been so often disregarded. On the other side of the Atlantic they have frequently found their way into the mono- graphs, but unfortunately too late for preservation.
{ These burrows will be found described at page 209, et seq.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. ° 205 young ©. nivea were some which under the microscope displayed a much larger but smooth and imbedded nuclear portion. On comparing these with similarly situated specimens from the west coast of Africa and from other places, I found them exactly identical. They pro- bably belong to the C. unguiformis of Lamarck. Now, it so happens that Provessor C. B. ee who in general described every shell of Atlantic types as a new species, if found on the Pacific coast, in this one instance felt constrained to adopt the Lamarckian name for the unguiform slippers of Panama. It is not certain that in this one instance he was correct. Some of the specimens he distributed under that name are undoubtedly compressed and inverted forms of his own C. nivea; for every species may take the form of unguiformis when grown inside a dead spiral shell, especially with a hermit crab press- ing against it. But there seems sufficient evidence to believe that while each coast has its special species of slipper limpets, each one of which assumes protean changes, there is this one species which has been scattered, it may be in dead shells and on ballast, round the world, and to be distinguished from all neighboring species by the peculiar character of the nuclear whirls. It is too much the custom among ‘‘collectors,’? and even among naturalists, to examine and preserve only well-conditioned adult specimens. More may often be learned from deformed and ‘‘ugly”’ shells; and especially from series in all ages of development.
We might easily fill the lecture with additional particulars concern- ing the shpper-limpets, but it is time to pass on to other matters. There is another family, the bonnet-limpets, (Capulide,) nearly re- lated to the cup-and-saucer tribe, but without the peculiar internal appendage. Of these, two interesting species were found which appear to be peculiar to the West tropical American fauna; while others, the Hipponyx antiquatus, H. barbatus, and H. Grayanus, have a very wide distribution in one or both hemispheres.
Differig considerably in shape, but presenting remarkable points of similarity in the habits of the animals, are the Vermetide, (worm shells, ) of which some interesting forms belonging to new types were found on our Thorn- Oysters. At first sight these shells would not be distinguished from the serpule, (shelly marine worms,) which are found adhering to almost every dead shell from any sea-coast. The shell-cases of both seem to crawl irregularly over the shell or stone to which they adhere; and while some of the serpulz assume the re- gular spiral form of the Mollusks, some of the Vermetids assume a looseness of growth as great as that of any worm. And yet the animals which have exuded these similar habitations from their soft skins, are more widely removed, the one from the other, than lions are from snakes or fishes. The Serpule belong to the same sub- kingdom as the Insects and Crabs; and are, in fact, red-blooded worms with ring-jointed bodies, without head or eyes, and with the nervous system pretty regularly diffused. While the Vermetids claim kindred with screw-shells and Periwinkles, having their little heads, with feelers and armed tongue-ribbons, and their nervous power collected into irregular knotted centres, The true aflinities with regard to
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one species were long ago ascertained by Adanson, the very accurate though eccentric naturalist of the west African coast. Since that time the animals have been so far investigated that various genera have been established by Dr. T. E. Gray and others. The typical Vermetids begin life free, and so continue for some time, making a delicate spiral shell exactly like Turritella. They then begin to tire of their freedom, and long for some protecting support, They sud- denly give up their beautiful spiral shape, and twist themselves any- how in search of a secure foundation. Having moored themselves to it for life they writhe in shelly contortions, crystallized (so to speak) as soon as formed, during the remainder of their sedentary existence. Of this tribe, the Ivory Worm-shell, (VY. eburneus,) furnished by our Thorn-Oysters, is perhaps the most beautiful species.
But the other Vermetids for the most part only show their con- nexion with spiral shells in the nuculear portion. These shells, in the Indo-Pacific ocean, generally have a deeply concave operculum, *- with only a loose trace of spiral development. Of these, many specimens were brought home by the Exploring Expedition, unfortu- nately without the animal. But it was found that though the Gulf shells could hardly be distinguished from the Australian, their oper- cula most resembled those of Turritella. This was the more remark- able as the Turritelloid worin-shells have a very different operculum. The new group was named Aletes, the ‘‘Wanderer.’’ It appears, how- ever, not to wander from the west coast of America: those found from the Mediterranean to the Pacific islands (as far as known) all belonging to the concave type. Wandering among the Wanderers are some equally large and equally highly-colored shells with an oper- culum formed on a still more intricate pattern. From the horny plate rise up two long processes branching exactly like stag’s horns. They are made, bowever, by a headless annelid, and are not so much worm- shells as shell-worms. The Annelids have generally an earthenware texture; while the Vermetids are porcellanous. But on breaking across some specimens of a very small species, closely though irregu- larly twisted, I was surprised to find a structure which had not before been described in any recent spiral shell. An extremely thin lamina, like the deck of the slipper-limpets, proceeded from one wall of the shell, doubled itself over at a right angle, and met a similar lamina
proceeding from below, so as almost to divide the body of the animal into two parts one within the other.
c
Petaloconchus macrophicEema-sqmection across the shell at three periods of growth: a, one lamina first com-
mencing, or ending; 6, upper Jamina prolonged, lower commencing; c, upper lamina doubled over to meet the lower, while a rudimentary one appears between. ‘
a a a
= The operculum is a horny or shelly appendage to the end of the foot, drawn in last when the animal retires into its shell, and thus protecting it. It may be called in com- mon language the trap-door or toe-nail.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 207
This singular structure, to which there is some approach in the fossil genus Nerinza, ran along most of the whirls, becoming evan- escent in the earlier and later portions. On examining similar shells from other seas, I found species in all the principal zoological provinces, each characterized by a different growth of the internal lamine. They had escaped observation before, J presume, because of the love entertained by collectors for ‘‘perfect’’ shells. Mr. Woodward, the author of the invaluable ‘‘ Manual of the Mollusca,” (Weale & Co., London; 3 parts,) enabled me to affiliate them toa genus established by Dr. Lea, (under the name Petaloconchus, ) for a tertiary fossil of the United States, in which, however, the peculiar character is but slightly developed.
If time allowed we might dwell on a number of other interesting shells which were found either living on the backs of the Thorn-oyster shells, or accidentally lodged between the foliations of the valves. ’ We must confine our attention to a few. Among them were eleven species of Chitonide or Woodlouse shells, of which eight were new. This strange family of Mollusks, while agreeing in many essential particulars with the true limpets, present some curious points of analogy with the articulated animals, having their skin-skeleton broken up into joints, and exhibiting a symmetrical and double arrange- ment of the organs of the body. Among them was one specimen of extraordinary beauty, though not much more than the tenth of an inch in length. Under the microscope each of the valves displayed a very elaborately ornamental sculpture, richly tinged with green, purple, pink, and brown; their shape, with the pointed beak and the transparent wing like processes at the side, bore no very fanciful resemblance to a bird in flight; while the thick skin in which they are imbedded was covered with minute transparent prisms, and at regular intervals with what the microscope revealed as clusters of white crystals, glittering in the reflected sunlight lke the finest specimens of arragonites. The same species has just been sent to the Smithsonian Institution, adhering to similar shells from Cape St. Lucas, by that indefatigable collector, Mr. Xanthus.
Sheltered from rough usage between two layers of shell Was a new form of Isognomon, which may be called, in English, the ‘‘ shoulder- of-mutton shell with the double face ;’ having one of its valves smooth, while the other has beautiful radiating lines covered with imbricated scales. These creatures, along with the Pinna shells, (which, like the Spondyli, have preserved the same name since the days of Aristotle,) the Hammers, and the Pearl-oysters, moor them- selves to fixed objects by a byssus or anchor cable of their own spinning. Whenever the most minute fragment of shell belonging to any species of this family is examined under the micrescope it always presents a prismatic cellular structure, like basaltic rocks in miniature, or like the ‘‘float’’ of a belemnite. When a large old Pinna has long been exposed to the action of the weather, its surface will crumble into these prisms in the hand. They are formed by the breaking down of a longitudinal row of ordinary cells, like the ducts of plants. It appears that all shells are originally formed by the aggregation of cells in the
208 LECTURES ON
same way, but it is seldom that they are so distinctly marked. This affords a safe clue to the true affinities of certain Aviculoid shells found in the palewozoic rocks, among the earliest forms of life in the Lamellibranchiate or Plate-gilled class. They are uniformly nacreous within, and it is found that the pearly lustre is due to the minute and irregular corrugation of the extremely thin film of animal matter which separates each layer of the shell ; this membrane preserving the same pearly lustre after the shelly matter has been removed by acid, but losing it when the corrugations are pressed out between two pieces of glass.*
Another very rare and remarkable bivalve found sparingly on the Thorn-Oysters, was the Placunanomia pernoides, a transition form between the true adhering oysters and those which fasten them- selves by a solid plug passed loosely through a round hole in the shell. I had long known this species, (which is so different from any other that a distorted individual was described as a new genus by ~ Dr. T. E. Gray,) having observed it on the back of some very large oysters, of which a large supply was sent to the Bristol Institution, by the captain of a ship engaged in the West African trade. There is no doubt whatever that they came from the Senegambian coast. The oyster itself, (O. iridescens, Gray,) possesses very distinctive charac- ters—a rare thing in that genus ; and other specimens from the same coast are preserved in the British Museum. ‘To the disturbance of the prevailing theories on geographical distribution, I found the same gigantic oyster among the Mazatlan shells, accompanied by the same Placunanomia, and by a boring mussel, (Lithophagus aristatus, ) which is abundant on the warmer western coasts of Europe and Africa. I believe that neither of these shells are found in the Caribbean sea ; and this is only confirmatory of other evidence, that just as some forms of life are peculiar to islands, not being found on contiguous continents; so others may have been created with a special adaptation to coasts facing the west, while others prefer the currents from the east. Those to whose great labors and critical acumen we owe the present state of our knowledge on the distribution of forms of life in time and space, have perhaps sometimes considered principles as established which rest on, as yet, insufficient data. It becomes us to pause before we arrive at conclusions. One little fact, like the finding of the fossil Malea ringens on the Atlantic side of Central America, may open the door to a new course of research, rich in results, important alike to geology and to recent zoology, and at the same time close it to very ingenious theories that have before been considered unassailable. Our principal duty, in the present state of our knowledge, at any rate in Malacological science, is the patient, thorough, and honest investi- gation of facts; guided, indeed, by previously developed theories, or by those which we are ourselves eliminating, but in no sense con- trolled by them. And in doing so, it is only a false modesty or reverence for authority which would prevent us from following the advice
* Full particulars on the microscopic structure of shells will be found in Dr. W. B. Car- penter’s Report to the British Association, 1844, p. 1, seq.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA, 209
repeatedly given by the late Professor EH. Forbes to a beginner, ‘‘follow your own judgment;’’ or, as expressed in the phraseology of an American politician, ‘‘be sure you are right, then go ahead.” But let us leave the surface of our Thorn Oy ster, and examine what lies hidden in the ponderous substance of the valves. If the outside swarms with life, it is only the portal to the vitality which teems within. We will not speak yet of the worm-eaten passages, the entrances to which often riddle the external surface, making it look like solid sponge, but we will direct attention to certain ominous- looking holes, bearing the same relation to the oyster that the entrance to the great cave does to the State of Kentucky. (We may be allowed to compare small things with great, for in nature all small things are in one sense great; in another, all great things small.) These cavern-mouths are of various shapes, but e evidently not irregular. Some of them are always round, others always oval, others 8- shaped. Out of some of the windows, opened but a little way, may be seen protruding a pair of stony lips, belonging to a mouth so straight in outline that, according to physiognomical diagnosis, its possessor must be of secretive turn of mind. The diagnosis is true. Other mouths protrude from other holes, but with bird-like bills projecting, duck- shaped, as though to zobble the delicate morsels of the sea, or long and twisted, ta in an attitude of defiance. But some display neither lips nor beaks; which after all have no conhexion with mouths, but rather w ih noses, as will be presently explained. Let us take our glass, and for once imitate King George IIL, as described by Peter Pindar, and stare down the vacant holes ‘like a mag ple peeping into a marrow bone.’? The wise bird can see nothing but darkness. As the awkward bulk of our bodies precludes our entering the dark chambers of the cave with lighted lamps, we must find other means of exploring the penetralia. Let us set to work like geologists, with hammer and chisel, and not grudge an hour or so in observing how the creatures of a former generation spent their lives, like the Kings of Egypt, in making their own sepulchres. Carefully we remove layer after layer of thie oyster shell, and lay bare the underground passage. Its floor and sides and roof are all wrinkled, presenting in miniature the appearances often caused by the running water in the great caves of this country. It is not wi ater, however, that has so regularly roughened these. And why is it divided all along, like the Thames tunnel, by a stalactitic ridge ‘along the upper surface, almost meeting > cenen layer of what might he thought stalagmite rising from below ? Suddenly it makes a turn. We have chiseled through the colored portion of the shell, which we find riddled and compara- tively soft; now we are on a bed of solid white marble. Indeed, as re try our chisel against it, we find it much harder than marble or even than the ancient limestone. Life, though it be that of the tender oyster, can build more solid structures than the ocean, with its mighty force of waves. Weare obliged to spend some time in chiseling shafts, levelling mounds, and preparing a field of operations to follow ‘the new direction. The bipartite rugose tunnel suddenly widens, and we find ourselves in a spacious cave beautifully smooth and regular. Its shape
14
210 LECTURES ON
is oval; and loosely reposing within is a bivalve shell of peculiarly graceful shape and delicate sculpture, with abundant room to open and turn round at the pleasure of the ammal. This isa ‘‘clam,’’ with very long projecting siphon pipes, which fit into the two lobes of the long passage. bey are covered with a rough skin, which produces the wrinkles on the surface of the shelly layer. One of these siphons ‘is constantly drawing water into the gill cavity, while the other carries back the waste. When in the cavity, the delicate frills which form the ‘‘plate- -gills,’’ characterizing the class Lamellibranchiata,* float loosely in the water, aerating the blood in its intricate labyrinth of veins. At the same time the large, flapping lips, which are so enor- mously developed in the bivalves, (like the nose processes in the bats, ) move through the water, tasting its infusorial contents, and choosing from among them what they shall convey to the mouth, whence a highly organized digestive, circulatory, and generative system is at work to transform the animalcules into molluscous life and shell. The animalcules thus transformed excavate these wonderful caverns; how, we shall presently inquire. Here is a living creature entombed from its earliest days, or rather voluntarily entombing itself; hidden from view and from the society of its kindred; maintaining no more con- nexion with the outer world, except at the pipe ends, than a fossilin the paleeozoic rocks; and yet see how its wants are all provided for by this one exception. That little 8-shaped hole maintains within a structure of such delicate beauty, with its tissues, nerves, blood-vessels, secre- tions, respiratory, and reproductive apparatus, that the due description of them would require a volume to itself, with an atlas of plates requiring the utmost skill of the artist, as well as the most delicate manipulation of the microscopist. Although at the end of a long and often twisted gallery, how fresh is everything in that inner chamber! The best cleaned dwelling room in regal palaces is impure by contrast. No flies make spots upon the ceiling, or mice leave their unfragrant odors behind the wainscot; no closing of windows retains the impure air, or sting of mosquitos disturbs the equanimity of Gastrochcenoid exist- ence. If our solitary friend has not the pleasures of eyesight, he never dreads to see his enemy; nor has he once suffered from ache in head, tooth, or ear. He has an inner hght of happiness, though his body dwells in the profoundest darkness. He has no more trouble than a child for the supply of his temporal wants. The all-pervading care
* The name Acephala has precedence, but expresses nothing distinctive. All the lower classes of Mollusks and Articulates, as well as the whole of the Radiates, are destitute of that to us necessary appendage. The proper name of every individual (the genus and species) should follow the modified law of priority. But classification is a matter of opinion, and must change (with the nomenclature founded on it) with advancing knowledge. ‘The name Conchifera was applied ky Lamarck to the Lamp shells as much as to the Uockles. When these are divided into two classes, it is well to find names which sufficiently express the main differences between them. ‘J he Terebratula breathes through pores in the surface of the mantle, while the Anomia, which Linnzus (following the best light of his time) placed in the same genus, breathes by overlapping lamina. Blainville’s names, Lamellibranchiata and Pallicbranchiata, exactly express this difference; while, asin the case of the Dibranchiate and Tetrabranchiate ‘Cephalopods, these gill differences are co-ordinate with others of great importance in the whole economy of the animals. The name Brachiopoda is very good, though it does not bring out the contrast.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. pa |
of the mighty Father places what to him is the choicest food before
his very mouth. He does not cry and suffer hunger like the young lions, but, like some mentioned in the Scriptures, he does not want any good thing. He has the pleasures of childhood, of youth, and of mature life. He emerges from the maternal egg, and finds himself swimming about in the mighty ocean. He lies in his transparent — cradle, like the hollow of two fairy hands joined together to nurse the little str anger, and enjoys the opening and shutting of his tiny valves as much as any infant catching at the moon. His mother’s rest is disturbed by no plaintive wail, nor is her hfe shortened by minister- ing to its diseased wants. Our little Gastrochena sails on in the ocean of life with a literal placidity, realizing the most perfect descrip- tions of the novelist or the sweetest dreams of the sleeping child. The
clairvoyant is said to have his eye-sense diffused over the membranes of his body; so does our infant see with the tissues of the fairy mantle in which he lies enveloped. No storms ruffle the tranquillity of his temper; no sudden frost cuts off his early bloom. He breathes, he eats, and pe erforms all the other functions of life, as it were, unconsciously, simply happy in being alive. How the Lord has filled that mighty purifier which covers three-fourths of the surface of our globe, even in the darkness of its depths, with life and enjoyment! But the happy days of childhood are crowded into a few short hours; fulfil their term,
and pass. Ah, young Gastrochena, thou art tired so soon of freedom? Like the slave foolishly tempted away from his master under the glittering idea of liberty, thou hast tired of that bauble, and art going back, a willing captive tillthy death? ‘* Not so,’’ answer the instincts that have been slumbering in that transparent form; ‘‘but I have a purpose to fulfil in life; I must work.’’ And pray what art thou going to do, thou tiny living skin? ‘‘I must dig; I must riddle out those living rocks that are growing up beneath me, and threaten to choke up the very channels “of the ‘harbor. But for me and such as I, even man may hereafter be stopped in the mighty works which he carries on in the divine image. But for me and suchas I, his vessels, fraught with the material uses of his fellows, and with the evangelists of eternal truth, would be wrecked on sunken rocks where his charts described old soundings of sufficient depth.’? Thy idea is grand, thou floating jelly; but how wilt thou accomplish these great things? ‘He that implanted such ideas within me, will He not work through me, and enable even my frail substance to accomplish the allotted portion of the task? I must dig. Behold my foot!”
As we look through the glass in our aquarium (that is to be, when the school of science is established on the shores of the sea of Cortez,) and see the tiny creature turning towards us the wide pear-shaped opening in its furrowed valves, ‘and from a chink in the protecting mantle protrude a still more tiny, finger-like organ, calling it its ‘‘foot,’? the unbeliever might be tempted to scoff, and even the reverent student of nature to doubt its powers. But our infant Gastrochena pays no heed,-and steadily sets himself to fulfil his mis- sion. Being heartily tired of a mere sportive existence—well enough,
212 LECTURES ON
for a time, that the species may become properly diffused—he now seeks a home of work and rest. He swims to the bottom, and alights on the oyster bed. Admiring the many caves already disintegrated by the action of other living creatures, he chooses one for his abode. If no such cave exists, he shelters himself behind a corner and sets to work to make one. Fancy a man on a desert island planting him- self against a rock, with a deliberate purpose of hollowing out a cave to det in by rubbing with his hand or foot! And yet this is what the young Gastrocheena proposes to himself, when the ‘*days of helpless infancy’? are hardly ended. And he does it. Those who have witnessed the polishers of fancy marbles smoothing hard stones by rubbing them in their hands may form some idea how the Gastro- cheena does it. <A soft living tissue 1s always stronger than a hard dead one. The coral-polype weathering the bung breakers proves how a feeble vital force may resist a mighty energy which is only mechanical. Long as the boring bivalves have been known and studied, their mode of operation is still matter of conjecture. But the study of our oyster burrows threw some lght on the dark places. If the account here given be incorrect, let naturalists, with the marine aquaria that are to be, correct it. It used to be supposed that they dissolved away the rock by secreting acid; but not only was the said acid never detected among the secre Hons of the body, it was also suggested that the same solvent which destroyed the calx of the cavity would also destroy that of the shell itself. The hypothesis, however, answered sufficiently well so long as the borers were only found in shells or limestone rocks. But at last they were found burrowing in hard, primitive silex, which no acid could touch.* It was then sug- gested that the animal spun itself round and round, like a tetotum, or backwards and forwards, like an awl, and so filed away the matrix. The delicate imbrications on the valves of the Pholas tribe seemed to favor this view; but even here we should expect to find the fragile file worn out by rubbing, which is not the case, the points in well- conditioned specimens being as little injured as the remainder of the shell. Moreover, it is the open, gaping portion of the shell that is turned first towards the resisting medium. Besides, even if the Pholads were proved thus to bore, the Gastrochenids are generally devoid of sculpture, except lines of growtb; the Lithophagi are often so twisted that they cannot move coun in Ae holes; and the bur- rows of many of the Petricolidx are heart-shaped, like the valves. If not the only agent of disintegration, I am convinced that in all cases the foot is the principal weapon of attack. This is known to be often strengthened by silicious particles, and I found its dried remains, as hard as horn, in adult burrows of (I think) every species of borer found in the Spondylus. This organ, which forms the principal part of the solid substance of the animal in all the burrowing and leaping ribes, is variously modified either to scoop out soft sand with
# = A very beautiful specimen of Pholas in its flinty home will be found in the State Museum, at Albany.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 213
astonishing rapidity, as in the Razor shells; or to crawl slowly, as the River Mussels; or to spin an anchor cable, as the true Mussels; or to jump, as the Cockles.* In the Borers it answers the purpose of grindstone, scraper, and polisher. In Gastrochaena its comparatively small size is compensated for by the freedom with which the creature can move round and round in the capacious chamber. It is supported by a beautiful system of muscles which are moored to the fulcrum of the shell, and the nutritive material is abundantly poured into it to supply the waste. Our little tunneler sets to work with all the ardor of youth. His feeble finger, more delicate than any lady’s, and as little used to toil, handles. the rough surface of his cave, presses and rubs, rubs and presses, and finds the occupation as congenial to his instincts as whipping a wooden horse is to a little boy. His skin hardens with exercise. The invisible animalcules contribute their quota of silex and cartilage. The work of life has commenced in earnest. Would that we men, who have.offered to us the grandest and the noblest destiny, had but one small fraction of the untiring perseverance of these headless and uncared-for hermits. How often we talk of drunkards and debauchees reducing themselves to the level of the beasts. It is a libel on the brute creation. They fulfil their mission. Even the httle Gastrochena is obedient to the will of the Lord, and is the instrument to accomplish his work. It is man alone that is disobedient.
The work progresses. The terrestrial changes of day and night do not reach the ocean-covered cavern. But “still, in the absolute darkness of that solitude, tired nature craves and ‘finds her stated intervals of repose. The Gastrochena draws its finger-foot within its mantle, like the squirrel rolling itself in its protecting tail, and goes to sleep. So does the Laplander know the time of night, though the unsetting sun is high above the horizon; and the spiritual world has its Sabbaths of repose.
As our bivalve wears out his tissues so fast in his hard labor, it is necessary that the renewing functions of assimilation and respiration should be carried forward with considerable vigor. This is provided for by the long siphon pipes, already mentioned. The creature gets his air and victuals from behind, while he is at work in front. Unceas- ingly he finds himself surrounde 2d, even permeated, with a nutritive and cleansing atmosphere. The active muscles at the extremity of the pipes are forever inducing currents in the watery medium, both
“My friend Mr. S. Stutchbury, formerly curator of the Bristol Institution, England, when dredging in the Australian seas, had the good fortune to obtain the first living specimen of Trigonia, a beautiful and remarkable tribe of animals which, after first appearing in the secondary rocks, culminated in the higher oolites and cretaceous rocks, and suddenly disap- peared in the tertiaries. He placed his solitary treasure on the middle of the rower’s seat, when suddenly the blind and apparently passive little creature opened its valves, put out its leaping-pole, and in an instant, by one spring, had cleared the side of the boat and was safe in its native element. Specimens may be seen in the Smithsonian Museum, obtained by Dr, Stimpson. This is only one among the many indications that in the Australian regions we have the last remains of peculiar types of organic life, which in other portions of the world have given place to more perfect developments.
214 LECTURES ON
inhalent and excurrent. Could we see in those dark regions of the abyss, and could we make the flow of water evident by colored par-
ticles, we should wonder to see such a commotion going on around our oyster valve; so many eddies, whirlpools, ‘‘lost channels,’’ con- flicting currents, produced by hidden but evidently powerful causes— the muscular energy of the soft creatures inside the rocky holes. It is said by sanitary reformers that the great questions of public health resolve themselves into two problems—how to bring pure water in, and how to earry foul water out. These problems our Gastrochena has most satisfactorily solved. The pipe muscles are the engine,
pumping the water at high pressure; the siphon is the main which keeps the reservoir within on fall supply; from this the service pipes of blood vessels branch to every atom of the body. Dissolved in the water is the ever-vivifying oxygen, and swimming in every drop are the dainty infusoria. The water, cleared of its nourishment by the net-like lips, and of its renewing functions by the reticulated films which float like fairy tissues in the living stream, (the plate gills of our bivalve,) now receives its dose of heavy carbonic acid, as well as the wasted tissues of the body. Meanwhile it has been washing round the house, and has received its particles of almost invisible dust which the young scraper has cleared out. The sand of the street, as well as the drainage of the house, having been thus poured into the sewer, it is at once flushed out by the same high pressure of the incurr ent w ater, and is expelled by the muscular force of the second siphon. Thus the house is always washed, the drains always cleansed,
the air always fresh, the table ever spread with dainties, and our tunneler finds his refuse always carried away without the expense of tram-road or even the labor of wheelbarrow. Truly, nature’s works are as perfect in their minutiz as in the guiding of the stars.
As the animal increases in size his instincts (unlike those of many other borers) lead him to work deeper, and retire farther from the outer world. He adopts the sentiment of La Fontaine’s hermit rat, ‘Les choses d’ici bas ne me regardent plus.’? As he advances, he carefully fills up the empty space behind with layer after layer of shelly matter, lest the spawn of obnoxious individuals should enter and occupy the deserted mansion. Occasionally some unlooked for event disturbs the even tenor of his existence. His diffused sensa- tions, not specialized into the functions of sight and hearing, become conscious of the slow but steady approach “of some intruder on his peace; it may be his brother, working from the opposite side of the oyster; it may be a cre Series of some other race. It is all one to him; he displays neither blind partialities, nor special aversions; all he asks is to be let alone; and he gives his own answer by making a sudden turn. His neighbor does the s same, and the great event of their two lives is over. They never fight.
The same siphonal currents carry forth j in their season the fecund- ating influences which renew the species. They enter the branchial
cavity of the other sex; whence, also, the matured eggs are carried orth
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 215
We have taken a peep into the 8-shaped holes on the back of our oyster; let us now see to what differences Fig. 5. the round holesarean index. Thecreatures which leave these as their means of com- munication with the outer world were called Pholas by Linneus, and were the first among the borers (if we except the ship- worm, which long ago acquired even a political importance from its ravages in the Holland dykes) to attract the Attention of naturalists. They are eaten on the south coast of England, where they are called Piddocks; and are esteemed a dainty morsel on the Californian shores, where they go by the name of date Boh, Our oyster borers belong to the section called ‘‘Cup-pholas,”’ from the capacious cup-like appendage of delicate skin which rises from the end of the shell in the English Gastrochena, in situ. species, (Pholadidea papyracea, ) like a @ a, spondylus valve, broken across; &, goblet resting on an alabaster pe edestal bivalve shell in its burrow, valves closed,
? showing large gape; g g, shelly lining of
and furnishes a receptacle into which the previous exeavation ; A, siphon pipes, with &-shaped opening; 4 {, inhalent and expel- siphon pipes may be withdrawn from in- tant currents. jury. ‘To find this delicate fabric, with its translucent, elegantly- sculptured valves, in the middle of the hard silicious rocks of the New Red sandstone, must have been a puzzle both to the acid and the valve-file theories. Our oyster-lover (other devourers of oysters de- light themselves in the ‘‘savory fish;’’ this creature devours the shell) is fashioned in a somewhat coarser mould: j is somewhat wedge-shaped, with the thin end of the wedge turned away from: the seat of boring; and, instead of one delicate capacious goblet, has a series of cup- Jamine, laid one over the other, on each valve, like the shingles or tiles of a roof. Their extremely delicate structure would fare but badly were the tetotum or the awl process the principal source of oyster abrasion. During the adolescent or boring stage, the two valves only touch each other at the point of the hinge. (where the cartilage and teeth, so characteristic of ordinary bivalves, do not exist, ) “and at a stout projecting knob on the ventral margin. It is evident that then the powerful muscles of the foot, emerging from the large anterior gape in the shell, have ‘‘ample room and. verge enoug h? to work from their hinge fulcrum, which is strengthened in this family alone by a long spoon- “shaped clavicle, enabling the animal to direct its operations in many different points of attack. Having rubbed and scooped all round in one direction, the valves have power to twist and direct the undermining engine to another portion of the cave. But when the creature has attained maturity, (and there are ° dwarfs and giants among these, as among men, it being common to find adults not one-fourth the size of more highly pampered favorites of the ocean,) it not only, like the Gastrochwna, and other Pholads, lives retired from the world in its own burrow, but it lives retired
216 LECTURES ON
from its own burrow. First it closes in the enormous gape, that capacious portal for the egress of the foot, with an unsculptured layer of shelly matter; then it lays 1 ina plank (so to speak) between the ventral knob and the ‘‘cups,’’? and another on the back extending from the hinge; a plug is securely wedged between this and the beaks of the valves; and, finally, the principal part of the outside of the valves, which is not already protected by the cups, is coated over with large ‘‘accessory plates,’’ which, even in their small develop- ment, as shown in the European species, caused Linneus to group them with the limpet-like Chitons and the crab-like Barnacles 1n the heterogeneous order of ‘‘multivalves.’’
These accessory plates so tightly wedge the creature into one par- ticular position that 1t seems impossible for it even to twist round; and in extricating specimens from the matrix it is hard to avoid breaking the Shell. When a burrow is broken across longitudinally, a stratified gray lining is seen in the part between the siphon pipes and the tangent to tie burrow. ‘Phe, same part in Gastrochena is filled with shelly layers; but the Pholad appears to swallow, and, so to speak, digest the abraded matter, as he goes along, giving the matter out again in this altered form. In addition to this singular structure, the burrows, especially of aged individuals, frequently dis- play an irregular chamber communicating with the furthest extremity, the sides of which are’ fashioned in very coarse wrinkles, presenting very much the aspect of some of the water-worn chambers of the Mammoth Cave in extreme miniature. Now in these cavities 1s fre- quently found the hard, black, horny substance before alluded to, which I take to be the dried foot of the animal, and which is probably strengthened with silicious particles. +
The only explanation I can offer of these curious excavations, which have never before been observed, is, that the foot having lived an active life so long, but being no longer aeeelet for the economy of the animal, does not feel easy in subsiding into a state of complete inactivity, but edges its way through-the very narrow anterior chink (or more likely remains permanently outside it) and employs itself in moving backwards and forwards, thus producing the irregular wrin- kles. Sometimes these ‘‘ foot- prints” make their way to the inner surface of the Spondylus valve; in which case the oyster lays a coat- ing of shell over it. The foot wears away this, and the oyster lays
= Tt is very easy, from our advanced point of view, to show the strange errors of the very artificial system of classification which Linnzeus devised for the Mollusks; far more untruthful, though not more artificial, than his arrangement of the plants. It was all, however, that we had a right to expect at that time; and necessarily resulted from the ‘‘ col- lector spirit”’ which had prevented the shells from being regarded as a part only of a living animal. His arrangement of these animals (apart from the shells) prefigured the classes of Cuvier, which still maintain their place, if not their rank. If we are disposed to find fault, let it not be with the old naturalists, whose works it were, perhaps, better for science some- times to disregard; but with those who now persist in adhering to the Lamarckian ideas, which are quite as much behind our present knowledge as Linneus was behind his stand- point. The last six years have, perhaps, contributed more to our knowledge of Malacology than the whole of previous researches put together.
t Any chemist desiring to analyze the gray lining or this black matter will find specimens preserved for that purpose in the Albany Museum.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA, 217
on another coat, and the process goes on alternately till one of the party dies. The warty excrescences thus produced, often with the black foot at the top, if the oyster has died first, present a strange appearance inside the Spondylus valve, till the true cause of them is discovered. The same process from outside the pearl oysters or ear- shells produces the irregular pearls which resemble a human foot, (said to be a sovereign remedy against gout,) a horse’s head, &c.
Time would fail to describe Fig. 6. the heart-shaped burrows of Petricola robusta, and the cylin- drical cavities of several species of Lithophagus, all of which have their ‘‘noses’’ or breath- ing end of the shells close to the outside. The Lithophagus or Boring-mussel tribe are remark- able for arranging the abraded matter outside the horny skin enveloping their fragile shells; each species according to a fixed pattern. One of these, before mentionedas being found abund- Haranhalar tneitu. antly on the west coast of Spain a, a, Spondylus valve broken across ; b, the shell in its
: burrow ; c, the cup lamine; d,d, accessory valves; e, por- and Africa, but not (so far as tion of the shell whieh gapes in the adolescent state, filled known) in the Caribbean fauna, ¥jt ty agus fsremuar fo coy es gray ‘unig makes a long pair of twisted lent and expellant currents. prongs, which look (when we examine the shell alone) as though they were formed for the express purpose of boring; unfortunately, however, lke analogous ‘‘boring plates’? in the ship-worm, they are situated at the outer, not the inner portion of the burrow. They seem connected only with the breathing apparatus. One new type gf Boring-mussels was found having siphon pipes hke Gastrochena, but smooth inside (Leiosolenus. )
_ After these borers have accomplished their work of destruction on the hard fabric of the oyster banks, other bivalves come and live in the empty burrows, which they are often thought to have themselves excavated. They are, however, more truly zestlers than borers; and as several individuals often crowd themselves into a narrow cavity, they become very irregular in form, and have been divided up unnecessa- rily into species. Such are the Saxicave, Cumingiz, Sphenia, &c., as well as the more regular Kelliade and Diplodontide. Occasionally several different kinds are found, one inside the other, each having gone to live inside the skeleton of his predecessor. Thus nature fills up death with life.
But the boring bivalves are not the only, perhaps not the principal agents of destruction on the oyster valves. The whole colored layer is generally found riddled with a labyrinth of galleries excavated by humble worms, and still more humble perforating sponges. These galleries again, after the death of their makers, form the pasture fields for many tiny species of Gasteropods, the largest of which are
218 / LECTURES ON
only about a line in length and a few hundredths of an inch across, which craw] about browsing on the minute alge and nullipores, or quietly inhaling their infusorial food; and also ‘the hunting grounds for equally tiny but predacious tribes which feed upon their vege- tarian neighbors. Of all these, and especially the very interesting tribe of Cacide, full particulars will be found in the “ Descrip- tive Catalogue of the Mazatlan Mollusca.’?
The foregoing i is offered as a sketch of an investigation carried on by an ordinary student without scientific name or talents, in order to show that any one of ordinary patience and accuracy may do some- thing to advance our knowledge of the works of God. It is by en- deavoring to work out one province carefully, however humble that, province be, that the interests of science are best advanced. There is no one but gas the materials for some branch of inquiry within his reach; he has only to make choice, educate his eye, observe patiently, and be faithful. Those endowed with the peculiar faculty for elimi- nating and combining already existing details, may construct the beautiful fabric of general truths; but if this be attempted before we have obtained the. facts with sufficient accuracy, the fabric must crumble away. The humblest fact duly placed in connexion with its kindred facts, is of far more value than a grand but hasty generali- zation. The coral polypes build more islands than the voleanic fires.
The noble science of Geology, ably defined as dealing with un- limited time as Astronomy deals with space, cannot be prosecuted with certainty without the study of recent shells, especially in con- nexion with their station and geographical distribution. The micros- copic species of the Tertiary formations have lately been much studied in Europe, and will, doubtless, soon meet with the attention they deserve in the vast beds of this continent. These will have to be carefully compared with existing forms, both in the Caribbean and West American faunas, and it is not improbable that facts may be eliminated from therm not less important than the discovery of thé Atlantic Malea ringens before quoted. The study of recent and of fossil shells are but branches of the same inquiry, like the study of the fossils of two consecutive formations. No one department can be safely investigated without a knowledge of the others, any more than one existing geographical fauna can be ascertained without the rela- tions supplied by other faunas. To the ordinary student a general knowledge of the whole subject, as it is presented in time and space, should lay the foundation for the special knowledge of his particular department. By this means his study of the details will be conducted in an enlarged spirit, and presented in that form in which it can best be collated with other ascertained facts.
The study of Natural History is commended not only to those of leisure and abundant resources, but especially to those busily oc- cupied in the works and cares of life.
‘“ Nature never did betray
The heart that loved her; ’t is her privilege, Through all the scenes of this our life, to lead From joy to joy. For she can so inform
The mind that is within us, so impress
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 219
With quietness and beauty, and so feed
With lofty thoughts, that neither evil tongues,
Rash judgments, nor the sneers of selfish men,
Nor greetings where no kin {ness is, nor all
The dreary intercourse of daily life,
Shall e’er prevail against us ; nor destroy
Our cheerful faith that all which we behold
Is full of blessings.’’— Wordsworth’s lines on Tintern Abbey.
Not merely is the study of the works of God a constant source of the most delightful relaxation in the regular concerns of life; but in those times, which come to almost all, ‘of deep sorrow, of physical prostration, or of unfitness, from whatever cause, for the discharge of ordinary duties, the words of Coleridge speak the literal truth in the living experience of many:
‘* With other ministrations thou, O Nature,
Healest thy wandering and distempered child. a Thou pourest on him thy soft influences,
Thy sunny hues, fair forms and breathing sweets, Thy melody of woods, and winds, and waters,
Till he relent, and can no more endure
To be a jarring and a dissonant thing, Amid the general dance and minstrelsy,’
LATEST RESEARCHES OF M. MADLER
RELATING TO THE GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS AROUND A CENTRAL POINT.
[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution from the Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve, 1859, by C. A. ALEXANDER. |
The number of the Bibliotheque Universelle, of Geneva,.for September, 1846, contains an abridged translation of a memoir by M. Meedler, from Nos. 566, and 567 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, having for its title ‘‘The Central Sun.’”’ The same astronomer has since pub- lished in 1847 and 1848, at Mitau and Leipsic, two volumes in folio, entitled ‘‘ Untersuchungen neber die Fixstern Systeme: or, Researches on the System of the Fixed Stars,’ of which the first part is devoted to the consideration of partial systems of stars, or the reciprocal move- ments and determination of the orbits of double and multiple stars; while the second part, with which we are at present concerned, has for its subject the general system of stars, or the study of facts, tending to prove that there is a common movement of the stars around a central point. Finally, M. Medler, in the 14th volume in quarto of the collection of observations made at the university of Dorpat, of which he has been director since 1841, and published in 1856 in that city, has returned to the subject, greatly extending at the same ume his researches, and showing that the results are confirmatory of his previous deductions. It is here proposed to follow up the former notice of this subject by presenting a summary analysis of the later labors of M. Medler—labors which in themselves offer a subject of high interest, to which the name of their author, so long and advan- tageously known to astronomers, gives great weight, and which yet have not commanded, perhaps, so much attention as they merited.
It is natural to presume that the stars, which, in reference to the planets that revolve around our sun, we are generally accustomed to designate as fixed, are not in reality and altogether such, but that they, too, have movements subjected to certain laws. That in view of the immense distance of those stars, their movements must appear to us very small is readily comprehended, as well as that, to be properly verified, they must require precise observations made at long intervals of time.
In comparing observations of the same stars made at different epochs, and taking into account causes of apparent variation, already recognized, such as the precession of the equinoxes, the mutation of the earth’s axis, and the aberration due to the velocity of light, astronomers had still been long aware of small differences of reciprocal position which might be attributed to a movement proper to the stars themselves. But we can scarcely go back higher than to the observa- tions made by Bradley, about 1755, to obtain a point of departure, in
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. ype |
positions sufficiently exact, for what relates to these proper move- ments.
Sir William Herschel, in studying this subject with the sagacity which distinguished him, arrived successively at two discoveries of very high importance.
In the first place, about the year 1783, he showed that when these proper movements of the stars are considered collectively, a reason may be assigned for a great part of them by admitting that our sun has itself a movement in space in a certain direction. This movement, by a simple effect of perspective, would produce a gradual apparent, separation among the stars on the side to which the sun was directing its course, and an apparent diminution of relative distance among those from which it was receding. Though long contested, even by astrono- mers of great merit, the movement in question seems now placed beyond dispute, since the labors of Argelander, Lundahl, Otto Struve, Bravais, Galloway, and Meedler, directed to this subject, have given it full confirmation, and indicated its direction towards a point in the constellation Hercules, very near to that assigned by Herschel himself.*
The second great discovery of Herschel in reference to this subject dates from the first years of the present century, and relates to those stars which appear to the naked sight so near one another as to be blended into one, which, from this ciroumstanae, we denominate double, triple, and multiple stars. It was shown that in examining these closely there might be detected, at the end of a certain number of years, evident changes in the relative positions of the stars composing some of these groups, from which we may conclude that such stars form systems of suns revolving around their common centre of gravity. It is well known what an extension has been given to this interesting part of science by the subsequent researches of astronomers, in which Sir John Herschel, Sir James South, Messrs. Dawes, Hind, Jacob, &e., of the British empire; the elder and younger Struve, Savary, EH neke, Bessel, Kaiser, Meedler, &c., on the continent of Europe, he ive par- ticularly distinguished themselves by their labors of observation and calculation.
From divers considerations set forth in the memoir above cited, and from comparing together the proper movements of some hundred stars, M. Meedler had, in 1846, already attained a firm persuasion that, besides the causes of apparent displacement just spoken of, the collective body of stars visible to us has a real and common move- ment of revolution around a centre, situated in the group of the Pleiades, and corresponding to the star Aleyone, or 7 of Taurus, of the third magnitude, the most brilliant of the numerous stars of
that group.
= We feel satisfaction in recording that among the first to confirm the results obtained by Herschel respecting the proper movement of the sun were two French philosophers, Pierre Prevost and Frederic Maurice, in a memoir inserted in the collection of the Academy of Berlin for 1801. M. Arago has shown that the idea of the possibility of such a move- ment had been already announced by Fontenelle, Bradley, Mayer, and Lambert, though he fully recognizes Herschel as the first who proved its existence.
Dae, GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS.
In the first part of the great work on this subject, which was pub- lished in 1847 and 1848, he subjected to a detailed examination all the observations made by himself and others relative to double stars and the orbits they describe, with a view to ascertain if there were among these or other stars any central body competent by its mass to exert a preponderant attractive action on all the other stars, so as to be controller of the general system, or central sun, in the literal sense of that word, as isour sun for the partial system w hich it governs. The result was to negative any esult which no one has contested.
In the second portion of the work, the author has shown that the idea of a distribution of the stars into simply partial systems, without any general connexion among themselves, is not admissible, inasmuch as it fails sufficiently to account for the proper movements already ascertained. This idea once eliminated, there remained for M. Medler, while admiting the law of universal gravitation, no other assumption but the existence of a general system without a pre- dominant central body, or of a globular system in which the stars all revolve about their common centre of gravity, according to a force directly proportional to their distance from the central point. With this assumption as a basis, the investigation turns upon the question whether the observed movements proper to the stars satisfy the conditions which result from it.
The conditions which the central point and the neighboring region of the heavens ought to satisfy are the following:
i. Dhe*central point should have no real movement proper, and its apparent movement, though to be taken in the opposite direction, would represent that of the sun.
2. If around the central point there be any group of stars physi- cally connected with it, the proper real movements of the stars of that group should be very small and equal as regards one another.
3. If we describe around the central point © a concentric sphere, whose radius, C$, is equal to the distance of our sun from that point, all the stars situated within the interior of such sphere should have a real movement proper, smaller than that of the sun, and so much the smaller as they are nearer to C; the real movements proper should increase in departing from C to the circumference of a great circle described with C as a pole.
4, The point of the heavens towards which the sun is directing itself should be some 90 degrees from the centre C.
5. If we denote by ¢ the. fanele of direction of the proper move- ment of any observed star, and by ¢ the angle of direction of the proper movement of the sun, the difference g — of those two angles should be null at the centre, and should increase in all: directions at departing from that point, without ever excee oding 90 degrees within the interior zone.
6. The region of the heavens when the central point is determined
should be ane only one in regard to which the whole of the above con- ditions is fulfilled.
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. 2735
M. Meedler afterwards gives in detail, by means of long tables, the positions and proper movements of 861 principal stars observed by Bradley, calculated for the epoch of 1840, and subdivided into differ- ent sections according to the distances of those stars from the central point or from Alcyone.* The following table presents a summary of the results:
owe ; jee | 28 Zp 520 e a A a aEES ° aA Deseelo ye a Place of the stars. ona || S 3 ee g = on Ps} Fae ca eo 2 g Bye lmte aes 3 oa hO o & o9 A a = ” 1} GEnuraspoumipereeyes ty fee ge CNN “ated co Ve |’ Alcyone. 0. 0673 Is6 Pleiades yes hs Lye Sea ye ee i hans Sea Hil 0. 0699 13.3 Zone of 1° to 5° of distance from Alcyone- -- - 12 0. 0702 29.9 OM ETOMN OS UOMO O alee sie eyere ee nee eee 31 0. 0699 36. 1 AOVNS Ores HNO Noy AN Sa RES Re Dr a, 101 0.0890 | 44.3 FON 20OOnS0OR Sa sos Se see eee ee 159 0. 1067 48.6 AOTC TO lis UONUON A OO} mien aia cjsiapearee tae oe 224 0. 1096 46.1 ONCNO LES 2 LO CO) IMO. O Dasa a eee ele a ame 302 0.1183 | 65. 2
These values, it will be seen, satisfy in general the principal con- ditions announced above; but as the author has since much extended the field of his researches we shall pass at once to the exposition of his last labors, in what relates to thew principal object.
M. Medler has devoted the greater part of the 14th volume of the observations at Dorpat to a new catalogue of 3,222 stars, of from the Ist to the 7th magnitude, observed by Bradley, of which the posi- tious in right ascension and in declination are calculated by himself for the beginning of 1850, as well after the old as the new observa- tions. These values are accompanied by the precession and secular movement proper of each star; the latter expressed both in right ascension and declination, and in polar co-ordinates. This catalogue is subdivided into four sections ranged each in the order of right ascensions. The first is composed of stars situated to the south of the equator as far as to 30° of south declination; the second of those north of the equator up to 30° of north declination; the third of stars situated between 30° and 60° of north declination; and the fourth of those comprised between the north pole and the 60th degree of north declination.. The author has also calculated, after the observations of Lacaille and of Johnson. the proper movements of 97 stars of first to fourth magnitude, whose southern declination is more than 30°.
% M. Meedler, in his calculations of the positions of stars, has made use, among others, of the determinationsof right ascensions resulting from observations made at Geneva under the direction of Professor Piantamour, and he judges them altogether comparable in point of precision to those obtained at the principal observatories of Europe.
224 GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS.
The sum of M. Medler’s calculations gives for
80 stars, Ist to 2d magnitude, a mean secular movement proper Of------------ 25. 09 200 stars, 3d magnitude, a mean secular movement proper Of --.------------- 17.10 348 stars, 4th magnitude, a mean secular movement proper of-.------------- 14.18 690 stars, 5th magnitude, a mean secular movement proper of ---.----------- 11.09 994 stars, 6th magnitude, a mean secular movement proper of....--.-------- 9.05 921 stars, 7th magnitude, a mean secular movement proper of.-.--- Pea eBEoS 8. 65
Although, according to this table, the most brilliant stars are those which in the mean have the greatest proper movement, yet the author, in comparing the strongest of those movements in each order of magnitude or apparent brilliancy, and adopting the opinion that the stars of considerable proper movement ought to “be in general nearer the sun than the others, concludes that among the stars nearest us those of the least brilliancy appear, absolutely speaking, more nu- merous than those which are more brilliant. In effect, if alpha of the Centaur, Arcturus, Procyon and Sirius have, respectively, a proper annual movement of 3.67, 2’.26; 1.33, and 1.25: on the other hand, Rigel, (the 4th star in order of brilliancy according to Sir John Her- schel,) @ of Cygnus and f# of Perseus have scarcely any proper move- ment at all, while of Cassiopeia, the 40th of Eridanus, the 61st of Cygnus, and the two stars named after Argelander, which are of 5th to 7th magnitude only, have proper annual movements of from 4 to 7 seconds. It should be also remarked that of 52 stars of the 2d mag- nitude observed by Bradley the mean value of their annual proper movements, as reported by Medler, page 192 of volume 11 of his Researches, is but 0.138; while of 150 stars of the 3d magnitude it is 0.173. Thus, contrary to the ideas adopted by W. Struve, in his Etudes Stellaires, the degree of brightness appears to M. Medler to be a bad indicator of the relative distance of the stars.
We have already seen that, admitting that all the stars move around a common centre, without any preponderant mass, and according to the Newtonian law of attraction, the velocities will be very nearly proportional to the distances from that centre; the more uniform the distribution of masses the less will the form of the described orbits vary from the circle. From the central point C, which is in repose, the proper movements of the net as of the remote stars would be equal; but from another point, 8, situated at a certain distance from C, the stars nearest to S will appear to move more quickly. M. Meedler is disposed to admit that our sun is situated at about half the interval between the central point and the exterior limits of the space comprised by the stars with which he is engaged; but those stars form not a millionth part of the whole of the visible fixed stars, with- out even taking account of the Milky Way.
‘he author commences his new researches with the determination of the movement of the sun and its direction. In this view he sub- divides the stars whose proper movements he has determined into three classes, viz: |
1. Those, to the number of 227, whose proper secular movement is greatest, ‘and amounts to a mean of 55’.4.
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. 225
2. The stars, to the number of 663, for which that mean is 15”.25.
3. Those, to the number of 1,273, whose mean secular movement is but 7”. 79.
He has left out of view in this inquiry, as well as in that which relates to the angles of direction g—¢g, those stars whose proper movement is less than 4” a century on account of the great uncer- tainty which results therefrom respecting their direction.
M. Medler makes use of the formulas given by Argelander in his memoir of the proper movement of our solar system, in applying thereto the method of least squares and successive approximations. He arrives finally at the following values for the right ascension A and the north declination D of the point of the heavens towards which the Sun was directing its course in 1800:
By the Ist class of stars--++++. ss. se- A=262° 818; D==39925'.2 By the 2d--do-.-.. GO A==261°0 144° Da=31Qo3ale By the 3d--do----. (Oe AS26132). 2) Daa
These results, it will be seen, differ but little from one another, or from those previously obtained by other astronomers.
As to the general movement of the stars, the author presents, in the first place, new and detailed tables of the proper movements of the groups Pleiades and Hyades, of which he employs only the mean values in his ulterior calculations; not including, however, in that relative to the Hyades the two stars Aldebaran and s of Taurus, whose movements are not in correspondence with those of the other stars of the group.
He obtains thus, respectively, for the secular movement proper and the angle g—d¢:
Of Alcyone .-.- +. cece ee cece ee eee cence nee 4.70; 9° 8 Of the mean of 15 Jam of the Pleiades .--.---- 5/82; 4 Saat Of the mean of 27 stars of the Hyades....----- 11.26; + —60°.65
He afterwards subdivides the heavens, around Alcyone as pole, by means of concentric circles, described at from 10 to 10 degrees, into eighteen zones or regions, as far as the pole diametrically opposite. In the following table we give, for the stars comprised in each of these regions, the mean values of the observed secular movements proper and of their direction, resulting from his calculations. The number of stars of which he has made use, indicated in this table, refers only to the proper movements, those numbers being smaller for the angles g—, in view of the limit of 4”, alluded to above
15
226 GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS.
Number of | Number of stars. | Mean of secular movements Mean of angles ¢—y.
the region. proper. 4“ (0) 1 45 (ertla! 39. 98 2 100 8. 20 46.43 3 189 9. 78 55. 45 4 264 eae) 56. 86 5 269 10, 41 61. 72 6 275 INS OY 62. 59 7 273 10. 03 61.19 8 246 10. 95 67.95 9 277 10. 89 62.75 10 218 ois Ce 68. 80 11 221 9, 56 58. OL 12 163 reat 67,97 13 163 12.51 63. 26 14 123 12. 07 61.90 15 92 10. 01 58. 92 16 87 13. 33 61.21 17 58 9. 16 54. 41 18 44 7. 30 47, 27
We see by this table that for the first six regions the proper move- ments and the angles of direction go on regularly increasing. In the first there is but one case in 32 where g—¢ exceeds 90 degrees, while there are 55 in 186, in the sixth comprised between 50° and 60° of distance from Alcyone. The twelve following regions, which are less complete and more and more removed from the central point, do not offer the same regular progression; and there is even a decrease in the value of the two elements in the last, situated towards the point diametrically opposed to the central point.
‘M. Medler admits that his last researches have not confirmed the opinion announced in the former, that the proper movements ought to increase gradually up to a distance of 90° from the central point, and perhaps even a little beyond. But he observes, Ist, that with regard to the southern zones it is impossible yet to conclude anything positively, so long as we have not in those regions a greater number of proper movements exactly determined; 2d, that as to the regions Nos. 10 to 12, they are situated in the neighborhood of the point Q, towards which the sun is moving, a circumstance which would dimin- ish the apparent proper movement of a part of the stars comprised in those regions; that, besides, the number of stars observed by Bradley, and even by modern astronomers, is smaller in those regions some- what distant from the ecliptic than it is near the Pleiades. The author remarks that taking the regions from 7 to 12 by pairs, we shall still find a gradual increase in the mean proper movements. In regard to the last regions, if the decrease in the elements with which we are concerned should be confirmed, that, according to M. Meedler, may be because all the stars have not a movement in the same direc- tion with our Sun, and like the comets, their movement may be some- times towards one, sometimes towards another point. He regards
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. 227
the first as the most probable cause, but believes, in the meantime, that the conformity of movement is not so great for the stars as for the planets of our solar system.
According to the last researches of this astronomer, the central point C and that towards which the Sun is moving are distant from one another by an are of 111° 30.7; and the proper movement of Alcyone, taken in an inverse direction, conducts to a point situated 2°.6 south of Q. According to the preceding calculations, these numbers were, respectively, 113° 36’ and 1°.5. Ifthe position of Q is well determined, it may be that the orbit described by our Sun is not acircle, but an ellipse analogous to that of the planet Polymnia.
The ideas promulged by M. Medler from the time of his first re- searches having encountered divers opponents, it was incumbent upon him to reply in the later to those whose arguments merited a serious attention.
Sir John Herschel, in his Outlines of Astronomy, has objected to the central point adopted by our author, that its position was unlikely, because the group of the Pleiades does not project itself upon the Milky Way. To this objection M. Meedler replies, that it is evident that the point which is the common centre of gravity of the Milky Way, and the whole mass of stars which environ it, ought to be found on the central plane of the ring constituting that, celestial belt, and be projected on the plane from some point within its circuit. But if our Sun be in that plane, it is apparent that the middle of the belt must correspond to a great circle of the celestial sphere. Now, the admirable charts published by Sir John Herschel himself show that such is not the case in reality. The Milky Way is not at the same distance from the two poles of the equator, and it does not divide- into two equal parts either that circle or the ecliptic. According to- the researches of G. Fuss, the small circle to which the Milky Way~ best corresponds, is distant 33 degrees from the great circle to whick it is parallel. It follows from this that an interior point situated in the plane of the ring, without being in the ring itself, cannot, from the sun or the earth, be projected on the Milky Way, and would be removed from it by an angle equal to that which a straight line drawn from the sun to the central point would make with the plane of the Milky circle. M. Argelander having previously, on the occa- sion of his investigations of the proper movement of the Sun, thrown out the opinion that the central point of the movement of the stars: was perhaps in the constellation Perseus, M. Medler had, in his: first memoir, objected to this idea, the situation of that constellation on the Milky Way. M. Argelander since then seems not to have pursued his researches on this subject; and no one, to my knowledge at least, has indicated any other point of the heavens for adoption as the central point in preference to that situated in the Pleiades.
Professor C. A. F. Peters, director of the observatory of Altona, and present editor of the Astronomische Nachrichten, had also, from the pub- lication of M. Meedler’s first researches, raised some objections as to their results. The latter has replied to them, (pages 254, 257, 14th vol.of the Observations of Dorpat.) It would appear that this reply, with
228 GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS.
the new developments that our author has.given to his researches, have led Professor Peters to admit the validity of the conclusions deduced from them; for the second and forthcoming number of the new publication of Professor Peters, Zeitschrift fiir populdre Mitther- lungen, designed as a continuation of the Annuaries published by Schu- macher from 1836 to 1844, is to contain, it seems, an article by M. Medler on the Central Sun.
Having thus cursorily exhibited the results obtained by M. Meedler in the principal object of his labors, it is proper now to pass in review certain consequences which he has deduced from his researches at the end of his Untersuchungen. It should be remarked, however, that he presents them only as first views, still quite uncertain, which furnish at the most but very rough approximations towards the values of the elements to which they relate.
‘As the mean proper movement of Alcyone ought, from what has been said, to correspond to the angular movement of the Sun taken in a contrary direction, if first we adopt, agreeably to the earlier re- searches of the author, 0/’.0673 as the annual value of that movement, this quantity being the 19,256,000th part of the circle, it would thence result that the complete revolution of the sun and all the fixed stars around the central point would be accomplished in about 19 millions of years. According to the later valuation, 0.047 of this annual proper movement, the period of revolution would be still longer, or about 273 millions of years for such of the stars as are not in the vicinity of the central body, nor at the extreme exterior limits of the circuits of the Milky Way. It is evident, more- over, that the value of the proper movement of the central point is still quite uncertain, and we may observe in the table of the proper movements of each of the Pleiades given by M. Medler, (p. 259 of the 14th vol. of Observations of Dorpat,) four stars of that group whose secular proper movement is smaller by some tenths of a second than that of Aleyone. The smallest, which is 3.9 only, would correspond to the star designated by the letter 7; but that star is only of the sixth magnitude, and its angle of direction is 39°, so that it can by no means be regarded as constituting the central star.
The author admits that the subordinate systems should have shorter revolutions. He shows that the non-existence of any star having an annual parallax of several seconds of a degree proves that our Sun has no other star associated with it, and belongs to no partial multiple system. He has concluded from his researches on the double stars, that there can scarcely be any system of this sort where the companion is distant from the principal star more than six minutes of a degree. The case of a considerable number of stars being close to one another, is hence the only one where there is any likelihood of a partial physical system. Thus, for the largest number of stars there exists only a common bond, and with the exception of perturbations com- paratively insignificant, resulting from certain conjunctions of stars among themselves, they exert no particular action on one another, nor on the system of planets.
We have already seen that M. Medler is not disposed to admit, in general, ‘that the distances of the stars are inversely proportional to
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. 229
their brightness, and he thinks that the difference in their light may often be referred either to a real difference in their diameters, or possibly in their specific luminous intensity. He cites as a striking example of this kind, the two stars of the constellation Cygnus, Alpha and 61; the first having a parallax and proper movement almost imper- ceptible, while the value of these elements in each is respectively 0.348 and 5’.22; whence he concludes that the latter must be at least 30 times nearer to us than the former, andits absolute brilliancy 20,000 times less.
It is to the attentive observation of the proper movements, com- bined with the parallaxes directly obtained, that, according to our author, we should attach ourselves for the determination of the dis- tances and special physical relations which exist between the systems of stars. As an essay towards absolute determinations in this way, he compares among themselves the proper movements and parallaxes for the stars to the number of 7, where this last element is approxi- mately known, after the researches of Bessel, Maclear, and Peters. These respective values are as follows:
Proper movement «. Annual parallax z. GiOletMeLG enitatlinmers cisnseucls -eelevovelen Oke evstiehouche UG At at Mate eh ovekoiks 0°.912 61st of Cygnus avel-altalascaufon oueuensues eile: susteteedon al ems amens Lea Dailitay olselsherieteneire 0 .348 a of the Lyre Sp DIS UC Oo Oloctmoom orci do 06S oad (0) Peebles Gg Oooo 6 0). 103 1830 of the catalogue of Groombridge ---.. TsO) 20) 05; Sigs: szereyoge 0 .226 POL AST Teneo ca aue cous eile etre ce Konze ve Regtance aed che ustioe Oh GBSiietsuvetetommens 0 :067 POLE: GLCALCE’ GOAL « «vsislstste sxe oepemers somone sic app ophe rors: oy e¥ehrer ene 0 .133 IAT GETS iis Aiehen ocelot! oe sceile ora) lsuseilel emtmenerepen sis Wee Dey Sieuene ouokencuciiene 0 .127
With the exception of the Polar star, in regard to which the small- ness of the two elements renders their values very uncertain, we see that the first much surpasses the second in magnitude, their mean relation being that of 10 to 1. Macleare thinks the parallax of Sirius less than the fourth of a second, while its proper movement is one second and a fourth.
M. Meedler, after having endeavored to determine anew, with all possible care, the precise value of the annual proper movement of 61 of Cygnus, finds it to be 4.282. Now, that of the Pleiades being, in the mean, 0.0582, is consequently 73 times smaller. We may then admit that in the rectilinear triangle PSC, which joins .the Pleiades, the Sun, and 61 of Cygnus, the side SC is much the smallest. The angle at the Sun S being 83°.4, the angle at C should be near 90°, without by possibility exceeding 96°. The author admits, then, the equality of the sides PS and PC to be very close, and conse- quently that also of the real proper movements of the Sun and 61 Cygnus. Thus the annual proper movement of our Sun ought to be seen very nearly under an angle of 4”.284 from a point in the celestial space where the radius of the earth’s orbit would appear under a parallactic angle of 0’.3483; whence it follows that the proper move- ment of the Sun corresponds very nearly to 12,295 radu of the ter- restrial orbit.
This result is much greater than that of 1,623 obtained by W. Struve, at the end of his Etudes Stellaires, the grounds of which are
230 GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS.
contested by Medler. He observes, however, that the recent re- searches of Johnson and Otto Struve on the parallax of 61 Cygnus, which raise its value to about one-half second, reduce the annual proper movement of the Sun, if this last result be admitted, to about 81 radii of the earth’s orbit, or 276 millions of leagues of 25 to the degree; and he remarks that this velocity is very nearly that of the planet Mercury in the orbit it describes round the Sun.
Let us again assume for the moment, with M. Medler, the value of the Sun’s annual movement to be 12,295, as obtained above; this movement, as it would be seen from the Pleiades, would be expressed, according to the estimate before given of the arc CQ, by the formula, 12,295 X sin 1119.5; which reduces the movement to 11.44.
We have, then, for the parallax z of the group of the Pleiades, assuming the estimate on a former page of its mean movement and angle gp — ¢:
P miigins WE seater
Seer area
The distance to the Sun corresponding to this parallax is about 403 million times the radius of the earth’s orbit, a distance which it would require about 640 years for the light to traverse. The two last num- bers would be still greater if we assume the values relative to Alcyone.
The author shows that from the proper movement of our Sun, and its distance from the central point, may be deduced, by means of Kepler’s third law, the proportion of the whole attractive mass which revolves around Alcyone as a centre, to the mass of our Sun. According to the preceding numbers, that whole mass would be about one hundred and eleven million times that of the Sun.
M. Meedler considers our solar system to be situated in a region of the heavens comparatively very destitute of stars, but the regions of mean stellar abundance to rate much lower in point of mass than the space occupied by our planetary worlds. In this latter system, the central mass exerts over the subordinate bodies, which are in limited number, so considerable a force that the perturbations are there for the most part of little importance. In the general stellar system an analogous result is obtained ina different manner, namely, by the immense number of the members of that system, obviating in this respect the necessity for any preponderant central mass.
The regions of the heavens near the group of the Pleiades, north and south, are comparatively quite destitute of stars, especially from f of Perseus to A of Taurus. Farther away from the constellation, there is again, in every direction, but chiefly towards the east, a great abundance. Still farther on, we presently meet towards the west another deficiency, along the zone which traverses Pisces and Pe- gasus; while more to the east there occurs first the remarkable group of the Hyades, and then a great diminution in the number of stars. In other regions of the heavens we may observe that the richest in stars have not the form of rounded groups, but rather that of elongated zones, almost parallel to the Milky Way, and that between
these there are seen others destitute of stars. The southern heavens
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. Zo
present this appearance ina still nore striking manner than the northern. The Milky Way is itself composed of several concentric rings, situated one behind the other, forming circular zones rich in stars, comprised between others which are less so.
At the centre of this great system exists a rich group, forming in the whole a considerable and well-defined mass, whose diameter, nearly equal to the distance from our Sun to the 61st of Cygnus, is about 600,000 radii of the earth’s orbit. It has already been said that the zone in which our Sun is now found is poor in stars; and it is to this situation that we may chiefly attribute the fact that the mean distances of the stars so little correspond for us with their apparent magnitude. It may be, also, that what we term richness in stars is referable to a greater luminous power, increasing or decreasing by alternating zones.
The double stars, and the most considerable groups of stars, occur in regions poor in stars as well as in those which are rich. Thus the two stars considered the nearest to us are double, and situated in the same zone with the Sun, which is placed not far from the middle of the interval comprised between them.
This constitution by alternative zones is not, as M. Medler re- marks, so different from that of our planetary system as might appear at the first glance, for around our Sun there is first a void space of 0.38 of a radius of the earth’s orbit; then we find a zone occupied by four very dense planets of mean size, to which succeeds that of the asteroids of very shght mass, and then that of the great planets, attended by numerous satellites.
The extent of the rings of the Milky Way may be determined up to a certain point. In effect, the shortest distance from Alcyone to the middle of that belt is 21°, and the mean divergence of the Milky Way from a great circle, as has been said above, is three degrees and a half. If we draw right lines between the Sun §, the group of the Pleiades P, and the points M and M’, the nearest and the most dis- tant from the Milky Way, we shall have two triangles having a com- mon side PS, supposed to be known from what precedes. M. Meedler deduces therefrom the, following values:
The half-diameter of the Milky Way corresponds to a distance which the light would require 3,648 years to traverse. The distance from the. Sun to the nearest point of that belt would be traversed by the hight in 3,166 years, and its distance to the most remote in 4, 140 years.
But as the belt is double, and for the points in question the two portions, by an effect of perspective, appear blended, the interior ring ought to be a little less distant, and the exterior one, on the contrary, considerably more so. It had already been supposed that the more remote regions of the Milky Way would correspond to a distance which light would occupy nearly 4,000 years in passing over.
From this it results that the orbit described by our Sun in space is very nearly to that of the circumference of the Milky Way in the proportion of the orbit of Jupiter to that of Neptune; and, pursuing the analogy, it may be remarked that the portion of stars compara- tively the smallest is on the interior, and the largest on the exterior. When the stars which surround the Pleiades to a distance of 25 to
232. GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS.
30 degrees, those situated at %he point of the heavens diametrically opposite, and those of the zone of the great circle of which these two points are the poles, shall have been completely observed, (as has begun to be executed at Dorpat for a part of them,) we shall be enabled step by step to attain a more profound insight into the organism of our stellar system.
‘‘T reeard,’’? adds M. Medler in terminating his great work, ‘‘ the complete assemblage of stars which revolve around the group of the Pleiades, their common centre of gravity, as forming a sort of isle in the universe; and I admit that there are in the vicinity of and beyond this stellar system, other analogous isles, of which the nebulx offer us various examples. We cannot as yet decide, if some among them stand in a relation of neighborhood and connexion with our own; but it may be possible that there exists between them and our Milky Way a common bond, the Jast being always to be considered as of a more elevated order. Yet it does not appear to me probable that the par- ticular configuration of our isle in the universe should be a model for the others, as well because this conformity would but little accord with the variety which prevails in the subordinate systems, as that the very different forms under which the nebule present themselves to our,view could scarcely be explained by merely optical differences. Still itis true that some of these isles have an appearance which offers a striking similitude to that of our own; such being particularly the case with the beautiful annular nebula of the Lyre, whose interior, according to recent explorations, is not entirely void and obscure, and which, taken as a whole, sufficiently represents our stellar system as it would be seen at the distance of the nebule.
‘‘'The preceding considerations have led us to the contemplation of an extent of space and time, which, relatively speaking, we: may well term infinite, and the number of bodies in the universe is far beyond our powers of computation. When, from our terrestrial dwel- ling-place, we strive to penetrate deeper and deeper into space, every scale of measurement, however colossal it may at first appear to us, is annihilated, so to speak, before the immensity of the heavens. It is not so much the infinity of numbers which renders this grand organism so worthy of admiration, for this. manifests our own littleness still more than the greatness of the universe; it is the inexhaustible multi- tude of forms and figures which sets forth before our eyes in the most striking manner the infinite power and wisdom of the Creator. Nature works not after models; she knows how to combine with the strictest subordination to a single general law, the most pliant liberty of action and the richest variety of development. Hence, the medita- tive spirit may range through this infinite without fear of ever losing the guiding thread. Hyery new member, each successive gradation in the universe, is not a repetition on a wider scale fof what was already known; it presents to us formations which, whether from without or within, extend beyond all prevision our previous conceptions.
‘The greatest explorers of the skies in the two last centuries, attached themselves strongly to the idea that our planetary system was a model, in itself, of the system or systems of the fixed stars; they
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. p33)
sought for a single Sun, which should be to the universe what our Sun is to the planets, and not having found it, they were tempted to re- nounce the idea of a general organization of the stars, and no longer to recognize anything but partial systems.
‘‘Tf, while leaving unimpaired the validity and comprehensiveness of Newton’s great law of universal gravitation, I have succeeded in proving that the organization of our stellar system has a substantial existence, wholly different from that of the systems which are subor- dinate to it, and in determining the most probable central point of the grand whole, my aim will havé been attained, and the principal task which I had proposed to fulfil during life, will have been ac- complished.’’
We cannot terminate this notice without rendering ajust homage to the perseverance with which M. Meedler has conducted his researches, and to the important progress which, in any event, will have been achieved in the determination of the proper movement of the stars by virtue of his labors. It is now a long time that philosophers and scientists have been occupying themselves with the constitution of the universe. The first part of the interesting memoir published in French, in 1847, by the celebrated astronomer, W. Struve, di- rector of the Russian observatory of Pulkova, under the title of Etudes d’ Astronomie Stellaire, comprises among others a summary and very curious exposition of the ideas, always ingenious and in part conformable ‘to truth, which have been successively promulgated on this subject by Kepler, Huygens, Wright, Kant, Lambert, Mitchell, and Sir W. Herschel. But before this last, these ideas were most frequently rather speculative than founded on investiga- tions and positive observations. It is Herschel, then, who has opened the most direct and surest route, by the help of his powerful telescopes; and M. Medler is beyond doubt one of the astronomers who has followed him with most ardor and success, while profiting by the labors of his predecessors, and above all by the precise determi- nations of the positions of stars recently obtained.
There remain, doubtless, many points still uncertain in the results obtained by the latter, and time only can confirm in a definite manner the solution which he has given of this important problem. But as the author has in general sustained himself by observations as exact and numerous as circumstances permitted, giving them in all their details, without making an arbitrary choice among them, and without dissembling the weak points of his system, but with the sole desire of arriving at the truth, and with the conviction of having attained it, it would seem that we ought to be disposed to admit the validity of his principal deductions, corroborated as they now are. The case of the determination of the general movement of the stars by M. Medler will, perhaps, prove analogous to that ofthe first determination of the movement of the Sun in space by Sir W. Herschel; that is to ‘say, that having been a long time contested or neglected, it will be finally confirmed and generally admitted, and will constitute a fair title of honor for the skilful and bold astronomer who will have been the first to prove its reality.
234 REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF
REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA, FROM JULY, 1858, TO JUNE, 1859.
BY PROEESSOR DE LA BIVE, PRESIDENT.
[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution from the Memoires, &c., Tome xv., Premiere Partie, 1859, by C. A, ALEXANDER. |
GENTLEMEN: An existing regulation of the society devolves on its president the duty of presenting to you, at the moment when he is about to lay aside his functions, a detailed report on the labors of the ~ body during the year just elapsed. This order, which for the year previous was fulfilled by our former president, Professor Gautier, I now propose on my own part to execute.
The Society of Physics and of Natural History embraces in its field of labor, as its title indicates, alike the physical sciences and the natural sciences, that is to say, every part of the domain of human knowledge which has for a basis observation and experiment in the field of nature. Pure mathematics, therefore, do not fall within its compass, though applied mathematics are by no means excluded; for how could such be the case where astronomy, mechanics, and physics occupy so prominent a place? But as there is no one versed in pure mathematics who does not more or less make an application of them, it follows that association with us lies always open to the learned mathematician, and thus we are warranted in saying that no scientific notability of our country is excluded on system from our circle.
The division between the physical sciences and the natural sciences which the name of the Society recalls is not purely arbitrary. It is founded on a true principle, namely, that in the study of nature there are two points of view strictly different: the one having for its object more particularly the study of forces and laws, the other at- taching itself essentially to the examination of bodies themselves. Not that in the former kind of study bodies do not play an import- ant part, since it is only through their medium that we take cogni- zance of forces, nor in the latter that forces should not be taken into consideration, since without them we could not know the properties of bodies. But the dominant and characteristic division is in strict- ness that which I have indicated.
The distinction, however, is not always very definite, and if we place physiology in the division of natural sciences and not in that of the physical sciences, it is solely because physiology is inseparable from organic natural history, which furnishes its elements, and to which at the same time itself serves as a basis.
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 235
Thus, then, in the report which we are about to present, we comprehend under the same head of Physical Sciences, mechanics, astronomy, physics, both mathematical and experimental, terrestrial and meteorological, as well as chemistry—sciences whose points of contact are so numerous and so multiplex that it is difficult to deter- mine the limits which separate them. Geology, mineralogy, and organic natural history, botany, and zoology, (comprising therein physiology) form the second group, which, under the head of Natural Sciences, constitute hkewise an assemblage sufficiently compact, to which paleontology accedes as a cement binding all the parts together. We confess that we are at a loss to know to which of these groups statistics should be referred, which, like mathematics, find a place among us:only by virtue of their application, and whose labors, there- fore, ought to be classed, it would seem, according to the nature of the application which is made of them.
PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
It is natural to place at the head of the physical sciences that which, lifting the regards of man towards the celestial vault, seems more suited than any other to recall to him the magnificence of the creation and the greatness of its Author. Some years ago, and as- tronomy might have been thought to have uttered its last word. Certain stars®to be discovered in the immensity of the heavens, im- proved methods to be invented for calculating the courses of the celestial bodies—these seemed to be the only lines in which progress was possible after the labors of the Herschels and La Places; but thanks to the improvement of instruments and the perseverance of observers, a new era has dawned for this part of the sciences. New planets, announced, like Neptune, through the potency of the genius of mathematics, or discovered simply by a conscientious exploration of the skies, are constantly ranging themselves in our astronomical cata- logues; a more profound study of the physical properties of the stellar bodies leads to inductions of the highest interest with regard to their physical constitution; and the aid of powerful glasses unveils to us in the fixed stars the nebule and the comets—appearances till now unknown.
I have mentioned comets. Of course there was much question in the society respecting that of Donati, which was the great astronom- ical event of the year 1858. Professor Thury was the first who oc- cupied our attention with some observations he had made on that body, the tail of which he had found to be double near the nucleus. Still later, Professor Plantamour communicated a summary of the ob- servations made upon it at the observatory of Geneva, from August 28, to October 18. In that interval of time, the number of days of observation was 29, for which the position of the comet was deter- mined by comparison with the neighboring stars. From these obser- vations, and those made by different astronomers, it results that the part of the orbit traversed by the comet before passing to its peri- helion is an ellipsis which would require from 2,100 to 2,400 years as
236 REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF
the duration of a revolution, and the determination of which is de- ducible to quite a close approximation from this single appearance
by a comparison of all the observed places after and before the pas- sage to the perihelion. M. Plantamour has entered into many details on the physical appearance of the comet, which he has reproduced in a series of drawings. He has described the presence of an obscure space situated immediately behind the nucleus in the part opposed to the sun; this obscure space, which often appeared darker than the ground of the sky, varied sensibly in its form and extent during the course of the observations; and he remarks that it is equally to be observed in the delineations of Halley’s comet published by Bessel. Lastly, he has added some remarks on the size, both apparent and real, on the form and direction of the tail, the apparent length of which was 41° on the 5th October, and the linear length 13.5 millions of leagues, (25 to the degree,) while on the 13th October the apparent length was not more than 32°, and the linear length 10.5 millions of leagues. M. Thury and M. Wartman have also described some pecu- liarities relative to the light emitted by this body, and M. Wartman, the younger, as likewise M. De la Rive, have pointed out the analogy which the bifurcation of the tail of the comet into two parts, separated by an obscure space, presents to the appearance which flames affect under the action of the magnet—an analogy which might, perhaps, confirm the idea already promulgated, and more particularly by Bessel, of a magnetic influence of the sun. e
An astronomical labgr of an entirely different kind is that which M. Ritter has been engaged in, being the calculation of observations of the fixed stars. This work has been undertaken with the view of ascertaining the cause of the abnormal result presented by the re- duction of observations of the star 7 of the Dragon, as made by M. Main in the XXIV volume of the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London. After different calculations, made with great care and checked by numerous verifications, M. Ritter continues to find, like M. Main, a negative parallax, but of less value, though he took account, which M. Main did not, of the influence of the ellipticity of the earth’s orbit in the phenomena of the aberration and the parallax. It results therefrom that the observations are infected with errors, proceeding, no doubt, from a defect in the stability of the instrument. In effect, as M. Plantamour has remarked, there are reasons for doubt- ing the exact steadiness of the old zenith sector of Greenwich, and in submitting the observations to calculation it were to be wished that those only were employed which are made with the new sector of M. Airy. At all events, it has been made to appear by M. Ritter’s labors that the calculation of an elliptical parallax essentially modifies the results found by the circular parallax, which demonstrates the abso- lute necessity of taking account of the ellipticity of the earth’s orbit in calculations of this kind.
Independently of the original memoirs just spoken of, the society has had several interesting communications on astronomy. Professor Gautier has kept it constantly advised of the researches made by foreign astronomers, particularly those of M. Carrington on the exist-
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 237
ence of a solar atmosphere and on the eclipse of Tth September, 1858; those of M. Wolf, of Zurich, on the relation. Which exists between the annual mean of the magnetic declination and the abundance of the solar spots, and of the influence of certain planets on those spots; recent investigations relative to the moon, namely, those of M. Adam on the ellipticity and inclination of the moon’s orbit, and the series of observations made at Greenwich under the direction of M. Airy on the movements of that planet. M. Gautier has dwelt particularly on a very important inquiry of M. Airy relative to the progressive movement of the sun in space, an undertaking in which, by the em- ployment of a new method, the learned English astronomer has suc- ceeded in finding a movement somewhat less in quantity than that indicated by M. Meedler, and a direction for that movement slightly different. Finally, I must not omit the exhibition by Professor Plan- tamour of a very beautiful relief of the crater of Copernicus, executed
This relief, when illuminated by a bright artificial light properly dis- posed, represents perfectly the appearance of the crater in the differ- ent phases of the moon.
Meteorology and terrestrial physics border as much on astronomy as on physics, and establish a very natural bond between them. Thus it is to our learned professor of astronomy, M. Plantamour, that we owe several communications on the meteorological peculiarities of the years 1857 and 1858. Independently of his meteorological resumé of 1858 for Geneva and the Great St. Bernard, he has brought to the notice of the society the extraordinary dryness which prevailed from the last months of 1856 up to the middle of 1858, and the anomaly of temperature exhibited at Geneva and in a great portion of Hurope at the commencement of November, 1858. From the 28th of October, before which it had been higher than its normal rate, the temperature began rapidly to sink, and the depression became particularly re- markable at the Great St. Bernard. It would seem that this anomaly was caused by a northeast wind, which in the northern regions was superposed on a southwest current, but in the regions of the south- west of Hurope descended to the level of the earth’s surface, where it produced the extraordinary refrigeration which was generally ob- served. M. Plantamour noticed, moreover, the extremely mild tem- perature of the 25th of December, 1858, (Christmas day,) and in refer- ence thereto took occasion to state that the extremes of temperature, as observed for the same day, were the maximum of + 17°.4 in 1857, and the minimum of —21°.7 in 1830.
Professor De Candolle has given the society interesting details on the organization of Russian meteorological observatories, in particular that of Tefflis, whose director is M. Moritz. This latter savant fur- nished observations to M. Candolle, and besides gave him information with regard to an ascent of Mt. Ararat, during which efforts were made to ascertain the depth of the cap of snow which covers the mountain, a depth which was found to exceed 30 feet, and is perhaps still more considerable.
A quite remarkable fact noticed by M. Chaix is the absence of
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snow in the summer of 1858 in many localities which he visited, and which, being situated above the limit of perpetual snow, are habitually covered with it. M. Marcet, from his own observation, remarked upon the great inequality in the distribution of snow during the winter of 1858, so that while so little had never within the memory
of man fallen in the valley of Zermatt, there had, on the contrary, been —
extraordinary falls of it in the canton of Uri in May of the same year.
We are indebted to’M. Chaix for several other communications on different points of terrestrial physics and of meteorology. Such are those relative: 1st, to the meteorology of Africa, according to obser-
vations given in the travels of Barth; 2d, to the change in the bed —
of the Yellow river during the last three years, as noticed by Captain Osborne; 3d, to the geographical labors executed by the English, and more particularly by the brothers Gregory, in Australia, from 1842
to 1858, in the course of 24 expeditions, which traversed in the whole |
a distance of 32,000 miles, and which led to the discovery of a great number of salt lakes, often ephemeral, of twelve large rivers subject to the same defect, and of a great number of esculent vegetables, whose existence in that continent was not before suspected.
M. Henri de Saussure, on his part, has communicated observations which he had made on the distribution of the waters in the basin of Mexico. From these he concludes that the lakes which environ the
city of Mexico have heretofore occupied a much larger surface than —
at present, the retreat of the lakes having been due chiefly to a canal excavated by the ancient Mexicans, and he proclaims the danger of inundation which now threatens the city of Mexico in consequence of the heedlessness of the inhabitants, who have allowed the canal to become completely obstructed.
We must not forget to mention that our notice has been called by M. Chaix to the levellings made by M. Bourdalone with a view to the opening of the Isthmus of Suez, from which we learn that the differ- ence of level between the two seas is but a few inches.
General Dufour has likewise communicated the results obtained by M. Bourdalone in his levellings of the course of the Rhone, the descent of which is 389 metres in its passage across the canton of Geneva, ad- mitting that the mean level of the Lake of Geneva is 373 metres above the mean level of the Mediterranean. It is true that previous level- lings gave an altitude of 375 metres above the ocean; but the difference between the two numbers would appear to be owing in great part to the level of the Mediterranean being higher than that of the ocean.
While speaking of the Rhone and the lake, Jet us recall the obser- vation of Professor Colladon on the azure color of their waters, which he attributes to particles from the bottom of the lake held in suspen: sion by the agitation of the water. He founds this opinion on a fact observed by himself, viz: that while the dredging machine was at work in winter on one of the shores of the lake, the corresponding arm of the Rhone assumed the deep blue tint which commonly is only seen in summer, at which season a greater quantity of water and stronger current would produce the same effect. The cause assigned by M, Colladon may possibly contribute in part to the remarkable phenom-
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 239
enon of the coloration of the waters of the Rhone, but, as was objected at the time, will not suffice for a complete explanation.
An interesting communication was received from M. Mousgon, of Zurich, through M. Soret, the object of which was to show that, in the phenomenon of water-spouts, a superior degree of validity must be conceded to the theory which refers them to the meeting of two currents of air exerting a gyratory force over that which makes them depend on an attraction produced by the electric tension of a cloud. M. Mousson has succeeded in calculating what force of aspiration is to be supposed in the case of a water-spout, and does not find it out of proportion with what is possible upon his own theory.
It is to M. Mousson that we are also indebted for some curious experiments on the effect of strong pressure in hindering water from solidifying even at very low temperatures, such as 20° below 0°. These experiments, communicated first to the Helvetic Society of Natural Sciences, were imparted also to our own.
Here, then, we find ourselves on the confines of physics, properly so called, and we enter completely upon them in recalling the com- munications of M. Soret and M. De la Rive on the remarkable facts respecting the congelation of water observed by M. Forbes, M. Tyn- dall, and M. Faraday—facts which prove the error of considering only
_ the influence of temperature to be concerned in the solidification of
water, without taking cognizance of that of the molecular attraction
_ which plays so important a part in this as well asin other crystalliza- _ tions.
It is to electricity above all that the greatest number of communi- cations this year relate in what concerns physics, properly so called. First come those of M. Volpicelli on the electrostatic induction, made one by himself in person, the other through the medium of M. Soret. A great number of experiments, conducted under varied conditions, and subjected to different modes of proof, seem to have uniformly strengthened the confidence of M. Volpicelli in his ideas on the theory of induction; but, without entering into details, we here merely re- mark that it has been objected that these experiments may be also interpreted in a sense favorable to the older theory, so that, although very well performed, they cannot be deemed perhaps as conclusive as he maintains, at least in that relation.
Professor Wartman favored the society with an account of some attempts he had made, on occasion of the transatlantic cable, to deter- mine the effects of pressure on electric conductibility. In submitting a copper wire covered with gutta percha to a pressure exceeding thirty atmospheres, he observed a small diminution of conductibility, recovering, however, its primitive value when the pressure ceases. He has also observed that strong compression on any member—an arm, for instance, of a person conveniently seated for the purpose— determines a slight but sensible current to a galvanometer of 24,000 coils, in a contrary direction to that of the current which would be due to the contraction of the same member.
M. Tirtoff, a learned foreigner, who was present at one of our ses- sions, communicated some experiments made with a view to ascertain
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the influence of the atmospheric pressure on galvanic polarization; by which he has found that this influence is Inappreciable, and that the polarization depends only on the disengagement of the gas in the nascent state. New researches on the heat disengaged by the current, when it produces an external effect, have satisfied M. Soret of the correctness of the results which he had previously obtained, but at the same time he insists on the fact that, for an equal quantity of chemical action, the external effect produced by a current is not always proportional to the diminution of intensity, and he has given a proof derived from the action of currents of induction.
It remains for us to notice two communications of M. De la Rive, the one relating to the electro-magnetic rotation of liquids, the other to the propagation of electricity in gaseous mediums highly rarefied.
On occasion of an investigation relative to the rotary action of helices and magnets on liquids traversed by electric currents, M. Bertin had contested the accuracy of an experiment made thirty-five years ago by M. De la Rive, by means of which he had demonstrated that when a magnet is hollow the rotation of the mercury placed within it takes place in a contrary direction to that of the mercury without, the two liquid conductors having the same level and being equally traversed by a current radiating from the centre, or converging towards the centre. M. De la Rive has resumed this experiment, and has varied it by employing as well a hollow magnet of tempered steel as a tube of soft iron magnetized either by an encircling helix or by a strong electro-magnet. He has made use of tubes of different dimensions, both of cast and wrought iron, and has verified the accu- racy of his first assertion. A single case only occurred in which the rotation took place in the same direction within and without, and that was, when employing the hollow magnet of steel, the level of the mercury both without and within was below the magnetic pole and near the middle of the magnet—an exception which is referable probably to the influence of the second magnetic pole.
In his second experiment relating to the propagation of electricity in gaseous mediums, greatly rarefied, M. De la Rive proceeded to the consideration of the subject under two distinct points of view, namely, the action of the magnet upon currents transmitted across such me- diums, and the propagation of the currents with the phenomena which accompany it—such, among others, as the stratification of the electric light. He began with describing the effects obtained under the former point of view, and particularly those relating to the rota- tion of luminous currents in different planes and with different veloci- ties, according to the conditions of the experiment—a rotation which he had already made known ten years ago. As to the second point, he can be said as yet scarcely to have approached it; yet he has been able to conclude even from his first attempts, of which he will com- municate the sequel at some future time, that the gaseous medium, when traversed by electricity in motion, undergoes, conformably to the ideas of M. Riess, mechanical and physical modifications consist- ing essentially in alternations of condensation and dilatation. M. De la Rive terminates his memoir by pointing out that his new researches
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 241
have tended constantly to confirm the theory which he had given of the aurora borealis.
Besides the communications just mentioned, M. De la Rive submitted to the society the remarkable improvements introduced by M. Leon Foucault, in the construction of curved plated mirrors designed for telescopes, and the labors of M. Hoffman, of London, in regard to the vegetable parchment which for some years has been manufactured in England with great success.
The last-mentioned communication already touches rather on chem- istry than physics, and in effect there remains only, to terminate this first part of our report, an account of two important memoirs on chemical subjects presented by their authors to the Society. The first, by MM. Deville and Troost, is directed to the determination of the densities of vapors at very high temperatures, its authors hav- ing successively employed, as the source of heat, the vapor of sulphur, which boils at 450°, and that of cadmium, which boils at 850°. They hope to be able to make use of that of zinc, which boils at about 1200°. Among the results obtained, we will distinguish that relating to sulphur, which , gives 2.2 for the density of the vapor of that substance at a very hig h temperature, contrary to determinations generally received, which pointed to too high a number and one not in accordance, as has been now shown, with the theoretic value. The researches of MM. Deville and Troost are in general favorable to the opinion that at a very elevated temperature, the elements of compound bodies are dis- sociated, ceasing thus to exist in a state of combination.
The second communication alluded to is that by M. Pyrame Morin, on the presence of iodine in the mineral waters of Saxony, in Valais. The author had, in 1853, already indicated that this principle is pre- sent in the fountain only in an intermittent way—a result which, though confirmed by other chemists, had been contested by M. Ossian Henry, of Paris. M. Morin has resumed his investigation by employ- ing still more sensible reactives than at first; and new experiments have been made on sixty-one bottles of the water drawn at different times and under different circumstances. He has succeeded in estab- lishing with certainty that the quantities of iodine are very variable, and that between 0.2257 grains and five millionths, all intermediate quantities are met with. These variations take place at intervals of time sometimes very distant, sometimes very close; so that several oscillations may be observed in the course of a day, which proves that the presence of iodine is really intermittent. Sulph-hydricacid, whether free or combined, was not detected in the water by M. Morin, contrary to the assertion of M. Henry. Bromine and chlorine exist in minute quantity; the latter very constantly, the former only when there is iodine. It would seem highly probable that this water of Saxony proceeds from two sources, having their origin, the one in a certain rock, and the other, from which is derived the iodine, in the Cargneule.
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NATURAL SCIENCES.
Having mentioned rocks and localities in connexion with the water of Saxony, we pass quite naturally, in commencing the second part of this report, which regards the natural sciences, to the subject of geology. The study of our globe, moreover, in what relates to its constitution and its composition, would seem a needful preliminary to the examination of the organized bodies which cover it, although in turn the former is singularly facilitated by the study of these same bodies in a fossil state; geology and paleontology thus forming a whole whose different parts it would be difficult to separate from one another. There is no branch, indeed, inthe physical and natural sciences which involves more numerous relations to every part of our knowledge. We see a striking exemplification of this ina memoir relating to geologico-archeological researches in Denmark and Switzerland, which M. Morlot has communicated to the society, and which signalizes the remarkable relations which subsist between the development of archeology and that of geology. In effect, it is only from material indications buried beneath the soil that we can ascertain the existence of men at an epoch anterior to all traditional accounts. In imitation of the Scandinavian archeologists, M. Morlot divides this ante-historic period into three ages—the age of stone, that of bronze, and that of iron. It is only with the age of iron that figures of men and plants make their appearance, as well as coins and alphabets; it is the aurora of history. Different details are presented by M. Morlot respecting these three ages, and the material traces of them which have come to light.
As regards geology proper, we have first to notice a memoir by M. Marcou on the classification of the new red sandstone in Europe, North America, and India. The author considers this great series of strata as intermediate between the primary and secondary periods, deciding for this middle term after having discussed the often controverted question whether the permian ought to be annexed to the secondary formations. He distinguishes two formations in this group: Ist, the trias, the composition of which is known; and 2d, the dyas, com- prising the zechstein and the rothliegende.—(See Archives des Sciences, Ph. et, Nat., 1859,..t.. V.)
Another geological memoir is that of M. Favre on the geology of the Mole, which forms a portion of the great work of our colleague on the liasic and keuperian formations of Savoy, (printed in our memoirs.) Among other observations of M. Favre we must make mention of that which relates to a fine deposit of fossils near the summit of the Méle, in which he has succeeded in discriminating forty species which pertain to the lias formation; but a remarkable circum- stance is, that the fossils of three stages of this formation are asso- ciated in one and the same stratum. M. Favre has noticed several localities of the Alps and the Cevennes where this association has been recognized, and he has been led to the conclusion that the causes
°
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 243
are to be found in the physical nabane of the deposit and in the sub- marine character of the soil.
Professor Pictet on this ‘béantn submitted to the Society some general observations on the association, in the same locality, of the fossils pertaining to different formations, an association which he thinks may be explained by three different causes: Ist, by the fact that the relics of dead animals belonging to one epoch might be pre- served for a certain time in the waters containing the living animals of the succeeding period—a case which would be very rare; 2d, by the fact that some robust species, that is to say, very abundant in one stratum, have survived the cataclysm which had occasioned the destruction of the general fauna, and reappear in small numbers in the succeeding fauna; 3d, by the fact, finally, that one portion of the sea has undergone changes less decided than others, and that in a gulf, for instance, we find the fossils of two different epochs associated, while elsewhere the two faunas remain perfectly distinct.
We have passed, almost without perceiving it, from geology to paleontology, sciences which in truth are now inseparable; and here M. Pictet must be again cited for remarks submitted to the Society on a communication by M. de Saussure respecting the discovery of fossil bones of domestic animals in the environs of Charleston. These bones pertain only to thet postpliocene formation, of which the fauna is composed: Ist, of extinct animals; 2d, of animals not living at this time in South Carolina, but still existing in other parts of America; 3d, of species still living in the country. After having shown that this formation, in a paleontological point of view, presents the same character as the correspondent formations of Europe, and having discussed different hypotheses to explain the presence of the fossil bones of domestic animals, M. Pictet seems disposed to believe that there has been simply an accidental mixture of recent bones with postpliocene remains.
Besides the communications just noticed, M. Pictet read before the Society a memoir, in the preparation of which M. Campiche, of Ste. Croix, was associated: on the nautili, and more especially cretaceous nautili. After reciting that the nautili are one of the kinds, not many in number, which are met with in all geological epochs, M. Pictet has shown that their distinctive characters may be classed under four heads; and though he has essentially occupied himself, in that part of his investigation prosecuted in common with M. Campiche, with the nautili of the Jura, he and his associate have compared a very great number taken from all formations and all countries, with the view of arriving at a decision as regards the order of succession in their forms. They have ascertained that the definite species of the same epoch are exactly alike in all countries, and that this is also the case with the types imperfectly defined, so that it becomes an imme- diately accessory question whether these types are species or varie- ties. This special question recalling M. Pictet to some general con- siderations on the subject, he is led to regard the three following laws as being at the basis of all paleontology: Ist, every species has had in its paleontological development a limited duration; 2d, the co-
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temporary species have appeared and disappeared at the same time, the causes of appearance and disappearance having been the same for all; 3d, neighboring formations present analogous forms. As to exceptions which may occur with respect to the two last laws, we have indicated a moment ago in what manner M. Pictet has sought to account for them.
Professor D. Candolle, in reference to the geological duration of species, cited the investigations of M. Gaudir respecting the fossil vegetables of the quaternary epoch in the repositories where certain actual species of Europe are found—as the beech, for instance— mingled with species which now live nowhere but in the United States; this forming an additional exception to the law of the simultaneous extinction of species.
M. De Candolle made, besides, several communications relating to vegetable physiology and botany proper, among which may be cited an analysis of the researches of M. Duchartre on the organ which produces the perfume in the vanilla, and a monographic study of the family of Begoniacee, of which one species (the begonia® aptera) presents the remarkable peculiarity of being furnished with parietal and unequal placentas, contrary to what takes place in other species of that family. He directed attention, also, to the existence of a small insect which had, last year, occasioned the destruction of num- bers of fir trees.
In the province of botany we have still further to cite communica- tions by MM. Choisy and Duby.’ The former described to us an ivy-plant which he had observed near Peissy, growing on a horse- chestnut, and remarkable for its exceptional dimensions as well as for the singular ‘fact that the branches hanging free bore leaves of a beautiful form and different from those of the branches which had attached themselves to the tree. He communicated, besides, a memoir on two kinds of plants little known, assigned to the family of guttiferee, (gynotroches and discotigene,) which both belong to the island of Java. The second of these should continue to be retained in the family of guttifere; the first should be transferred to the family of rhizophoracee, as Blume and Bentham had already pronounced.
M. Duby, besides some communications on the botanic investiga- tions made by learned foreigners, read to the society a paper on a species of dothidea, a cryptogam which grows on the Barbary jessa- mine, (lyceum europeum,) and which in the same pustules passes through three successive states, viz: a pulviscular state, a spermatic and a thecasporic one. M. Duby, in presenting the history of the development of this minute object, dwelt upon some questions of taxonomy which connect themselves with that development, as weil as on the necessity, in the actual state of cryptogamy, of multiplying observations on the evolution of the reproductive organs of cham- pignons.
It remains, in order to complete what we had to say on organic natural history, to speak of transactions relating to zoology and ani- mal physiology. First in order we find the researches of M. Edouard Claparede on the organization of infusoria, presenting, after a review
*
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 245
of the different opinions put forth on this subject for twenty-five years past, the result of his own observations on the structure of these ani- mals, accompanied by a series of drawings relative to that structure. He first showed that the general type of the infusoria presents an exterior cuticle covering a parenchyma of more or less thickness, which itself circumscribes the general cavity of the body; the cuticle and parenchyma pierced by two openings, which are the mouth and anus; then, after describing the mechanism of the circulation of ali- ments in the interior of the general cavity of the body, and of their digestion in the same, he passes to the examination of the circulatory apparatus, which he regards as a closed vascular system comparable in all respects with sanguineous systems. After some other details, M. Claparede has indicated what are the natural affinities of infusoria, and what position should be assigned them as animals related on one hand to une vermes tubellarizw, and still more on the other to the cxlenteres , (polypi and acalephi,) as regards their digestion chiefly, yet differing from them in a radical symmetry y of fone while the
celent®res proper are characterized by a radiate symmetry not to be mistaken.
M. Claparede has likewise communicated his microscopic observa- tions on the organs in the antenne of insects described as auditory by M.. Lespes, and has shown that the auditory and otolithic sac imagined by that author is but an optical illusion, and that an exami- nation of transverse sections, delicately conducted, proves those sup- posed organs to be only hairs fantastically modified. In regard to the use of the microscope, he has noticed a singular effect observed in looking, in the direction of its axis, into a very minute capillary tube, which plays the part of a bi-coneave lens, although the lhquid which fills the tube be the same with that which bathes. all the parts of the body in which the tube is pierced, and although the surfaces which limit the liquid be perfectly plane.
We have yet to recall some other communications by M. Claparede: ist, the demonstration of the electrical organs of the malapteruwre and the mormyrus oxythyneus, derived from a dissection of these electric fish, specimens of which had been sent him by M. De la Rive; 2d, an examination of the researches of M. Lebert on the malady of silk worms, from which it seems to result that there is no other remedy to be hoped for but the destruction of all the animals attacked; 3d, an account of the experiments of M. Heidenheim relative to the appli- cation of ligatures on different points of the hearts of frogs, the effects of which are entirely contrary, according to the place where the liga- tures are placed; 4th, an analysis of the researches simultaneously but independently made by MM. Kolliker and Wedl, from which it results that the minute channels noticed by English naturalists in the shell of most of the molluses are due to the action of a perforating vegetable parasite; channels which M. Claparede had himsef distin. guished, in 1855, as not pertaining to the mother shell, but as hol- lowed by some parasite, which he then wrongly judged to be of an animal nature.
M. Henri de Saussure continued his account of the interesting
246 REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF
observations made by him on the habits of Mexican birds, illustrating many facts regarding them which had escaped the attention of former travellers. To M. Duby we were indebted for a report on the micro- scopic researches of M. Amici relative to the constitution of the muscular fibre.
The investigations of which we have been speaking, however special they may be, are none of them deficient in point of general interest. whether as forming necessary links in the great chain which binds together all the phenomena of nature, or because, considered in themselves, they reveal some of the mysteries, every day more remarkable, of the physical world. But this is not the only advan- tage derived from the introduction of specialty into the study of the sciences; one still'more considerable is that from this very specialty there spring up between the different parts of those sciences new and more intimate relations, in virtue of the greater perfection introduced into researches. This connexion is particularly striking in animal physiology, to such a degree, indeed, that sometimes we know not to what branch of the sciences, physical or natural, we ought t® refer such or such an investigation. Is it to physiology or to physics that the researches of MM. Thury and Claparede belong? the former on the amount of mechanical force expended in walking, the latter on the horopter. Whatever the place to be assigned them, we must not omit them in this report, as the authors have communicated them to the Society.
M. Thury has found 7.2 kilogrametres as the value of the labor performed by a man for every metre of distance which he travels, answering to 10 or 12 kilogrametres a second, according as the -daily course is 8 or 10 leagues, the mean weight of the body being fixed at 65 kilograms. He “deduces from his calculation that the longest line over which a man can pass in a day on a horizontal level, without permanent exhaustion of his force, is 48,000 metres, (157,473.6 feet, ) and that the greatest vertical height a man can attain, under dies same
conditions, in ascending along an inclination of §, is 4,000 metres, (13, 122.8 feet.)
M. Claparede communicated a series of experiments designed to show that the form of the horopter* is different from that which, as a consequence of the investigations of M. Meissner, German physiolo- gists at present assume it to be. The horopter, as Meissner con- ceived, is In a majority of cases a right line inclined on the plane of vision of a quantity which varies with the distance of the point of view. After demonstrating by conclusive experiments that this deter- mination is erroneous, and that the line experimentally found by Meissner is always perpendicular to the plane of vision, M. Claparede believes himself authorized to conclude that this lino belongs to a horopteric cylindrical surface, having for its base the horopteric cir- ele of Pierre Prevost, rejected by M. Meissner. Subsequent experi- ments have convinced him that the horopter is really formed but of
* The surface of single vtston corresponding to any given binocular paralian is called the horopter.—(See Nichol’s Encyclopedia of Physical Science )
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 247
two lines, to wit: the circumference of the circle determined theo- retically by Prevost and wrongly attributed by authors to Vieth, a circumference situated in the plane of vision, and of the right line perpendicular to the plane of vision, to which allusion has just been made, and of which M. Alex. Prevost, and later M. Fritz Burkhardt, had already given a theoretical determination. The horopter of Meissner must therefore be entirely rejected.
It is above all with electricity that animal physiology has relations which become every day more intimate. The Society has been occu- pied on two or three several occasions with questions which connect themselves with this subject. M. Lefevre, of Dijon, has called atten- tion to his experiments on muscular and nervous excitability and irritability after death. which he has succeeded in measuring by determining the intensity of the current necessary to produce excita- tion. In operating on the frog he has found that the irritability of the sciatic nerve goes on at first augmenting for an hour after death, then that it gradually loses its excitability while the muscular con- tractibility develops itself and attains its maximum at the end of 36 hours; four or five hours before the cadaveric rigidity supervenes.
Professor De la Rive offered, on his part, some considerations on the relations between electricity and the nervous action, while dwell- ing more particularly on the experiments recently published by M. Bernard, which appear to him more favorable to the identity of the two forces than the author seems to believe. M. De la Rive points out especially the analogy whiclr exists between the action of electri- city and the nervous action as to the peculiar state in which one and the other place the nerve, this last not acting as a simple conductor, as some physiologists have supposed, but really in virtue of its electro- molecular constitution, which may be altered by cheinical means, such as the vegetable poison known by the name of curare. Recalling the remar kable observations of M. Dubois Reymond, which are altogether favorable to this way of thinking, he judges that it is not necessary to admit in the organic molecules other electric properties than those which belong in general to the molecules of inorganic matter, and that it is sufficient to suppose that every atom, whether it forms part of an organized body or one not organized, is endowed with two opposite electric poles. Only in the first case, namely, that in which there is life, a new force, the vital force, determines, by the particu- Jar disposition which it impresses on the particles, an arrangement which permits the manifestation of their electric properties.
I have mentioned the vital force, and here would’be the occasion of giving an account of the long and interesting discussion to which the simple enunciation of the existence of this force gave rise. There was here a general question connected at the same time with the most difficult points of organic natural history, and with the most deli- cate conceptions of the philosophy of the sciences, namely, those which relate to forces, their nature, their mode of manifestation, and the relations which exist among them. Hence, the physicists and the chemists, as well as the naturalists, took part in this discussion, which we must content ourselves here with merely commemorating, without
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pretending to reproduce what would far exceed the necessary limits of this report.
M. Claparede, who first directly entered on the subject, which an incidental remark by M. De la Rive had thus introduced, maintained that there is an impossibility of pronouncing positively in the actual state of physiology, on the existence of vital forces, and that there is a necessity, if we admit their existence hypothetically, of considering them as general forces of nature, manifesting themselves only under certain circumstances, the result of which is organization.
Dr. D’Espine and M. Thury, in written memoirs, pronounced strongly in favor of the existence of special vital forces, proper only to organized beings—forces to which M. Thury assigns a peculiar character, distinct anes that of inorganic forces, considering them as schematic for ces, that is, producing the type and needing ‘for their manifestation the concurrence of the organic forces from which they borrow the law of their operation.
MM. De la Rive, Pictet, Marignac, and Colladon gave in succession their ideas on this subject, and while agreeing as to the necessity of admitting that there are in organized bodies phenomena which known physical “forces do not suffice to explain, they yet differed both as regards the nature of their arguments in favor of the existence of a vital force, and as to the importance of the part fulfilled by this force in physiological phenomena.
After having taken part myself in this discussion, as just stated, and having followed with care its different phases, there have re- mained on my mind some personal impressions which i may be allowed here to reproduce. A first impression is that whatever may be said, there is an abyss between the ordinary forces of inorganic matter and those which produce life, with the phenomena which accompany it; it appears to me, then, impossible not to admit a force, or, if one chooses, a special principle of activity. in living beings, the absence of which constitutes the state of death. A second impression is that the notion of a vital force has been often abused by supposing it to intervene directly where the intervention of ordinary forces is perfectly sufficient, and thatin this respect vitalism badly understood
may have injured the progress of physiology. A third impression is that the principal objections urged to the existence of the vital force themselves rest on hypotheses still more improbable than the hypothesis which they are designed to combat. Thus resort is had to the hypothesis of one unique matter and a unity of force, whereas nothing rests on less proof; and as to the unity of force in particular, they found it on the principle of the transformation of forces one into another, without considering that the principle is only true* of the mechanical effect produced by those forces and not of the forces them- selves, and that 1t is besides impossible not to acknowledge that there must be forces or principles of activity not subjected to the law of the mechanical effect.
But enough of this subject. As we have seen, our Society, though it is esse ntially areunion of men of specialities, does by no means disdain general questions. Doubtless it ought not to surrender itself to them,
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 249
nor does it but in moderation; yet it does not fear, when the occasion arises naturally, to broach them with freedom, for it is due to the union which subsists between its members, to the kindly familiarity which presides at its sessions, that it should indulge in discussion at once perfectly free and perfectly courteous, equally remote from too much compliance and too much insistence. Let us always preserve, Gentlemen, this custom, consecrated by our predecessors, and although Tam far from proscribing men of genius, if our good fortune should introduce such into our circle, let us at least avoid the reproach which was attached to them of old, genus irritabile vatum.
I have thus presented a summary of the transactions which have occupied the nineteen sittings of the Society from July, 1858, to the end of June, 1859. I have not entered into administrative details, which have been few during the year, and which have consisted es- sentially in some elections and the publication of the second part of the 14th volume of our memoirs. In the month of January, Professor Pictet De la Rive was designated as vice-president, to become president from July, 1859, to June, 1860. M. Edouard Claparede was elected secretary for three years, succeeding M. Louis Soret, whose functions had expired, and who had declined a re-election. You have provided, lastly, by numerous nominations, for the places rendered vacant by death in the ranks of our honorary members, and at the same time limited to seventy the maximum number of those members.
Our Society has never made pretension to offer its diplomas to all the men who honor science by their labors; hence your choice has fallen, as on previous occasions, only upon those among them who have been kind enough to give us some testimony of their good will, either directly or indirectly:
I have said that death has made numerous vacancies among our honorary members, and though it has not been our custom to speak here of those whom we have thus lost, you will permit me, I am sure, to make one exception in favor of the individual whom the whole scientific world considered as its chief and honored as its presbyter.
Alexander de Humboldt was the oldest of our honorary members; the intimate relations which he had sustained with our two illustrious compatriots, Marc-Auguste Pictet and Pyrame De Candolle, had con- stantly predisposed him favorably towards our society and towards all the Genevese who were occupied with science. Having myself expe- rienced his kindness, I still retain the impression of the friendly reception which he extended to me at Berlin in April, 1858. I found him then as [ had known him thirty years before; his intellect had lost nothing of its extent and clearness; his conversation was always as rich and animated, his conceptions as lively and as rapid. I shall not attempt to recount that long and noble life, nor even to sketch it: it is a work of time which would be beyond my strength. I aspire but to one thing, to render a modest but profound homage to that vast in- telligence which touched on almost all the points of human knowledge, and which has left monuments of its activity in every branch of the sciences, physical and natural. What essentially characterized Hum-
250 REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF, ETC.
boldt was the necessity of embracing in his researches the whole of nature—the Cosmos. Thus it was, above all, the study of our globe itself which was the object of his constant predilection, and for which he went to gather materials in every quarter of the world. Did uni- versality theme impair in him to a certain extent originality, and were his discoveries less brilliant on that account than those of his illustrious cotemporaries? It is possible: one cannot be at the same time a Humboldt and a Volta. But his part has been sufficiently honorable and his influence sufficiently great in the world of science to leave nothing wanting to the lustre which attends his name. He died the 6th of May last, at the age of 90, in the plenitude of his facul- ties, full of years and of glory. I cannot better characterize him than by recalling here the judgment which he passed upon himself : ‘‘T am not a savant, ”’ he said to me at Berlin, eighteen months ago. A ie world, then, ny promptly rephed, ‘‘is much deceived in regard to: your’ /: “SSNo: I am not a savant, such as they represent me,’’ he rejoined earnestly; ‘‘my principal discoveries have been the discovery of learned men, and my principal merit is to have caused science to be loved.’’ Perhaps he had reason to regard this kind of glory as his first title to the admiration and the gratitude of posterity. There will always be savants who will cause science to advance, but the Hum- boldts and De Candolles who cause it to advance at the same time that they cause it to be loved, who encourage labor in others and themselves set the example—these are types as rare as they are precious, and when they disappear it is not science alone, but still more those who cultivate it, who ought to mourn for them.
PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL.
By Proressor ANDERS Rerzius, of the Carolinska Institute, Stokholm.
[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution from the Archives des Sciences Physiques et Natu relles, Geneva, 1860, by C. A. ALEXADDER. |
Twelve years ago I presented to the assembly of Scandinavian nat- uralists some considerations on the form of the human skull among different nations, considerations based upon facts which I had com- municated two'years before. Thedoctrine sketched at that time was entirely new, and had been submitted to no competent proof; its destiny seemed uncertain, and many gaps remained to be filled up. But since that epoch, the classification proposed for skulls of different form has been more solidly established, and may be affirmed to be complete, as I here propose briefly to show.
A.—FOoRMS OF THE SKULL IN EUROPE.
At the time referred to, I had indicated that the majority of the nations of western Europe are dolichocephale, while the brachy- cephale predominate in eastern Europe.* This assertion has since been confirmed from different quarters.
aw
=A communication from Professor J. Aitken Meigs, of Philadelphia, furnishes the trans- lator of this paper with material for a note which cannot be otherwise than acceptable, whether to the general reader as an explanation of scientific terms, or to those who propose to enter on such inquiries, especially to the observant traveler in little-explored countries, as an indication from a highly competent source of the measurements proper to be taken for determining the ethnographic character of the human head.
‘*The late Professor Anders Retzius, of Stockholm, divided the races of men into two great groups according to the form of the head, or rather according to the ratio existing between the Jength and breadth of the skull. Nations in whom the head is developed chiefly in the occipito-frontal or longitudinal diameter he called dolichocephala, or long-heads, (from dodryos, long, and xepady, head;) races whose skulls are developed in the bi-parietal diameter particularly, or in the direction of the breadth, to such an extent as to exhibit a more or less rounded or square form, he termed brachycephale, or short-heads, (from Bpaxus, short, and xedadn.) Both the dolichocephale and brachycephale he again subdivided into the orthognathe, or straight-jawed, (from 6pos, upright, and yva0os, jaw,) and the prognathe, or prominent-jawed, (from zpe, forwards, and yvados )’’ In other words, nations with a per- pendicular profile are orthognathic, as the Germans, Anglo-Saxons, &c ; those with a retir- ing profile are prognathic, as the negro.
‘*Retzius’s division of the human family,’’ continues Professor Meigs, ‘‘is liable to the objection that it forces into one or other of these two classes races whose skulls in point of Soa eation occupy an intermediate position. The measurements by which differences in size and form of crania are determined are variously taken by different cranio- graphers. Some systematic writers make many of these measurements, others apply buta few. ‘The occipito-frontal or longitudinal diameter is ordinarily measured from the glabella to the most prominent point of the occipital bone. ‘Ihe glabella is the prominence on the frontal bone, between the orbits and just above the root of the nose. The most projecting point of the occiput correspon 's in the majority of cases with the external occipital pro- tuberance or boss. This diameter gives the length of the head. The bi-parietal diameter coincides with the breadth of the head, and is generally measured from one parietal protu- berance -to the other. The depth or vertical height of the skull is measured from the
’
DNS)) PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
Dolichocephalee of Europe.
( Norwegians and Normans of France and England, Swedes, Danes, Hollanders, Germans. + Flemings, Burgundians, Germans of the German stock, Franks, Anglo-Saxons, Goths in Italy and Spain, { Scottish Celts, Trish Celts, English Celts, Welsh, Gauls of France, Switzerland, Germany, &e., Romans proper, Ancient Hellenes and their descendants,
Since the period when for the first time I announced this classifi- cation, which may be found in the transactions of the first meeting of Scandinavian naturalists at Christiana, I have examined a great number of individuals descended from Norman families in France and England. All these, without exception, have preserved the same oval form of the skull which characterizes the Normans properly so called in Norway. I have studied, besides, by hundreds, the Swedish heads found in ancient tombs or in cemeteries, or obtained from ana- tomical amphitheatres, and in all these skulls the same form which IT had described has been found to prevail.
Some years ago, in levelling the Riddarholm, an entire cemetery was laid open, in which were found skulls and relics of skeletons. A
| Orthognathic.
Celtise-\7-
middle of the anterior margin of the great foramen in the base to a point in the vault of the cranium directly above. The frontal diameter or breadth of the forehead is measured between the most protuberant points of the frontal bone, behind and above the external angular processes. The breadth of the face is taken between the zygomatic arches. The height or length of the face is the distance between the point of the chin and the root of the nose. The horizontal periphery is measured by means of a graduated tape passed around the cranium below the superciliary ridges of the os-frontis, and over the eaternal occipital protuberance. This is the horizontal circumference of the calvaria or head proper. The occipito-frontal arch is measured from the root of the nose over the top of the head in the median line, to the posterior margin of the great foramen at the base. These are the most important external measurements of the skull; many others, however, might be enumerated. In my own system, as yet unpublished, I have adopted 54 different dimen- sions as necessary to express fully all the ethnological peculiarities of the cranium.’’
Other terms, it may be added, have been proposed for the designation of particular forms of the cranium, as platycephalic for those distinguished by horizontal expansion of the ver- tical region, a feature which, when joined with somewhat low elevation of forehead and great width between the angles and condyles of the lower jaw, imparted to the counte- nance, says Professor J. B. Davis, of England, that quadrangular appearance so commonly observed in the statues of ancient Romans of consular and imperial times. Acrocephalie or elevated, whose leading characters are ‘‘ great antero-posterior length; smallness of bi- parietal measurement, with apparent compression of the sides; roundness and projection of frontal region; absence of sagittal suture; this last being the determining cause of all the other peculiarities.’’—(Report of the Britis!: Association, 1857, p. 146.)
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 253
large provortion were in perfect preservation, and the skulls pre-
sented, almost without exception, the characters of the German type.
A result altogether similar was furnished by the examination of skulls
found in the city of Stockholm itself, at the place known by the name
of Sjilagaordsgata, (Street of the Abode of Souls, ) near which there vas once the cemetery of a convent.
Since the epoch of my first researches I have visited Copenhagen and studied a great number of skulls belonging to the museum of that city; I have also had an opportunity of examining the skulls of a great number of Danes, and have found the German. dolichocephalic form well maintained. I have verified the same fact in Holland and in the Flemish portions of Belgium and France. Moreover, Professor Vro- lik, of Amsterdam, has sent me skulls of the same form found in the ancient tombs of Holland.
During an excursion in Great Britain in 1855 I was able to satisfy
myself anew that the dolichocephalic form is predominant in England proper, in Wales, in Scotland, and in Ireland. Most of the dolicho- cephalz of these countries have the hair black and are very similar to Celts.
Through the kindness of a distinguished archeologist, M. Frederic Troyon, whose activity is well known, I have received for the museum of Stockholm several skulls of Burgundians, derived from the ancient tombs of that race in the Canton de Vaud. All present the same Germanic form.
The first Roman skull that I had an opportunity of seeing was sent to me by the late Dr. Prichard. It had been picked up on an ancient field of battle near York with another skull of different form. Dr. Prichard desired to know my opinion on the nationality of these two skulls, but he studiously kept from me any information which might serve to guide my conclusions. I ascertained that the first of these two skulls had a dolichocephalic form altogether peculiar, which was not yet represented in the collection of the Carolinska Institute. I found, however, that this form coincided perfectly with the descrip- tion ond figures of Roman skulls which have been left by Blumenbach and Sandifort. The other skull was smaller, much elongated in form straight and low, and had evidently belonged toa Celt. My con- clusion then was that the former was a Roman and the latter a Celtic skull. This judgment fully satisfied Dr. Prichard, since these two skulls had been found, as he told me afterwards, in a field called in other times the field of the emperor Severus, and that the Celts (Belge Brittanorum) had been defeated in that place by the Romans. The Celtic skull bore on its posterior part the mark of a mortal blow, received, doubtless, in the act of flight, while the wound which had caused the death of the Roman had passed athwart the orbit. Since that time many authentic Roman skulls have been found and studied by Drs. Davis and Thurmam. Some of them were shown at the British Association for the Advancement of Science, which met at Glas- gow in 1855, and Dr. Davis has conferred on the museum of the Carolin- ska Institute at Stockholm a specimen of a Roman skull in good pre- servation, taken from a columbarium near the Appian Way, not far from Rome, All these skulls offer a remarkable resemblance in form
254 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLYGY
and dimensions. They are of dolichocephalic form, but extraordina- rily large, principally above the ears, with the parietal tuberosities largely developed, the occipital protuberance very projecting, and altogether of considerable volume.
I have introduced the Hellenes into my enumeration of the doli- chocephale of Europe. My reasons for this were elsewhere given in 1847.* Nevertheless, according to all the facts that I have able to collect, the doliehocephalic form has never appertained to the ma- jority of the Greek nation, which presents, on the contrary, the char- acters of the brachycephale. The brachycephalic form appertains to the Greek Sclaves, as well as to the majority of the Levantines and of the Pelasgi, the Albanians of the present day. In the paper before cited I have already drawn attention to the fact that certain antique statues, such as those of the Apollo, the Venus, and others of the most noble character, pertain to the dolichocephalic type, while others, like those of the Jupiter and Hercules, are brachycephalic; which differences result, no doubt, from the difference of the races to which the individuals belonged whom the artist wished to represent.
Brachycephale of Europe.
Under this head are comprised— Samoieds, Laplanders, Woeuls, Ostiacks, Permians, Wotiacks, Orthognathic. Tsheremisses, Mordwins, Tshuwashes, Magyars,
Finlanders, Finns---- ~ Esthonians,
Ougrians, (Muller, Latham)
Qo ee
Livonians, “Mtoe ood ie aGodabdun OfGooemog oO OOo oaoG Orthognathic.
( Czéckes, (Bohemians, ) Wends, Slovacs, Morlacs, Sclaves. Croats, Servians, Poles, Russians, Modern ‘Greeks, Lettes or Lithuanians, Albanians, Etrurians, Rhetians, Basques,
Orthognathiec.
Orthognathie.
—- S TS TE
* V. Oefversigt af Kongliska Vetensk. Academ. forhandligar, 8 September, 1847.
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 255
I have not myself had the opportunity of examining several of the populations enumerated in this table; relying, however, on data de- rived from various sources, I venture to provounce the opinion that they all ought to be ranged among the Brachycephale. It seems, indeed,a feature) in the order of the Saore that all the dominant races of eastern Europe, which occupy the vast tract of Russia in Europe, Turkey, Greece, and a great part of the Austrian empire, are brachy- cephalic. °
Many interesting skulls belonging to some of the tribes just enu- merated have been recently received by the museum of Stockholm. Thus the celebrated anatomist of Vienna, Professor Hyrtl, has sent me the skull of a Croat of the military frontier, characterized by its height, its capacity, and its almost cubic form; also a Morlac skull from Dalmatia, large, lofty, and brachycephalic. Several Slovac skulls from Olmutz have been procured for me by Professor Bons- dorff, with two Esthonian skulls, a Turkish, and several Finnish ones. Professor Willebrand, of Helsingfors, has sent me two Carelian skulls. Moreover, I have myself examined several living Rhetians, as well as Basques; and I have received from Dr. Eugene Robert, of Paris, some superb Basque heads for our museum. On different occasions I have met with brachycephalic Scots from northern Scotland and the isles to the north of it. During my last sojourn in Scotland I encountered again divers individuals pertaining to this same type, having an expression altogether peculiar, their visage being often short and somewhat large, their hair red, the skin of their faces marked with freckles. Since then I have learned from the report of travellers that this type is common in the Highlands, where it is indigenous from a remote an- tiquity. I suppose that it has descended from the Finns, or perhaps the Basques.*
B.—ForMSs OF THE SKULL IN ASIA.
Dolichocephale of Asia.
Hindoos,
Arian Persians, Arabs,
Jews,
Tongouses ‘ 52 ’ Prognathic. Chinese, 5
Orthognathic.
The area inhabited by these populations is restricted to the southern regions of the great Asiatic continent, viz: the following countries:
® Since this was written, the author has been able to examine a considerable number of skulls of Tuscany, Lombardy, Piedmont, Tyrol, and Switzerland, and has arrived at the conviction that the brachycephalic form prevails in those countries in company with the black color of the hair. The same remark may be made with regard to a majority of the inhabitants of Baden, Wirtemberg, and Bavaria. In France, the Basques offer the same characters as to the form of the head and color of the hair. It is nearly the same with the population of Saxony and Austria. In these last countries the population is, without doubt, of Sclavic origin, while it is probably of Greek origin in Italy, Tyrol, and Switzer- land.— Vote by the author.
256 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
Arabia, Persia, Hindostan, and China, (not comprising Mongolia and Chinese Tartary.) Whether to the north or south of this area, we find brachycephalic populations, which are, moreover, disseminated here and there among dolichocephale of Asia.
I have here arranged the Chinese and Tongouses among the doli- chocephalw, though they have been generally classed by others among the Mongols. Jn effect, the examination of a great number of skulls has confirmed ¢he observation which I had made long ago, and which Latham has cited,* that the Chinese proper have the head elongated, with the occipital protuberance very prominent; but this promi- nence is associated with a decided jutting out of the parietal tuberosi- ties, which causes the contour of the skull to approximate to an elongated pentagon more than an oval. I have received several skulls of Chinese, whether real or moulded in plaster, from England, through Dr. J. B. Davis; from Holland, (Prof. Van der Hoeven;) from St. Petersburg, (M. V Baer ;) and from the expedition around the world of the frigate Eugenia, (Messrs. Andersson, Kinberg, Hckstré- mer;) all present, as it seems to me, the same characteristic form. As regards the Tongouses, I ought to observe that Ihave but a single skull to serve as the basis of my decision, to wit,amould in gypsum, which was sent me in exchange by Professor Purkinje, of Prague. I have every reason to believe that this mould is from the Tongousian skull which Blumenbach has described and figured in his second decade: “Facie plena ad arcus zygomaticos latissima, fronte depensa, &c., olfactus officina amplissima, occiput mirum in modum retro eminens ita ut protuberantiz occipitis externe distantia a dentibus incisoribus supe- rioribus 9 pollices zquaret.’’+ The collection of Blumenbach belongs now to the museum of the Physiological Institute of Gottingen, where it is in charge of the learned director, Professor Rudolf Wagner, who has had many of the most semanas skulls of the collection moulded by a skilful artist, in order to place them within reach of ° other museums.
A striking resemblance is to be remarked between this Tongousian skull and those of the Esquimaux. ‘The form of the face is identical: the visage is flattened, very large above the zygomatic bones, the upper jaw ample and prominent; the arch formed by the alveolar processes and the teeth is large, as among the Esquimaux and Green- Janders. The same conformity exists in the capacity of the head, the elongation and size of the occipital protuberance. These characters again are to be found in a large portion of the Chinese skulls of our collection, and it is on this account that I have thought that in this Tongousian skull might be discovered the intermediate link between the form of the skull of the Chinese and that of the Esquimaux.
* Natural History of the Varieties of Man, 1850, p. 16, ‘‘ Physical Conformation.’’ } Decas Collectionis suze Craniorum diversarum Gentium, II, Table XIV.
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 257
Brachycephale of Asia.
Ugrians, (Samoiedes, Yakouts, &c.)
Turks.
Circassians, and probably a majority of the numerous tribes of the Caucasus.
Turcomans,
Afghans, f
Lascars,
Tartars and Mantchoo-Tartars,
Mongols, as well in Asiatic Russia as in Mongolia, |
Malays,
The ‘‘ Indian Mongolide,’’ in Dr. Latham’s Varieties of Man, pro- bably belong also to this division.
These populations embrace all the great Asiatic continent, with the sole exception of the countries of the dolichocephalic organization which I have given above, namely, India, Persia, Arabia, China, and a small part of Siberia. The brachycephale, however, as before in- dicated, form small communities disseminated through the midst of the dolichocephalic tribes already enumerated. In Asia, then, as in Europe, the brachycephalic form of the skull is predominant, but with this difference, that the Asiatic brachycephale are, the greater part of them, prognathic.
all prognathic.
]
C.—ForMS OF THE SKULL IN AUSTRALIA. Dolichocephale of Australia. Australian negroes, all prognathic.
Our information relative to these people is yet so incomplete that I have not ventured to present a table of denominations, and I limit myself to saying that by the study alike of the Carolinska Institute collection and of others, and by an examination of many published works, I have acquired the conviction that dolichocephalic tribes exist on nearly all the Australian islands. All the savage nations of the Australian continent proper, New Holland, and of Van Dieman’s Land, appear to be prognathic dolichocephale. On the other isles we find in addition brachycephale, (Malays, Polynesians, and Papous of Guoy and Gaimard.) Most frequently these tribes are black or black- ish. Hence the name of Australian negroes has been given them. More- over the form of their skulls resembles altogether that of the negroes. Many of these tribes have the hair closely crisped, but long and, so to say, felted into a bushy perruque; others have it straight. Our collection possesses the skulls of such brought from a great number of the isles of the South Sea and Pacific. They resemble one another in a striking manner, and in general are small, but thick, presenting in this point of view also an approach to the negro type. They are in size much less than the Chinese, but they have, like them, large parietal protuberances which rarely occur among the negroes. Their
sy
258 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
occipital protuberance is much developed and a little compressed laterally. The zygomatic arch is not greatly salient, nor is the nose flattened as in the negro; the brow is narrow and low. Ihave lately received from Professor Bonsdorff, of Helsingfors, skulls of this form brought from Woahu, in the archipelago of the Sandwich islands. The Danish frigate Galatea has furnished several others from the Nicobar islands, on which Professor Ibsen made an interesting report to the convention of Scandinavian naturalists at Stockholm, in 1851, besides having had the kindness to remit one of the specimens to our anatomical museum.
Through the kind offices of Dr. R. G. Latham, our museum is also ‘In possession of a skull of the nation of Borneo, which is known by ‘the name of Dayak. This is equally dolichocephalic. The half of ‘another is preserved in the collection of the University of Christiana, -and presents the same peculiarities of form. I have seen, moreover, many altogether similar at London. These Dayak skulls are small, but ‘solid; their parietal protuberances are rather smaller than those of Australian negroes. All the skulls of Dayaks that I have seen are ornamented with figures symmetrically carved on the front, vertex, and temporal regions as far as the lambdoidal suture; some of which figures are colored a dark brown, with here and there small spots of a ‘bright red or blue. ‘‘ Before a young man can aspire to matrimony,”’ says Dr. Latham, speaking of these Dayaks, ‘‘he must lay at the feet of his betrothed the head of a man of another tribe, slain by his own hand. Every marriage, then, supposesa murder. I suspect, however, that this observance is not so general as the rule exacts. Another ‘characteristic trait of the Day: aks is their passion for possessing skulls; hence skulls form the chief ornament of a Dayak house, and their possession is the best proof of virility.’’
From all that I can draw from different data, the Dayaks are black of color, like the majority of the Australians. I believe that all the tribes called Alforous, or Haroforous, are prognathic dolichocephale, like the majority of those to whom we give the name of Papous or Pa- puans,* but who are not to be confounded with the brachycephalic Papous described by Guoy and Gaimard. A great number of tribes among these Australian negroes construct their habitations on piles reared above the water. M. Troyon has shown that the ancient in- habitants of Switzerland had dwellings of a like construction, as was the case also, according to Herodotus, with the Peonians of Mace- donia. Most of the Australian negroes occupy the interior of islands, and certain tribes inhabit the mountains.
Brachycephale of Australia.
Malays, Polynesians, (Dieffenbach, ) all prognathic. Papous, (Guoy and Gaimard, )
The above are, in my opinion, properly called Oceanic Mongols by Dr.Latham. ‘The Malays, recognizable by their yellow skin, their black
* Ethnological Library, conducted by E. Norris, vol. I.
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 259
and shining hair, their projecting mandibles, pertain likewise to the peninsula of Malacca. They are so well known as the most intelligent and, after their manner, the most civilized of the islanders of the South Sea, that it would be useless in this short sketch to dwell upon them. Their skulls are scarcely wanting in any ethnographic col- lection.
I class as Polynesians the dusky or brownish skinned inhabitants of the Tonga islands, of New Zealand, of Otahiti, of the Sandwich islands, and of a great number of groups of less considerable islands dispersed through the Micronesian archipelago of the Pacific. The skulls of Polynesians have generally the occiput more flattened than the Malays; their jaws and teeth are less prominent; the skulls themselves larger than those of the Malays proper. The Polynesians are commonly large, well proportioned, and rather muscular, and in character and temper compare favorably with the Malays. Inthe royal ethnographic collection of the Carolinska Insti- tute, there are skulls from the Sandwich islands and New Zealand which might be ranked in the first class for size, and particularly for height.
PAPOUS OF GUOY AND GAIMARD. (Mops-Papus of Dampier. )
Dampier, Forrest, and several old travellers mention a particular people of blackish brown color, inhabiting the shores of the islands near the north coast of New Guinea, who are to be distinguished from the other islanders of the Pacific by many peculiarities, especially by a profuse head of black hair, which is so finely crisped as to present the appearance of being frizzled. Guoy and Gaimard, who accompanied De Freycinet on the corvettes Uranie and Physicienne had made us more exactly acquainted with this people and the particular form of their skulls. The most important point which results from their ob- servations, as appears to me, is that their skulls are entirely different from those of a Australian negroes. While these latter, as indi-
cated above, are quite low, narrow, of elongated oval form, and provided ae a greatly projecting occipital protuberance, the skulls of these Papuans are, on the contrary, according to Guoy and Gaimard, high, short, large, and flattened on the occiput. ‘<The heads of these Papuans, a they s say, ‘present a flattening both before and behind, accompanied with a considerable development of the jaws. The skull is of remarkable height, the parietal protuberances salient, and the temples very convex; the anterior part of the temporal regions, across which the coronal suture prolongs itself below the level of the semicircular line of the temples, presents a peculiar and ver marked projection.* The nasal bones are placed almost vertically, compressed backward as it were. The nasal apophysis or frontal of the upper maxilla is large and made much more prominent than usual
* J discover that this peculiar projection exists also in general in the heads of Malays and Polynesians.— Author.
260 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
in consequence of the position of the nasal bones. The upper maxilla
is much larger than in the Kuropean, because of the great develop-
ment of the dental process which gives to the visage of these
islanders an unusual amplitude. The nasal openings are very large towards the base, even more so sometimes than in the negro. The
alveolar process is unusually thick at the sides where the molars are
inserted; the palatal vault rather large than long.’’
The museum of the Carolinska Institute possesses three samples of brachycephalic Papuans, which all strikingly resemble one another, and correspond perfectly with the above description. I shall only add that they strongly resemble the skulls of Polynesians previously mentioned, only differing from the latter ina greater depression of the bridge of the nose, the largeness of the zygomatic arches, and the amplitude both of the fossz nasales and the alveolar arch.
Guoy and Gaimard, who describe only the Papuans of the two islands Vagiou and Ravak, report that their inhabitants call them- selves Papua, and are distinguished by positive marks from the indigenous blacks of New Guinea, who entirely resemble the negroes of Hastern Africa; that they live on the coasts, subsisting chiefly on fish and mollusks, and build their houses on piles in the waters of the country. Those who inhabit the mountains of Vagiou call themselves Alifourous, and are mentioned as Alfours, Haraforas, &c., by different travellers. The skulls in our possession from the islands of this quarter, present the dolichocephalic negro form before spoken of, being narrow, low, and oblong, with a prominent occipital protu- berance.
We find an interesting paper* in the Ethnological Library, con- ducted by Ed. Norris, vol. I, descriptive of the Papuans of these parts, from which we learn, on the authority of Lieutenant Bruijn Kops, of the royal marine of Holland, who accompanied an expedition in 1810, and landed on the coast of New Guinea opposite the island of Dori, that the men of the latter, whom he calls Papuans of Dori, are five and a quarter feet, sometimes five and a half, in height, ofa dark brown color, occasionally black, having black crisped hair, often very long, though with the appearance at times of having been shaved. In a plate we see one of them represented with the hair dressed after the fashion of a turban, to which these Papuans are indebted for the name of Mops-Papus. M. Bruijn Kops states that the indigenes of New Guinea divide themselves into Papuans and Alforous, the former inhabiting the coasts, the latter the interior and the moun- tains, though the distinction of race between them can at present only be accounted a probability, owing to the imperfect indications afforded by M. Kops. He extols the Papuans as a people intrinsi- cally good, not addicted to theft, holding the aged in respect, kind to their children, and faithful to their wives. Chastity is held in great honor, and but one wife is permitted, the union to whom is for life. They are, however, partial to strong drinks, nor is it discreditable among them to steal children and make an article of commerce of
* By Mr. George Windsor Earl.
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 261
them; but the children thus taken are well treated and restored for a ransom. The trade in slaves isgeneral, though these are well treated. Of the manner in which crimes are punished, we have the following - particulars: The incendiary becomes the slave of the injured party with all his family. The man who intentionally wounds another is fined the price of a slave. The thief is condemned to restore what is taken and something in addition. All waste committed in a fruit grove or plantation must be repaired. The sin against the sixth com- mandment is punished with death, or in case the injury admits of repa- ration, still with severe punishment. The man who does violence to a woman is bound to espouse her and pay to her parents the ordinary value of ten slaves. When illicit association occurs, the woman is exempt from punishment, and if not married is free from all dishonor. Everything is here estimated according to the standard value of a slave.
The majority of the Papuans of Dori are idolaters; a small number are Mahometans, with priests from the islands of Ceram and Tidore. The idol of the Pagans, called Karwar, is rudely sculptured in wood, about eighteen inches high, deformed, having a large head with pointed nose and wide mouth, “ail farmienedl with foot Its body is usually clad in a piece of calico, and its head covered with a handkerchief. Every house has its idol, which must be present on all important oc- casions and is consulted as an oracle. ‘These Papuans have also fetiches, most frequently images of serpents and lizards, suspended from the roof or carved on the posts of the doors. They have a kind of priests, who are also their physicians and sorcerers. Their houses are built on posts in the lakes, with plank walls. According to the drawing given us by M. Harlin the paper we are following, these houses resemble large shallops with openings like port-holes; the inte- rior divisions are formed by mats, and the floor by rude planks tied together.
These Papuans work in iron and other metals, and in some sort devote themselves to agriculture, or rather, to speak more exactly, to the culture of legumes; but the training of domestic animals is un- known to them. The chase and fishing constitute the principal occu- pation of the men, the women being employed in the work of the household; both in the chase and in war they use bows and arrows, but do not poison the latter. Even the fish are taken with arrows and with lances, and sometimes also with nets.
The Papuans passing much of their time on the sea, the canoe forms an important part of their riches. They have small canoes for children, larger ones for daily use, requiring two rowers, and others still larger, for twenty rowers. Hach of these skiffs is formed from the trunk of a tree; those of larger size having a mast and mat sail. Such frail barks be sing unequal to Tong voyages, a6 commerce of these coasts is in the hands of strangers, especially of the Chinese. The government of Holland founded, in 1852, a factory at Port Humboldt, on the northern coast of New Guinea, which authorizes us to hope for more exact information respecting the inhabitants of the interior.
I have allowed myself to enter into somewhat circumstantial details
262 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
regarding these Papuans of the northern coast of New Guinea, be- cause our knowledge of them is still involved in much obscurity. We see, meantime, that M. Kops considers them as belonging to a differ- ent race from the Alfourous. Though no great ethnographic rigor seems to have been employed in applying the names Papuans and Alfors, or Alfourous, it would seem to be generally understood that by ine former are Rant the indigenes of the coast, and by the latter those of the interior and the mountains. The term Papow seems derived from the Malay expression for crisped or woolly hair, (rambut uc pua,) which has come to be applied to the inhabitants of the coast, whose hair is of that description. The name of Alfourou comes from the Portuguese word alforas, which properly signifies an enfranchised slave. The Portuguese employed this term to des signate the free indigenes of the interior of the Moluccas, wishing thereby to dis- tinguish them from the inhabitants of the cities. As applied at present to the inhabitants of the coast and the interior, the two denominations appear, as far as can be gathered, to pertain to two distinct races.
Imay be permitted to cite here an important passage from Dr. Prichard on the subject of the Alfourous of these countries. ‘‘ What can we make,’’ he says, ‘‘of the Alforic race, which has been de- scribed as a people apart, with a peculiar type and a peculiar form of the skull? It continues to be one of the most remarkable varieties of the human race. We must join with it the mountaineers of Arak, in New Guinea, seen and apparently well described by Lesson, as well as the other indigenes of the great continent of Australia.”’
In his instructive work before cited, Dr. Latham hag admitted two varieties under the head of the Papuan branch of the Kelonesian stock, New Guinea. He publishes two remarkable profiles of their skulls, taken from the ‘‘ Voyage of the Uranie and Physicienne,’’ one of which has the traits of a dolichocephalic negro, while the other is brachycephalic, like those of the brac hycephalie Papuans cited above. May not these figures pertain respectively, the former, or dolicho- cephalic skull, to an Alfourou, and the latter, or brachycephalic one, toa Papou? Yet the author attributes to the former frizzled hair and to the latter straight.
In relation to the place assignable to the brachycephalic Papous, the main object of this section, I shall conclude by expressing the opinion that it should be sought in the immediate neighborhood of the brown Polynesians, of whom these Papuans are probably the stock or the progeny, modified after some special manner by peculiar modes of life, climate, &c. Mr. Earl rejects entirely the opinion that they might be hybrids, and, as far as I can judge, with very sufficient reasons. *
*The celebrated academician of St. Petersburg, M. C. de Baer, has recently enriched ethnological bibliography with two productions of great merit, entitled Crania selecta ex ean anthropologicis Academie Imp. Petropolit. Petrop., 1859, and Ueber Papuas und Alfu- ren, ein commentar zu den beiden ersten Abschnitten der Abhandlung ‘‘ Crania Selecta,’’ &c., 1859. The learned author of these publications expresses very positive doubts as to the fact that the skulls brought from Waigion by Guoy and Gaimard really belonged to indigenous Papuans. ‘The skulls in question were taken froma tomb, and M. de Baer considers it
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 263
D.—AFRICA.
All the people of this continent are dolichocephale. This fact, to which I have heretofore had occasion to draw attention at different times, and which I do not know to have been contradicted by any one, is altogether peculiar to this portion of the world. Europe, Asia, the lands of the South Sea, America, comprise populations be- longing to the two forms of head. In Europe, and still more in Asia, the brachycephalz much exceed in point of numbers; in the isles of the South Sea the two forms are nearly balanced, I think, as to num- bers, but the brachycephale have the moral preponderance. On the other hand, the brachycephalic populations are, to all appearance, completely unrepresented in Africa. The museum of the Carolinska Institute possesses an important collection of African skulls, of North Africans, Abyssinians, Copts, Berbers, and Guanches. All present the same form of the upper half of the skull, being large, capacious, oval, resembling much those of the Arabs. The Abyssinian skulls, which we owe to the liberality of our countryman, M. Behm, and the Copts, are slightly prognathic. The Guanches, of which we have four, all belonged to individuals of advanced age, who had lost their teeth; their alveolar processes having consequently become rudimen- tary, their prognathism is but shghtly perceptible.
In all these skulls, whether of Abyssinians or Egyptians and Gu- anches, the vault of the skull is depressed in an arch elongated towards the occipital protuberance, which is a little compressed at the sides; the parietal tuberosities are little prominent. We may regard this form of skull as prevailing on the coasts and the flat country of northern Africa. It is again found on the other side of the Atlantic, in the Carib islands and in certain of the eastern parts of the American continent. The museum possesses, for the south of Africa, a considerable number of skulls pertaining to divers of the Caffre tribes. They much resemble negro skulls. Some are a little larger than a majority of these last, but the greater part have jaws and teeth horribly prominent. One among them, from the interior of the country near Port Natal, is remarkable for its diminutiveness, for the complete absence of all trace of parietal protuberance, and for an occiput nearly pointed. Our museum contains, also, the entire skeleton of a Hottentot, but neither in this nor in the figures of Hot- tentots and Bosjessmans left us by Blumenbach and Sandifort can I discover any important difference from the heads of negroes in gene-
extremely probable that the remains found in this tomb had pertained to some hostile race of the Malayan branch. He maintains, on the contrary, that the Papuans are dolichoce- phalic, although they deviate in some respects from the indigenes of the interior (Alfou- rous) as regards the form of the skull. In brief, he expresses himself on the subject in the following manner: ‘‘ Cranium Alfurorum aliquorum similitudinem habet cum cranio Papuarum, nam ad dolichocephala etiam pertinet ; est vero amplius et potissimum altitudine et latitudine preecedit.’’ Loci cit., p. LI.
The same observations might be made with regard to other skulls obtained under anala- gous conditions. With a view to decide the question, it were to be wished that skilful naturalists who hereafter visit the country of the Papuans would examine the form of the skull ef living individuals.— Note of the Author.
264 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
ral. Many ethnologists have considered the Australian negroes as nearly related to the Hottentots, but the skulls of the former which have come under my observation have the parietal protuberances more marked than the latter. These protuberances are deficient, however, in the Dayak of Borneo, in our collection.
E.—ForMSs OF THE SKULL IN AMERICA.
In an ethnological point of view there can properly be no question here but of the savage or half savage tribes which inhabited the con- tinent before its discovery by the Spaniards. The number of these tribes amounts, we know, to some hundreds, of which many are already extinct, and the rest are perishing from year to year. Pro- found and extensive researches have been made respecting them, but chiefly on the subject of their languages. No European savant, since Blumenbach, has produced a craniological work so instructive as the Crania Americana of Dr. Morton; nevertheless, the results of this work cannot entirely satisfy us. This author, who has given us such numerous and valuable facts, as well as the linguists who have studied these American languages w Ath indefatigable Peal have arrived at the conclusion that both race and language in the New World are unique. I am obliged to avow that the facts adduced by Morton himself, and the study. of numerous skulls with which he has enriched the museum of Stockholm, have conducted me to a wholly different result. I can only explain the fact by surmising that this remarkable man has al- lowed the views of the naturalist to be warped by his lnguistic researches. For, if the form of the skull has any thing to do with the question of races, we cannot fail to see that it is scarcely possible to find anywhere a more distinct distribution into dolichocephale and brachycephale than in America. It would be only necessary, in order to show this, to direct attention to certain of the delineations in his own work, pute the skull of the Peruvian infant, (pl. 2,) the Lenni-Lennape, (pl. 32,) the Pawnee, (pl. 38,) the Blackfoot, (pl. 40,) &c., as clearly present the dolichocephalic form as, on the other hand, his Natchez, (pl. 80 and 31,) and the greater part of his representa- tions of the skulls of Chili, Peru, Mexico, Oregon, &c., are distinct types of the brachycephalic. Conclusive, ‘however, as the plates are, I should scarcely have ventured to advance these remarks if the rich series of our own collection, and the numerous and excellent figures of Blumenbach, Sandifort, Van der Hoeven, &c., did not declare in favor of my opinion.
From all, then, that I have been able to observe, I have arrived at the opinion that the dolichocephalic form predominates in the Carib islands and in the whole eastern part of the American continent, from the extreme northern limits to Paraguay and Uruguay in the south; while the brachycephalic prevails in the Kurile islands and on the continent, from the latitude of the straits of Behring, in Russian Amer- cea Oregon, Mexico, Equador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, the Argentine Republic, Patagonia, to Terre del Fuego.
There can be no doubt that the Carib race was the predominant
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 265
one, not only in the lesser Antilles, but the neighboring continent where we now find Venezuela and Guiana, and all the Carib skulls which I have observed, or of which we have any account, are dolicho- cephalic. With regard to the Indians of Brazil there is a general concurrence in assigning them to the Tupi of the Portuguese, who, more to the south, received from the Spaniards the name ‘of Guarani, of whom Dr. Prichard has somewhere said: ‘‘This great race, Tupi or Guarani, is spread over the whole eastern coast of South America, from the mouth of the river De la Plata to that of the river Amazon.”’ Towards Upper Paraguay it extended over almost the whole central part of the continent, and in the province of Dhaco it reached the eastern slope of the Andes s, and even penetrated the valleys of that great chain. Mention is also made of the Guarani in Bolivia, New Grenada, and other countries. Apparently the ancient Peruvians of Morton and the Huanchas of M. de Tschudi are also Guarani, though their skulls were much deformed by the elongation produced by arti- ficial compression. The skulls of this race, as well as the Carib, are dolichocephalic, and of much capacity, with the jaws quite large. Towards the north we find on the Atlantic coast, both of the United States and Canada, a predominance of the dolichocephalic form among the tribes, that is to say, who pass under the general name of red- skins, as the Algonquins and Iroquois. The same result may be definitively arrived at from a study of the delineations given by Mor- ton of Cherokees, Chippeways, Miamies, Oneidas, Hurons, Pottawato- mies, Cayugas, (par ticularly remarkable, ) Cotonays or Blackfeet, &e. ' To these facts it must be added that the Esquimaux, who extend also to the eastern coast, belong equally to the dolichocephalz, though holding an altogether special place among them. Many authors con- sider the Esquimaux as related to the Tschjoudes, as well as to the Mongols. Morton himself, in the ethnographic part of his work, classes them in a common family with the Samoiedes and the Laplanders, and gives it the name of the polar family; stating that this singular race is found only on the northern limits of the continents of Hurope, Asia, and America. He calls them Mongol-Americans. Nothing could be more inexact than this assertion, as far at least as the form of the skull is admitted to have weight in the question of the affinities of race. In my first essay on this subject, laid before the Assembly of Scandinavian Naturalists in 1842, I placed the Greenlanders among the prognathic dolichocephale, and had the pleasure of finding myself fully sustained in this view by such competent judges as Eschricht, Van der Hoeven, Ibbsen, and Nilsson. Messrs. Eschricht and Ibbsen have probably seen more skulls of Greenlanders than any other phy- siologists of our age, and the former, in a discourse before the Associ- ation at Christiana, in 1844, delivered himself to this effect: ‘‘The Greenlanders and Esquimaux pertain to a people among whom the form of the head is of an altogether special type, and I rest my deci- sion on the skulls of Greenlanders in the physiological museum of Copenhagan.’’ Now these skulls, which he exhibited, have exactly the form of those on which I based my own opinion. I find myself sustained also by the figures and descriptions of Esquimaux skulls
266 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
given by Blumenbach and Sandifort, and even by those of Morton himself. It is evident that this latter accomplished naturalist has allowed himself to be more guided by opinions already formed than by a scrupulous examination of facts. He saw that the form of the Esquimaux visage has something of the Mongol, and paid no attention to the salient occipital protuberance and other characters so little like the Mongol. I have already adverted to the great resemblance in form which exists between the Esquimaux skull and that of the Tengousian which we have at the Carolinska Institute, and to the description which Blumenbach has given of a Tongousian skull, which coincides entirely with the characters of the Esquimaux. In the large collection of Chinese skulls in our Institute I trace a striking resem blance: inform with those of both the Tongousians and the Green- landers. The inference would be that the Esquimanx i is a polar race only in America; that it is thinly scattered over the islands of the polar sea, the most northern regions of America, and thence, passing from east to west, through Asia towards China, where we might identify it with the pure “Chinese part of the population, but little distinguishable in appearance from the Tartaro-Chinese portion.
With regard to the other primitive dolichocephale of America, I entertain an hypothesis still more bold perhaps, namely, that they are nearly related to the Guanches.in the Canary islands, and to the Atlantic populations of Africa, the Moors, Tuaricks, Copts, &c., which Latham comprises under the name of Hgyptian-Atlantide.
This is not the first time that, in speaking of our collection of skulls, I have called attention to the resemblance of those of Guanches and Copts on the one side, and the Guaranis of Brazil on the other. Above I have shown that the latter are related to the race of the ancient Caribs of the Antilles. We find, then, one andthe same form of skull in the Canary islands, in front of the African coast, and in the Carib islands on the opposite coast which faces Africa. The color of the skin on both sides of the Atlantic is represented in all these populations as being of a reddish brown, resembling somewhat leather tanned brown; the hair the same; the features of the face and build of the frame, as I am led to believe, presenting the same analogy.
These facts involuntarily recall the tradition which Plato tells us in his Tineus was communicated to Solon by an Egyptian priest, re- specting the ancient Atlantis, situated in the ocean in front of North Africa, and afterwards engulfed through some great change in the distribution of land and water. Thoug h embracing many particulars of pure invention, would it be unreasonable to claim that, coming as it does from a quarter to which common consent refers the origin of our sciences and arts, this tradition deserves attention in connexion with facts which seem to point in the same direction?* A Swedish
——
* We leave to philologists the task of showing how little probable it is that the Indians, whose languages are polysynthetic, should be related to the Semites, whose linguistic sys- tem is based on dissyHNabic roots. But with regard to the tradition of the Atlantis, we must remark that the submersion of a large continent situated so near the tropics, would have had the effect of a considerable refrigeration of the northern hemisphere, pro-
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 267
geometer, M. Helleberg, who resided long in Ohio, learnedly defends the opinien maintained by many others, that the Indians of North America are descended from the tribes of Israel, alleging that their features are essentially Jewish, that McKenzie saw the Chippeways practice circumcision, &c. Without meaning to adopt this opinion as my own, I yet refer to it as bearing favorably on the hypothesis ad- vanced above respecting the primitive kindredship of the Carib and Guaranic races on one side of the Atlantic, and the. Guanches on the other, the latter being in turn nearly allied to the races of North Africa, whose resemblance to the Jews, as regards the face and form of the skull, is very close, and who present a complete contrast to the Mongol type on the Asiatic side. Morton has remarked that ‘‘the primitive Egyptians, the Misraimites of Scripture and descendants of Ham, were directly affiliated with the nations of the Lybian family, and in their physical traits were intermediate between the Indo-Ku- ropean and Semitic races.’’ In view of the developments of modern geology respecting the rise and subsidence of vast tracts of land, there would seem to be nothing absurd in admitting that America was once united with Africa or Asia, and obscure traditions to this effect are said still to exist among the American Indians.
The brachycephalic tribes of America are found for the most part on that side of the continent which looks towards Asia and the islands of the Pacific, and they seem to be related to the Mongol races. A. de Humboldt, the first of modern naturalists, has expressed himself in favor of this view, which new proofs appear every day to corrobo- rate. Some of these American brachycephalics possessed a high degree of culture at the period of the Spanish conquest, and the in- fluence which this civilization exerted over most of the inhabitants of the continent has disposed many eminent ethnologists to infer the unity of the whole American race. Thus Dr. Latham has been led to comprise them all under the significant appellation of American Mongolide, an extension which ethnological craniology will by no means countenance. Morton, too, as has already been said, main- tained a unity of race, with the exception of the Esquimaux, esteem- ing the brachycephalic type as predominant among all the tribes, and furnishing positive proofs of its existence at least on the western coasts. For my own part, I have long been convinced of the con- sanguinity between the brachycephale of America and those of Asia and the Pacific islands, and that this characteristic type may be traced uninterruptedly through the long chain of tribes inhabiting the west coast of the American continent from Behring’s Straits to Cape ‘Horn. In my work on the skulls of the Indians of the Pampas, (Om Pampas Indianernas Cranier, 1855,) I announced the opinion which I now reaflirm, respecting the distribution of the Indian tribes into dolichocephale and brachycephale; as well as the relationship of the
ducing a complete revolution in vegetation, especially in the basin of the Mediterranean, and was, therefore, much more likely to have engraved itself on the memory of the Egyp- tians than any other circumstance of the supposed catastrophe. Yet we hear of no coin- cidence of such a revolution of climate with the disappearance of the Atlantis. —Jote by M, E. Claparede, (French translator.)
268 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
former to the Guanches and other Atlantic populations, and of the latter to the Mongols. A strong confirmation of this last position
may be found in the learned researches of M. Daa, respecting the linguistic affinities of the people in question.
The observations of intelligent travellers in all the countries bor- dering on the Pacific leads us to the same definite conclusion with regard to the predominant type in all of them. Thus, for Russian America, we have the testimony of M. H. J. Hohnberg, who has long resided in that distant country, and whose useful researches have been given to the world in a separate series of the Actes de la Societe Findlandaise des Sciences, Helsingfors, 1855. The skulls of Oregon were familiar to Morton, to whose liberality we ourselves owe the possession of two, as we are indebted for another to Professor Meigs, of Philadelphia. I have shown elsewhere that they belong to the brachycephalic Mongol type, and afford the better indications from not having undergone the artificial vertical compression in use among the people of those regions. The Aztecs are represented in our museum by three skulls found in an ancient cemetery near Mexico, which was uncovered in digging intrenchments to protect the Mexi- can capital against the armies of the United States. They are re- markable for the shortness of their axis, their large flattened occiput, obliquely truncated behind, the height of the semicircular line of the temples, the shortness and trapezoidal form of the parietal plane. They present an elevation or ridge along the sagittal suture; the base of the skull is very short, the face shg htly prognathic, as among the Mongol-Kalmucs. They bear a strong analogy to the skulls of Peru- vian brachycephalx delineated by Morton.
‘Every one,’’ says this last-mentioned savant, ‘‘who has studied this subject attentively, knows that the skull of Peruvians presents a flattened and almost vertical occiput. It is, besides, characterized by an elevated sinciput, great inter-parietal breadth, considerable weight of bone, prominent nose, with the maxillary region large and prog- nathic. Itis the type of the skull among all the tribes from Cape Horn to Canada, in a degree more or less marked.’’ There can be no doubt that the skulls of the Araucanians of Chili are brachycephalie, and present a striking resemblance in form to those of the Peruvians and Mexicans. The same type is again recognized in the Pampas of the republic of Buenos Ayres, and throughout Patagonia, to the limits of Terra del Fuego. With the skulls of the Indians of Terra del Fuego I am only acquainted through the excellent portraits in profile
taken during the voyage of Captain Fitzroy, (Narrative of the Sur- veying Voyage, &c., 1839.) These show that the inhabitants of this country are even more distinctly brachycephalic than the Indians of the Pampas.
To the tribes which we have thus cursorily reviewed, in proceed- ing from the north towards the south, we are disposed, after Dr. Latham, to apply the name of American Mongolidz. Our review has chiefly been confined to the coasts, but they have also penetrated very far into the interior, in the direction of the east. Thus, on the authority of the great work of Morton, Crania Americana, we encoun-
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 269
ter them on the banks of the Lower Mississippi, (the Natchez,) in Louisiana, (the Chetimachees,) in Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, (the Muskogees or Creeks, and the Uchees or Seminoles of Florida, ) in Wisconsin, (the Menomonees and Ottigamies,) in Arkansas, (the Osages.) Morton has, besides, described and drawn skulls of a like form from tombs in the States of Virginia, Ohio, and Tennessee. Two skulls of the Mongol type of the United States were presented by him to the Carolinska Institute, the one a Sac Indian of Missouri, the other a Menomonee of Michigan. As regards the dolichocephalic family, I have previously traced its progress as far as Peru; but since the occupation of America by Europeans, no considerable change in their place of residence has occurred in the case of any of the tribes.
It would not seem out of place, before terminating this rapid esti- mate of the influence which the study of the human skull has exer- cised on the development of ethnology, to say something respecting the artijicial deformation of the skull. This pagan custom, which had been mentioned by different writers, Oriental, Greek, or Roman, was long totally forgotten by the civilized world till it was discovered, as an unheard-of wonder, to be the usage among several Indian tribes in America. Blumenbach, in describing a Carib skull from St. Vincents, notices that the possibility of such artificial deformation had been de- nied by Sabatier, Camper, and Artaud, but himself completely refutes their opinion. Even after this, for a long interval, the subject ceased to attract attention, till Pentland brought from Peru the singular skulls described by Tiedmann, (Zeitschrift fiir Physiologie, Band V, p- 107,) moulds of which in plaster are to be found in many collec- tions, public and private. Many other heads, artificially deformed in different ways, were subsequently procured from the same part of the world, and at last the publication of the Crania Americana of Morton placed before us a complete history of this custom and of the manner in which these deformations are produced by the Indians of different tribes. The accounts thus received from America had the effect of causing this absurd and pagan custom to be generally regarded as of essentially American origin. Still the real existence of these artifi- elal deformations continued to be called in doubt; the celebrated anatomist, Tiedmann, himself declared for the natural origin of these strange forms, and the Swiss traveller and naturalist, Tschudi, shared his opinion. In 1849 appeared a remarkable memoir by M. Rathke, showing that similar skulls had been found near Kertsch, in the Crimea, and calling attention to the book of Hippocrates De dere, Aguis et Locis, Lib. IV, and a passage of Strabo, which speak of the practice of modifying the shape of the head by means of bandages as being in-use among the macrocephalic Scythians. Many similar skulls from the country of Kertsch have since been described by Dr. Carl Meyer.
In 1854 Dr. Fitzinger published a learned memoir on the skulls of the Avars, a branch of the Uralian race of Turks. . He pointed out that the practice of compressing the skull had been signalized by ancient authors as existing in several parts of the Empire of the Hast, and at the same time described an ancient skull greatly distorted by
270 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY, ETC.
artificial means which had been found at a more recent epoch in Lower Austria. In 1854 I received from M. Troyon, of Switzerland,
two ancient skulls of like shape derived from Switzerland and Savoy, respecting which I made a report to the Academy of Stockholm in 1854. From the account given by Amedée Thierry, in his History of Attila, I had learned that the custom of artificially deforming the head proceeded of old from the Mongols, from whom it was borrowed by the Huns, and that it was employed as the means of conferring a certain aristocr: atic distinction, just as Hippocrates reports it to have been practiced for the same purpose by the Scythians, and as is still the case among the Indians of Oregon. At the same time I was enabled to show that this custom still exists in France, where it has without doubt been perpetuated since the time when the Huns were masters of the country. This custom, still existing in certain parts of France, has been mentioned and described by Dr. Foville in his work on the anatomy of the head, though the author seems scarcely to have perceived the historical significance of the fact. Shortly after the date last referred to I received from Professor Geffroy, of Mar-
seilles, a confirmation of the fact that this custom is still persisted in in the south of France, not far from Marseilles. From a passage in the works of Vesalius we are led to infer that it exists also in several parts of Turkey.
We can no longer doubt, then, that this practice of giving an arti- ficial form to the ‘skull has subsisted from a remote epoch among the Oriental nations. As Thierry, moreover, pronounces it to be a Mon- gol usage, I have submitted the question, in the memoir before spoken of, whether this fact does not speak in favor of an ancient communi- cation between the Old and the New World? Such a communication seems, indeed, to be now placed beyond doubt by the proofs which have been accumulated, from time to time, through the efforts of numerous and zealous inquirers. It would seem likely that the usage in question has been introduced by the Mongols into America, where it has become diffused even among tribes not of the Mongol stock. Among the greater part of these the compression seems to have been effected on the occiput with the view of rendering this flat and short. The compression of the top of the head among the Indians of Oregon (Flat-heads) has no doubt sprung from their proximity to the Esqui- maux, whose heads are full and large. The frontal compression (Huanchas, Caribs) seems to have been designed to render the head more dolichocephalic, and was exclusively practiced by dolicho- cephalee, for whom I propose, in analogy with the term used by Dr. Latham, as mentioned above, the name of American Semites.
bal
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE. 271
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.
By M. Fuourens, PERPETUAL SECRETARY OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 1842.
[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution by C. A. ALEXANDER. ]
The Academy has lost, within a few years, three members whose labors he ave profoundly influenced the progress of the natural sciences: Georges Cuvier, to whom we owe the widest application of those sciences of which probably the genius of man is capable ; Laurent de Jussieu, who seems by his method to have given them a language for ideas, as Linneus by his nomenclature had given them one for hings; and it has but just lost M. de Candolle, who opened with a brilliant theory the long series of happy conceptions and daring aims of the nineteenth century.
Augustin-Pyramus de Candolle was born at Geneva the 4th of February, 1778, a month after the death of Linneus, two months after the death of Haller, and three after that of Bernard de Jussieu—a circumstance which we may be permitted to recall, as he would almost appear to have imposed on himself the task of replacing those three great men in the service of botany.
He was descended through his father from one of the most ancient families of the nobility of Provence—a member of which, having embraced the reformed religion, had taken refuge in Geneva in 1590. This ancestor, as well as the father of our subject, had reached sta- tions of much eminence in the service of their new country, the latter having attained, at a very early age, the post of first syndic, which is the highest of the republic. ‘ His mother was grand-niece of the cele- brated Genevese, Le Fort, who was, at one and the same time, grand admiral, general-in-chief, and first minister of Peter the Great.
The infancy of De Candolle reminds us in some respects of that of Cuvier; in both cases there was an intellectual and tender mother; in both an infant of delicate health and the most happy disposition.
Debarred by bodily weakness from the usual sports of childhood, the young De Candolle formed a decided taste for the pleasures which attend the development of the understanding. From the age of six to seven years he exercised himself in the composition of comedies. At this period, Florian, who wasa friend of the family, came to spend a winter in Geneva. ‘‘You see this gentleman,’’ said Madame de Candolle, one day, to her son, ‘‘he is the author of many charming theatrical pieces.’ Ah)” replied the child, with the tone of one of the fraternity, ‘‘ you ite comedies; soll: so do I.”’ A serious
malady placed his life for some time in jeopardy, and the studies of college were necessarily pursued with reserve, but literature, and especially poetry, lost nothing thereby. What he wrote w as, for the most part, in verse, and masters and scholars stood always between the chances of an epistle or an epigram, according to the humor of the moment. Nothing as yet presaged the future savant or botanist,
272 MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.
but it was impossible to mistake the indications of an ingenuous char- acter and of elegant tastes, which needed but suitable circumstances for their development.
The course of these peaceable studies was, however, soon to be interrupted. In 1792aFrench army occupied Savoy and approached the sates of Geneva. The women and children were sent to seek an asylum in the interior of Switzerland. In vain did the young De Candolle entreat to be allowed to remain with his father and par ‘take in the defence of his country. His years were judged too immature, and he was obliged to withdraw with his mother and a young br einen A village at the foot of the Jura, near Lake Neufchatel, was ‘the place of their refuge.
Here the charms of nature first touched and captivated him. Flowers were at first gathered only to copy them; but he soon en- gaged with ardor in forming a collection, and undertook long and adventurous excursions for the discovery of new plants. Already this future rival of the law-givers of botany, though he knew only the vulgar names of plants, felt himself tormented by the necessity of classifying them, and as he was without books, he classed them according to their natural relations, as the mind is always prompted to do when not spoiled by false systems.
Some years after this period, a French mineralogist, distinguished by his useful labors, and since still more celebrated for his illustrious misfortunes, traversed the mountains of Switzerland. Dolomieu saw the young De Candolle and was struck with his ardor for study. His patronage was offered and accepted; and our Genevese, already secure of his own powers by the trial which he had made of them in soli- tude, came to seek in Paris at once masters and rivals. Here, from the first, all the higher courses of instruction received his attention; but, irresistibly attracted by botany, he gave a decided preference to the garden of plants.
On quitting Geneva he had promised his father to devote himself also to the study of medicine. He tried to do so, but in vain. The sight of the sick plunged him into profound sadness. He could not bear the idea, which is, in truth, a formidable one, of taking upon himself the responsibility of their sufferings. His was a daring intel- lect, but a sensitive heart, and he longed for pursuits in which he might err without dread. Thus when, i in after times, he happened to fall into some error with respect to the name or classification of a plant, he would say with a sort of satisfaction, ‘‘ thanks to heaven, it is only a plant which is wrongly named.’’
Having renounced medicine, he thenceforward scarcely left the garden. Day after day he might be seen engaged, from morning till night, in observing or describing plants. All respected a youth whom nothing as yet distinguished but industry, while the gardeners , Seeing him pass whole days on the same modest bench, came to des signate him from its situation as the young man a U arrosovy.
Such perseverance did not escape M. Desfontaines, who, one day, approaching him, said: ‘‘M. Redouté has made a collection of draw- ings of succulent plants, and wants a botanist to describe them;
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE. Qs
would you charge yourself with that labor?’ Startled at this unex- pected proposition, the youth would have excused himself, as well on account of the difficulty of the subject as his own defect of knowledge. ‘¢You will see,’’ said the good Desfontaines, ‘‘ that it is not as difficult as you imagine; come and work at my house; I will direct you.’’
The reputation of De Candolle commenced at tw enty years of age with the Histoire des Plantes Grasses. But shortly a labor of a higher and more original character designated more clearly the rank which he was to take in science. He had fortunately conceived the idea of occupying himself with the sleep of plants.
The first step was to assure himself that air goes for nothing in this phenomenon; for plants which sleep, when immersed in water, pass as usual from sleep to waking and from waking to sleep. Setting aside, then, the action of air, there remained that of light. The plants, there sfore, were placed in darkness, and alternately exposed to its in- fluence and to that of light. By illuminating these plants during the night, and leaving them in obscurity during the day, De Candolle: sue- ceeded in completely changing the hours of their waking and sleeping; he saw the nocturnal plants open in the morning, and the diurnal in the evening.
These curious experiments, being communicated to the Academy, excited the most lively interest; and, indeed, the results obtained by the author may be said, without exaggeration, to have possessed something of the mar vellous, even for the vulgar. By the aid of arti- ficial light alone he had colored etiolated plants green;* had changed the hours of sleep and waking; and had proved the remarkable fact that plants have habits; for it is not all at once, but only at the end of a certain time, that they discard their ordinary hours and adopt others. Thus the life of plants is shown to be a more complicated phenomenon, and one much more nearly approaching that of animals than had been yet suspected. They have their activity and repose, their sleep and waking, and likewise their habits; so that when De- lille, celebrating these results in verse, proceeds to say,
The calyx of the credulous flower is duped ; we feel that poetry, in view of such facts, has almost lost the privi- lege of being metaphorical.
Fontenelle has remarked ‘that botany is no sedentary and slothful science which may be acquired in the repose and shade of the closet; it demands that its votary should traverse mountains and forests, climb the acclivities of rocks, and expose himself on the edge of precipices.’’ Applied in the first instance to Tournefort, these ex- pressions would have been doubtless thought by their author equally applicable to De Candolle. The lore Fy ancaise, the flora of that vast empire which was every day extending its frontiers by victory, furnished him with the occasion for many fatiguing expeditions. His
=——
* Tt is necessary to remark, however, that the coloration was imperfect—the plants, as he himself said, remaining intermediary between etiolated and green; nor had the arti- ficial light, which he employed, sufficient intensity to develop oxygen gas. M. Humboldt had already observed the same phenomenon: Comptes rendus de l’ Academie, Tome XV, p. 1194 —Author.
18
274 MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.
exploration of the higher Alps would alone prove that the enthusiasm of science has an intrepidity which yields to no other. On one occa=
sion, wishing to reach the Great Saint-Bernard by the almost im-_
practicable col Saint- Remi, he found himself, after climbing the col, obliged to descend a frozen declivity, excessively steep, and termi- nating ina precipice. The guides were before, marking the steps with their iron-shod staves, while our traveller followed in silence. All at once his footing fails him, and sliding with frightful rapidity, he hears cries of distress from his euldes, ort can afford him no succor. Af last he perceives a slight fissure in the ice, and, thrusting his staff forcibly into it, 1s stopped. To cries of distress succeed those of joy; the most intrepid of his guides comes to him by a long circuit, and, tracing a path in the snow, conducts him to a place of safety. BONN! said this brave man, embracing him, ‘‘no one has ever caused me so much anxiety.’’
On occasion of the inquiries, before mentioned, respecting the habits of vegetables, De Candolle, though but twenty- two years of age, had been inscribed by the Academy on the list of its candidates. Adanson said of him, that ‘‘he had established himself on the high- way of science.’’ Cheer had chosen him for his substitute in the chair of Natural History at the college of France, and Lamarck cons fided to him the second edition of his lore Francaise. This edition became in the hands of De Candolle an original work, which may well serve for a model in extended labors of its kind. He had but just executed it when a vacancy occurred in the Academy by the death of Adanson. Besides the works already mentioned, De Candolle had published an important one on the Astragali; an essay full of interest on the medical properties of plants; researches, equally new and in- structive, on the pores of leaves, on the vegetation of the misletoe, &c. ; and, resting on such titles, might well aspire to the nomination. But it was carried in favor of Palissot de Beauvais by two or three voices, to the sensible chagrin of De Candolle. He had been for some time
ressed by the faculty of medicine of Montpellier to accept the chair of botany, which had been successively occupied by Gouan and Brous- sonnet, and though hesitating till now, he hesitated no longer. He accepted the chair, and resolved to quit Paris.
Was this well or ill done? To consider the motive only of his resolution, the hasty counsel of a wounded susceptibility, assuredly not well; but if we consider the important results which accrued to botany from his sojourn at Montpellier, perhaps the answer will be altogether different. Would Paris have left him the same leisure for pr otr acted labors? The same calm for abstract meditations? The same liberty of ideas? The same originality of views? And to say allina single word, would De Candolle have been as completely himself as he has been?
At the moment of his departure from Paris an embarrassment arose which threatened wholly to disconcert his purpose. On concluding the Flore Francaise, he had devoted himself to a not less important work on the botanical geography of France, Geographie Botanique de la France, and with so much ardor that rather than abandon it, and thus lose the modest salary which scarcely defrayed the expense of
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE. 275
his excursions, he would have promptly renounced the professorship. Fortunately for Montpellier, M. Cretet, minister of the interior, when consulted on the difficulty, replied, ‘‘Let M. De Candolle choose: he shall either have both the places, or neither one nor the other.’? And a few days after the same dignitary gave even more distinct expres- sion to his high estimate of De Candolle, though still couched under the brisk form of as sally. M. Laplace having “called on him in com- pany with De Candolle, and wishing to give in some way expression to the high esteem he entertained for the latter, had said to the minister,
‘‘ Your excellency does us an ill turn; we had hoped to have soon had M. De Candolle at the Institute.’’ ‘Ah, your Institute! your Insti- tute !’’ exclaimed M. Cretet. And while Laplace looked at him with surprise, he added, ‘‘Do you know that I sometimes feel inclined to order a battery of guns to ‘be pointed against your Institute? Yes, a battery, in order to disperse the members throughout France. Is it not deplorable to see all the luminaries congregated in Paris, and the provinces in ignorance? I send M. de Candolle to Montpellier to carry thither the spirit of activity.’’
In effect, the influence and efforts of De Candolle soon infused life into all the studies of Montpellier. The spirit of Linneus reigned there almost exclusively; and unfortunately, by the spirit of Linneus must here be understood the spirit of artificial methods.* All the labors of the last halfof the eighteenth century, all the new philosophy of science, all the grand ideas elaborated by the Adansons, the Jussieus, the Cuviers, had remained unknown or disregarded. Hence the lessons of De Candolle had all the freshness of novelty for this isolated province; those admirable lessons, which afterwards repro- duced in three great works, have afforded valuable instruction to all Europe.
These three works are the Theorie Hlementaire de la Botanique, the Organographie, and the Physiologie Vegetale. Of these, the first, pub- lished in 1813, is the most important, for it was in this that the author laid the first foundations of his general theory of the organiza- tion of beings.
Every age seems to impose on itself the solution of some new problem; thus, as regards the phenomena of life, the eighteenth century was chiefly engaged with the problem of methods. and the problem of the revolutions of the globe. The question of methods, so ably discussed in the seventeenth century by Tournefort and Ray, in the eighteenth by Linneus, Adanson, and Bernard de Jussieu, finds its solution, towards the end of the latter century, through the labors of Laurent de Jussieu and Georges Cuvier. The question of the revolutions of the globe commences in 1575, with some specula- tions of the potter, Bernard Palissy; two centuries afterwards Buffon
= They had been introduced there by Sauvages, and directly applied by him to the regular classification of maladies by classes, genera and species See his Nosologia Methodica, a re- markable work for the time at which it appeared In justice to Linnzus, it should be observed that no one better understood than he the different parts assigned to the natural and the artificial methods, nor better marked the characters which distinguished them,.— Author.
276 MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.,
conceives the grand idea of the ages of the world, and produces his Epoques de la Nature; at length Georges Cuvier gives to the world his Recherches sur les Ossemens Fi Fossiles, and the question of the revolutions of the globe cannot long remain without its solution.
The problem which the nineteenth century seems to have proposed to itself in the same province is the determination of the intimate laws of the organization of beings; and on this occasion the hight has proceeded from a source from which we could scarcely have expected it. In 1790 a small work was published in Germany, entitled the Metamorphosis of Plants. The author, who seemed to unite the genius of the two neighboring nations in the flexibility of his powers and the extent of his inquiries, was the first to see in the transformation of one part into another all the secret mechanism of the development of the plant. Thus a first transformation changes the leaf into the calyx; a second, the calyx into the corolla; a third, the corolla into organs of a still more delicate texture. All these organs are there- fore but the modifications of one organ, all the parts of the flower are but modifications of the leaf; transformation is the predominating principle, and the generalized expression of this striking fact con- stitutes the celebrated theory of Goethe.
For the theory of De Candolle even a greater degree of elevation may be claimed. According to this, each class of beings is submitted to a general plan, and this seneral plan i is always symmetrical. All organized beings, regarded in their intimate nature, are symmetrical. But this primitive symmetry, on which all reposes, and from which all emanates, what is it? how define it? how even determine it ?* for symmetry, the primitive fact, is rarely the fact which subsists. The abortion, the adhesion, the degenerescence of the parts almost always alters or masks it; and to rediscover this symmetry, which is the primitive fact, we must ascend through all the subsequent irregulari- ties, which are but secondary facts. And yet these views of De Can- dolle, bold and striking as they are, may be already announced as, in more than one instance, a demonstrated truth. To show this, an
* Doubtless the idea of a primitive symmetry subsequently altered is still in many cases but a supposition, yet in many others it is the fact itself; in the Marronier d’ Inde (borse- chesnut) the primitive symmetry is changed under the eyes of the observer; in a multitude of species the primitive symmetry, masked by the ordinary irregularities, disengages itself momentarily from those irregularities, and all at once reappears. De Candolle was the first who made what are termed monstrosities in the vegetable kingdom enter into a general theory; he defines them as ‘‘ returns to symmetry.”’
“Tt is by the observation of certain monstrosities,’’ he says, ‘‘ that we have been enabled to detect the true nature of certain abortive organs, and consequently the true symmetry © of the plants. Thus the observation of the Peloria has proved that a certain filament which is found on the inner base of the corolla of the antirrhinum linaria and some others, is an abortive stamen, since we have seen it change into astamen ’’—T'heor. Elem. dela Bot., p. 98. —
The causes which produce anomalies, constant and predisposed, are subject to laws so fixed and regular that De Candolle finds in those anomalies the very source of genera and species. ‘* The arrangement of plants in natural orders supposes,’’ he says, ‘‘ that we may one day establish the characters of those orders on that which constitutes the ground of their sym- metry, and refer the varied forms of species and genera to the action of causes which tend to alter the primitive symmetry, Thus each family of plants may be represented by a regular condition, sometimes visible to the eye, sometimes ccnceivable by the intellect; this is what I call its type: adhesions, abortions, degenerescences or multiplications, separate or combined together, modify this primitive type so as to give rise to the habitual characters of the objects which compose them.’’—Organogr. Vegetale, Il, p. 240.—.Author.
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE. 277
example or two will suffice. If we take the fruit of the common horse-chesnut, we shall find but three seeds at most, sometimes but a single one; but on recurring to the flower we shall see three cells, and two seeds in each cell, that is to say, six seeds. The fruit of the oak, the acorn, exhibits in all cases but one seed; and here we see the primitive type altered. But in the flower of the same tree the ovary has always six ovules, and here we have the primitive type re-dis- covered.
The theory of De Candolle reveals a new world to the observer. In a group of plants whose corolla is polypetalous, should an ordinary naturalist find one whose corolla is monopetalous, he would probably rest satisfied with having verified the fact; but with the naturalist inspired by theory, inquiry commences where it terminates with the other. Such an one sees, in the species which he is comparing, the consolidated corolla occupy the place of the corolla with several petals; he finds the ribs (nervvures) of the former correspond with the divisions of the latter; he reverts to an earlier stage of the flower, and seeking this consolidated corolla in the bud, he there finds it composed of several pieces; and thus the profound analogy of the group, masked by the soldering of the petals in one species, reappears in all its entirety.
What De ‘Candells calls degenerescence constitutes, when taken in an inverse order, the metamorphosis of Goethe. The latter, following an ascending scale, sees the leaf metamorphosed into the calyx, the calyx into the corolla, the petals into stamens, the stamens into pistils, ovary, and fruit. De Candolle, pursuing the opposite course, sees fruit, ovary, and pistil degenerate into the stamen, the stamen into the petal, the corolla into the calyx, the divers parts of the calyx into leaves. Thus our double flowers are for the most part but the result of the transformation of the stamens into petals, as in that most beau- tiful of all transformations which changes the simple flower of the eglantine into the many-leaved rose of our wardens. While meta- morphosis, taken in the sense of Géethe, evolves, so to say, from the leaf all the parts of the flower, degenerescence, in the sense of De Candolle, brings all the parts of the flower back to the leaf. One of these facts proves the other; and the theory of Géethe, under a proper point of view, is but a part, though an admirable part, of the theory of De Candolle.
It was long ago said, and with reason, that books also have their destiny. When Goethe, towards the close of the last century, gave his doctrine to the public, the poet damaged the botanist; the fame of the author of Werther and Faust caused the more modest merit of the author of the Metamorphosis of Plants to be overlooked. When De Candolle published his theory in 1813, he was far from Paris, in an obscure province, and his book succeeded but slowly, almost imperceptibly, in attracting general attention. It was, in fact, nearly twenty years later, and only when a dispute between two eminent rivals had carried the discussion into the halls of this Academy, that public opinion learned at last to comprehend the force and weight of the new ideas.
Yet why not confess it? Without doubt, the new spirit of the
278 MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.
sciences, whatever praise may be due to its boldness, has not always known how to restrain its flight or master its audacity. Even in De Candolle, whose judgment is so firm and logic so sound, there is more than one generalization which surprises, more than one consequence which it appears difficult to admit. We cannot well explain to our- selves how it is that the primitive symmetry, that mysterious key to the whole system, is so rarely the dominant fact, while the habitual fact is, on the contrary, almost always the anomaly.* But, on the other hand, who can fail to recognize the grandeur of so many daring and profound conceptions? Who but must wonder at so many results obtained by new methods, so many truths which it was necessary to surprise, as it were, by yet unattempted methods of approach? Who but must be struck at the number of ancient difficulties resolved, and, what is more remarkable, the number of new difficulties which as yet had no existence for science—which science had as yet not sufficient insight to suspect?
The Theorie Elementaire de Botanique had appeared in 1813, quickly followed by the disastrous events of 1814, when France, afte: unpar- alleled successes, began to experience reverses equally without a parallel. During the Hundred Days, De Candolle was appointed rec- tor of the Academy of Montpellier. During the administrative anarchy which followed the second Restoration, the local authorities of Mont- pellier, without consulting the higher authorities, or rather, as re- garded De Candolle, in contrariety to the express orders of those
**As an elucidation of some portions of the text relating to vegetable morphology, the following passage from an able article in the Foreign Quarterly Review, April, 1833, may not be unacceptable, at least to the general reader :
‘©A marked law of symmetry regulates the conditions under which the vegetable struc- ture is presented to us, in such plants as are closely allied in natural affinity, however much they may differ in certain individual peculiarities, those peculiarities always depending upon some modification in the mode of development in certain organs, or upon the partial or entire suppression of them in one and not in the other species | Repeated examples have shown us that certain organs may sometimes be accidentally developed in plants in which they are generally absent, or else may disappear in some individuals of a species where they are usually present. It is by the study of these peculiar * monstrosities’ that we are enabled to ascertain the actual existence of particular organs in a latent or undeveloped state; and it has been by connecting the results of such inquiries that the whole theory of the natural classification of plants has of late years undergone a complete revolution The chief phe- nomena which regulate the conditions essential to the extension of this kind of knowledge are the abortion, degeneration, metamorphosis, and adhesion of certain parts. The account of these belongs more especially to the organographical department of botany, and very little is known to the physiologist of the causes which produce them. The non-develop- ment or abortion of any latent organ in a plant seems to arise very frequently from its compression by some contiguous part, or else from an abstraction of its nutriment by another part which exerts a greater vital activity. As these effects depend upon the rela. tive position of such parts, the influencing canse begins to operate even from their nascent state, and long before their form is discernible by us. We have consequently no control over these causes, and their influence could never have been noticed by us if nature herself had not assisted in the discovery by producing those occasional aberrations from the ordi-
nary state of plants which are known by the name of ‘ monstrosities.’ That all the vari- ous parts of the fructification are modifications only of the leaf, is demonstrable by an appeal to numerous examples of monstrosities in which these parts may be seen to possess an intermediate character. But we are still utterly ignorant of the nature of those pre- disposing causes which are capable of effecting such wonderful modifications in the form, color, consistency, and nervation of this single organ§ and, above all, such a complete dis- similar ity between its various functions.’’—Nole by Translator.
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authorities, decreed that all the functionaries of the Hundred Days should be deprived, and De Candolle was deposed from the rectorate.
What was the rectorate to De Candolle? He was still professor of the faculty of medicine and dean of the faculty of sciences; he was more endeared than ever to his pupils, to his colleagues, to the entire population; but the susceptibility of his Ciawieteus always so lively, again prevailing, he threw up all his appointments, and left Mont- pellier for Geneva.
It is easy to imagine how he was received. The enlightened country of the Trembleys, the Bonnets, the Saussures, felt a ‘pride i in regain - ing him. There was no chair of natural history—one was created for him. There was no botanic garden—one was founded, and he was soon pursuing the scarcely interrupted course of his lessons and his labors. Nor were these long in reflecting a new lustre on Geneva.
In 1827 appeared the Organogr aphie Vegetale, a work which in substance, is but a reproduction of the Z’heorie Hlementaire, but with an extraordinary extension and development of its doctrines. In 1832 the Physiologie Vegetale made its appearance, and was imme- diately crowned by the Royal Society of London with the high prize which it had just institute alike to the wide and elevated views, the superior method, and the lucid expositions of this admirable work. The year 1817 had seen the first volume of the Systeme Naturel des Vegetaua; the second appeared in 1820.
Let us pass now to another order of facts and ideas, in order to exhibit the merits of De Candolle under a new aspect.
The ancients were acquainted with but a small number of plants; Theophrastus, the most learned of them in this matter, having reck- oned but five hundred. Many centuries after Theophrastus, Tourne- fort counted ten thousand, but without separating varieties from species. Linneus, in rendering one of the most important services to botany by separating species from varieties, reduced the number of species, properly so called, to seven thousand.
When, about the year 1815, De Candolle conceived the design of drawing up a complete catalog ue of the vegetable kingdom, the num- ber of known species sci wrcely amounted to more than twenty: -five thousand. But no sooner had the general peace of 1815 opened the entire world to the researches of travellers, than every year witnessed the arrival of vast numbers of unknown plants from all quarters. De Candolle, in a paper published in 1817, already counted fifty-seven thousand species. ‘‘An immense host,’’? he added, ‘‘ where order the most methodical and natural can alone avoid confusion! Marvel- lous fecundity, which might abate the courage of the botanist, if the first sentiment were not that of admiration for the cause of this count- less variety! Would that botanists might draw from these calcula- tions the conclusion that much remains to be accomplished; that there is fame to be acquired by all; and that consequently it is fitting neither to sleep, as if all were done, nor to be jealous of one another, as if nothing remained to do.’’
Thus in two years, from 1815 to 1817, the number of known vege- tables had more than doubled. In 1840 this number, according to
280 MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.
the computation of De Candolle, had reached eighty thousand. A single family, that of the Composita, as described by him, embraces more than eight thousand species; thus presenting more species in that family alone than was contained in the entire vegetable kingdom of the times of Linneus. The work in which these eighty thousand known plants are brought together and definitively classed bore at first the title of Systema Naturale Regni Vegetabilis, but was recom- menced in 1824, under a more abridged form, with the title of Pro- dromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. Yet in this abridged form it is not the less an immense work. Eighty thousand plants are there ranged in an admirable order—the order, that is to say, of na- ture itself; each with its characters, its relations, its entire descrip- tion, and that description of a precision of detail till then without example. This work was left unfinished by its author, though com- prising seven massive volumes of from seven to eight hundred pages
each. The energy evinced by such vast labors reflects honor not on the individual alone, but on the race; it seems to enhance our idea of the forces of human nature.
The Prodromus, as has been just said, remained incomplete. In the memoir which the author has left of his own life, he alludes to the impression produced upon him when he felt that strength would fail him for the completion of his undertaking. ‘‘ That,’’ he says, ‘is a great and solemn epoch in life when one acquires the convic- tion that he has wrongly calculated his plans, and that it is necessary to renounce that to which he attaches the highest price. It should be observed, however, that my own error of ‘calculation has resulted not from idleness on my part, but from the sudden augmentation in the number of known plants.’”’” Who might not be dismay ed when such a man as De Candolle is found defending himself from the impu- tation of idleness? He has himself computed that he had established more than seven thousand new species, and nearly five hundred new genera; that is to say, nearly the fourteenth part of known species and the sixteenth part of admitted genera.
As only the more important labors of De Candolle can be here no- ticed, a multitude of memoirs on pure botany must be omitted; nor can more than an allusion be made to his important studies on the fertilization of downs, on the theory of the distribution of crops, on botanical geography, &c. It is by such of his works as had a direct influence on his age that we must be content to remember him—works which led to his adoption into all the learned societies of the world, and to the inscription of his name, in 1814, among those of the eight foreign associates of this Academy.
Allusion has been made above to the memoir which he left of his own life; and if, in the study of his scientific works, we are struck with the pre-eminence of his intellect and the extent of his acquire- ments, here we are taught to appreciate the gracefulness, the kind- ness, and the simplicity of his character. ‘‘I have always loved,’ he says, ‘‘those persons who speak of themselves; they are generally persons of good disposition, and who have little to reproach them- selves with, And my pleasure,’’ he continues, ‘‘in the perusal
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE. 281
of personal memoirs has always been in proportion to the equality of position between the writers and myself. It is not only on account of the style that the Confessions of Rousseau have met with such success, but because he was neither king nor prince, and most readers could trace certain analogies between his position and their own. The memoirs of Marmontel, of Morellet, and, above all, of Gibbon, enable us to see howa mediocrity of condition causes us to overlook, if I may Bay 80, the mediocrity of incidents and the slenderness of the narra- tive.
De Candolle had a decided fondness for society, and, as Fontenelle said of Leibnitz, ‘‘often amused himself with the ladies, and did not count for lost the time which he gave to their conversation.”’ Qualified to please by the characteristic brilliancy and freshness of his imagi- nation, he was excited in turn by the interest and attention of the sex to clothe the driest and most abstract subjects in those terms of animation and imagery which render the lesson which he improvised at Coppet on the ‘actual state of botany,”’ for the benefit of such a society, one of the most remarkable resumés of his theory. Of the interest which he inspired the following may serve as an instance :
Soon after his return to Geneva he was obliged to send back to Spain the beautiful designs of the Flore du Mexique. The author of this Flora, the learned Mocino, exiled from his country by the vio- lence of politics, had saved himself from the storm, bearing, like Camoens, his work in his hands. During his sojourn in France, as he despaired of publishing it, he had confided it to De Candolle, with these words: “It is thr ough you that I shall become celebrated.’ Recalled to his country, now become more calm and just, he was not willing to return without this Flora of Mexico, one of the most valu- able services which the Spanish government has rendered to science. De Candolle was about to lose these precious and indispensable mate- rials for his great work. At this news Geneva bestirred itself. De Candolle had hardly thought of having more than a few of the rarest of the specimens copied; it was decided to copy for him the entire Flora; more than a hundred ladies took part in the task, which was completely executed in ten days. e
Montesquieu has said ‘‘that he never knew a chagrin alion an hour’s reading had not dissipated.’’ De Candolle might have said as much of society; he not only relaxed himself therein, but his genius acquired new animation and vigor. From the first of his residence at Paris he had had the good fortune to reunite himself with several friends, natives, like himself, of French Switzerland. The family for which J. J. Rousseau had written bis Letters on Botany, was naturally the first to appreciate De Candolle. The head of that family, Ben- jamin Delassert, joined to the care of vast commercial enterprises an enthusiastic love for botany. This taste was the occasion of the closest friendship between him and De Candolle, and it might be here that the latter caught that ardor for the public good w hich led him to devote himself to active public services. A member of the Philanthropic Society, of a special commission for the hospitals, one of the founders of the Society for the Encouragement of National In-
282 MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.
dustry, &c., he carried into these functions the same fervor as into his studies; and this he called joining a practical life to his theorizing. life. ‘‘I have no doubt,’’ he says, in the memoirs before cited, ‘‘of the utility of the sciences in general for society, taken in the mass; but it has always seemed to me that I owed, as an individual, some more direct service to my cotemporaries.’’ And this way of thinking seems to have formed the rule of his life. Elected, at Geneva, on three successive occasions, a member of the sovereign council, and, as one might say, an obligatory member of every commission of pub- lie utility, he found time and activity for all.
The friends of his youth were those of his entire life. It would be difficult to say in which of the three cities where he had lived, Mont- pellier, Paris, and Geneva, he counted the most and truest friends. Two of them, Desfontaines and Cuvier, preceded him to the tomb; and the names of these two may stand as a eulogy for all the rest. For his tastes he manifested the same constancy as for his friendships. He began with making verses, and he continued to make them to the last. But having discovered, in good time, that. poetry, and especially French poetry, demands great labor, and all the forces of his mind being otherwise employed, he made verses only for his friends, and never published any of them.
His childhood had been delicate, but at the age of fifteen or sixteen his constitution underwent a happy revolution. From that time his body seemed formed, like his mind, for great labors. During more than forty years he preserved a sound health in spite of excessive fatigues. In 1835 he was seized with a violent malady, from which he recovered only to return to his occupations. Since then he has published, perhaps, the most difficult and incomparably the most ex- tensive part of his great work. His fine genius seemed restored to us entire, but his health was never re-established. He died Septem- ber 9, 1841.
‘To the happiness due to success, and still more to assiduous employ- ment, he jomed the yet more precious happiness of an honorable alliance, contracted in 1808, which constituted the charm of his life. He has left a son worthy of bearing his name and of continuing his renown. His last words were: ‘‘I die without disquietude; my son will finish my work.”’
Such was the life of De Candolle, and such the nature of those great works which mark a new epoch in the progress of botany. Tournefort had constituted the science; Linnzus had given it a lan- guage; the two Jussicus had founded its method; it remained to open to botany the study of the intimate laws of life; and this has been done by De Candolle. He is the only one, since Linneus, who has embraced all the parts of this science with an equal genius.
Considered as a professor he stands without a rival; botany had never before appeared with so much eclat. The perspicuity of his ideas, the soundness of his method, the grace of his elocution, all conspired to captivate and reward attention. When explaining facts, he seemed to communicate the art of judging them; when detailing observations, he appeared to lay open the art of observing; and, as
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE. 283
Fontenelle has said, ‘‘the art of observing or discovering is more precious than the greater part of what we discover.”’
In his writings, it is true, De Candolle exhibits neither the charm- ing style of Tournefort nor the singularly original expression of Lin- neus, but he has all the attributes of a writer which result from vigorous thought. He is both elevated and clear—qualities which are often erroneously supposed to be incompatible, as if clearness were not inherent in elevation. Transcendentally clear, is an expres- sion of Descartes, the most luminous intellect of France.
As an innovator, the quality which distinguishes him beyond all others is a perfect logic. Logic is the secret guide of genius when it dares successfully.
Considered, finally, as a man, De Candolle must always be regarded as one who, to usefulness as a citizen, added those personal graces of character and gentleness of temperament which make us forget the man of science, and dispose us to pardon his superiority,
284 SUN’S DISTANCE.
ON THE MEANS WHICH WILL BE AVAILABLE FOR COR- RECTING THE MEASURE OF THE SUN’S DISTANCE IN THE NEXT TWENTY-FIVE YEARS.
By the Astronomer Royal. From the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
At the meeting of the Society, on the 8th of April, the Astronomer Royal gave an oral statement ‘‘on the means which will be available for correcting the measure of the Sun’s distance in the next twenty- five years 7 the substance of which is contained in the following abstract:
The members of the Society will not be surprised at our looking so far in advance as twenty-five years. The special opportunity, which will then present itself, is the last which will occur for nearly a cen- tury and a half from the present time. Some years of preparation will be required to enable us to secure the full advantages which may then be within our reach. But, with all possible care, it will be found that the risk of total failure is not inconsiderable. The recognition of this danger naturally leads us to examine whether there will not be some earlier opportunity, of a different kind, for arriving at the same determination. And it will appear (in the judgment of the Astrono- mer Royal) that circumstances will be favorable, in the course of a few years, for obtaining a very good measure by the use of a different principle; less accurate, undoubtedly, in each of its individual appli- cations than the method upon which reliance has usually been placed, but admitting of almost indefinite repetition, demanding no co-opera- tion of distant obser vers, and requiring only that, in each instance, the observations which are to be compared be made with the same instrument and by the same observer (or with observers only so far changed that any personal equation would correct itself.) But even this method requires appliances, which cannot be constructed at the moment of observation; and it is necessary to study well, some time before the operations shall actually commence, what equipment, in- strumental and literary, is desirable for giving the best chance of suc- cess. It will appear that we are not beginning too soon to direct our attention to these matters in the present year.
The measure of the Sun’s distance has always been considered the noblest problem in astronomy. One reason for this estimation is, that it must be commenced as a new step in measures. It is easy to measure a base-line a few miles long upon this Earth, and easy to make a few geodetic surveys, and easy to infer from them the dimen- sions of the Earth with great accuracy; and, taking these dimensions as a base common to every subsequent measure, it is easy to measure the distance of the Moon with trifling uncertainty. But the measure of the Moon’s distance in no degree aids in the measure of the Sun’s distance, which must be undertaken as a totally independent opera- tion. A second reason is that, in whatever way we attack the prob- Jem, it will require all our care and all our ingenuity, as well as the application of almost all our knowledge of the antecedent facts of as-
SUN’S DISTANCE.
tronomy, to give the smallest chance of an accurate re- sult. <A third reason is, that.apon this measure depends every measure in astronomy beyond the Moon; the dis- tance and dimensions of the Sun and every planet and satellite and the distances of those stars whose paral- laxes are approximately known.
The received measure of the Sun’s distance depends on the transits of Venus of 1761 and 1769, but mainly on the latter. Very careful discussions of these will be found in the two books published by Encke, and ina memoir of great value by Don Joachim Ferrers, printed in ourownmemoirs. On examining these it will be found that, though there is very close accordance in the results obtained by the different investigators and from the different transits, yet all investigators have expressed their doubts upon those results. In the transit of 1761 the result depended almost entirely upon an accurate knowledge of the differences of longitude of very dis- tant stations, which are undoubtedly subject to great uncertainty. In the transit of 1769 it happened that the result depended almost entirely upon the observa- tions made by Father Heil at Wardhoe; and to these great suspicion has attached, many astronomers having, without hesitation, designated them as forgeries. It is evidently desirable to repeat the practical investigation when opportunity shall present itself.
It is desirable, for clearness, to begin witha reference to the simplest operation for me: asuring distance by parallax; as applied, for instance, to the Moon. In figure 1, let A and B be two observatories on the same meri- dian, and at A let the star C be observed to touch the moon’s limb, and at B let the star D be observed to touch the limb. (It will readily be understood that it is not essential that the observatories should be on the same meridian, if, as is in fact true, the Moon’s appa- rent change of place can be exactly computed; nor is it necessary that the star touch the limb, if its angular distance can be very exactly measured.) After commu- nication of the observations, the observer at A can mea- sure the angle C A D. This angle differs from A M B by the angle A D B; but such is the distance of the stars that the angle A D B is in every case unmeasurably small; and A M B, therefore, is to be taken as equal to C AD. Now,the dimensions of the Earth being known the length and direction of the line A B will be known, and the directions of AM, BM, are known; and there- fore the length of A M, BM, or of any other line drawn from M to any other part of the Earth is easily found. A small error in the angle at M—that is, in the angle C A D—will produce agreat error in the result for A M or BM. With this caution the problem is completely solved.
1 farallax of ne
A
Cc
286 SUN’S DISTANCE.
The question naturally rises, cannot the same method be applied to the Sun? Practically it cannot, for the following reasons: First, if errors of equal amount were committed in determining the inclina- tion of the two lines AM, BM, for the Sun and for the Moon, their effects on the results would be enormously unequal. Thus, if the error were 2’, it would produce an error of one hundred miles in the Moon’s distance; but it would produce an error of sixteen millions of milesin the Sun’s distance. Secondly, no stars can be seen for obser- vation in apparent contact with the Sun’s limb. Thirdly, if for want of observable stars we rely upon the instrumental measure of the angular elevation of the Sun’s limb, we introduce the risk of instru- mental errors, and (far worse) of errors in the computation of atmo- spheric refraction at the most unfavorable of all times of observation; and these are sufficient completely to vitiate the method.
In consequence of these difficulties, astronomers have always sought to determine the distance of the Sun indirectly by determining the distance of a planet, either by referring the planet’s apparent place to stars or by referring it to the Sun. In order to make this indirect process available, it is necessary to rely upon the antecedent determination of the proportion of the distances of the different plan- ets from the Sun.
It is a historical fact that, in the time of Copernicus and Keppler, when astronomers did not know whether the Sun’s distance from the Earth was nearer to ten millions or to a hundred millions of miles,
Fig. 2. the preportion of the distances of the different Proportions of Orbits planets was known almost as exactly as at present. of Planets The first and rudest means of obtaining these pro-
portions may be understood from figure 2. Com- mence with the assumption that the planets move in circular orbits. At the Earth E the apparent angle S EV. between the Sun and Venus, reaches, but does not overpass, acertain value. At this time, then, the angle E V S is a right angle. a Therefore, in the triangle E V §, two angles are known, (namely, at Hand at V,) and therefore
the proportions of the three sides can be found,
and two of these sides are the distances of
the Earth and Venus from the Sun. Again, conceive that from the Earth E’ the planet Mars is seen in the direction EH’ M’. By an ac- quaintance with the movements of Mars, derived from the observa- tions of many preceding years, it is known that his position, as seen from the Sun, isin the directionS M’. The angular difference between these two directions is the angle S M’ E’.. Also we know the angle S E’ M’, the apparent angular distance of Mars from the Sun. Hence (as in the instance of Venus) we know two angles of the triangle S E’ M’, and therefore we know the proportion of its three sides, two of which are the distances of the Earth and Mars from the Sun. These, at first, are very rude determinations; but they aid materially
SUN’S DISTANCE. 287
in introducing more exact ones. It is found by degrees that some alteration must be made in the inferred mean distances of the planets from the Sun; it is found by degrees that this will not suffice, and that the supposition of different degrees of ellipticity and in different directions must be introduced; and at length, by infinite repetitions of the process of trial and error, of which. scarcely a trace remains, except in the results, proportions of very considerable accuracy are obtained. In all this there is not the smallest reference to any of the absolute distances.
In figure 3 is shown the first practical infer- Hig ence from this knowledge of proportion of dis-
tances, as applied to a transit of Venus. Let bo Venus V be so exactly between the Sun and the Karth that she can be seen upon the face of the
Sun. An observer at A sees her upon the point | S, and an observer at B sees her upon the point S’. Suppose the relation between the points § and 8’ to be such as to admit of record (the mode of making this record will be considered S
shortly,) and suppose, by means of that record, s the angle S A 8S! is measured. The angle which
we desire to obtain, in order to measure the & Sun’s distance is A §’ B. Now, the proportion is of our measured angle § A 9’ to the desired an- © gle A'S’ B, is sensibly the same as the propor- y | | tion of S' V to:A V, or as 12: 28, very nearly. &
Thus it appears that we measure a large angle in order to infer from it a small one: and this is the circumstance which is the most favorable of all for obtaining an exact result. (If we tried to use a transit of Mercury in the same way, it would be found that the measured angle at A is to the required angle at S’ in the proportion of 4 to 6 nearly, that is, that we measure a small angle in order to infer from it a larger; hence the transits of Mercury are inapplicable to the measure of the Sun’s distance.) It is further to be considered that, in this reference of the ap- parent place of Venus to the disk of the Sun, no use is made of stars, and nothing depends on . | the difficulty of computing refraction, inasmuch | <8
he
2
ree
«
Parallax of Venus
as Venus and the Sun are, at the time of the ob- |
servation, subject to the same refraction. wv This method then appears likely to be excel- , ae
lent, provided that we possess a practical pro- 2
cess for measuring the angle S AS’. The mode of finding this will
be our next consideration.
288 _ SUN’S DISTANCE.
Fig. 4. In figure 4 is represented by a black Suns Disk reversed line the path which Venus will appear to describe across the Sun’s disk in the transit of 1882, (reversed in regard of right and left, for the convenience of subsequent investigations) as seen from the centre of the Earth. For the present let us lay aside the considera- tion of the EKarth’s rotation. An ob- server in the northern portion of the Karth will see Venus describe, not the black line, but the fainter line below the black line and parallel to it. An observer in the southern portion of the Earth will see Venus describe the fainter line above the black line. The path seen by the southern observer is longer than that seen by the northern observer, and there- fore occupies a longer time. Consequently the mere observation of the duration of the transit at these two stations would give informa- tion on the lengths of the two chords, and therefore would give means of computing the amount of separation of the two chords: and this apparent separation corresponds to the angle S A & in figure 3. We have therefore all the means of computing the angle A S’ B, and of inferring from it the Sun’s distance; although, as may be imagined, the intervening calculations are sufficiently complicated.
But this is on the supposition that the Earth has no motion of rota- tion. Let us introduce the consideration of rotation, and see how it modifies the result.
Let us place ourselves over a globe with its south pole elevated to represent the illuminated portion of the Earth on the day of transit. By bringing the meridian of 135° E. to the vertical, we shall see the portion of the Earth turned toward the Sun at the i ingress of Venus on the Sun’s disk; by bringing the meridian of 75° E. to the vertical, we see that portion turned toward the Sun at the egress. The re- versed form given to the solar disk in the cut (fig. 4) enables us to refer lines on the globe and on the diagram to corresponding geomet- rical directions, when we imagine ourselves to be looking through the diagram upon the globe.*
Now, fixing our attention on a northern station, in the United States of America for instance, it will be seen that the translation of this place by the movement of rotation carries it to meet the motion of Venus. Consequently it tends to shorten the duration of the transit. But by virtue of the northerly position of that station, the duration of transit is already shortened. Consequently, by combination of these two effects, the duration of the transit at the northern station is very much shortened.
Now, can we select a southern station such that the same rotation
= On account of the unavoidable omission of the diagrams representing the illuminated portions of the Earth at the times of ingress and of egress of the two transits, a few pas- sages have been omitted, and equivalent ones introduced, using the globe as a means of il- lustration.—J. H.
SUN’S DISTANCE. 289
of the Earth shall tend to lengthen the duration of transit as seen there? The transit at southern stations is already the longer by virtue of their southern position; and if to this we could superadd a further lengthening by virtue of the Harth’s rotation, we should have a very long duration of transit there which we might hope to com- pare with the very short duration at the north station, with the pros- pect of obtaining a combination which would be most advantageous for obtaining the measure sought.
We can select such a station.
It is essential to remark, that the transit will take place in the month of December, and that at that time the Earth’s south pole will be turned towards the Sun, and therefore, that those regions of the earth which are included between the south pole and the southern limit of illumination will be carried by rotation in a direction oppo- site to the direction of movement of all the northern parts of the earth. If we fix our attention on a part of the Antarctic continent, between Sabrina Land and Repulse bay, it will be seen that it is car- ried in the same direction as Venus, that the apparent movement of Venus is therefore made slower, and that the duration of transit is thereby lengthened. And as it is lengthened already by the southern position of the station, it will by the combination of these causes be very much lengthened. Comparing this with the observed duration in the United States, where it is very much shortened, we shall have a large difference, depending entirely upon the proportion which the Earth’s radius bears to the distance of the Sun, and most favorably available for the determination of that proportion. The difference of the times of duration would probably be not less than twenty-five minutes.
Thus the circumstances of the transit of 1882 are peculiarly favor- able (subject only to certain practical considerations, to be noticed hereafter,) for the determination of the proportion of the Earth's radius to the Sun’s distance, (usually called the Sun’s horizontal par- allax, or more strictly the sine of the Sun’s horizontal parallax.) A discussion of the transit of 1874 will show what are the conditions on which this favorable state depends.
In figure 5, where Venus is seen Bigis: crossing the northern part of the Sun’s Suns Disk, reversed. disk, it will be perceived that the northern station has (independently of the Earth’s rotation) the longer dura- tion of transit and the southern has the shorter. Now when we introduce the consideration of rotation — for which purpose we regard the globe with the meridians of 30° W. and 120° W., brought to the vertical to represent the illuminated portions at the ingress and egress, respectively— Se no selection of stations on the principle adopted for 1882 will tend to exaggerate this difference. If both stations are on the north side of
19
Pao
290 SUN'S DISTANCE.
the south pole, the movement of rotation shortens both durations in no very unequal degrees. If we take a station between the south pole and the southern limit of illumination, the motion of rotation tends to lengthen the duration, which by virtue of southernly position is shorter, and thereby the inequality is diminished. Thus it appears that the transit of 1874 cannot be used with the same adyante age as that of 1882 for determining the Sun’s horizontal parallax.
An examination of the characteristics of these transits, and also of those which occur in the month of June, (as 1761 and 1769,) when the north pole of the Earth is turned towards the Sun, suggests the following remarks: The transits favorable for the determination of the Sun’s horizontal parallax are those in which the part of the Sun’s disk crossed by Venus has the same name (north or south) as the pole of the Earth which is turned towards the Sun. Now, in general (but not always) the transits of Venus will occur in pairs, (as 1761-1769, 1874— 1882,) with an interval in each case of eight years. This interval depends on the circumstances that the transits can only be visible when the conjunction of the Earth and Venus takes place very near to one of the nodes of the orbit of Venus on that of the Earth; and that in eight years Venus has revolved almost exactly thirteen times, so that a conjunction at any one degree of heliocentric longitude is fol- lowed by a conjunction very near to the same degree e after an interval of eight years. But in consequence of the proportion of 8: 13 being not quite exact, and because in eight years Venus revolves a little more than thirteen times, the successive conjunctions take place in 23 days less than 8 Julian years. Therefore, at the second conjunc- tion Venus is less advanced in respect of the node than at the first. At the December conjunctions Venus is near the ascending node; at the June conjunctions she is near the descending node. In the former, therefore, she will be at the second transit more southerly, and in the latter more northerly, than at the first transit. These indications correspond with those of favorable transits. Therefore, in all cases the second transit of each pair is the more favorable for determining the Sun’s horizontal parallax. The exceptional case is when Venus crosses the middle of the Sun’s disk, as then the latitude of Venus is too great at both the next preceding and the next following 8-year interval to give a visible transit. |
In the explanation, up to this point, we have gone on the supposi- tion that the observations of transit to be employed are those of duration of transit. And this method possesses the very important advantage that it is entirely independent of the assumed longitude of the place of observation. But there is another method, namely, that of observing the absolute time (as referred to Greenwich time) of ingress only, or of egress only, at different stations on’ the Harth. The best way of considering this is to conceive that figure 3 is not in the plane of a meridian, but in the plane passing through the observ- ing station and through the Earth’s centre. Then it is plain that the apparent disturbance of the point S, from the point at which Venus would be seen from the Earth’s centre, is in the plane which passes through the observing station and through the Earth’s centre. Now,
SUNS DISTANCE. 291
if this plane is parallel to the Sun’s limb at the point of ingress, the disturbance of the apparent place of Venus will merely cause its place to slide along the Sun’s limb, and will not affect the time of ingress. If the plane is perpendicular to the Sun’s limb at the point of ingress the disturbance will tend to throw Venus upon or off the Sun’s disk in the greatest possible degree, and therefore to accelerate or retard the ingress in the greatest possible degree. But the observed time of ingress must necessarily be expressed, in the first instance, in local time; this can be converted into Greenwich time only by application of the assumed longitude of the place, and, therefore, when we com- pare the Greenwich times of ingress as observed at two stations, the result is necessarily affected by the possible errors of two longitudes. The same remarks apply to the egress.
We are now in a state to consider the applicability of the two methods to the transits of Venus in 1874 and 1882. The calculations of the places of the Earth and Venus, upon which the ages. or figure 4 and figure 5 are founded, have been made by Mr. Bre assistant to the Royal Observatory, and may be accepted as ee a At the commencement of this evening’s meeting an independent set of calculations was handed to the Astronomer Royal by Mr. Hind, superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, which do not sensibly differ from Mr. Breen’s. In the exhibitions of the illuminated side of the Earth, the nearest integral hour of Greenwich mean time is taken, because (as will be mentioned) there is yet a little uncertainty on the exact time.
First. On the application of the method of difference of duration of transit to the transit of 1874.
It has already been remarked that in this transit there is no possi- bility of combining the effect of Earth’s rotation with the effect of difference of latitude of stations, so as to exaggerate the difference of durations of transit depending on difference of latitude alone. And if we consider the effect of difference of latitude only, we find that circumstances are not very favorable. The most northerly stations are to be found in Siberia, Tartary, and Thibet, (which will scarcely be visited by astronomers in December,) on the coasts of China, a in North British India. The most southerly stations will be Ker elen’s island, Van Dieman’s Land, and New Zealand. But on observable difference of duration will probably not be half of that in 1882.
Second. On the application of the method of the difference of abso-. lute times to the transit of 1874.
For the ingress, favorable positions will be found at Owhyhee- (where the displacement tends to throw Venus upon the Sun’s disk, or to accelerate the ingress) and at Bourbon, Mauritius, and Kergue- len’s island, (where the displacement tends to throw Venus from the Sun’s limb, or to retard the ingress.) For the egress, Sicily, Italy,, and portions of Hurope west of the Black Sea, are so situate as to throw Venus upon the Sun’s disk, or to retard the egress; and New Zealand, New SARE REE Van Dieman’s Land, and Beerern, Australia, are well situated for accelerating the egress. But it is doubtful,
292 SUNS DISTANCE.
whether the longitudes of any of the stations named, except those in Europe, are yet “known with sufficient accuracy.
Third. On the application of the method of difference of duration of transits to the transit of 1882
It has been already pointed out that there are two tracts, each sufficient to contain a number of observing stations, which are par- ticularly well adapted to these observations. And it is specially to be remarked that the command of a number of stations, sufliciently near together to see the astronomical phenomenon in nearly the same way, but sufficiently separated to take the chances of different states of the sky, is very important. On occasion of the eclipse of 1842 the astronomers at Turin saw nothing, in consequence of the cloudy state of their sky, while the Astronomer Royal on the Superga, not five miles distant in a straight line, saw all the phenomena of the eclipse. Bearing this caution in mind, we will consider the circumstances of the two tracts in question.
The northern tract includes the whole of the United States of North America. The observatories are numerous, and they possess an ad- vantage which even yet is little known in Europe, namely, that from the extent of ¢ ealvanic telegraph, the habit of using it in the United States, the public spirit of the nation and of the telegraph companies, which would assuredly induce them to devote that wonderful auxil- iary to the exclusive use of astronomy on an occasion so important, and the absence of political suspicions, all the observing-stations would for an observation like this be connected by the galvanic tele- graph. (The Astronomer Royal adverts to the political suspicions, not without some bitterness, for he has been prevented by them from using a Kuropean telegraph for a single hour to determine the longi- tude of an important continental point.) The peculiar advantage of connecting, at least of comparing, all the observers’ clocks, would be of this kind. Suppose that there were ten observing-stations, and that, in consequence of the changeable weather, the ingress only was observed at five of these stations, and the egress only at the other five: If the clocks of the observatories were not connected or com- pared, these observations would be totally lost. But if they are con- nected, then every observation is referred to the absolute time of one clock, say the Washington clock; and from a knowledge of the geo- ere aphical position, a correction of the absolute time m: ary be computed, so as to deduce, from every observation of absolute time of ingress at any station, w hat would have been the absolute time of ingress had it been aeeoeved at Washington, and from every observation of the absolute time of egress at any statiea! what would have been the ab- sohite time of egress had it been observed at Washington; and thus we snall have five observations of ingress and five observations of egress, all as if they had been observed at Washington and noted by the Washington clock. Humanly speaking, the refore, we may say that the probabilities for the accurate and efficient observation of these phenomena in the United States are vastly superior to any that could have been reckoned on in any former time, or to any that could now be reckoned on in any other region.
The southern tract is a part of the Antarctic land discovered by
SUN’S DISTANCE. 293
Lieutenant Wilkes, of the United States navy, included between Sa- brina Land and Repulse bay, and occupying an extent of about 400 miles. The Astronomer Royal is informed by General Sabine that the 6th of December is rather early in the season for a visit to this land, but probably not too early, more especially as firm ice will be quite as good for these observations as dry land. It must, however, be borne in mind that it is indispensable to secure observations both of ingress and of egress in this tract, without which all the advan- tages of the North American observations will be useless. For this purpose it appears absolutely necessary to establish a chain of ob- serving posts, and to furnish some means of comparing the clocks. We are in possession now of two powers, unknown in former times, applicable to this purpose. One is the galvanic telegraph, which possibly (but not very probably) might be laid down in a temporary way. The other is the use of shear &. by. which the observers would be distributed to their several posts, and which would be con- stantly employed for some days before and some days after the transit in running up and down the line of coast with a number of chronome- ters, and comparing them with the stationary chronometers at each observing post. It would be extremely desirable that the country should be reconnoitered some years before the transit, in order to ascertain at a sufficiently early time the practicability of these or some equivalent plans, without which the risk of entire failure would be great.
Fourth. On the application of the method of the differences of ab- solute times to the transit of 1882.
For the ingress, the islands of Bourbon, Mauritius, and Kerguelen’s island, are very favorably situated for accelerating the ingress; and the United States of North America for retarding it, For the egress: Van Dieman’s Land, Eastern Australia, New Zealand, and New Cale- donia, will have the egress much retarded; while the United States, the West India asin le. and the coast of South America as far as the Rio Plata, will have it accelerated.
In the transits of 1761 and 1769 great difficulty was found to attach to the observations of the internal contact of the limb of Venus with the Sun’s limb, from the phenomenon which in late years has attracted attention under the name of Baily’s Beads. The Astronomer Royal expressed his opinion as entirely coinciding with that of Professor Powell, that this phenomenon is simply due to irradiation, as arising partly from diffraction, partly from fault of the telescope, and partly from the nervous excitement of the eye. From his own experience in two total eclipses of the Sun, in which he had taken great pains to see the phenomenon, and had (as he believes simply because he took care to see the Sun very distinctly) been unable to see the shghtest trace of it, he had not the smallest doubt that when proper care is taken for distinct vision, the phenomenon will not be seen at all. He referred specially to his delightful view of the very beautiful phenome- non of the disappearance of the last portion of the Sun in the valleys be- tween the lunar mountains, in the eclipse of 1851, which with less distinct vision would probably have created strings and beads. This
294 SUN'S DISTANCE.
distinctness of vision he ascribed principally to the use of a graduated dark glass, constructed under his direction by Mr. Simms. It consists of a long wedge of red glass and a long wedge of green glass, their edges turned the same way, combined with an equivalent wedge of colorless glass, its edge turned the opposite way. Nobody would suppose without trial how fastidious the eye is as to the proper intensity of shade, and how distinctly, when intent on clear vision, it rejects a shade in the most trifling degree lighter or darker. He thought it highly important that such shades should be used for observing the transits of Venus. It is desirable also that the color left by the shade- glass should be agreeable to the observer’s eye.
Still there is one caution which must not be put out of sight. The selection of places depends entirely upon the portion of the Earth which is illuminated at the times of ingress and egress; and if the tables of the movements of Venus are erroneous in 1882 to the amount of an hour’s motion, the illuminated face of the Earth will be altered to the amount of two or three hours’ rotation of the Earth, and the selections of stations may be totally changed. It is therefore most important that the tables of Venus should be thoroughly examined, and where necessary rectified. A great mass of observations of Venus exist, already reduced so far as to require only the very last step of substitution of errors of planetary elements. The Astronomer Royal referred particularly to the Greenwich Planetary Reductions from 1750 to 1830, to the reduction of certain Cambridge observations, to the reduction (in the annual Greenwich volume) of the Greenwich observations down to the present time, and to the discussion of some of the Greenwich observations by Mr. Main and Mr. Glaisher. And he took the opportunity of expressing his opinion that fifty pounds spent on calculations with an object like this would confer much greater benefit on astronomy than a thousand pounds employed in the foundation and equipment of an observatory. ,
On viewing the expense and the risk of the determinations of the Sun’s distance by transits of Venus, as well as the distance of time, which must necessarily place them beyond the knowledge of many observers of the present day, it appears natural to consider whether other methods cannot be used, less stringent as to the moment of ob- servation, requiring less co-operation of observations, and occurring atan earlier time. Such are the direct determinations of the parallaxes of Venus and of Mars, when near to the Earth, by simultaneous observations at northern and southern stations, as in figure 1, or by successive observations at the same observatory when it is brought to different positions by the Earth’s rotation, as in figure 6.
Venus cannot be compared with stars on the meridian. She may be compared with stars in extra-meridional observations before sun- rise or after sunset, but she is then uncomfortably bright, and rarely well defined; and she has only one illuminated limb admitting of ob- servation, and therefore in the comparison of observations made at different stations there is great risk of error from difference in the estimation of her semi-diameter. Moreover, she does not remain long in the position nearest the Earth, and the nearer she is the more con-
SUN'S DISTANCE. 295
tracted are the daily hours of observation. It seems unlikely that trustworthy results will be deduced from the observations of Venus.
Figure 6. * Parallax of
ai BES) COR Ne ese oe cS
The circumstances of Jars in opposition to the Sun (figure 6) are much more favorable. Jars may then be compared with stars through the whole night; he has two observable limbs, both admitting of good observation; he remains much longer in proximity to the Earth, and the nearer he is the more extended are the hours of ob- servation.
Here, however, a circumstance is to be considered which has not previously called for attention. The orbit of Jars is much more eccentric than those of Venus and the Earth. At some oppositions, therefore, he will be so far from the Earth that little advantage will be derived from attempting to observe his parallax. (It is understood that such observations were made in the United States expedition of a few years past, which, from the great distance of Mars, must have been nearly useless.) At other oppositions he is almost as near as Venus is about conjunction. The following table expresses roughly the distance of Mars from the Earth, at some of the nearest and some of the most distant oppositions. The unit of measure is the EKarth’s mean distance from the Sun:
1860 about July 21. ---6 eee eee cee eee eee 0.38 IS62 about October Wie. <i. ciate ie, wisiele| w aleee gs Ooo 1869 about Pebuasye stoi pions oceroitorents eraidty haere Sly about) March, 22) Qepepes-tevelensntelery- pete Pee cen OA: 1877 about September 3.--- +e. e+. ee eee ee 0.37
The years 1860, 1862, and 1877 are, therefore, favorable for the determination of parallax. But they require the following special considerations:
When, as in figure 1, the method of comparison of observations made ata susan observatory and a southern observatory is em- ployed, the most favorable position of the planet is that of verticality to the point midway between the two observatories. The north lati- tude of the northern observatories (Greenwich, Berlin, Pulkowa) is greater than the south latitude of the southern observatories, (Cape of Good Hope, St. Jago.) Hence, ceteris paribus, a north declination of Mars will be preferable to a south declination. In this respect the opposition of 1862 is preferable to that of 1860.
But there is another method of making observations for parallax not applicable to Venus, but applicable to y Mars, namely, by observing the displacement of Mars in right ascension, when he is far east of the meridian and far west of the meridian, as seen at a single observa- tory. Thus, in figure 6, conceive the pole of the Karth to be turned tow: ards the eye, and conceive the Earth and J/ars to be stationary in space, the Earth, however, rotating round its axis. By the diurnal rotation, an observatory is carried from the position A to A’; and, at
296 SUNS DISTANCE.
one of these times, Wars is seen in contact with one star, and at the other time with another star. These observations give the means, as in figure 1, of determining the distance of Mars. And though, in fact, both the Earth and Mars are moving, yet the effects of “those motions can be so exactly calculated as to sive to the determination the same accuracy as if both were at rest.
In order to compare the value of this method with that of observa- tions on the meridian at two observatories, we must estimate the length of the base line A B in figure 1, or A A’ in figure 6. The greatest meridional base line, from Pulkowa to the Cape of Good Hope, is = Earth’s radius x 2 sine 47° nearly. The measure of the greatest base line A A’ depends on the latitude of the observatory. ‘At Greenwich it is = Earth’s radius < 2 sine 38° 30’; at the Cape of Good Hope and at St. Jago (Chili) it is about = Harth’s radius X 9 sine 57°; at Madras it is nearly = Harth’s radius x 2 sine TT°. Thus it appears that at each of the three last-mentioned observatories the base line which can be obtained is considerably greater than the best which can be obtained by meridional combination of two observatories. At Madras the angle to be measured would be about 44”, To this is to be added that the method is attended with no ex- pense whatever; that the observations which are compared are made with the same telescope and by the same observer, or the same series 2 observers; that there is none of the tediousness, the wearying cor-
espondence, or the doubt, which are inseparable from observ ations a distant co-operation; and that the observer is supported by the feeling that his own unassisted observations will give a perfect sys- tem of means for deciding one of the most important questions in astronomy. The Astronomer Royal expressed his opinion that this method is the best of all.
In order to use the process to the greatest advantage, Jars ought to be visible at six hours’ distance from the meridian on each side, and therefore his declination ought to have the same nameas the 3 lati- tude of the observatory. Thus 1860 will be a favorable year for the Cape of Good Hope and St. Jago; 1862 will be favorable for North Amerfcan and European observatories. It is scarcely necessary to discriminate between them for Madras, where both years are good; 1862, however, is preferable to 1860.
The first equipment for this observation, on the necessity for which special stress must be laid, is an equatorial, firm in right ascension. Many modern equatorials are de sficient in this important quality. It would be well in using them to apply a temporary mechanism for fixing the instrument in right ascension, such as its construction may permit. The next, which will be found advantageous, though not strictly ne- cessary, is the apparatus for the American or chronographic method of transits, by which the number of observations may be greatly in- creased, and something will be gained in the accuracy of each. These, with the ordinary clocks and chronometers, &c., of an observatory, are all that are required.
The principal rules for the observer would be: To make the obser- vations, as near as practicable, to the six-hour intervals from the
SUN’S DISTANCE. 297
meridian on both sides, and to repeat the observations in continued sequence morning and evening, morning and evening. If different observers are employed, to take care that each observer is charged as often with morning as with evening observations. To determine the difference between the right ascension of Mars and the right ascensions of two stars, one having greater N. P. D. and the other smaller N. P. D. than Mars. To use the same stars in at least two observations of different names, morning and evening, and in as many more consecutive observations as can be conveniently arranged. When it becomes necessary to change the selection of stars, to ob- serve both the old pair and the new pair in one morning or evening observation. In all cases to observe, by such alternation as is most agreeable to the observer, both limbs of Jars, (the preceding and the following.) The observations might with advantage commence a fortnight before opposition and terminate a fortnight after it.
In the nature of external preparation, applying generally to all observatories, the principal requisite is a chart of the apparent path of Mars in considerable detail, giving the place of the planet for every hour or every few hours, and giving the places of all the stars, little and great, in its neighborhood. The observer in possession of this will be able to select stars of such a magnitude as he judges most agreeable to his eye, and at such intervals as will be convenient for his system of wires; and to attend rigorously to the condition of always comparing the planet with two stars, one of greater and one of less N. P.D. It might be proper that the color of the stars should be noted, in order that, to avoid possible inequalities of refraction, stars of the same color as Mars (if there are such) may be selected. It would not, perhaps, be too much to expect such charts for 1860 and 1862 from the superintendents of our national ephemerides.
On reviewing the whole subject, the Astronomer Royal presses on the attention of astronomers the importance of observing Mars in 1860 and 1862; and for this purpose the necessity of speedily making the preparations, instrumental and literary, which he has described, especially that of the charts of stars with the path of Mars. ,At the same time he urges that the future astronomical public will not be satisfied unless all practical use is made of the transits of Venus of 1874 and 1882; and that for these a thorough discussion of the ele- ments of the orbit of Venus, the determination of some distant longi- tudes, and a reconnoissance of Wilkes’s land must be effected within a few years.
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF KNOWLEDGE OF RADIANT HEAT, MADE TO THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, AT THE MEETINGS. IN 1832, 1840, AND 1854.
By the Reverenp Bapen Powett, M. A., F. R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. *
REPORT FOR 1832.
In attempting to give a condensed account of the present state of our knowledge of the science of Radiant Heat, 1t appears to me that I shall be best consulting the design of such a report by offering, in as brief a form as possible, a sketch of what has been formerly done in this department ; and thence proceeding to a more detailed sur- vey of what is now doing. And we shall proceed with greater clear- ness if we distinguish the several different departments into which the subject divides itself, agreeably to certain known distinctions in the properties and species of heat acting under peculiar circumstances. All these have been too commonly confounded together under the general and vague name of Radiant Heat, whence not unfrequently the most erroneous views have resulted. By distributing our sub- ject, however, under the few well-marked divisions which the scanty results of observation as yet supply, we shall at once secure perspt- cuity in our views, and be treating the subject in a way most accord- ant with the inductive process : which, it must be distinctly avowed, has not yet enabled us to advance to any such comprehensive knowl- edge of the facts as can warrant us in generalizing them, or in ascribing to a common principle the radiation of heat from a mass of hot water, from aflame, and from the sun.
We shall take each of these principal divisions separately, and under each shall consider what is known in reference to those prop- erties to which experiment has been directed.
Division I.
Radiation of heat from hot bodies below the temperature of lumin- osity.
* We regret to state that since the date of the present Report of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, we have received intelligence of the death of the gifted author of these admirable articles. In his departure from this life science has been called to mourn a successful and industrious investigator, an able defender, and an accomplished expounder of her princi- ples. Asascholar, a writer, and a christian gentleman, we can but seldom hope to look upon his like again. The republication and wide diffusion of these reports, in a collected form, will, we trust, be considered of importance in the advance of science, and we hope to be able to publish a continuation of them by some worthy successor of Professor pemeyy
5 lels
RADIANT HEAT. 299
a.) Radiation (or communication of heat to sensible distances) is distinct JSrom its conveyance by conduction through the air; since,
1.) It takes place perpendicularly downwards :
2.) Only in elastic media. The relative cooling in different media is seen in the following ex-
periments. —(Rumford’s Hssays, 1, 425; Torricelli ; Murray’s Chem., i, 328.) Thermometer cooled from 212° to 32° Fahrenheit : In Vacuo... -----:- Coe eee te eees coon es Gn LO Umm. Oo Sec: INTIME Goeoo OOOO DOGO Goo soo cob Ds 7 3 AWG sich chs) steiweneuererare Vo OO Ses ono i 5 Mercury... ---+- cece cece eee cee 0 36
Dulong and Petit, in their elaborate researches on the cooling of bodies, have investigated the law of cooling in the most perfect vacuum they could form: but they admit that there was always a minute portion of air present. The radiation, therefore, of heat in an absolute vacuum is by no means conclusively established.—(See Annals of Phil., vol. xiii, p. 241.)
3.) Professor Lesle ascertained that the effect from a mass of given size is nearly proportional to the angle which it subtends at the thermometer ; and that the heat suffers little or no diminution in its passage through the air.
The radiation is most copious in the direction perpendicular to a plane surface of the hot mass, and is proportional to the sine of its inclination to the direction of the thermometer.—(Inquiry into the Nature and Propagation of Heat, p. 51, &c.)
For the same position the effect is proportional to the excess of temperature of the hot body above that of the air.
4.) Pictet made an attempt to estimate the velocity with which heat radiates, by means of concave reflectors at sixty-nine feet dis- tance. The effect on the focal thermometer was absolutely instanta- neous.—(Hssais de Phys.)
b.) Reflection of simple heat from non-luminous hot bodies.
1.) The general principles are established by Professor Leslie.— (Inquiry, pp. 14, 51.)
2.) He shows that the quantity of heat reflected is proportional to the sine of incidence on a plane surface.
3.) It is affected by the polish of the surface.—(Leslie, Inquiry, pp. 81, 20, 98, 106.)
4.) The most exact experiments are those made with conjugate con- cave reflectors ; a ball of iron below luminosity in one focus, a ther- mometer in the other : a glass of boiling water may be substituted for the iron ball. In either case a great effect 1s produced in the opposite focus, though little out of it.—(Saussure, Voyages, t. iv, p.
120; Sir W. Herschel, Phil. Trans., 1803, p. 305.)
300 RADIANT HEAT.
Professor Leslie made extensive use of reflectors, but observed that there was a very considerable degree of aberration in the focus from an exact position ; considerably nearer to the reflector than the true focus, the effect continued undiminished.—(Inquiry, p. 64.)
5.) Alleged reflection of cold.
An account of the earliest erguiey iments will be found in the Memoirs of the Florentine Academy, (Waller’s Transl., p. 103; also Gertner, 1781.)
Pictet, with conjugate elie ore) found the thermometer sink when ice was in the opposite focus. —(Essais de Phys., p. 82.)
Count Rumford employed a tube, a frustrum of a cone, open at both ends ; placing ice at the small end, the thermometer at the large end sunk very little. The ice being at the small end, the ther- mometer at the large end fell considerably. Rays reflected by the inside of the tube from the body at the large end would be concen- trated on that at the other.
6.) M. Prevost (Hssai sur la Calerique Rayonnant, Geneva, 1809, and Stecherches sur la Chaleur, p. 15) proposes a theory of radiation, that heat is a discrete fluid, every particle of which moves in a straight line, and such motions are constantly taking place in all directions, whether there be more or less heat present. Hence all bodies, whether of a higher or lower temperature, are supposed to be con- tinually radiating heat ; and this going on mutually tends to bring them all to an equilibrium of temperature.
On this theory explanations are given of the apparent radiation of cold.
The thermometer in the conjug ate focus, when nothing is in the other, remains stationary, because the rays reflected from “all the sur- rounding Space so as to cross at the focus of the opposite mirror, and be reflected in a parallel state to the other, and thence on to the ther- mometer in the focus, are exactly equivalent to those which the ther- mometer radiates. But when a mass of ice is placed in the opposite focus, it intercepts and absorbs a portion of the rays which would otherwise have fallen on the first mirror, and so have reached the thermometer, which in consequence radiates more than it receives, and therefore sinks.
A similar explanation applies to Count Rumford’s experiment.— (See Thomson On Heat, &c., p. 163.)
In the Quarterly Journal of Science (June, 1830, p. 378) some ob- servations are given on this subject, and an explanation offered, which, though very ingenious, appears somewhat complicated.
It may not be improper to observe, that if the above be a correct view of Prevost’s theory, it can hardly be conceived as otherwise than partially hypothetical. The idea, viz: that bodies even of a lower temperature than those about them actually give out a small degree of heat, is extremely difficult to conceive ; and it does not appear absolutely e essential to the explanation of the facts.
Without reference to any theory, I venture to propose the follow- ing as the simple experimental law :
All bodies of unequal temperature tend to become of equal tempe-
RADIANT HEAT. 301
rature ; if in econtact—by conduction; if at sensible distances—by radiation, of the excess of heat; and (in the latter case) whether the radiation reach the cooler body: directly or by an intervening reflection.
This appears sufficient to include the facts of Pictet’s and Rum- ford’s experiments.
7.) Alleged polarization of simple heat by reflection.
Mons. J. H. Berard (Mémoire sur les Propriétés des differentes Espéces de Rayons qu’on peut séparer au moyen du Prisme de la Lumiére solaire, Mem. de la Société d’ Arcueil, Paris, 1817, tome iil; see also Annals of Phil., O. S., ii, 164; Biot, Zraité de Phys., iv,) tried experiments for the polarization of heat. His apparatus was the same as Malus’s, having the axis of revolution vertical ; but no precautions of screening, &c., are mentioned. He used an air ther- mometer containing a bubble of alcohol in the tube, in the focus of a reflector, moving round along with the second glass: a ball of copper about two inches in diameter was in the focus of a reflector placed in the position for polarization of light. (His experiments on heat with light will be referred to in another place.) He tried the effect with the metal heated below luminosity, and assured himself that there was a difference in the degree of heat reflected in the two rec- tangular azimuths of the second glass.
I have attempted to repeat these experiments with the same kind of apparatus, carefully screened and arranged with the tube horizon- tal ; but could produce no diminution in the proper position. —(Ldinb. Journal of Science, N. 8., vol. x, p. 207.)
I also tried the experiment with a delicate mercurial thermometer, comparing this case with others, (referred to in their proper place, ) in which light accompanied the heat ; but in the former could detect no difference in a long series of repetitions.
The total effect is in all cases extremely small, and the disturbing causes considerable, especially the heating of the glasses, &c. The whole experiment was very unsatisfactory.—(Edinb. Journal of Sci- ened: NiS:, vol. vi, sp. 291.)
c.) Effect of the nature of surfaces on the emission of simple heat.
1.) Count Rumford (Nicholson’s Journal, ix, 60) employed two simi- lar vessels of hot water of the same temperature—one naked, the other coated with linen, glue, black or white paint, or smoked with a candle ; the results were,
Naked vessel cooled 10 degrees in 55 minutes. Coated “10 ute <P AS@ee i nee
Mr. Murray supposes a relation between radiating and conducting powers.—(System of Chem., i, 326, 334. See Pll. Trans., 1804, p. 90, &c.)
2.) The most complete investigation of this and other parts of the subject has been made by Professor Leslie in his Jnguzry ‘nto the Na- ture and Propagation of Heat, 1804.
He first used hot water in a globe of tin, in which the inserted thermometer fell a given quantity, with the tin bright, in 156 minutes; with the tin coated with lampblack, in 81 minutes.
302 RADIANT HEAT.
The difference was greatest in still air, and diminished with the violence of its motion :
Time of cooling.
pet dS ee a Wind. Bright. Blackened. Gentle..... Cee rtoenys 44 minutes-....- 35 minutes. Strong eeu TeNs ies aie ahels a3 iCal Mets. sifore 204 66 \Wrolleiitis Seo o eine 92 36 ASG cad 9 sie
Hence the effect is different from conduction by air.
3.) The most exact series of experiments was that in which he used conjugate reflectors, a differential thermometer having one bulb in the focus, and a cubical tin canister of hot water, (the temperature of which was seen by the projecting stem of a thermometer,) and each side of which could be coated with a different substance, and pre- sented successively towards the reflector.
The following results collected together afford the best view of the general nature of the conclusions relative to the influence of the state of the surface on the radiation of heat.—(Jnquiry, pp. 81, 90, 110.)
Lampblack Rate etotsiab eu eaieretene tel evelie cereiioteisiel recede! et «reier's 100* Water , (estimated) BOING en Scee eo isieieen is: seraee ie sODIo On 100 Wri iting paper: ++++-- 4 Sala GiSiicrola orale: a Orauomnuo aajonaee 9R* [Ra ayeit alsa sicsns Sricinck dtocth cicnicha cations on ioVGloyapoxnuice Gad Geel 50 O00 96 Sealing wax 4G Ee BGG oo CeoloNO UE iontnd solo eG O OAdiok do ach ond 95 Crown glass Susviev ey esis PAAR Cancale CIC RAGA NVC crc mar 90 (Horanawimbnler se cladiok BING KCNA ACT eee SCC HCIRN MERCH Succes les SR* Miceucisrmencneterenerariencnancisuoetemenenecsuentsistere se erteverere tery anemones 85 JY Gavouneh os (eueSIGNNtG 1 ClOlicNe Bucibho loaions to toroldromtlod Sign aenibhcia' cc 80* Isinglass Ridiioe Bios ehOL IS oLaed Ciclo b ByO lo Guo eNaOrG oO Loriard 80 Plumbago BUAIGIS GAGIO1G, SGU Gl G. 0/6 Gh Olauo GsolanS. BisO ata one 15 4 Manvele salbtnerope \@yllo. do blow: o0.6.b80 cidto al c'ao!olo suevatetel ate 59 Fil of jelly ---- +--+ eee e eee eee eee cee eee 5At AMnipaiaveye aula Olt Wl ooca nocd Fo0 cobs Dono obo bc Sy lg “Mavens nerel IWernGlisno oc coomo oom ogo ddodbolSoro Ot 45 Film of jelly, (4 of former quantity)----.-++--- 38 Tin scratched with sandpaper-------- Bislienetal’s tis 22 Mercury Brean, BINA Siler saa nuch os Bic ho Cobo Oo bis cinch crea 9() (esi dee Glavod ld6 hb oo sco o ono b O66 O10 Sto.olD oie 19 Polished raw «se eth ieee sents Sees 15 Polished tin, gold, silver, copper- setae . 12
Thin lamina of gold, silver, or anpoer niga on lee 12
* From comparing the results marked, it appears that the effect follows no relation to color. Softness probably tends to increase radia- tion.
+ Thickness of film increased beyond a certain limit does not in- crease the radiation.
{ The tenuity is not sufficient to produce any diminution of effect, which probably would take place if thinner films could be applied.
RADIANT HEAT. 303
4.) The effect of the surface on radiation is beautifully exemplified in the laws which regulate the formation of dew as developed by Dr. Wells.—(Hssay on Dew, 1814. See also Dufay, Mem., Paris, 1736, p- 852; and Harvey on Dew, Quarterly Journ. of Science, No. 33: Edinb. Journ. of Science, i, 161.)
5.) Dr. Ritchie (Zdinb. Phil. Journ., xxiii, 15) explains his theory of the mode in which the radiating power of surfaces is increased by making them rough, or furrowing, &c. He contends that it is not owing to the increase of surface, but to the quantity of heat reflected by the sides of the furrows.
He adopts the hypothesis of material caloric, and that its mole- cules are mutually repulsive.
The effect of surface is an essential distinction between radiation and conduction by air; the latter being shown by Dulong and Petit to be a independent of the nature of the surface.—(Annals
of Phil., xii, 322.)
d.) Effect of surface on the absorption of heat from non-luminous hot bodies.
1.) De Saussure and Pictet, with the apparatus before described, found that the thermometer rose in two minutes:
el eiliaecsusye:se. ot iets siaterer oven caeleniee Mae menoneme a Azo Fahrenheit. IBlae@kemed sic a cisnerstrersis te sre Pasidesils, ahesereis 34
2.) By the same apparatus before described, Professor Leslie found that on coating the bulb of the thermometer with the different sub- stances, the absorptive power was very nearly in the same proportion as the radiative; and by making the same modifications in the surface of the reflector, he found that reflective power is inversely as the ra- diative or absorptive.—(Inquiry, pp. 19, 81,98.) He also gives a very precise set of experiments on the effect of coatings of jelly of increasing thicknesses.—(p. 106.)
3.) Dr. Ritchie has devised avery elegant mode of showing that the absorptive power of surfaces is precisely proportional to their radiating power.—(Royal Inst. Journ., vol. v., p. 305.)
The instrument consists of a large differential thermometer, whose bulbs are chambers of considerable size, presenting large and equal plane surfaces on the sides which are towards each other; of these one is plain or polished, the other coated. Midway between them is placed a canister having equal plane surfaces facing each of the former respectively, and one ‘polis ed, the other coated with the same pig- ment as before; this canister is filled with hot water, and is capable of turning on a vertical axis; thus the coated surface of the canister can be turned to the coated bulb or to the polished; in the former case a great effect 1s produced on the coated bulb, and a very small effect on the plain; in the second case the better radiating surface is directed to the worse absorptive one, and the worse radiating to the more absorptive, and the liquid in the tube remains perfectly stationary ; the exact equality, therefore, of the absorptive and radiating powers is established. The whole is on a large scale, and can be exhibited to a class.
304 RADIANT HEAT.
4.) The most recent and curious researches on this part of the sub- ject (and extending, as we shall see, to other parts also) are those of MM. Nobili and Melloni.—(Annales de Chimie, Oct.,1831; Recherches sur plusieurs Phénoménes Calorifiques, &c.)
The authors commence by describing their thermo-multiplier, by the aid of which their researches were carried on. This consists in a thermo-electric combination, susceptible of excitation from the feeblest conceivable application of heat, and connected with a delicate gal- vanometer, which gives a measure of the effect produced, and conse- quently of the heat.
The pile is in a case coated with the smoke of a flame when used for radiant heat, but left naked when for heat of temperature, on account (as they observe) of the bad conducting quality of this coating.
They applied this instrument to the examination of the different reflecting, absorbing, and radiating powers of surfaces.
They confirmed in general the results of Leslie and others already mentioned. They found that polish augments the reflecting power much less than usually supposed. Non-metallic substances possess scarcely any reflecting power, whatever be the state of their surfaces.
They examined the absorptive power of different substances, taking lamin of equal thickness and similarly fixed, &c.; these having been heated for a few minutes in the rays of the sun, were placed in pairs on apertures at the opposite sides of the thermo-multiplier, and in this way the order of their absorptive powers was considered to be obtained by the degree of heat they respectively radiated; and the results were, that the effect increased by blackness of color and with roughness of surfaces. Also the following surfaces were in this order: silk, wool, cotton, flax, hemp, (all white,) which is the inverse of their conducting powers. In like manner, with metals of nearly the same color and polish, the order was—copper, silver, gold, steel, iron, tin, lead, exactly in the inverse order of the conducting powers; the same with several woods and minerals.
On these experiments I must remark, that the heat acquired from the sun’s rays is so obviously dependent on color that it is astonishing that any experimenter should adopt this as affording any ground for making conclusions respecting the comparative absorbing or radiating
owers for heat in general. The later results, when the surfaces were all of the same color, are extremely important. Supposing they all acquired the same degree of solar heat which was thus converted into heat of temperature, and then radiated from the surfaces as simple heat, the real conclusion established is, that the RADIATING powers of
surfaces for simple heat are in the inverse order of their conducting powers.
e.) Effect of screens on heat from non-luminous hot bodies.
1. Pictet found a difference in the interceptive effect, according as the plain or the silvered side of a glass screen was towards the source of heat.
RADIANT HEAT. 305
© Ratio of effects on
Towards hot body. thermometer. (IBKGigsS colo a 0-600 Om OOUOUD 0 056 od mB pao Ob c00.4 a5 5 Amalgam A00 oooOO Bo COS oO. No. clO' O BHORDOR OS OU Re 3 45) Amalgam, blackened Ce ©) Jewels 0) @ele.e «6 92 Amalgam removed,—glass blackened.---...--.-. 180
(Essai, d&e., p. 72.)
2.) He tried to refract simple heat without effect.
Sir W. Herschel tried with a lens, and supposed it effected: this has been refuted by Sir D. Brewster.—(Vide infra; Phil. Trans. 1800, Part TH, No. 15,'Exp. 19, 20.)
3.) Professor Lesle’s experiments on screens are perhaps the most valuable portion of his inquiry.
He found the effect of a screen increase rapidly with its distance from the source, (p. 28,) and less so with its thickness, (p. 38.)
Different substances appear to have a different interceptive power; but this upon examination appears always to be dependent on their conducting power, and the absorptive nature of their surface jointly. —
The most decisive experiment on this point was that made with two panes of glass, each having one side coated with tin foil; accord- ing as the plain or coated sides were placed in the contact, the com- pound screen had a greater or less apparent interceptive power; that is, a greater or a less power of absorbing and subsequently radiating the heat. Again, either might be used separately, or the two at an jnterval.—(p. 39.)
4.) Prevost concluded that a certain portion of heat is directly trans- mitted through transparent screens, by employing moveable screens. which continually presented a fresh surface, so that it was suppesed’ all communication of heat and conveyance by way of secondary radi-. ation would be prevented.
But it must be considered that it is impossible to prevent eutirely any portion of a screen in the most rapid motion from acquiring heat:. no such experiments therefore can be strictly conclusive.
Dr. Ritchie tried experiments with the same view, by means of a. film of liquid adhering to threads stretched across a frame continually renewed.—(Phil. Trans. 1827, Part I, p. 141.) But tothis.a,similar objection must apply.
5.) The results of Professor Leslie do not apply to temperatures above those of boiling water.
This extension of the inquiry formed the subject of the-researches of De la Roche. The complete account of these is given in its proper place; at present we have to consider them only as far as relates to bodies below luminosity. He tried the effect of a screen of glass, first transparent, and then with one surface blackened, on the heat radiating from mercury at 180° centig. and at 346 when it was boiling.—(Biot, Z’rarté de Phys., iv, 640.),
The results were as follows:
20
306 RADIANT HEAT.
Rise of focal thermometer (centig.) in 1".
No screen, Transparent Blackened
screen, screen. Mercury at 180°...---- 3°.94.+.+ 2.000. 0°22....-.-6-, 0°.07 Mercury at GULR. ls GR BiStaupall UbyuI Rates 610-0020 Uo OD Gon IW iysloldioo aod. ods oO! elad
He hence infers a partial transmission of heat at these high tem- peratures; and the more so, viewing these results in connexion with the rest of the subsequent series (considered i in another place.)
These are the only ones of his experiments referring really to simple radiant heat; and the inference of an actual transmission in the way of direct radiation is open to several objections.
6.) The blackened screen causes a greater diminution of heat than the transparent, and it was therefore inferred that a portion of heat radiates freely through the transparent screen, and is stopped by the opaque one; but there are several circumstances which show that this is not a necessary conclusion.
The coating was towards the source of heat, and rendered this screen more absorptive of heat where exposed to it, that is, at its central part, and a better radiator towards the edges without the area of the incident rays; so that it radiated its heat most copiously on the side away from the thermometer. With the plain screen there was no such tendency to radiate more on one side than on the other, and hence the greater effect on the thermometer.
This explanation I suggested in the Annals of Philosophy, xlv, 181.
Some observations bearing upon this subject occur in Sir David Brewster’s elaborate paper on ‘‘New Properties of Heat,’’ &., in the Phil. Trans. 1816, Part I. His 40th proposition is directed to prove that radiant heat is not susceptible of refraction, and is incapa- ble of permeating glass like the luminous rays. The truth of this is demonstratively shown from the curious properties examined in the © previous parts of the paper, and shown to be communicated by heat to glass; and by the progress of which, the passage of the heat through the glass may be as clearly traced as if the heat itself were visible.
He applies this conclusion to the experiment of Sir Wm. Herschel, in which the concentration of simple heat by a lens appears to be proved. The thermometer must have received the heat radiated by the lens itself; and from the circumstance that the edges will cool first, the most copicus radiation of heat will be in the direction of the axis.
In connexion with the same point, he also examines the conclusions of MM. De ja Roche and Prevost, and observes: ‘‘The ingenious ex- periments of M. Prevost, of Geneva, and the more recent ones of M. De la Roche, have been considered as establishing the permeability of glass to radiant heat. M. Prevost employed moveable screens of glass, and renewed them continually, in order that the result he ob- tained might not be ascribed to the heating of the screen: but such is the rapidity with which heat is propagated through a thin plate of glass, that it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to observe the
RADIANT HEAT. 307
state of the thermometer before it has been &ffected by the secondary radiation from the screen.
‘*The method employed by M. De la Roche, of observing the differ- ence of effect when a blackened glass screen and a transparent one were made successively to intercept the radiant heat, is Hable to an obvious error. The radiant heat would find a quicker passage through the transparent screen, and therefore the difference of effect was not due to the transmitted heat, but to the heat radiating from the anterior surface. The truth contained in M. De la Roche’s fifth proposition is almost a demonstration of the fallacy of all those that precede it. He found that a thick plate of glass, though as much or more permeable to ight than a thin glass of worse quality, allowed a much smaller quantity of radiant heat to pass. If he had employed very thick plates of the purest flint glass, or thick masses of fluid that have the power of transmitting light copiously, he would have found that not a single particle of heat was capable of passing directly through transparent media.”’
7.) Ihave further attempted a direct experimental examination of. the question in a paper inserted in the Phil. Trans., 1826, Part ITI, Dp. 12.
The substance of my observation is as follows :
De la Roche found that if radiant heat be intercepted by two trans- parent screens, the additional diminution of effect occasioned by the second is proportionally much less than that produced by the jist ; and the same conclusion is extended fo any number of screens. This was explained by the supposition that the heat in its passage through the first glass undergoes a certain modification, in some respects analogous to polarization, by which it is enabled to pass with very little diminution through the second and subsequent glasses.
In those cases where the source of heat is luminous, such phenomena would receive an obvious explanation on the principle investigated in my other paper.— Vide infra. ;
But if the same effect is still observable below the point of lumi- nosity, we must have recourse to some other principle of explanation That deduced by De la Roche appears at least plausible; and though it should be considered proved that, in general, heat is incapable of being radiated directly through glass, it perhaps would not necessarily follow that it might not, under peculiar circumstances, have a power of doing so communicated to it. Thoagh, on the other hand, it must be confessed that in the present case some difliculty would attend such a sup position.
It certainly would not be easy to conceive such a property to be communicated to the heat by the mere act of being conducted through the first glass. Again, a new property of heat is thus introduced, which, it must be conceded, is not absolutely and exclusively established. meh)
It appeared to me, therefore, a point of some interest to examine, In the case of non-luminous heat, in the first place, the accuracy of the fact, and secondly, if verified, whether there might not be circum- stances observable in the conditions of the experiment by which it
308 RADIANT HEAT.
° might be accounted for, without the necessity of supposing any pe- culiar property of heat, or a direct transmission even through the second glass.
My apparatus, in following up this inquiry, was similar to that described by M. De la Roche, and consisted of two tin reflectors; in one focus the bulb of a thermometer coated with Indian ink, and in the other an iron ball two inches diameter, which was heated to red- ness, and then cooled till it ceased to be visibly red in the dark, at which point it was placed on its stand, and a thick screen withdrawn. The indications were observed, first, for the direct effect ; secondly, with one glass screen interposed; and thirdly, with two. ‘The tem- pereture of the screens was observed by means of a small thermometer attached to the face of each away from the ball, towards its central part; the bulb being kept in contact by the spring of a wire with which the thermometer was fastened.
The results are: First. That the additional diminution occasioned by the second screen is proportionally much smaller than that occasioned by the first. Thus De la Roche’s conclusion is shown to hold good, not only in the case of luminous, but also of non-luminous hot bodies, which 1s perhaps of consequence, as I believe doubt has been enter- trined respecting it; and it may be remarked that here the greater thickness of the second screen would be against sucha result. Secondly. ‘If the progress of the indications of the direct effect be followed, it appears that the rise in the figst 30 seconds is the greatest, and that those in the subsequent periods gradually diminish. Thirdly. With | one screen the effect in the first period is equal to or even less than those in the subsequent ones; and if we follow the temperature of the first screen, it appears to sustain a rapid increase at first, and after- wards continues gradually to rise till some time after the focal ther- mometer has become’stationary. The progress of the focal thermom- eter exactly accords with what must be the heating effect of the screen as a source, viz: rising slowly at first as the screen acquires heat sufficient to supply it, and remaining stationary so long as the still increasing temperature of the screen could balance its loss of heat. Fourthly. With two screens there is no rise till the second half- minute, when it is not greater than in the next half, after which the — thermometer becomes ‘stationary, and this trifling effect exactly ac- cords with what the temperature of the second screen should produce. It does not begin till the second screen has acquired a higher temperature, and it is stationary while the temperature of the screen continues to increase, and the temperature of the second screen is such as is clearly accounted for from the heating effect of the first. It does not begin to rise till after that of the first has risen; it continues stationary some time after the first has begun to cool, as the first screen did when the iron was cooling. But as in this case the source of heat was cooling during the whole time of the experiment, whilst in the other it was heatins during the first part of the time, it follows that a greater proportional tempe erature should be communicated to the second screen by the first, than to the first by the iron ball.
Other circumstances will partially co-operate in producing this
RADIANT HEAT. 309
effect, as the greater proximity of the secend screen to the ther- mometer; also more heat might be lost in communicating an equable temperature to the first screen from its central and more heated part; whilst the heat would be thus more equally radiated to all parts of the second without such loss.
Thus it appears that the fact stated by M. De la Roche is fully sub- stantiated, while, on the other hand, it is satisfactorily accounted for without supposing any new property of heat or any direct. radiation through glass.
In some unpublished experiments of my own, I found, upon observing the temperature acquired by a screen exposed to iron below luminosity, first plain, and then coated with Indian ink towards the source of heat, the thermometer being in contact at the central part on the outside, that it rose rather more on the plain than on the coated screen,
8.) MM. Nobili and Melloni, in the memoir before quoted, applied their instrument to estimate the effects of transparent screens. Over the thermo-multiplier were placed successively transparent screens of glass, sulphate of lime, mica, and of water, oil, alcohol, and nitric acid (enclosed between plates of glass?) and also of ice.
The source of heat was a ball of iron, heated to a point below lumi- nosity, suspended, or rather passed rapidly, at a certain distance above the screen.
The index indicated an istantaneous effect, greater or less in all cases except those of water and ice, in which none was produced, even when the iron was kept a longer time over the instrument, or even heated to redness, and the screen reduced in thickness.
9.) A set of experiments presenting some important results with respect to the absorbing and radiating properties of surfaces, as well as the action of screens in air and in vacuo, are given by Mr. W. R. Fox, in the Piil. Mag. and Annals, New Series, No. 65, p. 245. A brief statement of the results is as follows :
A cylindrical tin vessel of hot oil with its surface polished, and another similar, painted black, had their times of cooling a certain number of degrees observed under a receiver first highly exhausted, and then full of air; the cylinders being respectively first exposed, and secondly enclosed in one and sometimes more tin cases with in- tervals; the outer and inner surfaces being one or both polished or blackened. From all the different combinations of these results, of which he states in detail, I collect the following general inferences:
I. In vacuo: (1) the polished vessel had its cooling always accelerated by the cases, and in this order—
Case.
=
f Inside. Outside.
IMG@RT ACCCLOTALEC « «io seemetes fete tcla ote teres -- bright ---- Sean black black *.’:'-. - .-.”: black.
: bright (3 cases) black.
bright (3 cases) bright.
bright (1 case) bright.
Ge acteecColeracediete «cronies ie cies oo. IDG] its Wis: Oiaisic - bright.
310 RADIANT HEAT.
(2.) The coated vessel had its cooling in all cases retarded ; and in
this order— Inside. Outside.
east revardedienune cece. Hialeah Ply seicceln GucmAueunl gli Y @)eemcirancucicu oucecncal Ou EY Oke. bright »-..-.-+-+ black. black .....-.-+-bright. Most retarded .-.....+--+-+-+e+-++-+++++es-bright -------- bright.
Il. In air: both vessels in all instances had their cooling retarded by the cases.
Mr. Fox also found the boiling of water in a bright vessel before a fire accelerated nearly doubly by % a case blackened externally.
He considers the results inexplicable, except on the hypothesis of an attraction between matter and heat.
Mr. Fox has also communicated to me in manuscript an account of some further experiments of the same kind on iron raised to a red heat, but which, nevertheless, are of such a nature as properly to come under this division of the subject.
The precise temperature to which the iron was raised in each experiment was estimated by the remarkable cessation of its action on a magnetic needle at a certain stage of-incandescence
The iron was enclosed in tin cases of two different sizes, within which the air could be exhausted, the inside being either plain or coated with lamp-black.
The whole was immersed in vater, and the temperature communi- cated to the water in a given time noted. After observation the iron was plunged in water, and the residual heat thus communicated to the water noted.
The general results were, that in the smaller case the cooling was more vapid than in the larger; and in either the internal coating accel- erated the cooling; in no case was any material difference produced by exhausting the air.
0.) Dr. Ritchie (Edin. Phil. Journal, xxii, p. 281,) has shown that when a hot non-luminous body is placed between the two bulbs of a differential thermometer, blown out very large and thin, and both remaining plain, the liquid is stationary ; the outside half of one being coated with black, the liquid sinks from ‘that side.
Hence he infers that the coating has here stopped the heat, which otherwise radiates freely through “the very thin glass.
He varied the experiment by using portions of glass blown thin as screens over an aperture: when blackened in a flame or coated with silver leaf they intercepted heat; when transparent, not. That this was not from increase of thickness was shown by using three thick- nesses transparent, then removing the middle one, and blackening the inner surface of the others.
He explains the subject by the theory of material caloric and mu- tual repulsion of its particles. The same author in another paper (Ann. of Phil., 2d series, xii, 123,) gives a variation of the experiment: the hot body is placed between two large and very thin bulbs; one of the hemispheres of
RADIANT HEAT. a (|
one bulb, formed by a plane passing through the centres of both, is coated with China ink, as are also two of the alternate quarters of the .other, formed by a plane cutting the former at right angles.
A greater effect is produced on this second bulb.
Tei is an argument against the effect being due to greater radia- tion from the outer surface of the bulb.
Dr. Ritchie has also maintained the same conclusions in his paper before referred to, (Phil. Trans., 1827, Part II, p. 142,) by varying the distance of the screen, which he found to produce no sensible dif- ference in the effect, though with screens of moderate thickness it diminishes rapidly with the distance, according to Lesle’s experi- ments.
Drivisron II.
TERRESTRIAL LUMINOUS HOT BODIES.
a.) Nature of radiation.
The earliest observers noticed differences between this case and that of heat from non-luminous bodies.
The heat from flame, &c., at least in part, passes through air, &c., without heating it. ‘
Scheele observed this with a fire, and that currents of air did not change the direction of the rays. ml Treatise on Air and Fire, ke.)
Cavallo (Phil. Trans., 1780,) founda blackened thermometer affect- ed by the light of a lamp.
Leslie UInquirs y, p. 448,) found a fire affect his photometer; also candles, &c., (p. 447,)—a distinction pointed out betw een this and the solar rays, (p. 83, 54.)
The light from putrescent substances does not appear to be accom- panied with any appreciable degree of heat, according to Dr. Hulme. (Thomson’s Chem, i, 414, 4th edit.) But the effect, if any, must be so small that we cannot positively assert there is none.
The same remark may apply to many other very faint lights.
b.) Reflection of heat.
1.) Mariotte collected the heat of a fire in the focus of a reflector. —(Mem. Acad. of Sciences, 1682.)
Lambert, with burning charcoal in the focus of conjugate reflectors, found a combustible body kindled in the other focus.—(Lambert, Pyrometrie ; Saussure, Voyage, iv, 119.)
Scheele (On Air and Fire, p. Ge 71,) observes that a glass mirror, though it reflects the light of a fire, does not reflect the heat, (it is not stated by what means the heat was estimated,) but the mirror becomes heated. A polished metallic mirror reflected both the light and heat, and did not become much heated itself; if blackened it was soon hot.
Pictet extended the experiments with conjugate reflectors to this case, by placing a candle in one focus. The thermometer rose nearly 10° in six minutes. —(Hssais de Phys., p. 63.)
alg RADIANT HEAT.
Sir W. Herschel (Phil: Trans., 1800, p. 297,) placed a candle at twenty-nine inches from a concave’metallic reflector; the focal ther- mometer in five minutes rose 34°; another out of the focus was not ° affected.
The same took place with a fire, and with red hot steel.
2.) Polarization by reflection.
Berard (Memoir before cited) tried the polarization of heat from luminous sources, and found a considerable diminution in the posttigy when the light ceases to be reflected.
There was of course here no distinction drawn between the ene accompanying the light and the simple heat. Of the latter nothing is proved; the former may be merely an effect of the absorplion of light, and if so, the term pdlarization is applied to the heat without any proof.
I repeated these experiments, and, after all precautions, thought there was a small perceptible effect, (when the simple heat was cut off by a glass screen,) which was diminished in the position of non- reflection for the light; when the whole heat was admitted no propor- tional diminution took place.—(Hdinb. Journ. of Science, vi, 303.)
c.) Effect of surfaces on emission of heat.
Nothing ascertained under this head, unless we except some remarks in the Edinb. Journ. of Science, No. Ip 302
d.) Effect of surfaces on reais of heat.
All experimenters have usually blackened their thermometer.— (Cavallo, Phil. Trans., 1780.)
Prof. Robison exposed a thermometer on charred oak under a glass cover to the rays of a fire, when it rose to 212° Fahr.—(Black’s Lect., 1, 547; Thompson, i, 127.)
e.) LEifect of screens.
1.) Mariotte interposed a glass screen between the fire and concave mirror, and found the heat no longer sensible at the focus. —(Biot, iv., 606; Mém. Paris, i, 344.)
Scheele interposed a glass screen in the experiment before men- tioned, and found the heat of a fire so much intercepted as to be no longer sensible to the hand—not even sensible in the focus of a re- flector.
Pictet with the conjugate reflectors interposed a glass screen. The focal thermometer, which had risen 10°, fell 7° in nine minutes; on removing the screen it rose again.—(Hssais de Phys., p. 63.)
2.) Sir W. Herschel tried experiments on this point.—(Pdil. Trans., 1800.) Two moveable objects illuminated by a lamp were viewed by the eye, one through an open hole, the other through a hole covered successively by different transparent media. One object was moved to greater or less distance, till they appeared equally bright; the
RADIANT HEAT. 313 interceptive pojver was estimated directly as the illumination required to produce the equalization, that*is, inversely as the square of the - distance.
Two equal thermometers enclosed in a box, with apertures over the bulbs, (which were plain,) one open, the other covered succes- sively by the different transparent media, were exposed to different sources of heat, and the interceptive effects compared together and with those of the same media for ight. Thus among the results were the following:
Common Fire. Candle.
oO —_—_ ht FF
Light. Heat. Light. Heat. Coach glass +--+ sees eee eee eee eee eee e 750 86 1625 Dark red glass------ MO oOo sono CHIE.) iG: 999) 526
3.) Refraction by lenses.
Lambert collected the rays of a fire by a large lens and found the heat scarcely sensible to the hand.
Sir W. Herschel (Phil. Trans., 1800, pp. 272, 309, 327,) received the rays of a candle on a lens, with a pasteboard screen, having an aperture nearly equal to that of the lens; the thermometer in the focus rose 25° Fahr. in 3 minutes; the same with the rays from a fire, and from a mass of red hot iron.
M. Brande found the rays of a flame, concentrated by a lens, pro- duced an effect on a blackened thermometer in its focus; the lens did not become heated.—(Phil. Trans., 1820, Part I.)
4.) Dr. Ritchie found that if Leshe’s photometer be placed opposite a ball of iron heated almost to redness no effect whatever will be produced; but if the temperature of the ball be raised so as to shine in the darle with a dusky red color, the fluid in the stem of the black ball will sink a considerable number of degrees. If the temperature of the ball be raised still higher it will produce a greater effect upon the instrument than the flame of the finest oil-gas, though the one possesses a much greater illuminating power than the other.
Dr. Turner and Dr. Christison have found that Leslie’ s photometer ‘tis powerfully affected by heat’’ when placed ‘‘ before a ball of iron heated 80 as not to be luminous, or even before a vessel of boiling water.’’ The opposite result of Dr. Ritchie may possibly be owing to some difference in the surface, Peg or thickness of the Wack bulb employed.—(Edinb. Journ. of Science, iv, 321.)
I have found differences, which I am nm a loss to account for, be- tween the effects on a differential thermometer with the bulbs of equal height, and one in which they are in a vertical line.
5.) That there exist essential differences between the constitution of the heating power of luminous hot bodies and that of the same power proceeding from those which are non-luminous was remarked by former experimenters. But it is a point which does not seem to have excited any close or systematic inquiry until the subject was
*Out of 1,000.
314 RADIANT HEAT.
taken up by M. De la Roche, whose researches are justly entitled to the high celebrity they have acquired. The report ‘of the French Institute upon them'will be found in the Annals of Plul., O. 8., 11, 161; and a full account of the experiments in Biot’s Trailé de Phys., iv, 640.
The whole series of results is as follows:
RISE OF THERMOMETER IN 1 MIN. CENTIG. Source of heat. ee Y No screen. | Transparent | Blackened screen. screen. oe cee ° ° ° 1. Vessel of mercury, temp. 180° cent -_-. -... 3. 94 0. 22 0. 07 2. Vessel of mercury, boiling, 346°._.......--.. 1G} 1,36 0.17 Sip TOME DiC ae pee eee eerie eee ne ee cee cael 32.8 4,70 0.31 4. Copper: 9600s (i) soa amass so Se eicle 38. 97 11. 83 0. 40 See Ditton eee ee (672) AEE PR a ee Se 71.54 21.41 0.73 6. Argand lamp—no chimney -.-------------- 21. 12 7, 29 0.21 7. Argand lamp—chimney-... ....-..-----.-.- 23. 44 12. 82 0. 23
|
The first two experiments of this series have been already consid- ered. The third, or iron, at 427° centig. was at a red heat, its temperature of luminosity in the dark being about 400°. This, there- fore, and the subsequent part of the series are affected by the con- sideration that ight was emitted, which materially alters the case, as we shall presently observe.
De la Roche infers from these experiments that a portion of simple radiant heat is transmitted directly in the way of radiation through glass, and that this increases as the temperature is raised.
A thick glass, though very transparent, stops heat more than a thin glass less so; the difference is less as the temperature is raised.
A ‘portion of the heat having been intercepted by one screen, a proportionally much less diminution is caused by the introduction of a second; hence he infers that the rays emitted of a hot body are of several kinds, possessing different degrees of power to pass through glass.
He views the results, when the source of heat is raised to the tem- perature of luminosity, as forming one connected series with those below that point, and thus conceives a gradual advance in the radiant matter or agent from the state of simple heat towards that of light or ‘luminous heat.’’
6.) The theory adopted by De la Roche, as well as by Biot (Zraité de Phys., iv, 640) and Leslie, is that of one simple agent, which, as the temperature of the source is raised, is gradually brought more into the state of light, which on absorption is reconverted into heat. At low temperatures it is wholly or nearly all stopped by transparent ezreens. At increasing intensities more of it is enabled to pass in the way of direct radiation.
RADIANT HEAT. Say
In order to establish this theory, it would be necessary to show that whatever may be the particular law of relation to the surfaces of bodies by which the action of the ‘‘igneous fluid’’ is determined at any stage of its evolution, the portion transmitted by a screen should act upon any two given surfaces in precisely the same ratio as the part intercepted, or as the whole. Such a ratio will obviously differ at different stages of incandescence or inflammation; but at the same stage it ought to be found exactly the same—only diminished in the actual magnitude of its terms when the glass screen is interposed, as when there is none.
But no such experimental proof had been offered by any of the experimenters before named. It was obviously called for to support or refute their theory, and was capable of ping easily supplied by experiment. That the conclusion is not a necessary one will be evident by merely observing that the phenomena may just as well be explained by supposing two distinct heating influences, one associated in some very close way with the rays of light, carried, as it were, by them through a glass screen without heating Lb; the other being merely simple radiant heat stopped by the screen, exactly as in the case of 2 non-luminous hot body
To ascertain by experiment which of these suppositions was the true one, was the object of an inquiry which I communicated to the Royal Society, and which is published in the Phil. Trans., 1825, Part J, p. 187. I also gave an abstract of the results, accompanied by other illustrative remarks, and some theoretical views in a paper in the Quarterly Journal of Science, No. XIX, p. 45. Some remarks also on the experiments are madegin the Edinb. Journ. of Science, N. S. No. VI, p. 304.
These experiments combine the examination of the effect of screens with those of surfaces. It is assumed, on the authority of previous experiments, that simple heat affects a thermometer in proportion to the absorptive nature of its surface: for example, a surface washed with a paste of chalk is rather more absorptive than one coated with Indian ink; and this kind of heat is stopped by transparent screens of ordinary thickness. It would seem, from some experiments already mentioned, that from luminous hot bodies the effect is greater in ref- erence to the darkness of color of the surface, and is transmitted through glass. But when a body is heated to luminosity, how does this change in its properties take place? Are its relations gradually altered in themselves? or are there two sorts of heating effect emanat- ing from it at the same time? These are the questions which my experiments were directed to answer, and the mode of trying the point is extremely simple; it is only to ascertain whether of the total heating effect from a luminous hot body, the portion intercepted by a transparent screen is of the same nature as, or different from, the part transmitted, in its relation to the surfaces on which it acts.
The experiments were conducted simply by having two thermome- ters, one coated with smooth black, the other with absorptive white, observing the ratio of the effects when they were exposed together
316 RADIANT HEAT.
to the direct influence of a luminous hot body, and comparing it with the ratio similarly observed when a glass screen was interposed.
The screen acquiring, and therefore radiating, heat from the first moment of the experiment, will affect the thermometers in a ratio (as before observed) differing little from equality; and these equal quan- tities added to the ont of the ratio of the direct effects of the luminous body, will, of course, diminish the inequality of that ratio. This cause of error may not have operated to any great degree, but its tendency is obviously to a diminution of the ratio.
Notwithstanding this, the observed result in all cases with a lamp, or with iron raised to a bright red heat, was, that the ratio of the effect on the black to that on the white thermometer was increased by the interposition of theggereen.
A summary of the results of two sets of experiments, (conducted with some slight variation,) and in the second of which the tempera- ture acquired by the screen was carefully noted, is as follows
Rise of thermometer (centig.) in 1 min.
Glass screen. No screen. Tron bright hot (9) 9g vos. 1 25s cs 2 O50 8B Mewlompe ed ak ae ee
These numbers are the means of several repetitions.
The necessary conclusion from ghis difference in the ratio of the direct and screened effects is, that the portion of heat which has the property of permeating the screen, has also the property of affecting the two surfaces in a ratio different from that in which the part tnter- cepted acts upon them.
As in researches of this kind great numerical precision is unattain- able, I was especially, at every step of the inquiry, anxious to devise as many variations of the experiment as possible; these all tended to confirm the results just given.
Thus I used a large differential thermometer having its bulbs dif- ferently coated, and exposed each of them in turn to the luminous source of heat, the other being completely screened, and invariably found the ratio of the effects on the black and white bulbs considerably greater when affected only by the transmissible part of the heat than when exposed to the whole. As before, the part added on the remo- val of the screen was of a nature tending to add to the terms of the former ratio quantities in a ratio much nearer equality, viz: that which the effects of simple radiant heat would give when acting respectively on the two bulbs.
Other variations of the fundamental experiment were as follows:
A differential thermometer having one bulb black was exposed to the radiation from luminous hot bodies, first with and then without the interposition of a glass screen, the same position being preserved.
If the screen had no influence, it is evident that in whatever pro-
RADIANT HEAT. aa
portion the radiant matter affects the two bulbs, if it be of one simple kind, the only difference on removing the screen will be that its intensity will be increased, but will act on the two bulbs in the same proportion as before. Consequently an increase of effect, or motion of the liquid in the tube in the same direction as before, must take place.
In various experiments of this kind, after using several precautions against the influence of the screen, I never found an increase, and gene- rally « decrease; that is, the action on the other bulb was now in- creased, or the portion of heat before intercepted and now admitted has a different relation to surfaces from that transmitted.—( Quarterly Journal of Science, xix, p. 45.)
Similar experiments were tried with the t&vo bulbs in a direct line from the hot body, each placed nearest alternately, with and without ascreen. The difference of ratios in the two cases was very striking. —(Annals of Phil., June, 1825, p. 401. See, also, Ldinburg Journal of Science, No. IV, 323.)
Upon the whole, the unavoidable conclusion is, that if the total direct effect were the result of one simple agent, the intervention of the glass would, by intercepting some portion of it, produce no other alteration than a diminution of intensity; the ratio ot the two effects would remain unchanged. But the reverse being the case, it follows that there are two distinct agents or species of heat acting together.
Upon combining these results with those of previous experimenters, we are led to the following general statement of the case:
When a body is heated, at lower temperatures, it gives off radiant heat stopped entirely by the most ee ‘ent glass, and affecting bodies in proportion to the absorptive texture of their surfaces.
At all higher temperatures it continues to give off such radiant heat, distinguished by exactly the same properties.
At a certain temperature it begins to give out light; precisely at this point it begins also to exercise another heating power distinct from the former; this is capable of direct transmission through glass, and affects bodies in proportion to their darkness of color.
This second species appears to agree with what the French philos- ophers have called ‘‘ calorique lumineux,’’ or the ‘‘igneous fluid’’ of Professor Leslie, but they seem to have considered it as constituting the entire effect.
The distinction thus established easily applies to the explanation of De la Roche’s results, before stated. On inspection, it appears that the numbers in the column belonging to the blackened screen are almost exactly in the same ratio to the first or direct effect through- out the whole series.
Upon the principle here laid down, the effects with the blackened screen would be those arising from the absorption and subsequent radiation of both species of heat; these in each: instance being ab- sorbed in the proportions in which they existed in the original radia- tion, produce a secondary effect proportional to the primary.
The effect with the transparent screen does not follow any propor- tion to the primary; and this is explicable as due to the glass inter-
318 RADIANT HEAT.
cepting the one kind of heat which follows no proportion to the other, this last being wholly transmitted. Also by comparison of the latter experiments with the two first of the series, it is probable that, throughout, a certain degree of heat was in this case also absorbed and radiated again by the screen.
The existence of this distinction, and the proportion between the two species of heat in the radiation from different sources, as various kinds of flame, metal at successive stages of incandescence, &c., afford many topics of inquiry, on some of which I attempted some rough determinations, confessedly very imperfect.—(Annals of Phil., N.S. lui, 359; liv, 401.) The distinction applies to some results of Mr. Brande on the flames of different gases, (Phil. Trans., 1820, Part I, p. 22,) and of Count Rumford on increased intensity of combustion and on the coalescing of several flames.—(Lssays, 1, 304.)
T.) Melloni states (Ann. de Chim., December, 1831, p. 385,) that by using his thermo-multiplier he has found the permeability of trans- parent bodies to heat to be also dependent on their refractive power. He has compared twenty such media, and finds the order of permea- bility constantly the same, whatever be the temperature of the source. Chloruret of sulphur has the greatest power, oil next, and water least; he exposed them to the rays of a candle, an Argand lamp, or the sun. He finds the differences of permeability less, the higher the tempera- ture. The full account is promised in another memoir.
All this obviously applies only to luminous hot bodies.
MM. Melloni and Nobili, in their former paper, (Annales de Chimie, October, 1831) p. 211,) also Spey the heat from phosphorus hav- ing been by these means found sensible, though it is often supposed to give light without heat.
8.) For information on various points connected with the subject, and on the theories of the evolution of light and heat, the following references may be useful:
Wedgewood (Phil. Trans., 1792, p. 28) thinks that light from attrition is produced by a heat of from 400° to 600° Fahrenheit.
Dizé on Heat as the Cause of Shining.—(Journ. de Phys., xlix, 117. Gilbert, Ann. iv, 410.)
Fordyce on Light from Inflammation.—(Phil. Trans., 1776, p. 504. Morgan, Phil. Trans., 1785, p. 190. M. Hermstaedt, Nicholson’ s Quarto Journal, v, 187.)
Mr. Davies on Flame.—(Annals of Phil., December, 1825.)
Mr. Deuchar on Flame.—( Edinb. Phil. Journal, iv, 374.)
M. Seguin on Heat and Motion, &¢.—(Hdinb. Journ. of Science, xx, 280.)
Dryviston III.
HEAT OF THE SUN’S RAYS.
® Speaking according to our ordinary sensations, we are accustomed to say that the sun communicates both light andheat. Light is trans. mitted in a way which we term radiation. The heat from non-lum1
RADIANT HEAT. 319
nous hot bodies is transmitted to a distance in a way closely analogous, and to which the same name has been applied.
In the first instance, we might suppose that the sun sends out two separate emanations—one of light, and another distinct from it, and similar to that of radiant heat from a mass of hot water; and this, perhaps, was the first view taken of the subject, though a confused idea of some very close and intimate connexion subsisting between the solar ight and heat appears to have prevailed.
This subject, as might naturally be expected, attracted the early notice of experimenters. A very slight examination sufficed to show that the rays of solar heat, (whi atever their nature might be,) differed essentially in many properties from those of terrestrial heat, whether radiated from Juminous or non-luminous bodies. Whether there ex- isted a separate set of heating rays distinct from those of light, and at the same time differing in many respects from rays of terrestrial heat; or whether these differences depended on some unknown prop- erty of the rays of light, was a question which for a long time remained without any direct investigation, and on which even now we have, perhaps, no very precise ideas. ;
I.—Solar rays in their natural state. a.) Nature of radiation.
1.) The solar heat is transmitted through the air without heating it.
It invariably accompanies the H&ht.
Scheele conceived that the sun’s rays of light produced heat not when in motion but when stopped by the interposition of solid bodies. —(On Air and Fire, &c.)
Mr. Melville seems to have adopted nearly the same theory, and to have conceived reflection at an opaque surface to be the cause of an excitation of heat from the sun’s rays.—(Hvans on the Calorific Rays, &c., Phil. Mag., June, 1815.)
In general, for light of the same composition the heat appears nearly proportional to the illuminating intensity.
2.) Measures of radiation.
Theory of the sensibility of thermometers especially for experiments of this kind.—(Sir W. Herschel, Phil. T'rans., 1800, Note, p. 447.)
Leslie contends for the exact proportionality of intensity of light and heating power.—(/nquiry, pp. 160 and 408.)
Theory and construction of his ‘‘ Photometer,’’ ch. xix, p. 403.
Ritchie’s ‘‘ Photometer,’’ of the same kind.—(Phil. Trans., 1825 Part I, p. 141.) See his Remarks on Leslie’s Photometer, Ldinb. Journ. of Science, No. IV, 321, and V, 104.
Mr. Daniell, in his work on Meteorology, has collected a great number of observations on the heating power of the sun’s rays in dif- ferent latitudes from the polar to the equatorial regions. Most of these observations were made by comparing two thermometers, one of which was kept in the shade, whilst the other, having its bulb
320 RADIANT HEAT.
blackened, was exposed to the direct rays of the sun; but, as Dr. Ritchie observes, no correction seems to have been made for the variable causes which abstract caloric from the blackened ball of the exposed thermometer. —(Kdinb. Journ. of Science, v, 107.)
In the same paper is described the method proposed by Sir J. F. W. Herschel; his object was to ascertain, by direct experiment, the relative heating power of the sun’s rays; this he did by exposing in a glass vessel, or large thermometer, at different times and places, a dleep blue liquid, for a given time, to the direct rays of the sun, noting the increase of temperature, which was purposely rendered very small by properly adjusting the capacity of the instrument, then shading the sun’s direct rays, and leaving it exposed for an equal time to the free influence of all the other heating and cooling causes, radiation, conduction, wind, &c., and again noting the effect of these. The same difference of these, according to their signs, was the effect of the mere solar radiation. Dividing “this by the time of exposure, he had the momentary effect or differential co-efficient, which is the true measure of the intensity of radiation. :
Professor Cumming has been engaged in researches, the object of which was to obtain a measure of the ‘total heating effect of the sun’s rays. He has communicated for this report an account of his inves- tigations, of which the following is the substance.
His instrument consists of a bent tube in the form Q, one side ter- minating in a black bulb containing ether, or sulphuret of carbon; the other a graduated tube closed at the bottom; into this, on exposure to the sun, some of the liquid is distilled over from the bulb; and the quantity measured on the scale gaptid ove: to the amount of radia- tion, when all interfering causes are allowed for; and these are esti- mated by comparative observations.
The experiments have been varied by exposing the bulb and screening the other part, or by exposing the whole instrument equally to the sun; and by*making contemporaneous observations with the in- strument wholly incovered, or covered totally or partially by a glass to protect it from currents of air.
The Professor has endeavored to make a standard scale by regis- tering the sun’s radiation on clear days every half hour, or hour, in the usual manner, and comparing them with the contemporary distil- lation; or by placing the two sides of the instrument in two vessels of water at unequal temperatures, and noting the distillations in given times by ascertained differences of temperature.
The instrument is filled with ether in the same manner as Wollas- ton’s Cryophorus (from which the sug gestion was taken;) but there is an inconvenience, arising from the circumstance of the difference of pressure under which the instrument is herme stically sealed, which renders two instruments not strictly comparable; this he proposes to remedy by sealing a standard instrument when exhausted to a known pressure by the air pump.
The ether or sulphuret of carbon employed must be perteetle pure, or there is a re-absorption. The circumstance of being exposed to the air, or covered, makes great differences in the indications ;
RADIANT HEAT. Syl
especially in windy weather. To avoid an inconveniently long scale, there should be two instruments constructed, one for winter and the other for summer. The Professor has kept for nearly a year a regis- ter of sunshine.
b.) Reflection of solar heat.
1.) It takes place exactly by the same laws as that of the light.
The heat is collected in the focus of concave reflectors along with ‘the light.
2.) The sun’s rays reflected from the moon are probably much too feeble to allow of any heat being made sensible.
Dr. Howard, however, states that, with a peculiar differential ther- mometer, he has obtained an effect.—(Siliman’s American Journal, vol.
329.)
MM. Melloniand Nobili (with the apparatus before described) tried to detect heat in the moon’s rays, but without success; they mention, however, that terrestrial radiation interferes greatly with such exper- iments, and do not describe fully their contrivances for obviating this cause of error.—(Ann. de Chimie, Oct., 1831, p. 210.)
3.) Berard (memoir before cited) tried the polarization of the solar heat; that is, polarized the sun’s light; and in the position of non- reflection found that the heat had disappeared with it.—(See Ldinb. Journ. of Science, vi, 297.)
c.) Under this head nothing known. d.) Effect of surface on the absorption of solar heat.
1.) I am not aware of any experiments directly showing how far the same relation to the texture of surfaces which has been found in ab- sorption of simple heat may hold good in regard'to the sun’s rays. But for surfaces of the same texture it has been ‘incontrovertibly estab- lished that the effect in this case increases in proportion to the dark- ness of color, or in proportion to the absorption of light; and it would seem most probable that this relation is the only one which really holds good, the texture of the surface being probably quite indifferent except so far as it tends to the better absorption of the light.
2.) Among the earliest experiments on the subject, if not actually the first, were those of Mr. Boyle, on the different degrees of heat communicated by the sun to black, white, and red colored surfaces.
He caused a large block of black marble to be ground into the form of a spherical concave speculum, and found that the sun’s rays reflected from it were far from being too powerful for his eyes, as would have been the case had it been of any other color; and although its size was considerable, yet he could not set a piece of wood on fire with it, whereas a far less speculum of the same form, made out of a more reflecting substance, would presently have made it inflame.
It was remarked by Scheele that the thermometer, when filled with alcohol of a deep red color, rose more rapidly when exposed to the
21
Bu RADIANT HEAT.
sun’s rays than another filled with the same kind of spirit uncolored; but that the fluid rose equally in both when dipped together into the same vessel of warm water.—(On Air and Fire, &c.)
Dr. Franklin found that the hand, when applied alternately to a black and to a white part of his dress in the sun, would feel a great, difference in their warmth.
He observed that black paper was sooner fired by exposure to the focus of a lens than white.
His well known experiment of placing differently colored pieces of cloth on the snow in the sun, and observing them sink deeper in pro- portion to the darkness of color, was first suggested by Dr. Hooke.
3.) Cavallo observed that a thermometer, with its bulb blackened, stands higher than one which had its bulb clear when exposed to the light of the sun, or even of the clouds.—(Phil. Trans., 1780.)
“Pictet made a similar observation, observing that when the two thermometers remained for some time in a dark place they acquired precisely the same height. He also found that when they had both been raised to a certain point, the clean one fell much faster than the coated one.—(Sur le Feu, ch. iv. Thomson, i, 126.) This last state- ment is so contrary to all other experiments that we must suppose some mistake.
De Saussure received the sun’s rays into a box lined with charred cork, containing a thermometer with a glass front; it uae ina few minntes to 221°, when the temperature of the air was 75 —( Voyages,
ilps Deer)
Professor Robison, in a similayexperiment, Sahin three vessels of flint glass within each other at one-third of an inch distance, set on a base of charred cork, and placed on down in a pasteboard cylinder; the thermometer within, in clear sunshine, rose to 230°, and once to 237°.—(Black’s Lect. 1, 5A. Thomson, 1, 127.)
Sir H. Davy took several small disks of copper of equal weight, size, and figure, on one side painted respectively white, yellow, red, green, blue, and black. A mixture of oil and wax, which became liquid at a temperature of 76° Fahr., was attached to the other surface of each disk ; and on exposing the colored surfaces together to the sun’s rays, the length of time elapsed before the mixture on each began to be affected was in the order in which they are above enumerated.—(Bed- doe’s Medical Contributions, p. 44.)
4.) The experiments of Sir E. Home (Phil. Zrans., 1821, Part I,) are particularly deserving of attention, as exhibiting what might at first sight be considered an exception to the above remarks a greater effect being produced in some instances on a white than on a black surface. A more attentive examination, however, will show us that these experiments prove thus much: The heat occasioned by the rays of the sun when received directly, or when in some degree inter- cepted, as by thin white cloth, on the skin, is greater than that com- municated by conduction to the same skin through a black cloth in contact with it, which is itself, in the first instance, heated by absorb- ing the rays.
He observes, also, that a white skin is scorched, and that of a negro
RADIANT HEAT. ove
is not, in 10 minutes, by the direct rays of the sun; that is, as before,
the outer coat of the skin allows some of the direct rays to pass through and affect the sentient substance beneath; whereas, in the case of the black, the rays are absorbed and converted into heat of temperature, which diffuses itself equally, and does not produce the effect of scorching.
5.) The most singular facts connected with the absorption of the
sun’s rays, are those exhibited by the substances called ‘‘ phosphori’’ ; ‘pyrophori.’? —(Thomson’s Chem. i, 17.)
The general fact is, that after exposure to the sun, on being removed into the dark they give out light, but it is after a time exhausted; it is given out more copiously and exhausted sooner if heat be applied. Many solar phosphori will always emit light of one color only, to whatever colored ray they may have been exposed. Thateey chert notice given by Dr. Young, in his valuable Catalogue of Authors, it appears that M. Grosser found that such phosphori as emitted red hght only were made to shine most by exposure to blue hight. — (Lozer Risxexe 270.)
“Beccari, in a memoir ‘‘de Phosphoris,’’ extracted in the Phil. Trans., 1 146, p- 81, gives as one of his results, that the light emitted was brightest when the surface of the mass was of a rough texture; those which were smooth and polished retained little or none, but (supposing the color the same) a rougher surface would evidently absorb more light than a smooth one, and therefore might emit more.
Mr. T. Wedgewood compared two pieces of phosphorescent marble, one naked, the other painted black; on applying uniform heat the coated marble gave out no light, though the other did.—(Piil. Trans., 1792.)
But the coating increased the radiating power, and it therefore probably did not retain heat enough to cause the extrication of light.
Mr. Morgan, (Pil. Trans., 1785,) after examining many of the phenomena of phosphorescence, generalizes his views by maintaining that all phosphori emit light, proceeding in order from violet to red, in proportion as the process is effected by the application of an in- creasing degree of heat.
This is a very curious subject, as connected with the whole theory of the relations of light and heat. Some valuable information might probably be obtained as to the degree of heat necessary, and whether there is any loss of heat when light is evolved, compared with cases when no light is evolved; as there should be, on the hypothesis of conversion of heat into light, or on that of heat becoming latent in the light.
In Mr. Wedgewood’s paper, above cited, is an account of the prin- cipal researches on the subject.
1)
e.) Lffect of screens.
1.) That no diminution of the effect of the sun’s rays on a blackened thermometer is occasioned by a transparent screen was remarked by several experimenters, particularly De la Roche.—(Diot, iv, 611.)
324 RADIANT HEAT.
2.) I tried the point by two thermometers (as in the case of terres- trial heat) and found no perceptible difference in the ratio, with and without the screen, of the black and white thermometers.—(Annals of Phils) xii 3202)
The same result was found with a differential thermometer, with a glass screen over the bulb, which was not blackened. No difference was observable between ane indication under these circumstances, and when both were exposed.—(Annals of Phil., xiii, 401.)
Hence, I think we are entitled to conclude that there does not exist in the solar beam, in its natural state, any simple radiant heat, (as before defined;) but that the whole emanation consists of the other species, distinguished by the two characteristics of affecting sub- stances with heat in proportion to the darkness of their color, and being wholly transmissible through glass without heating it, and in- separable from the rays of light.
This applies to the rays of the sun which come within the reach of our examination. It must, however, be admitted, as by no means improbable, that the sun may originally give out a separate radiation of simple heat. None of this kind reaches us; but we must consider the very different degree in which any medium, as air, absorbs or intercepts the passage of those two sorts of radiant agents. The heat from a hot body will not be perceptible at a short distance, while its light will traverse an amazing extent of length; and thus at different distances the ratio between the two sorts of heating effect will be very different. Some degree of simple heat, therefore, may actually be initially radiated by the sun and be lost before it reaches us. We do not know that there is : any medium between the different parts of the solar system capable of absorbing heat. The highest regions of our atmosphere into which observation has penetrated are uniformly the coldest; but they are known to have a greater capacity for heat. Thus, though it is possible that some heat may reach to that distance and be absorbed without becoming sensible to us, its quantity must be very small; if, therefore, we suppose any simple heat to be initially radiated Bao, the sun, it must be all, or nearly all, absorbed by some parts or appendages of that luminary exterior to the part where it is generated.
3.) The concentration of the sun’s heat by a lens is a familiar experi- ment.
Sir W. Herschel (Phil. Trans., 1800, Exp. 25) concludes that there is a focus of greatest heat farther from the lens than that of light; sealing-wax was scorched in the same time when in the luminous focus, “and at half an inch further from the lens; this affords no proof of its being separated from the light.
That the heat is found to accompany the rays of light in the most constant and inseparable manner through various refractions, as in the instance of the four lenses in the eye-piece of a telescope after reflection, is also remarked by Sir W. Herschel, (Phil. Trans., 1800, Exp. 11)
RADIANT HEAT. 325
II.—Solar rays subjected to analysis by the prism.
1.) The different heating powers belonging to different parts of the spectrum were probably first observed by the Abbé Rochon.—(Phil. Mag., June, 1815; and Biot, T'raité de Phys., iv.,600.) He found the maximum in the yellow-orange rays: the prism was of flint glass: his thermometer was filled with spirits, probably therefore tinged red ; this may account for his result.
1 tried some experiments. with the bulb of the thermometer painted red, which appeared to agree with his result.—(Annals of Phil., li, 201.)
Professor Leslie applied his ‘‘ photometer’’ to these experiments.— (Inquiry, p. 454.)
Dr. Hutton observed the different heating powers, and that they are not proportional to the illuminating.—(Diss. on Light and Heat, p. 38.)
Landriani found the maximum in the yellow rays, as also did Sene- bier.—(Volta, Lettere, &c., 136.)
Berard (Mém d’ Arcueil, iii; Ann. de Chimie, \xxxv, 309) repeated the experiment with a heliostat. He found the maximum in the red, but some heat beyond. He repeated the experiment in both the spectra formed by Iceland spar.
2.) Sir W. Herschel (Phil. Trans., 1800, Part IT) first observed the maximum of heat beyond the red end of the visible spectrum, and considered the effect as due to essentially invisible rays of a separate kind from those of light.
Yet he found them subject to the same laws of refraction, and their dispersion corrected by another prism: they were concentrated by a lens (Ibid., p. 317,) and by reflection (pp. 298, 302.)
Leslie objects to the conclusion of invisible rays, and tries to account for it as owing to an optical cause.—(Inquiry, Note, p. 559; see also Nicholson's Journal, 4to, iv, 3844 and 416.)
Sir H. Englefield (Nicholson’s Journal, iii, 125,) found heat beyond the visible red; it does not appear whether it was there at a maxi- mum: the rays were such as to be concentrated by a lens, and he compared the effects on a black and white bulb. The exterior effect on the white bulb was in a much less ratio to that within the visible spectrum than on the black.
Sir H. Davy repeated these experiments in the clear atmosphere of Italy, and with thermometers of extremely minute size, to secure an instantaneous effect: he found the maximum beyond the red.
These experiments were also tried by Ritter and by Professor Wiinsch (Magazin der Gesellsch, &c., Berlin, 1807.) He used prisms of different substances; with alcohol, oil of turpentine, and water, the maximum was in the yellow; with green glass in the red; and with yellow glass on the extreme boundary.
3.) But by far the most important and conclusive researches on this subject are those of Dr. Seebeck, who in a memoir read to the Royal Academy of Berlin, after discussing the conclusions and views of pre- vious experimenters, proceeds to an elaborate series of experiments
326 RADIANT HEAT.
of his own, in which he has discovered the cause of all their discrep- ancies. The position of the maximum heat in the spectrum depends entirely on the nature of the medium employed—a circumstance almost wholly unnoticed by former experimenters.
The heating intensity is very small towards the violet extremity; it thence gradually increases in prisms of water, alcohol, or oil of tur- pentine; the maximum is in the yellow space: in those of solution of sal-ammoniac and corrosive sublimate, or sulphuric acid, it is in the orange; in crown glass and common white ‘glass, in the middle of the red; in those glasses which contain much lead, it is in the limit of the red; and in flint glass, beyond the visible boundary, but nearer to it with Bohemian than with English glass. In all cases it gradually diminishes from the maximum, and is perceptible to some distance beyond the visible boundary.—(Schweigger’s Neues. Journ., x, 129. Annals of Phil., Sept., 1824; Abhandl. der Kénigk. Acad. Wissenschaf- ten in Berlin, 181819, p. 305; Phil. Mag., Nov. and Dec., 1825; Edinb. Journ. of Science, No. I, 358.)
4.) Analysis of the solar rays by the absorption of media.
In respect to light, the remarkable variety in the absorption of dif- ferent rays exhibited by different media has been well established, and affords a new sort of analysis of light.
In regard to the solar heat, similar researches have been made, though as yet to little extent. The first observations of the kind were those of Sir W. Herschel (Phil. Trans., 1800.) He found the absorption of several kinds of glass for his invisible rays and for the middle red to be proportional to the following numbers out of 1,000
rays incident:
Invisible rays. Red rays. Flint Glasser ee vee ce eee eee OOO e cee ee cere eee ee 143 Coach Oasys reese cece ee ee TAB. ee ee cree oe ees 200 (Olam ales a too gdp ola mike igeeaigeeamuc ees S204
Dark red glass+---+------+-000.---.--.----~+-.692
5.) Sir D. Brewster has lately been engaged in some researches on this subject, an abstract of which he has kindly communicated in Reaccrbt for this report. Agreeably to the view he has established of the scolar prismatic spectrum as consisting of spectra of three primary colors superposed, and having their maxima at different points, he re- gards the heating power as due, in like manner, to another primary specirum superposed in the same way, and similarly the chemical rays. He makes the following statements with respect to the heating rays:
ist. Therevis no proof whatever of the existence of invisible rays of any kind beyond the red or the blue extremity of the spectrum. Sir W. Herschel’s experiments prove the existence of heat beyond the visible extremity of the spectrum which he used, but Sir D. Brewster has succeeded in rendering the spectrum visible at every point where any heat was produced.
By particular processes he has traced the light at that end greatly beyond the place where Frauenhofer makes the spectrum terminate.
RADIANT HEAT. Sie
The same he considers established in regard to the blue end of the spectrum and of the deoxidizing rays. He thinks it extremely probable that the heating and illuminating rays are different rays, but they have never yet been found ina state. “of complete separation.
2d. Until it is proved, therefore, or rendered probable, that the same intensity of light of different colors, as it proceeds directly from the sun, is accompanied with different degrees of heat, we must assume it as true that the heating power is proportional to the illumi-
nating power of the different rays of solar light.
3d. It appears from Dr. Seebeck’s experiments on the water spectrum, that this relation holds generally in it, as he found the maximum of heat to be in the yellow. rays, or coincident with the maai- mum of light. Hence Sir D. Brewster draws the important conclusion that water has the same degree of transparency for the solar heating rays that it has for light, which is the same as all colorless transparent media have for light; that is, water absorbs equally all the different rays of solar heat in the same manner as it does all the different rays of solar light.
4th. It has been found by experiment that with prisms of crown glass the maximum heating effect is in the middle of the red space. Unfortunately the relation between the maximum heat in the water spectrum and in the crown glass spectrum has not been ascertained. If we suppose them equal, it appears that the crown glass must have exercised a greater absorptive action than the water upon the more refrangible rays, and a less absorptive action upon the less refrangible rays, 1a the same manner as is done by red glasses upon light.
A prism of sulphuric acid gives the maximum ordinate ‘of heat in the orange space, or the fluid Alnsonte more of the red rays than crown glass, and less of the rays on the other side of the orange
In flint glass, where the maximum heat is at the very ‘ext? emity of the spectrum, scarcely any of the red rays are absorbed, while great proportions of all the others are.
Dr. Turner (Chem., p. 84, 3d edit.) says that it is difficult to account for Seebeck’s results, without supposing that different media differ in their power of refracting caloric, (7. e., the heating rays of the sun.)
Sir D. Brewster considers that the true explanation is that which the above principles afford, viz: that colorless transparent bodies, in acting upon the solar heat, exercise the same sort of absorptive action upon it that colored transparent bodies do upon light, the maximum ordinate shifting its position with the nature of the body. Colored media give sometimes two or more maxima of light, with large spaces and small lines entirely defective of light, in consequence of the ab- sorption being total at those places.
In like manner he is persuaded it will be found that there are de- fective spaces and lines in the spectrum of solar heat; these he thinks may possibly be detected by using as thermometers the minute natural cavities in topaz, &c., filled with fluid or vapor, and not more than 0.001 inch in magnitude.
5th. These views are exactly accordant with the results of Sir W. Herschel above stated.
328 RADIANT HEAT.
They are equally consistent with the facts, whether the curve of heat terminate abruptly at the extremity of the red space, or continue beyond the visible spectrum.
Sir D. Brewster has, by particular methods of condensation, suo- ceeded in detecting both heat and light at considerable distances beyond the maximum of heat with a flint glass prism, that is, rays undergoing very little refraction.
He considers it highly probable that the deoxidizing rays will be found to be subject to the same laws of absorption as those of heat and light; the media we commonly use may absorb them copiously, whilst others may be found which may transmit them more abundantly.
Similarly with the magnetizing rays. And thus we may account for the contradictory results hitherto obtained on this point by sup- posing that some ingredient rendered one prism absorptive of these rays, and another not so.
6th. Sir D. Brewster extends these views to the analogies between solar and terrestrial heat.
He considers those rays ef the solar spectrum just mentioned, which undergo little refraction, to be analogous to those thrown off by bodies slightly heated. The waves of heat are broad and slow in their motion; as the temperature is raised they are thrown off with more velocity, and become smaller and suffer a greater refraction. When the velocity is such as to give them a refraction equal to that of the red rays, then red hight is produced; and successively the other colors are added, till at a very high temperature white light is radiated.
He proposes to examine what transparent body transmits most heat, and, by converting it into a lens, expects to find a series of foci at different distances, beginning from that of the violet rays to that of those corresponding to rays of very little refrangibility.
Tth. He applies these views as affording an explanation of De la Roche’s result before mentioned, viz: that a second screen intercepts a much smaller proportion of the heat after passing a first than the first did of the whole effect. This De la Roche ascribed to something analogous to polarization.
On the principle just stated the explanation is very simple. The first plate intercepts those rays which it has a tendency to absorb, and transmits the rest; the second, being of the same kind, of course will transmit these with scarcely any further diminution.
He observes that thick masses of colorless fluid or of glass transmit scarcely any radiant heat in a way analogous to that in which thick masses of colored glass are opaque to all rays of light.
He conceives that substances may be found w hich are opaque to light, and yet transparent to heat. These should be carefully sought for, as they would be of great practical value. Red glass, for example, which scarcely itanetnite any light, or one ray in 2,000, transmits all the invisible rays of Herschel, “692 of the 1,000 red rays, 606 rays out of 1,000 of solar heat, and 630 of ‘‘culinary’’ heat, according to Sir W. Herschel. We may expect, therefore, to find an opaque me-
tallic glass, or thin plate of metal, which, though quite — for light, may transmit heat copiously.
RADIANT HEAT. 329
Sir D. Brewster considers Sir W. Herschel’s experiment on the refraction of ‘culinary’? heat by lenses to be very unsatisfactory, as before noticed. He recommends a lens composed of zones, so as to have no greater thickness in the middle than towards the edges, a construction which he has described in his ‘‘ Optics,’’ p. 322, (Cabinet Encyclopedia, ) and made of glass, which unites the highest refractive power with the smallest absorptive power for heat.
It is also important to find, as sources of heat, bodies which do not become luminous till at extremely high temperatures.
6.) The researches of M. Melloni have also been extended to this part of the subject.—(Annales de Chimie, December, 1831, p. 388.)
From known observations on the spectrum, he remarks that there exists, on opposite sides of the maximum, isothermal points—one in a colored part, the other without the red end of the spectrum.
On causing the different rays to pass through a plate of water, and noting the effect on the thermo-multiplier, the heat of the violet ray was undiminished, but its isothermal totally intercepted.
That of the indigo slightly diminished; its isothermal not totally intercepted.
Proceeding in this way with the other rays, he found in general that the portions of heating power intercepted in the colored rays, and those which are transmitted in their isothermal rays, increase in proportion as they approach the position of the maximum, where, of course, upon the whole, the interception is greatest; or, in other words, the rays of the calorific spectrum undergo an interception by water in proportion as their refrangibility is less.
He gives a table of the numerical results. He views his results as precisely according with and explaining those of Seebeck. With a water prism the heating orange and red rays are more intercepted than the yellow; in this, therefore, the maximum appears.
Conclusion.
We have thus far taken as close a survey as is consistent with the limits of a report like the present, of the successive and varied re- searches which have been made with the view of tracing the laws of radiant heat. In the present state of our knowledge it must, upon the whole, be avowed that we have little to contemplate but an assemblage of facts, or alleged facts, determined with more or less accuracy; few, indeed, with any great precision—many resting upon very vague evidence, and in several instances the results of different observers exhibiting a wide discrepancy, or even direct contradiction; whilst, with very few exceptions, any general laws can hardly be said to be established with that certainty which can substantiate their claim to be received as legitimate physical theories.
In offering suggestions for the advance and improvement of this branch of science, the first and most essential point to which atten- tion ought to be directed is the improvement, or rather invention, of the means of obtaining accurate indications of radiant heat down to its most minute and feeble effects. In reference to this point good
330 RADIANT HEAT.
determinations are much wanted of the degree to which the expan- sion of the bulb influences the accuracy of air thermometers. The improvement of mercurial thermometers so as to produce an instrument of extreme sensibility to the minutest effects of heat, is an object the attainment of which would probably be more important than that of any other means for accomplishing the end in view. But other methods, founded on good principles, should be diligently sought for and tried; for example, it might be matter of inquiry whether we could render available to this purpose the incipient melting or soft- ening of some substances by a very slight increase of heat, or the evaporation of volatile liquids.
But it is more particularly desirable that the instrument of MM, Nobili and Melloni should be tried, and a precise examination set on foot of its real accuracy and the causes of error to whose influence it may be lable. This is the more necessary from the very remarkable character of many of their results, whilst the alleged sensibility of the instrument, as they describe it, is such as almost to exceed belief.
When we shall have succeeded in obtaining that prime requisite, an unexceptionable measure of minute effects of radiant heat, we may then proceed with some hopes of success to examine the points on which there at present prevails so wide a discrepancy between differ- ent experimenters.
The polarization of heat is, perhaps, the question which, of all others, requires the most extreme sensibility in our thermometer, or rather thermoscope, in order to its satisfactory determination. It may be tried, either directly, with the simple heat from non-luminous hot bodies, or with luminous sources, with and without a glass screen, comparing the total compound result with that due to the transmis- sible part, or heating power of light alone, and thence deducing the part due to simple heat. .The main difficulty is that of « getting any indication at all, after two reflections from plane surfaces.
Another point which requires further investigation is the apparent transmission of simple heat through very thin transparent screens, but not through opaque. This should be examined in connexion with the acute remark of MM. Nobili and Melloni, that a thin stratum of soot may retain its low conducting power, and thus intercept the effect. This, of itself, would form a subject for an accurate series of experi- ments, viz: whether the ratios of the conducting powers of substances remain the same for all thicknesses.
The very nature of the transmissive and interceptive powers of screens is little understood. Supposing simple heat transmitted with- out diminution, how far is the mode of such transmission analogous to that of light? what time is required for a body to commence ra- diating heat after it has begun to acquire it? whether it acquires it from a distant source instantaneously? how the heat distributes itself upon or through a screen? what is precisely. the effect of a coating on one side of the screen in relation to the last question? upon what the singular exceptions and anomalies pointed out by Melloni and Nobili depend? whether any other such apparently anomalous cases can be found? These are a few of the most obvious questions which
RADIANT HEAT. Jou
arise out of the slightest survey of the present state of our knowl- edge, and on which accurate determinations are wanted before we can be said to possess even the elements of a scientific theory.
May it not be the law that if a body be placed in the rays from a source of heat it will be acquiring and giving out heat till the inten- sity of radiation at the points before and behind it resumes its original proportionality ?
The time in which this takes place will depend on the extent of the body, tts thickness, its conducting power, tts capacity for heat, and the stale of both rts surfaces.
These may be such that the effect may be sensibly instantaneous, and the radiation therefor appear to go on without interruption. In this case, also, the distance of the screen from the source (within moderate limits) may make no sensible difference, though if any of the above circumstances retard the effect to a sensible amount, then there will be a difference with the variation of distance. In this way we may, as it were, regard the medium between the souree and the thermometer as merely a compound, of which the screen is one por- tion and the air the other.
Another class of questions respecting which little, if anything, is accurately known may be put with regard to the nilogiacaton (if any) which radiant heat may undergo in passing through small apertures. This will again be connected with the interceptive power of net-work. A very curious and delicate subject of inquiry is the repulsion exerted between heated bodies at sensible distances, of which a short notice is given in the Quarterly Journal of Science, xxxix, 164.
The reflection of heat has been little examined, except in the single case of its concentration by spherical reflectors; and here (according to Leshe) it is not brought to the same focus as light; this requires examination, as well as the simpler case of plane fares. and the proportion of heat reflected at different incidences. There will prob- ably in all cases be a very large deduction to be made for the heat acquired by the reflector and radiated again.
But another class of such questions yet remains in connexion with that fundamental point which was the object of my first inquiries. The conclusion from my experiments, viz: that luminous hot bodies are sending forth at the same time two distinct species of heat distinguished by different properties, is the unavoidable conclusion from the experi- ments, depending on the mathematical truth, that if a ratio be altered by the addition or subtraction of quantities from its terms, the quan- tities added or subtracted must be in a different ratio from the origi- nal one. I here repeat this, because the nature of the reasoning has not been perceived by some persons. This conclusion undoubtedly introduces a complexity into the view we must take of the phenomena; whereas, if we were at liberty to adopt the simpler theory of De la » Roche and others, many of the apparent anomalies would be recon- ciled. Hence the verification of my results becomes a point of con- siderable importance. If any experimenter with more accurate ap- paratus shall succeed in showing them to be erroneous, he will achieve
San RADIANT HEAT.
an important step towards simplifying the theory. In this instance again the improvement of the thermometer is a primary requisite.
I may here mention that I have recently had a more delicate ap- paratus made, with which I have repeated my former experiments, still with the same yesult; it consists of two thermometers mounted together, as before described. They were contrived for me by Mr. Cary, so as to have very large degrees for a small part of the scale a little above ordinary temper rature. 1° Fahrenheit occupies about half an inch; but the bulbs are large, which is unfavorable to the rapid communication of the effect. These experiments are of a very tedious nature to repeat with precision, owing to the necessity of waiting between each repetition for the thermometers to cool and become ' stationary.
But it should be observed that there is nothing in my results which contradicts the idea that simple heat may have ina very slight degree a power of transmissibility through elass; all I have assumed i 18, that it is sufficiently distinguishable in this respect from the heating power which accompanies the light, and which undergoes no diminution. Connected with these points, again, is the question, whether if simple heat can radiate through solid transparent media, it cannot also com- mence radiating IN them. It is commonly asserted that radiation can only take place, or commence, in elastic media. This, then, is an in- quiry which will lead into a wide field of research, and may be found connected with the intimate nature of radiation. It will also be a question whether, and how far, radiant heat passes through elastic media without heating them, and what support this gives to Leslie’s theory of pulsations. The whole subject should be viewed in con- nexion with the admirable remarks of Sir J. Herschel in his Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy, p. 205.
The radiation of heat in vacuo is another point on which further in- quiry is much wanted. The greater capacity of air for heat, as it is more rarefied, would occasion a more rapid abstraction from the hot body; and thus in an atmosphere of extreme rarity the cooling ought to be extremely rapid, and this must be accurately estimated in measuring the radiation. But it appears from the experiments of Gay- Lussae, (see Edinb. Phil. Journ., vi, 302,) that when air is re- duced to the most extreme degree of rarefaction possible a very con- siderable compression makes so little difference in its actual density that the giving out of heat which ought to take place from diminishing its capacity is absolutely insensible.
But even in this case it is very questionable whether so complete an approach to a real vacuum is obtained as to warrant inferences respecting the radiation of heat in an actual vacuum.
In fact, we want a connected series of determinations to show the order and increase of conducting powers, as connected both with the
radiation in and through different media, and the interception which they offer to its passage.
In solids it is presumed no radiation can commence; it is disputed whether it can continue even partially; but conduction goes on rapidly
RADIANT HEAT. 330
In liquids it has been disputed whether there can be radiation; and they are worse conductors than solids.
In elastic media radiation can commence and continue; but they are still worse conductors.
In vacuo it might be presumed by analogy that a yet more free radiation might take place; yet some experiments (as we have seen) show the contrary; and here there is no conduction.
With regard to that portion of the heat which accompanies or be- longs to light, the theory which I originally suggested, (merely as an hypothesis representing the facts,) viz: that it was simply the latent heat of light, developed, of course, when the light was absorbed, is con- nected with the hypothesis of the materiality of light; but it may be worth inquiry whether it does not apply even better to the elastic ether, in whose undulations light is now proved to consist.
REPORT FOR 1840.
Having been one of those who at the first institution of the British Association were applied to to prepare reports on the state and pro- gress of the different branches of science, and having in consequence laid before the Association at the Oxford meeting in 1832 such a review of the subject of Radiant Heat, I have felt peculiar satisfac- tion in being again honored by a request from the council to furnish a second report supplementary to the former, embracing the progress of knowledge in that department from the period to which the first report extends, up to the present time.
Such a supplementary account has been rendered peculiarly neces- sary, from the great number and high importance of the results which have been arrived at by several eminent experimenters in the interval which has elapsed; and though much is still required to be done before we attain complete and satisfactory grounds for an unexceptionable theory of radiant heat, yet the discoveries recently made have at least tended greatly to modify all our previous conceptions, and to enable us to refer large classes of the phenomena to something like a simple and common principle.
In my former report I divided the subject under various heads, de- rived from what appeared, in the existing state of our knowledge, well-marked distinctions between several kinds of effects ascribed to radiant heat. The more recent discoveries have in agreat degree so changed our views of the subject that these divisions cannot with any advantage or convenience be adhered to. One grand principle of arrangement, however, has been newly supplied in the capital dis- covery of the polarization of heat; so that all the researches we have to describe will be conveniently classed under.two heads, as they relate—first, to radiant heat in its ordinary or unpolarized state; and secondly, to its polarized condition.
334 RADIANT HEAT.
Division I.—UNpoLaRizep HEAT.
Transmission and Refraction of Heat: Melloni. ®
Since the period to which my former report extends, various notices have from time to time been given to the British Association relative to the more important discoveries connected with radiant heat. My former report includes a statement of some of the first researches of M. Melloni. At the Cambridge meeting, in 1833, Professor Forbes gave some account of the further investigations in which M. Melloni was then engaged, including a brief abstract by M. Melloni himself of the chief results he had then obtained.* The full details were subsequently embedied in his several memoirs.
In the earlier part of these researches, M. Melloni had found that the quantity of calorific rays which traverses a screen is proportional to the temperature of the source: but the difference constantly dimin- ishes as the thickness of the screen is less, until with very thin laminze it 1s insensible.
This proves that the resistance to the passage of heat is not exerted at the surface, but in the interior of the mass.
With the solar rays, he observed that with various thicknesses of sulphate of lime, water, and acids, the increase of interception, owing to increased thickness, is greater for the less refrangible rays of the spectrum.
With terrestrial sources he found that a plate of glass, 2 mm. in thickness, stops, out of 100 rays, from flame 45, from copper at 950° cent. (incandescent) 70, from boiling mercury 92, from boiling water 100.
Comparing the transmissive powers of a great number of substances in a crystallized state, he concluded that the diathermaneity for the rays of a lamp was proportional to their refractive powers; but in uncrystallized bodies no such law could be traced.
It was in the course of these researches that the author made the important discovery of the singular property possessed by Rock Sat, viz: that it is almost entirely permeable to heat even from non-lum- inous sources. He found its transmissive power six or eight times greater than that of an equal thickness of alum, which had nearly the same transparency and refractive power. He also discovered that (unlike other diathermanous media) it is equally diathermanous to all species of heat, 7. e., to heat from sources of all degrees of lumin- osity or obscurity; or that it transmits in every case an equal propor- tion of the heat incident.
Thus he found a plate of T mm. (.28 inch) in thickness transmits about 92 out of 100 rays, whether from flame, red-hot iron, water at 212°, or at 120° Fahrenheit. A plate 1 inch thick gavea similar constant ratio.
M. Melloni’s ‘Memoir on the Free Transmission of Radiant Heat
® See Third Report, p. 381-"82.
RADIANT HEAT. 330 through Solid and Liquid Bodies,’’ was presented to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, Feb. 4, 1833, and published in the Ann. de Chimie, No. lili, p. 1; a translation of it is given in Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, Part I.
The author commences with a slight sketch*of the researches of previous experimenters, but omits to notice any distinctions between the characters of the heat from different sources, or the different kinds of heat from one and the same source, when luminous, espe- cially as indicated by my experiments published in the Phil. Trans. for 182:
He Ben proceeds to some ‘‘general considerations on free trans- mission of caloric through bodies, and the manner of measuring it by means of the thermo- mult ipher.’’ This, in fact, constitutes a sup- plementary and more enlarged portion of his former researches. He goes into extensive details on the precautions necessary to be used in such investigations; especially for guarding against the interference of secondary 1 adiation: as this changes with the change of place of the screen, he thus allows for its effects. He also gives some general observations on the use of the galvanometer, and fhe correct estan tion of the forces acting upon it.
The next subject of inquiry is the effect due to ‘‘ the polish, thick- ness, and nature of the screens.’’ The source of heat being a lamp, screens were employed of glass rendered of different degrees of opacity by grinding, &c.; and the effects by transmission “through them were found to be in proportion to the transparency, or that the heat follows the same proportion as the light.
The effect of liquids between glass plates was then tried; and more rays were found to be absorbed in proportion to the increase of thick- ness. Different numbers of glass screens were also employed in com- bination; the same conclusion also held good.
The results with a numerous series of screens of various media, ‘solid and liquid, were then tried, and are stated in a series of tables:
Table I. Various kinds of uncolored glass.
Table II. Liquids: to give a general sketch, the order of trans- mission was as follows, beginning with the greatest:
Carburet of silver. Chlorides.
Oils.
Acids.
Water.
Table III. Crystallized bodies, transparent and opaque; the results
follow no relation to transparency; the following is the general order: Rock salt. Various crystals. Alum. Sulphate of copper—no effect.
Table IV. Colored glasses. Red and Violet transmitted most— yellow, see, and blue, least—heat.
The author concludes, in general, (the source being a lamp,) that the diathermancy is not proportional to the transparency; and makes
336 RADIANT HEAT.
some general remarks on these results as related to those of Seebeck on prismatic dispersion.
A supplement to the last paper was presented by the same author to the Academy, April 21, 1854, entitled ‘‘ New Researches on the immediate Transmission of Radiant Heat through different Solid and Liquid Bodies.’’ It is published in the Ann. de Chimie, lv, 337, and translated in Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, Part I, p. 39.
The author first investigates ‘‘ the modifications which calorific transmission undergoes in consequence of the radiating source being changed.’’
He employs four sources of heat. 1. A Locatelli lamp. 2. Incan- descent platina. 3. Copper heated by flame to about 730° Fahren- heit. 4. Hot water in a blackened copper vessel. The heat from each of these sources was first compared as transmitted through plates of glass of different thicknesses, from .07 millims. to 8 millims. The results are given in a table, from which it appears that with copper and hot water the diminution of effect is rapid, with an increase o thickness in the screen; with water it is nothing beyond a thickness of 5mm. A second table gives results for about 40 solid media of different kinds of the same thickness: most of them were wholly im- pervious to dark heat; the most remarkable exceptions being fluate of lime and rock salt.
In another table are the results with black glass and black mica; these substances, though diathermanous to the lamp and incandescent platina, are wholly impervious to the rays from hot water, and nearly so to those from heated copper.
The discovery of the entire diathermancy of rock salt has been before referred to, and has furnished the means of prosecuting the author’s yet more remarkable researches on the ReFRAcTION oF Heat.
To this important point M. Melloni devotes a portion of the same memoir. After a sketch of previous attempts to establish this prop- erty, he describes his successful experiment by concentrating to the focus of a rock-salt lens the rays of dark heat from hot copper ¢ ‘and hot water. A similar lens of alum produced no effect. This proves that the effect is not due to the mere heating of the central part of the lens.
He next advances to the refraction of heat by a rock-salt prism ; describing an apparatus for the purpose. That the effect is not due to secondary radiation is shown by turning the prism on its axis into a different position, when no effect is produced.
He then discusses the ‘‘ properties of the calorific rays immediately transmitted by different bodies.’’ Under this head are detailed one of the most remarkable species of effects which the whole range of the subject presents.
The rays of the lamp were thrown upon screens of different sub- stances in such a manner that either by changing the distance, or by concentration with a mirror, or a lens of rock salt, the effect trans- mitted from all the screens was of a certain constant amount. This constant radiation was then intercepted by a plate of alum, and it was found that very different proportions of heat were transmitted by the alum
RADIANT HEAT. aon
in the different cases. This very singular result is established by numerous detailed experiments, of which a tabular statement is given; and the author states it in the following terms: ‘‘ Zhe calorific rays issuing from the diaphanous screens are, therefore, of different qualities, and possess, if we may use the rm, the diathermancy peculiar to each of the substances through which they have passed.”’
He next investigates the effects of different colors in glass on the absorption of heat. He infers, in general, that the coloring matter diminishes the power of transmission, and examines the question, Does it stop only rays of a definite refrangibility analogous to what happens in the absorption of light ?
With this view (following a similar mode of operation to that adopted in the last instance) he used, successively, glasses of different colors, for each of which the distance of the source was varied till a standard effect (about 40° deviation of the needle) was produced on the galvanometer. In this position, in each case, a plate of sulphate of lime was then interposed, and diminished the deviation to about 18° for all the colored glasses, except green, in which case it was to about 8°. When alum was substituted the deviations were reduced, in the first case, to 8°, in the second to 19.6. Hence he concludes that all the colored glasses, except green, produce no ‘‘elective action’’ on heat; green glass, on the contrary, transmits rays more easily stopped than the others.
Connecting this with his other inference, that rays are stopped in proportion to their refrangibility, he instituted another series of ex- periments to put this to the test. The sources of heat compared were an argand lamp and incandescent platinum, the rays of heat from the former being the more refrangible. The quantities of heat from the lamp and the metal transmitted by the green glass were nearly equal; by all the others, nearly in the ratio of 2 to 1. Hence he infers that green glass is more diathermanous for rays of less refrangibility.
Again, the rays transmitted by ‘citric acid and some other sub- stances are those only of the greatest refrangibility. They should, therefore, be the least transmissible by green glass. This was found to be the case. Of 100 rays passed through citric acid, all the other glasses transmitted various preparations, from 89 to 28, while green glass transmitted only from 6 to 2.
Without the citric acid the rays from incandescent platinum were more copiously transmitted by the green glass than by the others.
The whole of the rays of low refrangibility emitted by the platinum, and for which alone the green glass is transparent, had been stopped by the interposition of the plate of citric acid, which had, as it were, sifted it free from these rays.
Hence, the author concludes that ‘‘green glass is the only kind which possesses &@ COLORATION for heat, (if we may use the expression, ) the others acting upon it only as more or less transparent glass of uniform tint does upon light.’’
In a subsequent part of the memoir, M. Melloni gives a tabular view of the effects, observed in the same manner, of the constant
22
338 RADIANT HEAT.
radiations emitted from six different substances, each intercepted successively by 24 minerals and 10 colored glasses, from which it appears that the transmission is very different, according to the nature of the first medium.
He afterwards describes an experinfnt with the solar rays trans- mitted by a green glass, and then intercepted by other media. They pass copiously through rock salt, but feebly through alum. Hence he concludes that there are among the solar rays some which resemble those of terrestrial heat, and, in general, that ‘‘ the differences observed between solar and terrestrial heat, as to their properties of transmission, are there- fore to be attributed merely to the mixture in different propor tions of these several species of rays.’’
In a note to this memoir, M. Melloni refers to my original experi- ment, (Plil. Trans., 1825,) in which the action of the rays on surfaces is observed in connexion with their transmissibilty.
He confirms the accuracy of my result by a careful repetition of the experiment with the thermo-multiplier, but makes no reference to the conclusion I had drawn, viz: the coexistence of two distinct sorts of heat in the radiation from luminous sources, one of which is the same as that from dark sources. He explains the result by supposing the transmitted rays to acquire, in and by the act of transmission through the glass screen, new properties in their relation to the surfaces on which they fall, 7. e., to the degree of absorption they undergo re- spectively on a black and a white surface.
He extends the investigation by a table of results of the same kind with a series of screens, both transparent, and of various degrees of opacity. The ratio of the effects on the black and white surfaces is nearer to equality as the screen 1s more opaque.
On this subject there appears a short paper by M. ae in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. vu, p. 475, to which I replied in the same journal, January, 1836.
While referring to my own experiments, i may be allowed to add that in Dr. Thomson’ s Treatise or Heat, &e., first edition, the bearing of my investigation was incorrectly represented, and accordingly I pointed this out in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, Nov., ¢ 1850.
In the second edition of Dr. Thomson’s work, which has lately appeared, the author omits all mention of the subject whatever.
Transmission and Refraction of Heat: Forbes.
The subjects of transmission and refraction of heat were taken up by Professor Forbes, and Melloni’s experiments repeated and extended by him, the details being given in the first and part of the second sec- tions of his first Memoir ‘on the Refraction and Polarization of Heat,”’ read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, January 5 and 19, 1835, and published in their Transactions, vol. xiii; also in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. vi.
‘Tbe first section contains an account of various experiments with the thermo-multiplier. The principal object was to verify the several
RADIANT HEAT. 339
points already stated, and especially to determine the degree of accu- racy of the instrument. From a comparison of its sensibility with that of air thermometers, the author concludes that 1° of deviation of the needle corresponds to an effect indicated by about 3; of a cen- tigrade degree. Without increasing the dimensions of the instrument, by which its sensibility would be impaired, he has been cute by the adaptation of a small telescope, readily to measure 51, of its de- grees, that is, about ;4, of a centigrade degree.
One of the most intere sting points to which the author directed his attention, was the possibility of detecting heat in the moon's rays. These rays, concentrated by a polyzonal lens of 32 inches diameter, and acting on the thermo-multiplier, gave no indication of any effect, so that Professor oor ges considers it certain that if there be any, it must be less than ;>j555 of a centigrade degree.
He repeated Melloni’s experiment of the: refr action of heat by a rock- salt prism, and was enabled to obtain some approximate quantitative results, giving the index of refraction for heat in this substance, which was a little less than that for light.
In the course of his second section he describes further experiments relative to the question discussed by Melloni, of the separation of the effects due to heat and light, especially the ‘peculiarity (before men- tioned) attending green lig ht; he tried flames variously colored with salts—giving red, yellow, ; ereen, and blue light; but found the pro- portions of rays transmitted by alum, glass, and rock salt to be nearly constant for each substance.
To this part of the subject Professor Forbes again directed his attention, in a later series of experiments, in which he has obtained numerical results of the highest value. These are detailed in the last part of his third series of Researches on Heat, read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, April 16, 1838, and published in the Transac- tions of that body, vol. xiv. To the earlier portion of this memoir we shall refer, under another division of this report.
The third section relates to the index of refraction for heat of different kinds as compared with that for light in the same medium. The method of observation adopted is indirect, turning upon the de- termination the critical angle of total internal reflection. This was ascertained in rock-salé prism, having two angles of 40°, and one of 100°. The sentient surface of the pile i is so placed with regard to the prism that it continually receives rays coming from the source of heat, after undergoing two refractions and one reflection, whatever be the angle of incidence, which is effected by a very simple but ingenious mechanical construction. Every kind of precaution to avoid error was adopted. And in this way the author obtained a series of indices ‘‘for the mean quality of the heat most abundantly contained in the rays obtained from various sources.’’ These values are given in a table, and are professedly but approximate. Professor Forbes has, however, subsequently favored me with an unpublished communication, in which he states that while the numbers may be regarded as relatively correct, in order to become absolutely so, they
340 RADIANT HEAT.
must all be reduced by about .05. This will give the corrected series of results as follows:
Source of heat. Index of refraction for rock salt.
Locatelli lamp eee ett og sotto. vo fe fotolia Al voles (c.\a ts, a + is, 0 i0ile,'e) « 1-521 Locatelli lamp, transmitted through alum...-.---++-.-+-- 1-548 Locatelli lamp, transmitted through glass...-...-++.+.++-- 1-537 Locatelli lamp, transmitted through opaque glass-------- 1-543 Locatelli lamp, transmitted through opaque mica-----. +++: 1-533 Incandescent platina AN SIAD' S'S 6. DIOGO. ClO SI Ue G cool ager 1.522 Incandescent platina transmitted by glass--.-.+-+--++++- 1-538 Incandescent platina transmitted by opaque mica-------: 1.534 EA SSl AG NU O oetrateisl cite ancicinteke: suet ore Grete oie or sien einer re eiet a reltateecus eos Brass at 700° transmitted by clear mica---. +++. +++++.-. 1.527 Menemny at 400 ae acre eee © ofa clsfa c= 4 chee ee 1-522 Mean luminous TAYS eee ee ee ee ee ee tt ee eee eee 1-552
From the experiments described in this section the following gen- eral conclusions are deduced:
1. The mean quality, or that of the more abundant proportion of the heat from different sources, varies within narrow limits of refran- gibility.
2. These limits are very narrow, indeed, where the direct heat of any source is employed.
3. All interposed media, (including those impermeable to light, ) so far as tried, raise the index of refraction.
4, All the refrangibilities are inferior to that of the mean luminous rays.
5. The limits of dispersion are open to further.inquiry; but the dispersion in the case of sources of low temperature appears to be smaller than in that from luminous sources.
Reflection of Heat : Melloni.
A short paper, by M. Melloni, entitled ‘‘ Note on the Reflection of Heat,’’ was read to the Royal Academy of Sciences, November 2, 1835, and published in the Ann. de Chim., 1x, 402, of which a trans- lation appears in Taylor’s Sci. Memoirs, Part III, p. 383.
After referring to the experiments of Leslie, to show that the re- flection of heat depends materially on the texture, polish, &c., of the reflecting surfaces, he proceeds to consider what takes place in dia- thermanous substances, as in rock salt, where, there being no absorp- tion, the difference of the heat transmitted gives the quantity reflected at the first and second surfaces. With other media, as glass, rock crystal, &c., very thin plates exercise no sensible absorption; hence heat, after traversing a thick plate, being intercepted by a very thin plate,the loss which this occasions is due solely to the two reflections. These considerations afford the means of estimating the intensities of reflected heat from different substances; and the author, in conclu-
RADIANT HEAT. 341
sion, gives a comparative statement of the reflections from rock crystal and copper.
Analogies of Light and Heat: Melloni and Forbes.
M. Melloni’s ‘‘ Observations and Experiments on the Theory of the Identity of the Agents which Produce Light and Heat’’ were read to the Academy of Sciences, December 21, 1835, published in the Ann. de Chimie, No. 50, p. 418, and translated in Taylor’s Scientific Me- moirs, Part III, p. 388.
In this paper the author combats the views of M. Ampére, who had proposed some ingenious speculations for explaining, on the theory of undulations, the identity of light and heat, the difference of effect being dependent solely on the different wave-lengths, those producing heat being supposed longer than those giving rise to light. Athermanous media, such as water, intercept the longer waves, but not the shorter. Thus the aqueous humor of the eye prevents the retina from being affected by heat as well as light.
The author admits that many phenomena may be sufficiently ac- counted for by the mere supposition of the difference of wave-lengths; but he mentions some experiments in which he thinks decisively that this will not hold good.
The spectrum formed by a rock-salt prism gives the maximum of heat considerably beyond the red end. On interposing water of in- creasing thickness, the maximum successively occurs im the red, and thence upwards to the green. A similar effect is produced by color- less glasses; but with colored glasses, whilst the /wminous spectrum is variously absorbed and altered, the place of the maximum of heat re- mains unaltered, and the decrease from it quite regular.
Another experiment consists in interposing adiaphanous body, which absorbs all the calorific, but only a part of the luminous rays. On using in this way a peculiar species of green glass colored by oxide of copper, the greenish light transmitted ‘‘ exhibits no calorific action capable of being rendered perceptible by the most delicate thermoscopes, even when it is so concentrated by lenses as to rival the direct rays of the sun in brilliancy.”’
On these points Professor Forbes has made some remarks in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, March, 1836.
Such experiments as these, he justly observes, and indeed many more simple, clearly show that heat is not light, but nothing more. It is a question, then, what is the point really aimed at in these spec- ulations. The author agrees with Melloni in the result, ‘‘that one and the same undulation does not invariably impress the senses of sight and feeling at once. The great difficulty is this: to account for the equai refrangibility of two waves having different properties.”
New Phenomena of Transmission: Melloni and Forbes.
It appears by the Comptes Rendus that on September 2, 1839, M. Arago communicated to the Academy of Sciences a letter by M. Mel- loni, containing some new and highly interesting experiments on the
342 RADIANT HEAT.
transmission of radiant heat. He found that rock salt acquires, by being smoked, the power of transmitting most easily heat of low temperature, or of that kind which is stopped in the greatest propor- tion by glass, alum, and (according to his view) all other substances.
Upon this point Professor Forbes was led to some further considera- tions, and thence to fresh series of researches ‘‘On the Effect of the Mechanical Textures of Screens on the Immediate Transmission of Radiant Heat,’’ an account of which he communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh December 16, 1839.
Upon the above-mentioned result of Melloni, Professor Forbes re- marks that, according to the conclusions indicated in his own Re- searches, (third series,) Melloni’s view of the interception of heat of low temperature by all substances alike is equivalent to saying that substances in general allow only the more refrangible rays to pass, or that while rock salt presents the analogy of white glass, by trans- mitting all rays in equal proportions, every other substance hitherto examined acts on the calorific rays as violet or blue glass does on light, absorbing the rays of least refrangibility and transmitting only “the others. And to this rule Melloni now makes out the first exception, or the first analogue of red glass, to be rock salt, having its surface smoked.
Now, Professor Forbes, in his third series, had also pointed out another substance having the same property, viz: mica split by heat. In March, 1838, he had established, by repeated experiments, that the previous transmission of heat through glass, far from rendering it less easily absorbable by mica in this § state, had a contrary effect; and also that heat of low temperature, wholly unaccompanied by light, was transmitted almost as freely as that from a lamp previously passed through glass.
Mica not laminated possesses no such property; hence the effect is due to the peculiar mechanical condition of the substance, and hence it occurred to the author that the effect of smoking the rock salt was owing merely to a. mechanical change in the surface; he therefore proceeded to try the effects of surfaces altered by mechanical means.
The surface of rock salt being roughened by sand-paper, it trans- mitted non-luminous heat more copiously than luminous. Mica similarly scratched showed the same result.
This effect is not attributable to differences in the proportions of heat reflected, for in this respect, at a polished surface, all kinds of heat are alike, as he had before shown; whilst by direct experiment he found that, at least for the higher angles of incidence, reflection is most copious from rough surfaces for heat of low temperature, or the same kind which is most freely transmitted—proving incontestably that the stifling action of rough surfaces is the true cause of the ine- quality.
That there is a real modification of the heat in passing through a roughened surface, as well as through laminated mica and the smoky film, appears from some direct experiments on heat si/ted by these different media, which, when transmitted by any one of these, is found in a fitter state to pass through each of the others; and this modification is the more perceptible as the character of the heat is more removed
RADIANT HEAT. 343
from that which these media transmit more readily; that is, as the temperature of the source is higher. The following results were stated:
Heat from lamp through Rays out of 100 smoked rock salt. transmitted. Direct - NOG OOO OF Ol Caniolo Sod oUn A Ooi mp oo be SEA praeoust sifted by another plas a smoked rock salt. 44 Do BODO OD oud CIOS Het @iaintel ene laminated mica .--. 44 DD) @icletet overs vorstewct sae GO wtene erie : roughened Salita. 403
The author then proceeded to try the effect of fine wire gauze and fine gratings of cotton thread, but no difference could be detected cor- esponding to the different kinds of heat; in every case the intercep- ion was proportioned to the fineness of the eauze.
When fine powders were strewed between plates of rock salt, or fine lines were ruled upon the surface, or the surface tarnished by mere exposure to the air, the easier transmission of heat of low temperature was rendered apparent.
These effects the author considers as evidently pointing to phenom- ena in heat resembling diffraction and periodic colors in light.
Such was the general sketch of his researches which Professor Forbes gave at the period above mentioned. Subsequently (up to March, 1840) he continued engaged on the same subjects, and on May 15, 1840, laid before the council of the Royal Society, Edinburgh, a more extended account of the entire investigations, which appears in vol. xv, Part I, of their Transactions, under the title of ‘‘ A Fourth Series of Researches on Heat.’’ Some remarks by M. Melloni appear in the Comptes Rendus, March 30, 1840, on the same subject.
For obtaining a general view of these results the main point to be kept in sight is the relation which the transmissibility of each sort of heat appears to bear to its refrangibility; and hence the analogy of diathermanous media, which transmit the less refrangible heat, to transparent’ media, which transmit the red rays of light, the trans- mission of the more refrangible heat being analogous to that of violet light.
Upon this important point Professor Forbes enlarges in the intro- ductory part of his memoir; he justly observes that such a generaliza- tion carries us forward a step, by teaching us to refer to the quality of refrangibility certain properties of heat which before were con- nected only with certain vague characters in the nature of the source whence it was derived. Among other things we find, what was long suspected, but what Melloni first conclusively proved, that it does not essentially depend on the presence or absence of light. This refers to his singular discovery of the change produced by the intervention of certain screens.
Heat from any source, if it admit of transmission at all through glass, alum, or water, will ultimately have the character of glass-heat, alum-heat, or water-heat, just as light from the sun or from a candle becomes red, blue, or green, by transmission through glasses of those colors.
344 RADIANT HEAT.
The author gives, as an illustration, the following scale of different kinds of heat, in the order of refrangibility, beginning with the lowest:
Heat from ice. Heat from the hand. Heat from boiling water. Heat from a vessel of mercury under its eee temperature. . Heat from metal, smoked; wholly non-fuminous in the dark, heated by an alcohol lamp behind it. Heat from incandescent platina, (over a spirit lamp.) Heat from an oil lamp, (direct.) Oil-lamp heat transmitted by common mica. Oil-lamp heat transmitted by glass, (argand lamp.) 10. Oil-lamp heat transmitted by citric acid. 11. Oil-lamp heat transmitted by alum. 12. Oil-lamp heat transmitted by ice.
Melloni having shown that a portion of the heat from a luminous source is transmitted through certain screens, which are wholly opaque to light, it became natural to inquire whether the rays so passed pos- sessed the properties of heat from dark sources. This he found to be partly the case and partly not.
The direct test of examining the refrangibility of the heat-rays issuing from the screen occurred to Professor Forbes, who found that opaque glass and mica act as clear glass and mica do in elevating the mean refrangibility of the transmitted heat, an action analogous to that of yellow glass upon light.—(See 3d Series, art. 73, 81, &c.)
But in all this there was nothing exactly equivalent to the action of red glass; this, however, was discovered by Melloni, by the happy suggestion of covering the surface of rock salt with smoke.
These remarks introduce more clearly the main object of Professor Forbes in following up the inquiry. In the present paper the details of many series of experiments are given, and the more precise results now established may be stated as follows:
I. The peculiar character of the film of smoke on the surface of a diathermanous medium, analogous to redness in glass for light, was found to be possessed by—1. The simple powder of charcoal. 2. Some other dull earthy powders. 3. Surfaces simply dull, or devoid of polish. 4. Surfaces irregularly furrowed, as with emery or sand- paper. 5. Polished surfaces, on which fine distinct lines have been drawn. 6. Transparent mica, when mechanically laminated, which, as a continuous medium, possesses opposite properties.
Il. All kinds of heat (i. e., of all refrangibilities) seem affected indifferently by the following media:
1. The thinnest leaf-gold, which is impervious to any kind of heat.
2. Fine metallic gratings, which transmit all kinds of heat in a pro- portion probably exaétly that of the areas of their interstices.
3. Thread gratings.
4, Most crystalline bodies in a state of powder, in which case they approximate to a condition of opacity for heat.
III. The following substances, in addition to those before known,
RADIANT HEAT. 345
transmit most heat of high temperature or high refrangibility, analo- gous to violet light:
1. Several pure metallic powders. 2. Rock salt, in powder, and many other powders. 3. Animal membrane.
IV. Heat of low temperature is most regularly reflected at imper- fectly polished surfaces. It is also, as has been shown above, most regularly transmitted. , These facts are in themselves very remarkable, and especially so with reference to the theory of heat,and its analogies to that of light, particularly with respect to absorption. Some of these considerations, which bear on the undulatory doctrine, are noticed by the author in section 24.
The curious question relative to the analogies of the action of gratings, &c., to the parallel cases in the interference of light, has been recently illustrated by some mathematical investigations by Professor Kelland; and the author concludes his memoir with some highly ingenious and interesting suggestions for further inquiry bear- ing on these topics.
Radiation of Heat: Hudson.
At the meeting of the British Association, 1835, Dr. Hudson, of Dublin, communicated some researches on radiant heat, of which notices appear in the report of that meeting.—(p. 163, and Proceed- ings of Sections, p. 9.) A paper by the same author on the subject is printed also in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. Wills p09:
In the paper last mentioned, besides making some critical remarks on the results of Melloni and others, the author describes a very simple and effective mode of arranging the apparatus for experiments on dia- thermancy with the thermo-multiplier, so as completely to exclude the influence of secondary radiation. The source of heat is a canister of hot water, which can be so placed in two different positions that it is exactly at the same distance, and presents the same surface; but in one case the pile receives the heat both direct and secondary; in the other only the secondary, derived from the heating of the screen.
In his communication to the British Association the same author examines principally certain questions bearing on the supposed radia- tion of cold, and the theory of Leslie. These were performed by a differential thermometer, and a concave reflector, with a hollow back, so that the mirror itself could be heated to any required point by filling the hollow with hot water. The source of heat was a canister of water, with one surface varnished, another metallic.
The main results were as follows:
1. The mirror being at the temperature of the air, and the canister cooled below it, the varnished side produced a greater cooling effect on the focal bulb than the plain, in the same ratio as that in which it produced a greater heating effect when the canister was heated above the air.
2. The mirror being heated to 200° Fahrenheit, and the canister at the temperature of the air, both bulbs were so placed as to be
346 RADIANT HEAT.
equally affected by the heat of the mirror; when the canister dis- played a cooling effect, the varnished side being the most efficacious.
3. Again, with the same conditions, except that the canister was heated 10° or 12° above the air, it was placed at different distances; at near distances it showed a cooling effect; at a certain point this ceased, and beyond it it began to produce a slight heating effect.
4. Some attempts were made to try the effects while the bulb was kept cool by evaporation; the canister being also cooled below the air, the cooling of the bulb was increased beyond what took place when the canister was at the temperature of the air. These experi- ments were confessedly imperfect, from the difficulty of regulating the evaporation.
The author considers them as favorable to the theory of the radia- tion of cold; he also refers to them as in some degree confirmatory of Leslie’s view of pulsation.
The most remarkable result is that of case 2; it seems to prove that a mirror, when heated, will still reflect rays of heat, thrown upon it from a source of much lower temperature.
The results are viewed by the author as supporting the theory of the radiation of cold. I believe the doctrines of that theory may in all cases be equally well expressed in other language, in conformity with the view to which I referred in my former report, [p. 300. |
Dr. Hudson has speculated with much ingenuity on another point of great interest, the different radiating powers of different surfaces. Understanding by the surface a certain physical thickness, he con- ceives the radiating power to depend on the capacity for heal of the sub- stance of the lamina, which seems perfectly conformable to the gen- eral law of the equilibrium of temperature.
Influence of Surface and Color on Radiation: Stark and Bache.
.
The influence of the color of a surface on its powers for absorbing and radiating heat is a question which has long attracted notice, and has often been involved in no small confusion from false analogies. The sun’s rays, and, in general, what is called luminous heat, are absorbed by surfaces (ceteris paribus) in proportion to the dar kness of their colors; but it has been too hastily assumed that the same would hold good with non-luminous heat, and still more groundlessly, that the color would influence the radiating power of the surface ; the texture of the surface, however, is known to exert a powerful influ- ence. These distinctions are fully insisted on in my former report.
Since that period, however, the subject has been taken up by Dr. Stark, who, in an elaborate paper in the Phil. Trans. for 1833, details a number of i ingenious experiments, which he conceives support the doctrine of the influence of color, not only on the absorption of dark heat, but even on odors, miasma, &c.
The object of the present report is not controversial ; I will there- fore merely state that I discussed in detail Dr. Stark’s reasonings, in a paper published in the Edinburgh New Bi aetopticall Journal, Oc- tober, 1834, where, though allowing the value and accuracy of the
RADIANT HEAT. 347
experiments, I have expressed my objections to the inferences made from them.
It appears in general that the texture and nature of the surface most unquestionably exert a great influence. Now, wherever, there isa difference in the color, there must be either a difference in the mechani-
cal structure of the surface, or some new matter added or abstracted. When, therefore, we consider the changes which thus occur, we can- not infer that the effect is not owing to these instead of to color as such. The question, however, is a highly curious one, and worthy the most accurate investigation.
Having in some measure called attention to it in my former report, it was with no small gratification that I found the subject had excited interest, not only in this country, but also in America; and to Pro- fessor Bache (since appointed principal of Girard College) we owe by far the most extensive and valuable series of experiments on this important but difficult point of inquiry; they are given at length in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, November, 1835.
The notices of these experiments which had been published in this country not appearing to convey adequate notions of their nature or value, I endeavored to bring them more prominently forward by some remarks in the Physical Section of the British Association at Liverpool in 1837.* In my former report I had thrown out some suggestions both as to the want of such a series of experiments, and as to the fundamental difficulty arising from the variety of causes which must influence the results ; but more especially the differences of thickness in the coatings, which in the ordinary mode of operating could not be estimated, yet must greatly modify the effects.
With reference to the necessity of equalizing the coatings, Mr. Bache refers to an important observation of Leslie, viz: that radia- tion takes place not merely from the actual surface, but from a certain depth, or lamina of the surface, the thickness of which is quite appre- ciable in good radiators, and differs for different substances.
Proceeding upon this fact, the author justly observes, that ‘‘ the radiating powers of substances would not be rightly compared by equalizing their thicknesses upon a given surface, nor by equalizing their weight ; but by ascertaining, for each substance that thacloness beyond which radiation does not take place.”’
It is, then, on the original application of this elsreraialseta idea that his whole series of experiments is conducted.
Upon this principle the first object was to obtain some data as to thicknesses of different pigments necessary to be employed.
The method adopted throughout was to employ tin cylinders of the same size, filled with hot water, and having thermometers inserted through a hole in the top, while their surfaces were coated with the different substances under trial. The radiation was estimated by the observed rates of cooling.
To find the critical thickness of the coating just spoken of, the time
of cooling a certain number of degrees was accurately observed, first
% See Report, 1837. Sectional Proceedings, p. 20.
348 RADIANT HEAT.
with a thin coating, then with an additional layer of the pigment, and so on, until it was found that additional thickness did not increase the rate of radiation, but began to diminish it; thus each coating was adjusted precisely to that thickness at which it produced its maximum effect.
Every precaution to insure accuracy appears to have been most diligently taken, and several series of preliminary experiments are recorded for the purpose of ascertaining the limits within which the precision of the results may be relied on. A standard cylinder, coated with aurum musivum (as being found not liable to tarnish or alteration,) was used in all the experiments, and the effect of each coating com- pared with this under similar circumstances.
The results of different sets of experiments are given in the tabular form, and apply to coatings of a great variety of substances differing in their chemical nature, as well as in roughness, texture, and color. The following table is extracted as fully exhibiting the general result of all the experimerts; the substances being arranged in the order of their radiating powers, beginning with the highest :
Nature of coating. Color. Surface. situs bln eye le oe ee Se aes Blue see sids hse se Se eee ce. CS eae 2 Prussian, blue asec a2 ea ea Sonat BlNSisess teases ees Roughace coe cece £ Ammon. sulphate of copper ....-. Greenishubluens j-no- Rowe hisses eieee reales tee 7 Peroxide of manganese 22... -.- Brownish black....-.| Not shining, but uniform. -.... Endiatinkes 22) S536 eos cetticcsee Black! oes Scie see Not ismoothe sea ceeerces cece Bichromate of potash ............ BrIOWiee eee meee Streaked; smooth streaks. .... Indiayink. 225 soceoseeccleee neous Blacks cis tctesicisioces Smooth. oi .sice es asceeeeeee ATK ANE tS oie seen ste acicteoccee ae C@rimsongee ce snec cee. Not shining, but uniform..... Carb. of lead in oil of lavender...| White ...... ..-..-.. Smooth, not shining..... 2... Sulphuretiof leaders sscseeee ees Black tsa is es ics le edie oe ase seer eee eens Alkanetsblue) josonctearsecetees oars LSI eee CorecOO DOGISROR LECCE o Ones oorood nacces Carbwamarnesia s-ca.cs calccse ecco: Wihiitem ce ae een cene Rough 222 oAsecnseeaeeer tes : Carbelead: sini gums ssee osc. White 2cs20 cf te SMLOOth ste leer eee ees eee 5 Carbtrofilime -s2sohcceu saa Dingy white .......- Medinmm sete ease see fotos Wermilion: 352.35 scemee ae poe ste RRa10 Yee eR Ces ae Smoothe oossen scanners Sulph.banytascce scmyencere es cetaciee Wihbiter bluish soo 222 ROUGH ees oats) sis sisi aie soba o Golden sulJphurate of antimony...} Brown ...........--- Smooth, in streaks ...-..... Z MNGi gO SSS SE ae: IBluees Soe a eee Smoothies 22 cS Cochineall- 33.) Soest eee Boe Crimsonieseses) soeeee Smooth. . 225 sshen yee Redpleadi:seapan ssa eee een ecee Orange. c.o-h sees Smooth. ...2 occ) ce cms Sulpht-bary tas ccesteecsr acer cee ce Wihite=2cts.ccceecss Medsum) 32 scree senna teem Plumbar or ae. a Se eee Blakes. sce eee Not shining, but uniform. .... Chromplead se sei2nen ooo aan eee Ne llOow shee ceeeeeees Smoothi gs. n eee Gambore tes eoe cece ccc seereeee Olive green ......... Smooth, in streaks.......... é Bisulphuretomtinie sacs seseeciee es Yellow. sees ess— = SMOOtheesereses sete se eens 5
It thus distinctly appears that through so extensive and varied a range of differences in the state of the radiating surface no determinate relation subsists between the radiating power and either darkness of color or any other distinctive character of the coating employed; not even its roughness or smoothness.
RADIANT HEAT. 349
Repulsive power of Heat: Powell.
Closely connected with the radiation of heat is its property of exert- ing or exciting a repulsive force between particles or masses of mat- ter at small though sensible distances.
Such a property was first announced by Libri in 1824; and was further examined by Fresnel (Ann. de Chim., xxix, 57, 107) and Saigey, (Bull. Meth., xi, 167;) but their results seem to have been open to some doubt.
A new interest attached to the subject from the reference made to this property by Professor Forbes, (in a paper read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, March, 1833, and since published in their Transactions, vol. xii,) in explanation of certain vibrations of heated metals, first observed by Mr. Trevelyan.
A paper from me was read to the Royal Society June 19, 1834, and printed in the Philosophical Transactions, 1834, Part II, containing an account of experiments on a different principle from any of the preceding, which appeared to furnish a decisive proof of the fact of repulsion.
The essential principle is the employment of the colors of thin plates, as a measure of the separation produced between two surfaces, by the repulsive action of heat applied to one of them. I also made observations on several particulars attending the mode of action, both in that paper and in a communication to the British Association at the Edinburgh meeting.*
Formation of Ice: Farquharson.
An interesting case, in which the principles of the theory of radiant heat are related to the explanation of natural phenomena, occurs in the instance of the formation of ice exclusively at the surface of still water, but occasionally at the bottom of running water. This point excited attention some years ago, and was partially discussed by Mr. Knight in the Philosophical Transactions, 1816. Mr. MacKeevor and and Mr. Hisdale subsequently investig ated the theory, and M. Arago gave a discussion of the whole question in the Annuaire, 1833, and in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol. xv, p. 128; lastly, a highly curious paper appeared in the Philosophical Transactions for 1835, Part II, ‘‘On the ice formed under peculiar circumstances at the bottom of running water,’’ by the Rev. J. Farquharson, F. R.S., of Alford, Aberdeenshire. In this paper the author details various new and highly interesting particulars as to the mode of the formation of the spongy masses of spicule of ice at the bottom of certain rivers in his neighborhood, and the peculiar circumstances under which alone it is formed. He examines acutely the several explanations which have been suggested, which he shows are all insufficient to explain the whole of the circumstances, and then proceeds to suggest
*See Report, 1834, p. 549, and Dr. Thomson’s Records of Science.
350 RADIANT HEAT.
his own theory, which is grounded essentially on the assumption that the radiation of heat from substances at the bottom goes on through the water ; and partly, also, on the supposed greater radiation from dark- colored surfaces. Neither of these assumptions, it appears to me, are admissible; the former, especially, is-directly at variance with the experiments of Melloni. Some suggestions, at least, towards a theory not open to these objections are given by an anonymous writer in the Magazine of Popular Science, vol. 1, p. 157.
DIVISION II.—POLARIZED HEAT.
Polarization of Heat: Forbes.
The original statement by Berard, of the polarization of heat by reflection, and the attempts to verify it, are mentioned in my former report.* In 1833 Melloni tried to repeat the experiment with tour- malines, but unsuccessfully. t
In 1834 Nobili attempted it by reflection, employing the thermo- multiplier, but without success.{ The disbelief in such a result, at least with dark heat, seems now to have prevailed generally. Mrs. Somerville, in the second edition of her “ Connexion of the Sciences,’’ (in 1833,) speaks of it as altogether without experimental proof.
Professor Forbes took up the inquiry in November, 1834; and in his first memoir, already referred to in section 2, announced his com- plete success, after having in the first instance failed from the influ- ence of secondary radiation, which disguised the real effect.
(1.) He proved distinctly the stoppage of a considerable proportion of heat when the tourmalines were crossed, not only with a lamp, but with brass heated below luminosity.
(2.) In the third section of the same memoir he details his researches on the polarization of heat by refraction and reflection. In the former he employed piles of mica, and through these found even dark heat very freely transmitted at the polarizing angle. Without (in this stage of the inquiry) aiming at quantitative results, he found in general that the proportion of heat polarized varied with the source in the following order, beginning with the highest:
Argand lamp.
Locatelli lamp. ‘ Spirit lamp.
Incandescent platina.
Hot brass, about 700° Fahrenheit. Mercury, 500° in crucible.
Water under 200°.
(3.) The polarization of heat by reflection at the surface of a pile of plates of mica was also established; and with regard to the reflection from glass, Professor Forbes has also remarked that, from the known
= Pages 301, 312. + Second Memoir, Ann. de Chim., 55. Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, Part I, p. 69. { Biblioth. Unw., September, 1834.
RADIANT HEAT, 351
proportions of heat reflected, the quantity, even at the maximum which would reach the thermoscope after two reflections, would be so extremely small that no difference of effect in the two rectangular positions could really have been perceptible in the form of the experi- ment adopted by Berard.
(4.) In the fourth section the author enters on the modifications: which polarized heat undergoes by the intervention of crystallized plates between the polarizing and analysing parts of the apparatus— an inquiry suggested by the obvious analogy in the case of light. In the crossed position, when polarized heat is stopped, (if the analogy hold good,) the intervention of a plate of double refracting crystal would restore the effect. This apparently paradoxical result was full verified with plates of mica, and subsequently with selenite and other substances, not only in the case of luminous sources, but even with water below the boilmg temperature. Of 157 experiments, with three different mica plates, only one gave a neutral and one a nega- tive result. Of these 157, 92 were made with heat below luminosity.
The apparent paradox was increased by the circumstance that a thin plate of mica which ‘‘depolarized’’ but feebly seemed to stop more heat than a thick plate which depolarized more completely.
The main fact was ascertained for the first time on December 16, 1834. The professor justly censures the use of the term ‘‘ depolarize,’’ and suggests ‘‘dipolarize’’ as preferable.
(5.) From the result thus unequivocally established, a train of highly curious consequences follow. We have hence, as direct corollaries, the double refraction of the rays of heat by the mica, and their inter- Jerence according to the same laws as those of light. Hence also follow the constancy of the sum of the intensities of the rays in the rectan- gular positions, or their complementary character, agreeably to the formulas of Fresnel for light. This again involves their retardation, according to the well-known principles of the undulatory theory; and hence, from Fresnel’s formulas, we are assured theoretically of the existence of circular and elliptic polarization in the rays of heat under the appropriate conditions. We have thus also the means of deducing the length of a wave of heat.
The whole of this most important series of investigations was completed between November, 1834, and January, 1835, and their originality and priority are thus placed beyond dispute. The main practical improvement (which led to all the rest of the discoveries) was the employment of the piles of mica for polarizing the heat. In the summer of 1835, Professor Forbes was at Paris; and finding both M. Biot and M. Melloni sceptical as to his results, he exhibited them with mica piles, which he himself prepared on the occasion, and which he left in M. Melloni’s hands.
In these experiments the utmost care was taken to guard against all the sources of fallacy from secondary radiation, &c.; but, as Pro- fessor Forbes observed, these always tended to disguise and not to exaggerate the results. One consideration of this kind arising from the mere mathematical question of the different amount of heat which might be radiated from one pile to the other in the two rectangular
Jo RADIANT HEAT.
positions, (regarded merely as a mathematical problem,) was proposed by myself at the Dublin meeting of the British Association, 1835, but was completely shown to be inapplicable as a practical objection by Professor Forbes, in a short paper in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, November, 1835; and further by direct experi- ment described in the same journal for March, 1836.
Circular and Elliptical Polarization of Heat: Forbes.
On the 1st of February, 1836, Professor Forbes announced to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, that he had that day succeeded in establish- ing the circular polarization of heat, even when unaccompanied by light, by direct experiment. It has been already noticed, that theor etically this would follow from the laws of depolarization. But in the present. instance, Professor Forbes, following up the analogies of Fresnel with regard to the internal reflection of ‘light, found the very same thing verified with heat by similar internal reflection in a rhomb of rock sall, where the plane of reflection is inclined 45° to the plane of primitive polarization.
A short notice of this discovery appears in a paper by the author, in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, March, 1836, in which he also states the inference from the same considerations, that the waves are of the same kind as those of light, viz: formed by transverse vibrations.
In a paper reported in the proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, March 21, 1836, and printed along with the second series of Professor Forbes’s Researches in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. xii, that philosopher describes some addi- tional results which he has obtained respecting the polarization of heat. These are briefly as follows:
Ist. Heat polarized in any plane, and then reflected from the sur- face of a refracting medium, changes its plane of polarization in a manner similar to what obtains in light; that is, the plane is on one side of the plane of reflection up to ‘the maximum polarizing angle, and on the other side after passing that limit. This mode of deter- mining the polarizing angle offers some advantages over the more direct methods.
2d. Metals polarize heat very feebly by reflection. Yet the effect is perceptible, and increases, through a considerable range of inci- dences, but it does not seem to attain a maximum; in this respect it seems to agree with what Sir D. Brewster has remarked in light, viz: that the maximum is greatest for the least refrangible rays, heat being less refrangible than light.
3d. Heat polarized i in a plane inclined 45° to the plane of reflec- tion at silver, has its nature changed, as in light, and presents the conditions of elliptic polarization, though the ‘ellipse is much more elongated. '
4th. Two reflections from silver increase the polarizing effect of metals, and an increased tendency to circular polarization under the
RADIANT HEAT. 358
conditions of the last case. The effect increases with the obliquity of incidence.
All these results have been verified in the case of obscure as well as luminous sources of heat.
On the 15th Feb., 1836, the Keith prize was awarded to Professor Forbes by the Royal Society of Edinburgh; the Vice President, Dr. Hope, stating, in the course of a most able address delivered on the occasion, that several members of the council, as well as himself, had personally witnessed the satisfactory verification of the main facts an- nounced before the medal was adjudged.
Polarization of Heat from different sources: Melloni.
M. Melloni’s first memoir ‘‘on the Polarization of Heat,’’ was read to the Academy of Sciences in January, 1836; it appears in the Ann. de Chim., \xi, April, 1836, and is translated in Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, Part II, p. 325.
The author commences with a fair review of the previous investi- gations on the subject, admitting Professor Forbes’s discovery,, but remarking the very small amount of the effect in the case of obscure heat.
He adopts the supposition that ‘‘the different temperatures of the calorific rays are to radiant heat what the different colors of the lumin- ous rays are to light.” The latter, he observes, are all equally polarizable, and thus he is led to regard the difference of polarizability in the rays of heat as rather apparent than real. His object then, in this memoir, is to examine the question of the reality of the polariza- tion of heat, and of the equality of the effect in different sorts of heat.
After some considerations on the general nature of the apparatus to be employed, and overcoming the difficulty arising from the small total intensity of the rays, by concentrating them by means of a rock- salt lens, he proceeds to detail his several series of experiments, the results of which he gives in the form of tables :
Table I gives the’ different indices of polarization obtained with nine sorts of tourmalines of different color, the source of heat being a locatelli lamp.
He then tried the experiment, taking that pair of tourmalines which gave the greatest effect in the last set, with plates of various sub- stances interposed between the lamp and the apparatus. Of these, opaque black glass rendered the effect nearly insensible, other solids and liquids of various degrees of transparency produced effects of different magnitude.
In Table IL these results are registered, and the properties of the media, in this respect, were found to follow the same proportion as their diathermancy. :
The author considers the difference of the tourmalines in this respect as referrible to the same cause.
Table II gives similar results with another pair of tourmalines, in which case the proportions are found to differ.
In Table IV are given the indices of polarization with four different
23
354 RADIANT HEAT.
pairs of tourmalines, each employed with different sources of heats viz: the locatelli lamp, argand lamp, incandescent platina, and copper at 400°. The effect in the latter case was very small.
In recapitulating his views, the author refers to the wnequal absorp- tion of the two pencils in different tourmalines, as causing the differences observed.
A further paper by the same author, on Tourmaline, &c., in the Ann. de Chim., April, 1836, displays much ingenuity, but nothing of peculiar novelty or fundamental importance.
From the Comptes Rendus, 1836, 1, 194, it appears that on the 15th February, 1836, M. Arago communicated to the Academy of Sciences a letter from Professor Forbes, announcing his discovery of the circular polarization of heat of the rock-salt rhomb.
At the next meeting of the same body, (February 22,) MM. Biot and Melloni stated that in following up Professor Forbes’s experi- ment, they had found that quartz possessed the same ‘‘ rotative’’ quality for heat as for light.
Dr. Thomson, in the second edition of his Treatise on Heat, &c., (1840,) while giving an outline of the discoveries of Forbes and Melloni, has by no means clearly distinguished the share borne by each of those philosophers in the investigation. In particular, with respect to the fact of polarization, he has not given Professor Forbes the credit so unquestionably due to him for the priority of the discovery. He observes, (p. 139,) ‘‘In the earlier experiments of Melloni, he did not find that the rays of heat were polarized when passed through the tourmaline. But he afterwards found that this conclusion was hasty, and that the tourmaline polarizes heat as well as light. The truth of this statement is shown very clearly by Professor Forbes. They also polarized heat by plates of mica, and also by reflection,’”’ &c.
These expressions certainly assign the priority to Melloni, as well as an equal share in the subsequent results, both of which we have seen are greatly at variance with the truth.
Further Researches: Forbes.
Professor Forbes’s second series of Researches on Heat was read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, May 2, 1836, and printed both in the Edinburgh Transactions, vol. xiii, and in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. xii, 1838.
The author remarks at the outset, that in his former memoir he had confined himself to the establishment of the general facts of the polarization and dipolarization of heat, without pretending to accurate quantitative results; he now proceeds, therefore, to a more detailed investigation of the subject, with a view to more precise numerical determinations.
The first section relates to the methods of observation employed, and the examination of the values of the degrees of the galvanometer, which, for the most part, do not indicate equal increments of force. Two tables are given. By the first, the statical deviations of the needle are reduced so as to be measures of the force producing them;
RADIANT HEAT. 355
by the second, the dynamical effect, or arc, moved over by the initial disturbing action, 1s reduced to the final or statical effect, and thence to the true measure of heat. Several peculiarities attendant on the use of the galvanometer are likewise discussed.
In section 2 the observations formerly published on the polarizing action of tourmaline are confirmed, including the case where heat, entirely unaccompanied by light, was employ ed. In this case, the author allows, the greatest difficulty was to be encountered.
The third section treats of the laws of the polarization of heat by refraction or transmission. Professor Forbes expressly observes that his former results were not held out as numerically precise; and with reference to Melloni’s conclusion, ‘* that all kinds of heat are equally polarizable at the same incidence,’”? he confirms his former view of the incorrectness of this inference by a great number of experiments, which show that the heat from non-luminous sources is less polariza- ble by a given plate of mica, at a given angle of incidence, than that accompanied by light.
These experiments were performed with plates of mica, prepared in away discovered by himself, to which reference is made (though with- out describing the process) in a paper before quoted in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, March, 1836. The method con- sists in applying sudden heat to a thick plate of mica, which splits into an infinity of extremely thin films, so thin as to be incapable of retaining heat; these form polarizing piles of great energy. With one pair of such plates the author obtained the following per centages of heat stopped, when the planes of refraction of the two plates were in the rectangular position:
Source of heat. Rays out of 100 polarized. Argand lamp RG ul aia eh ete.e SisteS Shei suntNtearore axe ee 72 to 74 Incandescent platina-.--+--+++++ esses 72 BIRNEY ovonnn Ra NPiom ae obld-sioudid oobi cbriedc 63 Brass with glass screen+++++- ++eeee eee: 12 Mercury in crucible at 410°..-..--. ++. 48 Boiling WWRHKSIE HO odo AOUGO OO aD vie ee es 44
These observations were repeatedly made, and verified by others with other pairs of plates. The results agree with the analogy of light; those lowest in the scale being the cases of the least refran- sible rays.
In the fourth section the law of polarization by reflection is dis- cussed. A number of reflecting surfaces were tried, and split mica was preferred. The amount of polarization by reflection ata given angle is shown to vary with the source of heat; and it is probable that the kinds of heat do not rank in the same order when the angle is changed. This is the case with light. The change of the plane of polarization by subsequent reflection is similar to that which occurs when light is used.
The circular polarization of heat by total internal reflection is dis- cussed in the fifth section. This, as before remarked, is a pheno-
356 RADIANT HEAT
menon really produced in the experiments on dipolarization, if the mica be of asuitable thickness. The direct experiment with rhombs of rock-salt has been already mentioned also. The author here gives a detailed account of them, and the laws of the phenomena deducible, in which the precise analogy with those of hght is preserved.
Equal Polarizability of Heat from different sources: Melloni.
Melloni’s second memoir on the Polarization of Heat appears to be founded on the second part of his communication to the Royal Academy of Sciencesin January, 1836. It is printed in the Ann. de Chim., Ixv, May, 1837, and the translation in Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, Part VI.
The principal points of these extensive researches may be reduced to ae following heads :
1.) Referring to Professor Forbes’s researches, first series, Melloni contends that the differences of polarizability in the heat from different sources there exhibited are in fact due to differences of © secondary radiation from the heating of the mica piles, and subse- quently appeals to Forbes’s second series, in which he conceives the approach to equality is much nearer, as this source of error was more avoided.
At lower temperatures of the source, he observes that mica transmits less heatin proportion, and therefore absorbs more; thus the secondary radiation is greater, and the apparent difference in the two positions, or index of polarization, is less.
(2.) He remarks that Professor Forbes had found the heat from a dark source, after transmission through glass, to become as polarizable as that from incandescent platina, whereas he considers that the glass plate absorbed the greater part of those rays which otherwise would have heated the piles, and that thus the apparent polarization was increased.
(3.) Melloni describes his apparatus, and the precautions for avoiding secondary radiation, &c., employing piles of split mica, and throwing parallel rays on them by means of a rock-salt lens, having its principal focus at the source of heat.
He then enters upon the details of his. results, in several series, with piles of different numbers of lamine, and at different inclinations to the axis, (the source of heat being a lamp,) giving in each case the calorific transmissions in the rectangular positions, or proportions of heat polarized. These are comprised in a series of eight tables, from which the author derives the following conclusions:
I. The proportion of heat polarized increases as the inclination of the piles is diminished.
Il. It attains a maximum at a certain inclination.
III. This inclination is greater as the number of laminee is increased.
He points out the close agreement of these results with the phe- nomena of light according to Brewster and Biot.
(4.) The author pursues a further series of experiments on polar- ization by reflection, and arrives at the conclusion that the angle of
RADIANT HEAT. 307 complete polarization by reflection is very nearly the same for light and for heat.
(5.) If any diathermanous substance be interposed between the luminous source and the piles, the index of polarization does not vary with the substance employed.
This, he contends, proves that the nature of the heat does not alter its polarizability.
But also from direct experiment with the radiations from different sources he makes the same inference, employing, instead of a lamp, incandescent platina, metal heated to 400°, or boiling water, with the same results of uniform polarizability.
He maintains that the difference of polarizability by refraction, arising from the different refrangibility of the rays of heat, is too mi- nute to be sensible.
And for all experiments on obscure heat he proposes to substitute as the source a black glass heated by flame.
(6.) On the depolarization he refers to Forbes’s experiments, in which he contends the difference in the rectangular position is very small, but nearly equal with different sources.
He repeats the experiment, with black glass interposed, and finds the effects much greater, and nearly equal in the different cases.
He endeavors to explain Forbes’s result of the difference with dif- ferent sources, by secondary radiation.
Further, by the same method, (of interposing a black glass, ) he finds the equal depolarizability of every kind of heat.
In an attempt to pursue the analogy of thé tints of depolarized light, he acknowledges a failure, and thenee considers the interference of
calorific rays as not yet proved.
Upon these investigations the following remarks may be offered: idee the first head,it should be recollected that Professor Forbes’s first memoir was avowedly only directed to ascertain general facts, not numerical values; while, with regard to the more precise results of the second memoir, it would appear from the details there given that the secondary radiation could not affect the results. The screen between the source and the piles was removed only during the few seconds required for observing the first or impulsive are of vibration, the time of which was wholly. insufficient for the conduction of heat; besides, such an effect was disproved by direct experiment, as men-
tioned above. —(p. 352.)
Of the second point we shall presently have to notice a complete investigation by Professor Forbes.
As to the third, with this construction, the heat absorbed by the mica was’ very trifling; but by the more improved process since used by Professor Forbes, (p. 355,) we have seen this source of error is sells got rid of. The employ ment of a pencil of par allel rays does not seem, upon consideration, materially to increase the intensity.
The fourth point is no more than what has been already established by Professor Forbes.
With respect to the fifth head, (including the most important part of these researches, ) it must be observed, that the differences in the
358 RADIANT HEAT.
nature of the heat obtained by the intervention of diathermanous sub- stances are not the same as those between heat from luminous and dark sources. And further, in the experiments mentioned with ra- diations from different sources, no numerical results are stated. On this point we shall presently notice some more detailed researches of Professor Forbes.
The sixth point, on the subject of depolarization, is confessedly one of the most delicate in the Bane inquiry; but for the same reasons as before, the effect of secondary radiation cannot be referred to as ca- pable of having produced the differences observed.
Unequal Polarizability of Heat from different sources: Forbes.
Professor Forbes’s third series of Researches of Heat appears in vol. xiv of the Edinburgh Transactions, having been read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, April 16, 1838. It is also printed in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. xiii.
In the first section the author discusses the variable polarizability of the ditferent kinds of heat. The establishment of this. fact was his object in one portion of his second memoir. But these investigations having been objected to by some, and opposite results (as we have
seen) obtained by Melloni, the author now repeated the inquiry with every precaution. He rendered the rays parallel by a rock-salt lens, as Melloni had done, and operated at a sufficient distance from the pile; still the differences in the rectangular positions, when different sorts of heat were employed, were as unequal as formerly.
Having varied the experiments in every possible way, he still comes to the same conclusion as before, and gives the following results:
Source of heat. Rays out of 100 polarized. Argand lamp -.--- Shep jeudsis ee CROE OOOO CRORE: aidoia 7S Locatelli lamp Shanege hssteask oe oes eee Sure ps ee ean a bes, GORE Incandescent platina -...---. +++. +++. +++. -+s- 74 to 76 Incandescent platina with glass screen----- +++: 80 to 82 IN EOWMO MATING Meese cea One eee eco leee cds deh cohen emer: 78 Brass, ene MINN Sod alc OP ee Meret tesaeaah: BROAD SIR ati) cea ters 66.6 IDEREY Uhiani ee cen@e Meera” los a aici: Hole Seas: Males 80 Mercury in crucible, at 450°.-......--.-..----- 48 Boiling \VBiieeo odie ul Gos ooo odo seb 76 0 S00 oO Blom o 44.
Melloni's opposite result of apparent uniform polarizability, the author then shows, must necessarily arise from the use of mica piles, consisting of a number of distinct plates superposed. Such a thick- ness of mica modifies heat from dark sources in such a way as to give the portion which it transmits the same character as to polarizability as luminous heat; whereas Mr. Forbes’s results were obtained by the
use of mica split by heaf, (as before described,) which includes so many surfaces within a very small thickness that the polarized heat is comparatively unaltered in its character. He shows directly that these piles transmit heat from a lamp sifted by glass, and from brass
@ RADIANT HEAT. 309 ~\
at 700° in nearly equal proportions, while mica .016 inch thick trans- mits five times less of the latter than of the former.
The second section relates to the dipolarization of heat. Pursuing the methods given in the first series, the author ascertained the pro- portion of heat dipolarized by five different thicknesses of mica. From the numerical results thus obtained he deduces the value of the expression in Fresnel’s formula for the retardation divided by the wave-length, either of which quantities being assumed, the other becomes known.
In pursuing this calculation, the author finds that if the numerator (or difference of paths) be assumed to be the same as in light the length of a wave of heat would result three times as great as that for red light.
Upon this he is led into some important considerations bearing on the theory of undulations as applicable to heat.
Almost exactly similar numerical results were obtained for the heat from an argand lamp, from incandescent platina, and from brass heated to 700°.
At the anniversary meeting of the Royal Society of London, Novem- ber 30, 1838, the Rumford Medal was adjudged to Professor Forbes, ‘*for his discoveries and investigations of the polarization and double refraction of heat.’’ And in the report of the council announcing the award a brief but appropriate testimony is given to the value of these researches.
Intensity of Reflected Heat: Forbes.
On March 18, 1839, Professor Forbes communicated some remarks to the Royal Society of Edinburgh on the Intensity of Reflected Light and Heat.
The theoretical law for the intensity of reflected light, originally proposed by Fresnel, has been confirmed on quite different grounds by the mathematical investigations of Mr. Green and Professor Kel- land. Yet scarcely any attempt has been made toward its verification by direct experiment, except in the critical cases for polarized light originally assumed as the basis of the formula, and a few intermediate photometrical determinations by M. Arago. The uncertainty attend- ing all photometry led Professor Forbes: to conceive (about the end of 1837) that perhaps some confirmation might be obtained by ascer- taining the law which prevails with respect to the intensities of heat in the corresponding cases; an analogy which seemed extremely pro- bable from the facts already ascertained relative to the change of polarization, &c., before noticed.
In December, 1837, he made some first attempts, which were not altogether satisfactory. In the following winter he resumed the sub- ject, and by a suitable apparatus for measuring the angles of incidence he endeavored to measure the intensity of heat reflected from surfaces of glass, steel, and silver; and though the results can hardly be yet considered completely accurate, yet in the case of glass the approxi- mation to Fresnel’s law is closer than any as yet exhibited by photo-
360 RADIANT HEAT®
metrical observations; while the observations accord much better with the law of Fresnel than with that deduced by Mr. Potter. In the instance of mefals Professor Forbes considers Mr. Potter’s discovery verified, that the refiection is less intense at higher angles of inci- dence; he has not yet been able to verify Professor Maccullagh’s inference, that it has a minimum before reaching 90°; and, lastly, he observes that the quantity of heat reflected from metals is so much greater than Mr. Potter’s estimate for light as to lead him to suspect that all that gentleman’s photometric ratios are too small; this would nearly account for their deviations from Fresnel’s law. He has also made some attempts for verifying that law by observations on heat polarized in opposite planes.
Mr. Potter, it is well known, mainly founds his objections to the undulatory theory on the discrepancy between Fresnel’s law for the intensities of reflected light and his own photometrical determinations. He has therefore naturally been led into some controversial remarks on Professor Forbes’s results in a paper in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, to which Professor Forbes has replied.
Considering that the whole inquiry is as yet confessedly in an incomplete state, any further observations upon it in this place would be premature.
Conclusion.
In thus reviewing the different points of inquiry which have been of late pursued relative to radiant heat, and the several important discoveries with which that research has been rewarded, I have for the most part preserved, under each head, the chronological order.
The progress of discovery is here, I trust, too clearly marked to allow any real ground for these questions as to priority and originality, which have given rise to somuch unhappy controversy between rival philosophers, or to the less open but equally lamentable manifesta- tions of jealousy, in ambiguous expressions of claims, into which men of science have been sometimes betrayed. The dispassionate reviewer of the history of discovery at once best avoids all such controversial topics, and fulfils the demands of critical justice, by a simple but
careful statement of facts.
In the present instance it appears to me that the share of credit due to the distinguished parties, respectively, who have co-oper ated to introduce the discoveries above reported is sufficiently well-marked, and certainly ample enough in each instance to confer the highest celebrity on ‘those who have borne the chief portion of the labor.
To the continental philosophers belongs the first invention of the instrument, without whose aid none of these investigations could have been accomplished; while all the earliest and most important discove- ries of the varying diathermancy of substances; the knowledge of the singular constitution of rock-salt, (which has placed a new instrument in the hands of the experimenter :) and the capital fact, disclosed by means of it—the refraction of heat from dark sources; tog ether with the very singular phenomena of the changes in the nature of heat by transmission through certain substances; the remarkable effect of smoked rock-salt; the circularly polarizing power of quartz for heat—
* RADIANT HEAT. 361
all these important discoveries (besides others of minor value) are imperishably associated with the name of Melloni. Our own country as fairly and incontestably boasts, besides improvements in the appa- ratus and methods, many important results connected with the trans- mission of heat, accurate measures of its refraction, together with some indication of phenomena analogous to those of diffraction. In addition to these, the sole and undisputed credit of first unequivocally establishing the grand facts of the polarization of heat, even from non- luminous sources, by transmission through mica, through tourmaline, and by reflection; tozether with the peculiar and invaluable proper ty of mica split by sudden heating, (a fact holding a parallel rank with that of the diathermancy of rock-salt ;) the dipolarization of heat; its consequent double refraction and interference; its circular and elliptic polarization; its length of »wave, and the pr oduction of that wave by transverse vibrations; the confirmation of the circular polarization by the rock-salt rhomb, and the peculiar effects of metallic reflection; these constitute the unquestionable claims of Professor Forbes.
On the main point in controversy between these two philosophers, the equal or unequal polarizability of heat from different sources, I have endeavored to place the facts and arguments clearly before the reader; but must confess my own conviction to be in favor of the unequal ratio of polar izability i in the radiations from laminous and from obscure sources, while in some instances the apparently opposite results seem distinctly traced to known causes, and in others the equalization of the effects appears to depend on some of those modifi- cations which the intervention of screens produces in the nature of the rays of heat.
The very remarkable class of phenomena just referred to is, per- haps, of all the recent discoveries, that which seems most singular and anomalous. That the same ray should acquire an entire change of property and nature by and in the act of simply passing thr ough certain media seems little in accordance with any conception we can form of such radiation. Is this, we may ask, a real change of consti- tution, or is it a separation or analysis of the ray into its components ?
[have elsewhere remarked that the terms “luminous” and ‘ dark” heat are of somewhat barbarous appearance; and the objection is more than etymological, especially as we now find the luminosity of the source is not the essential characteristic of the qualities of the rays. And again, in the compound radiation from luminous sources there is included a considerable portion of ‘‘dark’’ heat as disclosed by its relation to surfaces in absorption.
The relations of heat to swrfaces in absorption, and in the corres- ponding inverse effects of radiation, are among the most important portions of the subject, and I have in consequence been desirous to draw particular attention to the very valuable investigations of Presi- dent Bache.
The properties which characterize the different species of heat (as we have seen) have been most remarkably developed and principally studied in the phenomena of transmission. A wide field is open to the experimenter in connecting these properties with those belonging
362 RADIANT HEAT.,
to the conditions of surface which produce the absorptive powers of bodies for different species of heat; and these, again, with those which mark the differences in conductive power, and perhaps also capacity for heat.
With regard to the establishment of a theory of the nature of radiant heat, we have seen that the hypothesis of undulations certainly sup- plies a clue to a vast range of phenomena, especially those connected with polarization.
The question of the identity of the heating and illuminating radia- tions seems clearly negatived by many experiments, if we mean it to apply in the sense of one physical agent. But if we refer to the pos- sibility of accounting for the different effects by sets of undulations of the same etherial medium differing in their wave-lengths, this proba- bly presents fewer difficulties than any hypothesis of peculiar heat.
We may, perhaps, suppose some other element besides the wave- length to enter into the explanation; or while we find that the heating effect is due to waves of greater length, it may also be true that the intensity or accumulation of waves which is necessary for producing the sensation of light follows a very different and much higher ratio than that requisite for producing heat, and that this latter effect may be produced in the highest intensity by longer waves of the same etherial medium but not sufticiently accumulated to impress our visual organs.
The difference in the polarizability of heat from different sources is not explained by the slight difference of refrangibility, and Professor Forbes is of opinion that we must, in consequence, look for its solution to a mechanical theory of heat in some respects, at least, different from that of light. It is even a question of some difficulty why any portion of the heat should not be subject to the law of polarization which the rest obeys, unless we suppose the heating effect to be of so complex a nature that some part of it only is properly due to rays analogous to those of light, while the other part of the effect is pro- duced by a mode of action altog ether different.
To any such questions, however, we are hardly yet ina condition to give a satisfactory answer; but among the numerous points open to inquiry I have dwelt more particularly on those which appear to me pre-eminently to require more extended investigation before we
can hope to obtain materials for constructing any substantial and unexceptionable theory.
REPORT HOR 1854, Parr
Having been honored, for the third time, with a request from the general committee to continue my former Reports on the state of our knowledge of Radiant Heat, from the date of my last report (1840) up to the present time, I feel bound to explain that the resolution con- veying that request was passed so long since as the meeting at York in 1851, and that it was complied w ith on the understanding that the
RADIANT HEAT. 363
report was not required immediately. But at the present date, being unwilling longer to delay, and finding that, from the pressure of other avocations, there is little probability of my being able to complete it,
rather than withdraw altogether, I am induced to ask the indulgence of the Association for submitting only @ portion of such a report.
Preliminary remarks.
Before commencing any analysis of recent investigations, it will be necessary (for reasons w hich will become apparent) to take, in the first instance, a very brief retrospective glance at certain fundamental distinctions affecting the whole subject, long ago pointed out, but too much overlooked by some writers since. It results from researches pointed out in detail in the two former reports, that, under the some- what wide term ‘‘ radiant heat,’’ several totally distinct species of effect have been included.
(I.) The simplest form of radiant heat, and most properly so called, is that which arises simply from the cooling of a hot body, and which emanates from terrestrial hot bodies of all temperatures, from those which are the least elevated above that of the surrounding medium up to the highest incandescence or combustion, and is distinguished by two properties:
(a.) A tendency to be absorbed by bodies in proportion to a certain peculiarity of texture in their surface, but wholly independent of their color.
(b.) A total incapacity to pass by direct radiation through many media, such as glass, &c., though transmissible freely through rock- selt, and partially through certain others, called diathermanous media, as found by the experiments of Melloni.
(II.) At a certain stage of incandescence, other rays,also capable of exciting heat, begin to be given off along with the former; these are distinguished by the properties different from the former:
(a.) A tendency to be absorbed by bodies in proportion to the dark- ness of their color, or their absorption of light.
(8.) A power of transmissibility through all transparent substances, without diminution through colorless media, and in various proportions through colored media, according to their action on light.
(y.) The power of exciting also the sense of vision, or being lumi- niferous.
This second species coexists in various proportions with the first, and is most copious from the most intensely ignited bodies.
(III.) Closely analogous to this last species, or identical with it, are the heat ing rays of the sun, characterized by the same properties, (Gan) (a5 ) and (7.,) and distinguished by being totally free from all admixture of the first kind, (or Species I.)*
** This result was formerly obtained by exposing together a blackened and a white- washed thermometer to the solar rays, first with, and then without, a thick glass screen; in this instance there was only the smallest difference in the absolute values, and none whatever in the ratio of the rise of the two thermometers. In the brightest terrestrial rays there is a marked and often very great difference in ratio as well as amount ‘This consti- tuted the ground of my conclusions as to the heterogeneity of the species of rays in the latter case.
364 RADIANT HEAT. :
When by artificial means the luminiferous rays are analysed, some rays are found in which great heating power coexists with feeble illuminating power; but under the same conditions and for the same ray the heating is probably directly proportional to the illuminating intensity.
In this way it was that from the distinctions obtained in my original experiments, (1825,) I was led to describe generally the communica- tion of heat as effected in three distinct ways:
(1.) By conduction (including what some term convection.)
(2.) By radiation (in the ordinary sense of the term) or mere.cool- ing of a hot body, (Species I above.)
(3.) By the agency of light, whether from the sun or flames, (Spe- cies IT and III.)
In the first instance, it was natural to regard these as so many distinct kinds of phy sical action producing heat, but more recent researches, especially those of Professor Forbes, have enabled us to connect them by the simple and uniform analogy supplied by the un- dulatory hypothesis. If we adopt the hypothesis of undulations of decreasing lengths, those of the greatest length correspond to the Species I, these continue to be given out as the temperature is raised, or as combustion proceeds more intensely, along with others of sue- cessively less wave-length, until we arrive at Species H, or those which are of the proper length to affect also the retina with the sense of vision, and at last the wave-lengths are too small to produce either luminiferous or calorific effects; but here they seem to obtain their maximum of chemical action. But rays of all wave-lengths thus con- tinue to be given out simultaneously. They all produce or excite heat, more or less, when stopped or absorbed; and this probably dependent, in some direct ratio, on the greater wave-length simply; while the illu- minating effect depends on some peculiar relation to certain wave- lengths only determined by some physiological conditions of the retina at present unknown. Substances which are transparent transmit freely rays of the visual wave-lengths, which of course carry with them their heating powers.
Opaque substances which are diathermanous transmit in the same way rays of the longer wave-lengths, but not those of shorter.
The action of the texture of surfaces seems purely mechanical, and probably influences the absorption of all rays, but its full effect is produced on the rays of longer wave-length; while that of color is purely optical and applies to rays of luminiferous wave- -lengths only.
Refraction, polarization, interference, and the like properties of light, it would be easily seen, must be ‘accompanied with just such indications of heating effect as might consist with the modification which the light in the respective cases might undergo. If the hight were extinguished in certain conditions of polarization, or of inter- ference, the heat would of course disappear with it, and the changes of intensity would be similar; that is, as regards either the solar rays (IIT) or those of species (II); and consequently, in the case of lumi- nous hot bodies, in which Species I and II coexist, the effects in ques-
RADIANT HEAT. 365
tion might be expected to occur, but only as applying to that portion of the rays which consists of Species IL.
Thus, in a multitude of such cases, these effects might be very small, or altogether disguised and hidden. And, moreover, if they were real and sensible for Species (II), it would not follow that they existed for Species (I), yet the wave analogy would render it highly probable; and experiment has now proved it to be the fact. This constitutes the peculiar value of Professor Forbes’s researches. In the instance of luminous bodies, then, all the combined heteroge- neous species of rays undergo these modifications, though possibly in different degrees, and liable to modifications from the different nature of the media employed.
Yet many recent researches seem altogether to ignore these dis- tinctions; and the ‘‘ radiant heat’’ from different sources is commonly spoken of as if all of one kind, and of which a certain per centage is stopped or transmitted, in particular cases, by the interposition of certain substances; whereas the body of rays is heterogeneous, and certain integrant rays only are totally stopped or totally transmitted in the respective cases, showing not only quantitative but qualitative differences.
In many researches of she kind the ‘‘diathermancy’’ of bodies is spoken of, and experiments made to measure it, as if it applied indif- ferently to all species of heating rays, and without any reference to the consideration that for certain species of rays bodies are diather- manous simply in proportion as they are diaphanous to the particular luminous ray in question; while for other species of rays their diather- maneity follows some totally different, and as yet unknown law. The sonal of ideas introduced by the adoption of that term, unqual- ified by any reference to this distinction, and applied to general.con- clusions respecting ‘‘radiant heat,’’ ought to be sufficiently manifest, yet has been but little considered: And in cases where the rays transmitted by a partially diathermanous body are in fact different in kind (agreeably to the above distinction) from those stopped, there is an ambiguity in the mode of expression; in fact it 1s not merely a per centage of rays, but an analysis of the whole heterogeneous body into more homogeneous or simple elements, z. e., rays of different wave-lengths, or combinations of several such rays.
In my former report (1832, p. 332) it is mentioned that I had then repeated my original experiment (Phil. Trans., 1825) with a pair of thermometers of a peculiar construction made on purpose, in which very small differences were appreciable; but I did not there state any of the results. As attention has now been recalled to my original experiment, both by the repetition of it by Melloni with the thermo- multiplier, and the more recent confirmatory remarks of Knoblauch, and as results obtained in this way (notwithstanding the superior claims of the thermal pile) may still possess some interest, it may not be irrelevant here briefly to state the results of a set of observations which have been lying by me since that period. The instrument was unfortunately broken soon afterwards. These observations were made on the rays of an Argand lamp; the thermometers, fixed on one frame
}
366 RADIANT HEAT.
at the distance of about three inches apart, were exposed first with, and then without, a screen of plate glass one-eighth of an inch thick. The mode of observation was to note the rise of the thermometer blackened with China ink, in the time which it occupied the white- washed thermometer to rise 1° Fahrenheit.
Screen. No screen.
White. Black. °
° 1.6
|
A strong and curious confirmation of the heating power derived from luminiferous rays simply, has been furnished in a fact mentioned to me by Dr. Bennett, Professor of Physiology in the University of Edinburgh, viz: that in the exhibition of anatomical subjects by means of the oxy-hydrogen microscope, the light concentrated by a lens, at afew inches distance from the source, had so energetic an action as to burn up and destroy the specimens placed in the focus.
On the Theoretical Explanation of some former Experiments.
The experiments of Melloni (of which some general abstracts are given in my former report (1840, p. 335,)) certainly seem at first sight to present some anomalous results.
The main question which seems to arise is, whether the effects of heat, as compared with those of illumination, do not follow such widely discrepant laws as to make it difficult to ascribe them to the same set of waves; and this both with regard to terrestrial and to the solar heat.
To take a single instance: rock-salt is said to be analogous, for heat, to colorless media for light; alum is described as totally impermeable to ‘‘dark heat,’’ and partially so to the rays from a lamp, that is, it may be wholly impermeable to those rays of the lamp which are iden- tical with ‘‘dark heat’’ (Species I) in their relation to absorption, ac- cording to the texture of surfaces, and wholly permeable to those (Species II) which are associated with light, and produce this effect in proportion to the absorption of light by dark colored surfaces; or in the language of the wave-theory, wholly impermeable to rays of longer wave-length, and wholly permeable to certain rays of smaller wave-length.
RADIANT HEAT. 367
In some of Melloni’s experiments, rays from the lamp transmitted in different proportions by various screens, and then equalized, were afterwards found to be transmitted by alum in similar proportions. This he describes by the expression that ‘‘ they possess the diather- mancy peculiar to the substances through which they had passed.”’ Yet the fact surely implies no new property communicated to the rays. It merely shows, that as different specific rays out of the com- pound beam were transmitted in each case by the first screen, alum, though impervious to the lower heating rays, (2. e., of lower refran- sibility or longer wave-length,) is permeable to those higher rays; and in different degrees according to their nature; an effect simply dependent on the heterogeneity of the compound beam from the flame. Again, with differently colored glasses peculiar differences of diathermancy were exhibited with the rays from a lamp, incandes- cent metal, and the sun; but not more various or anomalous than the absorption of specific rays of light by such media. And besides these considerations, it must be borne in mind that a smooth blackened surface is itself unequally absorptive for the different rays, acting (from its color) more energetically on those of a refrangibility within the limits of the visible spectrum, and which affect the eye as rays of light; and more feebly on the rays of lower refrangibility, and which act more energetically on bodies with reference to the absorptive texture of their surfaces.
As (according to my experiments) the solar heat is wholly of that kind which is freely transmitted through all colorless media along with the light, it does not appear that there would be any particular advantage in operating on the solar spectrum with a rock-salt prism. Melloni, however, with such a prism found, on interposing a thick screen of water, the most heating rays (i. e., those toward the red end) intercepted, (as they are known to be by water,) and this caused the position of the maximum to be apparently shifted higher up the spectrum, even to the position of the green rays.
On the other hand, many colored glasses he found absorbed the rays in various proportions, yet they left the point of maximum heat unaltered, 7. e., though variously absorptive for the higher rays, they were not of a nature » to stop the lower or most heating rays.
It appears also to be questioned whether the solar beam does not actually contain some rays of Species I, that is, of wave-lengths greater than any of the prismatic rays, including the ordinarily invisi- ble extreme red. My original experiment on this point, above referred to, may probably be unworthy of comparison in accuracy with those which may now be made with the thermo-multiplier.
It would therefore be highly desirable if an experiment on the same principle as mine, viz: a black and white thermoscope exposed to- gether, first with and then without a screen, were repeated on the solar rays, with a variety of screens, including especially rock-salt, with all the increased accuracy and sensibility now attainable by the use of two thermo-multipliers, by which the differences or identities of ratio in the two cases would be rendered evident in the most
368 RADIANT HEAT.
satisfactory manner. It would be also highly important to make similar observations on the oxy-hydrogen and the electric light.
__ The theory of unequal wave-lengths, as the sole explanation of the different species of ‘‘ radiant heat,’’ whether solar or terrestrial, or in other words, the identity of the rays which produce alike the sensa- tions of light, of heat, or other effects, each in some peculiar relation to the wave-length, certainly applies in a very satisfactory manner to a large portion of the phenomena. There may, indeed, be some minor objections or difficulties, but the only formidable outstanding objection seems to arise from a single result, announced long ago by Melloni, and referred to in my former report, viz: the fact thata cer- tain kind of green glass transmits the solar light in high intensity while it deprives it of all heating power. This anomaly is indeed in itself so singular as to require very positive authority to substantiate it; and in M. Melloni’s statement there is, as appears to me, a certain degree of vagueness, and it is notsupported by any numerical results, or even any detailed account of the mode of operating”.
An alleged isolated fact of so extraordinary a character has long appeared to me to demand a strict re-examination. I had hoped that on presenting this report, in many other respects so imperfect, I might have been able to announce the result of such a repetition. But, unhappily, a variety of causes have hitherto prevented me from carrying it into effect.
Theoretical Refraction of Heat.
An important point bearing on the theory was indicated very shortly after the communication of my last report, (1840, ) in my trea- tise ‘‘On the Undulatory Theory applied to Dispersion,’’ (1841.) I have there shown (see pp. 71 and 122) that the formula for the re- fractive index in terms of the wave-length deduced from Cauchy’s theory, furnishes a striking coincidence with Professor Forbes’s de- termination of the index of refraction for a ray of dark heat in rock- salt. The formula in question way be expressed thus:
1 4 —=p—9(“2)' +R(52) —ee., 2 A A where p is the index, 2 the wave-length, Aw the small interval of the molecules, and P, Q, R constants. From the nature of this formula, itis evident that as is increased the changes corresponding in the value
; UNiy of # are very small; and when / is very great, or = extremely small,
the value of is susceptible of a limit, which will be 1 Lixyipe This will represent the physical condition, that as we take rays of successively greater wave-length, they will be crowded together into
* On the Identity of Light and Heat, Taylor’s Foreign Memoirs, Part III, p. 383.
RADIANT HEAT. 369
one position of refraction, which will have a bounding or limiting position, beyond which no ray of however great wave-length can be refracted. This will be different for each medium, but will in general correspond to a refractive index not greatly below the index for the extreme red ray, and which is calculated, in my treatise just referred to, for various media. For rock salt it is a little lower than Professor Forbes’s index for dark heat. The data will be best seen as collected in the following table.*
Rock salt.
Value of pz. Ray.
| Obs. Forbes.| Theory,
| Powell. Meanieht 22 ce sce de se soso oe Seen coon cee e eestor sere LY 5584 ses e Re See HOGER Se © 2 a Seether toe Se eee 1540s sass eee Me CO00%9) 2 eas ca cewcs accede eae Se eee Skee eee es cals reatnl 1. 529 Darkshotmetalen Sos. a. acc acini nas ae caiciose eceiaee meal PEOZS ale crater re SUMS Sao isis wocise maclam aclnee ee coms a see Caeeee oem cen wana eettoae 1.527
M. Knoblauch’ s Researches.
Among the most important of recent researches on the subject of radiant heat, are those of M. Knoblauch, Professor of Natural Philoso- phy in the University of Marburg, which are not to be surpassed for elaborate extent and accuracy of detail. They are given in Poggen- dorff’s ‘‘Annalen,’’ January and March, 1847, .and translated in Taylor’s ‘‘ Foreign Scientific Memoirs,’’ Parts XVIII and XIX, 1848.
The memoir is of great extent, and is divided into six sections.
Section I is entitled ‘‘On the Passage of Radiant Heat through Diathermanous Bodies, with especial regard to the Temperature of the Source of Heat.”’
The author commences with a summary of the results previously obtained, in which he cites the results of Delaroche and others, with- out reference to the different interpretation which must be put upon them if the experiments and conclusions just referred to be admitted.
He observes that, from the experiments of Melloni, rock salt appears equally permeable by heating rays of all kinds; from those of Forbes, prepared rock salt would seem penetrated by heating rays in a greater degree when the source was at a lower temperature. Here I would observe that the temperature of the source, as such, manifestly bears no direct proportion to the degree of luminosity, it being perfectly well known that the temperature of luminosity is very different for different bodies; and these are also of very different illuminating powers. Now, as in all cases there are several different species of
* On this point some notices were submitted to Section A, in 1840 and 1841. See Report, 1840, Sect. Proc., p. 14, and 1841, p. 25.
24
370 RADIANT HEAT.
heating rays emanating at the same time from the source, some lumi- niferous, and some not so, it is in no way a matter of st Sey or an ex- ceptional case, that the transmissive power of rock salt, or of any other substance, should bear no proportion to the mere temperature of the source. .
M. Knoblauch, however, instituted an elaborate set of experiments
to ascertain whether any such relation could be maintained.
he experiments were all conducted by means of the thermo-mul- tiplier, which in this instance was constructed with especial precau- tions to insure extreme accuracy and sensibility.
M. Knoblauch’s first series of experiments included, as sources, al- cohol flame, incandescent platinum, hydrogen flame, Argand lamp, of which the temperatures were in the order of enumeration, the jirst being the highest. The effect of each on the thermo-multiplier was observed with the intervention of a series of screens, colored glass, alum, mica, colorless glass, calespar, gypsum, &c. The transmitted effects varied, of course, with the different screens; but in every in- stance they were smallest with the jirst source, and increased in the order of enumeration, or in the inverse order of the temperatures. — (Table I.)
Jn this series the real nature of the results is, in fact, evident from the distinctions above drawn. The effect is simply dependent on the light, or heating power of Species II, mixed, no doubt, to a certain extent in some cases with that of Species I; which last probably does bear a close proportion to the temperature of the source, but is in these instances overruled by the effect of Species II being very feebly, or not at all, transmitted by the screens.
In this series also M. Knoblauch found that the transmission thr ough rock salt was not exactly equal for all the sources, contrary to the as- sertion of Melloni; the difference, however, is very small.
In the second series the sources were a vessel of hot water of dif- ferent temperatures, from 93° to 212°, the radiating side being in each instance covered successively with lamp-black, glass, wool, and in each instance the thermo-multipler being placed at a greater dis- tance, in the ratio of the increased temperature, so that the effects of direct radiation were equalized. In each instance, then, a series of screens (the same as before) were interposed, each screen tr ansmitting a different amount of heat, but the results with each temperature be- ing found equal.—(Table TI. )
‘In the third series the sources were hollow cylinders of iron and of
copper closely surrounding the flame of a lamp, and heated by it to several temperatures, from 234° Fahrenheit up to a little below red- ness; in each instance the same equalization was effected as in the last series, and the same series Of screens gave varied effects for each sereen, but equal effects for each temperature, as in the last series.— (Table IIT.)
The fourth series included platinum in successive stages of heat
t, dark; 2d, just red; 3d, yellow; 4th, partly white. In each in- stance the series of screens was applied. In the Ist, 2d and 4th stages of heat these gave uniform results, increasing with the heat; but in
RADIANT HEAT. B71
the 3d case certain screens gave results less than in case 2, while an- other and smaller number only gave them greater.—(Table IV.)
The peculiar, and at first sight apparently anomalous circumstance, that platinum, at a stage intermediate between red and white heat, transmits through certain of the screens employed rather less heat than when at the lower stage of red heat, may however be explained, if we suppose that the rays given off at this intermediate stage are of such a wave-length as to be subject to a peculiar absorption by these particular screens. He then shows, from the conditions observed, that the effect of secondary radiation was fully guarded against.
Hence the author draws the conclusion, ‘‘that the passage of ra- diant heat through diathermanous bodies is not in immediate con- connexion with the temperature of the source, as was probable from previous experiments; but is alone dependent upon the structure of the diathermanous substance, which is penetrated by certain rays of heat in a greater degree than by others, whether this occurs at a lower or a higher temperature.”’
In all this there appears nothing to remark, except, perhaps, the observation that previous experiments might make a contrary result probable, which does not appear to be the case, since (as already ob- served) the temperature of luminosity has been long known to be very different for different substances. It were to be wished, that when the author speaks of ‘‘ certain rays’’ being transmitted, he had more distinctly indicated the species to which they belong, but which seem to conform to the classification before noticed.
Some further experiments were made on sources of different form and size; cubes and cylinders of hot water of several magnitudes, and small and large flames, having successively different screens inter- posed between them and the thermoscope. The results were very uniform for all the sources, proving that the differences in question produced none in the transmission, as indeed might have been ex- pected.—(Table V.)
Section IT is ‘‘On the Heating of Bodies by Radiant Heat.’’
Here, after observing in general as a well-known fact, that the effect is greatly influenced by the structure of the surface, he observes:
‘*More recent experiments by B. Powell and Melloni have shown that one and the same body is not uniformly heated by rays of heat emanating from different sources, which exert the same direct action upon a thermoscope coated with lamp-black.’’—(p. 205.
And he details some experiments, (Table VI,) showing that with a lamp a greater effect is produced on a surface coated with black paper than one with carmine, but with dark heat a less—a result which might indeed have been expected from what was well understood before the date of the researches aliuded to, and which it was by no means their object to establish.
A set of experiments (Table VII) proved that for small thicknesses of coating (within the limit of those employed by Leslie and Melloni) the absorption of heat is proportional to the thickness.
Also, that ‘‘the temperature of a body, when the thickness in-
372 ; RADIANT HEAT.
creases, is more raised the less it is diathermanous to the rays trans- mitted to it.’’
In Section III, ‘‘On the Property of Radiating Heat in Bodies,’’ the author examines various cases in which the state of the surface, as in cast and rolled lead, smooth and scratched more or less closely, was observed as to its influence on the radiation, when the plates were kept heated by boiling water.—(Table VIII.)
Similar experiments with copper (Table IX) confirmed Melloni’s conclusion, that the action is purely mechanical.
In another set of experiments (Table X) the increase of radiation with increased thickness of coating confirms the conclusion of Rum- ford and Melloni, that radiation commences from a certain depth be- low the surface.
The next set of experiments was directed to answer the inquiry, ‘* Does the radiating power of one and the same body vary according as it is heated to a given degree by rays from different sources of heat?’ The answer was distinctly in the negative, the sources of heat being a lamp and a hot cylinder, and the body heated and then radiating, being successively paper coated with carmine, and with lamp-black on the absorbing side, and lastly on both sides; also a plate of charcoal, and carmine spread upon wire gauze (Table XI;) and again, using carmine blackened next the thermoscope, and plain; and black paper coated with lamp-black next the thermoscope, and plain.—(Table XII.)
The author thus arrives at the conclusion, ‘‘ under those circum- stances in which the same bodies exhibit an unequal absorptive power their radiating power is one and the same; and those differ- ences which have hitherto been observed when they are not heated to the same extent are, therefore, pure functions of the former and independent of the latter.’’
The conclusion, if we understand it rightly, would appear capable of being more easily stated, and, indeed, rendered at once obvious, from the distinctions at first pointed out; whence it is evident that the rays of Species I (as before described) from the cylinder, and those of Species II from the lamp, will necessarily act very unequally, according to the texture and color of the surface.
But when a body has received the radiation, from whatever source, and converted it into heat of temperature, as in these cases, to an equalized degree, it will necessarily radiate it again in an equal de- gree with the same surface, from whatever species of rays it was originally obtained.
Section IV is headed ‘‘Comparison of the Heat radiated from differ- ent bodies within a certain range of Temperature.”’
The author commences by remarking that ‘‘all former observations upon radiation have only related to the quantities of heat emitted by different substances at certain temperatures.’? The object of the present investigation is to ascertain whether there are any quatitative differences; or, as the author expresses it, ‘‘whether the heat which radiates from certain bodies at one and the same temperature, or within certain limits of temperature, is of a different kind, according
°
RADIANT HBAT. ' 373
as it is emitted by different bodies, or is excited in them in a different way.’
This inquiry was pursued by a series of experiments, in which (1) a vessel of water at 212° and (2) the flame of a lamp had in contact with them various adiathermanous substances, su¢h as metal, porce- Jain, leather, wood, &c., in the heat given out, by which the series of screens gave exactly similar series of effects. As also with the heat from a hollow cylinder of copper or iron surrounding a flame. But when the direct radiation of the flame was employed, the series of results were in proportions considerably different.—(Tables XIII DOG I.)
The author, indeed, remarks, at the conclusion, that these last differences are due to the heat transmitted by the screens, 7. e., the heat conveyed by the luminous rays; as, indeed, would be manifest, according to the views at first noticed.
In another series (1) an adiathermanous body at several tempera- tures, from 88° to 212°, (2) the flame of a lamp and (8) a metal cylin- der round a flame below 234°, were severally tried with the same series of screens; the results in cases (1) and (3) being found exactly similar, in (2) in a very different proportion.
The same sources were next tried with two screens interposed; the first being, successively, metal with holes, silk, ivory, &c., and each of these combined with the several screens of the former series. In all cases the results gave proportional series.—(Tables XVII to XIX.)
Another series was conducted with, 1st, a flame, and, 2d, water at 212°; each in succession with a screen used first plain and then blackened, the screens being black glass, lac, ivory, paper, &c.; the results being always less with the blackened surface, very similar in each case, and all less with the hot w ater.—(Table TO)
Another set, with a heated mass, and with the hand at its natural temperature for sources, gave similar results with various screens. — (Table X XI.)
This, the author says, ‘‘disproves the opinion of Forbes, that the heat emitted by boiling water and the hand must be considered as different.’’ I am unable to find in what respect Professor Forbes supposes them different.
At the conclusion of this section the author adverts to two practical inferences from what has preceded.
(i.) The fact that the amount.of heat absorbed by a given body is the same, from whatever source it was derived, is important in regard to the determination of specific heats by the colorimeter ; for if the heat absorbed by the ice were different as it might be derived from differ- ent sources, no correct measure of specific heat would be obtained. That it is not so msures the accuracy of the results, so far as lis source of error is concerned.
(ii.) The second application is, that ‘‘these results lead to a new method of ascertaining whether any substance transmits rays of heat or not,’’ (235;) that is, of determining whether any given instance of transmission of heat is really due to diathermancy, or is merely sec- ondary radiation.
———S-—
874 RADIANT HBAT.
Thus, to determine whether ivory, e. g., 1s really diathermanous; the source of heat is a known adiathermanous substance kept heated by a lamp; the effect is observed; a known diathermanous screen is then interposed and the effect again observed; the ivory is then sub- stituted for the diathermanous body, and the direct effect equalized to: the former; the same screen is then interposed, but now a greater effect is transmitted. It follows that part of the original heat is transmitted directly by the ivory, along with that radiated from it; or the wory is diathermanous.
Section V, on ‘‘the Comparison of the amount of Heat diffusely reflected by different bodies,’’ refers to that kind of irregular reflec- tion, or dispersion (as it has been sometimes called) of the rays from the roughened, or at least unpolished surfaces of bodies, and which is distinguished from regular reflection, which is governed by the law of equal angles of reflection and incidence by occurring equally at all angles. And the object is stated by the author to be the determina- tion ‘‘ whether heat, or diffuse reflection, experiences changes in its properties which distinguish it from that which is not reflected.’’— (384. )
The heat being incident on a rough surface is, of course, partly absorbed and radiated again; to guard against error from confounding this with the proper reflected heat, various and careful precautions were adopted.
The author then proceeds to detail the observations, which are of voluminous extent, and the results recorded in a long series of tables.— (Tables XXII to XXXII, inclusive.)
In all this first series the source employed was an Argand lamp without its chimney, and in all cases the mode of operating was similar.
The unpolished surface under examination was exposed to the rays of the lamp at different distances and at different inclinations, and the direct effect noted; the experiment was then repeated with the inser- tion of a series of variously diathermanous screens.
The substances used as reflectors were extremely varied; such as bodies agreeing in one property and differing in another, or totally homogeneous, or totally heterogeneous.
Thus an immense range of ‘substances of animal, vegetable, and mineral origin, opaque or “transparent, of all colors and texture 8, were examined, ond the agreements or discordances, according to their various properties, were found extremely varied and curious.
By these results, the author observes, ‘‘it is placed beyond all doubt that heat, on diffuse refiection, is very differently modified by some bodies to a great extent, while by others it is unchanged.’’— (400.)
And these results completely confirm the position already advanced, ‘(that the transmission of heat through diathermanous media depends solely upon the nature of these bodies, by virtue of which they t trans- mit some rays more easily than others.’’—(402.)
In asecond series the same subject is continued with reference to different sources of heat, which were, besides the lamp, platinum at a
~
RADIANT HEAT 3175
red heat, the flame of alcohol, and a metallic cylinder heated by being placed over the flame of a lamp, as before:
Gi.) The reflections were first made from that series of substances which had displayed the greatest differences in the former instance. The results are given in a similar tabular for m.—(Tables XX XIII to XXXVIII.)
The author’s general conclusion is, ‘‘that the modifications which: heat experiences on reflection are very considerable in the case of the heat emanating from an Argand lamp; that with the heat of red-hot platinum they diminish: with the heat of the flame of alcohol they are still less; and in the case of the heat emitted by a heated iron cylin- der, of whatever temperature it a be, between 79° and about 234° Fahr enheit, they absolutely vanish.’ (407. )
Or more generally, ‘‘the changes undergone by heat on diffuse re- flection are occasioned both by the paeane of the sources of heat and the properties of the reflecting body.’’—(408.)
(i1.) It remained, as the enthion expresses it, to determine ‘‘ whether those surfaces which exert a similar influence on the rays of the Argand lamp, 2. e., which they reflect i in such a manner that the heat reflected by the one is transmitted by the diathermanous media used for test- ing in the same proportion as that reflected by the others, would also reflect the heat from the other sources, so thatthe rays reflected by them would pass through these substances in the same manner.’’ — (409. )
The results of these experiments are given in detail. —(Tables XXXIX to XLIV.)
The question then arose with regard to the explanation of these phe- nomena: Are they owing to any change undergone by the rays in per- meating the diathermanous substances, or were they “the consequences of a selective absorption of the reflecting surfaces for certain rays of heat transmitted to them, as appeared the most probable view from the experiments of Baden Powell and Melloni?’—(415.)
This question the author proceeds to examine by a detailed com- parison of the foregoing results, exhibited in new tabular arrange- ments of every case.—(Tables XLV to LI.)
Upon a minute discussion of all these results, the author decides in favor of the second alternative; or ‘‘that the changes experienced by heat on diffuse reflection are merely the result of a selective absorp- tion of the reflecting surfaces for certain rays of heat transmitted to them.’’-—(423
The author also adverts to some other inferences from these experi- ments; as that, ‘‘excepting charcoal and the metals, it cannot be said that any body reflects heat better or worse than any other, because this relation varies with each kind of radiation.”
Again: certain bodies of the same color TeHlee different kinds of heat and others of different color the same kind; and this is con- nected with the fact that ‘‘every luminiferous source of heat emits a large number of invisible rays, which are susceptible of reflection < 2nd affect the thermal pile.’’—(424.)
These, and some other remarks on the dissimilarity in the diffuse
"OG RADIANT HEAT.
reflections of luminiferous and calorific rays, are not perhaps expressed with that clearness which might be wished.
The subject of Section VI is ‘‘On the Sources of Heat;’’ which is further explained to relate to the differences in the nature of the rays, or in general the heterogeneity of the rays, emitted from one and the same source at the same time; and the differences in this respect of different sources.
From the previous experiments the author concludes, in general, that ‘‘the variety of the rays of heat emitted is greatest with the Argand lamp, less with red-hot platinum, still less when the flame of alcohol is used, and has entirely disappeared with the cylinder heated to 212° Fahrenheit.’’ —(426.)
But he now proceeds to test and extend such conclusions in another way, viz: by the differences exhibited by the rays in the different action of diathermanous bodies upon them, according as they have in the first instance passed through certain diathermanous bodies, or pro- ceeded direct from the source. The differences thus exhibited give increasing proofs of heterogeneity.
And one more important point belonging to this inquiry he investi- gated, by platinum heated to successive stag ges, (1) below 234°, (2) at a red, (3) at a yellow, and (4) at a white heat; while in each case the heat was reflected diffusely by various surfaces, and in every instance intercepted by the same series of screens.—(Tables LIL to LV.)
From these he draws the conclusion that the differences which the rays evolved at the successive stages exhibit after diffuse reflection, on transmission through diathermanous media, are in every instance greater at the stage (4) than at (3;) these greater than at (2,) and these than at (1.) Or, in general, that the heat emitted by platinum at these successive stages is successively more heterogeneous as we advance from the lower to the higher.
Again, with the same body it is “not in the mere proportion of the in- crease of temperature, as such; nor in different bodies does it follow any proportion to the temperature (as before observed. )
The author hints generally at the relation between these degrees of heterogeneity and the differences in the nature of the luminous rays emitted; but without laying down any very precise or clearly drawn distinctions as to their characteristic properties.
Transmission of Heat through Crystals.
Melloni had raised the question whether in one and the same body, in a crystal, for instance, the quantity of radiant heat transmitted was different along the different axes. In experimenting on this subject, in connexion with M. Knoblauch, he found that with transparent rock crystal and with calespar no difference of this kind was detected.
In a memoir (in Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1852, No. 2, translated in Taylor's Foreign Memoir s, November, 1852, and February, 1853,) en- titled ‘‘On the Dependence of Radiant Heat in its Passage through Crystals on the Direction of Transmission,’’?’ M. Knoblauch has pur- sued the subject commenced by Melloni.
RADIANT HEAT. 377 .
He took in the first instance a cube of brown quartz, having two of its sides perpendicular to the axis of the crystal. The rays of the sun were reflected into a room by a heliostat, and the mirror being me- tallic they remained unpolarized, and after passing through the crystal, (which could be turned with its axis in different directions with respect to the rays,) were received on a thermo-multipher. The effect was considerably less in the direction perpendicular to the axis. 'The same result was found with beryl; but with tourmaline the effect was greatest perpendicular to the axis.
The rays were next polarized by a Nicol’s prism, before incidence on the crystal. When the plane of polarization coincided with the axis the heat transmitted was the same in all directions. But when perpendicular to the axis the differences before observed in the unpolar- ized rays were increased.
No difference could be detected between the cases when the rays passed along the axis of the crystals, and the plane of polarization was respectively horizontal or vertical.
M. Knoblauch now proceeded to try whether the rays which ex- hibit quantitative differences as above, wouldshow qualitative differences in the same cases, that is, differences in the power of transmission through diathermanous bodies.
The diathermanous bodies employed for screens were blue, yellow, _red and green glasses.
After transmission through a brown rock crystal, the proportion of rays penetrating the different screens differed in the two positions, parallel and perpendicular to the axis, only within errors of observa- tion.
With the rays previously polarized (as before) sensible differences were observed, the plane of polarization being vertical.
The heat was in all cases greatest through the yellow and red glasses, rather less through the blue, and least through the green.
Another set of experiments, in which the plane of polarization was horizontal, gave no sensible differences.
Rays traversing the crystal along its axis, also exhibit no differences, as was likewise the case with rays perpendicular to the axis.
With deryl similar observations were repeated; with blue glass the difference is very small, for yellow rather greater; the author infers a real difference.
With polarized light and with the plane of polarization vertical, the differences are much greater with both glasses.
With the plane horizontal no difference was found.
Common light, passed through two cubes of bery] according as their axes were parallel or perpendicular to each other, gave great differ- ences with the yellow and blue glasses, and in an opposite ratio in the respective cases.
With towrmaline exactly similar results were obtained in the cor- responding cases.
With dichorite also the author says, ‘‘so far as the examination extended, qualitative differences dependent on the direction of trans mission have also been observed.’’
378 RADIANT HEAT.
At the conclusion the author makes some observations in explana- tion of the phenomena; these may be more briefly and clearly expressed thus:
The unpolarized rays incident along the axis of the crystals examined or parallel to it undergo a certain absorption dependent on the nature
f the crystal; and this is no further modified, since in this direction , there 1s no double refraction.
But if the ray be incident perpendicular to the axis, it is divided into two, oppositely polarized, and these are difierently absorbed.
hat which has its plane of polarization parallel to the axis has the same absorption as along the axis. That which hasits plane of polari- zation perpendicular. to the axis is absorbed more or less than the former, in different degrees in different crystals, and for the different component rays.
When the unpolarized rays are incident, then the result is com- pounded of these separate effects.
When rays previously polarized are employed, the effects are displayed singly.
The author considers that these distinctions fully account for the observed phenomena.
Upon this we may observe—
The investigation cannot with correctness be called one on the transmission of ‘‘radiated heat’’ in general; it is restricted to that. peculiar form or case of radiation which is manifested in the solar rays, and proves nothing as to the radiation from hot bodies, or even that conveyed in the rays from artificial lights, unless, as inferred, by analogy. All the differences observed depend simply on the unequal absorption of the rays of light by the crystals and the colored glasses.
Melloni’s recent Haxperiments.
In the '‘ Comptes Rendus,’’ No. 10, p. 429, March 6, 1854, Melloni gives some brief remarks in reply to certain objections raised by MM. Provostaye and Desains against the accuracy of experiments with the thermo-multiplier on the passage of heat through screens.
He points out as the sources of discrepancy the oblique passage of the rays through a thick diathermanous screen, which is greater or less according to the distance e, and gives different effects of internal reflection and absorption in different cases.
To show that the errors objected arise solely from this source, he describes a careful repetition of his experiments in which it was guarded against.
The series of experiments included the usual set of sources, viz:
(1.) The flame of an oil-lamp. 2 ) Incandescent platina kept up by vapor of alcohol. (3.) Plate of copper heated by lamp.
(1) Vessel of hot water.
Equalizing the effects on the thermo-multiplier by changing the dis- tance and interposing a rock-salt screen, the diminution of effect appeared the same for the first three sources, but greater for the fourth,
RADIANT HEAT. 379
But this last result he contends was simply due to the greater prox- imity of the source, and consequent greater differences of inclination of the rays; and when equalized in this respect, the difference in question disappeared, or might even be reversed.
In the same notice Melloni refers briefly to other results which have been obtained by means of rock-salt.
(1.) That with a prism of rock-salt the maximum of calorie effect in ‘the solar spectrum is thrown further from the limit than with other ‘prisms thermochroiques.”’
(2.) That the radiation from the sun diminishes from the centre to the circumference; that the radiation from the spots is less than from the rest of the surface, and that of the equatorial region of the sun greater; these results were obtained by M. Secchi.
It may be right to add that I have been informed that in a work entitled ‘*Thermo-chrose,’’ not long since published at Naples, M. Melloni has somewhat modified his former opinions, and seems disposed to assent to the doctrine of the identity of the rays which produce light and heat, or heat alone, according to their greater wave-length; and has explained and reconciled some of his former difficulties. I regret to be unable at present to give a more precise account.
Mr. Draper also, Iam informed, has been led to admit that the chemical effects belong properly to the same set of rays, differing only in the characteristic of peculiar wave-lengths.
On the whole, the question of the evidence for and against this theory is one eminently deserving of being fully discussed. I can only pretend in this imperfect report to have suggested some of the ma- terials which may assist in forming some judgment on this point.
Analogies of Transmission of Light and Heat by Waves.
» The very important researches of Mr. Joule on heat and the dy- namical theory to which they lead, though referring directly to heat in its action on bodies as temperature or as latent heat, yet are not without a bearing on the subject of radiant heat, as has been in some degree pointed out in the excellent address of our President of last year.— (Report, 1853, p. xlvii.)
| Mr. Joule’s theory, though not as such dependent on the wave- theory of heat, is yet eminently in accordance with it, and so far lends Mt much support. If we suppose the temperature of a body to arise from vibrations of its molecules, such vibrations may be excited in it by the vibrations of an ethereal medium surrounding and penetrating that mass of matter. In this respect the close analogy with sound is Preserved. These vibrations of heat, however, produce mechanical changes in the constitution of the medium. They cause it to expand; @. e., they drive its molecules to greater distances apart; and when Carried to a certain extent, cause a fresh and sudden separation to a Har greater extent, accompanied with a new arrangement of these molecules, or a change of state in the body from solid to fluid or from fluid to aériform. Here the analogy with sound ceases to hold good, except so far as that a temporary new arrangement of the molecules
380 - RADIANT HEAT.
is occasioned by the sonorous vibrations. The transmission of lumi- niferous waves has a velocity which, though enormous, is capable of measurement. Whether that of the longer non-luminiferous but caloriferous waves is the same has not been, I believe, experimentally verified, but must theoretically be supposed the same, unless, indeed, it be only approximately the same for waves within the narrow limits of the luminiferous scale, and diverge from that value beyond those, limits.
Again, the passage or process of the vibrations in a body receiving heat is slow ; to this conduction of heat there does not seem to be any- thing strictly analogous in sound. In general the passage of light through transparent bodies excites in them no vibrations capable of affecting our eyes with the sense of light; 7. e., the medium does not become luminous, unless we. except the case of the phosphorescence of fluor-spar and some other bodies after exposure to light. So far, indeed, as the transparency is imperfect, and in all opaque bodies the vibrations which constitute light are stopped, or changed in such a manner that they give rise to vibrations in the body constituting heat, just as those longer vibrations do which constitute that species of radiation which is derived from the mere cooling of a hot body; but this does not occur in transparent bodies. It would seem to be the law that if a ray, or a series of waves of the proper length to be luminiferous, impinge on an opaque body, they communicate vibra- tions to its molecules, which again transmit to the surrounding ether other waves of greater length, which in like manner traverse space and can again excite vibrations in bodies on which they impinge; or if from any source a body have internal vibrations of a certain intensity, (whether forming eaves, or of what lengths, we have no means of deciding,) it can transmit to the surrounding ether vibrations which constitute wayes of lengths greater than a certain given length, viz: that which belongs to the deepest red luminiferous rays. If its internal vibrations are increased in intensity beyond a certain point, it then acquires the power of communicating (in addition to the last) other vibrations to the ether forming waves of other and smaller lengths, so as to give rise to light.
Origin of the Solar Heat. Professor W. Thomson’s Theory.
Some very important speculations have been brought forward on the source, and thus bear on the nature, of the solar heat, by Professor Thomson*, in immediate connexion with the theory of Mr. Joule, and on the principle that the energy of the heat thus emitted must be accompanied by an equivalent expenditure of mechanical force. On this principle he institutes numerical calculations, the main results of which, together with a brief exposition of the principles, may be given as follows:
The kind of force acting, or the source of solar heat, the author conceives may be expressed by several hypotheses, each of which he examines:
*Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xxi, part 1. On the Mechanica Energies of the Solar System.
RADIANT HEAT, 381
I. The supposition of the sun being simply a body intensely heated and losing its heat by radiation or simple cooling.
This he considers quite untenable, as well on theoretical grounds advanced in some other papers, as on the simple consideration that if this were true the sun would be extinguished in a very short time.
II. The hypothesis of chemical action or combustion of any kind.
Supposing one of the combining bodies to be supplied from any atmosphere, the products of combustion would be so enormous as to choke the fire, if gaseous, by preventing the access of the air in question, or, if solid or liquid, by preventing the supply of fuel; and according to the mechanical theory before mentioned, a numerical calculation shows that the whole mass of the sun could scarcely last 8,000 years without being all consumed, if generating, by its own burning, the heat which is actually emitted. Hence if the sun is a fire, the fuel must be supplied from external space. But a mass of coal or iron or potassium could not reach the sun from external space without generating thousands of times as much heat from its motion as it could possibly do by its combustion. Combustion is probably, therefore, insignificant, if it exists at all, as a source of solar heat.
Ill. The hypothesis of meteors falling into the sun and expending force mechanically has been started by Mr. Waterston*, who supposes such bodies to be attracted and fall directly into the sun from remote extra-planetary regions.
The supply of meteoric matter necessary according to this theory is estimated to amount to such a mass as would cover the sun’s surface to a depth of thirty feet in one year.
The author, however, considers it probable that meteors actually fall into the sun, not directly from distant spaces, but by the action of a resisting medium surrounding the sun, which contracts the orbits in which they are revolving round him. He conceives that these meteors must be moving within the limits of the earth’s orbit, or we should be continually struck by them, and that they are probably the matter of the zodiacal light.
It is, however, quite conceivable that that cloud of small planetary masses may once have extended beyond the limits of the earth’s orbit, and thus in remote periods the earth may have been exposed to such falls of them as to have materially raised its temperature; and hence a possible source of those high temperatures which once existed.
But to return to the effects of the resisting medium. Owing to its retardation, the approach of these bodies to the sun is gradual, and on this hypothesis a calculation similar to the former would give the result that the sun must be covered to a depth of sixty feet in a year, or a mile in about eighty-eight years, which would occasion an in- crease of 1” apparent diameter in 40,000 years—a change, of course, utterly inappreciable to observation.
The amount of matter thus abstracted by the sun would be equal to the mass of the earth in about forty-seven years; but it is quite conceivable that a quantity of one hundred times this amount would
*British Association, Hull Meeting, 1853.
882 RADIANT HEAT.
not be missed from the zodiacal light. Thus the sun’s heat might be kept up for five thousand years to come at least. This transfer of matter to the sun coming from a source within the earth’s orbits would not affect the conditions of the system as to the effects of gravi- tation.
Some meteors may possibly come direct on the sun from the extra- planetary spaces, but the quantity of such is probably very small in comparison with those that have been revolving in approximately circular or elliptic orbits before falling in.
If we imagine a dark body moving through space and coming into a locality abounding with meteors, their impact may raise it to incan- descence, which will cease when it moves out of that space. Thus the author suggests a possible explanation of variable stars.
(Addition I.) The author gives a calculation of the quantity of matter necessary to be added to the sun on the extra-planetary hy- pothesis, and finds it gives too great an increase of central force to consist with the historical conditions of the earth’s motion. He con- cludes the supply must have been from within the earth’s orbit for thousands of years at least.
(Addition IT.) He shows that the resistance must be very small even close to the sun, since such light bodies as comets pass through it at perihelion.
The solar atmosphere may be conceived to be carried round in a vortex by these revolving masses, but not more rapidly than a planet would be at the same distance. Hence the meteors must long con- tinue to revolve before reaching the sun, and must get so near as to be completely evaporated before they fall in.
Hence the solar heat 1s produced, not by solids impinging on the sun, but by the violent friction of the rotating vortex of evaporated meteoric matter.
(Addition III.) The temperature of the different parts of the sun’s surface may undergo great changes from the eddies and streams oc- curring in this revolving mass. Hence many of the appearances of the solar spots and streaks, &e.
(AdditionIV.) ‘‘Onthe age of the sun.’’ Atthe rate of meteoric incorporation above calculated, the present rotation of the sun would be produced from rest in thirty-two thousand years. We may infer (since it appears very improbable that the sun has had a contrary rotation destroyed by meteoric incorporation) that the kind of agency now going on cannot have been going on and alone generating heat at the present rate for more than that period. For the future we know that the mass of the zodiacal light is small, in comparison with that of the sun, from its producing no sensible perturbation on the planets, and we may be sure it cannot keep up the supply for three hundred thousand years. The sun’s rotation has been by no means accurately determined; it may possibly vary to an amount which fu- ture observations may detect, and thus test the theory.
RADIANT HEAT, 383
Density of iher.
Another speculation,* closely connected with. the former and the generai subject of radiation, has been pursued by the same author, on the probable density which can be assigned to the luminiferous and caloriferous ether.
This speculation is founded, like the former, on the data furnished by Pouillet’s Researches on the Solar Radiation, and Joule’s theory of the mechanical energy equivalent to the effect of heat produced. The calculation turns on the assumption that the velocity of vibration can only be a small fraction (probably not one-fiftieth) of the velocity of the propagation of waves, and from the velocity of vibration we may calcuate the density, or conversely.
Hence the author conceives that we may assign a limit, and that a cubic foot of luminiferous cether, at the distance of the earth from the sun,
1 cannot contain less than Gate i) of one pound of matter.
With regard to the results of Professor Thomson, especially when the novel character of some. of the reasonings is taken into account, some difference of opinion may reasonably be expected. There are certainly many considerations involved which might suggest important topics of
iscussion. On these it is not my purpose to enter. [will mer ely re- mark, that in all these investigations the essential point is the expendi- ture of mechanical energy in producing vibrations, of whatever kind. The whole question then assumes a more sirictly mechanical aspect. The sure indication that this entire branch of science is in a state of approximation at least towards that stage which characterizes the perfection of any branch of physical knowledge, when all its varied phenomena shall be shown to be susceptible of analysis up to simple combinations of the elementary laws of force and motion.
I would merely add that, in speaking of the effect of the evolution of heat, there is nothing in Professor Thomson’s conclusion which restricts them to any one species of heat. The essential point is the production of vibrations; and his results are thus in entire accordance with the theory which refers all kinds of heating effect to the stop- page or absorption of rays; in other words, the extinction or destruc- tion of the vibratory motions, constituting rays of different wave- lengths, some of which are also within those limits, and belong to that part of the scale; which renders them capable of affecting our eyes with the sensation of vision; which (as already remarked) considera- tions on all hands seem now tending to show is the most probable hypothesis on the subject.
Radiation of Heat from the Zodiacal Light and from the Comet of 1843.
Some interesting observations on these points are given by M. Matthiessen in the ‘‘ Comptes Rendus,”’ April, 1843, (vol. xvi, p. 687.)
* Professor W. Thomson ‘‘On the Possible Density of the Luminiferous Medium,’’ &e.’ Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xxi, Part I.
384 RADIANT HEAT.
On the 27th of March M. Matthiessen placed at the focus of a con- cave mirror of one metre diameter an air-thermometer, which showed a similar rise above its indication in other positions, when the axis of the mirror was directed to the zodiacal light.
He next substituted for the thermometer a thermo-electric pile with great precautions; which, having its condensing cone
Directed to the nucleus of the comet, gave a deviation of------ ae Directed to the zodiacal ight near its summit...-...-...++s-- 10° Directed to the zodiacal light at base....... +... eeeeee eee eee 12° Directed to the part of sky over the sun...-... ssesse sees eee 3° MMO EDEL GIRS CUIOMG> enatee chalet ters futeretaitolsletetve faci chute (ctietelsts ueienenenenaime Qo
On removing the condensing cone to try whether the effect was due to atmospheric causes, he still found towards the base of the zodiacal hight2° or 32.
Instead of the mirror he next used a jlint-glass lens, 56 centim. diameter, 16 centim. focal length.
With the thermo-electric pile, as before, this gave,
Directed to zodiacal light, summit....-....s.-eeeeee cee eee 9° Directed to zodiacal light, base. .----+-+. +. 2. esse cess se eveeee 49 Directed to sky OMIGIIS UM nce or enevioe save leneccuos sus te eine taentheuesckowerstactonere dato (NE
With a tallow candle at 10 metres distance (whether with the lens is not stated, but probably with it, as the experiments would not otherwise be comparable)—
With the condensing cone, deviation.....- eee e eee eee ee eee Se
This, he observes, shows ‘‘combien est minime la quantité de chaleur envoyée par la lumiére zodiacale, et que l’influence de la cométe doit étre réellement imperceptible par notre température.”’
It was perhaps this somewhat ambiguous sentence which led Hum- boldt to represent these experiments as showing no sensible effect due to the zodiacal light.—(‘‘ Cosmos,’’ Note 98, p. 394, vol. 1, Sabine’s translation. )
In the face of the experiments, however, we must adopt another interpretation; and perhaps what the author means is the distinction between the radiant heat affecting the thermoscope, and the temperature communicated to the atmosphere; which are manifestly different things.
The experiment with the candle, if made (as seems to be implied) with the lens, is an important verification of the fact of the heating power belonging to light from terrestrial sources.
The result with the zodiacal light also shows that at least a portion of its effect is of this species, and not dependent on its mere loss of heat as a hot body cooling.
It is, however, but right to add, that indications of such extreme delicacy as those here referred to have been looked upon by some physicists as almost too liable to uncertainty to be entirely trust- worthy.
MAGNETIC ORSERVATORY. 385
DESCRIPTION OF THE MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY AT THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
[This observatory is supported at the joint expense of the Smithsonian Institution and the Coast Survey. The description here given is by J. E. Hilgard, esq , who had charge of the observations. |
The instruments of this observatory are designed to give, by means of photographic self registration, a continuous record of the varia- tions in the direction and intensity of the earth’s magnetic force. They are similar to those employ ed for the same purpose at the Greenwich, Paris, and other Kuropean observatories, and also at Toronto, on this continent, and consist of a freely suspended decli- nation magnet, a bifilar magnetometer, after Gauss’ design, and a bal- anced magnetometer, after Lloyd; each provided with the apparatus for photographic self-registration, invented by Mr. Charles Brooke, under whose direction the instruments were constructed, as has been heretofore stated in the reports of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
The general plan of the photographic registry is as follows: each magnet carries a concave mirror, (speculum,) in one of the conjugate foci of which is placed a source of light; a pencil of rays 1s re- flected by the mirror, and concentr ated in the other focus upon a sensitive sheet of paper wrapped about a cylinder, which Eevelogs in a certain time about an axis parallel to the direction of the changes of the magnets. The point of hight traces a curve commeeaond re to the ants of the magnet; the angular value of the ordinates of the curve is, of course, measured by a radius equal to twice the distance of the mirror from the cylinder; or, in other words, we have an index for the movements of the magnet equal to twice that distance; which index or tracer, being without inertia, and acting without flexure or friction, is vastly superior to any mechanical arrangement by which such registry could be effected.
The magnetic observatory is contained in a small building expr essly constructed for the purpose, situated about 150 yards southeast from the south entrance of the Smithsonian Institution. No iron whatever has been used in its construction—copper or brass being empioyed where metal was necessary. The instrument-room, occupying u space of twelve by sixteen feet, is wholly beneath the surface of the ground; it is closed in by an nine-inch brick wall, between which ard the outer wall! of two feet in thickness a space of two feet intervenes on three sides. This space is covered in at the surface of the © ound
by a coping oe, with a erating at two corners, and communicates ¢ the bottom with the instrument-room by small air passages. A consid- erable uniformity of temperature is thus secured, as the aiy has to descend about. nine feet before it enters the room. A flue «1 the north side of the room, communicating with a chimney, secures the requisite ventilation. On the fourth (the south) side of the room is the door and an ante-chamber, into which the stairs descend, and where there is a trough with supply of water from a cistern ‘>: per- forming the rinsing and washing necessary in the photographic
25
386 MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY AT
operations. The upper part of the building is occupied by a similar ante-room and a laboratory, where the preparation of the sensitive paper and other photographic operations are performed. A soapstone stove, with copper pipe, supplies in winter the necessary warmth to the room. The windows have close shutters, with an opening cor- responding to a yellow pane of glass, which admits sufficient light for operating in the room, while it in no degree affects the sensitized paper.
No sunlight whatever penetrates to the instrument-room, which is only dimly lighted by the reflection at the ceiling of the burners used for the registration.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENT ROOM.
The annexed diagram, Fig. 1, illustrates the disposition of the instruments. Dis the declination magnet; H the horizontal force, and V the vertical force magnetometer; the letter n designates the north end of each magnet; the declination magnet being suspended
Fig. 1. N
Plan of instrument room,
freely in the magnetic meridian, the horizontal force magnet in a bifilar torsion-balance, with its north end to the west, and the bal- anced vertical force magnet attached to a beam resting on knife- edges, with its north end to the east. The line joining the centres of D and H makes an angle of 35° 16’ with the magnetic meridian, according to Lloyd’s theorem, for the position in which small changes of direction in one magnet will have no effect upon the other. In b, 6, b, on the gas-burners, from which the recording pencils of light emanate, which are reflected by concave mirrors attached to the magnets, and concentrated upon the record cylinders 7, 7, 7. Hach magnet carries, besides, a small plane mirror, by means of which
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 387
scale-readings are obtained on fixed scales attached to the reading telescopes f¢, ¢, ¢, the permanence of the direction of which is checked by reference marks on the opposite wall of the room.
The three instruments are supported on brick piers 16 X 16 inches, having no connexion with the floor, while the reading telescopes and the record cylinders for D and H rest on wooden brackets bolted to the wall; the record cylinder V is supported on a wooden stand which rests on the floor, as do also the tripods which support the gas- burners. The centres of the mirrors and of the cylinders are all in one horizontal plane three feet above the floor. The distance from each mirror to its record cylinder is 9 feet 6 inches, affording a scale value of one-fifteenth of an inch to one minute of angular motion of the magnet. The distance from burner to mirror is about 28 inches.
DECLINATION INSTRUMENT.
Fig. 2 is a side view, on a scale of one-tenth the actual size, of the in- strument for recording the changes in the declination. A marble slab sustains a frame made of brass tubes, supporting a top piece, from which the magnet is suspended by a bundle or skein of parallel silk fibres. The suspension skein is enclosed in a glass tube, and the magnet, with its attach- ments, is also enclosed in a case with sides of plane plate glass. The top pane is likewise covered over by a round glass cap. The magnet is 9 inches long, 14 inch wide, 4 inch thick, and is held by a clamping frame, the upper part of which carries the hook by which it is sus- pended, while to the lower part is attached the frame which holds the speculum and the plane mirror for scale readings. In Fig. 2 the specu- lum is seen edgewise; compare, also, Fig. 4 below, which gives a front view. The mirror frame is pivoted to the carrier, and is held in position by a tangent screw, by means of which its direction can be nicely adjusted to any part of the record cylinder.
The magnet is closely surrounded by acopper ‘‘damper,’’ which, acting by induction when the magnet is in pre ieiey satan Sats ae
motion, checks the vibrations occa- alae py, ees Pian of-Dam epPET«
sioned by the changes of direction, and keeps the oscillations within nar-
Declination instrument.
388 MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY AT
row limits. A screw at the top of the frame serves to adjust the magnet to the proper height. The circular top plate is graduated on its edge, and can be revolved about a central collar, by which means the suspension skein can be turned through any desired angle. In order to take out all twist, when the instrument is first. mounted a bar of lead of the same weight as the magnet 1s suspended in its place, and after it has found its position of rest, the upper plate or ‘torsion circle’’ is turned until the bar comes to rest in the magnetic meridian. After suspending the magnet the effect of torsion of the suspension skein on the scale value is determined by turning the torsion circle through 90° on either side of its proper position, and observing the change of direction produced on the magnet. The ratio of this deflection to 90° is the proportion in which all observed variations require to be increased, in order to correct for the resist- ance of the suspension skein to torsion.
SOURCE OF LIGHT AND METHOD OF REGISTRATION.
Gas is brought to the magnetic observatory in a leaden pipe from the main which supplies the ‘Smithsonian Institution. Before reaching the burners it is made to pass over naptha exposed in a suitable vessel, by which means it gives a more white and brilliant light. The shape of the burners is that known as fishtail, and they are so placed that the plane of the burner makes a small angle with the direction to the mirror, in order to allow light from the whole width of the flame to reach the mirror through the narrow aperture of the chimney which surmounts it. This chimney is an oblong blackened copper tube, having a small opening about one-tenth of an inch wide and half an meh high on the side towards the mirror, and close to this opening, on the outside of the chimney, is a screen, with a narrow rectangular slit, adjustable in width by a sliding plate. A good working width of this slit is found to be a little over one hund- redth part of an inch by four-tenths of an inch in height, which forms the beam of hght, a magnified image of which is theo upon the record cylinder. Just before reaching the cylinder this beam is
Fig 3 received upon a pair of cylindrical len: See soauae section in fig.3, by which it is refracted toa focus
/j of about one-twentieth of an inch diameter, which makes the pho- tographic trace. By this ingenious arrange- ment a suificient quan- tity of light is concen- trated to produce a very cvood trace. The lenses [ 5; (ga extend the whole length of the cvlinder, and are mounted ina frame, which can be removed and replaced in position every time the paper on the cylinder is changed.
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 389
The cylinder is 12 inches long, and as the space described on its surface, by a movement of the magnet of minute in arc, is equal to one-fifteenth of an inch—the distance to the mirror being 94 feet— we have room for recording variations to the extent of 180’ or three degrees, which will be approached only in extraordinary disturbances. The diameter of the cylinder is 83 inches, and it revolves by the action of a time-piece once in twenty-four hours, giving a time-scale of a little over one inch for each hour. The cylinder is made of light staves of white pine, truly turned on its axis, and coated with shellac varnish, which protects the sensitized paper from the reaction of organic acids in the wood. In order to secure still further this pro- tection, the cylinder is covered by a sheet of stout drawing paper, which is replaced by a new one from time to time. Mr. Brooke uses glass cylinders, selected from French glass shades for covering vases, &c.; and this material certainly has the advantage of not in any way reacting on the sensitive preparations, and of being most readily kept clean. “But it is so difficult to obtain them of true and uniform figure that the means before mentioned have been resorted to, and with good success. Of a dozen glass cylinders sent with the instrument, but two arrived unbroken, and these are used for the vertical force register, while the wooden cylinders are used for the declination and horizontal force. Each cylinder is driven by a clock-train, regulated by a seconds pendulum with wooden rod, and revolves once in twenty- four hours. It is covered with a blackened copper case, having a narrow slit through which the pencil of light strikes the paper, as seen in figure 3.
PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESS.
The record paper is prepared by immersing it first in a solution of iodide of potassivm—half an ounce of tod. potass. to ten ounces of water. After drying it thoroughly in the air, one side of the sheet is carefully floated on a solution of nitrate of silver—320 grains of /used gray lunar caustic, (or nitrate of silver,) perfectly free from acid, in 10 ounces of water—for 1; minute, and after being allowed to drain a little while by being held up by one corner, it is washed in several changes of water, for which cistern water will do well enough, and hung up to dry in the dark. A number of sheets may be prepared at one time in this manner, and preserved for use in a dark place for ten or twelve days.
When required for use one of these sheets is wrapped about the cylinder, which for that purpose is taken out of its bearings and placed upon similar supports attached to a table in the laboratory. It has been customary to fasten the ends by a paste made of gum- arabic dissolved in acetic acid; but two elastic bands clasped around the sheet, one at each end, “ne found quite sufficient, and much more convenient. The cylinder being replaced in its bearings, and con- nected with the clock movement, a mark is drawn across the edge or joint of the sheet with a hard pencil, which, when the sheet is un- rolled, furnishes points for drawing a line of abscisse, on which the
390 MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY AT
time is measured, and from which the ordinates of the curve are sub- sequently read off. The cover is next put on, and the lens-frame put in position by stops on the base, to which the supports of cylinder and the clock are attached. Observing the place where the point of light now strikes the paper, a pencil mark is made, then the time noted, and a corresponding reading taken in the telescope on the fixed scale, which for that purpose is illuminated by a candle held in the hand.
After the lapse of 24 hours, less about 5 minutes, a similar reading is taken, the time noted, and a corresponding pencil mark made on the trace. The cylinder is then lifted out, the sheet taken off, and a new one immediately put on and started as before.
The former sheet is then floated on a saturated solution of gallic acid, to which a small quantity of the nitrate of silver solution has been added, and allowed to remain from 10 to 20 minutes, until the trace is distinctly brought out. After being next rinsed several times with pure water, it is soaked for 15 minutes in a solution of hyposul- phite of soda—one ounce to ten ounces of water—to fix the trace; and, lastly, the excess of hyposulphite is thoroughly washed off, and the sheet allowed to remain in pure water until next day’s operations have brought the following sheet to the same stage. The former sheet is then allowed to drain, and is thoroughly dried, exposed to the air on a flat piece of glass, to which it adheres, and is thus kept from wrinkling or warping.
TABULATING THE RECORD.
The trace is usually a well defined black line of about the twentieth part of an inch in breadth, with somewhat pale margins or edges. The middle of the line can readily be estimated to the nearest hun- dredth of an inch by a practised reader. Having the time and scale readings corresponding to the beginning and end of the trace, and the direction of the time-scale, it is easy to lay off points at each end of the sheet corresponding to a certain average scale-reading—600— through which points a line of abscisse is drawn with pencil. In order to read off the ordinates or scale-reading for every half hour, or oftener, when the character of the trace makes it desirable, a scale of half hours is applied to line of abscisse, and the corresponding ordinates read off on the edge of a square divided into spaces corres- ponding to minutes of are for the declinometer, and to one ten-thou- sandth part of the force for the other two instruments.
The process of preparing the paper and subsequent operations are, of course, precisely the same for the three instruments. All three sheets are taken off and replaced in rapid succession before the bring- ing out of the traces is proceeded with.
BIFILAR MAGNETOMETER OR HORIZONTAL FORCE INSTRUMENT.
This instrument is designed to exhibit and record the variations in the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic force. To that end the magnet is constrained by a twisted suspension by two threads to
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 391
assume a position nearly at right angles to the magnetic meridian, when the horizontal force acting upon it at right angles small changes of force will produce proportional changes of direction, and the former may be measured by the latter. Figure 4 shows the instrument in outline. The framework is the same
as in the declinometer above de- i es
scribed. The magnet and attachments are suspended by a silk suspension skein attached to two hooks, and passing at the top over a glass roller, which turns on pivots in bearings sup- ported by the torsion-circle. The compound bar above the magnet, to which the hooks are attached, effects the compensation for changes of tem- perature, as will be specially described below. The force of the torsion-bal- ance depends upon the upper and lower distance between the threads, their length 1, the weight w, of the sus- pended mass, and the angle 0, by which the plane of the threads is twisted. If we designate, as is cus- tomary, the earth’s horizontal force by X, the magnetic moment of magnet by m, and half the upper and lower distance between the centres of the threads by a and b, respectively, we have the following equilibrium of forces:
mX= 5" MW, sino.
From this equation is readily de- rived the simple and accurate method of ascertaining the scale value of the instrument proposed by Mr. Brooke. Observing that any variations in the quantity X may be balanced by pro- portional variations in W, he observes Horizontal force instrument or bifilar magneto- the change of scale-reading produced ae by adding to the suspended mass a small weight equal to its one hundredth part, and the same change on the scale, of course, corres ponds to a variation of one-hundredth part of the force. This space on the scale is divided into one hundred parts, in order to have as a convenient unit the ten-thousandth part of the whole horizontal force.
Since the magnetic force m of the magnet is diminished by increase of temperature, and vice versa, the indications of the instrument would be affected by this cause if some arrangement were not intro- duced to counteract and precisely balance its effect.
Mr. Brooke’s compensating apparatus consists of a glass rod clamped
392 MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY AT
Es 3- Fig: 6. at its middle point to the centre of 2 F magnet, the axes of the rod and bar
being parallel; the free ends of the rod are enclosed in two zinc tubes, at the inner ends of which, where they nearly meet in the centre, and to their upper surface, two hooks » are attached; two loops at the ends of the suspension skein are attached to these hooks, the skein passing over a pulley at the point of sus- pension. ‘Towards either end the rod and tubes are commected by a movable clamp, by which the two may be clamped together at any required distance from the centre. It is evident that by elevation of temperature the free ends of the zine tubes will be approximated to each other by a quantity equal to the difference of the expansion of the lengths of zinc and glass that inter- vene between the sliding clamps and the free ends of the tubes, and, con- sequently, that a diminution to the same extent of the distance between the lower ends of the suspension skein will take place. The varia- tion of the interval between the lower ends of the skein corres- ponding with any given variation of temperature may be made to bear any required ratio to the whole inter- val, first, by a due adjustment of the upper and lower intervals of the skein, and secondly, by varying the position of the sliding clamps ; that is, of the acting lengths of the ex- panding tubes; the former may be considered as a coarse, the latter as ga fine adjustment. The glass rod rests on rollers attached to the under surface of the tubes opposite to the hooks, in order that no jerking may be occasioned by the expansion or contraction of the zinc tubes. By a these means the quantity 6 in the preceding formula may be made to vary by change of temperature proportionably to the quantity m with any required degree of exactness; so far, at least, as the variation of m is directly proportional to the variation of temperature.
—
See
| =
TI
TTT TT
I MII
eg TEED
a ee ee ee ee a
@ ‘10
a F|
‘
Ht =
<
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 393
Figs. 5 and 6 show plan and elevation of the bifilar compensator two-thirds the actual size. a a, the magnet; b, the clamp, which attaches the glass rod to the magnet; cc, the zinc tubes enclosing the glass rod; d d, the adjusting clamps, consisting of two parts; the outer encircles the zinc tube, the inner passes and nearly fills the interval between the tube and glass rod. They are capable of sliding for adjustment when the screws are loosened ; when tightened, the rod and tubes are held together; e e, screws for adjusting the distance between the hooks h 4; these should be withdrawn when the clamps d are fixed; 0 0, fig. 5, are the ends of the clamping pieces interposed between the tubes and the rod.
The proper dimensions of *the compensator and its approximate adjustment are found by first ascertaining the temperature co-efficient of the magnet, experimentally, from its time of vibration at high and low temperatures, and calculating the corresponding proportions. The more perfect adjustment is made after the instrument is com- pletely mounted, by enclosing it in a box with a water-jacket, in which the temperature of the water can be raised to any required tempera- ture by heating a pipe connecting the inlet and outlet of the jackets, and comparing the variations of the instrument at different tempera- tures with the indications of another bifilar instrument, the temperature of which has been maintained comparatively constant.
VERTICAL FORCE INSTRUMENT OR BALANCED MAGNETOMETER.
394 MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY AT
This instrument is designed to measure and record the variations in the vertical component of the earth’s magnetic force, to which end a magnet is balanced horizontally in a plane at right angles to the magnetic meridian, in which position its balance is affected by the vertical part of the force only, and variations in the latter will pro- duce corresponding proportional changes of direction in the position of the magnet. In the annexed diagram, fig. 7, 1s a top view, fig. 8, a side elevation, and fig. 9, an end view of the instrument, such parts being omitted in each as would confuse the representation. In fig. 7 we see the balance beam, with speculum attached on the right, and magnet on the left hand, the latter surrounded by the copper damper, which is further shown in fig. 9, but omitted in fig. 8. The beam rests with agate knife edges on agate planes, and can be lifted off or let down upon the latter by means of a vertical sliding frame, (in fig. 8,and shown endways on the right hand,) which can be moved by an eccentric, operated by means of a key from the outside of the surrounding case. Whenever the instrument is handled for the purpose of adjustment or otherwise, it is lifted off the agates, and afterwards slowly lowered. There are attached to the beam two balls on screw stems, one for adjusting the balance, the other for adjusting the height of the centre of gravity, and thereby the value of the scale divisions. The small thermometer attached to the balance frames parallel with the magnet is for the purpose of com- pensating the effect of temperature. The whole instrument rests on a black marble slab, and is covered by a mahogany case, blackened on the inside, with glazed apertures for the speculum and plane mirror.
In order to determine the scale value, according to Lloyd’s method, we observe T,, the time of horizontal vibration of the magnet in its frame with attachments; also T, the time of vertical vibration of the same on its knife edges. Then if F designates the vertical force, I the dip, D the distance from the mirror to the scale or paper, and @# the space on the paper corresponding to a certain change of force d F, as, for instance, the one-thousandth part, we have—
2 EE aa ientor ue
The compensation for temperature is effected by means of a ther- mometer, whose bulb and stem are so adjusted to the temperature and scale coefficients that the translation of a portion of the mercury towards the north end of the magnet by an increase of temperature will exactly counterbalance the loss of force in the magnet. This mode of compensation, also due to Mr. Brooke, enables us to compen- sate for the effect of the second as well as the jist power of the change of temperature; for the statical moment of the mercury displaced from the bulb by any given elevation of temperature, as ¢, above 32° Fahr., may be represented by the same formula which expresses the temperature coefficients, namely, c ¢ +e @.
For let w be the weight of mercury contained in one degree of the.
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 395
tube, and let the tube be taken such that the distance from the centre of the bulb to the point 32° may be kc, and length of one degree 2k c, then at any temperature 32° + ¢°, the statical moment of the mercury displaced by a small change of temperature, d ¢, will be wi(kce+2ket) dt, and consequently the statical moment of the mercury displaced between the temperatures of 32° and 32° + ¢° will be (kct + ke#?) w. Let, now, v be the weight which, placed at an unit of distance from the axis of rotation, will represent the temperature for 1° above 32°, it will only remain to obtain the bulb of such a size that k w= v.
The value of v is to be determined, experimentally, by observing the displacement of the register line, or change of scale reading, occasioned by a small weight placed on the magnet at a known distance from the axis of rotation, and comparing it with the scale value of the temperature correction obtained in the usual manner, by horizontal vibrations at different temperatures.
The slit in the screw before the burner for this instrument is, of course, horizontal, the axis of the record cylinder being vertical. The cylinder rests on a horizontal plate, which is supported on friction wheels, and driven by an arm below the stand connected with the train of a time-piece.
In several papers in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, from 1847 to 1852, Mr. CHarites Brooks, F. R. S., has described the apparatus which is the subject of the foregoing paper, in the preparation of which the former have, of course, been largely drawn from. Those wishing to pursue the subject into its practical application should, by all means, read Mr. Brooke’s memoirs, and are also referred to an interesting description of the self-registering instruments of the observatory at Toronto, by Captain J. H. Lerroy, R. A., in Silliman’ s Journal, May, 1850.
Notr.—Since the above article was prepared the instruments have been removed from Washington City to Key West, Florida, where they were put into operation in January, 1860, and where observations will be kept up for some years in connexion with the magnetic obser- vations of the United States Coast Survey, and in direct correspond- ence with a system of similar observations set on foot by the British government at various points in their possessions. Toronto, Canada West, being one of those stations, it was thought advisable to remove the Smithsonian station to a point as far south as practicable, as the long series of corresponding observations obtained at Toronto and Girard College, Philadelphia, in the years 1841 to 1845, left nothing further to be desired in the comparison of stations not any distance from each other. The observatory at Key West, and the objects of the system of magnetic observations at present in progress, will be noted in future reports.
396 USE OF THE GALVANOMETER
ON THE USE OF THE GALVANOMETER AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT.
BY J. C. POGGENDORFF.
[Translated from Pog. Annal. LVI, p. 324, by John D. Easter, Ph. D.]
The galvanometers in use correspond very imperfectly with their name, affording, as they do, a very uncertain and limited measure of the force of the current. Even within the first ten or twenty degrees, within which the deflection of the needle is usually assumed as pro- portional to the force of the current, the accurate determination of the relation between these elements is not so easy and simple, and beyond these limits the problem becomes so complicated that even its theoretical solution is extremely difficult.
The determination is not absolutely impossible; it could be made by Ampere’s formula if all the requisite data, (length and form of the coils, their position and distance from the needle, the size, shape, and magnetic condition of the latter,) were given, but the calculation would be extremely complicated and tedious. It would, even then, hardly repay the trouble, for the result would still be unreliable, on account of the probable errors in the determination of the data; and, even if it were quite correct, it would only have a specific value, for the calculation must be repeated for each instrument, and even for each position of the needle in the same instrument. For this reason no attempt has hitherto been made to form a theoretical scale of in- tensity for the galvanometer, but various empirical methods have been adopted, which, though they yield only special results, are
preferable, because less tedious, and therefore more easily repeated, and capable of greater accuracy.
Several such methods have been contrived by Becquerel, Nobili, and Melloni. They all require the use of a series of currents com- bined in various ways. With reference to this they may be divided into two classes—methods by combination and by difference.
The simplest of the former is given by Becquerel. He attached to the galvanometer a thermo-pile, of which he set in action, succes- sively, one, two, three, four, &e., pairs of plates, by heating each alternate joint as uniformly as possible. According to the theory, the force of the current must also increase in a ratio, one, two, three, four, &c., and, consequently, the deflection of the needle correspond- ing to these intensities may be read off directly. This need only be marked on the instrument in order to establish the relation for all future cases.*
This method proceeds on the principle of passing, successively, one, two, three, four, &c., currents of the same strength from the
* Traité d’Electricité, T, I, p. 24.
AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT. 397
same source through the same wire ; but currents produced by one or more sources may also be made to act upon the galvanometer by several wires. This process requires a galvanometer with two or more wires. In other respects, the manipulation is the same as with the former process, but sincée the number of the wires, and, conse- quently. that of the currents which can be employed at once is limited, it requires several series of the latter to embrace the whole quadrant. Jt should be so arranged that the currents of one series shall produce the same effect as a certain number of currents of the next previous series, so that the several partial series may be combined into a gene- ral one. Both Becquerel and Nobili* employed this process.
Melloni based his admirable experiments on the method by differ- ences. After satisfying himself that the deflection of his galvano- meter was proportional to the force of the current within the first twenty degrees, he determined the relation between these elements beyond this limit in the following way :+ He attached to the galvano- meter a thermo-pile, and warmed one of its sides by bringing a spirit lamp near it until a deflection of 20° was produced. He then placed a screen before the lamp, and waited ufitil the needle returned to 0°. He next allowed the radiant heat from a second lamp to fall upon the other side of the thermo-pile, and regulated the distance of the latter so that a deflection of 24° in the contrary direction was produced. He finally allowed both lamps to act simultaneously on the pile. He now obtained by the difference of the currents a deflection, not of 4°, but of 5.1°; he therefore concluded that the current which, from producing a deflection of 20°, he made equal to 20, must have in- creased 5.1 units to produce a deflection of 24°, and must therefore be 25.1. Increasing the activity of the pile by advancing first one lamp and then the other toward the pile, he determined in the same way the increase of the force of current for the intervals 28°—24°, 32°— 28°, &c. After thus fixing a sufficient number ofg points in his scale of intensity, he filled up the intervals by hand. .
Nobili had already used the same process with a galvanometer with two wires, through which he passed currents from two batteries in opposite directions—first separately, and then together.
All of these methods are liable to considerable objections. Although not so tedious as « theoretical determination of the scale of intensity would be, they are still troublesome. They are, moreover, based on conditions which are difficult to falfil, and for whose fulfilment we have no control. It is theoretically true that the strength of the current in a therma-pile is proportional to the number of the pairs of yates set in action by equal differences ; but we have no certainty that the difference of temperature is the same in all the pairs, or that the same difference would produce the same effect in all.
Melloni’s method is probably the best of those named. But if the observation of Becquerel,{t that equal variations of temperature pro- duce thermo-currents of different intensity, according to their position
* Pogg Annal. Bd. ix, 8. 346 and xx 8. 226. + Idem, Bd. xxxv,S 132. t Idem, Bd. ix, 8. 350.
398 USE OF THE GALVANOMETER
in the thermometer-scale, this method can evidently be applicable only to such slight differences of temperature and such feeble cur- rents as the Italian physicist used in his experiments.
Besides this, the assumption that the current which produces a deflection of 24° must be 5.1 stronger than one which produces a deflection of 20°, because, when acting in opposition to the latter, it caused a deflection of 5.1°, is only an approximation to the truth, based on the tacit assumption of the proportionality between the force of the current and the angle of deflection. If a, b, and b—a, be the forces which produce, respectively, the deflections a, f, 7, strictly taken, the ratioa: b= a:a-+ 7 can only exist when a: b= a:f. This method, therefore, requires that the difference between f and a@ and the value of 7 should fall within the limits within which this ratio is approximately true.
From what has been said, it will be clearly seen that no perfect method of determining the scale of intensity for the galvanometer has hitherto been given. It may be said, indeed, that none is needed, since the best galvanometer makes only a tolerable measuring instru- ment, and for accurate invesfigations we have the mirror-apparatus and the compass of sines. But these instruments are so costly as not to be within the reach of every physicist. There are, moreover, many experiments in which an accuracy of from one-half to a whole degree in the deflection of the needle is quite sufficient.
I therefore believe that the description of a mode of arranging the galvanometer scale, which seems to me to satisfy all demands, will be welcome to many experimenters. My method is convenient, cer- tain, and susceptible of general application. It has also a decided advantage over all hitherto described, in requiring but a single cur- rent of uniform strength.* The principle of this method may be expressed in a few words. The deflections, produced by currents of different strength, passing through the coils of a multiplier lying in the magnetic meridian, can be deduced from those produced by one and the same current, passing through the same coils, at various inclinations to the magnetic meridian.
The possibility of this will be seen from the following geometric considerations. The force with which the magnetism of the earth tends to draw back a needle which has been deflected from the
*Prof. Petrina, in Linz, has recently described a method (v. Holger’s Zeitschrift fir Physik, Bd. I, s. 171) which has also this advantage, and is easily managed, but cannot be generally recommended, because it gives only approximate results. Prof. P. lays the ends of the wires of his galvanometer on the conducting wire of a constant battery, and then assumes that the force of the branch current passing through this instrument will be exactly proportional to the distance between the two points at which the conducting wire and the wires from the galvanometer touch each other. But this is not true. If we designate by r the resistance of the portion of the cenducting wire lying between the two points of contact, by r’ the remain- ing resistauce of the battery, and by r’’ the resistance of the galvanometer wire, we shall have for the force of the current passing through the latter, k being the electromotive force of the battery, the expression—
kr kr ——_ —_—_—_—. or a — rr + rr! + yl gt yl yt + (7! + ah) ,
from which it is evident that the force of the current is approximately proportional to the resistance r only so long as it is very small in comparison with 7’ and r’’.
AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT. 399
meridian, it is well known, is the product of three factors—the inten- sity of the terrestrial magnetism, the magnetic force of the needle, and the sine of the angle of deflection. This force may, therefore, be represented by a curve (1J.N page 407) whose abscissas are the arcs, and whose ordinates are the sines of the arcs, or the products pro- portional to these sines.
An analogous but inverted curve, 7. e., increasing as the cosines of of the arcs, would represent the force with which the electrical cur- rent tends to deflect the needle, in traversing a straight or circular wire lying in the magnetic meridian, at an infinite distance from the needle or the diameter of its circle, when compared with the dimen- sions of the needle. At the same time, the intersection of these two curves, or rather the abscissa corresponding to it, would represent the deflection of the needle under the influence of both these forces.
With the galvanometer the latter curve is much more complex, owing to the complicated form of the wire and its proximity to the needle. Its course is not known, but it is evident that it must have nearly the shape of a # in the figure. The problem is first to deter- mine the shape of this curve, and as this is theoretically impracti- cable, it must be done experimentally.
This is done in the following way: Suppose a & to be the unknown curve. Its form could evidently be determined by moving it to the right and left along the axis of abscissas LA#, and marking in each position the co-ordinates of its point of intersection with the curve MI N, which may be considered as given. Thus for the positions a R and @ 7’, we should have the points of intersection ¢ and c’, the ordi- nates ¢ p and c’ p’, and the abscissas M p and M p’, and in order to obtain the form of the curve, the distance w J would have to be added to, or subtracted from, the abscissas of the points of intersection in every position but the original one.
This simple geometrical supposition may be readily and exactly carried out, if the coils of the galvanometer wire are movable in a horizontal plane. These instruments generally have such an arrange- ment, and it is then only necessary to fix an index near the coils, by which the amount of rotation may be read off.*
Set the galvanometer so that the index and the zero line of the graduation shall be in the magnetic meridian, and the axis of rotation of the needle exactly in the centre of the graduated circle. Then pass a constant current through the coil so as to obtain a steady de- flection of 35° to 40°. A thermo-electric current is best suited to the purpose.
This first angle of deflection represents the abscissa m p, and its
* On my galvanometer the plate which carries the coil turns by means of a cogged wheel and an endless screw, on a metallic axis, working on metallic bearings. Such an arrange- ment is necessary in order to move it steadily. Strictly speaking, the support on which the needle hangs should be fixed to the plate, so as to turn with the coil, and thus eliminate the torsion of the thread; and secondly, the ends of the wire, which cannot turn, must be twisted together so as to be without influence on the needle, and pass out through a hole under the centre of the coil, as in the compass of sines.
AQO USE OF THE GALVANOMETER.
sine the corresponding ordinate pe. Now turn the coil to the left at an angle w MZ. A deflection A p’ is produced; therefore we have for the point c’ of the curve, the abscissa w WJ -+ MW p' = w py’, and the ordinate p’ c' = sin M p'. Proceed in this way “al a0) M == 90k. the deflection will then be 0°; and hence the abscissa = 90°, and the ordinate = 0°. Turn the coil in the same manner to the right of the meridian, and mark the corresponding angles of deflection until the angle between the magnetic needle and the coil of wire is reduced to 0°. This completes the observations. The sine of the angle of de- flection which corresponds to the last position of the coil, represents the first ordinate J/a of the curve.
In general terms the process is as follows: Place the coil at an angle, m, with the magnetic meridian; the magnetic needle will then make with the coil an angle, 2, and with the magnetic meridian an angle, a==n-+ m, or n — m, according as m lies upon the same side of the magnetic meridian as , or the contrary. If the several values of mand n be now distinguished by accents above or below, according as they belong to the former or latter position of m, we shall have the following results:
Angle between the | Abscissas. Ordinates. coil and the merid’n.
mite RR: 0 sina!!! —= sin, m!”
a a ni" sin a’ = sin (n” + m”)
+ m' n! sina’ = sin (a + m’) 0 n SUC ESO Ae
if) n, sin a, == sin (n, — m,)
aor) Ny, SUD Chi yA SU(N, anh 110)
a 90 90 0)
This determines the form of the curve which represents the effect of the coil of wire on the magnetic needle for a current of a certain strength, by means of the co- “ordinates of the m agnetic curve 17 N whose greatest ordinate, NV #, is arbitrarily assumed.
The form of the curve must next be determined for currents of any other strength. If it were necessary to repeat the process just de- scribed for every possible strength of current, the process would of course be entirely useless. Ban such a repetition is not necessary; the form of the curve determined for one intensity, enables us to de- termine its form for every possible intensity.
It is evident that when the force of the current varies without any change in the relative distance and inclination of the coil and the needle, the influence of the coil upon the needle must vary in direct
AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT. 40]
ratio to the force of the current. Knowing, therefore, the form of the curve for a current of one intensity, we can obtain its form for any other intensity by lengthening or shortening all the ordinates in proportion to the force of the second current. Thus, if a R (page 407) be the curve for the intensity one, 4 # will be the curve for the in- tensity one and a half, all the ordinates of the latter being one-half longer than those of the former.
If we suppose the curves for all intensities of the current which can be measured by the galvanometer to be delineated in this way, the main problem is still to be solved: to deduce the-values of these intensities, or their ratio to the force assumed as unity, from the points of intersection of the curves with magnetic curve JZ N, the co-ordi- nates of these points being given only by observation.
The mode of doing this may be exemplified by the two curves a R and A / in the figure. According to what has been said, the forces of the currents which they represent will be to each other as Ph: P C, or, what is the same, as pc: pk. It is now required to deduce this ratio from Wp, pe, and JJ P, P C, the co-ordinates of the points of intersection ¢ and C.
Two cases must be distinguished: either the greater or the less intensity of current may be given, 7. e., the upper or the lower curve may be known. Let us consider the first case.
In this case we have to determine P hin the ratio Ph: PC. If we imagine the curve a &, which is known, to be moved toward the left parallel to the axis of abscissas, its intersection with the magnetic curve will evidently fall lower down, and there will be a position a’ 7’ in which its ordinate p’c’ will be equal to Ph. But c' p! is the sine of J/ p’, 2. e., the sine of a value of a for which the cor- responding values of mand have been determined by the process already described. Moreover, PC'is the sine of MP; but MP is equal to wp’, which is the value of n, corresponding to the given value of a.
Therefore,the currents whose effects are represented by the curves a Rand A &, and which produce the deflections Mp and MP, when the coils lie in the meridian, are to each other as one of the values of sin a to one of the values of sin n of the table before given; 7. e., if n, and m, be the special value of n and m, corresponding to the position a’ r' of the lower curve, the ratio will be sin n’ — m’ : sin n’.
In the same manner the value of pk may be determined, if the upper curve 4 F# be that for which the table before given was made. We have only to imagine 4 # to be moved to the right, to a position Al fii which C’'==pk. Then pk= CP!’ = sin YU P'S sin (w+ m) and pe=sin Mp =sinW P'=sin n. Nowifm’and n’ be the special values of m and n, corresponding to the position A’ #’ of the upper curve, we shall have for the ratio of the currents pc: pk= sin n': sin (n’ + mi’).
From this it is evident that, according as the force of the current to be measured is greater or less than that assumed as unity, the curve representing the latter must be moved to the right or left,
26
402 USE OF THE GALVANOMETER
until the abscissa of its intersection with the magnetic curve is equal to the abscissa of the intersection of the curve of the current to be measured, in its normal position, with the same curve. The sine of the latter abscissa, divided by the sine of the former, expresses the ratio of the current to be measured to that assumed as unity.
Apart from geometric construction, this rule may be thus expressed. To measure the force of a current which is greater or less than the assumed unit, observe first the deflection produced by it when the coils lie in the magnetic meridian. Then turn the coils, in the former case backward, in tke latter forward, until the angle between the needle and the coils is equal to this angle of deflection. The sine of this angle of deflection, divided by the sine of the angle of deflection produced after the rotation of the coil, is the ratio of the current to the assumed unit.
It will be seen from this that if we have a table like the one already given, containing, for a certain current assumed as unity, all the values of 7, or the angle made by the needle and the coil of wire, from 0° to 80°, and the corresponding values of m, or the angle of the magnetic meridian with the coils, a second table may be con- structed from this which will give the ratio of the deflection of the needle to the current producing it, in terms of the same unit, for the case where the coils lie in the magnetic meridian.
As examples, I give two such tables constructed for my galva- nometer. The current for the first was furnished by a small thermo- pile, made of two pairs of German silver and copper wires twisted together and heated at their alternate connexions in a sand bath over a spirit lamp. During the eighteen measurements made, which required not more than half an hour, the current was as good as constant. These measurements were only undertaken to illustrate the process, and I therefore sought neither after great accuracy nor completeness. The values of n could easily have been determined for every degree.
Observed. Observed. i s m n n+ m m n n+ m lalla we 12) ce) 12) (o} Oo (o) 449% 0 49h 25 40 32 +464 5 514 —19 45 26 443% 10 53h 285 50 212 +383 15 53h —37 55 18 +314 20 51h —45% 60 14} +234 25 48h —54 65 11 “518 30 43 bi 70 9 oe 35 38 —69 75 6 0 36 36 —76 80 4 \
The ratio between the deflections and the forces of the currents,
AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT. 403
when the coils lie in the magnetic meridian, as calculated from this table, is as follows:
Deflection. Intensity. Deflection. Intensity. n sin. n Nn sin. n sin. (n + m) sin. (n ++ m)
fe) fe) 0 0. 0000 40 1. 2130 5 @. 1114 45 1. 6130 10 0. 2160 50 2.0901 15 0. 3220 55 2. 6508 20 0. 4370 60 3. 5182 25 0. 5643 65 4.7499 30 0.733 70 6. 0071 35 0.9316 75 9. 2408 36 1. 0000 80 14. 1180
These tables, in addition to what has been said, will sufficiently explain the method. I will only remark here that the unit of force, which in this table corresponds to a deflection of 36°, is, within cer- tain limits, entirely arbitrary. Any current may be assumed which admits of 2 in the first table being made zero, 7. e., the coils being brought into parallelism with the needle. By beginning with too strong a current this would of course be rendered impossible. In the example given above a rotation of 49} was necessary to make them parallel; the limit of this rotation would of course be 90°.
In constructing the first table, on which the second is based, it is therefore necessary to make sure by a previous experiment that the current used is not too strong to admit of the needle and the spiral being placed parallel; otherwise, the scale of intensity of the second table could not be extended down to 0° of deflection. It is also best to begin the values of m and n with this parallellism, that is, with the zero value of n, and to continue the rotation from this point until the value of n reaches 80°, or the point at which it is designed to stop.
A feeble current gives the most accurate results in the lower part of the scale of intensity, and a stronger one in the upper; two cur- rents may therefore be used, if desired, in constructing the first table. The stronger of the two need not give n= 0, but its strength must be such that the smallest value of » which it gives shall coin- cide with the greatest value of » from the other current, so as to obtain a complete series of values of n from 0° to beyond 80°. Moreover, the force of the current, in the scale of intensity obtained in either way, can of course be reduced to the unit of either, and the values not observed supplied by interpolation.
The form of the curve which expresses the effect of the spiral on the needle for the unit of force is determined by the values of ” as
404 USE OF THE GALVANOMETER
abscissas, and those of stn (n ++ m) as ordinates. In the present case, by taking sin 90° = 100, we should have—
Abscissas. Ordinates. Abscissas. Ordinates.
n sin (n + m) n sin(n + m)
0 76. 04 40° 52. 99 5 78. 26 45 43.84 10 80. 39 50 36. 65 15 80. 39 55 30. 90 20 78, 26 60 24. 62 25 74.90 65 19.08 30 68. 20 70 15. 64 35 61.57 15 10. 45 36 58.78 80 6.98
The curve af in the figure is drawn from these values. They show, what is evident from a glance at the figure, that the culmination of the curve is not over the zero point, but over a point between the abscissas of 10° and 15°, and that it declines from this toward zero. If drawn out completely, 7. e.. continued on the other side of the meridian to the abscissa of 90°, the curve would therefore have two maxima.
This circumstance, which, so far as I know, has not hitherto been observed, is not caused by an error of observation; I have satisfied myself of its correctness by repeated measurements. Nor can it be merely a peculiarity of my galvanometer, for it evidently arises from the space which is left between the coils for the purpose of intro- ducing the needle into the interior of the spiral. All galvanometers which have such a space must exert an influence on the needle which will be represented by a curve with two maxima, and few are with- out this space.* It is, however, no disadvantage, provided the de: pression be not too great;t only, in consequence, the deflections will not be proportional to the force of the current, within the first ten degrees, as is usually assumed, but will bear a rather complicated relation to it. This is, however, a matter of indifference, for by the
** It has already been observed by several physicists that every copper wire, even that which contains the least possible quantity of iron, is slightly magnetic, and therefore renders it impossible to place a really astatic needle parallel to the coils of the wire, when there is a space between the coils which offers two points of attraction. This observation induced Péclet, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. ser. III, t. II, p. 103,) to fill up this space and to hang the needle on a stirrup embracing the spiral. This arrangement would not show the above-mentioned depression, but it has other disadvantages, e. g., it lessens the ampli- tude of the needle very much, so that there is little probability of its general adoption.
} If the depression were too great, it might happen that at one point the tangent of the curve would form a greater angle with the line of abscissas than the tangent of the mag- netic curve at the intersection of the two curves. The consequence of this would be, that this point would correspond to an instable equilibrium between the galvanic and magnetic forces, and there would be another point of intersection on each side of it, corresponding to a stable equilibrium. The existence of these three points of intersection of the curves a Rand MN would make the empirical determination of the corresponding values of mand nm very complicated. The space which is usually left between the coils of the galvanometer s, however, not great enough to cause so deep a depression of a R.
AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT. A405
process described, no matter how involved the relation may be, the values of both the elements can be determined as accurately as the readings of the scale will allow, and at as short intervals as may be desired, so that all necessity for uncertain interpolations is removed.
I have thus far, in common with all physicists who have investi- gated this subject, considered only one-half a # of the resultant curve. But it is easy to imagine that the half which lies on the other side of the magnetic meridian cannot, on account of a possible want of sym- metry in the form of the coils, or in the position of the needle, be unconditionally assumed as identical with the first half. If, therefore, it be desired to use the deflections of the needle on the other side of the meridian for comparative measurements of the force of the cur- rent, caution requires that the form of the second half of the curve, and the scale of intensity based on it, should be determined in the same way as the first.
It must also not be forgotten that the effect of the spiral on the needle varies with the height of the latter within the former, though in the middle, where the maximum lies, a slight change in the height has no very perceptible influence on the result. For the sake of security it is therefore advisable not to change the height of the needle after having constructed the scale of intensity, and if it should have been accidentally moved, to construct the scale anew. The fixed index may serve to detect any change of height.
The same must be done if there is any reason to fear that the mag- netism of the needle has changed perceptibly. The magnetism of a sunple needle may, it is true, grow stronger or weaker without any effect on the measurements, for the action of the current on the needle then increases or diminishes in the same ratio. But the distribution of magnetism in the needle must not be changed thereby, 7. e., the magnetic intensity of every point of the needle must change in the same ratio, which cannot be assumed with certainty. If the galvan- ometer be furnished, as is usual, with two needles acting in opposite directions, its indications may be changed without any hia unge in the magnetic distribution by a variation in ‘the relative magnetic intensity of the two needles.
For this reason it is absolutely necessary to test the scale of inten- sity of the instrument occasionally, especially after the passage of powerful currents through it; and therefore the mode of testing and correcting it must be a simple one. In this respect the method described leaves nothing to wish for. Prolix as the description of it may seem, in practice it is as simple as it is convenient. Half an hour is quite sufficient to make the measurements necessary for the construction of a table like that given on page 402, which, if the instrument has a steady position,and the force of the current does not vary, are as accurate as could be desired.
Besides its convenience, this method has the great advantage of assuming nothing whose correctness is not perfectly evident. The method is certainly an empirical one, depending upon experimental data of a complicated nature; but in the use of these data it is strict
*
406 USE OF THE GALVANOMETER
and rational. Its results, therefore, cannot be more erroneous taan the measurements on which they are based.*
The principle of this method is closely allied to that on which the use of the compass of sines is based. There is, however, a difference between the two methods. In measuring with the compass of sines, the magnetic needle maintains constantly the same angle with the spiral; and as the point of suspension of the needle turns with the spiral the torsion of the thread is eliminated, and at the same time the great advantage is gained of allowing the needle any eccentric position in respect to the centre of the graduated circle without injury to the results.
In the galvanometrical method described in this paper, the needle makes the same angle with the coils only while it is deflected by the currents to be measured. Before and after the action of these cur- rents it makes a different angle with the spiral, or none at all. On this account it is necessary that its axis, the prolongation of the thread, should pass through the centre of the graduation, so that the angles read off by the needle may be really those which it makes with the spiral, or with the magnetic meridian. The small size of the graduated circle on ordinary galvanometers renders it very difli- cult to hit this coincidence exactly, and this method of measurement is, therefore, inferior in accuracy to that with the compass of sines.
It may be objected that, as recourse must be had to rotation, it would be better to use the galvanometer at once as a compass of sines. If the former instrument were made on the same principle, and as accurately as the latter, this would certainly be preferable; but even the best galvanometers are only tolerable measuring instruments, and the small increase in accuracy which might per haps be gained by this process is no equivalent for ‘the trouble of turning the spiral at each measurement. Besides this, there are many ‘investigations which, without requiring great accuracy, make it very desirable to be able to follow the variations in the force of the current from in- stant to instant. This cannot be done more conveniently or certainly than by a previously-constructed scale of intensity.
4
Appendix.—In the foregoing paper the principle of the new method was illustrated, for the sake of clearness, by a geometric construction. It may be more concisely demonstrated in the analytical way, as fol- lows: Let the successive angles between the magnetic meridian and the spiral, with am same intensity J of the current, be represented by +m", +m’, 0, —m, —m,,,++--and the corresponding angles between the magnetic needle and the spiral by n”, nv’, n, n,, 2), +++ > The needle will assume, with the different values of the first angle, such a position that J, multiplied by an unknown function / of the last angle, will be equal to a magnitude, JZ, proportional to the terrestrial
* This assumes that the torsion of the thread and the influence of the ends of the wire have been eliminated in the way indicated in the note on page 399.
AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT. AQT
magnetism, multiplied by the sine of the sum of two corresponding angles of each series. We shall therefore have: Lf (a) = M sin (n" + mm") If (v') = M sin (n' + m’) [f(n)=Msin(n +m ) If (n,) = Msin (n, + 1,) LF(0,,) = Wsin' (a, + ™,)) If, on the other hand, the coils lie in the magnetic meridian, and we pass through them successively currents of the intensity J’, J’, J,
I’, I, which produce the deflections n”, n’, n, n,, n,;, we shall have Pn) = Noon, me LEG tet, ) Mest, Lijan)=— U sin 0 Ln, == Wisin n, 1 i(n,) = sin n,,
By eliminating the unknown functions, we obtain from these two series of equations the values of the intensities J”, I’.---, correspond-
ing to the deflections 7’, n’.---, referred to the normal intensity J.
OO aOL LO DTD BOO AON as W60, 20. *80.) 8p .
ee’
—-——|_ ea
7
“| Ry
lA P P Pp’ F me
Figure to illustrate Poggendorft ’s method of measuring with the galvanometer,
408 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
ON OBSERVATION OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
BY R. MALLET, ESQ.
[Extracted from the Admiralty Manual of Scientific Inquiry, 3d edition, 1859.]
The observation of the facts of earthquakes and the establishment of their theory constitute Seismology, (from cess, an earthquake, a movement like the shaking of a sieve,) which has only become an exact science within the last twelve years. Its immediate and most important applications are to the discovery of the nature of the deep interior of our planet, and of the reactions of the interior upon the exterior, visible in volcanic action at the surface.
Whenever a blow or pressure of any sort is suddenly applied, or the passive force of a previously steady or slowly variable pressure is suddenly either increased or diminished upon material substances, all of which, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, are more or less elastic, then a pulse or wave of for ce, originated by such an impulse, is trans- ferred, through the materials acted on, in all directions, from the origin or centre of impulse, or in such directions as the limits of the materials permit. The transfer of such an elastic wave is merely the continuous forward movement of a change in the relative positions, a relative displacement and replacement of the integrant molecules or particles of a determinate volume, affecting in succession the whole mass of material.
Ordinary sounds are waves of this sort in air. The shaking of the eround felt at the passage of a neighboring railway train is an instance of such waves in solid ground or rock. A sound heard by a person under water, or the shock felt in a boat lying near a blast exploded under water, are examples of an elastic wave in a liquid.
The velocity with which such a wave traverses varies in different materials, and depends principally in any given one upon the degree of elasticity and upon the density. This transit period is constant for the same homogeneous material, and is irrespective of the amount or kind of original impulse. For example: in air its velocity is about 1,140, in water about 4,700, and in iron probably, about 11,100 feet per second, all in round numbers. In crystallized or pseudo- crystal- line bodies, such as laminated slate or other rocks, the transit period
may vary in three different directions. A very creat retardation of this period is produced in solids whose mass is shattered or broken, even when the fissures appear perfectly close. Thus, if one stand. upon a line of railway near the rail, and a heavy blow be delivered at
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 409
a few hundred feet distant upon the iron rail, he will almost instantly hear the wave through the iron rail; directly after he will feel another wave through the ground on which he stands; and, lastly, he will again hear another wave through the air; and if there were a deep side-drain to the railway, a person immersed in the water would hear a wave of sound through it, the rate of transit of which would be different from any of the others, all these starting from the same point at the same moment.
The size of such a wave—that is, the volume of the displaced parti- cles of the material in motion at once—depends upon the elastic limits of the given substance, and upon the amount or power of the origi- nating impulse. By the elastic linut in solids is meant the extent to which the particles may be relatively displaced without fracture or other permanent alteration; thus glass, although much more perfectly elastic than India-rubber, has a much smaller elastic limit.
Nearly all such elastic waves as we can usually observe originate in impulses so comparatively small that we are only conscious of them by sounds or vibrations of various sorts, the advancing forms of whose waves are imperceptible to the eye; but when the originating im- pulse is very violent, and the mass of material suddenly acted on very great, as in an earthquake, the size of the wave may become so great as to produce a perceptible undulation of the surface of the ground, often visible to the eye, and by whose transit bodies upon the earth are disturbed, (chiefly through their own inertia,) thrown down, &c.
There is every reason to consider it established that an earthquake is simply ‘‘the transit of a wave or waves of elastic compression in any direction, from vertically upwards to horizontally in any azimuth, through the crust and surface of the earth, from any centre of impulse, or from more than one, and which may be attended with sound and tidal waves, dependent upon the impulse and upon circumstances of position as to sea and land.”’
Until this was clearly grasped the observation of earthquake phe- nomena, in the absence of a ‘‘guiding hypothesis,’? was vague and useless.
At present the objects and aim of Seismology are of the highest interest and importance to geology and terrestrial physics. It offers to us the only path to discover the real constitution and condition of the interior of our planet, and will become the key to open to us the true nature, depth of origin, and source of volcanic heat. In these respects one of the most primary objects of Seismometry is to arrive at a knowledge of the depth beneath the earth’s surface from which earthquake shocks are delivered, 7. e., the depth of the origin.
The observer must form clear conceptions of the fundamental con- ditions of propagation of seismic waves. Fig. 1 represents a vertical section of part of the earth in the plane of a great circle, cutting the surface at A’h, and passing through the origin of impulse at A—Ap, being the prime vertical to that point whose depth beneath the surface is BA. The wave starts from the origin (assuming the earth’s mass
410 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
homogeneous) with one normal and two transversal vibrations. Ne- electing the latter for the present, the wave may be imagined trans-
Eig. 1.
yz
lll yf WS <i
ferred outwards, in all directions in coneentric spherical shells, whose volume at the same phase of the wave is constant. The interval be- tween any two such shells, therefore, diminishes as 72, 7 being the mean radius, and the overthrowing energy of the shock in the direc- tion of 7 varies inversely as the square of the distance from the origin.
The shock reaches the surface at B directly above the origin verti- cally, but for all points around that it emerges with angles getting more and more nearly horizontal as the distance measured on the sur- face increases. The intersecting circle of any one shell with the sur- face, which is that of simultaneous shock, is the cosetsmal line, or crest of the earth wave, circular (like the circles on a pond into which a stone has been dropped) if in a homogeneous medium, more or less distorted if in a heterogeneous one, such as constitute the various formations of the earth, but always a closed curve. The transversal vibration is transmitted outwards in the normal direction (Ac) more slowly than the normal one, which is one cause of the small jarring impulses often felt after the great shock. (For more complete infor- mation as to the physical and mathematical conditions, see ‘‘ Jamin, Cour de Physique, 1858,’’ 9th and 10th chapters; Rankine’s ‘‘ Ap- plied Mechanics,’’ chap. 3, sec. 1, and chap. 5, sec. 4, and passim ; Dr. Young’s Lectures, “ Nat. Phil.,’’ passim, but especially lectures 8, 13, 31, 49, and 50; Herschel, Art. Sound, ‘‘Encyc. Metrop.;’’ Hopkins, Report, ‘‘ Brit. Ass. Trans.,’’? 1847-48; Mallet’s Fourth Report, Facts’ and Theory of Earthquakes, ‘‘Brit. Ass. Trans.’ 1857—’58.)
Observers in earthquake countries should make themselves fa- miliar with the usual features, succession of events, and concomitants which, with a certain sort of regularity, apply to all earthquakes. Mr. R. Mallet’s ‘‘ First Report upon the Facts of Earthquakes,”’ Trans. Brit. Ass. for 1850, gives these in a condensed and sys-
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. Att
tematic form. The greatest shocks are not the most instructive, except as to secondary effects; but every great shock is usually fol- lowed by several smaller; the first should therefore be viewed as a ‘*notice to observe’ the latter carefully. Earthquakes must not be confounded, either with the forces producing permanent elevations of the land, or with these elevations themselves. ‘‘An earthquake, however great, is incapable of producing any permanent elevation or depression of the land whatever, (unless as secondary effects;) its functions of elevation and depression are limited solely to the sudden rise, and as immediate fall, of that limited portion of the surface through which the great wave is actually passing momentarily.’’ The one class of phenomena must be held as distinct from the other as the rise and fall of the tide is distinct from the momentary and local change of sea-level produced by the waves of its surface.
The phenomena of every earthquake may be divided into—Ist. Primary, or those which properly belong to the transit of the wave or waves through the solid or watery crust of the earth, the air, &c. ; 2d. Secondary, or the effects produced by this transit; and both must be kept distinct from co-existent forces, such as those of volcanic eruption, permanent elevation or depression of land, &c., which, however closely they may be connected with the originating - impulse of the earthquake, form no true part of it, though they usually complicate its phenomena.
The centre of impulse, or origin of earthquakes, is generally con- ceived to be at and due to a sudden volcanic outburst, or sudden upheaval or depression of a limited area, or sudden fr acture of bent and strained strata, or probably to the sudden formation of steam from water previously in a state of repulsion from highly heated surfaces, (spheroidal state,) and which may or may not be again sud- denly condensed under pressure of sea-water, or possibly to the evolution of steam through fissures and its irregular and per saléwm condensation under pressure of sea-water. This origin should be carefully sought for as to its nature and position.
An earthquake may have its origin either inland or at sea; and as this may be, a different set of phenomena will present themselves. In the former case we may expect, in the following order: 1st. The Great Earth-wave, or true shock, a real roll or undulation of the sur- face travelling with immense velocity outwards in every direction from the point vertically above the centre of impulse. If this be at a small depth below the surface, the shock will be felt principally horizontally; but if the origin be profound, the shock will be felt more or less vertically; oe in this case also we may be able to notice two distinct waves, a greater and a less, following each other very rapidly: the first due to the originating normal wave; the second to the transversal waves vibrating at right angles to it. If we can find the point of the surface vertically over the origin, and the direction of emergence of the shock at a distant point, or the angles of emergence at two distant points, neither of which is vertically over the origin—i. e., in one coseismal line—we can find the depth of the origin from the surface by methods pointed out in
412 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
Mr. Mallet’s Fourth Report on Facts and Theory, &c., ‘‘ Brit. Ass. Trans.,’’? 1857-’58, but which space will not permit of transcript here.
An erroneous notion of the dimensions of the great earth-wave must not be formed from its being called an undulation; its velocity of translation upon the earth’s sur con is great occasionally i in hard, elastic, and unshattered formations, probably as much as thirty miles per minute, and the wave or shock moving at this rate has been re- corded to have taken some seconds to pass a given point; if so, its length or amplitude is often several miles. Its altitude, however, is not great, and, as may be seen from Fig. 1, continually diminishes as the wave passes outwards from the origin.
Before, during, or immediately after the passage of the great
earth-wave or main undulation, a continuous violent tremor or short
quick undulation (like a short chopping sea) is often felt. This may arise from secondary elastic waves accompanying the great earth- wave, (Jike the small curling or capillary waves on the surface of the ocean swell,) produced probably by comparatively minute or secondary impulses, due to the discontinuous and heterogeneous nature of the formations through which the normal wave has been propagated. Sometimes, however, a number of shocks occur so rapidly as to convey the impression of a continuous jar or tremor, and may be succeeded by one or more great shocks; this is probably the source of ‘‘tremor observed before the shook.” as the subse- quent arrival of the transversal waves is of the tremors after it. (For other complications of the phenomena, see Mallet’s Ist, 2d, and 4th Reports, Brit. Ass.) It is very desirable that the interval in time between these minor oscillations.should be observed by a seconds watch, and also their total duration at each epoch of motion. Former narrators often confound the whole of each epoch of such rapidly recurrent shocks with one shock supposed to last a con- siderable time
2d. When the superficial undulation of the earth-wave, coming from inland, reaches the shores of the sea, (unless these be pre- cipitous, with deep water,) 1t may lift the water of the sea up and carry it along on its back, as it were, as it goes out into deep water; for the rate of transit is so great that the elongated heap of water lifted up has not time to subside laterally. This may be called the forced sea-wave; its elevation will be comparatively small, and a little less than the altitude of the earth-wave e, when close to the shore on a sloping beach; and where the water is still, any observations that can be made as to the height of this fluid ridge will afford rude indi- cations of the altitude of the earth-wave or shock.
Karthquakes, whether at sea or on land, seem to be only accom- panied with subterranean noises when strata are fractured or masses of matter rent or blown away at volcanic origins. Where such is not the case, the two preceding are the only waves to be expected from an earthquake of inland origin; but when fracture occurs, then at the moment of the shock, or very slightly before or after it, we shall
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 413
hear, 3d, the Souwnd-wave through the earth; and at an interval longer or shorter after this, 4th, the Sound-wave through the air.
Again, when the origin of the earthquake is under the sea, (and such seems to be the case with many great earthquakes,) we may expect in the following order: 1. The great earth-wave or shock;
The forced sea-wave, which is formed as soon as the true shock or coseismal undulation of the bottom of the sea gets into shallow water, and forces up a ridge of water directly above itself, which accompanies it to shore, and which seems to be the cause of that slight disturbance of the margin of the sea often noticed as occurring at the moment of the shock being felt; 3. The sound-wave through the earth, (as in the former case;) 4. The sound-wave through the sea, which arrives after that through the earth, but prior to, 5. The sound-wave through the air. Where the originating force is not a single impulse, but a quick succession of these, or a single impulse extending along a considerable line of disturbance, passing away from the observer, the sound-waves will be rumbling noises, and may be confounded in each medium more or less; and where no fractures or explosions occur, the sound-waves may be wholly wanting.
Lastly, and usually a considerable time after the shock, the great. sea-wave rolls in to land. This is a wave of translation; a heap of sea-water is thrown up at or over the origin of the earthquake by the actual disturbance of the sea-bottom, or in the direction, and by the emergence, of the earth-wave beneath the sea at a large angle to the horizon, and begins to move off in waves like the circles on a pond into which a pebble is dropped; and its phenomena depend upon laws different from any of the other (elastic) waves of earthquakes.
The original altitude (above the plane of repose of the fluid) and volume of this liquid wave depend upon the suddenness and extent of the originating disturbance, and upon the depth of water above its origin. Its velocity of translation on the surface of the sea varies with the depth of the water at any given point, and its form and dimensions depend upon this also, as well as upon the sort of sea- room it has to move in. In deep- ocean water one of these waves may be so long and low as to pass under a ship without being observed; but as it approaches a sloping shore its advancing slope becomes steeper, and when the depth of water becomes less than the altitude of the wave, it topples over, and comes ashore asa great breaker. Sometimes, however, its volume, height, and velocity, are so great that it comes ashore bodily and breaks far inland. The direction from which it arrives at any given point of land does not necessarily infer that in which the origin may be; as this wave may change its direction of motion ereatly, or become broken up into several minor waves in passing over water varying much and suddenly in depth, or in following ene lines of a highly- ‘indented or island- girt shore.— (See Airy on Tides ;, Encyc. Metrop.; Russel, Report on ‘Waves, Brit. Ass., 1844; Bache, Great Sea Waves in Pacific, Amer. Jour. Science, vol. xxl, 1856; Mallet, 4th Report, 1857~58; Darwin, Voyage of the Beagle.)
A\4 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
Observations of each of these classes of waves which we have thus briefly described may be made either directly by the aid of instruments, specially provided or extemporaneously formed, or indi- rectly by proper notice of certain effects which they produce on objects upon the earth’s surface.
Direct observations by complete self-registering seismometers do not come within our present scope. They will be found treated of at large in Mallet’s 4th Report, Brit. Ass., 185758, where the princi- ples, ‘construction, methods of observation, and applications of the best known instruments are described.
Whatever instruments be employed, however, it is found that per- turbations in the main directions of emergence at the surface, of the normal earth-wave, due principally to heterogeneity of structure in depth, and to inequality of surface, are such as to render a special choice of district necessary, in attempting any selsmometrical re- searches (even with perfect instruments) having in view the determi-
nation of the position of the origin or focus ‘of disturbance. This choice, according to our present know ledge, must be determined by the following conditions:
1. The whole surface-area of observation must be, as far as possi- ble, uniform in geological structure, and so to as great a depth as possible. If of stratified rock, not greatly shattered and ove erthrown, but (viewed largely) level or rolling only. The harder and more dense and elastic the formation the better, but neither intersected by long and great dikes or igneous protrusions of magnitude, nor suddenly bounded by such formations.
2. The surface must not be broken up into deep gorges, and rocky ranges, and valleys. Seismometry, in a high and _ shattered moun- tainous country, can scarcely lead to any result but perplexity. If the surface be deeply alluvial all over, it is less objectionable than valley-basins and pans of deep alluvium, with rocky ribs between them.
3. The size of the area chosen for observation must bear a relation to the force of the shocks experienced in it. Moderate shocks are always best for observation, and in large areas of the most uniform characier of formation and surface will give the most trustworthy indications.
4, If several seismometers are set up in the area they should be all placed on corresponding formations, either all on rock, or all on deep alluvium. The rock, when attainable, is always to be preferred. Three seismometers, at as many distant stations, will be generally found sufficient, if the object be chiefly to seek the focal situation and depth. ;
We, therefore, proceed to observations with extemporaneous in- struments on the earth-wave or shock. The elements necessary to be recorded are such as will enable us to calculate: 1. The direction in azimuth of the wave’s motion upon the earth’s surface; and also its direction of emergence at the points of observation. 2. Its velocity of transit upon the surface. 3. Its dimensions and form—i. é., its amplitude and altitude.
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. A415
If a common barometer be moved a few inches up and down by the hand the column of mercury will be found to oscillate up and down in the tube in directions opposite to the motions of the instru- ment, the range of the mercury depending upon the velocity and range of motion of the whole instrument. A barometer fixed to the earth, therefore, if we could unceasingly watch it, would give the means of measuring the vertical element of the shock-wave; and if we could lay it down horizontally, it would do the same for the amplitude or horizontal element. This we cannot do; but the same principle may be put into use by having a few pounds of mercury, and some glass tubes bent into the form of {_, sealed close at one end, and open at the other; the bore being under two-tenths of an inch in diameter, and each limb about fifteen inches long. We shall also require some common barometer tubes of the same calibre: the open end being turned up like an inverted syphon, and equal in bore to the rest of the tube.—(See Fig. 5.) The [, tubes are used for the horizontal, the others for the vertical elements.
To fit the [2 tubes for use fill each partly with mercury, and so
Sealed end.
adjust it that a column of five inches in length shall be
in each limb of each tube, when held as in Fg. 2; the
limb a b horizontal, and the vertical column being sup- fig. 9.
ported as in a barometer. Tie four of these tubes so
prepared together, back to back, so that if one hori-
zontal limb face the north, the others shall face east, 2
south, and west, respectively, as in Mig. 3. In this position secure
them all down upon a broad, stout board, Reece
that can be itself fixed to a surface of
rock, or other fixed surface of the earth. An index or marker must now be pre-
Fig. 3.
pared for each tube; for one of these, cut a a common piece of card two inches long we=[_——==sy E
by rather less than two-tenths of an inch A wide, nick it partly through along a cen- i tre longitudinal line, and double it down the long way, so that the two segments shall stand at rather less than right angles to each other; cut a cylindrical slice of cork one-eighth of an inch thick, of a di- ameter such that it will go easily into the tubes; attach the bit of cork with glue or sealing-wax to the end of one wing or segment of the folded card, leaving the other free, and thrust the whole into the horizontal limb of the tube until the cork just touches the mercury, and so for the others. This marker is shown at rather more than full size 1n Cork, Free side.
Fis. 4 ¢ 26 Ce
Attached side. The edges of the card, having a certain amount of elastic extension, must slightly grip the inside of the tube. It will now be found, if horizontal motion be given to the system
416 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
of four tubes—say, from south to north—that the marker in the southern tube will be pushed southward a certain space by the movement of the mercury, and will remain to point out the space when the mercury has returned to rest. If the motion be in some direction between two adjacent tubes—say, from southeast to north- west—the markers in the south and east tubes will both show a cer- tain motion, equal in this case, but in others with a certain ratio to each other, by which the direction between the cardinal points may be calculated.
For the vertical element: let the barometer tube, Fig. 5, be filled with mercury so that about six inches shall stand in the open end a, into which thrust a marker, as in /%g. 4, and about twelve inches in the sealed limb; place this vertically, | Fig.5,and secure it to a fixed mass of rock, a heavy low building,
or large tree; from the amount to which the marker is found
moved up in the tube the altitude of the wave may be found;
and it is obvious that, by the conjoint indications of the four . horizontal tube-markers, and this vertical one, the direction ' of emergence of the wave is determinable. |. These instruments are of the nature of fluid pendulums, = their use assumes the velocity of the earth-wave constant, /and, in common with all pendulums, they have certain dis- _ advantages as seismometers.—(See Mallet, 4th Report Brit. i Nean)) lee
Pas UY Gane nena nnn
be the time of oscillation of any solid pendulum whose length is J, then
l i Je (sin. a + sin. a’)
will be the time of oscillation of any such fluid pendulum, a and a’ being the angles of inclination of the limbs of the tube to the hori- zon. Where these are parallel and vertical, sin. a = sin. a’ = 1 and
Ob aS<az De a) oeree
They are much superior to common solid pendulums, where the dimensions of the shocks are small; but where these are great and very violent, heavy solid suspended pendulums will be found more applicable; the length of the seconds pendulum for latitude Green- wich will always be desirable. Where fluid pendulums are not at- tainable, a solid pendulum to answer some of the purposes may be thus prepared: Fix a heavy ball, such as a four-pound shot, at one end of an elastic stick, whose direction passes through the centre of gravity of the ball; a stout rattan will do. Fix the stick vertically in a socket in a heavy block of wood or stone, and adjust the length above the block as near as may be to that of the seconds pendulum for Greenwich. Prepare a hoop of wood, or other convenient mate-
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. AIT
rial, of about eight inches diameter; bore four smooth holes through the hoop in the plane of its circle, and at points ninety degrees dis- tant from each other; adjust through each of these a smooth round rod of wood, (an uncut pencil will do well,) and make* them, by greasing, &c., slide freely, but with slight friction, through the holes. Secure the hoop horizontally at the level of the centre of the ball by struts from the block, and the ball being in the middle of the hoop, slide in the four rods through the hoop until just in contact with the ball.
It is now obvious that a shock, causing the ball to oscillate in any direction, will move one or more of the rods through the holes in the hoop, and that they will remain to mark the amount of oscillation.
A similar apparatus, with the pendulum rod secured horizontally, (wedged into the face of a stout low wall, for example,) will give the vertical element of the wave. Two of these should be arranged— one north and south, the other east and west. One objection to this and all apparatus upon the same principle is, that as the centre of elastic effort of the pendulum rod never can be insured perfectly in the plane passing through the centre of gravity of the ball for every possible plane of vibration, so an impulse in a single plane produces a conical vibration of the pendulum, and hence the ball deranges the position more or less of the index rods which are out of the true direction of shock. Moving the apparatus by hand, and a little prac- tice in observation of its action, will, however, soon enable a pretty accurate conclusion as to the true line of shock to be deduced from it.
It will be manifest that the observer must record minutely the dimensions and other conditions of such apparatus, where not per- manently kept, to enable calculations as to the wave of scientific value to be made from his observations of the range of either fluid or solid pendulums. .
A common bowl partly filled with a viscid fluid, such as molasses, which, on being thrown by oscillation up the side of the bowl, shall leave a trace of the outline of its surface, has been often proposed as aseismometer. This method has many objections; it can only ceive a rude approximation to the direction of the horizontal element; but as it is easily used, should never be neglected as a check on other instruments. A common cylindrical wooden tub, with the sides rubbed with dry chalk, and then carefully half filled with water or dye-stuff, would probably be the best modification.
Another extemporaneous instrument for measurement of vertical motion in the wave may be sometimes useful. Make a spiral spring of eighteen inches or so in length by twisting an iron wire of one- eighth of an inch diameter round a rod of about 1} inch diameter, (the staff of a boarding-pike;) suspend it by one end vertically from a fixed point, and fix a weight (a twelve-pound shot will do) to the lower end, and below and in a line passing vertically through the centre of gravity of the weight fix the stem of a common tobacco pipe; let the lower end of this stem just dip into a deep cup filled with pretty thick common ink ar other colored fluid; the action of this needs no description. ;
The preceding instruments suffice at once to give the direction of transit of the earth-wave and its dimensions; its rate of progress or
; O7
418 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
transit over the shaken country remains to be observed, and wherever it may be possible to connect three or more such instruments as have been described at moderately distant stations, say 15 to 30 miles apart, by galvanic wires, so as to register at one point the moment of time at which each instrument was affected, the best and most complete ascertainment of transit rate may be expected. Galvano-telegraphic arrangements of the simple character required are become familiar, and are easily sef to work. The best seismometer to which they can be applied (for voyagers) is that described in Mallet’s 4th Report, &e., page 87, and plate xv; and no surveying ship proceeding to earthquake regions should be unprovided with three such seismom- eters and the requisite time-recording apparatus.
A still simpler form of rough seismometer suited to the resources of distant and isolated observers remains to be described. It depends upon principles altogether different from those already mentioned, and is most applicable to seismic districts where the angle of wave emer- gence is not steep—7. e., where shocks are usually. nearly horizontal.
Every body overthrown by an earthquake shock is upset by its own inertia causing it to move in the opposite direction to that in which the ground has moved under it. Thus a wall falls towards the south if the shock passes across its length from south to north, and if any such homogeneous parallelopiped or right rectangular prism, standing on end upon a level surface, be so upset by its own inertia, the sup- porting surface being suddenly moved beneath it, in the direction of its own plane, (as by t the horizontal component. of an earthquake shock, ) it may be eas that the velocity of the surface must be
egal - 9 Ce x = = Ch: ’)
cos.* 6 where a is the altitude " the solid, ) its diameter of base or thick- ness, and @ the angle formed by the side, and a line drawn ape the centre of @ eravity to the extremity of the base and V = 2g h. This velocity is independent of the density or material of the solid, because the oversetting force, being its own inertia, is always pro- portional to the density.
This is the foundation of all accurate and useful observation of dis- located and overthrown buildings in countries that have suffered by
earthquake, and by which not only may the direction of (the horizon- tal component of) the earthquake shock be obtained, but a close approximation made to its velocity.
With a given velocity, V, therefore, it is SORES to assign the dimensions a and 6, such that the solid shall just overset, and with this velocity a similar solid, but having @ greater, shall remain un- moved; assuming always, that friction against the supporting surface gives sufficient adhesion to prevent sliding.
If, in place of a square prism, such as a wall, the solid be a right cylinder like a column, the diameter of its base being 6, then
5 pe ae eh ose let saa BSN ve + & (1—cos 6).
This gives the means of constructing a seismometer of great simpli-
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 419
city, that (in the absence of better means) shall give the horizontal velocity of shock within a norrow limit of error.
Let there be constructed two similar sets of right cylinders—say, each set six to twelve in number—all of equal height (a) and of the same sort of material, but varying in diameter in each set, with a uniform decremeut from the greatest to the least.
Convenient dimensions for earthquake observations of mean inten- sity will be such that the cylinder of largest diameteg shall have its
: a : altitude equal to three diameters, or b = 5; and that the cylinder of o
least diameter shall have its diameter one-third of that of the greatest
one, or b= 9° Any number of cylinders of intermediate diameters
Sand Bed.
may be interpolated between, and the greater the number the-more- accurate the instrument becomes. A series of six to ten in each set will, however, be sufficient for any purpose. For observation of shocks of extreme violence, larger diameters in proportion to altitude: should be chosen for all the cylinders.
The material of the cylinders is not important—cast-iron, stone,. pottery, or other substances at hand—whose arrisses will not crumble: away by being overthrown—may be used; but no material. will be- found more convenient than some hard heavy seasoned wood, of uni- form substance, straight grain, and equable specific gravity, from which the cylinders can be formed in the lathe, and their bases: brought perfectly square to the axes with facility.
Upon any horizontal and solid floor let two planks be placed, as in, fig. 6, with their directions in length respectively lying N. and S. and. E. and W., each plank to be about three inches in thickness, and in: width equal to the diameter of the largest cylinder, and its length.
420 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
such that the set of cylinders when placed upright and equidistant thereon shall have a space greater than the altitude between each. Thus, if the cylinder of largest diameter have 6 = 0.5 of a foot, the length of plank will. for a set of six, as in the figure, be about 12 feet. These base planks being fied level and solid, the floor is to be levelled up with dry sand to their upper surfaces, and the two sets of cylinders adjusted to their places, one set running in an KH. and W., the other ina N. and 8. ae so that in whatever direction the horizontal component of shock may move, the overthrown cylinders of one or the other set shall fall transversely to the lengths of the plank bases, and lodging on the sand-bed, remain exactly in the position as to azimuth in which they were overthrown. If now a shock of any horizontal velo- city, capable of overthrowing some of the cylinders, but not all of them, arrive, it will throw down at once all the narrower ones, and up to a certain diameter of base. For example, suppose a N. and 8. shock of such velocity as to overthrow W 6, W 5, and W 4, leaving W 3, W 2, and W 1 standing, then V will have been gyeater than the velocity due to the overthrow of W 4, and less than that due to the overthrow of W 3, and, within those limits, may be found from the preceding equation. The cylinders here overthrown, W 6, W 5, and W 4, will be found with their axes lying N. and §., at rest upon the sand-bed. The cylinders N 6, N 5, and N 4 will be also overthrown; but in this case they will fall in the line of their own plank basis, and may roll, and so give no indication as to direction of shock in azimuth. Hence the necessity for two sets of cylinders. One set, however, will be sufficient, if space enough be provided between the cylinders, and each be placed upom a cylindrical and separate basis of a diameter equal to its own, and in height equal to the depth of the sand-bed..
This form of instrument, then, is capable of giving approximate determinations of—
1. The velocity of the horizontal component of shock, neglecting the vertical component, which may be done where the angle of emer- gence is not great.
2. The surface direction in azimuth of the shock, or direction of horizontal component of the seismic wave.
3. Its absolute direction of primary movement, viz: the direction of translation of the wave, which always coincides with the direction of mole- cular displacement of the wave itself in the first half of its complete phase— e.g., if a shock in N.S. azimuth throw the cylinders to the southward, then the wave has traversed from 8. to N.
4. The exact time of the transit of the shock at the instrument may be also indicated, if either the narrowest cylinders, N. 6 and W. 6, (which by hypothesis must be always overthrown, ) be connected with a house-clock in the way about to be described, so as to stop it at the moment of overthrow, or, still better, if a separate cylinder of even less stability be appropriated to this purpose.
Three such sets of instruments at distant stations may of course be easily connected by galvanic wires, so as to give the transit time at each accurately, and hence the transit rate.
Three or more distant observers, with chronometers, may of course g™*
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 42]
observe this, but such observations can seldom be very numerous or extend over a large tract of country, and without automatic instru- ments shocks are almost certain to be missed at one or more stations; yet it is most desirable that a network of such observing points should be stretched over the shaken country. For this purpose common house-clocks, situated at several distant points, may be easily ar- ranged, so that the pendulum shall be brought to rest and the clock stopped at the moment that the shock passes. ’
Fig. 7 shows part of the case and pendulum of a common clock. To fit it for this purpose, bore two holes 6f a quarter of an inch diameter, one through either side of the clock case, at ab, at the level of the lowest point of the pendulum-bob, and in the plane of its vibration; round off the edges of these holes, and grease them.
In the centre of a piece of fishing-line or stretched whip-cord make a loop and pass it round the screw or other lower projection of the pendulum-bob; pass the two free ends of the cord out, one through each of the holes in the sides of the clock-case; provide a squared log of heavy wood of about five or six inches thick each way, and from four to five feet in height; cut both ends off square, and stand the log upright on one end directly opposite the dial of the clock.
Measure off equal lengths of the cord at each side of the pendulum, and make fast their extremities to the two opposite sides of the up- right log, ed, close to the top; bring the log backwards from the clock now, until the pendulum being at rest, both cords are drawn tight; and then advance it two or three inches towards the clock, so that the cords may be slacked down into a festoon or bend at each side of the pendulum, and within the clock-case, so that the pendulum may have room to swing freely; and very slightly wedge the cord to keep it so, through the holes in the clock-case, and from the outside; see that the log rests firmly and upright upon a firm floor; and now set the clock going. The length of the cords, or the distance of the log from the clock in relation to its height, must be such that if it fall towards the clock it shall bring the cords up tight before the upper part of the log touches the ground. It is now obvious that,
“in whatever direction the log may fall, it will arrest the motion of
492 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
the pendulum and stop the clock within less than a second of the true time of transit of the wave at the spot.
If the adjustments are similar for all the clocks this error will be constant for them all; and if the true time be noted at the principal station it can be got for the rest.
Clocks with seconds pendulums only, should be chosen ior this use. They should be all set by one chronometer, and their errors after- wards taken. #
Where convenient, the pendulums should be all placed to swing north and south, or east and west; and in this case the sides of the logs will face the cardinal points, and the directions of their fall (where not entangled) be a rude index of that of the wave. It will be also desirable to place a tub of fluid to mark direction with each clock.
The positions chosen for the clocks must vary with circumstances, but they should, as far as possible, surround the principal station; their distances apart must be considerable, as the sp®ed of the wave or shock is immense—probably five miles is the ordinary minimum, and thirty to fifty miles a convenient maximum distance. Such arrangements should be made as rapidly as possible after the first shock has given the expectation of others to succeed.
When practicable, the following method of fitting common clocks may be advantageously adopted. Let a, fig. 8, be the pendulum- bob; fix a pin of stout wire into a hole in the centre of it, 6, at right angles to the plane of vibration; cut two small mortices through the sides of the clock-case, so that a lath of deal or other light w ood, of about an inch and a half wide by a quarter of an inch thick, may be passed through from ¢ to d, just in front of the bob and clear of it.
Mark the length of the are of vibration on the lower edge of the lath, and cut this length into nicks or teeth like a rack, of about three-eighths of an inch in depth and breadth each. Place the lower edge of the lath horizontally, and just above and clear of the pin 8,
secure the end of the lath d by a wire vin or stud, as a fixed point, so that the end cis free to move in an arc of a few inches up and down round d as acentre. Prepare a vertical log of wood /, of the size and form already described, but cut its upper end to a square pyramid, the flat surface at the top being reduced to about a quarter
; EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 423 of an inch square; adjust the length and position of the log, so that it shall form a support for the end of the lath c, as In the cane
It is obvious that the moment the log f is overthrown by a shock the lath will drop at the end «¢, (which should be slightly weighted, ) and the teeth or rack nicks catching the pin 6 of the pendulum- bob will stop the clock; on examining which, the dial will show the time to a second when the shock took - place, and the tooth in the rack will show at what part of the arc of vibration the pendulum was arrested, which will obviously give the time of the shock to a fraction of a second. >
This method may be applied to any form of clock, and with any length of pendulum. Observation should be accurately made by a seconds watch, or still better, with a Breguet chronoscope, which readily reads to =; of a second, of the total duration of the shock in passing the observer’s station; and the observer should endeavor to record the number of small, rapidly recurrent shocks, and their total duration at each epoch.
Returning now to observations to be made upon the earth-wave, indirectly or by its effects, consisting principally of—1. Observations on buildings and other objects, fissured, dislocated, or thrown down. 2. On bodies bent, projected, displaced, or inverted. 38. Bodies twisted on a vertical axis, with more or less diplacement. Some of the most precious data are to be obtained, by the observation, after the earthquake, of the fissures and dislocations of buildings. Choice should be made of buildings rectangular in plan, of tolerably good masonry, and but one- -story in heig ht, such as churches, &c.; and as often as possible such should be chosen as have their principal walls running north and south and east and west. These may be advan- tageously described as Cardinal buildings. With a given force of shock, and in buildings of generally similar form, the extent of fis- sure depends chiefly upon the character and “bond? of the masonry. The direction of fissures is nearly vertical when due to nearly hori- zontal shocks; but those of steep emergence produce highly-inclined fissures, often crossing each other. Cardinal buildings exposed to shocks, the horizontal component of which is either N.S. or E. Was are fissured chiefly near the quoins, and through the walls whose planes are in the line of shock. But irregularities in the mass of the walls, due to apertures, the brittleness of masonry, and slight devia- tions from cardinal direction in the shock tiself, frequently produce subordinate fissures in the walls transverse to its line of movement, when these are not overthrown.
When the direction of shock is diagonal to the plan of the walls, a triangular mass is dislodged from the ute part of each of the adja- cent walls, at the quoin from which the wave comes. With steep emergence such masses may be dislodged aie both quoins at the same end of a rectangular building, which is that towards which the wave moves. Heavy roofs and tiled or arched floors suffer most from shocks of steep emergence. Buildings situated near about vertically over the centre of disturbance present evidence of dislocation in every direction, 1. e., by the vertical, or nearly vertical, emergence
ADA EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
of the normal vibraticn, and by the nearly horizontal movements of the two transversal vibrations in orthogonal planes.
The observer must bear in mind that all these motions are due to
the inertia of the bodies at the moment of the wave transit. The first tendency, therefore, of every body is to fall in a direction con- trary to that of the wave’s motion; but this is often perplexed by mutually supporting bodies, as cross walls—by the direction of the wave being one in which a fall is impossible, as when passing very diagonally “through a long line of wall—by disintegration from the first wave, SO altering the conditions of the bodies (walls, towers, &c.,) thoug h short of producing a fall, as that the dislocation and fall produced by a succeeding one is not contrary, but in the same direc- tion as the wave motion. When the shock emerges at a large angle to the horizon bodies are often projected, as stones out of of from the coping of walls: the size, weight, form, cement, sort of stone, distance thrown, and all other conditions of projection should then be care- fully noticed. Isolated bodies, such as bells from belfries, balls or vases of stone, statues, &c., are often thrown from elevated points on buildings, and reach the ground after describing a trajectory path. The vertical height fallen through, and the horizontal distance thrown from the original position, with the form, dimensions, substance, weight, and mode of attachment of the body, being noted, afford elements for calculating the velocity of the wave transit if its direc- tion of emergence be otherwise known, or vice versa.
Fissured or overthrown walls of buildings usually give approxima- tions to the horizontal azimuth of shock, but may or may not give any decided response as to the direction of transit, e. g., with a N. S. azimuth it may remain uncertain whether the transit was N. to 8. or Statou NN: Objects overthrown, such as images, altar candlesticks, pilaster slabs, pictures, that can fall only in one direction, may generally be found, such as will decide the question. Space will not permit of this part of the subject being treated systematically or fully. The observer should train his mind, by solving for himself various cases of the effects of shock on different sorts of buildings, &c., and he will see from the hints here given how much the value of his observations, in a recently shaken country, will depend upon the ‘‘nous’’ and adroitness with which he seizes upon the fit objects to afford him the best data. The note and sketch-books should be in perpetual use—no conditions essential for after calculation must be omitted—and the azimuths, directions, and emergence of the shock at every observed point marked upon the best maps as soon as possible. Azimuths must usually be taken with the prismatic com- pass, or pocket sextant, but should be plotted to the true meridian; and the magnetic variation should be determined at frequent intervals, especially in volcanic countries.
Bodies twisted on a vertical axis (such as the Calabrian obelisks, see Lyell, ‘‘Geology’’) were formerly supposed to be due to a vorti- cose motion of the earth. This movement arises from the centre of gravity of the body lying to one side of a vertical plane in the line of shock, which passes through that point in the base on which the body
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 495
rests, in which the whole adherence of the body to its support, by friction or cement, may be supposed to unite, and which may be called the centre of adhesion. —(See Mallet, ‘‘Dynamics of Harthquakes,” Trans. Royal Irish Acad., 1846.) The observer who fully masters these mechanical conditions of motion will see what elements he must collect, so that the motion impressed on bodies thus twisted may be used to calculate the velocity, &c., of the wave. All observations of this class, to be of scientific value, must comprise the materials, size, form, weight, sort of cement, base or foundation of the bodies dis- turbed, and measurements of the amount, &c., of disturbance, with any other special conditions which occur; and these will always be numerous, and demand the utmost nee and scrutiny of the ob- server. The arc and azimuth of oscillation, with weight and length of chain or cord of suspended lamp set swinging by shock, often afford valuable information. The length to centre of oscillation is got by setting the lamp swinging, and | noting the vibrations made in a min- ute, knowing the latitude; also iron crosses, or lamp irons bent by shock. The height, form, weight, exact section at the bend, and direction of deflection, to be noted.
Whatever difference in destructive effect may be due to formation or accident, it must be borne in mind that in every shock transmitted from a deep centre of impulse, and passing outwards in all directions in spherical shells, there will be a coseismal circle upon the earth’s surface at some determinate horizontal distance from the central point vertically over the centre of impulse, in which the horizontal upsetting or overturning power will be a maximum, greater, cwteris paribus, than at any point within or without this circle: within, be- cause oe the direction of shock is more vertical, and therefore less
calculated to overturn buildings; and without, because, though more horizontal, the power of the shock has become weakened by distance of transinission. This may be called the Meizoseismal Circle or Zone, having the radius B ¢, fig. 1. It may be proved that the angle of emergence for this zone of maximum overthrow is constant, and makes with the horizon an angle equal to 54° 44’ 9” nearly, assuming the energy of shock in the normal to ve ary as the inverse square of the distance from the origin. If, therefore, the centre of the circle, or point-plumb over the origin be given, or three points can be fixed by observation in the meizoseismal circle, the depth of the origin below the earth’s surface can be calculated by the following rule:
‘‘Find the mean diameter of the meizoseismal circle. Then the depth of the origin or centre of impulse beneath the surface is equal to the diagonal of the square whose side is equal to the radius of that cinele.”’
If the energy in the normal be assumed to vary simply as the dis- tance from the origin inversely, then the constant angle of emergence for maximum overthrow is 45°, and the depth of centre of impulse is equal to the radius of the meizoseismal circle.
This gives us one method of approximating seismometrically to the depth below the surface of the volcanic ‘‘couche’”’ beneath. The gen- eral horizontal direction of shock (radial from a point on the surface-
426 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
plumb above the centre of impulse) is subject to great and often very perplexing and abrupt changes in azimuth and direction in very moun- tainous or shattered country, or even in perfect planes of deep allu- vium (like the basin of the Ganges) resting upon a highly uneven skeleton of rock, or where the formations vary suddenly and much, or are very discontinuous. The change often amounts in direction to total inversion, and in azimuth to 90°,
Great perturbation of direction is also produced by the abutting of one mountain chain upon another, which usually alters the apparent angle of emergence also. The me thods of disentangling these larger and complex phenomena exceed the limits here imposed. —(See 4th Report Brit. Ass. Trans., 1857’ 58.)
Amongst doubtful phenomena on record are inversions of bodies, such as parts of pavements turned upside down, &c.; such cases, or any strange and unaccounted for phenomena, deserve special atten- tion.—(See Ist Report, ‘‘ Facts of Earthquakes,’ section 6, Secondary Effects; ‘‘ Cosmos,’’ vol. iv., Sabine’s Translation.)
In traversing an extensive city, or thickly-built-over country, to observe the shattered buildings—having first ascertained generally the line of motion of the wave—the observer should remark where its directon of motion has appeared to change as it passed along, and note all the conditions that seem to have there affected it. He should also obtain decisive evidence of its actual transit, for sometimes the wave seems to emerge all but simultaneously over a vast tract of country, where the origin is deep-seated, and nearly vertically below. Changes in the rate of transit horizontally, or in the energy of the wave, should be noted by its effects on similar objects at distant spots. These changes may be expected at the lines of junction of different rocks or other formations. Evidence should also, if possi- ble, be got of any breaking up of the primary wave into secondary waves, as of several shocks being felt where only one has occured further back.
All evidence should, as far as possible, be circumstantial. Nature rightly questioned never lies; men are prone to exaggerate, at least where novel and startling events are in question.
Various local conditions must be recorded: the great features of the geological formations of the region, not only the successive under- lying rocks, with the general directions of bedding, lamination, joints, &e., but the topographical character of surface, the directions and altitudes of the chief mountain ranges and of the main river courses, the depth and description of its loose materials, their varia- tions and extent, and the same for the surrounding districts, from whence and towards which the earth-wave travels especially. The deeper a knowledge can be got by exposed sections, &c., of the rocks of the shaken district the better; the proximity or otherwise to vol- canic vents, active or passive, the lithological character of material of the country shaken, whether broken, solid, or fissured; if the latter, their general directions, dip, &c., whether dry or flooded, and the effects on the transit of the wave, of changes in any or all of these conditions; places least and most affected by the shock, and whether
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 497
there be some free from any, and their local conditions, to be par- ticularly noted.
Referring now to secondary phenomena, or effects resulting from the transit of the earth-wave, (other than merely measures ‘of it 1) we should observe falls of rock, or land-slips, to which most of the con- ditions of shattered buildings apply. lLand-slips change their initial directions frequently, in consequence of moving over curved or twisted surface of rocks; thus the previously straight furrows of a field may be found twisted after an earthquake. Scratches or furrows engraven on rocky surfaces by such land-slips should be looked for.
Sometimes great sea-waves are produced by the fall into the sea of rock or land-slips, which need to be carefully distinguished from the true great sea-wave produced by an original impulse of the sea- bottom. Land-slips often dam rivers, fill up lakes; and various changes of surface again produce basins for new lakes, to be filled by the changed river-courses. The circumstances, as far as possible, should be accurately observed, and the causation of the events unwound, and all such phenomena cautiously separated from actual ejections of water, (temperature to be ascertained,) which are said sometimes to have happened on an immense scale.—(Humboldt, Per- sonal Narrative; ‘‘ Cosmos,’’ vol. iv.)
Fissures containing water often spout it up at the moment of shock. Wells alter their water-level, and sometimes the nature of their con- tents; springs become altered in the volume of water they deliver. The directions of the fissures, and the relations of such directions to that of the shock, should be ascertained, and any changes in the temperature of wells noted. Hjections from holes or fissures of strange liquid or solid matters, sometimes of dry ashes or dust, are recorded, and occasionally fiery eructations or smoke are said to have occurred, especially near volcanic centres, and blasts of steam vapors or gases, whose chemical characters should be in all the above cases observed as far as possible. The dust of overthrown buildings, or that produced by the,rending of rocky or other masses, must not be confounded with these. Fissures, sometimes of profound depth, open and remain so, or close again; their directions, dimensions, time and order of production, and ‘closing up, and the formations in which they occur, to be noted; bodies engulfed to be detailed as future organic remains. Fissures in solid rock arise either from the effects of inertia or from the range of molecular displacement of the passing wave exceeding the elastic limit of the materials disturbed; but fissures in
earth or other discontinuous and very imperfectly elastic masses seem due only to the secondary effects of the shock, producing land- slips, subsidations, &c.—(See ‘First Report on Facts of Earthquakes,”
sec. 6, Secondary Effects.) Permanent elevations and depressions of the land usually accompany earthquakes, and are of much importance to science, but, as already remarked, must be viewed as clearly distinct, from the earthquake itself. Such elevations or depressions have a common cause with the earthquake; both are due to the volcanic efforts beneath, but are not the less absolutely distinct phenomena, to confound ‘which is to lose sight of all true science in
428 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
both. The observation of these should never be neglected, though rather belonging to geology proper. The half-tide level must in all cases be taken as the datum-plane for all questions of level, and opportunities diligently sought for along beaches, quays, wharfs, or inland along mill-streams or irrigating "ohannels! &c., where altera- tions of level may be trustworthily evinced by changes of depth or run of water. Occasionally local, but widely- extended, permanent elevations or depressions accompany earthquakes, which seem to result from lateral compression, and not from direct elevatory forces. These should be distinguished from the preceding.
Rivers are stated to have sometimes run dry during earthquakes, and again begun to flow after the shock. This is presumed to arise either from the transit of an earth-wave along their courses up stream, thus damming off their sources, or from sudden elevation of the land, and as sudden depression. Where well observed, however, it has nearly always been found due to sudden damming up by falls of rock or earth at narrow points of their courses, the . débris being soon afterwards swept away.
Observations of the forced sea-wave, whether produced by the earth-wave going out to sea or coming in from it, will be nearly the same. It is desirable to find its height above the surface of repose referred to half-tide level, and its length or amplitude; but from the extreme rapidity of its production and cessation, or conversion into small oscillatory waves lapping on the beach, and its generally small altitude, observations are extremely difficult; they are only possible when the surface of the sea is perfectly calm, and then must be left to the skill of the observer in taking advantage of local circumstances, and of evidence as to the visible circumstances of this wave, which occurs at the instant the shock is felt.
Observations of the waves of sound through the earth, the sea of fresh water, and the air, are indicated pretty fully by the description of these waves already given. The sound-wave through the earth travels probably at the same rate as the shock or earth-wave; it is, in fact, the shock (or its fractures) heard. Notice if any and what sound is heard before, along with, or after the shock is felt. An observer, putting one ear in “close contact with the earth, and closing the other, will hear the sound-wave through the earth separate from that through the air, and thus hear sounds otherwise inaudible. So, also, an observer immersed in the sea will hear the sound-wave through it, sometimes without any complication of that through the earth.
An exact description of the character and loudness of the sounds heard, and the places in an extensive district where each was heard loudest and faintest, with the nature of the rock formations at these spots, should be noted. The duration of the sound from first to last, through either medium, accompanying each shock, is important. Gircumeramees of a cna ee analogous to those upon which the rumbling and reverberation of thunder depend, may affect these sounds transmitted through the earth and thence to the air.
Observations on the great sea-wave should embrace, for each wave,
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 429
its height, its amplitude or length, its velocity, and direction of translation. The height to be taken above the plane of repose of the fluid, and referred to half-tide level. These waves, when on their grandest scale, defy any methods of direct admeasurement; but observations of their results, such as the height to which they have reached on mural faces of rock, or on such | buildings, &c., as
may have withstood them, or eye- -sight observations made at the moment of transit of the crest of the wave cutting distant objects, should not be omitted. When of a manageable size the height of the crest may be pretty closely obtained by the traces on wharfs, buildings, &c., or on posts or piles driven into the littoral bottom. It may be taken from any convenient fixed points of level, and all ultimately referred to half-tide as the datum for all earthquake obser- vations as to level.
The sextant may be occasionally used to get the elevation of the crest of the passing wave, several observers making a simultaneous observation of an expected wave. The velocity of the wave may be got by noticing from a suitable position, by a seconds watch, the time of its transit inwards between two distant points having water between them whose depth is or may be known. Islands off the land are advantageous posts for this purpose. Where tide-gauges can be established they afford the best means of recording all the conditions of these waves when of a manageable height. The state of the tide at the time of their occurrence, and the general nature of the local establishment, with the in and off shore currents, should be ascertained.
The length of the wave (while entire) should be sought for by a similar method; a knowledge of its length and of the depth of water infers its height. There are two indirect methods by which the dimensions of the great sea-wave may be pretty accurately deter- mined: First. The distance to which solid bodies before at rest are translated by the passage of the wave over them is about equal to its length or amplitude; so that when we can obtain evidence of the distance to which.a large loose rock, for example, whose precise posi- tion was before known, has been ‘carried, we approximate to one dimension of the wave. Secondly. The depth of water at the point where the wave is first observed to break, when capable of being accurately found, gives the height of the wave, which is here equal to the depth of the soundings. This breaking point and depth should always be anxiously tried for. Besides the dimensions of the wave, observations should be made, on the interval of time, after the great earth-wave, or shock, and before the great sea-wave comes in, reck- oning from the commencement of the shock. When more than one great sea-wave comes in, the precise number of successive waves and the intervals in time of their recurrence should be noted; also, what are their relative dimensions; what changes are observable in the direc- tions whence they arrive at the same point of coast, and what are the several in-coming directions at various points along a great stretch of coast, (the latter must be had usually from collected testimony: ;) what reflux from the beach before or after the coming in of the wave; after the wave has come in and broken, what oscillatory waves are pro-
430 EARTHQUAKE PHEMOMENA.
duced, their character and dimensions; whether the level of the sur- face of the sea is, in repose, the same before and after the subsidence of the great sea-wave and its secondary or oscillatory waves; whether any subsequent irregularity of tide occurs after the shock or great sea-waves, or any permanent change of establishment should be ascer- tained.
As accurate a section as possible of the form of the littoral bottom, beach, offing, and out to deep water, should be got by soundings in the line of the coming in of the wave, and laid down on paper. It should be noticed whether the great wave comes in of muddy or dis- colored water, or clear and like the sea it traversed; and, where possible, a cruise should be made out to sea in the direction whence the waves came, to look for pumice, dead fish, volcanic ashes, or other indications of the distant origin or centre of disturbance. The cotidal lines of the great waves should be laid down in direction upon a map of the coast.
The secondary effects of the great sea-wave, most worthy of re- mark, are the materials, if any, carried in from deep sea, such as loose mineral matter, new animal or vegetable forms, or the substances swept from off the land and sunk in the depths of the sea. As the range of transferring power of a great sea-wave (wave of translation) is only equal to the wave itself, but little matter will be carried inland from the sea bottom, unless where the depth is great close to shore.
If fish or testacea are thrown inland into fresh water, the effects on them should be noticed. Lastly, the effects of the passage of the wave over the land and all that stands upon it are to be observed. In recording the transporting power of the wave, (i. e., its absolute transferring power, without reference to distance,) the size, form, specific gravity, and lithological character of rocks or boulders moved, the distance moved and height lifted are to be given; the base on which moved, and if rock, the scratches or furrows produced; the mode of motion, and if swept or rolled along, the obstacles overcome in their progress. Where gravel or loose materials are moved there should be given an estimate of the mass moved, and to what distance; the character, external and internal, of its deposition; the mutual relations or sorting of its fine and coarse parts. The effects on build- ings variously exposed; on vertical and sloping sea- walls; on steep faces of cliffs, and on the caverns excavated in them. The denuding effects of the wave in sweeping off sand, gravel, trees, animals, &c. The disruption and lifting of masses and aise of stratified rocks, especially of nearly level and nearly vertical beds. Effects of vertical sea-walls or cliffs in the reflection or extinction of the wave.
Specimens should be taken of the rock of which very remarkable boulders or architectural fragments moved by the wave consist; of any new or strange matters cast up, or gases or vapors evolved from the sea, or ejected from fissures, cavities, wells, &c., on land; of min- eralized or suddenly fouled water found in fissures or wells. Of these, where possible, immediate chemical qualitative examination should be made.
Such specimens in particular should be brought home of the rocks
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. A431
or other mineral masses through which the speed of transit of the earth-wave has has been carefully observed, as will enable the mean modulus of elasticity of themass to be determined. Where this is rock, three specimens should be taken of maximum, minimum, and average hardness, density, and compactness, as representatives of the whole, noticing especially in stratified rock the depth from surface of eround and from top of the formation at which taken; each specimen to be of a size enabling a block to be sawn out of it of at least three feet in length by four inches square. Where convenient, this operation may be done on the spot. An iron wire stretched like a bowspring, with some sharp sand and water, makes an excellent stone saw; still better where continuous motion can be given by a band to the wire wheel and winch handle. Where the district is a de eep detrital or alluvial one, the depth and characters of the loose materials should be care- fully observed, and illustrative specimens, as far as possible, brought home. It is in the highest degree important that the degree of shat- teryness or compactness of the rock formations, the nature, directions, closeness, or openness, and contiguity of the fissures be remarked, as these conditions of comparative discontinuity most materially affect the transit period of the shock in every formation.
Collateral conditions to be observed are: Barometer before, during, and after the earthquake; thermometer and rain gage; hygrometer and electrical state of the air during the phenomena; magnetometrical observations to be made where these are practicable; all unusual meteorological appearances to be noted, and all changes or perturba- tions of climate or season observable for a year before and after the shock are desirable to be ascertained. Also, whether epidemic or other diseases follow, and have a distinct connexion of cause and effect with the earthquake, as by change of season, failure of crop or food, injury to arterial drainage, the presence of fogs or exhalations, or like events.
The effects of the shock itself on man and the lower animals to be noticed. Nausea is undoubtedly a frequent.effect upon human beings at the instant of shock; but the nature of its production is uninvesti- gated. Is it due to nervous perturbation, or to the movement, as in the case of sea-sickness? Some animals appear to predict the shock before men are conscious of its approach. Birds are often killed by being thrown off their roosts while asleep at night. Flat fish on the sea bottom are often killed by the direct blow of the steeply emer- gent wave. All such modes of death should be noted. Active vol- canic phenomena occurring before, during, or after the earthquake, in adjacent or distant regions, will, of course, be recorded.
Records or trustwor ih tir aditions are to be sought for innew or little explored volcanic countries, or those neighboring to them, as to the state of activity or repose of these vents for a long period prior to and during the earthquake; also as to their state before and during any previous earthquakes—all remarkable facts as to which should be collected. Where meteorological or tidal tables exist they should be transcribed for the times correlative tothe above records. The opinions of old observers as to changes of climate or ‘season; the occurrence
432 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
of pestilences, failure of crops, &c., in relation to earthquakes, while they must be received with caution, should not be disregarded.
Any changes of permanent level of sea and land that accompanied former earthquakes that are on record should be obtained, with their particulars; whether the same points have been affected in successive earthquakes and by successive upheavals; whether the same or differ- ent volcanoes were in action during successive earthquakes; and whether the area of disturbance in habitual earthquake regions seems to enlarge in successive shocks.—(Humboldt, ‘‘ Cosmos.’’)
Upon maps of the country in which the shock was felt, coseismal and meizoseismal curves may be finally laid down, upon which also the cotidal lines of the great sea-waves on a long coast-line may be marked. Maps of fissures formed in relation to the coseismal lines, and generally sketches of all visible remarkable effects of the earth- quake on natural or artificial objects, should be made. Photography affords precious facilities for preserving the appearances of shattered buildings and the relations or alterations of natural features, &c. The effects of earthquakes on the lives of men and animals; statistics of mortality; modes of entombment by the convulsion, as bearing on future organic remains; burying of objects of human art—are all worthy of notice.
It sometimes happens that a shock of earthquake is felt at sea at great distances from land, and over profound depths; a sudden blow is felt as if the ship had struck a rock.—(See ‘‘ Comptes Rendus,’’ vol. vi, pp. 302 and 512, 1853.)
The earth-wave coming from an origin probably in most cases nearly vertically beneath is here transferred to the ocean, through which it passes upwards as an elastic wave, with the same speed as the sound- wave through the sea. When such an event occurs in a smooth sea, and circumstances are favorable, we should look out for and note the direction of the passage almost immediately in form of a single, low swell, of the great sea-wave, which may be formed directly over the origin, at no very great distance off. Immediate attention should be given to the particulars of any objects that may have been displaced on board. Compasses are thrown out of the gimbals, shot dislodged from their seats round the hatchway coamings, or other places; a mast has even been unstepped. The relation observed between the extent of lateral and of vertical displacement will give some notion of the deviation of the line of shock from the vertical, and of its slope in azimuth. This found, a cruise about may be made in search of pumice, discoloration, or other indications upon the surface of the sea, &ce., of the orgin under the sea bottom. Where the depth of water is great it is improbable that any indications of the convulsion below will reach the surface. Efforts, however, should be made to reach the bottom with the armed lead line and to obtain two lines of soundings at equal intervals for some miles, running both in latitude and longi- tude, and to bring up specimens of the bottom at each throw of the line. The origin may be found to be a newly-emerging volcano, an object always of ereat interest; the observation when in deep water
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. - 433
is capable of adding much to our knowledge of chemical and physical geology.
Perhaps no branch of terrestrial physics will so richly repay to the observer, who is so fortunate as to be able to reach the greater seats of volcanic and seismic action of our globe, the labor that will be necessary beforehand to enable him effectually to grasp his subject, as seismology; but observations undertaken without such preliminary knowledge will, for the most part, be valueless.
Besides the study of the several works already mentioned in the text, Lyell’s ‘‘Geology,’’ passim, should be studied, and a few of the best narratives of earthquakes perused. Such are Hamilton’s and Dolomieu’s ‘‘ Accounts of the Great Calabrian Karthquake,’’ (neglect- ing their theoretic views;) Humboldt’s, Admiral FitzRoy’s, and C. Darwin’s Accounts of the South American, and Sir Stamford Raffles’s Account of those of Java; with several others.
434 ‘ METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.
[Mr. Cassella, of London, has furnished us with a series of wood cuts to illustrate some late forms of instruments constructed by himself; and, as they may be interesting to meteorological observers, we have concluded to insert them in this Appendix to the Annual Report.—J. H.] I
Fig. 1 represents a solar radiation thermometer, with blackened bulb, in a stout glass tube exhausted of air within one-tenth of an inch of the mercurial gauge, constructed agreeably to the suggestion of Sir John Herschel.
The instrument being thus protected from all external influences, gives uniformity of readings for comparison of solar radiation, which sur- passes those obtained by the naked bulb exposed to contact with the air.
Fig. 2.
oY
PRGF® PHILLIPS'S MAXIMUM THERMOMETER ~ o | 19 | 20] 30
Fig. 2 represents a maximum thermometer constructed on the principle of Professor Phillips. The maximum point of temperature attained during the interval between two observations is indicated by a separation in the mercurial column. The end of a portion of the extremity of the column is left at the point of maximum, while the contraction takes place in the remainder of the column, as shown in the figure. To insure this separation, the bore of the tube is exceedingly fine, and a minute portion of air is left by the maker at the point where the separation takes place. This instrument is sus- pended horizontally on a hook at one end and on a pin at the other. In order to bring back the index to its proper place after the obser- vation has been made, the pin is removed, the instrument is brought to a perpendicular position with the bulb downwards, when the detached mercury descends into near contact with the remaining
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. 435
portion of the column. The instrument is again brought back to its horizontal position and the pin restored to its place.
Thermometers constructed after this plan were first exhibited by Professor Phillips, accompanied by a description, at the Oxford meeting of the British Association for the advancement of science, in 1832. The principle of the instrument is, as we have stated, the employment of a certain portion of the column of mercury detached asa marker. The length of this is capable of a great range of adap- tation to suit the objects of experiment; the instrument is inde- pendent of change by time or chemical action, and as delicate in operation as the best ordinary thermometer. Mr. Phillips « constructed a number twenty-five years ago, some of which remain in an excellent state to the present time. The length of the marker may be varied at pleasure by means of a second hollow ball blown at the extremity opposite the ball containing the mercury. The longer this marker is left the more moveable it becomes. With a cer fain small length depending on the diameter of the tube it will remain, without moving, in any position, and requires strong shaking to change its place. Among the samples presented to the ‘Association was one planned by Professor Phillips for special researches on limited sources, or areas of heat, with small bulb, fine bore, and short detached marking column. Thus constructed, the thermometer may be used in any position—ver- tical, inclined, or horizontal—and the short detached marking column will retain its place with such firmness that the instrument may be carried to a distance, or even agitated, without disturbing the regis- tration.
Fig. 3.
go140 i 50160) 70) #0) 90 / loo) 10
Fig. 3 represents an instrument of the same kind with black bulb for solar radiation.
7 a
Fig. 4 represents the ordinary minimum thermometer in which the index is a small piece of enamel.
436 METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.
Fig. 5 represents a convenient form for mounting a thermometer for determining the temperature of grass due to radiation.
Fig. 6. Fig. 7. =n Fig. 6 represents one of a series of "
|. va standard thermometers, extra sensitive, Bs about 20 inches in length, each degree bd three-fourths of an inch, divided into etenths or twentieths. 2 Sensitive thermometers for extremely # low temperatures are also constructed of # the same pattern, thirty-five inches long, : with a range from Bo Del oMy to 80° above
: cific aoe 720.
Vig. T represents Regnault’s condens- ing dew-point hygrometer.
This instrument consists essentially of two sensitive thermometers, as shown in =the figure, the lower exposed to the : action of the atmosphere, the upper to A Me the influence of a current of air passing d hee ether contained in a well-pol- eished silver bottle, from the mouth of which the stem of the thermometer projects. This thermometer marks the exact temperature at which the aqueous avapor at the time in the atmosphere is
condensed in the form of dew upon the e bottle, and thus gives by direct observa- gtion the existing ‘‘dew-point.”’ The E polished silver Bottle is about one ick Ein diameter, the neck being contracted i] @ to about five-eighths. The thermometer inserted into this “UE bottle is a sensitive one, divided on its stem to half degrees, Nz the stem passing through an ivory stopper fitted with a cork which renders the bottle air-tight at the neck. On one side; and within the silver bottle, a small, slender silver tube descends to nearly the bottom; this tube passes outwards, and is connected with an India- rubber tube. Upon nearly filling the large part of the silver bottle with ether, and-blowing through this tube, the air rises. through the ether in bubbles and carries with it a portion of the ether in vapor. This evaporation of the ether causes such a degree of cold that the surface of the silver bottle is so reduced in temperature as to cause a precipitation of dew. The supporting stem of the instrument being hollow aready means is provided for the egress of the air. The bottle at the foot of the stand is for containing a supply of ether.
Fig. 8 represents the hygrometrical apparatus or instrument for measuring altitudes by the boiling point of water. It consists first, of a strong sensitive enamelled thermometer, the scale of which ranges from 180° to 214° Fahrenheit, divided on the stem so as to show the tenth of adegree. Second, a copper boiler supported on a smail tripod and surmounted by a telescopic draw-tube, which is again sur-
fee RIO
ee
cA SH IBAEE
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. A37
‘rounded by asecond tube or steam jacket. The inner tube has perforations near the top which allow the steam readily to fill the intermediate space and freely to escape by aside tube, as shown in the figure. The thermometer is sup- ported, at about one inch above the surface of the water in the boiler, by means of a cork or India-rubber washer on the upper part of the stem, and can be immersed in the steam to any required amount by sliding the telescope tube to any required height. Distilled water is used in this instrument, which is made to boil by means of a spirit lamp. The whole is
packed in a leathern sling case, shownin Fig. 9.
Big. 10.
anil a NT iis = 2 . At i :
— ESS SSS SSS Sas
Fig. 10 represents a portable anemometer for registering the velocity of the wind in miles and furlongs.
This instrument is a modification of the anemo- meter devised by Dr. Robinson, of Armagh, which / consists essentially of four hemispherical cups, hav-
ing their diametrical planes exposed to a passing current of air; they are carried by four folding horizontal arms attached toa vertical shaft or axis, which is caused to rotate by the motion of the wind. Dr. Robinson found that the cups, and consequently the axis to which they are attached, revolve with one-third of the wind’s
438 METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. ‘
velocity. A simple arrangement of wheels and screws is appended to the instrument, which, by means of two indices, shows, on inspec- tion, the space traversed ‘by the wind. The outer or front wheel, one revolution of which is equal to the transit of five miles of wind, is furnished with two graduated circles, the interior being divided to the eighth part of a mile, so that each division is equal to a furlong, while the exterior is divided into one hundred parts, each being equal to five miles. The stationary index at the top of the dial marks the number of miles (under five) and furlongs that the wind may have traversed, in addition to the miles shown by the traversing index, which revolves with the dial and indicates the transit of every five miles. The graduation is to five hundred. The traversing index is furnished with a milled-headed screw at the back of the instrument, which is employed for bringing its extremity to the zero point when the instrument is set, which consists in merely turning it by means of the milled-headed screw and bringing the end of the index to point to zero. . By means of the folding arms which carry the cups this anemometer is rendered portable. When in use it may be screwed on a shaft or the ordinary piece of gas-pipe which gecompanies it and elevated to any desirable altitude. It is particularly adapted for occasional obser- vations on shore, and is suitable for measuring the force of the wind at sea. It may readily be set up on the highest part of a building or elevated on board a vessel. When inspected it will show alike the wind’s present velocity as well as the rate at which it was passed since it was set or last read. This instrament may also be used for showing the ventilation of public buildings or dwellings, by an inspec- tion of its dial in combination with a watch or clock, by which the
rate of the progress of ventilation may be seen. Fig. 11.
aS cit Fig. 11 represents a convenient form } ie aenl oe \ eec(ope Lind’s anemometer for showing the direction and force of the wind. “This consists essentially of a glass tube of half an inch bore, bent into the form of a U, as shown in the figure, the lower half of which is filled with mer- cury; the upper end of one of the legs is bent horizontally, and when this is directed toward the wind the mercury is driven down by the pressure in one leg and caused to rise in the other, the difference in level gives the pres- sure of the wind in inches of mer- cury from which the velocity may be
calculated. For observing very high winds the straight leg may be closed at the top, im w hich case the pressure on the open end will be indicated by the condensation of the air in the other leg, combined with the difference of level of the mercury in the two legs.
FILLING BAROMETER TUBES. A439
ON FILLING BAROMETER TUBES.
[Having been frequently called upon by our correspondents to give information relative to filling barometer tubes, we requested Mr. James Green, of New York, and Mr. W. Wurde- mann, of Washington, to furnish us with an account of the methods employed by them. The following are their answers to our request, with additional information from the Trans- actions of the Royal Society.—J. H.]
I.—By JamMreS GREEN, OF New YorK.
One of the greatest difficulties with the inexperienced is to get the tube itself clean and free of moisture. If the tube is foul, the com- mon way is to clean it with a covered copper wire, wrapped with additional cotton at the end to fit the tube, and moistened with alcohol and whiting at first, afterward with dry cotton. If the tube can be heated and air blown in dry, so much the better.
The mercury and tube should be heated as much as will be allow- able to handle them, to keep all the water ina state of vapor. The mer- cury is filtered into the tube in a long paper funnel, in a fine stream, until within a ately ter of an inch of the top. The tube will now be found covered with small air bubbles. Stop the end of the tube with the finger, and run a large air bubble up and down the tube. This will collect the small ones together. Provided the tube be clean and dry, and mercury pure, a pretty g rood result is obtained.
To boil the mercury in the tube, fill within three inches of the top. Then, with a clear charcoal fire or long spirit lamp, warm the whole tube as much as you can without inconvenience. The tube being held by a cloth, (with woollen gloves on hands is well,) then commence at the top or open end and hold the tube over the fire until the mercury boils, moving the tube a little in all directions all the time to equalize the distribution of the heat from the fire. Continue the boiling downwards until you reach the end, and then return boiling up to the top again. Some begin at the closed end, (for economy of risk and labor,) and boil up only. This may answer the purpose, but not so well as the other, particularly if the tube is not perfectly dry and clean. The part of the tube unoccupied will be well-prepared by the boiling mercury bubbling up; so that to complete the filling, filter hot mercury to the top.
The more perfect methods of boiling are impracticable out of the workshop and hands of the glass-blower.
One of the best tests for the purity of the mercury is, that after once filtering in a long paper funnel to get it clean, in filtering again slowly no lines or marks are left on the paper by the receding sur- face, and in motion no strings or tails are made, but the mercury will be rounded at its edges.
The best method ordinarily practicable for purifying mercury is to put it in a large bottle with some very dilute nitric acid, and shake it
AAO FILLING BAROMETER TUBES.
frequently. It should then be left for some days, and shaken occa- sionally; then well washed with pure water and dried. I distil first, and then wash with acid, and this will take out the metals likely to be found in it.
Ii.—By W. WuRDEMANN, OF WASHINGTON.
In compliance with your request, as contained in your note received this day, I will give some notes in regard to my usual method of filling barometers. .
First, let me premise that I have so far filled only such as have a straight tube, without bend or contraction, and to such alone the method below explained is applicable; nor ought the tubes to be of a less bore than 58; of an inch.
Besides the requisites stated, those of a clean tube and perfectly pure mercury are equally indispensably necessary with this method as well as any other, where a perfect instrument is desired. The purification of mercury is best accomplished by means of perchloride of iron, with which it is shaken in a diluted state; then carefully washed with pure water, and again freed from moisture by heating. The glass tube must have its open end ground straight and smooth, so that it can be closed air-tight with the finger, or better, with hard caoutchouc, as the former is liable to introduce moisture or grease. Warm well both mercury and glass tube, and fill in through a clean paper funnel with a very small hole (about 5!) of an inch) below, to within about one-fourth of an inch of the top. Shut up the end and turn the tube horizontal, when the mercury left will form a bubble that can be made to run from one end to the other by change of in- clination, which will gather all the small air bubbles visible that adhered to the inside of the glass tube during filling. Now let that bubble, which has grown somewhat larger, pass to the open end. Fill up this time with mercury entirely, and shut up tightly. Then reverse tube over a basin, when, by slightly relieving the pressure against the end, the weight of the column of mercury will force some out, forming a vacuum above, which ought not to exceed one-half an inch. Closing up again tightly, let this vacuum bubble traverse the length of the tube on the several sides, when it will absorb those minute portions of air, now greatly expanded from removed atmo- spheric pressure, that were not drawn at the first gathering.
The perfect freedom from air is easily recognized by the sharp con- cussion with which the column beats against the sealed end, when, with a large vacuum bubble, the horizontally held tube is slightly moved.
CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER. AAI
ACCOUNT OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER, AND DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS AND PROCESSES EM-
" PLOYED IN THE VERIFICATION OF BAROMETERS AT THE KEW OBSERVATORY.
BY JOHN WELSH. Communicated to the Royal Society by J. P. Gassiot, esq.
I.—STANDARD BAROMETER.
In the course of the years 1853-54 several attempts were made, under the superintendence of the Kew committee, to prepare, by the usual method of boiling, a barometer tube of large dimensions. Mr. Negretti, to whom was entrusted the preparation of the tube, succeeded repeatedly in boiling, apparently satisfactorily, tubes of fully one inch internal diameter. Many of these, however, ‘broke spontaneously before they could be mounted, some of them within a few hours and others after an interval of several days. Two or three tubes were ultimately erected, but their condition was not’satisfactory. The adhesion of the mercury to the glass was so great, that in a falling barometer. the convexity of the top of the column was destroyed, and the surface of the mercury assumed even a concave form. After a few days rings of dirt or other impurity were formed on the glass near the top of the column, which soon increased to such a degree as entirely to interfere with the observation. The mercury employed in filling the tubes had been previously treated for some weeks with dilute nitric acid, and afterwards kept in bottles under strong sulphuric acid, being well washed with water and dried by repeated filtering before use. Dr. W. A. Miller examined specimens of the mercury, and could detect no impurity in it.
Suspecting that some injurious effect might have been produced upon the mercury or upon the glass by the great heat to which the tube was necessarily exposed in boiling so large a mass of mercury, it occurred to me that the difficulty might be removed by another method of filling the tube, which I shall now describe:
The tube was, in the first place, prepared as follows: To its upper end was attached a capillary tube bent thrice at right angles, having its bore much contracted at the middle point of its length, with a small bulb blown at another part of its length, being finally drawn out to a fine point and there hermetically sealed. To the lower end of the large tube was attached ten inches of a smaller tube, having a bore of three- tenths of an inch, and to that again was added about six inches of capillary tube. _ A bulb of three-fourths of an inch was blown at the end of the smaller tube, which, at its junction with the
449 CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER.
larger tube, was finally bent into a syphon. The end of the lower capillary tube was now connected with a good air pump, and the air very slowly extracted at the same time that the whole tube was strongly heated by passing a large spirit lamp along it. When the air had been as well as possible extracted, and whilst the air pump was still in action and the heat still applied, the lower capillary tube was sealed by a blow-pipe flame. When the tube had cooled, it was’ placed at a small inclination with the end of the upper capillary tube in a vessel containing mercury which had been previously boiled. The point of this tube was broken off under the mercury, which then rose in the tube by atmospheric pressure. The mercury continued to rise until the bulb at the other end was more than half filled, the remaining space being occupied by the air which the pump had failed to extract. It was estimated from the amount of space thus left unoc- cupied by the mercury that the pressure of the residual air in the tube when cold must have been less than five hundredths of an inch. The basin of mercury was then withdrawn from beneath, leaving the point of the capillary tube exposed, the bore of which remaining quite filled with mercury. The blow-pipe was then applied to the point, and the opening sealed. When the glass had cooled, the large tube was placed erect, the mercury separating at the contracted part of the capillary tube, leaving the remainder filled, or very nearly so, and the part between the point of contraction and the large tube a vacuum. The upper capillary tube was now sealed at about the middle of the vacuum, and the remaining portion removed. Finally the syphon tube at the lower end of the large tube was broken under mercury, leaving about an inch of the syphon remaining.
The earlier tubes filled by this process were not satisfactory, there being, as in those previously prepared by boiling, a considerable adhe- sion of the mercury to the glass, with the formation, after a few days, of rings of dirt; so similar, indeed, was the appearance of these tubes to that of the boiled tubes, that I was led to believe that the evil in both cases was due to the same cause. Being satisfied that there was no impurity in the mercury, which, besides having been cleaned with nitric acid, had before these last experiments been redistilled, and suspecting that the evil might have been owing to imperfect cleaning of the tubes, which had only been wiped out by the elassblower in the usnal way, I had fresh tubes made under my own inspection, and sealed at the glass-works immediately after being drawn. Great care was also taken by the glass-blower to prevent the entrance of moisture during the subsequent operations with the blow-pipe. These tubes, nawenee still showed the same imperfection, though in a less degree. About this time I had the advantage of consulting Mr. John Adie, of Edinburg, who informed me that he had also experienced the same inconvenience, and that he had removed it by thoroughly cleaning the tubes by sponging with whiting and spirits of wine. Following his directions, 1 had the satisfaction of finding the tubes when filled almost w holly free from the imperfections mentioned. A tube of 1.1 inch internal diameter, prepared in July, 1855, by the process above described, is at this time in as good condition as when first
CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER. 443 g
erected. The top of the column presents a good convexity in all states of the barometer, with only a very slight trace of dirt. No appearance of air-specks can be detected, except a few very minute ones near the lower end of the tube, which have existed since the commencement, and were produced by the temporary entanglement of a small air-bubble at the shoulder-bent part of the syphon tube in the operation of filling. These specks have not increased in number nor shown any tendency to rise. A portion of the syphon being retained at the lower end of the tube, it is highly improbable that any air can now enter, the mouth of the syphon being cut off from communication with the external air by the mercury in the cistern. The tube extends to abott nine inches above the mean height of the mercury.
The tube is supported over a glass cistern in a strong brass frame secured by brackets to the wall of the old mural quadrant of the observatory, the height of the mercury being measured by a catheto- meter® fixed to the same wall at a distance of five feet. A conical point, at the lower end of a short rod of steel, is adjusted by a screw to the surface of the mercury in the cistern. At the upper end of the steel rod, and above the level of the glass cistern, is a fine mark, whose distance from the conical point has been found by comparison with the Kew standard scale to be 3.515 inches. When an observa- tion is made, the lower point is adjusted to exact contact with the mercury in the cistern; the telescope of the cathetometer is then levelled, and its honeent al wire made to bisect the mark on the upper end of the steel rod, the scale reading of the cathetometer being noted. The telescope is then raised, again levelled, and the wire made a tangent to the surface of the mercury in the tube, the
cathetometer scale reading being again observed. The difference be- tween the two readings of the cathetometer scale added to the length of the steel rod is the height of the column of mercury. Besides the rod terminating in the conical point, a second adjusting rod is provided, whose lower extremity isa straight edge. No difference could be de- tected between the results from the two methods of adjustment. In order to avoid the inconvenience of light being reflected into the tele- scope from the surface of the mercury in the tube, a movable screen is provided, the upper part of which is black and the lower part oiled paper, which is so adjusted as to shut off all light which comes from a higher level than the top-of the mercurial column. The surface of the mercury thus presents in the telescope a well-defined dark out- line. A window behind the barometer gives a good illumination to the paper screen; ajamp being required at night. A thermometer whose bulb is within the mercury of the cistern gives its temperature, and the scale of the cathetometer being of brass, the usual tables can be employed for the temperature correction, the difference in the expansion of steel and brass being insignificant for the length of the short adjusting rod. The variations of the temperature of the room
* A small telescope, with a horizontal wire in the focus of the eye-piece, sliding ona vertical graduated measuring rod.
Att CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BARQMETER. are not rapid, so that no sensible error arises from assuming the tem- perature of the cathetometer to be the same as that of the mercury. The cistern of the standard barometer is 33.9 feet above the mean level of the sea, beg 9.1 feet above the ordnance bench-mark on the northeast corner of the observatory, whose elevation is stated by Lieutenant Colonel James to be 24.83 feet.
Observations of this barometer being too troublesome when an extensive series is required, a standard by Newman, (No. 34,) having a tube of 0.55 inch, which has been recently compared with the great Kew standard, is employ red for ordinary use, its index cor rection (which, inclusive of capillary action, is = + 0.003 inch) being first applied to the observed readings.
Comparisons, by means of two portable barometers by Adie, Lon- don, were made during last summer between the Kew standard and that of the observatory at Paris. The result of these comparisons was, that the Kew standard reads higher than the Paris standard by 0.001 inch, no correction being apphed to either instrument on account of capillary action.
IJ.— VERIFICATION OF BAROMETERS.
In the best barometers of the present day a provision is made for adjusting the surface of the mercury in the cistern to the zero of the scale at each observation. Supposing the tube to be in good order, which is easily ascertained by mere inspection, the only source of error in such instruments is to be looked for inthe scale. The gradu-
ation of the scales of all carefully made barometers is performed by means of a dividing engine, and it is not likely to be inaccurate to any sensible extent within the ordinary range of the mercury. If, however, the barometer is intended to be used at considerable eleva- tions, or if it should otherwise be considered desirable to examine the graduation, the error of the divisions can be readily obtained by measurement with the cathetometer. It frequently happens, how- ever, that the point to which the level of the mercury is adjusted is not the true zero of the scale. The error arising from this source is, of course, constant for all heights of the barometer. As the capil- lary action of the tube is also supposed to be constant for the same barometer, and as it is seldom possible to determine its true amount, it is better to consider it in connexion with the zero error. This is the more advisable, since a reference to the zero point ina completed barometer to any point of the scale is rendered difficult and uncertain by the circumstance that it can only be viewed through the glass of the cistern, which, from its irregularity, may considerably Pitoee its apparent position. It is therefore the practice to suspend the baro-., meter to be examined beside the standard, to make a sufficient num- ber of simultaneous observations of the two instruments, and to adopt the mean difference of their indications as a single constant correc- tion for the combined effects of zero error and capillary action.
In many portable barometers, and in nearly all marine barometers, there is no means of adjusting the mercury to a constant level. It
CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER. 445
becomes therefore necessary to determine the correction for ‘‘capa- city,’’ or the variation in the zero point corresponding to different heights of the column of mercury. The amount of this correction may be determined during the construction of the instrument; or, by reducing in the required proportion the lengths of the divisions, it may be allowed for in graduating the scale, as has been done in the marine barometers made under the supervision of the Kew committee by Mr. P. Adie, of London. In order to test the accuracy of this correction, it is necessary to compare the barometer at two consider- able different pressures with a standard instrument, that is, with one in which the mercury is adjustable at each observation to a constant zero point. This is done by placing the barometer and a standard within a receiver provided with the means of altering at pleasure the pressure of the inclosed air.
The receiver is of cast iron, its horizontal section being rectan- gular. It is 39 inches high, 12 inches by 63 at the lower end, and tapering to 10 inches by 45 at its upper end; there being room for three marine barometers besides the standard. Windows of strong plate glass, each 113 inches high and 93 inches wide, let into both sides of the receiver, admit of the barometers being observed by a cathetometer. Smaller windows below, each three inches square, show the cistern of the standard barometer, the mercury in which is adjusted to a constant level by a screw passing through a stufting- box in the base of the receiver. The barometers to be verified are suspended by a gimbal arrangement from the uyper end of the receiver, a massive lid closing the opening at the top, by which they are introduced. An opening in the base, furnished with a stop-cock, is connected by a flexible tube with a pump which regulates the pressure of the inclosed air. The pump consists of a single barrel and piston. There being openings at both ends of the barrel, the valves are so arranged that when the flexible tube is attached to the lower opening, air is extracted from the receiver, and when with the upper airis forcedin. The receiver is supported by an iron bracket, se- curely fixed to the quadrant wall, about 10 feet from the standard baro- meter. The cathetometer being between the receiver and standard barometer, can be used at pleasure for either. The adjustable barome- ter used in the receiver for comparison with the marine barometers has a tube 0.35 in diameter; there being a contraction in the tube of the same kind and to about the same degree as in the ordinary ma- rine barometers made by Mr. Adie. This apparatus for the verifica- tion of marine barometers has (with the exception of the adjustable barometer, which is by Mr. Adie) been entirely constructed in the observatory by Mr. Robert Beckley, the mechanical assistant, who has executed the work in a most satisfactory manner, and who has shown much ingenuity in arranging the mechanical details so as to afford the utmost exactness in observation and convenience in mani- pulation.
The mode of observation is the following: supposing air to have been extracted from the receiver until the barometers stand at about 27 inches, sufficient time having elapsed to allow the mercury to come
AAG CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER.
toastate of rest, and the zero of the standard having been adjusted, the height of the mercury in each of the barometers is observed by the cathetometer. Air is then admitted till the mercury stands at about 31 inches, when the same operation is repeated. The length of the graduated scale of the barometer under comparison is then measured by the cathetometer. If A a be the cathetometer readings at the higher pressure of the standard and marine barometers, respectively, B b those for the higher pressure, and if L be the measured length of one inch of the scale of the marine barometer, then the correction a—b A— B which might otherwise arise from the different capillary actions of the standard tube and that of the marine barometer, it is the practice to make these comparisons only in the forenoon, when the temperature of the room, and consequently the pressure of the air within the receiver, is slowly increasing.
Besides the determination of the capacity correction, a series of simultaneous observations are made of the marine barometer and the standard, ‘‘ Newman 34,’’ for the purpose of obtaining the zero error. From twenty to thirty comparisons are usually made, care being taken that there shall be, as nearly as possible, an equal number of obser- vations with the barometer rising and falling; this being necessary in order to eliminate the retardation produced in the movements of the mercury by the contraction of the tube combined with the capillary action. The final corrections at different heights of the mercury are thus deduced from the data now obtained. Let H be the height (corrected for zero error) of Newman 34; h the corresponding height of the marine barometer; T the temperature of Newman 34; and ¢ that of the marine barometer; K being the ‘‘ capacity’? correction; the correction corresponding to any height h, of the marine barome- ter is —
for capacity for one inch = L — In order to avoid the error
H—h+K(h,—h)+(¢t—T) X 0.0027. Hach barometer, when it leaves the observatory, is accompanied by a statement of its corrections, of which the following is a specimen:
Corrections to the scale readings of marine barometer, B. T., No. 231, by Adie,
London. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. At 27.5 At 28.0 At 28.5 At 29.0 At 29.5 At 30.0 At 30.5 At 31.0
+ 0.001 0,000 — 0.001 — 0.001 — 0.002 | — 0.003 — 0.004 — 0.005
When the sign of correction is +, the quantity is to be added to the observed reading; and when —, to be subtracted from it. The corrections given above include those for index error, capacity, and capillarity.
I1I.—CatTHETOMETER.
The cathetometer hitherto employed was made by Mr. Oertling,
of London, on the plan of that used in the experiments of M. Regnault.
CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER. AAT
It was originally mounted on an independent support; but this was found to be too unsteady for exact observation. It was accordingly removed from its support and mounted between brackets attached to the quadrant wall. The scale of this instrument has been compared with the Kew standard scale, both in the horizontal and vertical positions; in the former by observation of both scales by fixed micro- meter microscopes, and in the latter position in measuring by the cathetometer the divisions of the standard scale, placed vertically at a distance of five feet. In the horizontal position there appeared to be no appreciable error in the graduation of the cathetometer; but when vertical, its scale was found to be somewhat too long, the mea- surement of a length of 80 inches requiring a correction of + 0.003 inch. Besides this discrepancy, which is probably due to irregular flexure of the bar and to imperfect fitting of the sliding frame which carries the telescope and level, the manipulation of the instrument is exceedingly inconvenient and troublesome, and requires much care and patience. It is believed, however, that when the requisite care and time are bestowed, the measurements, after allowing for the cor- rection mentioned, are accurate.
A new cathetometer is at present being constructed by Mr. Beck- ley, at the observatory, which promises greater accuracy and conve- nience. This instrument is very nearly completed, and will be described in a subsequent communication.
CONTENTS.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Metter/from the Secretary 10! COMPTOSS aiteie'sveiclopvs'elsialeiels i |e/bicie/ele ctaleleisiale elctele'aie cletave sixiewisivicisie eistatsie arate Letterfrom) the) Ghancellor and! Secretary sz. aciceisieie ome sasicic able ccnislacecieidten setceseleceiceen se cere Ofticersand Regents ofitne Lastitution isco. .lci/sinplsiclcwaicisieiaistweabiasce incclonceeitesice se seine sictlelseaiioeaes Members ez officio and Honorary members of the Imstitution 2... ......sseeeecececreecscaseencececees Proprammes Of OTe AMZ Atl OM rate che! olntntereiadalcherofercialeta-ats oye ais siaistalaieiole) clelwareialetsis slelciejels’eleteisielinealctetaciseiserenies Report of Protessonibenny, tar B59. wroitaaiois(« etelsla(alais s/s's o/s slaietelaile’aleie\ sei clafa'siera,as visve'siclaicis’els« oisietertaiaielarentite ReportiomProfessor/ Batt dverisaclersateies sels -lcin\eins niciels claiee/deieaieie aalviatere sisicateemiiel. at vskiereietetetteta ceateetets Hiistiof Meteorolopicall Stations. and Observers eci\cce acicic olslesleisiee ee clelcis seleicie'ercie sinyeisinisve cine efelsiainieeeieretete
MEportiof the PLeentive COnmMittee detvalgieceriesire aasicicseiwnieslasiside edie eae astelcilseicbfolsind si bicelee ete cesinetee
Journal of the Board of Regents froin January 18, 1860....ecseceeevcesccvcusscesccoscncacvecsccccece
APPENDIX.
Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry. By Professor S. W. JOHNSON. cece seus cece tees ccenvcnssces cece Lectures on the Shells of the Gulf of California. By Puivip P. CARPENTER.....,...-+. Kia talsieie ls se winjeinle Latest researches of M. Mp uer relating to the general movement of the stars around a central point. Report on the Transactions of the Society of Physics and Natural History of Geneva, from July, 1858, to dunes 18598 “By Professor ME HA RIVE) a-jes wniscinciee cleleiecie/cisicisisiodveusclecly oaieneciale semmstslaetsismmt Present state of Ethnology in relation to the form of the human skull, By Professor art RETZIUBS. one's Memoir of Pyramus DE CANDOLLE. By M. FLOURENS ....cccccsecveccesveccoees sens ete sw cy WiWelviete eters On the means which will be «vailable for correcting the measure of the sun’s distance in the next twenty-fiveyears: By the’ AsTRONOMER ROVAL « on,ccn/c'c ojsiolsd s clv vislelals'uisielceis einialstelelnstetietere om nieieraTe Reports on the state of knowledge of Radiant Heat, made to the British Assoc iation in 1832, 1840, and 1854. By Rev. BapEN Powe Lt. b bw 'wlatniei p's ae fo\e alpcelare ete Gnd’ wein(@/uvetaskiuis! Ohtlaleeninlen Misie.u ecolielalee ketene Description of the Magnetic Observatory at the Smithsontan’ UNStitusion s scsisiwsiaw velcine 0 «5006 peeves On the use of the Galyanometer as a measuring instrument. By J. C. PoGGENDOREP ....-eeseceeneee On Observation of Earthquake Phenomena. By R. MALLET....cccecee:cvceeces SNEIOSIDAOOC OOO Description of Meteorological InstruMentsincs snscieieeeae ve ea ut ics sacle sieeniissaeincedesiccseecisean leit On filling Barometer ubes.)* BY TaMES GREEN. cc ccacineescsccuc ce sudo cclymcakclese eeivisiidslesiicles se SY W.. VWiORDEMANN: ows arn ccc vctiomakine sce telcleeninieses Cece cess ccce cece
Account of the construction of a Standard Barometer, and description of the apparatus and processes employed in the verification of barometers at the Kew Observatory. By JouN WELSH.......++0s-
101
44)
INDEX.
Agricultural Chemistry, Lectures on, by Professor S. W. JOHNSON... .ececccccces coccee cucees cececcce Airy, G@ F., On measuring the sun’s distance. .
ee ee eee ee eee ee ee ey
PIOCAUCET Vers ALONBIACONS DY s:ccccs scedaceteemun eu ceeccee nee vee cece cece cece enns co eees 20s 234, 201, 271
BIE CNNSI ONG OU tec te eisina a iis ea\aistelnc ncn ea oes cic clean tie cote tec een Astronomer Royal, On the measure of the sun’s distance...... cece. Astronomical researches and inventions ..... cecccccccccecscceces
Aurora, remarkable exhibition of, in 1859..............05 wines cisivicln ees 0.0,00)eivieei selec antleiaciac/oieis)eeiecicia Bache, Professor A. D., Remarks relative to G. Wurdemann........eceuceeccececens er. eens Remarks relative to Professor J. P. ESpy .... 200 eescesceeese eelainisje ssin'eeje
Discussion of Magnetic and Meteorological Observations at Girard College...
BAN Ses, ENOILION 1000. ccs cs cis ncccee ee coos ance toe en Sele /o's/esisieinis|s elceisis/oicaecaisisinie Barometers, construction and verification, by Jno. Welsh. ...... ccc cece covccececce Botany, Bibliography of, by Mr. Thurber and Dr. Torrey...cccccccoe cacees sce cccceeccccccsccece cece Brewer’s Oology........+- sv ols aipiale’s ciavalaie/oiein ORE. Si<in|vivin}, \o\e\ololwia wasaiominelnielain /silalaioih iw tre’a claleisiviawieleteieteie/s Carpenter, Philip P., Lecture on Shells of the Gulf of California_........... sieaclowisivievisulsicsisisivesisncs Shells arranged Dy uacweuaivas acedevecsices): oa ccen er cee eacen cron ase eeeee
Cassella’s meteorological instruments, Description of. ........0+-s0- Caswell, Professor A., meteorological observations for twenty-eight years......ecseeevecasccccscecees Catalogue of Transactions in Smithsonian Library ......... a0/a)\a:s\eisjaluinjolejereleyelelaisie\ciain'alaile\ninie)eie|vlaibieveieteterere Cleaveland, Professor Parker, Notice of............... COeic cece ouncts coeenn seve cecevecsececccce acces HesoluuonouRegents relative ta. vaanasesunecccencccos), cosmecccenecne
gmin, erolessor Ss. H., DISCUSSION OL WiNdSa.scj<seuae deo siecoeetes eee aceon Cee eee Coleoptera, catalogue of, by Dr. LeConte..... Saleisisisica ia civic ©)a1 007016 |0's\alohielplorn'a/useieie'e clerelecajeiaivieinrel elec eialcia Collections; list of;:in the Smithsonian MUSCUM csc. coc ccce «vac vcs cone Conencccduaceneuesestenceenn PIOODUrS DE ROLESINAD lac cusiannteaeaccceececsuce oes saeee nae conte an ee ee Copyright books, New regulavions TESpeCting < cans cccaceecceciceedeccen cc tmokDecee ate ete BPDUCAUONS TOK ew cesstinatinswnceivciseeuheounce pees sce cesaicowenmcns ceicecisarticcmeteees
Corcoran, W. W., Gallery of Art............ SORE CUIDDOM OOOO IMCIOUL OC OC PrICC TCHAD DOLODOOR aa Guddd rape Dr 8, ha, RESeaKChes In PAUOFAtOly:s sausisc cscs ccnec wer eco coos cee eee eae ANard, ew. Letter irom, pranting free TLeleht cacaccwecad/oucdesnacecdowscheacccsene tne neen
Bans; Prot. J.D, Corals arranged DY... s..ccccacecucces ceeenceccons a\WieWiin\|se(aiain’eluip eleje ahnisiain\s s\nivisicieieis'o Deathaiof meteorological QHserverss sss cue cislss'sck sac ue scree eed ca dae nei cadetoes cenee ence cceees We Candolle, Memoir of, by M. Flourens.......... ...08 eeeseees ase susa\ceceeeesicca wicunicejmselunsieeicie De la Rive, Report on transactions of Geneva Society of Physics, &C .......sceees cevecsccsceecocecs BIONAUONG COMUSEUNE, wfaaccch cawat ves canles sa esa ne arce: tcine come Smce nee ce eee ee Earthquakes, Mallet on Observations of .............. +++. o cleo icicles coed eacieneieneses anlusisieseeivees
Easter, J. D., Translation of Poggendorff on use of Galvanometer.......c2 ccseeececececccceccceccecs Eclipse of September 7, 1858, Account of, by Lieutenant Gillis .... ..c0. cesses ccecce cece cece Eggs and Nests, Circular relative to ...... ea)0.c'e eiainivis wiujw-ejalminimnive\n'e (e wiale aie, einie'aieca|anretetatersielure(eetemis’eimietetciatel Espy, Professor James, Remarks relative to, by Professor Bache ......ceecseccee ceccee cececccees eve Resolution relative to, by Board of Regents ...00+ cece cccccccsccccccccecccecs Mann tes Ul -ANDKOPTis tions fOr, 1GG0 sa5.sicac.iccee cv ceieocen vanes ctalncseone sae ceee ee Oe Ethnology, Present state of, in relation to the form of the Human Skull........sseccceccscecscececoes Min olopicatoh CSeAYCHIDY. lin Hc MOrgaN)ccc sacs eoltere en diet cee ae ee ee exchanges A ccoune ofonerations during, 1059 ren tecece cise cocwe one ceicncecnscenenmonnectneciecmens PAPCN CULES MUNINS HOO locen isn se cute bice/soante msaraat sina sina toon nw ek see barceldtiace cnc oemnicninot meee ROX PlOKALONG CUIING LO0Gs ccc sccce cececuce ces = bsinu3.o/6le/oiv ein c[ein'p:as eis\sinin siuimsiaia\eininieieinia ie sicivieisialel nisicce a Felton, Professor C. C., Remarks relative to Washington Irving. ......ccescessceccccccectcecessceees Remarks relative to Professor W. W. Turner ..csceecscecceecceecccccesecccs AONKENS, is MEMUIn Of De GandOllesDV.s1. 120 <2 cccisiansfasensialuda sesyorok moceneaceeimeucionce areas Force, W. Q., Meteorological business conducted by 2... s.cccscosecs cvcccvocevenccscsesccaccecces arent Man, DY Ur wae COODErarsencdssncsiccecetecleisetaccience nce contin cctcnen dentecler nce ene nenn Galvanometer as a Measuring Instrument, by Poggendorff ...... cece cccees cuss ceucceeccctesccscecees BMRHIOL J 0b, VVEISN, ON BALOMELEIBarutlececlemosieconecrccs ssidaersecuicicemncec cmt ene dete EEE Eten SDDS Dr..vy.-,, Chemical Researched). co \cscc casein sctine davaeses <ceureniealncremen enter tan Gillis, Lieutenant, Account of Eclipse of September 7, 1858, in Peru.......s0.ceecesccccesccevee cos Froposed) BXpeqithons Olsiccnior eels eaisiemesavjania sielscicieinielochalste sieiieenisniceteceneninnne Girard College, Magnetic and Meteorological Observations discussed, by Professor Bache ........eee SJarsher-mresuit of. O pseryations i LONdON ssc cvaesicincedice does series ce dace menace rcnececeneneeeee PASSO nperas CUCUIALICIALLVE 10. c< cvelcne carci ceiatie sic tecicelunen wenden neo eRe Eee rays) Dr aeasWOUKON BOLest LLCCS. coeds ccisisis secede Je seeeeissinawcic cecauiccuatedaen dns teceetnee nae SSReeNs JAMEs TOM INeVBATOMELELS ccccicis ca anlocieciaciceiesicnte els cecivenieian iateareesiecuactiteatcicnetenien Bavce Dra xpedition tovArctic REPiONS..<o cs cnecocuiciesnes Hecoctwewenece een penton eee TEE Hilgard, J. E., Description of Smithsonian Magnetic Observatory......ssceescacces covccs sesccecccece Hypsometrical Map of United States, Materials collected for....s..c.scecees coveccevsesecscece secces Observations mexico, Dy) As SOUNtAD: .wrsreia'ee aiiens aieisisic/ainisieMislelas aistateicieieiisianisteeinee Midexof Pnysical bapersam transactions. . ../.cs< ce deeisocesieceaniemsne x cntenn concen ten tech cee MnseereDrentises Of OpstalopieslOls ao c.eceee a .sicsccejscmaiioncoeeelsocens eesiiacaiene aeiiaaen aeisineierenie Instruments, List of, in possession of Meteorological Observers. ..... secesececce. eevevcescecece eves Description of Meteorological..... alo[a i«’uju[e{e.0(a/6)0\s/0ie(0[0,,0\e1e\e/e\0\0\0/0]e/s\0\.ele cele eisieiais(s e) soli elale/teislb Inventions resulting from Abstract Investigations .....-cccs sececers cons cocececencas seen cccscecece Irving, Washington, Remarks relative to, by Professor Felton ..........ceeseeceesceceesccescaceccs Resolution relative to, bv Boardlof Regents: .<,-/0.0/<.<siccsiee) ac cieieciemieieieclenieereiiers Jewett. erotessor/ Cy Ces Report on aiDranieSjcoss ccs, cictncuimeciee(> csicielel Socleimemieelaenmeteiseineincmmenne Johnson, Professor'S. W:, Lecturesion Agricultural Chemistry: : <c00.ceciecice se cle ins ciseineiiceeceecne JonrnalloféProceedings (of thesBoard Of REZENts, so. ..ccieicisoce scene sso aie clsisisleisiens oleineisiesioniecieetcnencte Kane isi Meteorolocicall Observationsusstscesioec iccesinecos ccenciooscloecicioeainscmlsceneeetteer eae Kennicott, Robert, Exploration....... RAD OFALONV cocina re ete aac lasoie' a atciaeP eo oua eee otapeorcinlekorcie eioio ahs ielaLuatareinieralesielete 010,0..0./0,0.01) t\e/e0 s0ee cee Maney ais Rh esearenessan| liabordtonvascmemcccceilanee)seceens scseecinneeneleaccissbeiinenicnen nenices Latitude and Longitude of Meteorological’ Stations. ......0. 0005 .c2-eecccees cecrcccacinc veces coccccee MeConte, Dr. John; Catalogue of Coleoptera bv ..-sesecacieciecemecineineldcieisiien ciecsneiemennincecleces Dre John W, Instructions for Collecting INSCCES tis sic:cisisinis siels\sloleis}oleielersiareleteciacretsieieieinicolsieteie se
29
SRR ee eee ee eee we eee Ce ee)
450 INDEX.
Lectures, less number desired by Regents... oeccecccee ccce cece cecccccccecvcece ccecccccssscccccee cece Lectures, Inst of, during 1859-60. 2. ccinc cocccccrcec. eviccer 000 olveenicee cece cess cecevescens>coccve On Agricultural Chemistry, by Professor S. W. JOHNSON. ... ese. cece sscccccccccucescceeees
On the Shells of the Gulf of California, by P. EC ARPCMLEalelele(eielcielsfatetalsia/cfuintslefuls\alele(elsie/cicicte Wabraries. eise-of, imp UMited States Dyn Wie) wai TeLL© OSs ciaisielvia(oisinialcts o's cleleisTereiele\ wiclsleysiciaie/elsicieisielitaisicieisietaiccia’e RE POKE ON DVAVV itd RMELLLG CS sielerniaiel eels /cl'sicisraiave «'sialsiera(ate'eia)(slele al eleie/e’etelala/elelsieleleielelisinrsistale!eleietelerieleiaie
Abranven© PChatloOnSelmareitisicletelcsistelstnlelerslels|iiercic eles «/¢/olsialeis\eie clots eielcre(cisieisietels aleieisieleleley sicie/aleiotslnzele elelataiein sinters Bogan Sir VV. Hi.» Use tterOrOM ain cjsin) -cinie'e'eiemlce c/.cie1e tive vicccet see eeeceeee se cence covecevesecviccicece Loomis, Professor E., On Storm of WMS Cet bers TEIOs ce css sa See ce eee eae Magnetical Observations in Mexico) by Av SONNLAGs.:0\0.0) nic ea sieivieinioiele\sisielere) eis\ein) «iclclela'niaisinie’ sia(e/elais|cieisieiere Magnetic Observations by British Association:.. SASSO OBO LO ONISS afafeveleteretaiele adalere efelotalcherels\eisio Magnetic and Meteorological Observations at Girard College, discussed by Professor. Bache. slelatalicrerejeieie Magnetie Observatory at the Smithsonian Institution, description Of. 0... ..00 sce vceecccccece ces cece Magnetic Observatory, Feiioval 1OUT ortligdas! See ar Sees: os Neal As Sous sp acee se nee oa oi statalicleteleyeleleve Magnetism of the Earth, Remarks on Disturbances Of. .........eeeeeeen eee Mallet, R., Observation of Earthquakes.....- addcisdoonde Map of Heights of different places in the United Statens Gi cath knee Mat sue. etna I. cic SAREE Wee chin Vueesitesearches On iaioh hand Heat DVcisc\cieeiain cise slsiclsjsicieleeisielsiniel isielslelaieicisicla/ein elem cieistelstnrenie Memoir of Pyramus De Candolle, by M. WlOUrens ee se Ser ae Ae Sesh Se Mang Phan cae Meteorological Instruments, Description of....... finieisis(eleleyclsielelsials'olsl sjeisisleversl stelels(aitiatete/alcre ejelelsiersicieine Observations at Girard College, dis ussed by//Protessor Bacheezicie casio seimeliecie eciiclsls
Observations, List of Special Additions, sistostonins syele cielcie marcieied elec icine voislelalerseloreietereleleiens OHSEnVAMONS yA repIMONGereraselesiciielelctcroicisieeseielureie(e cielo) slaleielotatetcleleleteictciereteisicinteicietsteiatele eine
Stations and Obxerveraslist OF Se 264.2 as cso Mee Cee ae ee See a EI
Me eon aloRy, Opera bonis during LESQo-rtaes ssshenntis boicsise Petts als /orelajavalle(cle\aalore'els/e lelerelal ejeraieieotenysleiete Meteors, Remarkable, in 1859... 22.22 secve-cesere elele.e [olsielejeeleslcioiels, clelels nia/aeiaievajsinis Mexico, Magnetic and Hypsometrical Observations in, by Muller & Sonntag. ......sccsceaveses oeceee Midler, M., on Movement of Stars around a Central Point. to occ cece eens eens occas centes seeceecs Morgan, L. H., Ethnological Reaearchesiof suk ceshesaicteeea kode cece coo on eh ace ee Muller Baron] Vionseb x peditlonitoMmlextC Ol eicicsieleicisicieis cial leisiclelo'sjevue'olvie's/els’elaieie\ela's) sie'e sieve /eisieinie siclarelaielsiats Museum, Additions during 1859 . 20. e ces vec cewaneclne cececs cecces tase cecves cess veces vececscess cues Conditionior theC ollECtiONs!\scrs;cicisiele.aie.0/e/ele leis v/ eis)ele ciel ele\eiele/a\e\vie)a\'viujale’alainielvis\claleie/ejeisre/elelsicielele efela
WISE OF DONALONSAMUESID eicie'as eis cieiel veiciciele! steisielel ate a\evelerecivcisisie\claisialeiel/ela'e’ais/srelalelieieierelelele)sliaieleieilieicte Operations GUTING, WBS se cieie scieeiecieieieieccisesis cevie ese osise eves) vieleieeccc cece oasis cece sveecls INatiraluScrences Der launiverOnivesucvelele sisiettelclercisisievelcicralcievisistseininielsietle(etelslelatelcicielstalsVarstelalemieicicteretclsinrelsiere Nests/and Begs, Circular relative’ £0) <icjaicic ose vies) a s\vicisic\accjeie elsleis e’eis\e(e/u sic e/ei vie eels'el ooiu cle sie(eloje eo civielelejie\ecieeie Northumberland, Duke of, presents from ...... ten eee cece wees cone reece eee eres acces secs ccsces cose Observation of Earthquake Phenomena, by Mallet...... cscs ceccveccccceces coe sacevcces oe cece cere WOlLOgZY. DY MT BYE WEN incicics cle sie «lsicl clove cisteleleseleielslieicielelsieijale ofeie\elelsiejelsieieisie! liale’elele\si== ais) ele(siniciaciell elo) vsieie sheets Oxygen, Discovery of, by Dr. Priestly ...... alctaleyeratalelatohetelaiayalerevel slalaleyalelstedejatstelo(eraieisisieva) sialaistelelstel cicieteratetetciete Pearce, Jas. A... Remarks relative to Richard Rush ececis cies ois clsiecice ecieclcieleeitielsis| oieie/eie'ajaisiae) e\sieiscisle/eicie Physical Sciences, De la Rive on....... te eee ece ce seetces cc ceeeneccceescneeree coccencece Poggendorff, on use of Galvanometer for Measuring aiaa(oiststole)evele.cfolelsioloielele tele] elcialeinieyale(elel siele(ela’aicleleietelaleleinie Powell, Rev. Baden, Report on Radiant Heat.).. coe. oc cece cece vce cele cece coccceliceccces secs vecceces Priestly, Dr., Discovery Of OXYZEM. 2.2002. sees cacees vecser secs cececeesee sevees eres sees cree ronces Publications, Account of.. ciasalslaleieloitalelaiaialsisisieie/sisietsisieraie Cee aclee vicececcs secs Radiant Heat, Reports on, by Rev. ‘Baden ‘Poweil, ‘for SSD rctictolielsheislatslsleterstaiat s/elerelelelsieliotelsierevaleraieleleistelete TRG Leis abiaeqdocco mn eacteoncon pacobodo accor abonuodcossandoccosnodonaconane
HOO meee meee meee ween eens
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REPOrtalOrlSSArercretcciste cere'sieinis ohe vinta ofa iralalcalele\slefetsleinal sieeievisietvieletela/staten elenine Reductions of Meteorological Observations from 1854 to 1860. folaral sisheleleiajeisiclelisielalsleisielclcotvlelsicieleleieielafalcisverets Report of Executive Committee for 1859. 1.1... 0.05. ee cece ee eee cece lai steralsvelelelalelsleletstelelay eleletalelerere
on the Transactions of the Society of Physics and Natural History ‘of Geneva....... srajaleveisieiaters Reports, Annual, to Congress, Value Of oc. cccccccccces coccsvcncces cocccees ences cccece cies ceccss seve Researches during 1859 Gicobe. codu son dan mofelelaleysiseieretelele Saleisiere eleisiste of M. “Medler, Relating to the General Movement of the Stars around a Central ‘Point. .... Retzius, Prof. Anders, on ‘the Horm of the Human ‘Bkullsi6sccsw sssacses cas ve ccaneseces eens lee Rhees, W. J., Report on Libraries ......ceceseees cen eeee errs ceeeee tees cece sacs senses cece tens scenes Ross, B. R, Letter from. slsfele/s} eisisreleleiieieieiniviciie eleieiislelece\sivicie.e.elele/sieiezel e'sjulsie(s e/e\sieierevelelsiaieieisie Royal Society, Index of Physical Papers ‘by... Sains cleleleieleveleleleyclulelelsielels/elel eleisinialel cisteta/s Rush, Richard, Remarks by Mr. Pearce Felabivedto: sees al sevidesssuseuser ae eeeueeneas Resolution of the Board of Regents relative tO. ....ccecece ccocce cecccc cere coccnesece Sabine, General, Discovery of Coincidence between Magnetic UVisturbances and Solar Spots .......... Schott, C. A., Discussion of Kane’s Meteorological Observations .....ceeeeecesees ceceeececeescevees Discussion of Magnetic Observations at Girard College ......cececscecees sees cceees cess Schwabe, Observations On Solar Spots. ..... cccceeccucas cescescecens sees cesces cesses cesers sees cece Secchi, Professor, relative to Works of Art from ROME... ...ccecseceececees coer ccccescececcescocnes Shells, Arrangement and Naming.....- -veeee sees sees erences eee <seeuecveevvieciee sicescvccieeeacecelevec of the Gulf of Oalifornia, Leeture on, by PB. P. Carpenter. .ecceor cece cree cece coves cere ssccs sieltiele Simpson, Sir George, Assistance from ....--seeveeescceces de eee 6 eee teaser cece te acieece sien cecy vujsle sie Skull, Form of the “Human, RELZIUSION' Ws soiecisle cele Solar ‘Spots, Observations on Rare clelinieieleieioieieiaraisteloiereilelsisis Waletsteteiuta als oloiel siolsiaisisieieitsiateleeine wieteriale Sonntag, ee -, Magnetie and Hypsometrical Observations in Mexico we eee cece cee ence eee cere tees ceve Stanlev.)J. M:., Gallery of, Paintings! ...1.c<ecees ccceien neice Milelatelelels ciacaloicicisie’s el slelelsjen ersisiatelolatevelaersieie Bone One ounda C entral FOUNb sie ccteie cis eiclelcle(slelcfatelolavove/e(e|si»\e/e\e/e) «/uia Aleelu(selelolsieja/sleleatelele(es/s Storms of December, 1836, Loomis on ,..... sleleiaie [eioielesie/s)oje(e/sieje'e) eisieluieicieietesfislvisicjelsale lale Sun’s Distance, Means for Correcting the Measure of the Me an of. «tere cece cece cece cess coce Swainson, Remarks on Distinetion between Diffusion and Advancement ‘of ‘Knowledge aleisisteiatelsleleleietaie Telegraphic Stations Reporting Weather. ..........seceeeccee cece sees sleisicfe\eraiate tee et cece een ree cece Thurber, Mr., Bibliography of American Botany ......-.s.eeee eee cece eee acc cecseensesccceccesvose Torrey, Dr. John, Bibliography of American Botany, DY. . <\vccel vivels oesieclcisals - clejoieniae slelsieiejeie.e ose > siecle Transactions of the Geneva Society of Physies and Natural History, De Ja Rive’s Report on..........- Transportation Facilities.......00. se. eees Rfotelalsteleleieisslelle/eielsieisis\cle’s/sieleiel siete’ Thanks of Regents FON... cocecesesness sieleleelin/eicineleels occ econ ens sees ceesteecescecses Turner, Professor W. W., Remarks of Professor Felton relative tOfe ay Secccccseence seens> ces scnece Resolution of the Board of Regents relative tO. .scecser cece sees ceuveneseeee Welsh, John, on Barometers ..... Sn COnb-OCCaHENS arouitistatalsialiteielatclctiaielsisioie) sivelelelelelataicioicteichelereielelstaie Wurdemann, Gustavus, Remarks of Professor Bache relative tO... ceveccccccesccnssessccessccesseces Resolution of Regents relative to... .ccse cece ceeeae cera ceee teen cece sees eceens We ontF iilinip. Barometensl <<’ soslaeeateoee sosnidhe cvcc seus sees od aaiivclejsoeusedeeuedeaye
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