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37TH Concress, 1 HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. { Mis. Doc.
2d Session. No. 77.

ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

BOARD OF REGENTS

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

SHOWING THE

OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR 1861.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1862.

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LETTER

OF THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

COMMUNICATING

The Annual Report of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the
Smithsonian Institution for the year 1861.

. Jone 5, 1862.—Ordered, That three thousand extra copies be printed for the use of the
members of the House of Representatives, and two thousand for the use of the Smith-
sonian Institution.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, June 4, 1862.
Sm: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to submit
to the House of Representatives of the United States the Annual Re-
port of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Smith-
sonian Institution for the year 1861.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Hon. G. A. Grow,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

SHOWING

THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION UP
TO JANUARY, 1862, AND THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD UP TO MAY, 1862.

To the Senate and House of Representatives :

In obedience to the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, establishing
the Smithsonian Institution, the undersigned, in behalf of the Regents,
submit to Congress, as a report of the operations, expenditures, and
condition of the Institution, the following documents :

1. The Annual Report of the Secretary, giving an account of the
operations of the Institution during the year 1861.

2. Report of the Executive Committee, giving a general statement
of the proceeds and disposition of the Smithsonian fund, and also an
account of the expenditures for the year 1861.

3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents up to May, 1862.

4, Appendix.

Respectfully submitted.
R. B. TANEY, Chancellor.
JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary.

OFFICERS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

ABRAHAM LINCOLN, £&x officio Presiding Officer of the Institution.
ROGER B. TANEY, Chancellor of the Institution.

JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary of the Institution.
SPENCER F. BAIRD, Assistant Secretary.

W. W. SEATON, Treasurer.

WILLIAM J. RHEES, Chief Clerk.

JAMES A. PEARCE, )
A. D. BACHE, \ Executive Committee.
JOSEPH G. TOTTEN, |

REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.

H. HAMLIN, Vice-President of the United States.

ROGER B. TANEY, Chief Justice of the United States.

R, WALLACH, Mayor of the City of Washington.

JAMES A. PEARCE, member of the Senate of the United States.
W. P. FESSENDEN, member of the Senate of the United States.
L. TRUMBULL, member of the Senate of the United ‘States.

S. COLFAX, member of the House of Representatives.

E. McPHERSON, member of the House of Representatives.

S. S. COX, member of the House of Representatives.

W. B. ASTOR, citizen of New York.

W. L. DAYTON, citizen of New Jersey.

GEORGE E. BADGER, citizen of North Carolina.

T. D. WOOLSEY, citizen of Connecticut.

ALEXANDER D. BACHE, citizen of Washington.

JOSEPH G. TOTTEN, citizen of Washington.

MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.

ABRAHAM LINCOLN, President of the United States.
HANNIBAL HAMLIN, Vice-President of the United States.
W. H. SEWARD, Secretary of State.

8. P. CHASE, Secretary of the Treasury.

EK. M. STANTON, Secretary of War.

G. WELLES, Secretary of the Navy.

M. BLAIR, Postmaster General.

E. BATES, Attorney General.

ROGER B. TANEY, Chief Justice of the United States.
D. P. HOLLOWAY, Commissioner of Patents.

RICHARD WALLACH, Mayor of the City of Washington.

HONORARY MEMBERS

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, of Connecticut.
A. B. LONGSTREET, of Mississippi.
CALEB B, SMITH, Secretary of the Interior.

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

[PRESENTED IN THE FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, AND
ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF REGENTS, DECEMBER 13, 1847.j

INTRODUCTION.

General considerations which should serve as a guide in adopting a Plan
of Organization.

1. Witt or Smituson. The property is bequeathed to the United
States of America, ‘‘to found at Washington, under the name of the
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, an establishment for the increase and dif-
fusion of knowledge among men.”’

2. The bequest is for the benefit of mankind. The government of
the United States is merely a trustee to carry out the design of the
testator.

3. The Institution is not a national establishment, as is frequently
supposed, but the establishment of an individual, and is to bear and
perpetuate his name.

4. The objects of the Institution are, Ist, to increase, and 2d, to
diffuse knowiedge among men.

5. These two objects should not be confounded with one another.
The first is to enlarge the existing stock of knowledge by the addi-
tion of new truths; and the second, to disseminate knowledge, thus
increased, among men.

6. The will makes no restriction in favor of any particular kind of
knowledge ; hence all branches are entitled to a share of attention.

7. Knowledge can be increased by different methods of facilitating
and promoting the discovery of new truths; and can be most exten-
sively diffused among men by means of the press.

8. To effect the greatest amount of good, the organization should
be such as to enable the Institution to produce results, in the way of
increasing and diffusing knowledge, which cannot be produced either
at all or so efficiently by the existing institutions in our country.

9. The organization should also be such as can be adopted provi-
sionally, can be easily reduced to practice, receive modifications, or
_be abandoned, in whole or in part, without a sacrifice of the funds.

10. In order to compensate, in some measure, for the loss of time
occasioned by the delay of eight years in establishing the Institution,
a considerable portion of the interest which has accrued should be

added to the principal. .

8 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

11. In proportion to the wide field of knowledge to be cultivated,
the funds are small. Economy should therefore be consulted in the
construction of the building ; and not only the first cost of the edifice
should be considered, but also the continual expense of keeping it in
repair, and of the support of the establishment necessarily connected
with it. There should also be but few individuals permanently sup-
ported by the Institution.

12. The plan and dimensions of the building should be determined
by the plan of organization, and not the converse.

13. It should be recollected that mankind in general are to be ben-
efitted by the bequest, and that, therefore, all unnecessary expendi-
ture on local objects would be a perversion of the trust.

14. Besides the foregoing considerations deduced immediately from
the will of Smithson, regard must be had to certain requirements of
the act of Congress establishing the Institution. These are, a library,
a museum, and a gallery of art, with a building on a liberal scale to
contain them.

SECTION I.

Plan of Organizaticn of the Institution in accordance with the foregoing
deductions from the will of Smithson.

To Increase Know.epce. It is proposed—

1. To stimulate men of talent to make original researches, by offer-
ing suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths ; and

2. To appropriate annually a portion of the income for particular
researches, under the direction of suitable persons.

To DirrusE KNowLepce. It is proposed—

1. To publish a series of periodical reports on the progress of the
different branches of knowledge ; and

2. To publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general
interest.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE.

I.—By stimulating researches.

1. Facilities afforded for the production of original memoirs on all
branches of knowledge.

2. The memoirs thus obtained to be published in a series of vol-
umes, in a quarto form, and entitled Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge.

3. No memoir on subjects of physical science to be accepted for
publication which does not furnish a positive addition to human
knowledge, resting on original research ; and all unverified specula-
tions to be rejected.

4. Each memoir presented to the Institution to be submitted for
examination to a commission of persons of reputation for learning in

y

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 9

the branch to which the memoir pertains ; and to be accepted for
»publication only in case the report of this commission is favorable.

5. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the Institution,
and the name of the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless
@ favorable decision be made.

6. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the transac-
tions of literary and scientific societies, and copies to be given to all
the colleges and principal libraries in this country. One part of the
remaining copies may be offered for sale ; and the other carefully pre-
served, to form complete sets of the work, to supply the demand
from new institutions.

7. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of these me-
moirs to be given to the public through the annual report of the Re-
gents to Congress.

Il.—By appropriating a part of the income, annually, to special objects
of research, under the direction of suitable persons.

1. The objects, and the amount appropriated, to be recommended
by counsellors of the Institution.

2. Appropriations in different years to different objects, so that, in
course of time, each branch of knowledge may receive a share.

3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published,
with the memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smithso-
nian Contributions to Knowledge.

4, Examples of objects for which appropriations may be made.

(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving the
problem of American storms.

(2.) Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geological,
magnetical, and topographical surveys, to collect materials for the
formation of a Physical Atlas of the United States.

(3.) Solution of experimental problems, such as a new determina-
tion of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and
of light ; chemical analyses of soils and plants ; collection and pub-
lication of scientific facts accumulated in the offices of government.

(4.) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical,
moral, and political subjects.

(5.) Historical researches and accurate surveys of places cele-
brated in American history.

(6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the
different races of men in North America; also, explorations and ac-
curate surveys of the mounds and other remains of the ancient peo-
ple of our country.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN FOR DIFFUSING KNOWLEDGE.

I.—By the publication of a series of reports, giving an account of the
new discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year
in all branches of knowledge not strictly professional.

1. These reports will diffuse a kind of knowledge generally inter
esting, but which, at present, is inaccessible to the public. Some of

10 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

the reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals, as
the income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of *
knowledge may indicate.

2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators eminent in the.
different branches of knowledge.

3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publi-
cations, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his re-
port ; to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on the
title-page of the report.

4. ‘he reports to be published i in separate parts, so that persons
interested in a particular branch can procure the parts relating to it
. without purchasing the whole.

5. These reports may be presented to Congress for partial distri-
bution, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific in-
stitutions, and sold to individuals for a moderate price.

The following are some of the subjects which may be embraced in
the reports :

I. PHYSICAL CLASS.

1. Physics, including astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry,
and meteorology.

2. Natural history, including botany, zoology, geology, &c.

3. Agriculture.

4, Application of science to arts.

II. MORAL AND POLITICAL CLASS.

5. Ethnology, including particular lfistcry, comparative philology,
‘antiquities, &c.

6. Statistics and political economy.
7. Mental and moral philosophy.
&. A survey of the political events of the world, penal reform, &c.

II. LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS.

9. Modern literature.
10. The fine arts, and their application to the useful arts.
11. Bibliography.

12. Obituary notices of distinguished individuals.

Il.—By the publication of separate treatises onsubjects of general interest. :

1. These treatises may occasionally consist of valuable memoirs
translated from foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the
direction of the Institution, or ‘procured by offering premiums for the
best exposition of a given subject.

2. The treatises should, in all cases, be submitted to a commission
of competent judges previous to their publication.

3. As examples of these treatises, expositions may be obtained of

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 11

the present state of the several branches of knowledge mentioned in
the table of reports.
SECTION I.

Plan of organization, in accordance with the terms of the resolutions of
the Board of Regents providing for the two modes of increasing and
diffusing knowledge.

1. The act of Congress establishing the Institution, contemplated
the formation of a library and a museum; and the Board of Regents,
including these objects in the plan of organization, resolved to divide
the income* into two equal parts.

2. One part to be appropriated to increase and diffuse knowledge
by means of publications and researches, agreeably to the scheme
before given. The other part to be appropriated to the formation of
a library and a collection of objects of nature and of art.

3. These two plans are not incompatible one with another.

4. To carry out the plan before described, a library will be required,
consisting, Ist, of a complete collection of the transactions and pro-
ceedings of all the learned societies in the world; 2d, of the more
important current periodical publications, and other works necessary
in preparing the periodical reports.

5. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of
objects to illustrate and verify its own publications.

6, Also, a collection of instruments of research in all branches of
exper imental science.

7. With reference to the collection of books, other than those men-
tioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in the United
States should be procured, in order that the valuable books first pur-
chased may be such as are not to be found in the United States.

8. Also, catalogues of memoirs, and of books and other materials,
should be collected for rendering the Institution a centre of biblio-
graphical knowledge, whence ‘hie student may be directed to any
work which he may require.

9. It is believed that the collections in natural history will increase
by donation as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make pro-
vision for their reception, and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary
to purchase articles of this kind.

10. Attempts should be made to procure for the gallery of art, casts
of the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.

11. The arts may be encouraged by providing a room, free of ex-
pense, for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union and other
similar societies.

12. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of
antiquities, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &c.

= The amount of the Smithsonian bequest received into the Treasury of the

WAGERS hates ee eee A a So Dale Tie he BE te Hedi dias $515,169 00
Interest on the same to July 1, 1846, (devoted to the erection of the build-
1G) eee me | Ee hee ee Oe RE oeiatisa acatean mee cans 242,129 00

Annie McomMenromin tne) PEQUCSU..=s\s a= sc. scioseeenascscccetees eoce 30,910 14

12 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

13. For the present, or until the building is fully completed, be-
sides the Secretary, no permanent assistant will be required, except
one, to act as librarian.

14. The Secretary, by the law of Congress, is alone responsible to |
the Regents. He shall take charge of “the building and property,
keep a record of proceedings, discharge the duties of librarian and
keeper of the museum, and may, with the consent of the Regents,
employ assistants.

15. The Secretary and his assistants, during the session of Congress,
will be required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and to ex-
hibit new objects of art; distinguished individuals should also be
invited to give lectures on subjects of general interest.

This programme, which was at first adopted provisionally, has be-
come the settled policy of the Institution. The only material change
‘is that expressed by the following resolutions, adopted January 15,
1855, viz:

Resolved, That the Tth resolution passed by the Board of Regents,
on the 26th of January, 1847, requiring an equal division of the in-
come between the active operations and the museum and library,
when the buildings are completed, be, and it is hereby, repealed.

ftesolved, That hereafter the annual appropriations shall be appor-
tioned specifically among the different objects and operations of the
Institution, in such manner as may, in the judgment of the Regents,
be necessary and proper for each, according to its intrinsic import-
ance, and a compliance in good faith with the law.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

To the Board of Regents:

GENTLEMEN : In the discharge of my official duty as the principal ex-
ecutive officer of the Smithsonian Institution, I have the honor to pre-
sent to you a report of the operations of the establishment for another
year.

It could scarcely be expected that during the existence of an in-
testine war, and almost in the presence of two contending armies,
the Institution should be able to conduct its affairs with the same per-
sistence and success as in the tranquil years of its previous history.
The interruptions and embarrassments, however, although frequent,
and in some cases perplexing, have not prevented the continuance of
the general operations of the Institution, or the prosecution of most
of the special objects which had previously been determined upon as
falling within the scope of the plan of its organization.

At an early period of the war it was for a time proposed by the
government to occupy the building of the Institution as temporary
quarters of some of the troops which were suddenly collected in de-
fence of the capital. In relation to this proposition, it was repre-
sented to the War Department that there was no authority from the
Board of Regents to grant the use of the building for the purpose
intended, but that if the Secretary of War thought proper to take
possession of the premises on his own responsibility, the best arrange-
ments possible to secure the property from injury and at the same
time to accommodate the soldiers, would cheerfully be made. It was,
however, suggested that if an appropriation for such a purpose were
found to be necessary, it would be more in accordance with the spirit
of the Institution to employ the building as an infirmary. Fortunately,
there was judged to be no absolute necessity for the contemplated
occupation, and neither the building nor the grounds around it have
been occupied for military purposes. In this, as in other instances,
the government has evinced a considerate desire to protect the prop-
erty of the Institution and to foster its operations.

It has been lately stated in a foreign journal, and the statement has

14 | REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

been widely copied in this country and in Europe, that the bequest of
Smithson had been lost by improper investment; but those who are
acquainted with the history of the establishment know that this state-
ment is without the slightest foundation in fact. The government of
the United States in accepting the bequest upon the stipulated terms
of the will, became, by an act of Congress, approved by the Presi-
dent, the trustee of the fund and guardian of the Institution. The
agent appointed to receive the money brought it to this country in
British gold, and deposited it in the United States mint in Philadel-
phia, where it was recoined into American eagles. The government
thus became, by express enactment as well as by the highest equita-
ble considerations, responsible for the security of the funds as well as
for the faithful administration of the trust. It is true that the Secre-
tary of the Treasury, before the money had been permanently in-
vested by Congress, lent it to several of the western States to assist
in carrying on their works of internal improvement; but it would
have been alike inconsistent with strict justice and the liberal policy of
our government, to devolve on the Smithsonian fund any risk or loss
which might result from this financial operation. Congress, there-
fore, declared, by a joint resolution, that the money of the bequest
was to be considered as a fund lent to the Treasury of the United
States, the interest of which, at the rate of six per cent. per annum,
is to be applied to the perpetual support and maintenance of the In-
stitution. It is proper to state in this connexion that the government
itself will in time, probably, be reimbursed for the money advanced
to the States, since, in accordance with a rule established by the Hon.
Robert J. Walker, when Secretary of the Treasury, all money re-
ceived in the Treasury on account of the States to which the loan was
made is to be retained until the debt of each is fully satisfied. In
this way nearly four hundred thousand dollars have already been re-
ceived.

Not only does the original fund of Smithson thus remain safe and
unimpaired in the treasury of the United States, but, after paying
for the building, collecting a library and museum, and conducting all
the operations which have given character to the establishment, out
of the income; an extra fund has been accumulated from the interest
itself, which, at the date of the last report, yielded seven thousand
seven hundred and sixteen dollars.

Unfortunately, a part of this fund has been unproductive during
the past year. A petition from the Board of Regents was presented

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

to Congress at two successive sessions requesting that the extra
fund which had been thus economised might be received into the
treasury of the United States, and form a permanent addition to the
original deposit. The proposition was favorably commended to Con-
gress by a report of the committees to which it was referred, but
from the pressure of business the recommendation was not acted on,
and the directors of the establishment were obliged to seek some
other investment of the money. State stocks naturally presented
themselves as apparently offering the safest means of accomplishing
the desired object, and accordingly a committee of the Board decided
upon the purchase of bonds of the States of Indiana, Virginia, and
Tennessee. About $63,000 were expended in the purchase of the
State stocks of Indiana, $50,000 in those of Virginia, and $11,000 in
those of Tennessee. It is scarcely necessary to state that no interest
has been received from Virginia and Tennessee since the date of the
last report, and it is not probable that anything will be obtained
from them for some years to come. The other sums invested in
State stocks have yielded the usual amount of interest. The Virginia
stock is still rated at 50 per cent. of its par value, and we trust that
the State will, in time, be again able to discharge her obligations to
this Institution; but in the interim there will ‘be on this account a
diminution in the annual income of nearly four thousand dollars.

As an offset to this effect of the unforeseen condition of the States
above-mentioned, information has been received from London of the
death, at an advanced age, of Madame De la Batut, the mother of
the nephew of James Smithson, to whom an annuity was conceded
as a compromise by the Hon. Richard Rush, with a view to the more
expeditious realization of the Smithsonian legacy. The principal of
this annuity, amounting to five thousand and fifteen pounds (about
$25,000) will now be added to the bequest of Smithson, of which it
originally formed a part.

It has been considered advisable, in view of the distracted state of
the country and the failure of the States before-mentioned to pay
their interest, to curtail the expenditures of the Institution, as far as
practicable, without suspending what have been denominated the
active operations. Yet, while this cautious policy has been closely
observed, it is believed that the Institution has sustained its charac-
ter for efficiency, and that, although it has been exposed to the dis-
turbing incidents of a theatre of war, it has still accomplished much
during the year, and steadily advanced in the career prescribed by

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

its enlightened founder—the increase and diffusion of knowledge
among men.

Publications.—The thirteenth volume of the Smithsonian Contribu-
tions is partly completed, but, on account of the unsettled condition
of the times, it was thought prudent to delay the printing of several
expensive papers until the beginning of the present year. It will be
seen, however, in the course of this report, that the whole number of
pages of printed matter which has been issued, or is now ready to be
issued by the Institution, equals that of any previous year.

The first paper which has been printed for the thirteenth volume
is the concluding part of the results of the discussion of the observa-
tions of Dr. Kane, fully described in the last report. On the com-
pletion of this series of papers, a number of full sets of the several
parts have been bound, with a general title page, into a separate
volume, which is intended for distribution to astronomical and
meteorological societies to which the contributions in full are not
presented.

Another series of papers, partly printed, gives a full discussion of
all the meteorological observations made during the voyage of Sir
F. L. McClintock, in search of Sir John Franklin, in the English
steamer Fox, from the 1st of July, 1857, to September, 1859.

The records of these observations were presented by the com-
mander of the expedition to the Institution for discussion and publi-
cation, in accordance with the plan adopted for those of Dr. Kane;
and since they relate to the meteorology of this continent, and are
the results of a private expedition, it was thought entirely consistent
with the policy of the Institution to discuss and publish them at
the expense of the Smithsonian fund. It would be of great in-
terest to science, and particularly to the meteorology of this country,
if all the observations which have been made in the Arctic regions
were reduced and discussed on a uniform plan, like that adopted in
regard to the observations of Dr. Kane. A correspondence has been
commenced with the proper authorities in England in regard to the

importance of such a work, offering the co-operation of the Institution
in carrying it into execution.

In regard to the history of the observations made during the voyage
of the ‘‘Fox,’’ the following facts may be stated:

The last expedition of the British government in search of Sir John
Franklin returned in 1854, without doing more than confirming what

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17

had previously been ascertained—that the missing ships had spent
their first winter at Beechy island. Later in the same year the cele-
brated traveller of the Hudson’s Bay Company, Dr. Rae, ascertained
that the missing voyagers had been seen on the west coast of King
William’s land in the spring of 1850, and that it was supposed they
had all died on an estuary of the Great Fish river.

The attempts, in 1855, of the Hudson’s Bay Company to explore
this river resulted in obtaining but little additional information and
a few relics from the Esquimaux. It was at this time that Lady
Franklin, who had previously sent out three expeditions, again urged
the renewal of the search, that the fate of her husband and his com-
panions might not be left in uncertainty. She, therefore, undertook
once more the responsibility and expense of a final effort to ‘‘ follow
their footsteps in their last journey upon earth,’’ and if possible to
give to the world the scientific results of the expedition for which
these gallant men had probably sacrificed their lives. In the spring
of 1857 Lady Franklin commenced the preparations for the contem-
plated expedition, and intrusted the command of it to Captain Mc-
Clintock. The small steamer ‘‘Fox,’’of 180 tons register, was pur-
chased for the service, and was put in readiness by the end of June.
The expedition sailed from Aberdeen July 1, 1857, and after a favor-
able run across the Atlantic, passed Cape Farewell, the southern
point of Greenland, on the 13th of July, and arrived at Fredericshaab
on the 19th of the same month. After taking in coal at Waigat,
they arrived at Upernavik, and then bore away on the 6th of August
directly westward, for the purpose of crossing Baftin’s bay, but on
the evening of the 8th their progress in that direction was stopped by
impenetrable ice in latitude 72° 40’ and longitude 59° 50’. They
then steered to the northward, in the hope of finding a passage west-
ward, but in this they were disappointed, and, on the 19th of August,
became entangled in the ice, and thus remained 242 days, until April,
1858. During this period the ‘‘ Fox’’ drifted from latitude 75° north
and longitude 62° west, to latitude 63° 40’ north and longitude 59°
west, or 1,385 statute miles in a southeasterly direction, almost to
the lower extremity of Greenland.

On the 26th of April the ice suddenly and almost entirely disap-
peared, and the ship was again headed northward for another attempt,
and arrived on the 19th of June in Melville bay, and thence again
steered westward across Baffin’s bay, and finally entered Lancaster
sound in the beginning of August. They thence sailed westwardly

2

(

18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

and southerly until they reached the longitude of 96° west; thence
returned along Barrow’s strait to the east, and southerly down Prince
Regent’s inlet to the mouth of Bellot strait, where, at a place named
Port Kennedy, the vessel remained from the 27th of September, 1858,
till August 9, 1859. From this point various excursions, with sleds,
were made in different directions. The expedition returned to Hng-
land in September, 1859.

During the whole continuance of the expedition a series of meteor-
ological and other observations was made. Those of the first year
were taken while the vessel was in a constant state of motion either
sailing through the water, or drifting down Baflin’s bay with the im-
mense field of ice. Those of a considerable part of the second year
were made while the ship was stationary at Port Kennedy.

The observations have all been arranged in four parts: the first
relating to temperature ; second, to winds; third, to atmospheric
pressure; fourth, to miscellaneous phenomena, such as auroras,
weather, specific gravity of sea-water, ozone, &c.

In the discussion of the records, the whole series has been divided
into two groups, one of which is referred to a point in Baffin’s bay,
and the other to Port Kennedy.

The discussion of the temperatures of each group embraces—

1st. Diurnal variation.
2d. Annual variation.
3d. Relation of temperature to the phases of the moon.
4th. Temperature of different winds.
5th. Temperature of sea-water.
The discussion of the winds includes—
1st. Resultant direction for each month, season, and year.
2d. Velocity for each of these periods.
3d. Frequency of winds from different quarters.
4th. Quantity of air which passed over the station.
5th. Rotation of the winds.
6th. Investigation of particular storms.

A similar series of discussions is also given with regard to the barom-
eter. These discussions have all been made at the expense of the
Institution by Charles A. Schott, of the Coast Survey, according to the
methods adopted by Sir John Herschel, in his admirable article on
meteorology in the last edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. They
bring out a number of interesting results, particularly in regard to the
rotation of the wind, the effect of the moon on the temperature, and the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

connexion of changes of the weather in the arctic regions with those
in the more southern latitudes of the continent of North America.

The observations for temperature were made at equal intervals day
and night; in winter they were generally taken every two hours, in
the summer every four hours. The register extends over twenty-
seven months, and comprises a total number of 7,113 observations.

The highest monthly mean temperature occurred in July. In the first
year, 1857, in latitude 62°, it was 45°.53. In the second year, (1858,)
in latitude 74°.4, it was 36°.60. In 1859, latitude 72°, it was 40°.12.
The lowest monthly mean temperatures were in January. That in
1858, in latitude 73°.2, was —24°.87. The second, that in 1859, in
latitude 72°, was —33°.57,

The mean annual temperature of the year, as deduced from all the
observations at Port Kennedy, in latitude 72°, was 1°.85. The
highest temperature observed at the same place was 55°, which oc-
curred July 29, 1859, and the lowest —49°.8, January 21 and Feb-
ruary 15 of the same year.

The extreme range, therefore, was 104°.8.

The highest temperature observed by Kane at Van Rensselaer
harbor, in latitude 78°.37, was 51°, and the minimum —66°.4, giving
a range of 117°.4

The greatest daily range of temperature was in June, amounting
to 9°.60; the least in December, when it was 0°.84. At Van Rens-
selaer harbor, the greatest range occurred in April, and was 9°.09 ; and
the least in November, amounting to 1°, showing a correspondence
in amount of variation, but not in time.

On an average, the maximum temperature is reached between noon
and'1 p. m., and the minimum between 2 and 3 a. m.; whereas at
Van Rensselaer harbor, as observed by Dr. Kane, these hours were
respectively 2 p.m. and 1 a. m.

One of the most interesting points of the discussion of the obser-
vations is that of the connexion of the phases of the moon with the
low winter temperatures. This connexion was early suggested by
arctic explorers, and was independently deduced from the observa.
tions by Kane. Inorder to investigate the question of this connexion
the mean daily temperatures were divided into periods of five days,
thus forming a table in which the dates of the occurrence of full and
new moon are given with the corresponding mean temperatures. By
taking the differences of the mean temperatures it is seen that the
mean temperature is lower at full moon than at new moon by about

20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

74 degrees. This difference is less than that deduced from the ob-
servations of Kane at Van Rensselaer harbor, but of the same kind,
and serves to establish the fact of the occurrence of maximum cold at
the period of full moon. Mr. Schott, in his paper on the discussions
of Kane’s observations, has referred this cold to a secondary action.
The moon, as is now established by direct experiment, radiates and
reflects a considerable amount of heat to the earth, which is of the
kind called dark ‘heat, or that of such low intensity as to be readily
absorbed by the vapor of our atmosphere, and particularly by clouds.
The effect, therefore, of the full moon is to dissolve the clouds, and
thus to give freer passage to the radiated heat from the earth into
celestial space.

In order, however, that this explanation should be true, it is
necessary that the heat from the moon should be more penetrating
and have more effect upon the clouds than that from the earth; and
that this is the case is not improbable, as a part of the heat from the
moon is that reflected from the full meridian sun, while that given off
from the earth is merely due to its own nocturnal radiation.

It is not probable, as we have stated in a previous report, that an
equal difference of temperature at the time of new and full moon will
be observed in middle latitudes, for, from the observations made at
this Institution, the waves, as it were, of cold which reduce the tem-
perature of the United States, frequently begin several days earlier
at the extreme west; and hence while the full moon occurs nearly at
the same moment of absolute time at all places on the surface of the
earth, the maximum cold might occur in one place at the new, and in
another at the full moon. In the arctic regions, on the other hand,
where the moon is at the same moment visible from every meridian,
the effects of its heat must be more perceptible and less masked by
the operation of other causes. In the observations of a long series
of years, however, the difference may, perhaps, be rendered manifest,
even in the latitude of Washington.

Professor Dove, of Berlin, has called attention to the remarkable
recurrence of cold about the 11th of May of each year, but nothing
of this kind can be deduced from the observations during the voyage
of the ‘‘Fox,’’ although from the observations by Kane at Van Rens-
selaer harbor on the 13th of May, 1854, the temperature was 9°.3
lower than that computed for the mean of the same day at the same
place.

The diminution of temperature at this period is evident from the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21

observations for long series in this country as well as in Europe,
and has been attributed to some cosmical influence affecting the ab-
solute amount of heat received by the earth at this time.

The deductions relative to the elevating and depressing influence
of the wind upon temperature, show that in Baflin’s bay the south-
east winds are the warmest, and the southwest the coldest, and that
the temperature is lowest during calms.

They show, also, that at Port Kennedy the east winds are the
warmest, and the north winds the coldest; there, also, calms are at-
tended with a depression of temperature.

Observations were made upon the temperature of the soil, by sink-
ing a brass tube two feet two inches vertically into the ground. A
padded thermometer was inserted in the tube, and the whole was
covered with snow. The temperature in the external air was lowest
about the 19th of January, and that in the tube about the 10th of
March, when it reached + 5°. Hence the greatest cold in the ground
at a depth of a little more than two feet occurred fifty-seven days
later than at the surface.

In discussing the observations relative to the winds, the whole
period, as in the case of the discussions of temperature, is divided
into two parts—the first when the Fox was in Baflin’s bay, and the
second when she was at Port Kennedy. The number of daily obser-
vations varied from six to twelve; in all cases, however, at regular
intervals. The method of reduction is that of Lambert, improved by
Herschel and others, so as to include the velocity of the wind, and
not merely the relative frequency.

The amount of wind, as estimated by the continuance and velocity
from all directions, was resolved, plus and minus, into two direc-
tions—one, that of the meridian, and the other at right angles to it;
and from these two components a resultant was deduced for each
month, giving the average direction from which the wind came. In
this discussion Mr. Schott assumes the south point of the horizon as
the zero point, because azimuths in astronomy are read in this way,
and he prefers reckoning from the south to the west, rather than from
tle south to the east, because the wind-vane is found to rotate more
frequently in the former direction.

The great variation in the direction and force of the atmospheric
currents renders the calculation of resulting values for shorter in-
tervals than a month unnecessary. At Port Kennedy the resulting
direction of the wind is remarkably constant for different seasons.

22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

In winter it is northwest by north; in summer north }ths of a point
west; for the whole year, NINW%W. The corresponding directions
for Baffin’s bay are nearly the same, and the final resultant direction
for the year at the two localities are practically identical.

In the first year, while in Baftin’s bay, the velocity of the wind
was greatest in February and March, and least in June and July.
In the second year, at Port Kennedy, it was greatest in October and
November, and least in March and April.

The greatest amount of wind, both at Port Kennedy and Baffin’s
bay, was from the northwest, in accordance with the theory of the de-
scent or sinking down of the heavier air in the colder regions, and its
flowing thence to warmer portions of the earth. For the purpose of
ascertaining the law of the rotation of the winds, the records were
examined in reference to the number of times the vane arrived at
each of the eight principal points, and also in reference to the sum
total of angular movement in a direct and retrograde direction.

From this investigation it appears that the direction of the shift-
ing of the wind in spring was direct; at other seasons retrogade, and
that the tote’ amount of angular motion in the course of a year was
very nearly balanced.

At Rensselaer harbor the resultant rotation of the wind was found
to be direct, and this was also the case in Baffin’s bay, although it
would appear from these discussions, that the law of the rotation of
the wind which has been found to prevail in lower latitudes, does not
hold with the same constancy in the arctic regions.

In the year 1857-58, in Baflin’s bay, there were 26 storms of an
average duration of 19 hours; in these storms the prevailing winds
were, almost to the exclusion of all others, from the northwest and
southeast. At Rensselaer harbor, according to Kane, the winds
during the prevailing storms were from the same points of the hori-
zon. At Port Kennedy during the year 1858~59 there were 22
storms recorded, in which the wind was from the northwest; in a
few cases it was from the northeast; but in not one from the north-
west or southeast.

The third part of the McClintock observations relate to the pres-
sure of the atmosphere. These observations were recorded at equal
intervals of two hours at one period, and of four hours at others.
They were made with a mercurial barometer, and also with an
aneroid. .

The records of the readings of the two instruments were compared,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23

and from them a correction obtained to be applied to the aneroid.
The differences appear remarkably regular, and show that the mean
monthly readings of the aneroid may be relied on to the hundredth of
an inch. The average correction was found to be .022 of an inch, a
quantity which, strictly speaking, is composed of two parts, namely:
of the true index error of the aneroid, and the specific differences of
the two instruments in different latitudes. In the mercurial barometer
amass of metal is balanced against a mass of air, and, therefore, the
indications are independent of a change of gravity, for the same reason
that a pound weight in an ordinary scale balance is in equilibrium
with the same amount of the material weighed, in whatever latitude
the experiment may be made. Not so, however, with the aneroid
barometer; as this instrument, like the spring balance, indicates the
pressure by the reaction of an elastic material, it must be affected by
a change in gravity, and consequently varies in its indications with a
change of latitude.

The diurnal variation in the pressure of the atmosphere in the
higher latitudes of the arctic regions is very small, and can only be
satisfactorily traced by means of the combination of a great number
of observations, while the fitful variations in the atmospheric pressure
are frequently very large.

The minimum pressure both at Baffin’s bay and at Port Keunedy
occurred at about half after four o'clock a. m., and the maximum at
about half-past seven o’clock p. m. The range of the diurnal fluctua-
tion in Baffin’s bay is .028, at Port Kennedy .048, and at Rensselaer
harbor .010. There is, therefore, a diminution in the range as we go
northward, and at the same rate diurnal variations would become in-
sensible at about 80° of latitude.

The average height of the barometer varies in different months of
the year; it is greatest in April and May.

The occurrence of the minimum is not simultaneous at the different
stations; at Baffin’s bay it was in January, at Port Kennedy in July,
and at Rensselaer harbor in September, presenting results which
clearly indicate that more observations are required to fix with pre-
cision the time at which it really takes place. The annual range of
the barometer at Baflin’s bay was .44, at Port Kennedy .41, and at
Rensselaer harbor .21.

The relative pressure connected with different winds is also given.
In Baffin’s bay the north wind gave a maximum pressure; at Port
Kennedy, and also at Rensselaer harbor, the south wind produced

24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

this effect. In Baffin’s bay the minimum pressure accompanied the
southeast wind, while at Port Kennedy the same effect was produced
by the northeast wind, and at Rensselaer harbor by the west and
northwest. The lowest reading of the barometer occurred just be-
fore the commencement of violent storms.

Among the miscellaneous observations, perhaps the most import-
ant is one which relates to the aurora borealis. Captain McClintock
observed that the streamers in all cases of the exhibition of this
meteor appeared to come from the surface of open water, and not in
any case from the fields of ice. This observation would go far to
establish the truth of the hypothesis that auroral displays are due to
electrical discharges between the air and the earth, and that these
are interrupted by the interposed stratum of non-conducting ice.

On the occasion of a visit of Lady Franklin last summer to the
Smithsonian Institution, I had the satisfaction of receiving, on behalf
of the Regents, her expressions of thanks for the discussion and publi-
cation of these observations, connected as they are with the memory
of her lamented husband.

Another paper which has been accepted for publication is entitled
‘¢ Ancient Mining on the Shores of Lake Superior.’’ This paper was
received in July, 1856, but, owing to imperfections in the manuscript,
its publication was indefinitely postponed. The subject, however, of
which it treats has lately received so much additional interest from
the investigations of the archeologists of different parts of EKurope
that we were induced to submit it again to the author for correction,
and to have a more accurate map of the mining region prepared, as
well as corrected drawings of the implements made, under the imme-
diate superintendence of the Institution. The wood-cuts are now in
the hands of the engraver, and the memoir will be prepared for dis-
tribution without unnecessary delay.

On reference to the first volumejof ‘‘Smithsonian Contributions’
it will be seen that among the contents of the mounds of the Missis-
sippi valley, as figured by Squier and Davis, are implements and
ornaments of copper, such as axes, chisels, knives, spear heads,
rings, bracelets, &c. The copper of these articles frequently contains
small portions of pure silver—perhaps originally in the form of crys-
tals—which serve in a measure to identify the source from which
the material came. Pure copper is comparatively a rare mineral, and
nowhere on the surface of the earth has it been found in greater
quantity and in larger masses than in that remarkable projection from

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. i 2B

the southern shore of Lake Superior, called Keweenaw Point. Through
the whole of this peninsula a band of metalliferous deposit extends
more than a hundred miles in length, and from one to six miles in
width. Within this band pure copper is found in immense masses,
also in thinner veins and small boulders.

The Jesuit missionaries as early as 1636 mentioned the existence
of copper in this region; their knowledge, however, was probably re-
stricted to small pieces of copper found in the streams. The first
actual attempts at mining in this region within historic times were
made in 1791, by Alexander Henry, but it was not until about 1842
that active and successful operations were undertaken.

Previous to this period pits and small mounds of earth had been
observed in the metalliferous region; but it was only in 1848 that
these were discovered to be remains of ancient excavations con-
nected with the mining of copper. After this fact was clearly ascer-
tained, it was turned to a profitable account by modern explorers,
who found that their predecessors had industriously ferreted out the
rich lodes, and that copper was always to be found by the indications
of the ancient ‘‘diggins,’’ as these excavations are popularly called.
The ground is mostly covered with a dense forest, and, in many
cases, with fallen trees of a preceding growth, indicating a great
lapse of time since the excavations were made. The present Indians
of the region have no knowledge of the origin of these remains, or of
the purpose with which they were connected. The implements em-
ployed by the ancient miners were those which European archeolo-
gists refer to what they call the stone age, and to the transition period
denominated by them the bronze age. They consist of mauls and
adzes of trap rock, and chisels of flint and of copper. Fire was not
employed to melt the metal, but apparently to assist in disintegrating
the rock. Levers of wood were used for elevating large masses, but
with the implements mentioned the earth could only be penetrated
to a short distance. For cutting wood, copper chisels and probably
adzes and axes of the same metal were employed. ‘The copper was
hardened by hammering when cold, and not in any case by admixture
with other metals. The primitive miners were unable to manage
large masses, and consequently sought for lumps which could be
readily beaten into the required shape.

The Lake Superior mining region does not appear to have been
the place of permanent residence of a large number of tribes, for no

26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

human remains or sepulchral mounds have been discovered, nor any
evidence of the cultivation of the soil. From the extent of the works,
and the difference in their apparent antiquity, it is probable that a
large number of individuals were engaged, and during a long succes-
sion of years.

Miscellaneous Collections—The Miscellaneous Collections include
works intended to facilitate the study of the various branches of
natural history, to give instruction as to the method of observing
natural phenomena, and a variety of other matter connected with the
progress of science. Although the object of the Institution is not
educational, yet in carrying out the general plan it has been thought
important in some cases to publish elementary treatises, which will
not only furnish an introduction to special subjects to those who have
not access to expensive libraries, but also serve to point out the way
in which individuals by special studies can not only promote their
own enjoyment, but also co-operate with all others engaged in the
same pursuit in extending the domain of knowledge. The objects of
nature, like the specimens of high art, are the luxuries of the culti-
vated mind, and the awakening of a taste for their study affords an
inexhaustible source of pleasure and contentment to the most nume-
rous and the most important classes of the community.

In accordance with this view it was stated in the last report that
the following works were in preparation to introduce and facilitate
the study of conchology, a branch of natural history not only inter-
esting in itself, but also indispensable in the study of geology, as the
ages and relative position of rocks are principally determined by the
remains of this class of animals, which are found imbedded in their
strata:

Ist. Elementary introduction to the study of conchology, by P. P.
Carpenter, of England.

2d. List of the species of shells collected by the United States
exploring expedition, by the same author.

3d. Descriptive catalogue of the shells of the west coast of the
United States, Mexico, and Central America, by the same author.

4th. Bibliography of North American conchology, by W. G. Binney.

5th. Descriptive catalogue of the air-breathing shells of North
America, by the same author.

The first of these works was published as a part of the appendix

to the report of the Regents for 1860, and, in order to meet the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27

special demand for the article, 1,000 extra copies were struck off
in pamphlet form for separate distribution. To illustrate this work
we have been promised by Dr. Gray, of London, a series of stereo-
type casts from the wood-cuts used in the British Museum catalogues.
They were not received in time to be inserted in the report. We
shall, however, distribute copies of them to all persons who have
received the work in a separate form.

Mr. Carpenter, the author of these lectures, who is well known to
the students in this branch of natural history, has presented in this
work an account of the present condition of our knowledge of the
molluscous animals, and completed a task which will go far to supply
a want which has been experienced by all who have commenced the
study of these objects. The only other popular introductory work
on shells in the English language of a reliable and representative
character, is Woodward’s Manual of the Mollusca, from which it differs
in some essential particulars, which better adapt it to the object in-
tended. It includes an account of the extinct as well as the recent
forms. The families and higher groups as well as the genera are
necessarily very briefly characterized, but sufficiently so to enable the
student, with perseverance and study, to identify the species and
recognize their affinities. One of the best features of the work, and
which will interest the accomplished naturalist as well as the ele-
mentary student, is a table of apparently similar shells belonging to
different families or genera; or of shells whose general appearance
is similar, but which, on account of more important characters, are
separated into widely different genera. It is also proper to remark
that the work is not confined to a description of the external covering
of the animals, but also includes that of their soft parts.

The other numbers of the above mentioned series of works on con-
chology are still in course of preparation, and will be published as
soon as they are completed.

It was also mentioned in the last report that a series of articles was
in preparation to facilitate and promote the study of the entomology
of North America. This branch of general zoology is perhaps larger
than that of all the other branches taken together. In order to illus-
trate this statement we may mention, on the authority of Baron Osten
Sacken, to whom we are specially indebted for advice and direction
in regard to the best means of promoting this object, that according
to the most recent computations, the number of species of insects in
all parts of the world, is believed to be rather above than below one

28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

million five hundred thousand, a considerable portion of which there
is reason to suppose may be found in North America. To collect,
arrange, and study such a vast number of objects requires a cor-
responding number of co-laborers; but fortunately for the advance of
entomology, wherever a taste for it has been awakened, its votaries
outnumber those of almost any other branch of natural history.
There is scarcely one, says Osten Sacken, which offers equal facilities
to the student who prosecutes its study—scarcely one which is so apt
to become a favorite with every class of persons; and there is none,
even botany not excepted,in which the mere gratification of taste
can be so well combined with real scientific usefulness. It is adapted
to every condition of life, because the specimens take up very little
space, and require but trifling expense in collecting them; to every
degree of education, for the number of insects being inexhaustible,
any schoolboy may make collections or observations of great value to
the more scientific investigator; it can be combined with almost any
other pursuit, and can at any time be laid aside to be resumed ata
more favorable moment.

Advancement of knowledge, however, naturally precedes its diffu-
sion; therefore, before attempting to awaken a taste for the pursuits
of entomological studies, it was necessary to bring this branch of
natural history, as far as it relates to this continent, to a greater de-
gree of perfection than that to which it had attained. American en-
tomology is in this respect, as we are informed, far behind.American
botany. The systematical knowledge of the plants indigenous to the
settled parts of North America is almost brought to perfection, and
excellent manuals have been prepared, making it comparatively easy,
even for a beginner, to identify most of the plants he may find. Not
so with entomology; by far the greater number of our insects
are still undescribed. The publications on American entomology
are scattered through a great number of scientific transactions, most
of which are in foreign languages, and therefore inaccessible to the
many who would otherwise be interested in the study.

The first object of the Institution was, therefore, to collect and
present in a compact and condensed form the existing knowledge.
next, to increase this knowledge by encouraging further research by
scientific men, so as to bring this branch of science to a certain degree
of completeness and of symmetry in its different parts, and not until
after this was accomplished to attempt its general diffusion. This

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

plan has been strictly pursued in the successive entomological works
undertaken for the Institution, as will appear from the following
account.

1. Among all the orders of insects which are found on the conti-
nent of North America, the Coleoptera (beetles) were the best known,
owing principally to the exertions of Dr. Le Conte, of Philadelphia.
What was wanted as regards this order for popular purposes was less
the increase of knowledge than the condensation above alluded to.
This has been aimed at in two publications by the Institution, namely,
‘Melsheimer’s Catalogue of the Coleoptera of the United States, revised
by Haldeman and Le Conte, and published in 1853, and the Classifica-
tion of the Coleoptera of North America, by Dr. Le Conte. The
first part of the latter appeared in 1861, and the second will be issued
soon. The first of these works facilitated research by furnishing a
list of all the described species, with references to the works or sci-
entific transactions containing them. The second will give a thorough
and detailed account of the systematical distribution of the Coleop-
tera of this country, and thus offer to the student a faithful delineation
of the present state of the science, and to the beginner a welcome
hand-book for its acquisition.

2. The Lepidoptera, (butterflies, moths, &c.,) have always been,
like the Coleoptera, a favorite order of insects, and a considerable num-
ber of descriptions of North American species was scattered through
various works, transactions, &c. It was decided, therefore, to issue
first, a list of these species, with references, on the plan of Melshei-
mer’s catalogue of Coleoptera; next, a republication in a compact
form of all these descriptions in English. Both these works were
prepared, at the suggestion of the Institution, by Dr. Morris, of Bal-
timore, and published, the one as a catalogue, in 1860, the other as a
synopsis of the described Lepidoptera of North America, in 1861. The
latter will save to the lepidopterist much trouble and expense, by
giving him in one volume what he would have had to look for in
more than fifty different publications.

3. The order of Neuroptera (dragon flies, may flies, lace-wings,
&ec.,) contains, comparatively, a small number of species, and for this
reason it was possible to produce at once a more perfect and thorough
work on this order than has yet been prepared on any other. The
synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America, with a list of the South
American species, published in 1861, was prepared, at the request of
the Institution, by Dr. Hermann Hagen, of Konigsberg, one of the

30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

first contemporary authorities in this branch, and principally from
materials furnished by or through the medium of the Institution. It
contains the description of 716 North American and a list of 507
South American species. The plan of this publication is essentially
different from that of the synopsis of Lepidoptera, the latter being a
mere compilation of existing descriptions, whereas the greater part
of the descriptions contained in the former were drawn by Dr. Hagen
from specimens in his possession, and thus the necessary uniformity
and accuracy have been secured. The original manuscript in Latin
was translated into English and prepared for publication by Mr. Ph:
R. Uhler, of Baltimore.

4. The order of Diptera, (flies, mosquitoes, &c.,) is known to be
exceedingly numerous and of rather difficult study, as much on account
of the minuteness and great fragility of most of the species as of
a peculiar inconstancy and comparative slightness of the characters
used for classification. In this case, as in preceding ones, the first work
directed by the Institution was one of condensation, namely, the Cata-
logue of the described Diptera of North America, by Baron Osten
Sacken. It was published in 1858, and includes a list of about 1,700
species, with references to ninety-five works and papers containing
their descriptions, principally in foreign languages.

The next thing to be done was either to furnish a republication
of all these descriptions, like that of the synopsis of Lepidoptera,
or to attempt at once to prepare a monograph of the order. Owing
to the large collections formed by Baron Osten Sacken during his res-
idence in this country, the latter was possible. It was deemed ad-
visable to put these collections into the hands of Dr. H. Loew, of
Meseritz, Prussia, one of the most eminent dipterologists now living,
who will prepare a series of monographs on the different families of
this large order, to be published by the Smithsonian Institution.
The first volume of this series is now in the press.

It may be proper here to call attention to the great importance of
having the first foundation of a study laid by the most eminent
authority. This is especially necessary in regard to the Diptera,
‘since, as we are informed, this class of American insects contains a
great number of species, closely allied to Huropean species, and con-
sequently requires an intimate knowledge of the latter to identify the
former. Besides this, there are many insects of the same class in
this country altogether different from those of Europe, which will
require the formation of new genera, a work which can only be prop-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31

erly done by one intimately acquainted with the entire subject.
Dr. Loew has found, for instance, that a genus (Paralimna Fab.
Hydromysidae) occurring in North America, and foreign to Kurope,
had been also discovered in Africa, and previously described. Al-
most any one but Dr. Loew would have formed a new genus of this
insect, and the interesting fact of the occurrence of the same
genus in Africa and America, and not in Europe, would have been,
for a time at least, unknown to science. Some other curious re-
sults have been obtained by this naturalist from the study of Baron
Osten Sacken’s collections. A species of borborus, from Cuba, has
been found identical with an African species, and from the matter on
which this fly occurs (alvine dejections) it is probable that it has been
accidentally imported into that island by a slave ship. A still more
interesting result is the discovery of the striking analogy between
the present American and the fossil tertiary fauna, coinciding with
the analogy of the corresponding floras. Dr. Loew having mono-
graphed the fossil Diptera preserved in Prussian amber, and having
described no fewer than 656 of such species, was better able than
any one else to trace this analogy. The remarkable fact appears
from his investigation that insects, some of them very singular, which
are absolutely extinct in Europe, are now found living in America.

Such have been, up to the present time, the entomological publi-
cations of the Smithsonian Institution. They do not as yet embrace
the three orders of Hemiptera, Orthoptera, and Hymenoptera. Mr.
Ph. R. Uhler, of Baltimore, who has for several years made the North
American Hemiptera (tree bugs, plant lice, &c.,) the special subject of
his study, is preparing for the Institution a work in regard to these
insects on the same plan as that of Hagen’s Neuroptera, which it is
expected will be soon ready for publication.

Little has yet been done for the Orthoptera, (grasshoppers, rear
horses, crickets, &c.,) although, owing to the small extent of this
order, it would be a comparatively easy task to produce a work similar
to the synopsis of Neuroptera, if a sufficient collection of specimens
were in existence. The Institution has adopted measures to have
this desideratum supplied. The study of North American Hy-
menoptera (bees, wasps, &c.,) was undertaken several years ago by
Mr. H. de Saussure in Geneva, and large collections have been fur-
nished to him by the Institution. It is expected that his manuscript
will soon be furnished for publication.

32 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

In order to complete the series of the entomological publications of
the Institution, a want of the intelligent public remains to be sup-
plied, that of a popular work on Entomology in general, designed to
serve as an introduction to this department of zoology, and to facili-
tate its acquisition by presenting its elements in an attractive form,
while at the same time infusing the true philosophical spirit of the
science. Such a work is in contemplation, and will promote more
than any other the diffusion of this branch of knowledge.

Reports.—The next class of publications consists of the annual Re-
ports to Congress. These reports, which are printed at the expense
of the Government, consist each of an octavo volume, limited to 450
pages. They contain the report of the Secretary, the acts of the Re-
gents, and an appendix, consisting of a synopsis of lectures delivered
at the Institution, extracts from correspondence, and information of a
character suited to the meteorological observers, teachers, and other
persons especially interested in the promotion of knowledge. The ap-
pendix to the report for 1860 contained three lectures of a course on
Roads and Bridges, by Prof. Fairman Rogers, the remainder of which
will be given in the report for 1861 ;.an extended series of lectures
on Mollusca or Shell-fish, and their allies, .by Philip P. Carpenter ;
general views on Archeology, by A. Morlot, translated from the
French ; a series of articles translated from foreign journals; and ex-
tracts from correspondence, principally on meteorology and natural
history.

Of this report 10,000 extra copies were ordered by Congress, of
which 4,000 were presented to the Institution for distribution among
its special correspondents. The requests for this work have been
constantly increasing, and the demand for back numbers to complete
sets has been greater than the Institution could supply.

The following general rules for the distribution of these reports
have been adopted :

1st. They are presented to all the meteorological observers who
send records of the wéather to the Institution.

2d. To the collaborators of the Institution.

3d. To donors to the museum or library.

4th. To colleges and educational establishments.

5th, To public libraries and literary and scientific societies.

6th. To teachers, or individuals who are engaged in special studies,
and who make direct application for the volumes.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33

The additional distribution of copies of these reports by Congress
serves still more widely to make known the character and operations
of the Institution, and to diffuse a species of useful knowledge which
cannot otherwise be readily obtained.

Ethnology.—F rom the previous reports it will have been seen that
the Institution has endeavored to promote various branches of the
science of ethnology. Besides the works on Indian Archeology, it has
presented to the world several papers which relate to language. In the
report for 1860 a list of original manuscripts was given, relating
to the languages of the western coast of North America, which had
been received through the assistance of Mr. Alexander S. Taylor, of
Monterey, California. Several of these have been carefully copied,
at the expense of the Institution, with the intention of insuring their
preservation and their subsequent publication. It has been suggested
that the publication of a grammar and dictionary of one at least of
each of the representative languages of North America would much
facilitate the investigation of the general relations of the several parts
of this branch of ethnology. With a view to carrying out this sug-
gestion, means have been adopted to obtain information as to all the
manuscripts which may possibly exist; and we have been so fortunate
as to enlist the co-operation, in this important work, of a number of
valuable collaborators. Among these are Mr. Alexander §. Taylor,
of California; the Catholic clergymen of the western coast of North
America; Mr. George Gibbs, of Washington Territory; Mr. Buck-
ingham Smith, late Secretary of Legation to Spain, and Mr. J. GQ.
Shea, of New York.

Mr. Shea, who has devoted much attention to the subject of com-
parative philology, has commenced the publication at his own expense
of a ‘‘ Library of American Linguistics,’’ which he is desirous of con-
tinuing as a labor of love; and since it would not be in accordance
with the policy of this Institution to interfere with so praiseworthy
an undertaking, but on the contrary to facilitate it by all the means
in its power, it has been thought proper to present to Mr. Shea copies
of all the collections which the Institution has yet made relative to
this subject, and to purchase from him for distribution to learned
societies a certain number of copies of all the works which he may
publish. By adopting this course, which has been warmly recom-

mended by some of the principal ethnologists of this country, more
3

34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

7°

service can be done in the way of advancing knowledge with the
small appropriation which could be devoted to this purpose than by
publishing the manuscripts, as was first intended, as a part of the
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Cellections. In accordance with this view,
the grammar of the Mutsun language, mentioned in the last report,
has been presented to Mr. Shea, and has been published by him as
one of his series, full credit being given to the Institution in the title
page, and in a separate advertisement.

The Mutsun Indians inhabited the country northwest of Monterey,
California, comprising a district, according to Mr. Taylor, of 170 miles
long by 80 broad, and are the most northerly tribe known of whose
language the Spanish missionaries compiled a grammar. Their village
lay in the centre of a valley which abounded in rich land, and as late
as 1831 numbered twelve hundred souls. For the purpose of com-
parison this work therefore possesses great value. The late W. W.
Turner says that this language is clearly the same as the Rumsen or
Rumsien, one of the two spoken at the mission of San Carlos, and at
the mission of La Soledad, further to the south. It also bears a con-
siderable degree of resemblance to the language of the Costanos on
the bay of San Francisco, and also a fainter one to other languages

further north. The grammar is printed in superior style, on excellent

paper, by J. Munsell, of Albany, and forms Part IV of the linguistic
series above mentioned, the following being the titles of the three
previous parts, viz:

1. A French Onondaga dictionary, from a manuscript of the 17th
century.

2. A Selish or Flathead grammar, by Rev. Gregory Mengarini.

3. A grammatical sketch of the Hévé language; spoken in the mid-
dle of the last century in Sonora; translated from an unpublished
manuscript by Buckingham Smith.

Besides the fourth number, the other works which have been placed
in the hands of Mr. Shea for publication are the Mutsun vocabulary,
the Yakama grammar, and the Sextapay vocabulary. The paper
on the languages of the western coast mentioned in the last report as
in preparation by Mr. George Gibbs is still in progress. He has
received several valuable additions of materials for comparison of
the different languages under investigation.

The publication in the last report of the general views on arche-
ology, by Morlot, of Switzerland, has awakened a new interest in the
remains of Indian art found in all parts of the United States, and

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35

various collections are now being formed, which will be of great in-
terest in comparing analogous stages of the mental development of
the primitive inhabitants of this country and those of Europe. For
the purpose of assisting this comparison it is proposed to make pho-
tographic impressions of all type specimens which have been found
in this country, to be distributed to the most distinguished archzolo-
gists in Europe, and to invite a general exchange of illustrations and
articles of this character. Mr. Franklin Peale, of Philadelphia, has
arranged with artistic skill, in thirty tablets, nearly a thousand speci-
mens of arrow heads, hatchets, knives, chisels, and other instruments
belonging to the stone period, and has ascertained by actual experi-
ment that a photographic picture can be taken of each tablet of full
size, which presents the form and peculiarities of each article with
such distinctness that the impressions may serve almost as well as the
specimens themselves for comparative study.

Meteorology.—The system of meteorological observations, organized
and carried on successfully for several years past, has suffered more
from the disturbed condition of the country than any other part of
the operations of the Smithsonian establishment. But few records
have been received since the commencement of the war from Vir-
ginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, and, with two or three exceptions,
none from the States further south.

The withdrawal of the troops from the numerous stations along the
coast of the Pacific and from the interior of the continent has mate-
rially diminished the number of observers reporting to the office of
the Surgeon General.

The popular system of daily telegraphic reports of the condition of
the weather from distant parts of the United States has been dis-
continued ; the continuity of the lines to the south having been inter-
rupted, and the wires from the north and west being so entirely
occupied by public business that no use of them could be obtained for
scientific purposes.

We may mention in this connexion that a daily bulletin of tele-
grams relative to the weather in different parts of Europe, similar to
that established by this Institution, is published at the Imperial Ob-
servatory at Paris, copies of which are regularly transmitted to us,
through the kindness of the director, M. Le Verrier. From an ex-
amination of these records we find that the meteorological phenomena

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

of the temperate zone in the eastern hemisphere travel eastwardly,
or in the same direction that they are observed to follow in the
United States. The meteorologists, however, of London and Paris,
are by no means as favorably situated for predicting the coming
weather as those of Washington, New York, or Boston, since the
storm which approaches the former comes from the ocean and admits
of but very limited telegraphic announcement, while those which are
coming toward the latter can be heralded over thousands of miles of
wire.

We have continued to receive records of observations from the
northern and western States, Canada, the Hudson’s Bay Territory,
Mexico, and Central America.

It was stated in the last report that on account of the suspension
of the annual appropriation from the Patent Office for meteorological
statistics the process of reduction had been discontinued, and we re-
gret to say that we have not been able to resume this work during
the past year. The reductions, however, prepared by Professor
Coffin, under the direction and at the joint expense of the Smith-
sonian Institution and the Patent Office, for the years 1854-59, in-
clusive, are still in the hands of the public printer. The work can-
not be hurried through the press, since much labor and care are
required for proper correction of the proof sheets ; the delay, how-
ever, has been mainly caused by the interruptions incidental to the
entire change of system of Congressional printing, and the estab-
lishment of a government printing office. The work will form two
large quarto volumes, the first of which is completed, with the ex-
ception of some introductory matter, and contains 1,270 pages. It
exhibits the monthly and annual reductions for the barometer, ther-
mometer, psychrometer, and rain guage, the observations on winds,
clouds, &c.

The following statement from this volume of the number of ob-
servers for the several years, shows the growth of the system:

1854, embraces 234 stations.

WRGGe ic ec Sa E
TRSR pO ag gr oe
Wee hs Bien te
BOBS Ae hh) Bb es
PRb Qadir, att

The second volume, which is also partly printed, will probably
contain as many pages as the first, and will give the observations on

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 37

periodical-phenomena, such as the appearance and disappearance of
birds and animals, first and last frosts, dates of the opening and clos-
ing of rivers, lakes, harbors, &c. ; also, detailed observations for the
investigation f the principal storms of 1859; general tables of tem-
peratures of several hundred places in North America, deduced from
a series of years from all the reliable sources which could be com-
manded; also, a series of tables of rain at different places, deduced
from observations for a series of years. The special object of the
extended table of temperature is to furnish the materials for a more
accurate isothermal map of the United States than has as yet been
projected; and that of the rain tables, to present the data for a more
reliable map of the average precipitation in the different parts of the
country.

The volume will also contain special thermometric observations at
stations distributed over the area extending from the Arctic regions
to the northern States of South America, and from the Pacific to the
Atlantic coast, for the purpose of showing the progress of cold periods
across the continent, from the Rocky mountains to Bermuda. The
same volume will also contain daily notices of the weather for the
year 1859, gathered from published accounts, presenting items of in-
formation in a general and popular form, which may assist in the in-
vestigation of the movement of storms, and be of more interest to
the general reader than the tabular statements of the principal part of
the work.

The office work of the system of meteorology has continued in
charge of William Q. Force, esq., of this city, to whom has also been
intrusted the laborious duty of correcting the proof sheets of the
volumes above mentioned.

Magnetic Observatory.—It was stated in the last report that as the
changes in the direction and intensity of the magnetic force at Toronto
were almost precisely the same as at Washington, it was concluded
that more important service could be rendered to science by sepa-
rating the points of observation to a greaterdistance. In accordance
with this view, the instruments of the observatory on the Smithso-
nian grounds were sent to Key West, one of the Tortugas, where the
United States has a military post, and the Coast Survey a tidal sta-
tion. This location has been found well adapted to the purpose, and
notwithstanding its proximity to the seat of active war, the photo-
graphic registration has been uninterruptedly kept up during the

38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

past year, at the joint expense of the Coast Survey and the Smith-
sonian Institution.

Laboratory.—The operations of the laboratory during the past year
have been principally confined to the examination and classification
of the minerals which have been collected at the Institution from
the various exploring expeditions, preparatory to a general distribu-
tion of the duplicates. This work has been intrusted to Mr. Thomas
Egleston, of New York.

Facilities have been given to Professor Way, of London, for the
exhibition of his improved method of producing an intense light for
signals by means of the electrical deflagration of a stream of mer-
cury, and the Institution is indebted to this gentleman for the present
of a set of apparatus for exhibiting this light, and also of a powerful
galvanic battery. The apparatus of the laboratory has been increased
by a large Daniell’s battery, consisting of fifty cylindrical copper
cells, each six inches in diameter and fourteen inches high, with
appropriate zinc elements of pure metal, procured expressly for the
purpose from Mr. Wharton, of Pennsylvania.

Among the experiments which have been made, may be mentioned
a series by Dr. Craig, on the effects of the explosion of gunpowder
under pressure ; and another by the Secretary, on the burning of the
same substance in a vacuum, and in different gases.

A series of researches was also commenced to determine more ac-
curately than has yet been done the expansion produced in a bar of
iron at the moment of magnetization of the metal by means of a gal-
vanic current. The opportunity was taken, with the consent of Pro-
fessor Bache, of making these experiments with the delicate instru-
ments which had previously been employed in determining the vary-
ing length under different temperatures of the measuring apparatus
of the base lines of the United States Coast Survey.

It may also be stated that the Secretary was requested by the War
Department to report upon the practicability of employing balloons
for military purposes, and in accordance with this request the sev-
eral plans proposed by Mr. Lowe, of Philadelphia, and Mr. Helme,
of Providence, were examined and practically illustrated on the
Smithsonian grounds.

It may not be improper in this connexion to state that a consider-
able portion of the time of the Secretary, during almost every year
since the beginning of the Institution, has been devoted to investiga-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

tions pertaining to the operations of the general government. For
these services no compensation has been asked or received.

It is believed that the Institution, through its Secretary and other
officers, has been the instrument of important services to the govern-
ment, which have repaid in some degree the fostering care which the
latter has bestowed on the former.

Explorations.—For the purpose of obtaining a large number of
duplicate specimens of the Zoology, Botany, and Mineralogy of North
America, the Institution has not only furnished instructions and ren-
dered assistance, in the way of making collections, to the various
government expeditions undertaken during the last twelve years,
but it has also engaged the services of persons of the requisite
acquirements to make independent explorations. An account of
these explorations has been given in the several reports for previ-
ous years, and it is therefore only necessary to mention at this time
those which have been completed during the past year, or are still
in progress.

The exploration in Lower California, near Cape St. Lucas, the
southern extremity of the peninsula, by Mr. John Xantus, has been
completed. The labors expended in this field have been truly re-
markable. According to the statement of Professor Baird, Mr. Xan-
tus has sent to the Institution sixty large boxes filled with specimens
illustrating almost every branch of natural history. His explorations
were not confined to the southern extremity of the peninsula, but ex-
tended many leagues up the coast on both the ocean and gulf sides.
He also visited Mazatlan, on the Mexican coast, and made a valuable
collection of birds. The specimens which he collected contain a
large number of species never before described. These have been
submitted for study and examination to some of the principal natu-
ralists in this country and Europe. In closing the accounts of the
explorations in Lower California it is necessary to acknowledge the
services rendered to the natural history of this country by the Coast
Survey, under the direction of Professor Bache, in affording Mr.
Xantus, while discharging the duty of tidal observer, the opportu-
nity of making these valuable collections at points which would other-
wise be almost inaccessible to the naturalist.

The explorations by Mr. Robert Kennicott, in the northwestern
part of this continent, are still going on, the Hudson’s Bay Company
having extended the time and afforded additional means for the prose-
cution of the work. From the latest advices from Mr. Kennicott,

40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

he had reached Fort Yukon, on the Yukon river, a post in Russian
America, and in a region almost entirely unknown, not only in regard
to its natural history but also as to its geography. From this point
he intended to continue his explorations to the mouth of Anderson
river, on the coast of the Arctic ocean, and to return home about the
end of the year 1863. It is proper to remark that in defraying the
expense of this exploration the Institution has been assisted by the
University of Michigan, the Chicago Audubon Club, the Chicago
Academy of Natural Sciences, and by several gentlemen interested in
natural history, and that without the facilities afforded by the Hud-
son’s Bay Company and its officers the enterprise, as at present ex-
tended, could not have been accomplished. Not only has Mr. Kenni-
cott been received as a guest at the different posts, but free transport-
ation has been afforded for himself and his collections. It is gratify-
ing to the friends of this zealous and accomplished young naturalist
to learn that he has everywhere succeeded in exciting the sympathy
and awakening the interest of the officers and employés of the foreign
governments through whose territories his explorations have extended.
And, thus, while actively engaged himself in extending our knowl-
edge of these remote regions, he has diffused a taste for natural his-
tory, and enlisted the services of a number of active collaborators.

The officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company have instituted local
explorations at the principal stations, which, taken in connexion with
what Mr. Kennicott is doing, bid fair to make the natural history of
Western Arctic America as well known as that of any part of the
continent. Among the most active of those who have become volun-
tary collaborators of the Institution is Mr. Bernard R. Ross, chief
factor of the Mackenzie river district. From that gentleman we are
receiving, from time to time, valuable collections of specimens to
illustrate the natural history and ethnology of the region in which he
resides.

Another gentleman, Mr. Lawrence Clark, jr., of Fort Rae, has
contributed largely to our collection of specimens from the vicinity
of Slave lake. Besides these, I must refer to the report of Professor
Baird for the names of a number of other gentlemen who have made
similar contributions from different parts of the Hudson’s Bay terri-
tory, and other districts of North America.

Collections of Natural History, &c.—In the last report of the Insti-
tution, a distinction was made between the collections of natural his-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al

tory and the museum of the Institution; the object of the former
being more essentially in accordance with the primary idea of the
establishment, namely, the advance of science, and that of the latter a
public exhibition of the natural history, principally of the North
American continent, for popular as well as scientific study.

While it has not been contemplated to employ any large portion
of the Smithsonian income in the support of a general museum, which,
under the most favorable circumstances, must be, in a considerable
degree, local in its influence, and can only produce its best effects
when connected with an educational establishment, as in the case of
the great museum now in process of being formed by Professor
Agassiz at Cambridge, yet much labor and money have been ex-
pended in making the collections, with a view principally to obtain
new materials for the investigation and illustration of the natural his-
tory, mineralogy, and geology of this country. As the primary ob-
ject of the Institution is the advance of science, such a disposition of
the specimens is sought to be made as will best secure this end.

The specimens may be divided into two classes—Ist, those which
have been described in the reports of government expeditions or the
transactions of the Smithsonian and other Institutions; and 2d, those
which have not been described, and which consequently are con-
sidered of much value by the naturalists who are interested in ex-
tending the several branches of natural history. Of both classes the
Institution possesses a large number of duplicates, in the disposition
of which some general principles should be kept constantly in view.
After due consultation with naturalists, the following rules, which were
presented in the last report, have been adopted relative to the de-
scribed specimens :

First. To advance original science, the duplicate type specimens
are to be distributed as widely as possible to scientific institutions in
this country and abroad, in order that they may be used in identifying
the species and genera which have been described.

Second. To promote education, as full sets as possible of general
duplicates, properly labelled, are to be presented to colleges and other
institutions of learning that profess to teach the principal branches of
natural history.

Third. It must be distinctly understood that due credit is to be
given to the Institution in the labelling of the specimens, and in all
accounts which may be published of them, since such credit is not only

42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

due to the name of Smithson, but also to the directors of the establish-
ment, as vouchers to the world that they are faithfully carrying out
the intention of the bequest.

Fourth. It may be proper, in the distribution to institutions abroad,
as a general rule, to require, in case type specimens to illustrate
species which have been described by foreign authors may be wanted
for comparison or other uses in this country, that they be furnished at
any time they may be required.

Fifth. In return for specimens which may be presented to colleges
and other educational establishments, collections from localities in
their vicinity, which may be desirable, shall be furnished when re-
quired.

In the disposition of the undescribed specimens of the collection, “
it is impossible to be governed by rules quite as definite as those
which relate to the previous class, but the following considerations
have been adopted as governing principles :

1. The original specimens ought not to be intrusted to inexperi-
enced persons, or to those who have not given evidence of their
ability properly to accomplish the task they have undertaken.

2. Preference should be given to those who are engaged in the la-
borious and difficult task of preparing complete monographs.

3. As it would be illiberal to restrict the use of the specimens, and
confine the study of them to persons who can visit Washington, the
investigator should be allowed to take them to his place of residence,
and to retain them for a reasonable time.

4, The investigator must give assurance that he will prepare a set
of type specimens for the Smithsonian museum, and will return all
the duplicates, if required.

5. Inany publication which may be made of the results of the inves-
tigation, full credit must be accorded to the Institution for the facili-
ties which have been afforded.

At the last session of Congress an appropriation was made to assist
in the general distribution of duplicate specimens, and this distribu-
tion has been carried on as efficiently as the laborious character of
the work would allow. The mere distribution of the specimens among
colleges and educational establishments in this country, without labels
or descriptions, would be little better than scattering them to the
winds; but to present them correctly named and described renders
them important auxiliaries in the study of natural history, and indi-
rectly in the advance of this branch of knowledge itself. But this

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43

work requires a critical knowledge of each particular class of speci-
mens, and consequently the co-operation of a number of experienced
naturalists, each of acknowledged authority in his special department.

The assortment and labelling of the larger part of the shells is still
in progress under Mr. Philip P. Carpenter, of Warrington, England,
assisted by Dr. Alcock. Certain marine families have been sent to
Professor Agassiz; a part of the fresh water shells has been named
by Mr. Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia; another part by Mr. W. G. Bin-
ney, of New Jersey; another class of mollusks has been consigned to
Mr. Busk, of England; and a third has been sent to Dr. Steenstrup,
of Copenhagen.

The botanical collection is still in charge of Dr. Torrey, of New
York, and Dr. Gray, of Cambridge.

The rocks and minerals have been partially labelled by Mr. Thomas
Egleston, late a pupil of the School of Mines, Paris, who will probably
finish the work during the present year. ,

The insects have been referred to Baron Osten Sacken, Dr.
LeConte, Dr. Loew, Dr. Hagen, Dr. Morris, Dr. Clemens, Mr. Ulke,
Mr. Uhbler, and Mr. Edwards.

Certain classes of the mammalia have been examined by Dr. J. H.
Slack and H. Allen, of Philadelphia; the birds by Mr. John Cassin,
Mr. Elliott Coues, Dr. Bryant, and Mr. George N. Lawrence; the rep-
tiles by Mr. E. D. Cope; the fishes by Mr. Alexander Agassiz, Mr.
F. W. Putnam, Mr. Theodore Gill, and students of Professor Agassiz;
the crustacea by Mr. Ordway and Mr. W. Stimpson; the radiata by
Mr. Verrill and Mr. Stimpson; the fossils by Dr. Newberry, Mr.
Meek, Dr. Hayden, and Dr. Gabb.

The whole of this part of the general business of the Institution
has been, as heretofore, under the special charge of Professor Baird,
to whose detailed report I would refer for a more particular account
of these operations. From his report it will also be seen that the
Institution has already distributed upwards of 80,000 specimens of
natural history, and when it is recollected that each of these has been
properly labelled and referred to printed lists, some idea of the
amount of labor and time which has been expended on this work may
be formed.

Type series of these specimens have been presented to the prin-
cipal museums of Europe, and to the different societies for the pro-
motion of natural history in this country. In every part, therefore,

44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

of the civilized world, wherever natural history is cultivated, the
name of the Institution has become familiar as a household word.

The distribution will be continued during the present year, pro-
vided no unforeseen event should occur to interrupt the operations
how in progress.

Museum.—Considerable advance has been made during the year
in improving the condition of the specimens for public exhibition in
the museum. It is intended to label each article distinctly and ac-
curately; but, although much labor has been expended on this work,
it cannot be fully accomplished until all the specimens shall be
thoroughly examined and properly described. A large number of
additions has been made to the museum, and many imperfect speci-
mens replaced by those of a better character.

During the past year Washington has been visited by a greater
number of strangers than ever before since the commencement of its
history. The museum has consequently been continually thronged
with visitors, and has been a never-failing source of pleasure and in-
struction to the soldiers of the army of the United States quartered
in this city or its vicinity. Encouragement has been given them to
visit it as often as their duties would permit them to devote the time
for this purpose.

Exchanges. —The system of exchanges has continued during the
past year to be the principal means of communication between the
scientific societies of the Old World and those of the New. As might
have been expected, however, the number of copies of works sent
abroad in 1861 was less than that of the previous year. The whole
- number of packages containing books, pamphlets, &c., sent abroad
during the year was 1,099, containing, at least, 10,000 separate arti-
cles. The number of packages received in return, for societies in this
country, exclusive of those for the Institution, was 1,406, which, on
an average, would amount to upwards of 7,000 separate articles.
During the same period there have been received by the Institution
for its own library 2,886 books and other publications.

In return for the generous assistance the Institution has received
in carrying on ‘this system of exchange, it is proper to repeat what
we have stated in previous reports, that the Cunard steamers be-
tween New York and Liverpool, the North German Lloyd between
New York and Bremen, the Hudson’s Bay Company, the Pacific Mail
Steamship Company, and Panama Railroad Company, have carried

¢

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45

our packages free of cost on account of freight, and that the New
York and Hamburg Ine has also generously rendered us a similar
service. Adams’ Express Company has transmitted our packages to
and from different parts of the country at reduced rates. This ap-
preciation of the objects of the Institution is as creditable to these
companies as it is gratifying to the friends of the Institution.

Library.—Since the date of the last report the plan adopted in
regard to the library has been steadily acted upon, namely: to obtain
as perfect a series as possible of the transactions and proceedings of
the learned societies which have existed, or now exist, in every part
of the world. During the past year nearly 3,000 articles from societies
abroad, and copies of nearly everything which has been published by
societies in this country, in Canada, and South America, have been
added to the list of scientific works previously in the library.

We have received no definite information since the date of the last
report as to the progress which has been made, under the direction
of the Royal Society, in the preparation of the classified index of
all the papers contained in the transactions of learned societies, and
in the scientific serials of different parts of the world. The work,
however, is still going on, and will, without doubt, be completed as
soon as so extensive an undertaking can be properly accomplished.

The second and concluding volume of the catalogue of zoological
literature from 1750 to the present day, by J. Victor Carus, of Leip-
sic, which was mentioned in the last two reports, has been published;
and we would again commend it to the patronage of naturalists as the
best compilation which has yet appeared of the titles systematically
arranged of isolated papers on zoology published in American as well
as foreign journals.

Among the more important donations since the date of the last
report are the following :

130 volumes from T. Einhorn, of Leipsic;

18 from the Institut de France;
27 from the Academy de Stanislas, Nancy;
13 from the Agronomical Society, of Poland;
21 from the Royal Swedish Society of Sciences;
11 from the Koniglich Preussische Technische Bau-Deputation;
10 from Oberlausitzische Gesellschaft at Gorlitz;
30 from the University of Chile;
8 from the Imperial Printing Office, Vienna;

46 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

25 from the Royal Observatory, Greenwich;

33 from the Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg;
and a valuable collection of works on natural history from one of
the regents, General Joseph G. Totten, of the United States army.

Gallery of Art.—The Stanley collection of Indian portraits and
scenes of Indian life, together with the Indian portraits received
from the museum of the Patent Office, still continue to form an
ethnological gallery of much interest to the numerous visitors of
the Institution. The small appropriation which was previously
made to repay Mr. Stanley for incidental expenses connected with
this gallery has been continued during the past year. The appli-
cation which Mr. Stanley has, for several years, made to Congress
for the purchase of his gallery cannot be expected at this time
to receive attention, although we hope that in a more favorable
condition of the treasury an appropriation for the purpose will be
granted.

The following are the additions which have been made to the col-
lection of objects of art during the past year: A large marble bust
of Pulaski on deposit; a colossal bust in plaster of Dr. Robert Hare.
Another, of the same size, of Hon. George M. Dallas; also a bust of
Thomas Jefferson, and another of Dr. E. K. Kane, all by purchase.
They are original works of art, of considerable merit, by Henry D.
Saunders.

Besides these, a series of busts in plaster, several valuable pieces
of sculpture in marble, and a number of pictures, have been received
from the museum at the Patent Office. Among the busts are the fol-
lowing: An excellent likeness of John Vaughan, for a long time libra-
rian of the American Philosophical Society ; one of Cuvier, the French
naturalist; of Hon. Dixon H. Lewis, late member of Congress, re-
markable for his immense bodily size; and of the Hon. Peter Force, of
this city. Among the articles in marble are a full-sized medallion of
Minerva from Pompeii, a half-size copy of the Apollo Belvidere, and
two other half-size ancient statues, all of elaborate finish. Among
the pictures is an original portrait of Washington by the elder Peale,
painted immediately after the battle of Princeton. In addition to the
foregoing, the collection has been increased by one hundred large
engravings presented by Charles B. King, a well-known artist, who
has resided many years in this city. These engravings are copies of
celebrated pictures, and are illustrations of the style of some of the
best masters of the art of engraving. They were to have been be-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 47

queathed to the Institution, as Mr. King himself informed me, but
he has lately concluded to present them before his death. A list of
the engravings will be found in the appendix to the report of the
present year, from which it will be seen that they form an interesting
addition to the valuable collection of engravings already belonging
to the Institution.

It was stated in the last report that, in accordance with the policy
adopted by the Institution, it would be proper to co-operate with Mr.
Corcoran in the liberal and generous enterprise he had undertaken
of establishing a free gallery of art in the city of Washington, and
to deposit in his collection the specimens which might belong to this
establishment, due credit being given to the name of Smithson for
all additions of this kind to the gallery in question. The condition
of the country has, however, for the present interfered with the prose-
cution of the original design of Mr. Corcoran, and the large and ele-
gant building which he has erected for carrying out his ideas is now
occupied by the government as a depot for military stores.

Lectures.—On account of the uncertainty as to the amount of in-
come of the Institution, and the distraction of the public mind in
regard to the war, it has been thought advisable not to make any
definite arrangements for the usual course of popular lectures during
the season of 186162. <A few lecturers, however, have lately been
engaged, and at least a partial course will be given.

As stated in previous reports, the lecture-room of the Institution
is the most commodious apartment in the District of Columbia for
public meetings, and frequent applications are made for its use for
lectures and public assemblages not connected with the operations of
the Institution. The use of the room has been freely allowed under
the following conditions: First. That the object for which it was
required should be of a benevolent character, or in some respects in
accordance with the general operations of the establishment. Second.
That subjects connected with sectarianism in religion, discussions in
Congress, and partisan politics should be excluded. Third. That the
actual expense of the gas and attendance should be defrayed by the
parties who used the room.

The privileges granted with these restrictions, although, perhaps,
of advantage to the city, have been found to be attended with
unfavorable results to the Institution. At first the number of appli-
cants was small, and principally confined to cases in which the

48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

privilege could be granted without hesitation; the number has,
however, been constantly increasing, and during the past half year
there has scarcely been a day in which the favor has not been urgently
solicited by some of those who flock to this city with plans and in-
ventions by which, as it is asserted, the government and the public
are to be greatly benefited. These applications are prompted not
only by the consideration that the use of the room may be obtained
without charge, but also by the desire to.connect the name of the
Institution with the schemes or doctrines with which the public are
to be impressed.

Since the custom was first introduced of granting the use of the
room for the purposes before mentioned, a large amount of valuable
property has been accumulated in the building, which is especially
exposed at night to injury and loss from fire and other causes. On
this account, as well as that of the insulated and exposed position of
the grounds, an extra corps of watchmen is required for the protec-
tion of the property every time the building is open at night for
public purposes.

Again, it has been found a disagreeable matter to allow, even for
benevolent purposes, a charge to be made by other parties for en-
trance to the building while, in accordance with the policy of the
Institution, admittance is free to every one.

But the greatest difficulty which has been met with in regard to
granting the use of the lecture room for other purposes than those
of the Institution, is that of strictly enforcing the rules relative to
the discussion of political and sectarian subjects, and the conse-
quent impossibility of preventing the name of the Institution from
being associated in the mind of the public with topics alike foreign
to its peaceful character and its scientificreputation. It isin vain to
disclaim the connexion of the Institution with the discussion of these
subjects. The popular mind, particularly at a distance, cannot dis-
criminate between the lectures given under the sanction of the Insti-
tution and those which are simply permitted to be delivered within
its building.

In view of these facts it becomes a matter of grave deliberation
whether or not the use of the lecture room ought to be granted for
purposes not connected with the operations of the Institution; but,
under existing circumstances, perhaps the subject had better be post-
poned for future consideration.

Respectfully submitted,
JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, December 31, 1861.
Siz: I have the honor herewith to present a report for 1861 of the
operations intrusted to my charge, namely: those which relate to the
printing, the exchanges, and the collections of natural history.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Assistant Secretary Smithsonian Institution. ©
‘Prof. JosepH Henry, L.L. D.,
Secretary Snuthsonian Institution.

PRINTING.

The pubhcations of the past year have consisted principally of
works belonging to the octavo series of Smithsonian miscellaneous
collections and reports, and they amount to about 1,400 pages.

EXCHANGES AND TRANSPORTATION.

As might have been expected, the operations in this department
show a decrease in magnitude as compared with 1860. That year,
however, was an exceptional one, and the receipts of 1861, though
inferior to those of 1860, are yet equal to the average of preceding
years. Many works of great value have been added to the library
of the Institution, and numerous series of foreign transactions com-
pleted to date. The transmissions of books and pamphlets on behalf
of American institutions has been very large, and the returns of cor-
responding magnitude.

It will be observed by the annexed table that the Smithsonian In-
stitution is not only the medium of literary and scientific communi-
cation between the Old World and parties in the United States, but
performs the same office for all the principal institutions in the re-
maining countries of America, as Canada, Cuba, Mexico, Chile, Bra-
zil, New Granada, &c.

In 1861, as in previous years, very important services have been
rendered by various transportation companies in the reduction or re-
mission of freights. Among these may be mentioned from previous
years the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, the Panama Railroad
Company, the Cunard steamers, the Bremen or North German Lloyd,
the Hudson’s Bay Company, the Adams Express Company, &c.
During the past year the directors of the New York and Hamburg

A

50 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
line have also authorized-their agents to forward packages to or from
the Institution free of charge.

The Institution is under many obligations to Mr. A. B. Forbes and
Mr. Samuel Hubbard, of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, in San
Francisco, for important services in facilitating and conducting its
general business of exchanges, shipments, &c., on the Pacific coast.

The domestic agents of exchange, consisting of Messrs. Swan,
Brewer & Tileston, Boston; D. Appleton & Co., New York; J. B.
Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, and Robert Clarke & Co., Cincinnati,
have, as heretofore, received and distributed without charge the
copies of Smithsonian contributions to knowledge addressed to insti-
tutions within their reach.

A.
Receipt of books, d&c., by exchange in 1861.
Volumes :
CV CEAVO «os! ate, 6 Uatovetotane! halleveteress eVatehul Vile Muara aie) whey eh sion wiWis) eile ve 572
Quarto MINS SURE TT CT IROL SES Ol NEDSS Moe: Tela ete ta al oer eMacawep navemeror hehe tarers 196
QUE vw bi Piston oie dal ieee, Ge RehaieeRia nnn wiry We Twi's Leh labeyp, wl el wee toms 53
. 821
Parts of volumes and pamphlets :
OCEAN O ferret a eereta ile lemel nie: at oe lala a ateneetnel seh et cits if 955
Quarto MME RSR A DEP Mame tL wos Rake Lal Fobra Metel Ney wMahse MU al ofsle tee er refteisiar ie 583
BU TRG fon Cae oH ala tenle Whee btw wrath pie el duanedei cxahemet et eet ets 107
1,945
Maps AAG GATES) « @ erie tol wt char tere einen c Ponemone atcha rhe taremele ls) e nel aptelieloe 120
TPA te ee he ke ee ND 229 Stn eee ine 2,886

Table showing the statistics of the foreign exchanges of the Smithsonian
Institution m 1861.

a : s “
8 decree tai Gas Mees
Agent and country. - z m8 = a ie ie
as 2 2 oe a
g 8 5 Pod ae
p= Zz A Q =
igre Frcneeeoll
1. Dr. Ferix Frieen, Leipsic.
Sweden scosacososeenacezeeeree 13 2G) ||. a oie all ete otaiaia's | eta a amare
Notwayte 22 2 52.2 Soe cesciecon- 6 PLM Sa See Soa eekse ese eee a
Denmark .o4. seek ate see sees 10 Gi op cece Seika a
URSA ea Se Seo crime eee aslo 29 ALG te | 2 reckless Sth As chino eects ret
OW ANG c's ate cise ere ee siceenete so eta 25 Oe ae etc ee ye ete eat at
Genniny ee oo. 2 Yes. wolecen ee 232 BEL) ) [Re Sete eae Ne ae tere =
Swatzerland J. USs25 7. nies ee ea. 21 BR seers cr ay Mey ee elit es ae
BGR Bee annnemast at cee 11 Qo isco'siyeek | tee eee ect
347 541 30 278 7,840

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

BY

B.— Table showing the statistics of the foreign exchanges, &c.—Continued.

———S>=—

Ad Z = S
= 4 m pe,
es = Ke | Se
Be inh hued SB
% oD mn Set » 2
oF 2 38 + Pace
g g 45 20 8
S 3 = o
Z et will (Fa =
L2OW0| Baye ie 1d Sawbghs Gna!
PAG aye Ate eal Eo dea te
eS Ret
her Tote a os re
206 7 94 2, 588
205 6 73 2,030
147 30 180 4,500
1,099 73 625 16,958

ro
o
Agent and country. ees
Ze
=
A
2. Hecror Bossance & Scns, Paris.
ACC ae as ed 69
Wtaly so oe cans cccseenascncue sot 39
Spall. so. See SP St ces eee 5
Poruleal 2 ee ase ee ee Seu eS eo 2
115
3. Royat Socrery, London.
Great Britain and Ireland....---.- 151
A RES Of CHE WOT = 5 ea cox aes cans 52
otalecosccsst case Leese Sess 665

N. B.—The total number of volumes in these 1,099 packages amounts to about 10,000.

C.

Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from parties
in America for foreign distribution in 1861.

Albany, N. Y.—

New York State Agricultural Society

Boston, Mass.—
American Academy of Arts and

Boston Society of Natural History

Prof. Jules Marcou: -
Cambridge, Mass.—

American Association for Advancement of Science --- -

Chicago, Ill.—

Lieut. Col. James D. Graham, U.S. A-----

Columbus, Ohio.—
Ohio State Board of Agriculture
Leo Lesquereaux: ----

Dorchester, Mass.—
Dr. Ed. Jarvis

eeevev eee 2

ae mae) «6-6, v6 8 eres. el See 6) 88 6

Number of packages,

10

ot Ser iste ver pie) 6) Sey O06) eh 0)-'e

118
64
20

al

STH G iy waren stie WE adewoue, 1

etree cee eee ee ee ee 8

~ eevee e eee eee re eee

53:
27

a

907

«688, © (8) eh ae.

100
50

25

a) Ste Seer a e0. Bi eS se ©

52 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Indianapolis, Ind.—

Institution for Deaf and Dumb..--....-.+..---

New Haven, Conn.—

American Journal of Science: -+++.+ esses es,

Breve ier) Co aTTAS Es bee 'n Os tae Medea s) odes urea

Little Rock, Ark.—

cE A ye A SO Rs i» EM RRL al

New York.—

New York Leeann of Natural History--.---.-
Astor Library Miereeta tetetatalsiscetsstsueuelu ateigeieiis ess aie eters
aT TES Tae OREO ee cn ee oe eraisca oe se aie ns ae

Philadelphia, Pa.—

Academy of Natural Sciences.+-- +++. sees eee ee eeee 173

American Philosophical Society - -
Entomological Society of Philadelphia:

Princeton, N. J.—

Prof. Arnold Guyot::---- Bec aue ete ee ieuiGie Chat Se EMT CTS

Providence, Rk. I.—

State of Rhode Island «++... «0s. see twas 6

St. Louis, Mo.—

St. Louis Academy of Sciences--+- + s+--++ esses

San Francisco, Cal.—
California Academy of Natural Sciences
Toronto, Canada.—

Canadian Institue tatutatcnae nent! Slate Sede tees

Washington, D. C.—
U.S. Patent Office

Secretary of War
Captain A. A. Humphreys

"ee ee ee oe ee ewe ees ew eee eee

U.S. Coast Survey: ES an Meretets stat onamehe a toMete epee oh

“eee we ee ee wee eee wee wee ec eee

Number of packages.

oe 18

Sana eetheiletys 104

oak 800

saa 68
ce 500

119
12

12

ak ha: 163

aan 50

Cees 69

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

2),

53

Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe, for
distribution in America, in 1861.

Albany, N. Y.
Baba NS OUbe oe eeen ae ae
Dudley Observatory..-----.----.----
New York State Agricultural Society - -
New York State Library......-.----
New York State Medical Society.-----
De BrUnnOW 4 <eelen eet a= ae oes
Professor James Hall 5-2-4. <-'5-\--=<
Amherst, Mass.
Amberst Colleresocecmas s+ a6 acne
Annapolis, Md.
Statevabra ny ese atte aeeaciem as ainiel= Kan
Ann Arbor, Mich.

Observatory sos-n55sa5-o--ccn occu.
Professor Brunno0W---.2ssecceecc-=2

Augusta, He.

State ibratyeassco ss aceccasecacses
Austin, Texas.

State dibratyeeoes—-s2eoccce cen c ce
Baltimore, Md.

Maryland Historical Society....-----
Snowdon Pigs ot scncmienscsacencmaae

Baton Rouge, La.
Dtaterkibrary.ssaceccscccs 2. c5. cass
Bogota, New Granada.
Sociedad de Naturalistas Neo Granadi-
Sociedad Hconomica de Ainigos del
Boston, Mass.

American Academy of Artsand Sciences
American Statistical Association -----

American Unitarian Association.....-
Boston Society of Natural History .-.--

Number of

packages.

Orme bp 10 bd

Or

Sy
5 bo
2g
es
= a

Boston, Mass.—Continued.
Bowditely Libranys-=---=-eeeeee— it
Geological: Survey<u.<+ -u-seeeeee 2
Massachusetts Historical Society - ---- 2
New England Historic-Genealogical
SOGleby=t- == ae aes eee 1
Prison Discipline Society--...------ 1
Public Dibrarys -sesaeaecle ance alan 8
State Iibranyesenesos acces —ssee—s~ 6
James! barmardey se. senseeiaa == <2 < 1
MaGirardtseete ores satense sees aac 2
Hdward Hahich.G2s0..6¢ sce erose=t 1
Dra. Jarviss sooo. ses see meeeiae 3
Professor C. T. Jackson.......-...- 2
Professor Jules Marcou -..------.-- 2
Professor Moreland and F’. Minot---- 1
l) JBrotessorn Webs qNOSCIS ane cesmana=e 2
Geos Ticknor™. ss deee cater eee ces 1
Brookline, Mass.
Drjbyman occ esa states <= emo = 2
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Dr;| Louis: Baueres.s..0.seeea - siaee iL
EB. Nugent 2.2552 tceceepae et eee iL
Brunswick, Me.
Bows om: COU eI e cea ete teltetertel 3
Historical Society of Maine -....--. 1
A. SPackard fe etioees ants aieeiee 2
Burlington, Iowa.
Towa Historical and Geological Insti-
TUtes eee eo eee eee see oe ae ser 1
Burlington, Vt.
University of Vermont -.....------ 4
Cambridge, Mass.
American Association for Advance-
ment of Science ......---.------ 14
Astronomical Journal.....---.----- 3
Astronomical Observatory ---------- 13
Harvard College .--.-.------------ 15
Nautical Almanac Office ---.------- 1
|| Professor L. Agassiz..-.----------- 25

54

REPORT OF ASSISTANT

SECRETARY.

D.— Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §c—Continued.

Cambridge, Mass.—Continued.

GREP BOUG Een enous <teacieuceces
Protessorr@larko so Gueccccts cm oes
Drvbeea Goulden seco oeeremoeece
Professor Asa Gray’----- 22-2252 25 5.
Protessor Pierce...) caste ences cee
H.W Rutnam: .252-222) S325 4S. ee
J. Di -Rupklet..scac2 9a Sst ee ee eee
Ernest Schubert_........... SORES.
Mr. ‘Sullivan® 2p) 22eeesel ees
Dr. Tuckerman <.2sese ccteesescccel
A) Hea Werrill 2222255252 292 2 oo
Professor J. E. Worcester ...-.....--

Charleston, S. C.

Elliott Society of Natural History ----
Society Library s222s4 52222252 225.2
Dr; CisHappoldts 2 2223 as ee oo
Professor J. KE. Holbrook......-.--..
Wilmot De'Saussurel 222-22 55 --2_

Charlottesville, Va.
University of Virginial:2222--..2.--
Chicago, lil.

Academy of Chicago’: .<-2.—--=.-.- ae
Chicago Historical Society....-.--...

Mechanics’ Institute...--..-.=......
Messrs. N. 8. David and Byford......

Colonel J. D. Graham ....-.-.--.--- |

Cincinnati, Ohio.

American Medical College.-..-......
Historical and Philosophical Society of
OW10 222k 6 sees eee eee

Mercantile) Library <2. 22 25-25-35 2-< :

ODSSIVALOLY sess a es aaa = ieee

Professor Mitchell’cos. sss2 co soce eee

Dr: Newton< s2<22stcsceeectesescor
Columbia, Penn.

§: S#Haldeman <2.ee see een eeese

Columbia, S.C.
South Carolina College ......-....-.
State Mibrary os cs. Joos Sake See
Columbus, Ohio.

Ohio State Agricultural Society ......
State hibrarye---422se——26 eee eee
£eo Lesquereux cas. > seen sss 6 see a

Number of
packages

me
De ee et et Ot SO

See Oo

ee

—

mtr Co He bo

we

Concord, N. H.

New Hampshire Historical Society ---
State Library... sosoeraqsedme aeons

Des Moines, Iowa.

State Library. -.05 shasaseesieas

Detroit, Mich.
Michigan State Agricultural Society...

Messrs. Palmer, Gunn & Stearns-----
Dr. Zena Pitcher and A. B. Palmer-~-

Dorchester, Mass.

Dr. UH. Jarviguse see ss haere eee

East Greenwich, N. Y.

Asa Hitech’ 252 se eae Bee e ee eee ee

Frankfort, Ky.

Geological Survey of Kentucky-----
State library =. 235225. ce acemeeeee

Gambier, Ohio.
Kenyon!) Colleges ss a.ccsease ce=—
Georgetown, D.C.

Georgetown College....---.----..-
Arthur Schotts2 22-25-25 se eee

Hanover, N. H.

Dartmouth Collese: --- oneness see
Professor Youne.<< <==. ,.scsoseea=

Harrisburg, Penn.
State Mibrary- ou lco co ee soo aaes
Hartford, Conn.
Historical Society of Connecticut....
Stateduibrary..-oo-e= -ese eee sane
Young Men’s Institute...._...-....

Havana, Cuba.

Meteorological Observatory -...--.-

Number of
packages

ee)

Do

nm oO

ow ob

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 55

D.— Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, &—Continued.

Number of
packages
Number of
packages

Hudson, Ohio.

Milledgeville, Ga.

Western Reserve College--....---.-- 5 || State Dabtary2o55 52 == cess Jase 1
Indianapolis, Ind. Monigomery, Ala.
Indiana Historical Society...--.--.-- 1.) State Ihibrary =. 2-2 22 8h oS jc 2
Hiatemuibrary,< =<. Se55tsesecssocesc= 3
Montpelier, Vi.
Lowa City, Lowa.
Historical and Antiquarian Society of
AiatevUNiVeIsiby <ss5- seb seo ess 29 Vermonti. .2 222 seteee Ss ae Stes 1
State library... <~ <.seeneenee 3
Jackson, Miss.
Montreal, C. E.
plate Library sooo. 28 25ocee lessee 2
Natural History Society ---..-...-- 1
Janesville, Wis. Professor fT) Ss Hunt.s3:.ceesene=-+ 1
Sim W. Ey Lovatcsc<ssaccucecekes 1
State Institution for the Blind-.....- 1
Nashville, Tenn.
Jefferson City, Mo. State. Library: 2820 (ese: 3
State Library..----------- aie 2 RrOiess0ly DlIACkIC)s 22 eee nee 1
Lansing, Mich. | New Brunswick, N. J.
Michigan State Agricultural Society...) 4 || Professor George H. Cook---.--...- 5
State Library-.....-------.-------- | 3 New Haven, Conn.
eee American Journal of Science ------- 24
: American Oriental Society --.------ 10
Ba Se Sa Soe | 2 || Yale Collémeaee Seen rene seen 13
. | Professor) ss Danas---ss-2scsa= 24
Faitle Rook, Art. Professors, h0omisen sor eso- sess = | 6
Professor, Silliman! =2222ssen----——. 15
piate of Arkansas <<. .o-522<c.5s--- 9 :
Sintetabratyls2m 2 0 | 3 Professor W. D. Whitney.----...-- 5,
University of Arkansas----.-------- 3 Nas Orban
ee | New Orleans Academy of Natural
Sciences~ +225 42s4e 22252 See 25
TSN en ee eee eee See en 1 ee
Professor J. L. Smith..-...--.-----.| fh Pee wet a aae kal 1
Madison, Wis. ee
Historical Society of Wisconsin..-..- | 7 || American Ethnological Society ----- 2
Niavownibrary Ha ssc-sse25s2—5" ooo. 3 || American Geographical and Statisti- |
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society... 17 Cal: Sociehys emer se ese ea = = mane 38
American Institute -... -----.----- 5
McMinnville, Warren county, Tenn. | Astorlaibraryeessssateer- sess oeee ers
Board of Education.....----------- 1
OB eee ne eee ah oreew ns «== | : Historical Sociefy=2- +2 225--2----.-- yas
Mess. Mes Mercantile Library Association - - - --. 4
CRIED, AT PECO. New York Journal of, Pharmacy ---- 1
Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Es- | New York Lyceum of Natural History; 39
hadistica sssateeceseeress tees ccs 5 2 || Norton’s Literary Gazette .---.---- 2

56

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

D.— Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, &c.—Continued.

New York, N. Y.—Continued.

University Library-..............--
J. Russell Bradford
W. Dornbach

David Dudley Field ............----
Messrs. Frank & Norton.......-....
Henry, Grinnell --2 4... See. 5 os
M,,. Harlanssoeo nok no ees cess

wee we we meee ee ee ee ee
wee eee ee ee eee

Dr. E. Robinson
BGs Squier 2. eo ak) Se
Drs dobar Portgyscse sere 5. ol Ae

Olympia, Washington.
PerntorialMibraryss secs. a. e ene
Omaha, Nebraska.

Termtorial Mibraryss22ssecose eo ee
Philadelphia, Penn.

Academy of Natural Sciences.....-..
American Philosophical Society
Central High School
Franklin Institute
Gqe0logical SULVEYy, cise aces amt
Historical Society of Pennsylvania... -
Philadelphia Library Company
Wagner Free Institute
W. G; BinneyArsaves sac. stan oo
Mr, (Cope 5232 sa aaeen eae oes epee
Ho §. Crannerss ees oteces. oc eae oe
Dr. Robley Dunglison -..-..-.......
Messrs. Gross & Richardson
Professor Haldeman
Isaac [. Hayes
Isaac Lea

Dr. Joseph Leidyrs sano eke. 2-52
William’) Sharswood 22225 525-.22_2c2
Professor’ Wacneny 22.22 255 —eto5 aces

Portland, Me.
Neal Dow, Mayor of Portland .....--
Princeton, N. J.
College of New Jersey

Professor Alexander
Professor A. Guyot

Number of

\

packages.

~
KEK ONON DH HHH HEE Oto pb

|| Brown University

|| John Carter Brown

|| Dr. John Ritter

WN EY HEE OH ED He oO

os
mere Ost

Providence, R. I.

Rhode Island Historical Society .-...
State Library

Quebec, C. E.
Observatory -- S208 soos eee ee sn wee
Quincy, Til.

Raleigh, N.C.

| State Library...<23:2eeee ce ee oenee

Richmond, Va.

Historical Society of Virginia. -.----
State Wibrarys=-se— pee ee coe eae

Rio Janeiro, Brazil.

|| Inst. Hist. Geogr. of Brazil. ........

Nautical Observatory....--------.-
Rock Island, It.

Benjamin’ D Walsh= 2. .c sores
Sacramento, Cal.

State Library

St. Augustine, Fla.
Historical Society of Flerida....---.

St. John’s, N. B.
King’s College

St. Louis, Mo,

Geological Survey of Missouri, (Co-
Tumbia, Mo), .2. 22. e5-enee
St. Louis Academy of Sciences....--
University library os2-2ccs<s=5-5 56
DraiGeorse Bemaysin tee semen ‘
Dr. George Engelmann---....-...-
Messrs. Eginton & McPheeters....--
Dr. Adam Hammer

ee ee
emer e te ew ee ee ee eee ee ee
ee

Number of
packages.

bet et DO

bo

_

bo bo

km OO

CO et et bo tH St He op Ox

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

57

D.— Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §&c—Continued.

S é } Ss
> bo i. | 3 So
5 & | \2¢
me | ees
St. Paul, Minn. Utica, N. Y.
Historical Society of St. Paul....---- 1 || American Journal of Insanity .-.--- 4
Mee MIMETY oe oS So2 eee wo ones oe ah .
|| Valdivia, Chile.
Salem, Mass. |
| Dr. Eugen Von Boeck.... ..------ 1
Digee WEOEL Senet ece ewe foe 2
Protec mine 2. oo. 5. ceeded | 1 Valparaiso, Chile.
Preteens BGskAWe nd bi wo Gc - ound om | Ll
| Dr ThomassA: Reid <= s0= am oe oer 2
San Francisco, Cal. |
Washington, D. C.
California Academy of Natural Sciences.) 10
| Congress@ulbrary .-.—---s<=-2-—-—5 6
Santiago, Chile. National Institute .........------- 2
|| National Observatory -.-..-------- 45
Observatorio Nacional de Santiago ~--| 2-1) Ordnanée Bureau’. ..<2<----acnues 3
Wniversity Library.....;~--=----2=- 4 || Secretary of War, .:-.-<..c<«pe- ons 2
Prom toveck 3-2. .-.-0.-- 2 1 | U.S. Boundary Commission. ...-.-- 1
DiriMloektass 2 sve oes ste. ls. 20S. Coast Survey iis. 7 455-42 2627 10
Hl US: ePatent Offices s22te steko 67
Savannah, Ga. Colonel JeaS.. Abert <2 2. sc2s52eec2 1
| Professor A.D. Bache-------.----- 25
Georgia Historical Society.....------ 2? | WP: Brown Sets 2s es soe 1
lt J. Hereusonpssce st. Mee ce ecu q
Springfield, Lil. | Lieutenant Gilliss _..2-.,-.-. «--- 6
Dr. Charles Girard S220 oso oo te a 2
State MROrany er. 2 sake aeons 2 || Captain H. J. Hartstene -.....--..- 4
Rew. jProk. Hsbjornes! 2-222. 2 = 22 1 | Professor W. E. Jillson -.---.------ 1
Reve @achtmann) 3.22.2 2o535025 55. 1 tdeG. Grakenned ye. 25.2). a seceoe 4
|| Lieutenant M. F. Maury....------- 9
Springfield, Mass. || Baron! Osten Sackens oes soo-s250—=— 1
|) George Wi. Rieosias. ce ssosse sesh 3
WalliamyPillys ose cstsns on secseseas 1, \ MijpAs i. Rives tn cot se eee 1
|) SOhntA, ROCKWELL 2-4 pce ose ae 1
Toronto, C. W. | H. R. Schoolcraft.-.-......---..-- 8
We eM pSOn 0-2 a. ak tewidoan ee 1
Qanadian: Institute. ...=.-s.-22-2222 i) Henry, Olke=s 222 4a ae eeeeeoae eee 1
Magnetical and Meteorological Obser- I /
aE ae Rte oe ope Se whe HZ | West Point, N. Y.
ininittva COMGRC on Secale os ueas es 1 | pt
Protessor Raineston =. 3553282. 2. 1 | U.S. Military Academy --..-.--..- iL
|| Professor Bailey ------------------ 1
Trenton, N. J. | | su oo arp ap eee MRE LEMP t
| Worcester, Mass.
Geological Survey of New Jersey. ---- 1 ;
State Library....... Selene ar eet | 20 American Aptiquarian Society.-.-.- 7
\
Ronmoaddressess sole os ake oh a eee arenes eee ee 274
Motalfotparcelsty: Meech ee ween ls THSee a eee t Stee scene 1, 406

58 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

MUSEUM AND COLLECTIONS.

Additions.—The receipts of specimens during 1861, as might have
been expected, were decidedly inferior to those of 1860, although
much of great interest to science has been added to the collection
since the date of the last report. Several explorations which had
been planned were, of necessity, abandoned, owing to various impedi-
ments and difficulties. Among these may be mentioned an explora-
tion of the region about Devil’s river, Texas, by Patrick Duffy, hos-
pital steward, United States army ; of Fort Churchill, by Lieutenant
John Feilner, United States army; and of Lake Winnepeg, by Donald
Gunn. These, it is hoped, however, are only deferred to be hereafter
resumed and carried out under better auspices.

No government expeditions have furnished any collections during
1861, excepting the Northwestern Boundary Commission, and their
collections were all made in 1860, only arriving in 1861. All the rest
were derived from resident correspondents of the Institution, or from
gentlemen making explorations in the field in its behalf. A full list
of all such receipts is given herewith, to which I would refer for par-
ticulars.

In addition to the operations of Mr. Xantus, Mr. Kennicott, and
officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company, mentioned specially hereafter,
I may state that important contributions to our knowledge of the re-
gions adjacent to the United States have been furnished by Mr.
Charles Wright, from Cuba; Mr. W. Thomas March, of Jamaica, and
Dr. Sartorius, of Mexico.

Very valuable collections of type specimens have been received
from Dr. Hartlaub, of the Bremen museum; Drs. Reinhardt and
Steenstrup, of the Copenhagen museum; Mr. P. L. Sclater, of Lon-
don; the Messrs. Verreaux, of Paris; and Professor Agassiz, of the
Cambridge museum.

The following are the explorations during the year from which the
largest results have been received:

EXPLORATIONS.

Exploration of Cape St. Lucas and the Gulf of Califorma, by Mr.
John Xantus.—In the two last reports reference was made to that ex-
ploration following one of the region about Fort Tejon, California, by
the same gentleman. I have now to report that the series of tidal
and other observations made for the Coast Survey having been com-
pleted by Mr. Xantus, he has left Cape St. Lucas and returned to the
east. The whole of the collections made by him have not yet arrived,
but enough has been received during 1861, in continuation of pre-
vious years, to exhibit the ability and industry of Mr. Xantus as a
naturalist. Over sixty boxes, some of large size, with contents em-
bracing (and almost exhausting) every department of natural history,
prepared and packed in a perfect manner, accompanied by numerous
measurements, notes, and biographies, and all made in the intervals

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 59

of regular scientific duty, abundantly verify this estimate of Mr.
Xantus’s abilities.

In addition to the thorough exploration of the region immediately
round Cape St. Lucas and the mountains in the vicinity, Mr. Xantus,
since his residence there, has pushed his examinations many leagues
up the coast, both on the ocean and gulf sides, and directly or indi-
rectly extended them to a number of the islands, as Socorro, Tres
Marias, &c. He also made a visit to Mazatlan during the past spring,
and secured a valuable collection of birds.

The many new species collected by Mr. Xantus are in process of
elaboration and will shortly be published. Partial reports have
already been made on the birds by Mr. Xantus himself; on the rep-
tiles by Mr. Cope; on the fishes by Mr. Gill; on the insects by Dr.
Le Conte ; on the crustacea and asteriade by Mr. Stimpson ; on the
ophiuride by Mr. Lyman ; on the myriapoda by Mr. Wood ; on the
bats by Dr. Allen; on the plants by Dr. Gray, &. The rich con-
chological materials are in the hands of Mr. P. P. Carpenter. It is
proposed when all these examinations are completed to combine them
in one general memoir, on the natural history of the cape, which will
then ‘be as well or even better known than the extremity of the cor-
responding peninsula of Florida, equally included in the limits of the
North American fauna and flora.

Exploration of the Hudson's Bay territory by Mr. Kennicott.—At the
date of the last advices from Mr. Kennicott, when the Smithsonian
Report for 1860 was presented, he was at Fort Resolution, on Slave
lake, where he had spent the preceding spring and summer, princi-
pally in collecting eggs of birds. He left Fort Resolution in August,
1860, and returned to Fort Simpson and proceeded immediately down
the Mackenzie to Peels river. From Peels river he crossed the
Rocky mountains to La Pierre’s house, occupying four days in the
transit,and arriving September 18th; left the next day for Fort Yukon,
at the junction of Porcupine or Rat river and the Yukon or Pelly
river, in about latitude 65° and longitude 146°. Fort Yukon, the
terminus of his journey, was reached on the 28th of September, 1860.

The latest advices now on file from Mr. Kennicott were written
January 2, 1861, up to which time he had made some interesting col-
lections; but these, of course, were limited by the season. He had
great expectations of success during the following spring, (of 1861,)
which have no doubt been abundantly realized. -

No collections were received from Mr. Kennicott in 1861, with the
exception of a few specimens gathered in July and August, 1860, on
Slave lake. Those made at the Yukon will, however, in all proba-
bility come to hand in October or November of 1862.

Mr. Kennicott expected to remain at the Yukon until August, 1861,
then to start for La Pierre House and Fort Good Hope, possibly to
Fort Simpson, to spend some months, and endeavor by early spring to
reach Fort Anderson, near the mouth of Anderson river, (a stream
between the Mackenzie and Coppermine rivers,) and in the barren
grounds close to the Arctic ocean. At Fort Anderson he expected to

60 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

collect largely of the skins and eggs of birds, rare mammals, &c., and
to return to Fort Simpson in the autumn, (of 1862,) then to arrive at
Fort Chipewyan, on Lake Athabasca, by the spring of 1863, so as to
get back to the United States by the winter of the same year.

For a notice of the continued aid to Mr. Kennicott, rendered by
the gentlemen of the Hudson’s Bay Company, I have to refer to the
next division of my report.

Exploration of the Hudson’ s Bay territory by officers of the Hudson’ s
Bay Company.—The gentlemen of many of the Hudson Bay Com-
pany’s posts have largely extended their important contributions to
science, referred to in the preceding report. A large proportion of the
principal stations have thus furnished collections of specimens and
meteorological observations of the highest value, which, taken in con-
nexion with what Mr. Kennicott is doing, bid fair to make the Arctic
natural history and physical geography of America as well known as
that of the United States.

Pre-eminent among these valued collaborators of the Institution is
Mr. Bernard R. Ross, chief factor of the Mackenzie River district,
and resident at Fort Simpson. Reference was made in former reports
to his contributions in previous years; those sent in 1861 are in no
way behind the others, embracing numbers of skins of birds and
mammals, some of great variety, insects, &c., besides very large
series of specimens illustrating the manners and customs of the Hs-
quimaux and various Indian tribes. Mr. Ross has also deposited
some relics of Sir John Franklin, consisting of a gun used by him in
his first expedition, and a sword belonging to the last one, and ob-
tained from the Esquimaux. Mr. Ross is at present engaged in a
series of investigations upon the tribes of the north, to be published
whenever sufficiently complete, and illustrated by numerous photo-
graphic drawings.

In making up his transmissions to the Institution Mr. Ross has had
the co-operation of nearly all the gentlemen resident at the different
posts in his district, their contributions being of great value. Among
them may be mentioned Mr. James Lockhart, Mr. William Hardisty,
Mr. J. S. Onion, Mr. John Reed, Mr. N. Taylor, Mr. C. P. Gaudet,
Mr. James Flett, Mr. A. McKenzie, Mr. A. Beaulieu, &c.

Second in magnitude only to those of Mr. Ross are the contribu-
tions of Mr. Lawrence Clarke, jr., of Fort Rae, on Slave lake, con-
sisting of many mammals, nearly complete sets of the water fowl,
and other birds of the north side of the lake, with the eggs of many
of them, such as the black-throated diver, the trumpeter swan, &c.

Other contributions have been received from Mr. R. Campbell, of
Athabasca; Mr. James McKenzie, of Moose Factory; Mr. Gladmon,
of Rupert House; Mr. James Anderson, (a) of Mingan; Mr. George
Barnston, of Lake Superior; and Mr. Connolly, of Rigolette. Mr.
McKenzie furnished a large box of birds of Hudson’s Bay, while from
Mr. Barnston were received several collections of skins, and eggs of
birds, new and rare mammals, insects, fish, &c., of Lake Superior.

It may be proper to state in this connexion that the labors of Mr.

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. ‘ 61

Kennicott have been facilitated to the highest degree by the liber-
ality of the Hudson’s Bay Company, as exercised by the directors in
London, the executive officers in Montreal, (especially Mr. Edward
Hopkins,) and all the gentlemen of the company, in particular by
Governor Mactavish, of Fort Garry, and Mr. Ross. In fact, without
this aid the expense of Mr. Kennicott’s exploration would be far be-
yond what the Institution could afford, even with the assistance re-
ceived from others. Wherever the rules of the company would ad-
mit, no charge has been made for transportation of Mr. Kennicott and
his supplies and collections, and he has been entertained as a guest
wherever he has gone. No charge also was made on the collection
sent from Moose Factory to London by the company’s ship, and in
every possible way this time-honored company has shown itself
friendly and co-operative in the highest degree to the scientific ob-
jects of the Institution.

Northwest Boundary Survey, under Mr. Archibald Campbell.—This
expedition has finally completed its labors in the field and returned
to Washington, bringing rich results in physical science, as well as
important collections in natural history. These, with what were pre-
viously sent hither from time to time, are in progress of elaboration,
and reports are in preparation to be presented to Congress when
completed.

It is with deep regret that I have to announce the death at sea, on
his homeward voyage in February last, of Dr. C. B. Kennerly, the
surgeon and naturalist of the Boundary Survey. Connected with this
expedition from its beginning, in 1857, and, in conjunction with Mr.
Gibbs, making the principal portion of its collections, his report on
them would have been one of great value. For many years prior to
1857, however, he had been in intimate relations with the Institution
as a collaborator, first while resident at his home, at White Post,
Clark county, Virginia, then in 1853, as surgeon and naturalist to the
Pacific Railroad Survey of Captain Whipple along the 35th parallel,
then in the same relationship to the Mexican Boundary Survey, under
Colonel Emory, in 1855. No one of the gentlemen who have labored
so zealously to extend a knowledge of the natural history of the west
within the last ten or twelve years has been more successful than
Dr. Kennerly. Many new species have been first described by him-
self or from his collections, while his contributions to the biography
of American animals have been of the highest interest.

IDENTIFICATION OF SPECIMENS.

The identification of the unnamed species in the Smithsonian collec-
tion has been carried on as rapidly as possible, with the co-operation
of many naturalists of distinction. Some of it has been prosecuted
within the building; most of it, however, by géntlemen who either
came to Washington and made their selections or had specimens sent
to them. The following persons may be specially mentioned in con-
nexion with the several portions of the collection:

62 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Mammals.—The monkeys and South American mammals generally
have been studied by Dr. J. H. Slack, and the bats by Dr. H. Allen,
both of Philadelphia. Several species not previously described have
been found among them by these gentlemen.

Birds.—My. Cassin has continued his examinations of the South
American birds. Mr. Elhot Coues has monographed the North Ameri-
can Tringece, or sandpipers; the Laride, or gulls; the Colymbide, or
divers, and the Aegiothi, or pine finches. Several of these have
already been published. Dr. Bryant has examined the C'uillemots
and large hawks, and Mr. Lawrence has identified the humming-birds.

Reptiles—Mr. BE. D. Cope has studied the exotic reptiles generally,
and has had special reference to those from South America, Mexico,
and the West Indies. Many new species have been described by
him from the Smithsonian specimens. Professor Agassiz has not yet
returned the Smithsonian collection of turtles.

Fishes. —Professor Agassiz has still in hand the Exploring Expedi-
tion fishes, a collection of nearly one thousand species. Mr. Alexan-
der Agassiz has examined the Smithsonian Hmbiotocoids, or vivipa-
rous fishes of California. Mr. F. W. Putnam has completed the study
of the Etheostomoids, and entered on that of the Cottotds. Several
other important families have been sent to the Museum of Compara-
tive Zoology, for investigation by students of Professor Agassiz. Mr.
Gill has made particular study of the west coast fishes, and those col-
lected at Cape St. Lucas by Mr. Xantus.

Crustacea. —Mr. Ordway has examined several groups of the crus-
tacea, and others have been studied by Mr. Stimpson.

Radiates.—Myr. Stimpson has finished the study of the Asteriades,
and Professor Agassiz has had in hand other of the star fishes. Mr.
Verrill has made a detailed examination of all the corals.

Mollusks.—Mr. P. P. Carpenter has had in his hands for investiga-
tion, aided by Dr. Alcock, all the shells of the west coast of America,
and many of the exotic collections. Certain marine families have
been sent to Professor Agassiz. Mr. Isaac Lea has named all the
Unionide. Mr. Binney has taken charge of the land and fresh-water
Univalves; Mr. Bush has the Polyzoa. The Cephalopods have all been
sent to Dr. Steenstrup, of Copenhagen, for a report.

Insects. —Dr. Le Conte and Mr. Ulke have examined the North
American Coleoptera ; Baron Osten Sacken and Dr. Loew the Diptera ;
Dr. Hagen the Newroptera ; Mr. Edwards and Drs. Morris and Clem-
ens the Lepidoptera, and Mr. Uhler the Hemiptera.

Fossils. —Dr. Newberry has studied many of the fossil plants. Mr.
Meek, aided by Dr. Hayden, has identified all the fossils collected by
the latter gentleman. Dr. Gabb, of Philadelphia, has investigated a
number of the tertiary and cretaceous shells.

Rocks and Minerals. —Mr. Thomas Egleston, jr., has been engaged

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 63

for several months in the determining and arranging of the minerals
and rocks of the collection, aided in a portion of the labor relating to
the latter work by Dr. Newberry and Mr. Gibbs.

Plants.—The plants have been in the hands of Drs. Torrey and
Gray and Mr. Eaton, who are making much progress in the labor of
selecting and labelling a complete series.

Results of many of the above investigations, have already been pub-
lished, others are nearly completed, while some will require a con-
siderable time to complete. All, however, when presented to the
world, are announced as being based upon the Smithsonian material,
while the greater portion either have been or will be published by
the Smithsonian Institution, as detailed in your report.

All the specimens thus submitted to examination are carefully
labelled, and the duplicates set aside to be distributed as types to the
institutions having strongest claims to them. As the work progresses
the amount of material available for such distribution increases, and
new collections are more readily used to a similar end.

The labor of cataloguing and registering the specimens has been
continued as rapidly as other duties would allow, the result at the end
of the year being stated in the annexed table. In this I have been
much assisted by the gentlemen named above, as well as in addition
by Mr. John M. Woodworth, Mr. W. Prentiss, Mr. R. B. Hitz, and
Mr. Fitzgerald.

DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIMENS,

The distribution of specimens has been carried on very largely
during the year. About fifty sets of duplicate shells of the United
States Exploring Expedition have been sent to as many institutions,
while large numbers of species in all classes of the animal kingdom
have also been supplied. A rough estimate gives 40,000 species and
80,000 specimens of natural history as thus distributed up to date,
while many more are nearly in readiness. When it is considered that
all these have been named and labelled by naturalists admitted to be
of the highest authority in their respective departments, and that all
have thereby the character and value of types, many of them be-
longing to species first described from Smithsonian specimens, or
serving as the materials of elaborate monographs, it will be readily
understood how much their systematic and judicious distribution by
the Institution all over the world must conduce to the advancement
of science.

WORK DONE IN THE MUSEUM.

Good progress has been made during the year in the proper arrange-
ment and labelling of the specimens in the museum hall. Many of
the shelves have been edged with black strips, and many stands
whitened and renewed. Additional cases have been erected at the
east end of the hall for the accommodation of the large birds which
crowded inconveniently those already filled. A number of floor cases
have been constructed to receive the large collection of shells.

64 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Much labor has been expended on the identification and labelling
of the exotic birds, but this work is now nearly finished. When, in
accordance with the plan, these, as well as all the other specimens
in the hall, are accurately and legibly labelled, with both their scien-
tific and vernacular hames, the gratification of the public in exam-
ining the rich treasures of the museum will be greatly enhanced.
Table exhibiting the total number of entries on the record books of the Smith-

sonian collection at the end of each year from 1851 to 1861, inclusive.

| |

1851, | 1852. | 1853. | 1854. | 1855.) 1856. | 1857. | 1858. | 1859. | 1860. | 1861.
Skeletons and skulls....} 911 | 1,074 | 1,190 | 1,275} 2,050) 3,060| 3,340} 3,413; 3,650) 4,350) 4,459
Mammals...... seecececclecsees 114; 198} 351] 1,200) 2,046 4,575 | 5,550
Birds. ..cceeees cee veces] vecceeleccees| secces 4,353 | 4,425 | 5,855 20,875 | 23,510
Reptiles...sseseee ceenesleveees seccerlovecce|socces|cesees 106 4,683} 6,088
Fishes... seccecsceess | eseene vecger|scceeeleoveer| voseee 2,975 | 3,643
Eggs of birds ......055 se} caeve- ceenes| seceee|coeeer|soeses (sens eee 2 ‘ 4,425} 4,830
CrUstaceds.eeccscecescctsscsee|ceccce| corses|sovces|sosces|sans e 979} 1,287
MO)UskGi... cc cece eel cacces|cccccs|scvcnc|sccces| cocces|cveqaees 8,832 | 9,718
Radiates ....e.s0.. 1,308} 1,800
Fossils ......+ asstefers 705} 1,031
Minerals......+eeeeeeece| sous wbraca | oT Mjerainie's 1,132} 3,500
Ethnological specimens.|...... | oesecs|caceee|cececs|occnes 550 550
AnmilidS 2.20 .ce.cccerss|cesees Jevcccalcecece|sowevs|sesens Waicase cable alee, Sade irviea cel {lonicn «part civilians 109
——————S | | | ——_——_ ————————— | — SK | qcr_|c_|—
Total..... cuscscons| LL 1,188 | 1,388 | 5,979 | 7,675 | 11,222) 16,158) 25,506} 37,197} 55,389] 66,075

Entries during 1861, 10,686.

LIST OF DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM IN 1861.

Akhurst, J.—Mammals from Bogota.

Allen, W. T.—Eggs of birds from Virginia.

Ambrose, Rev. J.—Skin of Mergulus alle.

Anderson, (a) James.—Wolf-fish from the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

Austin, J. B.—Menobranchus, from Chicago.

Backus, Miss Julia H.—Australian boomerang.

Baird, S. F.—Four boxes minerals and rocks, of Essex county, New
York, and one bottle Coregonus of Lake Champlain.

Baird, W. M.—Sigillaria, from Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania.
Barnston, George.—Horns of caribou, skins of mammals and birds,
skeletons, nests and eggs, insects, &c. Lake Superior.

Beadle, D. W.—Fishes from Canada West.

Beaulieu, A.—Skins of birds, &c., McKenzie river. (Through B. R.
Ross.)

Bishop, F. A.—Soils and earths collected in Utah. (Through De-
partment of Interior/)

Boardman, G, A.—Skins and eggs of birds of New Brunswick.

Boettner, Gustav A.—lInsects, &c., of Kansas.

Boyle, P. F,.—Chicken with four legs.

Brandt, Henry.—Mammals, birds and eggs of Kansas.

Bremen Museum.—Five mounted Arctic birds, and skull of European
brown bear.

‘Brevoort, J. C_—Mammals from Central America.

Brewer, Dr. T. M.—Nest of eggs of Helminthophaga rujicapilla.

’

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 65

British Government.—Fragment of meteorite from India.
Bryant, Dr. H.—Skins and eggs of birds.
Buckner, Rev. H.—Bitumen from the Cherokee nation.
Burling, William.—Skin canoe or cayak, and skin dress of Indians of
N. W. America, (through J. W. Raymond.)
Cambridge, Museum of Comparative Zoology.—Hight species embioto-
coids of California, and seven of ophiurans. .
Campbell, Archibald.—Collections of animals, plants, rocks, &c.,
made by Dr. C. B. Kennerly and Mr. George Gibbs, naturalists
and geologists of the northwest boundary survey.
a mpbell, #.—Skins of mammals from the Hudson's Bay ae a
Canjield, Dr. C. S.—Shells of the coast of California.
Chambliss, S, O.—Crystallized quartz from North Carolina.
Clarke, jv., Lawrence.—Very large collections of mammals, birds,
eggs, &c., of Slave lake.
Conradsen, f. —Eges of Fulix marila, Iceland.
Cooper, Dr. J. G.—Birds’ eggs from Rocky mountains.
Copenhagen, Royal Museum.—Skins of Arctic birds: Echinoderms, &c.
Couper, W.—Skins of ducks and of Saxicola enanthe from Quebec.
Dawson, Professor J. W.—Pleistocene and Devonian fossils of Canada.
Dodd, P. W.—Skins and eggs of birds, &c., of Sable island. -
Fleti, Jas.—Birds, &c., from La Pierre House, H. B. T. (through
B. R. Ross.)
Foreman, Dr. H.—Minerals, rocks, animal tracks, &c., from near Em-
metsbure, Maryland.
Fuller, Mr.—Shells of the coast of Maine. ray
Gaudet, C. P.—Birds, &c., from Peel’s river, H. B. T., (through
B. R. Ross.) ,
Gibbs, George.—See Archibald Campbell.
Gillis, Captain J. M.—Kight bottles alcoholic specimens f from Atlan-
tic ocean.
Gilpin, Dr. J. B.—Skins of mammals of Nova Scotia.
Gladmon, Mr.—Nests and eggs from Hudson’s Bay.
Goud, C. I.—Sea birds in the flesh, and in skins, from the coast of
Maine.
Gove, Captain.—EKggs of birds from Utah.
- Greenwood, Mrs.—Specimens of algae from the coast of Massachu-
setts.
Greenwood, Thomas L.—Nests and eggs of birds.
Gruber, F—Skins and eges of birds of California.
Hardisty, W. L—Mammals, birds, &c., from Fort Liard on the Yu-
kon, (through B. R. Ross.)
‘Haymond, Dr. R.—Nest and eggs of Mniotilta.
Heerman, Dr. A, L.—Skins and eggs of North American birds.
Hewett, -Dr. Thomas. —Two mounted ducks.
Hitz, R. B.—Nests and eggs of birds of Pennsylvania.
Holder, Dr. J. B.—Kgegs of birds from the Tortugas.
Holt, Hon. Jos.—Chameleon, centipede, &c., from Jerusalem.
Kautz, Captain A. V.—Skins of salmon of Puget Sound.
Kellogg, f’.—Kgegs of birds from Texas.
5

Bp REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

— ly, Dr. C. B. R.—See Archibald Campbell.

Kennicott, Robert.—Zoological specimens, plants, &c., from Great Slave
lake.

Kirtland, Prof. J. P.—living Nerodia erythrogaster, or red bellied
water snake, from Ohio.

Krider, J. —Mounted tanager, egg of Nauclerus furcatus, or swallow-

, ‘tailed hawk, skins of birds,

Laszlo, Ch.—Nest, eggs, and bird of Saurophagus derbyanus, Mexico.
Lazar, Count Coloman.—Skins and eggs of birds of Hungary.

Lincoln, E. D.—Box of eggs from Massachusetts.

Lockhart, James—Mammals, &c., from the Yukon, (through B. R.
Ross. )

Loweree, R. G.—Reptiles from Gaudalaxara, Mexico.

MacFarlane, h.—Birds, &c., from Fort Good Hope, H. B. T., (through
B. R. Ross.)

McKenzie, A.—Birds, mammals, &c., from Liard river, H. B. T,,
(through B. R. Ross.)

Major, J. J—Reptiles from Gaudalaxara, Mexico.

March, W. Thos. —125 skins of birds of Jamaica.

Maximilian, Prince of Wied.—Skins of European mammals.

Mowry, Lieut. Sylvester —Skeleton of camel died in California.

Newberry, Dr. J. S—Mammals from Lake Superior. — .

Onion, J. 8.—Plants from the Mackenzie river, (through B. R. Ross.)

Otis, G. N.—Specimens of Helix pulchella.

Page, Capt. T. J—F¥ossil wood from Buenos Ayres, and specimens of
the materia medica of Paraguay.

Parkinson, D. F.—Box of birds of North California.

Poey, Prof. F.—Types of new species of Cuban fishes.

Prentiss, Wesley.—Skins of birds.

Prince, Miss S.—Annelid from the coast of Maine.

Raymond, J. W.—See Burling.

Reid, J—Skins of mammals and birds, &c., from Great Slave lake.

Repetti, A.—Fossil fishes from Monte Bolca.

Reynolds, Henry.—Minerals, shells, &c., of Maine.

Ross, B. f.—Very full collections of the animals, plants, eggs,
ethnological curiosities, &c., of the Mackenzie’s river region
of Arctic America.

Ross, Mrs. Christina.—Insects, curiosities, &c., from Mackenzie’s
river, (through B. R. Ross.)

St. Charles College, La.—Reptiles, eggs, &c., of Louisiana.

Samuels, E.—Microscopic slides.

Sartorius, Dr. C.—Birds, mammals, reptiles, and insects, from near
Vera Cruz.

Savage, Dr. Thos. L.—Reptiles of Mississippi.

Scott, Mrs. Dr.— Hippocampus, or sea-horse, from Rappahannock river.

Smith, Mrs.—Skin and nest of Hmipidonax acadicus.

Smith, Jas. H.—Two serpents, Rhinostoma.

Smith, Dr. N. H.—Skin of Albino blackbird.

Starbuck, Alex.—Shells, &c., of Massachusetts.

Starkey, J. S.—Silver ores from Oregon.

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 67

Sternbergh, J. H.—Alcoholic specimens from ’Panama.

Stone, H.—Eggs of birds.

Taylor, A. S.—Insects, shells, &c., of coast of California.

Taylor, N.—Birds, &c., from Fort Norman, H. B. T., (through B. R.

~ Ross.)

Vanderweyck, P. H.—Minerals from Manhattan island, N. Y.

Vuille, Wm.—Skins and eggs of birds, Siskyon county, California.

Ward, Prof.—Cast of skull of Ursus spelaews from the Cavern of
Iserlohn, Germany.

Willis, J. R.—Mounted ptarmigan from Newfoundland, and specimens,
of natural history of Nova Scotia.

Winston, W. G.—Skins and eggs of birds of Nova Scotia.

Wood, W. S.—Eggs of birds. .

Worthen, Prof. A. H.—Tertiary fossils of Mississippi.

Wright, Chas.—Birds, shells, reptiles, &c., of Cuba.,

Xantus, J.—Large collections of animals, plants, fossils, minerals,
eggs of birds, &c., of Cape St. Lucas; and skins of birds, &c.,
from the Three Maria’s islands and the vicinity of Mazatlan;
skins and eggs of birds from the Farralone islands.

68 PUBLICATIONS AND LECTURES.

LIST OF SMITHSONIAN PUBLICATIONS DURING 1861.

Classification of the Coleoptera of North America. Prepared for
the Smithsonian Institution by John L. Le Conte, M. D. 8vo. pp
302, and 47 wood cuts. Pp. 1-208; published May, 1861; 209-278,
March, 1862.

Synopsis of the described Neuroptera of North AW thass ica, with a list
of the South American species. Prepared for the Smithsonian In-
stitution by Hermann Hagen. July, 1861. 8vo. pp. 368.

Extracts from the proceedings of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution in relation to the electro-magnetic telegraph.
(Reprinted from proceedings of the Board of Regents for 1857.) 8vo.

. 40.

Madea Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the In-
stitution for the year 1860. 1 volume, 8vo., pp. 448; seventy-two -
wood cuts.

LIST OF LECTURES.

The following lectures have been delivered during the months of
January, February, March, and April, 1862:

Two lectures by Rev. H. W. Pierson, president of Cumberland
College, Kentucky, on ‘‘The private life of Thomas Jefferson.’’

One lecture by Professor A. Ten Brook, late United States consul
at Munich, on the celebrated religious exhibition in the Bavarian
Highlands, called the ‘‘ Drama of the Passion,’’ the only relic of the
kind which has reached us from the middle ages.

Four lectures by Dr. I. I. Hayes, of Philadelphia, on ‘‘ Arctic Ex-
plorations,’’ with an account of his recent expedition.

One lecture by Rev. J. C. Richmond, of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on
**The origin and Saxon strength of the English tongue.”’

One lecture by Rev. W. A. P. Martin, a missionary, on ‘‘ China
and the Chinese.”’

sae lecture by Rey. A. Cleveland Coxe, of Baltimore, Maryland,

n ‘‘ Popular taste in art and literature.”’
itive lectures by Professor Fairman Rogers, of Philadelphia, on
‘The. Glaciers.’’ e

Three lectures by Rev. Francis Vinton, of New York, on ‘‘ The

Gentleman,’’ ‘‘The Philosophy of War,’’ and ‘‘ Italy and Dante.”’

LIST OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
FOR THE YEAR 1861.

BRITISH AMERICA.

| S = 2 Be
= ‘th 5 go
Name of observer. Station. 2 = . Ss | FS
- 1 tomy &
= = = | = {oo
5 é z zo IMEE
| 4 = bee ees Z
Ste! whet Feet
Acadia College..........| Wolfville, Nova Scotia......... .| 45 06 64 25 95% | CAC caer 9
BAKO ST Cin clais oie vere'sieisie Stanbridge, Canada Hast ..... ; 45 08 CSPODS | ierersrae wiehni| PMroceisteieiis ty ell
; Olarke, Mrs. Lawrence, :Jt.| Fort Rae, Great Slave Lake.......).eeeseeees|eeeeee sees |eeeeceee| Tesseeae| 3
Craigie, Dr. W.....-..... ; Hamilton, Canada West.......... 43 15 TEST) ViSae seer Batak
Delaney, Edward M. J...| Colonial Building, St. John’s, New- 47 35 52 40 ZO Badr eal
foundland.
Gunn, Donald...........| Red River Settlement, Hudson’s; 50 06 97 00 853). T. Ree.) 6
Bay ‘Territory. | ;
Hall, Archibald, M. D....} Montreal, Canada East..........- 45 30 73 36 A, a AGalelaiarerete il
Hensley, Rev. J. M......| King’s College, Windsor, Nova 44 59 64 07 200) | CAN eek ino
Scotia.
Magnetic Observatory...) Toronto, Canada West........... 43 39 79 21 TOS OARS 25.05 en} 212
Mackenzie, John..... .».| Moose Factory, Hudson’s Bay Ter- fy cele tes BO 4a. casas leben Binal le
ritory.
Phillips, H ..............| Niagara, Canada West...........-| 43 09 79 20 ATO Adee aria ES
Rankin, Colin...........| Michipicoton, Canada West...... } 4750 SMUD el laein slejerals EE ataeieievate 10
Richards, Thomas...... | Kenogumissee, Hudson’s Bay Ter- 49 50 34 CO) yy 000 RE seth | 5
ritory. | |
Ross, Bernard R........ | Fort Simpson, Hudson’s Bay Ter- 61 51 DBT 25) A Astarcistoin | FL) wlclnbiatetsil eid
ritory. :
Royal Engineers...... eas | Meteorological Observatory, Hali- 44 39 63 37 8) | As eeeer 2
‘ aes Nova Scotia.
Smallwood, Dr. Charles..| St. Martin, Isle Jesus, Canada E..| 45 32 73 36 ALSY RAG on steteie 12
|
ALABAMA,
Soto s /
Bye hoe ‘Huts oq'ES
Ser |. S| ao
Name of observer. Station. County. A og : = RE
= | a = = ated gy
Spel Se Ld Beht Se
S < > | = °
| Z | =e en Zz
aS. s\n si | | wis | |
ey oa Feet
Shackelford, Prof. Josephus} Moulton.......| Lawrence.....| 34 37 87 25 643 AV aisiahs a
Tutwiler, Henry Sseiivcavianc} HAVANG caccan.| GIECNC scans 32 50 87 46 UP suc rears 4 2
Waller, Robert B. po ----| Grecnsiaro Greene........| 32 40 87 34 350 | Awsceeee| 4
! | | |
*A signifies Barometer, Thermometer, Psychrome- P signifies Psychrometer,
ter, and Rain Gauge. R signifies Rain Gauge.
B signifies Barometer. N signifies No instrument.

T signifies Thermometer, ¢ Above Lake Ontario.

70 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

ARKANSAS.
3 3 a
5 = & g
= & a ge
Name of observer. Station. County. & 5 3 E aa
Sa St ae
3 2 ‘D> a S
z 0 oa 5 Z
aoa ey Feet.
Blackwell, W. Fl......... Perryville ..... Perryin vn wivtees 35 05 93.16 |... 0. N.ocesee] 3
Graham, Paul.............| Bentonville....| Benton........ 36 23 94 10 ie 790 Niseaiieres 5
Howard, J. 8. «seees.| Mountain Home} Marion ........ 36 30 210) Al cicwioinsieell NU sie slenlee)| it) sie
Moore, Alex. P., ,M. D.....| Washington. ..| Hempstead....) 33 39 93145 |eacncee| Le Pe R.. l
Smith, Dr. Nathan D......| Washington...| Hempstead....| 33 44 OB TAT) cites pis ae |) he Ede 4
|
CALIFORNIA.
Ayres, W. O.,M.D.......| San Francisco.| San Francisco.| 37 48 122 27 130) ei VAN isintmetate |e
Belcher WieiOccss csaceoes| WMATYSVINC. cee | YUDA ess. venience 39 29 121 30 80 | B.T.R.. 4
Blakeslee, Rev. 8. V...... FOISOM se0.0+-.| SACKAMENLO ...}reccaccees|osrcaevese|ecesceee| Li Weescs 8
Boucher, Wesley K.......| Mokelumne Hil) Calaveras...... 38 18 120 28 | 1,502 Nu esses! 3
Dunkum, Mrs. E.S.......| Honcut........ Nba eretsieletecereie 39 25 VEU SOO) Miyata steceia)| eee cetia peters 12
Frambes, Prof. Oliver 8...) SantaClara....| Santa Clara . 37 18 122 00 LOOT HMAC ara rnsinit | 3
Logan, Thomas M.,M.D..} Sacramento...| Sacramento. 38 35 128 28 RE OAC s Smiaeid 12
Whitlock, James H........| Meadow Valley| Plumas........| 40 20 120 15 | 3,700 | B.T.R. ‘| lL
CHEROKEE NATION.
Hitchcock, Isaac B...... | Lee’sCreek.... Sequotyah fesse son Relais essen Tisvess | 2
COLORADO.
Ellis, Dr. Wma.'T...ciase oe | Mountain City Arapaoes on 39 35 | 105 40 | 8,000 | Tisade'ete'o |), 10
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
| d
MacKee, Rev. C. B. . Georgetown ...| Washington ...|, 338 54 AGOB © \anjocinsine| Wee slat ae 12
Smithsonian Institution . .| Washington ...) Washington . 38 53 77 OL GO \se}pAbiciaicieieste 12
CONNECTICUT.
Case, Jarvis ..c..secess..| Canton... .s| Hartfordyjscces) 42:00 73 00 COO) SRS sates 1
Harrison, Benjamin F,... | Wallingford..,.| New Haven...| 41 27 » 72 50 133) | A sseeee 12
Hunt, Rev. Daniel ........| Pomfret.......| Windham..... 41 52 72 23 OST, «|! ‘Avera warsteni|) le
Johnston, Prof. John......| Middletown ...| Middlesex..... 41 32 72 39 175/71 (HAGE oeeee | ole
Rankin, James ............| Saybrook......| Middlesex..... 41 18 72 20 10 T.R.....) 6
Rockwell, Charlotte.......| Colebrook .....| Litchfield ...../ 42 00 SLOG, Wi) cisiayeveraaisi| eke) eietetatetal eae
Yeomans, William H......| Columbia......| Tolland ....... 41 40 U2 AZ | Salen ieisce ini a vetaineyait | ae
DAKOTA.
|
Nonvell, Freeman. 5. <«\cie<-| GrEENWOO)..00|/c0 ees cine ss ¢e ves| 42 52 98 24 | DS SOQ S| ME Rela | 5
FLORIDA. :

rn ge ke deg eee a Ale A eo

|
Allen, George D......... ) | Magnetic Ob- | Monroe .......| 24 33 81 48
Ferguson, Gomes. vid'slees servatory, |

Oltmanns, J. G. . Key West.

Bailey, James B .......+..| Gainesville ....| Alacbua.......| 29 35 8226 , 184 | T.
Dennis, William C.. seeees| Key West......| Monroe. ..... 24 33 8128 | 16 | B.
Steele, Judge Augustus... Atsena Otie,...| Levy.....e00s 29 08 83 04 17 | BT. R..
Whitner, Benjamin Be gist stoi | Tallahassee,... LiGOD Ags atracieen 30 24 84.17 | FOOD eceee

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

GEORGIA.
ake 3 ce
| Pies aches, a 38
Name of observer. Station, County. | = 5 3 5 aR
| = = = = Ss o
= wh 20 os 2
6 2 s Z a
|
| pay! Sel Feet
Blewitt, Rev. W..........) Baston . ......| Thomas....... 31 00 84,00" Yeiseece Ry ie 2
Camp, coy By aieveteterats(s | Covington .....| Newton..,....| 33 40 84 00 763. .| Nusissna« 4
GBR Rai Ts oS owes isle Se Savannah.....| Chatham ...... 32 02 81 OL LS i Paes 4
McAfee, J. R :M. D. Dalton ....c0.5] Whitfield .....: 34 50 85 00 775 Baty, La: 3
Pendleton, E .M., M. Bi. | Sparta .... «...| Hancock ......| 33 17 83 U9 590 | T.R.... 4
Van Suren, Jarvis.......+| | Clarksville ....| Habersham....| 34 35 Sash: | 1,632.9) DIP. css) 4
|
ILLINOIS.
Aldrich, Verry.ccswsseves | Tiskilwa'.ese.. Barca sh 41 15 89 66 590) Ly Nieisaja0is
AN eS CBee «288 Bloomington...) MeLean. re 40 30 SONU) Volsre'ecezein'ol Nic elaiaisriiass
Armstrong, M. C........ | @sinseiee
Roe, James H..... 0000. | Chicago ....... CWookjcciusceteleisnilinae'cts Ailctalety |Seeteterel etal cle|| w'aa’m area WMD RGN crete
Babcock, Andrew J. w....) AULFOra .... cee.) Kame.... ceceee 41 41 88 17 650 | T. BR. vee
RoR Ee agst Nee + | Me Vieeieishelniaierals McHenry...... 42 11 88 20 POO) I siaisic
Bacon, E. B..............; Willow Creek..| Lee....... eves} 41 45 8856 | 1,040 | T....0..
Ballou, N. E., M.D. .| Sandwich .-...| De Kalb....... 41 31 88 30 bai (aye ad be se
Bandelier, Adolphus F., ‘jr. | Highland .....,.| Madison....... 38 45 SOV AGG terselattsteth exen terre are
Bassett, George R......... Woodstock ....| McHemry...... 42 18 esc) HERA gsc? T. Riswes
Boettner, Gustav As N"@hicapoes..: OGGK ee cerie cers 4l 54 SSAO Menace Bed ieee
Bowman, Dr. E. H | Edgington.....| Rock Island . 41 25 90 46 G60 | Gia Bilis
Breed, M. A .....e0es e005 PeOH@sceee sess | PCOMA acme) 40) 38 89 46 Loe eae ure
Brendel, Frederick, M.D..| Peoria......... Peoria. ......., 40 43 89 30 | 460 | A.......
Brookes, Samuel........-.- | Chicago.......| Cook......2...| 42 00 STO | Woreraeisialorell el ornteneis ate
Cobleigh, Rev.Nels.E.,D.D| Lebanon...... | St. Clair....... 38 37 89 56 SOOM Beara
Collier, Prof. Geo. H. ..... | Wheaton ...... Du Pages...s6. 41 49 88 06 Go2 Ae teva
Crandon, Frank........-.: | Batavia)... 8 Keane sccnvanctaniels ; 41 52 88 20 636) Tint.
Dudley, Timothy..........| Jacksonville...} Morgan.......| 39 30 SONOGR esas sad CT tals
Fitch, Dr. Joseph ........ | Channahon....| Will.......... 41 15 COMIGH freee enrs tbe det
Grant, John....... see}!) Manchester ce |@ SCOPticr. seis tie ele 39 33 90 34 GBS CA aalen
PIAETINs ions Mi Dsa cies cvins| OLLAWA.(0ccrs00. La Salle . 41 20 88 47 500) |) Pa Riese
DARE We LDOMAS:. csccinse | DIXON «cece ces] LCE seas: nee al ao OIG yaeeianae lt Nesteseine
Livingston, Prof. Wm..... | Galesburg...... STO Ratatete otal waste! ieleisiatecae stale lsh altstelainsorei|\eis(eeisinists Aiiiantnals fi
Mead, 8. B., M.D......... Augusta........ Bane: «pianists 40 10 91 00 *203 |. T..Ps Re.
Mead, Dr. Thompson......| Batavia........ ANG) yeiete aistievete 41 52 88 20 G36 i RAT rele
Meeker, Ralph E..........| Dongola... ....| Union........- 37 26 BORD UR tarsievelslale ov aieers! stale
Newcomb, John B.........| Elgin........-. Kanenrsceicsiye| 42500 88 15 WET Acaoreiaece
Olds, Warren.............| Albany........| Whiteside.....| 41 40 90 16 600 | N
Pashley, J. S.,M.D. | Osceola ssc...) StalKeccnecsces| » 4 16 SOWET S Weciekietensl ebeikeste
Patrick, Dr John J.. «|, Bellville; «sk. St./Claitesme nies!) 1 o0ueo 90 06 600) |S Bates.
Riblet, J. H.... .eeee| PeKin.....-.-.| Tazewell......| 40 36 SQuAny osu oeen UR oe
Rogers, O. P. and J.S..... | Marengo....... McHenry......| 42 14 88 38 842 | B.T.R.
Tolman, James W.........| Winnebago De- | Winnebago....| 42 17 89 12 900 | B.T.R
pot.
‘Trible, Mrs. Anna C...... wane: Alton,..| Madison,.....| 39 00 8936" | ese cvice) Ales sect
| { |
* Above low water mark at Quincy.
INDIANA.
| | |
Anderson, H. H...........| Rockville....... Parkepen sees} 36 00 87 00 | 1,100 | N..
Austin, W. W............| Richmond..... Wayneresecaas 39 47 84 47 800 | T.
Bartlett, Isaac............| Logansport....| CasS eeseee eee.| 40 45 86 13 600 | T.
Bullock, JoT 2... seves-| Shelbyville ....| Shelbysccccsne. 39 00 SOO a accra [oi ct meals
Chappellsmitb, John ......| New Harmony.| Posey ......... 38 68 87 50 320 | A. sees
Dawson, William.... .....| Cadiz .....000.| Henry..cereces 39 558) 85 20 | 1,060 | T.R.....
Dayton, James H. ........| South Bend....| St. Joseph...., 41 39 86 07 600) .| Ne skis
Haines, John .............| Richmond......| Wayne .... es. 39 52° OT napinmes ly ltaaacas
Larrabee, William H......| Green Castie...| Putnam........ 39 30 86 47 800, | Nass.
Smith, Hasrilton, jr. ......; Cannelton...... Perry, -soseaensiee 37 DU 86 42 450b PAR
Spratt, W. Wi, M, Dv.....5| WeOs. ec... dese Allen..... Babs s! <\e,a.cnfei| t dimaleleletelele| os sieidicte’ A Se vielen
| « beeeae

Webb, Miss Georgiana ....| Fort Wayne...) Allen........- 41 10 8 00 | 761

72

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

IOWA.

3 g z

3 Z 2: | ag

=e ‘to 5 £2

Name of observer. Station. County. s = 3 = EP

2 a ane | 3 SS

= z = = -

° Q a °C

z E x 5 z

, re! oy ef Feet |
Bet oa ; Grove Hill.....| Bremer.....00.| 4245 | 8715 |.sscooee| Te eeceee] 12
Belfield, H. H. ...seseeee
Chamberlain, John...... Davenport..... Septt cocci. vee 41 30 90 40 130s ss Ht wd 2)
Dunwoody, Wm. P......
Boyle, C. R.,..... ves, eee-| Washington ...; Washington...) 42 30 91 55 O87 AD tee 2
Collin, Prof. Alonzo.,.....| Mount Vernon.| Linn..:........ 42 00 GLO? jase esc Ds eee. 12
Deering, D. S.....c2-eeee+| MUdEpendence,.| BUCHANAN iecs|seceasceccfadaccesecefocveccses| Les sesee 1
Doyle, L. H.... ....... .-| Waterloo ......| Black Hawk...| 42 30 Q2SL! | xene decd] Mesee ct ae hae
Foster, Suel...... oeneeeees Muscatine .. ..) Muscatine..... 41 26 92:00 (| ....0050)| Nodes. 12
Gidley, Isaac M...........| Bangor.........| Marshall.......| 42 00 93. 00+ | ccccvovs| Ds Reese 2
Horr, Asa, M. D.... ......| Dubuque......| Dubuque a 42 30 90 52 GEG), i Ase ih si Paz
Hudson, A. T., M.D..... Lyons,... ....| Olinton....... Al 50 90 10 401 . | To. Basen [eae
Langer, Dr. Ignatius.......| Davenport.....| ScOtts... see. 41 31 90 42 HOD» +} Aaeeeeenl aie
MeConne) Sowmnnendsn., Pleasant Plain.) Jefferson......; 41 07 94 54 950, | T.R.....} 12
McCoy, Franklin, M.D.. | |
MeCon Miee Eligebeth ; Algona ...e.00e Kossuth.......] 4301 | 9404 | 1,500 | 7........ | 12
McCready, Daniel.........| Fort Madison..| Lee........e06 40 37 DVDR) Viesiaio.sinipiei|) sd wi Eatery ame
Marshall, Gregory..... »...| Vernon Springs.| Howard......-. 43 20 GBD) | aeecuicee | peer eae 6
Millard, A. J... e000 .eeee-| Sioux City...... Woodbury......{ 42 33 96°27) | 5258) | TBencasp Le
Parvin, Theodore S.......| JowaCity...... JOHNSON». 5.0 v:0.0,), 04,2. a)0,0)015\0i1\~ oie esa cejsinie.n|l anieeinis'nis}] MON peielsiep se 12
Reid, Isaiah ..............| Kossuth........| Des Moines... 41 00 QL TSE P| sieps ein nil) eseersice 5
Sheldon, Daniel..........-| Forestville.....| Delaware...... 42 40 91 50 sduiciewtell Ueacalescats 12
Ufford, Rev. John.........| Muscatine.....} Muscatine....., 41 25 92 02 O86 as|) Als. cetewet) tole
Williams, H. B............| Hesper........| Winneshiek. ..|* 43 30 91 46 720 | Dace
KANSAS.
Blackman, W. J.R.......| Lawrence......| Douglas.......| 39 00 95 12 | 8001) AN ieee] 20
FISD, LUCIAN oo steeccgulaiees|) DUFINGANIE wsac | POMAMW MEE cd ave ieeeoes sccael couse eons cdecionceh tlaltmwaste|iii eo
Goodnow, Isaac T.... Manhattan.....| Riley......s..| 3913 96/45. | 15000: |) DORs s } eee
Goss, B. F....+.seeeeee0e.| NeOsho Falls...) Woodson......| 38 03 SO5tOIT | Tae eet| Deiteceus ee
McCormick, Wm. A.......| Lecompton....| Douglas... .. 39 03 95 10 825. sb el caseieile hebes
SCO, DAMES weracis\e aisieianie'e «|| GAXGMEL. ca ciems| JONSON: ois aic'ain'si|iewics se san |\sesielsisinies | ves auf alenaerane vee
Shaw, M....eeceeseeeeeeee| Leavenworth..| Leavenworth..| 39 1 94 32 896 | "Peveedes «| wl
KENTUCKY.
Barbage, JoshuaC......... Hardinsburg....| Breckenridge ..} 37 40 86 15 500" | Neate chm 8
Realty, O) ccceerlocennesees| DANVILIC.. v0 0s90| BOYIC sds. cn 0s «| 37 40 84 30 900: 9) Bache as on
Mathews, Jos.McD.,D.D .| Nicholasville ..| Jessamine...... 37 58 84 18 940 = Alvis tal agelee
Mattison, Andrew..... wow s|| PROUCAR civics, ei. Mt. Cracken... 37 00 87 21 6 win a ate (OPIN Gp iatete tein 12
Miles, Thomas H.,S.J....| Bardstown..... Nelson.....+..| 37 52 BOTS |e ccae se [i Aewntenen a
Savage, Rev. G. 8., M. D..} Millersburg ....| Bourbon......, 38 40 84 27 804 | B.T.R..| 12
Swain, John, M. D.......-| Ballardsville...)] Oldham....... 38 36 85 30 461 |} GA wicctapsilypedin
Williams, Prof. M. G......| Newport ......| Campbell,... . 39 04 83 24 o12F |) Bebe Rs 5
Woodruff, E. N.....-. »-.-| Louisville......| Jefferson ......| 38 20 83) 98") swattewcte i Avelectesten | eek!
Young, Mrs. Lawrence....{ Louisville......| Jefferson ....«. 38 07 85 24 Ob Ata ajar 12
LOUISIANA.
Harrison, Thompson..... | New Orleans...| Orleans ,.....- 29 58 90 00 BS VaeA eee 2
Taylor, Lewes B...,......| New Orleans...| Orleans....... 29 58 SOPOT) ipocee tees lk tern 2
° MAINE.
|

Adams, John W........++,| Portland. se... Cumberland....| 43 39 | 70 00 ! 10
Brackett, G@. Emerson...... Belfast < scs-wee:s) \WWAaldO,. cnayemre'e 44 23 69 08 12
Dana, Wm. D...........+.{ North Perry....| Washington....| 45 00 | 67 46 12

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS,

~]
oo

MAINE—Continued.
ens eas
4 = = os ex
j = ‘Sh | a ° S
Name of observer. Station. County. = 5 : S Ee
i = = 3 Se
= 7m oo = ah
S 2 o ay °
Z E x s z
| |
ey aed Feet.
Gaines, Rev. A. G.........| Bethel.........| Oxford ..... 44 20 70 52 G00) s |) DR yee
Gardiner, R. H............| Gardiner....... Kennebec ..... 44 40 69 46 00) } Baw .c) eke
Gould, M....... ....eeee8-| Nth Bridgeton.| Cumberland....| 44 03 70 45 300, |B. T.R..} 12
Guptill, G. W........+.....| Comishville ...| York....... w..| 43 40 70 44 S00 SPR 12
Johnson, Warren......... Topsham ...... Sagadahoc.....| 44 00 70 00 100 | B.T.....| &
MEOFHS V0 ci Graicctt sis s'0 okie wees | MUAMMINZCOM evel) WiOKK thacleslccleh 43 40 70 45 500 «Nes see eae 2
Moore, Asa P.............| Lisbon........| Androscoggin..| 44 00 70 04 (ape es, 12
PAPRer J. Di. ee es icccesss Steuben....... Washington.... 44 44 67 50 Atanas 12
Pratt, i Frank, M. D.. --| New Sharon....| Franklin....... 44 37 70 03 ol] Neeees 6
Reynolds, Henry... eseee-| East Wilton...| Franklin. : 44 44 70 17 BNNs ae 9
Van Blarcom, James......| Vassalboro’....| Kennebec .... 44 28 69 47 aise ee sree 9
Verrill, G. Washington, jr..| Norway........ Oxford). tcites 44 10 70 35 Delete eratets 1
MPS Sag coe sccraclth: a0 «|*Oornish, o2...5} York ....000%. 43 40 70 44 ( Maha 12
Wilbur, Benj. ‘ eecseseces-| DEXter.......+| Penobscot-..... 44 55 69 32 700 | Rewnsceee 12
Wilson, Dr. J.B... <.....| Exeter..... vene | PENGDECOtr esse 44 58 68 59 ered el aoe w aren e's (te
{ |
MARYLAND.
| | |
Baer, Miss Harriott M. Sykesville ..... 1 Garrolll jak eela 39 23 | 76 57 qu | T. R... 12
Bell, Jacob E, ....... Leitersburg....| Washington.... 39 35 THCBO" NV crerererstats | Tes Boece}! 12
Dutton, Prof. J. Russel. Chestertown...) Kent. 39 12 TSI DD). feisterisieron| eA Gerona qe ke
Goodman, Wm.R........| Annapolis......| Anne Arunde.. 38 59 76 29 20> | As csace 12
Hanshew, Henry E........| Frederick...... | Frederick..... BO 2a Ne 20s arene wees] Avcnsiisaiell) lz
Johns, Montg., M. D......| Agric’] College.| Prince George..|.... ..0ee)eeeseeccecleccecece| Asscveee 12
Lowndes, Benj. O........ Bladensburg....| Pmnce George. 38 57 76 58 | HOT eee apie 12
Stephenson, Rev. Jas......| St. Inigoes..... St. Mary’s..... 38 10 | 76 41 45 | Aevresace 12
, |
MASSACHUSETTS.
Astronomical Observatory.| Williamstown..| Berkshire. ....| 42 43 73 13 225 | B. T.R..| 12
Bacon, William...... .ses.| Richmond..... Berkshire...... 42 93 73°20 | 1,190 |". R...33 12.
Brown, Nathan W.........| Topsfield ...02.| WSSCX.. 000 corfecccscconc|cccccuccasfanee secs Ds Bese aists | 12
Davis, Rev. Emerson......| Westfield. ....| Hampden...... 42° 06 72 48 TSO* i Ane ss seine ie
Fallon, John:.. ..........| Giawrence......) Hssex .1e. «-.. 42 42 71 11 W337 Ase aa cele |e te
Metcalf, John G., M. D....| Mendon ....... | Worcester..... 42 06 Woke loceeeaede re wan 12
Mitchell, Hon. Wm.......| Nantucket .. | Nantucket..... arate iy 70 06 SOUHRACee: eee 3
Morse, Geo. M., M. D.....| Clinton......../ WOICEALEL no 42 25 MSAD le almtateiela nif a Meg uERe aisle 3
Normal School............| Bridgewater....| Plvmouth...... 42 00 71 00 150 | CASS tees 4
Prentiss, Dr. Henry C..... Worcester ...., Worcester.....| 42 16 71 48 B28) Ni Anisasn nt 12
Raymond, George.........| Fitehburg...... Worcester...... 7 42 35 71 50 484)" Pet Be ate
Reynolds, Orrin A......... Randolph. ....| Norfolk.......-| 42 10 71 00 SITS lees dais alee
Rodman, Samuel.,.... New Bedford..| Bristol... .. 41 39 70 56 DF loc\ gneiss talelh ieee
Scandlin, Rev. Wm. G. Grafton ..... mal Worcester*.....|.s00e Gl lketmtesleteeiisifiaieaiei ales ia es Tess 6
Snéll, Prof. E. S..........; Amberst.......| Hampshire.,... 42 29 72 34 ORT fi Accccas sale ate
Terry, Charles C......... »| Fall River. ....| Bristol... .. o.c.|eceoss os Se tyeeerel 9 |lsiecat: watery | holiret ca staceiet” renee
Whitcomb, L. F...........| Florida ........ | Berkshire... 1°"49' 41 "|°°°73°02 12,000 | B.......) 2
|
MICHIGAN
| | |
Blaker, Dr. G. H., jr RICE Marquette .. 46 32 87 41 | 630 | A....... 12
Bowlsby, George W.......| Monroe . .| Monroe ....... 41 56 83 30 FRAG ME Bete od
Coffin, Matthew .......... Otsego .. | Allegan. ..... 42 28 85 42 | 662 | N. ..... 11
Crosby, Meine ews /eidis eoes-| New Buffalo. . | Berrien ,|..ises 41 45 86 46 | 661 | B.T.R. 7
Pitcher, Dr. Zena. ........| Detroit ........ Wayne cece nss 42 24 BB SOT Alea ea] a0
Smith, Charles C., M.D...) Redford Centre.| Wayne........ 42 28 8310 | 650 | T.R... 3
Smith, Rev..L.M.S§........| Mill Point.....| Ottawa....... 43 06 Seales lcesars sisi PIECE alate. 12
Streng, L. H.............-| Holland .......| Ottawa........| 4200 | 8600 |........] T..R..... 12
Strong, Edwin A..........| Grand Rapids..| Kent ..... .... 43 00 86 00 AOD a| chiatibe seiae 4
eee ces C...| Cooper .... ...; Kalamazoo....| 42 40 | 85 30 | 690 | T.R.. 12
elpley, Miss Helen I. | 9
Whelpley, Miss Florence Monroe .......| Monroe ...... 41 56 { 83 23 } 599 Eee 12
Woodard, C. 8.1... ce. Washtenaw... 2215 | 83.47 | T5L | A. sovees 12

Ypsilanti .. +++)

74

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

MINNESOTA.
a = : 2
= = || 2 Es
7-4 Yn S Sp S as
Name of observer. Station. County. = 5 e S =
s = = = we
m w f=) = - 2
o v oc na °
Zz = x & za
dl Pec, Feet.
Garrison, O. Bsc. ..cccee| Sti Cloud......} Stearns.. sevvss 45 45 94 23 saereneslepmeeee d 10
Kelley iO. (El inate clenitanensc| LtASCA” nie weiss | ANOKA .oeeeee 45 16 93 32 856 17;| 0. eels oa 7
Riggs, Rev. 8S. R..........| Pajutazee.....| Brown ........ 45 00 D4OD) | cciesnans|| lel demote ll
Smith, Ac Cordis. otciee vere uily eoes| Meeker... 2. 45 45 95 00 sedacht TaiBeyy 12
- Chatfield ......| Fillmore... Geran Sictatohalaatera Ob ahha esata 5
Thiekstun, T. F......... § Hastings ......| Dakotah. : sees ante ei lowe wereis B.D us 7
Walang Cina the sin ae secs] BOAVer Bay cto Makes... meetious 47 12 91 18 850 Balbstes't 12
| |
MISSISSIPPI.
Cribbs, J. R..... eoeseeeoe-| Monticello.....| Lawrence..... 31 34 90 00 600 | T.... 2
McCary, Robert.. sene| WNALCIOZ, acai) AGAMS: scaceees 3l 34 91 25 264 Balke 6
Robinson, Rev. E. S.......| Prairie Line ... ASPEN) > << sae 32 10 SOP2O P| ears arcisien leenieap 2
Swasey, Col. CB. © sialelselnie Yazoo City ....) Yazoo...... 3255 | G0 BL [rcceees.| Ne coves 3
MISSOURL.
Baileys8.S -..cjen omasese| DUNGEE ..ccess| ELANKED oases 38 30 91 10 936 | 1. RK...) 6
Bowles, 8. B., M. D.......| Greenfield.....| Dade ..... ....| 37.22 OSPaIe | TS S00 PN acnastnen ee
OhMSH ay SOM oo sicjestere.s's'- || ELACMSONVINE 1, o MOASN "lactis sinetel slats se ele'atall eoniptnietarnettel Ga sitnienkltt NGaieacals ates
Engelmann, George, M. D..| St. Louis ....../ St. Louis .... 38 37 , 90 15 ACLS PAC See stale |e Ube
Fendler, Augustus ........| St. Louis ......| St. Louis ...... 38 37 90 16 470s | BOTS P 12
EYRT AAS Beil laie eis iaeltiele'ersio’s ¥)|| ILA ceisais'siaiaie.s Clarke wwccds 40 28 GINS T An | ena eeiaeN esteeelesie | chee
Horner, W.f..... + «eees-| Hornersville...| Dunklin......./ 36 03 90 00 |...-....| T.....2..| 3
omnis, ev: P. Weoevsccce} Ste LUUIS 102...) Ste LOUIS ....2. 38 40 90 15 21S) sWRANenepia| ke
Maxey, Wil vcs icweseves!| PAIS ouetlesen. Monroe.... os. 39 30 92 00 TOO) FES Sea wall ee
Myers, J. H.. eese| Kirksville .....| Adair ......... 40 38 S250" | PE ORO NON erectescliy
Ray, George po re ---| Canton....-. einieff nea CRVDIS' sa) cima myaysil aiajale oio'e slalell inlwrat ctavaletaie!| lsleleje)a/eieietl Me btuabemtatalata 4
Sutherland, Norris we Boonville......| Cooper........| 38 55 92 30 sige ele at) Niamaarmens 5
Tidswell, Miss Mary ‘Alice. Warrenton ....| Warren...... 38 37 91 16 8251 Eicsemtasetell lee
Vankirk, ’w.J. genes signees!) DOUVAT ssce ce.) LOLK veeeennciae 37 29 Got 4a > lisvaie «anda Neale ete 1
Wells, William. .... 0... Stockton (si...) Cedar... scccs 39 36 | 93 48 800, 7) SPOR: 1
Wilson, Posey S..........| Lexington .....| Lafayette...... 39 30 93" 4S) |avecceeel Nieweceqe 4
Wyrick, Mili vesces gatas ..| Cassviile.,....| Barry ....... 36 41 93 57 | 3,000 | T. 6
NEBRASKA.
Allan, James P.... . , Omaha City . Douglas .. 41 15 96.10, | 1,300 |] 'T. Re... 2
Bowen, Miss Anna M. By: | Elkhorn City.. Douglas... 4122 | 96 12 15,000) "Petecemn 12
Child, Ae Sinise ots ‘| Glendale ......| Cass Ac 41 15 96 00 oie, aval pekeaer ciate te 3
Evans, dil scr ote cc ws Fonteneile.....| Dodge.... 4131 | 9645 | 1,000 | T.......| 12
Hamilton, Rev. Wm.......| Bellevue ...... Sarpy ..... VOOR hetge 100) Sica orcas TVR... 12
Pardee, /He'C..2.0ccceceee| ROCK BIUNS....| CASS cceaeacas}) 40s02 | 90.04 | 1,000) | ce stsinse 2
Rosseau, M.C.... .... -...| Fort Pierret.. Biasitnieetetemls AASGO! GY) HQOKOO! 3\\r, sieretes Nirurtere 5
White, Bela ...... pena nies | AMCDOSNA 4.5/5 | COrASSieinimalace. as 40 51 95 54 | 1,050 | Ne ecsaca| 12
|
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Bell LOWS sesies s2\0001- 00s Farmington... | Strafford . 43 20 71 00 | 300 | B.T.R.. 1
Bell, Samuel N... Manchester. ..| Hillsborough... 42 59 71 28 300 | B.T.R..| 4
Brown, Branch . SIAON eect MOOS! s ccs) cc ese 44 08 TU S46 (15000 © | LR ee winae
Chase, Arthur Claremont.....| Sullivan,...... 43 22 72 21 539 | Bat. Roc ue
Nason, Rey. E£lias......... Exeter ........| Rockingham...| 42 58 70 55 125 | B.T....| 12
Odell, Fletchers. <. cc... Shelburne: deel vOOOS! s,s s ates 44 23 71 06 700 Bet eeel eee
Pitman, Charles H.,......| NorthBarnstead| Belknap....... 43 38 elo, cccreeel > Mie eariatd 12

* Above La Crosse.

} Place of observation mouth of Cherry creek, Cheyene river ; same in 1860.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

NEW JERSEY.

=
On

a = | z
3 oe || a Be
; | = Eb eS 33
Name of observer, Station. | County. a 5 He = Ee
| a ee 3 ss
= n \ op = | ay
3 2 ee D (sti)
Z = x a Z
y RY Saal Feet.
Harper, Prof. L..........-| Riceville....... | Monmouth... 40 24 73 59 lll | B.T.P 8
Rhees, Morgan J.,M.D...| Mount Holly...} Burlington, ....).....0..0.| s+ iat QO) |) Bayete cts 12
Stokes, Howard A........./ Long Branch ..| Monmouth... 40 20 74 08 10 | T.R. 2
Thompson, George W.....| New Brunswick! Middlesex. .... 40 30 75 3l 90 Nessa 12
Thornton, Dr. S.C........ Moorestown... Burlington ... 39 58 APO W\ebeesse. repaid 3
Wibitehead, W.A.........|) Newark... :.00..|] ESSOX.eee.- cae 40 45 74 10 SO!) eee re 12
Willis, O. Rev... ..0seeece-| Freehold ..... | Monmouth ... 40 15 74 QL | coveneee!| Terseee 12
NEW YORK.
| |
Arden, Thomas B.........| Garrison’s..... Putnam ...... 41 23 74 02 180) 0 Rewt 12
Se arene * 2) Pordh | Westches 4054 | 7357 | 147 | B.T 5
Monroe, Prof. A. T | ordham ...... estchester . | s Levee
Barulett, E. B....... -.} Vermillion..... Oswego ....... 43 26 77 26 | 327 TBeekiten's 12
Beauchamp, Win Mis Ss ae. Skaneateles ...| Onondaga..... 43 00 76 30 932), Besos a9 eoke
Bowman, John............ Baldwinsville..; Onondaga.....| 43 04 IGi4L FV ecaciceivefl Lerssiesiee il) Le
Brown, Rev. John J....... | Dansville...... Livingston.....| 42 38 77 54 6727) Aus. e. 5
@lavk. BerenGs). cece news. Constantia..... | Oswego ......- 43 17 MGvO5h) || ADA i ries. 1
Cowing, Philo ........... | Seneca Falls . | Seneca ........ 42 54 7651. | 463 Lag Mond 8
Dill, John B wv... sees ees Auburn........ Cayuga...... 42 55 ASB i eletewaiwies SUNS stelorsisters 12
’ Denning, William H....... | Fishkill Landing) Dutchess ......| 41 34 74 18 42 | B.T.R..) 12
eo |) Rochester..7..| Monroe ....... 43.08 | 77 ot | 518 | B.D. Baa) ale
Flint. Prof. Weston. .....-| Oto «..... ....} Cattaraugus . 42 22 49) OD}, | 1300) 5 3) Wives ais 2
Gremonye Onset asin seen) LLICKESA scswecls Jefferson ...... 44 12 horas |) SOo0, || Laker atest eke,
IPRs et Ei ecie dao /e ans «= | Ogdensburg....| St. Lawrence..| 44 43 WONGHp |) i232 j| Ria spies 1
Haskin, Wm. L,..........| TrOy .......e..| Remsselear .... 42 44 13-37, | 0) |eAleietastels 6
Heimstreet, John W ......| Troy ....esee. Rensselear... 42 44 nae |e LDSi al At anercea | eke
Hibperd, A. Al..isenc css...) Hermitage, oi. Wyoming .... 42 09 The) RAY esriggans T. Rak 12
Holmes, Dr. H.S... .....} Wilson ........| Niagara «seves. 43 20 78 56 DOOG spate ateteislateiel| wires
House, John C............| Waterford .....| Saratoga.....,.| 42 47 73 39 710!) | A. wasters Le,
Howell, Robert ..... aes | NiGhGlsi ates ale WN LOPO ei etcrecier tae 42 00 AD ete lfare siete pote Mr ieiastersiel| pee
Ives, William. ......-.. sal Seretientana |P snleuste a cttetretee 42 50 28. 00% ||) 1) G00): hy Avis iaatelell mele
Lattimore, PrOteasa ey fac Livingston..... 42 53 Uligienleg |Ierssarayarare Bonln Excinlia ie
Mackie, Maithew «+. ..04 Wayne.cc.....| 43 10 LENO, 400 Al Eee evtah oil ace
Malcom, Wis Sis... | OSWEZO . veces} OSWEZO ...0ae. 43 28 7630 | 250 | B.T.R..| 12
Mathews, M. M., M. D....| Rochester » .... Monroe........| 43 08 W@ SU, |) 925 |) As asso 12
Morris, Prof. 0. BU ct, New York,....| New Yerk..... | 40 43 74 05 251) | WAaipateoies! | see
Packard, LeviS.........,.| Spencertown,.) Columbia.....,/ 42 18 43 32 HOOT Avcirenictee 6
Potter, 0. D.,M.D....... | Adams Centre. | Jefferson ..... 43 48 75 52 Go2 ie ieasissets 3
Russell, C. H....... ......| Gouverneur ,,.| St. Lawrence,. 44 19 1d: 29) ore aererarets BODrsve 12
Slade, Fred. J. ..... Helsiese)| UNE W MOKK. in... New York...../ 40 45 73 59 (Oe ieAte kelatsinis 5
Spooner, Dr. Stillman.....| Wampsville....| Madison....... | 43 04 75 50 500 | T.R.. 12
Sylvester, Dr. E. Ware....| Lyons. .....00+| WAaYMC..ccscce[eveces consleoees aPaVarataallevaie ees levete}| hubs war nreye 12
Titus, Henry Wm...... os PERCU DONE. aactaet Suffolk........ 49 44 72 54 | 1D) AY wianisia's 12
Wadsworth, A.8.. .| Henrietta......| Monroe ....... 43 06 77 SL | 600 | B. T. P 12
Wakeley, Charles C., Rut
erford’s Observatory. . New York.....| New York..... 40 44 73 59 | 41 | A wcccee 5
White, Aaron.............| Cazenovia..... Madison......,. 42 55 TAGE Es 2O0 Ar sisiseiwaicifie ke
|
NORTH CAROLINA.
Adams, Prof. E. ee ..-...| Goldsborough..| Wayne........ 35 20 Witaoe | TR Bieets 3
Craven, Rey. B. ..| Trinity College.| Randolph, aii eoo45) | Ss0rog | A ssceces 1
McDowell, MecaEAP A las Murfreesboro’..| Hertford..... 36 30 | 77 01 cil) AWasniaiwelaie 4
Moore, Geo. F.,M. D.....} Green Plains .. Northampton . 36 32 77 45 ED p i etate\s 3
Phillips, Prof. James, D. D.| Chapel Hill... | Orange........| 35 54 79 17 By Ds Re 4
OHIO.
Abell, B. F....4.. Werlebfield « | | Geauga. cibasein} 41 23 | 81 12 Te 205) | Lies Leiieeie ei heraes
Adains, D.P. weoeven- cocee.| Marietta. .... ie Washington... 39 25 | 81 3L ($310 a od AS | 12
Ammen, J....... sevcceees| Ripley.... Brown ..... aie 38 37 Balad, [cise ate' Bo Deine | es
Benner, J.B. cessus ss) oes) NEW Lisbon . ‘I Columbiana .. 40 45 | 80 45 S61 Be TRS
lage, Wai. Po s.c.22 shee | Medinans.0 4. eee 41 07 | 8147 | 1,255 | Av... 12
Colbrunn, Edward ........| Cleveland.....| Cuyahoga.... 41 30 81 40 GOSWNE Aide meraw le Le

2

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

OHIO—Continued.

*Above low water mark of Ohio river.
j Above low water in the Ohio river at Cincinnati.

s g Z
= 5 g |G
3 = = 3.
Name of observer. Station. County. = 5 3 = EZ
“i = = = Se
5 é a z 6*
' Z E | iS Zz
|
gid me Feet.
Cotton, D. B.,. M.D. .....| Portsmouth....| Scioto......... 38 45 82 50 529 | B.T. R..| 12
Crane, me W........-| Bethel...-+.e..} Clermont......| 39 00 84 00 595 .| T.R.. 6
Javidson M..
Det dena ee ey || Freedom......| Portage .......| 4113 | 8108 | 1,100) B.7.R..| 1
Dille, Israel se... sovecee,| Newark ....0.:| Licking cc..s. 40 07 82 21 S20 oat 12
Fuller, W..Giavascvesceeee| HArMOFr .oetelec Washington ...| 39 24 81 28 CSL Te. deans 3
Hammitt, John W.......-| College Hill....| Hamilton...... 39 19 84 26 800. Na 11
Harper, George ea = Cincinnati,....] Hamilton......| 39 06 84 27 *500. 1" Ae 12
Haywood, Prof. John. Westerville....| Franklin ...... 40 04 83 00 at Setehatf ag ater ates 12
Hill, Fo Gite oivievds os am Dallasburg.....| Warren..... 39 30 e4 31 S00 Net 12
Hillier, Rev. Spencer se Brecksville ....}| Cuyahoga..... 41 15 81 30 800: | AME 2
Huntington, George C..... Kelley’s Island.| Erie.........0- 4l 36 82 42 587 | B.T. R, 12
Hyde, Gustavus 7 AeA Cleveland ..... Cuyahoga..... 41 30 21 40 643 | B.T.R..| 12
Ingram, John, M. D.......| Savannah.... | Ashland..... Al 12 82 31 1,098 | A.......| 12
Johnson, Thos. H.........| Coshocton.... roe dalle 40 18 81 53 GD 5|+ At osiate e'e'e 4
King, Mrs. Ardelia Cisasic- |) MACISON: cooes. |: AKC. cc, cece 41 50 81 00 620) TRA. 12
Lumsden, Rev. Wm.,.....| West Union. Adams . densdaes 38 47 8a 28 |G Saintes aioe e ae 1
McClung, Charles L.......| Troy ..........| Miami......... 40 03 84 06 1,103 |} B.T.R..| 12
MeMillan, Smith B........ Rat Fairfield. .| Columbiana 40 47 80 44 by LSZH AL. cewees|) LS
Newton, Rev. Alfred......| Norwalk ...... PRED) cccnts oie 41 15 S200" i. tcretwart Pi ea eee
Peck, Wm. R., M. D..... | Bowling Green.} Wood.... : 41 15 83 40 700 | B.T. R..) 12
Phillips, R. C. and J. H....} Cincinnati..... Hamilton:..... 39 06 84 27 540 | B. T.R..|' 12
Pierce; Warren...........| Garrettaville...}/ Portage........ 41 15 81 10 LUO Fe I ele 2 6
Pilisbury, Mrs. M. A....... East Cleveland.| Cuyahoga .... 4L 31 81 38 659)| Bul. cet 12
Shields, Rev. Robert ......| Bellecentre....| Logan........ 40 30 83 45 1,705). Been! 3
Spratt, Dr. Wm. W.......| Andrews ......| Morrow....... 40 45 80 45 1,500) To. vee 4
Sperry, Mark ..... 2+. «tl Groton Licking 4013 | 8238 T.R 12
Thompson, Rev. E..... : etatefers eit Piteiesinielels Shc ey Raye sais
BtUVers Aeisise sear aersee ol Western Star..} Summit.... 41 04 *80 40 |.... 005. FB Wral cisie Siete ae
Tappan, Eli T.............| Cincinnati.....| Hamilton. 39 07 84 27 TATO Ar wine aar 5
Trembley, J..B.5M, D.....).ToledO .....8..| LUCAS. .csthees 41 39 82 32 GUA BaD rete e clan Lo
Ward, Rev. L. F...... aainiviel| PSGWVIUE ccs ete. Medina........ 39 59 81 47 T0730 WBN aa<p 3 9
Warder, A. A.. -.«.| Cincinnati..... Hamilton...... 39 08 84 35 800,| 'T. KR ....|. 12
Williams, Prof. M. Gs siereea ei! CIQUAIIE scien rc siels Champaign ... 40 06 83 43 1,015 | B.T.R. 4
Wilson, Broad, esa... College Hill . Hamilton.... 39 19 84 26 800 | B.T.R..| 12
Zouse, Prot Chae A... ; Hudson .. ....| Summit.......] 4115 | 81-24 | 1,137|B.7.R..| 12
OREGON.
| | |
Crawford, Thomas H...... Salem..... v4 Marion........ | 4455 | 192 45 ee | TRG: zs jet
ee | de bWacre a ee |
PENNSYLVANIA.
Latrobe .......| Westmoreland. 40 20 79 16 569. |. DeRie. 1
Boneta, is: Risersereree} Blairsville .....| Indiana.......| 4031 | 7443 | 1,010/T.R.....| 3
Brugger, Samuel..........| Fleming.......| Centre) ccreras)), ey 40) 99 77 53 780 THR kes 12
Coffin, Selden J..... 06.
GAT AW NTE. cack secesls Towanda......| Bradford ...... 41 47 76 34 840 eB ota. vee ef
Kingsbery, J. H......... |
Darlington, Fenelon .......| Parkersville ...| Chester ....... 39 54 7d 37 DIS) oT. Ba... 12
Eggert, John....-.........| Berwick..... . | Columbia...... 41 05 76 15 DGd:-| Ay sanee 9
BRGN Basa cian) caaieisteneis es eiera | HESEELELO KANN tan Northumber’d . 40 15 76 30 OO) ss 12
Hance, Ebenezer. .. | Morrisvillie... | Bucks......... 40 12 74 48 30; BLT. R 12
Heckerman, Rev. Henry...| Bedford.......| Bedford ,.-.... 40 01 LEH! || sand sass | wen asis ud 12
Heisely, Dr. John..... ,...| Harrisburg..... Dauphin ..... 40 16 1G Ay Trane) sone pee isl Eee cc ete
Heyser, William, jr.. .....| Chambersburg .| Franklin....... 39 58 77 45 618 | A....... 11
Hickok, W. 0........... ..| Harrisburg.....| Dauphin....... 40 20 76 50 eet Oi rea area 12
Hoffer, Dr. Jacob R.......| Mount Joy.....| Laneaster..... 40 08 ELSON i eerieimena| tactile 12
Houghton, George S.......| Easton ........| Northampton...) 40 43 75 16 S20 CAN owe 12
Huebner, 0. T....... Nazareth ......| Northampton..| 40 43 75 Ql 530 | B.T.R 10
Uycter Pere M0. Gettysburg ....] Adams ........) 3949 | 77:15 621) B.T.R..| 12
Kohler, Edward... N. Whitehall ..; Lehigh ........ 40 40 75 26 250) || *Peeees 12
Lyceum, Jefferson College. Cannonsburg ..| Washington .. 40 17 80 10 O36) CAE een 20
Martin, Rush Gagne, oes -' Harrisburg ....' Dauphin....... 40 16 76 55 wivolt Eke Dla Ae 3

>
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

PENNSYLVANTA—Continued.

77

City. |
|

son ae z
ao wee 4 2.
= | a = Sn
Name of observer. Station. County. fod iar : x ne,
= | e = = Ss 3
= B = te Nite
oD = a)
Z E = See
pss ot Feet. |
Martindell, Isaac ......... Byberry .......| Philadelphia... 40 05 75 00 70 | T.R. 10
Martindale, Jos. C., M. D..| Philadelphia...) Philadelphia...} 40 05 TO IOD: || erarate afere's') Witwiniate.< 1
Meehan, Thomas.........| Germantown ..| Philadelphia ...|. 1... sees{oacsseeees|eoee etefell INV ys 'e.aiptaral ee
Mowry, George..-... a Somerset......| Somerset ...... 40 00 79 03 2,195) | Ab ries smell ae
Muller, Prof. Rudolph..... Latrobe.. .,..} Westmoreland.; 4027 | 79 32 985 | B.T.R..! 12
Ralston, Rey. J. Grier..... Norristown ....| Montgomery... 4) 08 75 19 15g [oA s ciisete 12
Saurman, Jonn W.........| Byberry .......| Philadelphia...| 40 00 74 49 mfafatats| | peewee sida |e
Scott, Samnel.............| Worthington ..} Armstrong ... 41 50 | 79 31 1,050 | TR)... 12
Smith, Wm., D. D.........| Cannonsburg ..} Washington...| 4017 | 8010 936°} B.T.R..| 12
Speer, Alex. M., M. D.....) Pittsburg ..... | Alleghany..... 40 32 {| 80 02 850 | BoToOR:. | 1
Swift, Dr. Paul ...........| W. Haverford..| Delaware...... 40 00 | 75 21 400} T.R.....} 12
Travelli, John I......... e ci {
Tracy, George Be eee ' Sewickleyville.} Alleghany ..... 40 38 | 80 14 656 | B.T. R. 12
pdms SS URE OD Gh TP As evn RMI os tal pies
RHODE ISLAND.

x TP REREE fe e ee | eee tC eee PT "Tasens SEP >
Caswell, Prof. A.. .......| Providence . Providence .... 4149 | 7125 | QO! AS sek Ate 12
Sheldon, H.C ............ | Providence. Providence sti sii ie 41 SO. T |) MESS) |) cteieretaeatn fied) Deut 12

|
SOUTH CAROLINA.

Cornish, Rev. John H.....| Aiken....... »»| Barnwell ...... 33 32 | 8l 34 565 DOR pias 2
Glennie, Rey. Alexander ..| Georgetown...; All Saints ..... 33 29 cele 20 | Asses. 4

Johnson, Joseph, M. D.. | |
Dawson, J. L., M. D...- +| Charleston | Charleston ....| 3246 | 8000 20|B.T.R 9

Pelzer, George 8.,M.D.. | | |
Ravenel, Thomas P.......| Black Oak ... ] Charleston ....| 3300 | 8000 50 | A amie ; 3

| |
TENNESSEE.
Barney, Chas. R..........| University Pl..| Franklin .....,| 35 12 86 00 2,000 | B.T.R 3
Dodge, J. W., & Son......| Pomona.......| Cumberland...} 36 00 85 00 2 BOOM ara ctetert 4
Jennings, S. K., M. D.....| Austin ........| Wilson........ 36 20 86 20 2,000 | T.P.R 5
Stewart, Prof. Wm. M.....| Clarksville ....| Montgomery...| 35 28 87 13 AB 15 WAS acme 12
Mitchell, R. W., M. D.....| Memphis......) Shelby ....... 35 08 90 00 262) | PAM leans 3
TEXAS.
ate oy er Sy geee T Z |
‘Allis, Melvin H.......+.+..| Gonzales ..... | Gonzales ......) 29 35 | TH SUA pence Ni is siesrets 3
Freese, G.... Sapestels ain] WEOSLON + ctalnicisivie:|) BOWIC.. esiaate ws-| 3225 | - 94 40 600 | N...... al’ pe
Gantt, Dr. Wine Hates. ss: TON isiee tela | Washington...| 3011 | 96 31 540 | Toe seas} 2
Glasco, J. M..............| Gilmer ........| Upshur........,| 3246 | 94 51 950) | Eo Re See Iara eee
Kellog, Prsstietss ces. ssce| Wheolock....: | Robertson ..... 3050 | 96 30 490 | Te Resess 1
Rayel, James.............| Turner’s Point.| Kaufman...... 32 30 GU eel wee etereiss | ae eresisisie iets 1
Schumann, Bruno........ Round Top ....| Fayette .......| 30 06 OBrehde il ieasieese Leute. oF 4
Van Nostrand, J ..........| AUStiIN:.....00+/ TraViIS. veee cere 30920 | 97 46 650; 7. P.R..| 4
West, Dr. N. P........ Burkeville..... Newton.....--| 3100 | 9331 Peace delregotuicte ed.
Yellowby, Prof.C. W..... Webberville FAVS sieislatn 30 10 | Dalen cece B.T.R 4
UTAH

| | | |
Pearce, Harrison .... cou Heberville.....| Washington . 0 | 114 00 .| ER eee 9
PHI IS, Wel VWaaiscmtes cos c Great Salt Lake Salt Lake ..... 111 26 "4,260 | A seoseee} It

|

|

78

¢

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS,

VERMONT.
= S 2 Egy
‘ : = “to a Sip
Name of observer. Station. County. Ss 5 3 = E>
= = S 2 |s3
S 8 ‘S a ee
aA} be = = z
cal at Feet.
Buckland, David .........| Brandon.......| Rutland......, AS ASN) 73100 lav edices POR, «60 12
Chickering, Rev. J. W.....| Springfield . ..| Windsor ...... 43 18 72 33 B00./PTORe soc} 1s
Cutting, Hiram A ......... Lunenburg ....| Essex........ 44 OS" TALS ISOLA escent) 12
Fairbanks, an. -eeee.| St. Johnsbury..| Caledonia ..... 44 25 | 72 00 *540 | B. Ta ara) ok
Paddock, James A.. Craftsbury.....| Orleans ....... 44 40 — 72 29 1,100 | T.R. 12
é Parker Joseph, seeveeeeees| West Rupert...) Bennington... 43 15 | 73 11 750 | 'T <jsainn 5
Petty, McK «+++ | Burlington... ..| Chittenden ... 44 27 73 10 WOT 0A. Sica wapta| ee
Teer Jamey Wiosig, oowees (M@dlis = .,0. 004 Washington ,.. 44 22 7209 | weceees) Ts Rul SO
VIRGINIA.
Abell, J. Ralls ............| Charlottesville.| Albemarle .... 38 00 78 31 Dou eben eae 4a
Astrop, Col. R. F ,,.......| Crichton’s Store| Brunswick .... 36 40 77 46 300 STARR. 1
Dickinson, George C......| Cobham Depot.| Albemarle . 38 05 78 21 450 | TD. Rieds. 4
BMS, DOH cecccsecscccces| Wardensville ..| Hardy .... 0.» 39 30 78 03 | 1,720,| A. sooese 5
Fraser, James... New England..| Wood ......... 39 20 81 00 }.....00.| N...0...| 10
Jones, Silas B............| Fork Union....| Fluvanna...... 37 40 LOO elateiet ersterell ie ueretste ates 3
Kendall, James E.. ...| Kanawha C.H.} Kanawha ..... 38 20 81 30 720) Ts Rito 1
Meriwether, Charles I .... BACH INONG veloute) ALE DTUCON vaisteinieie'liviein sx -asiajole Saiateinieteiee tacete' | UL nn Rae era
Marvin, John W..........| Winchester. .,| Frederick... 39 15 HO WOM histes cereal tlre keeles 4
Park, William K.. seeeees| Lexington . Rockbridge . .. 37 41 79.25 | scecesns A .cccee 3
Purdie, John R., M. D....-| Smithfield . Isle of Wight .. 37 02 76 37 100) SRS 3
Robey, Charles H.........| Fredericksburg | Spottsylvania.. 38 20 77 20 GOON IN eis crters bes.
Roedel, W. D....... secee.| Wytheville ....| Wythe........ 36 55 81500) |}; 252870 || MLR a ee
Stalnaker, J. W., M. D....| Lewisburg .. ..| Greenbrier .... 37 49 80 28 | 2,000 | T.R... 3
Van Doren, Abram........| Falmouth .... | Stafford. 38 15 77 34 SOOT Ts R vse 3
|
WISCONSIN.
Armstrong, S ..scsseees Caldwell Prairie} Racine ........ 42 48 88 13 selenite cremate esel| eae e
Atwood, Isaac........«...| Lake Mills ....| Jefferson ......) 43 00 SS OO Sie tere araie|(MONGe intetst store] eee
Bell, James A... Kilbourn City..| Columbia. ... 43 30 90 00 945 | Niasaneme| ) 22
Curtis, W. W....... ....| Rocky Run....| Columbia. ....) 43 26 89 20 Be ie rectal ee
Ellis, Edwin, M.D........| Ashland .. .... Ashland .. tees 46 33 91 00 610 DR estes wo
Gridley, Rev. John........ Kenosha ...... Kenosha eee...) 42 35 87 50 600} B.T.R..| 12
Kelley, Charles W ........ Delafield ......| Waukesha.... 43 06 88 36 S00 (Ba essen eae
Kelsey, Prof. Henry 8..... Beloit . Bie] BLOCK oisieisiede taiainls | 42 30 89 04 210) Esa yee ek in| ie
Lapham, Increase A...... Milwaukee . ..| Milwaukee....! 43 03 87 56 593),| AT ae. |S
Larkin, Prof. E. P ..... Milwaukee . ..| Milwaukee....) 43 02 87 55 684) B. T ... i
Liips, Jacob.. . -.| Manitowoc . Manitowoc. ..| 44 07 87 45 658 | (BoD etal ie
Mann, William . --| Superior......./ Douglas....... 46 46 92 03 | 680; T.R. 12
Mason, Prof. R. Z, seeeeees| Appleton. ....| Outagamie ve 44 10 88 35 SOOM RAN santos 12
Mathews, George.........| Burlingion.....| Racine ........ BOBO) Wasiemta (es s.ais OOH IN verte arora 12
Parker, Melzar .......-...| Weyaumega...| Waupaca ..... 44 15 88 50 SOM eUnetesiare 5
Pease, Dr. Clark G........| Janesville .....| RoCK......4...| 42 43 89 09 780 | Ds 7.00 10
Phelps, Hiland W.........| Racine ...... Racine) siies<icie | 42 45 87 48 | 660 | B. T. 1
Towers, Ms H vssceesesees Dartford.......| Green Lake... 43 30 BOND) | civineeiemei| Oban 10
Sterling, Prof. J. W..... . |
Fellows, William. st... f Madison.......| Dane. ........|° 4305| 8925/ 1,068] A.. ....| 10
Struthers, R.H.. eseeh RUFAl-. 2.500.) Watlpaca sires 44 20 9105. |< es.c.cteu|) Wisisenleen 9
Winkler, Carl, M.D ......| Milwaukee..,.| Milwaukee .... 43 03 87 57 600 | B. T.R.. 8
Wood, William...........| Weyaumega...| Waupaca..... 44 15 28 50 | 8503), Teese 3
MEXICO,
=
a ne
Name of observer. Station. S B a = Fe
2 "Sb = = 39
3 8 ® @ Sum
4 4 fee] iS Zz
Seoul Beh Feet.
Laszlo, Charles...........| San Juan Bautiste, Tabasco..... 17 4? 92 46 AO AS carves 2
Sartorius, Charles ....-.-. Mirador, Vera Cruz... ...eseees 19 15 9625 | 3,600 | A.......| 12

pee ee ee ee ee eee er ee ee

*
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

CENTRAL AMERICA.

79

| | :
| a a
: ae th = Ss
Name of observer. | Station. 2 Seth vee = Re
= = ! ner = on
| et eae ih \ ae ae oe
| s Cc o n 6 ™
| 4 | Sen tts = z
; te ont | Feet.
Canudas, Antonio ........ | Gautemala College, Gautemala..| 14 37 90 30 | 4,856 | A.... ... 12
|
WEST INDIES.
|
Carothers, A. G ....2. 00. Marks [sland <.\cccjccjesteciae asus 21 31 | 71 08 15 | oa ; 9
Garland, Samuel G........ Salt Cay, Turk’s Island......... 21 00 71:15 | 26 Beuieere)) me
|
BERMUDA.
Royal Engineers, (in the | Centre Signal Station, Saint |.. ....sc.Jecceceeees baaeswes A .2e8 | 12
Royal Gazette.) | George’s.
SOUTH AMERICA.
Hering CMD Bete cccsse ss | Government Plantation Rus- |.......4.. | agaeeeschls se aestys Akiersas. |e
tenberg, colony of Surinam, F
| Dutch Guiana.
Brown, George Hunter....| DAMIR, REE ald cieia's, sisisinierefctiaela «.-| 12 00 s, 75 15 | 10,500 | B. T. P.. 3

|
|

DEATHS OF OBSERVERS.

George P. Lockwood, Wheeling, Virginia, early in 1860.
Dr. Thompson Mead, Batavia, Illinois, March 30, 1861.

Colleges and other institutions from which meteorological registers were received
during the year 1861, included in the preceding list..

Nova scotiak. be. 6 328.

RU eae cs 2 tel

PALL eIT meee see oe ay
@aliformiaytt seb. -2-
Connecticut... -.---...|
Tilinois__.-.- Bt ee

Acadia College
Knees Gollemesioese cn l= csi ae
Grammar Schools sosteene sem oe a5
Magnetic Observatory......----.----
University of McGill College
Baptist Female Institute............
University of the Pacific. ......----
Wesleyan, University =. cseeee =
Lombard University. 2-22 -2.222525+
McKendree Collegeseeseuaseee ees
University of Chicago.- 4.~.3. 5. 245.
Wheaton Collece: = 232-0: 3..2 266
Cornell’ Colerese amaee ce ee wees
Griswold! Colleset uate sas. cbs ces.
Iowa State University...........-.
Yellow Spring College...._.--....-
Mount Alba College.........-2....
St. Joseph’s College
Franklin School

wee meee ee nw ee ee

pRWak Grove Semingiye== oom esses e

Marylandeass sms. 22-: |

| Washington College

Massachusetts..........

Agricultural College

AmiherstCollege sa eee 23 Solas
Normal School

eee
|

| Wolfville.
| Windsor.
| Niagara.
| Toronto.

| Montreal.
Moulton.
Sauta Clara.
Middletown.
Galesburg.
Lebanon,
Chicago.
Wheaton.

| Mount Vernon.
| Davenport.

| Iowa City.
Kossuth.
Hardinsburg.
Bardstown.

| Prince George county.
Chestertown.

'

80

METEOROLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS.

Colleges, &c., from which meteorological registers were received, &c.—Continued. ,

Massachusetts....-.-.-.

Rhehigan. so Lee 2
Missouri
New, dersey -a-ninct SE 20
New YOrkee soon cease

Ores0Ne os es 3
Pennsylvania

Rhode \Island:_ 2. --c.'-
Tennessee

Wirpinin se ce ee a. eine
WIEGDSING. coasts. -< a5 oe

Central America....-.--

State Lunatic Hospital........-----
AW TITAS, COUCE CS a wre a miei Set ates
Marine ’ Hospital.........---. eae
St2 Louis University..2.s2355-.-.-.
Freehold Institute).-..--....-.-.s-
Genesee College -.....----.- ies a
Institution for Deaf and Dumb.-..-..-
St): John’s:Colleges 22-22-8222 -238
University of Rochester.........--
Young Men’s Association. -..-.--.--
irinvy’ Conese: - cee ee eee
Parmers’ (Collépe . 2 Josh. seo ect
Halcyon Ackdemy samen wh adits oe 2
Otterbein University.....---..----
rhanaVOmiversttyess. oes ces oe ne
Western Reserve College. .--......-
Woodward High School....--.-----
Wallamet University.......--..--<
Havertord Collere- > i -2<.- sane nce
Jefferson College... 262 -eea-s22 222 =
Marine Hospital. Lf soee wes 2os- ue
StiesVincent silollege 55-0). ot. animes
Sewickleyville Academy .-.--.------
State Lunatic Hospital.....------.-
Susquehanna Collegiate Jnstitute- --
Brows’ Universitye=--45 2224.0
Stewart Collepe- =<. = seaecs asst as
Deaf and Dumb Asylum..-..-.....
Parsons/#Seminartys: see os bosses
Virginia Military Institute.---.....-
Beloit College <UP esa aie = 2k ame
Dawrence UMIVErsI by on. foe. <5 co
Milwaukee High School..------....
Baeind College staat el? «5.240 sks 8s
Wisconsin University-..-.- alesse wt
Guatemala College

ewe e we eee ne wee ee

Worcester.
Williamstown.
Detroit.

St. Louis.
Freehold.
Lima.

New York.
Fordham.
Rochester.
Buffalo.
Randolph county.
College Hill.
Croton.
Westerville.
Urbana.
Hudson.
Cincinnati.
Salem.

West Haverford.
Cannonsburg.
Pittsburg.
Latrobe.
Sewickleyville.
Harrisburg.
Towanda.
Providence.
Clarksville.
Austin.
Webberville.
Lexington,
Beloit.
Appleton.
Milwaukee.
Racine.
Madison.
Guatemala.

LIST OF METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL CONTRIBUTED IN

REGULAR OBSERVATIONS.

ADDITION TO THE

Austin, B. P., Assistant U. S. Lake Survey.—Aurora noticed at Love
Island, Lake Huron, in June, July, and August, 1860.
Blackwell, Thomas.—Daily means of observed temperatures during the
year 1861, at two adjacent stations, Victoria Bridge and Point
St. Charles, Montreal, Canada, at the hours of 9 a. m., noon, 3
p. m., and 6 p. m.; and also temperature of water of the River
St. Lawrence, taken daily at noon; also a summary for the

year.

8vo., pps. 13.

Table showing the proportion of rain at Montreal, Canada, due
to winds bearing rain from the surrounding regions, for the

year 1859.

METEOROLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS. 81

Boettner, Gustav A.—Original drawings of forty-three different forms
of snow crystals, made during 1861 and 1862, at Chicago,
Illinois.

Brackett, George Emerson.—Monthly summaries of observations made
at Belfast, Maine, in 1861; published in the ‘‘ Republican
Journal.”’

Buchner, Dr. Otto.—Analyse des Meteoreisens von Rasgata in Neu-
granada, von-Prof. Wohler in Gottingen, mit notizen uber das
Vorkommen und die physikalischen EHigenschaften desselben
von Director Partsch, wirklichem mitgliede der Kaiserlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften. Miteiner tafel. 8vo. pp. 11.

Uber den Meteorsteinfall bei Ohaba im Blasendorfer Bezirke in
Siebenburgen, in der Nacht zwischen dem 10. und 11. Octo-
ber, 1857. Von Dr. Moriz Hornes, vorstand des k. k. Hof-
Mineralien-Cabinets. Wien, 1858. 8vo., pp. 8.

Uber den Meteorsteinfall bei Kaba, siidwestlich von Debreczin,
am 15. April, 1857. Von Dr. Moriz Hérnes. Mit einer Tafel.
Wien, 1858. 8vo., pp. 6. «

Die organische Substanz im Meteorsteine von Kaba. Schreiben
des correspondirenden Mitgliedes Fr. Wohler an Dr. Hornes,
mitgetheilt von W. Haidinger, wirklichem Mitgliede der Kai-
serlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. 8vo., pp. 2.

Der Meteoreisenfall von Hraschina bei Agram am 26. Mai, 1751.
Von W. Haidinger. Wien, 1859. 8vo., pp. 30.

Notiz uber das Meteoreisen von Nebraska. Von W. Haidinger.
8vo., pp. 3.

Das Doppelmeteor von Elmira und Long Island. Von W. Hai-
dinger. 8vo., pp. 4.

Der Meteorsteinfall von Parnallee, bei Madura, in Hindostan.
Von W. Haidinger. 8vo., pp. 3.

Neuere Untersuchungen tber die Bestandtheile des Meteor-
steines vom Capland. Schreiben des Fr. Wohler an W. Hai-

_dinger. 8vo., pp. 3.

Uber das von Herrn J. Auerbach in Moskau entdeckte Meteorei-
sen von Tula. Von W. Haidinger. Moskau, 1861. 8vo., pp. 15.

[The above ten papers on Meteors are also published in the
Transactions of the ‘‘ Kaiserliche Akadamie der Wissenschaf-
ten,’’ at Vienna. |

Die Feuermeteore, insbesondere die Meteoriten historisch und
naturwissenschaftlich betrachtet, von Dr. Otto Buchner. Gies-
sen, 1859. 8vo., pp. 192.

Versuch eines Quellenverzeichniss zur Literatur uber Meteori-
ten, von Dr. Otto Buchner. Frankfurta. M., 1861. 4to, pp. 17.

Canudas, Antonio.—Printed summary of observations with a full set
of instruments, for the year 1861, made at the college in charge

of the Jesuit Fathers of Guatemala.

Caswell, Prof. Alexis, D. D.—Monthly summaries of observations
made at Providence, R. I., during 1861; published in the
‘‘Providence Daily Journal.”’

6

82 METEOROLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS

Dawson, William.—Thermometer observations at Cadiz, Indiana, for
the years 1857, 1858, 1859. .

Hourly thermometer observations from 4 a. m. to 9 p- m. , during
October, November, and December, 1861.

Dewey, fev. Chester, D. D.—Printed summary of observations at
Rochester, N. Y., for the year 1861.

Gardiner, R. H.—Printed summary of observations at Gardiner,
Maine, for the year 1861, and the means of twenty-four years.

Graham, Iieuvt. Col.—Annual report of Brevet Lieutenant Colonel J.
D. Graham, Major U. 8. Topographical Engineers, on the im-
provement of the harbors of Lakes Michigan, St. Clair, Erie,
Ontario, and Champlain, for the year 1860. (The volume
contains half hourly observations from January 1 to July 1,
1859, on the rise and fall of the surface of Lake Michigan,
and discussions to establish a lunar tide on the lake.)

Heimstreet, John W.—Printed summary of observations at Troy, N.
Y., for the year 1861 ; published in the ‘Troy Daily Budget’’
newspaper. ®

Hewitt, C. H.—Barometer and thermometer observations taken at
6 a. m., noon, and midnight, on steamer between San Francisco
and Panama, in August and September, 1861.

Hildreth, S. P., M. D.—Monthly registers for the year 1861, at
Marietta, Ohio, completing his series of observations from 1824..
The whole series has been received at the Institution, and re-
duced preparatory to publication.

* Kaiserliche Geographischen Gesellschaft. zu St. Petersburg.— Repertorium
fur Meteorologie, herausgegeben von der Kais. Geographischen
Gesellschaft zu St. Petersburg, redigirt von Dr. Ludwig
Friedrich Kamtz, Kaiserl. Russischern Staatsrath und Pro-
fessor zu Dorpat. Dorpat, 1859, 1860. 4to.

Kingston, G. T.—Mean meteorological results at Toronto, Canada,
for the year 1861, by G. T. Kingston, M. A., Director of the
Magnetical Observatory, Toronto.—(From the Canadian Jour-
nal for March, 1862.) 8vo., pp. 8.

Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs, Copenhagen, Denmark.—

: Collectanea meteorologica, sub auspiciis Societatis Scientiarum
Danice edita :

Fasc. I. Observationes meteorologice a cal. Juniis, 1824, ad cal.
Junias, 1825, Apenroz in Ducatu Slesvicensi facta ab A.
Neuber, Doctore Philosophiw, Medicine et Chirurgie, urbis
et prefectures Apenroensis Physico. Hafnizw, 1829. 4to., pp.
246.

Fasc. II. Observationes meteorologicea 1 Jan., 1823, ad 1 Aug.,
1837, in Islandia facte, a Thorstensenio, Medico. Hafnie,
1839. 4to., pp. 234.

Fasc. III. Observationes meteorologice per annos 1829~'34, et
1838~’42, in Guinea facte, a J. J. Trentepohl, R. Chenon, F.
Sannom. Haunie, 1845. 4to., pp. 136.

METEOROLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS. 83

Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademien, Stockholm, Sweden.—Mete-
orologiska Iakttagelser 1 Sverige utgifna af Kongl. Svenska
Vetenskaps-Akademien bearbetade af Er. Edlund. Forsta
bandet, 1859. Stockholm, 1860. Oblong 4to, pp. 108.

Koniglich Preussische Statistiches Bureau, Berlin, Prussia.—Ueber-
sicht der Witterung im nordlichen Deutschland nach den Beo-
bachtungen des Meteorologischen Instituts zu Berlin. 1859,
4to, 25 pp.; 1860, 4to, 32 pp.

Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Instituut, Utrecht, Holland.—
Uitkomsten van Wetenschap en Ervaring aangaande Winden
en zeestroomingen in sommige gedeelten van den QOceaan.
Uitgegeven door het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologisch
Instituut. 2e omgewerkte druk. Utrecht, 1856. 4to, pp. 165.

Lake Winnepissiogee Cotton and Woollen Manufacturi ing Company, N.
H.—Amount of rain for each month in 1861, at the outlet of
Lake Winnepissiogee, in the town of Laconia, and also at Lake
Village, about four miles south on the same stream of water.
(Similar statements have been previously received for the
years 1857 to 1860.) Transmitted by Josiah W. French.

Lapham, Increase A.—Notes of Periodical Phenomena and weather,
made at Hudson, N. Y., 1790 to 1794, copied from an inter-
leaved almanac.

Lewis, James.—Hourly mean temperature at Mohawk, N. Y., for the
year 1861, and several shorter periods. Also fac simile speci-

mens of the records made by his metallic self-recording ther-
mometer.

Martindale, Isaac.Summary of observations made at Byberry, Penn-
sylvania, during the year 1861.

Martins, Professor Ch.—Kssai sur la Théorie de la Variation diurne
barométrique, sur la Constitution de |’ Ether, et sur Analogie
de ce Fluide avec la Fluide électrique. Mémoire présenté a la
Société Académique de l’ Aube par le Docteur C. L. Henry,
membre associé. Troyes, 1860. 8vo., pp. 144.

Annuaire Meteorologique de France pour 1850, 1851, 1852. 8vo.

Du Froid Thermometrique et de ces relations avec le Froid Physio-
logique dans les Plaines et sur les Montagnes. Montpellier,
1859. 4to, pp. 52.

Sur le Froid exceptionnel qui a regné a Montpellier dans le cou-
rant de Janvier, 1855, les differences notables de temperature
observés sur des points tres-rapproches et leur influence sur
la vegetation. Montpellier, 1855. 4to, pp. 16.

Hssai sur Ja nature et l’origine des differentes espéces de Brouil-
lards secs. Versailles, 1850. - 8vo. pp. 21.

Des causes du Froid sur les hautes Montagne. Paris, 1860. 8vo.,

p. 38.

Des climats de la France et de leur influence sur son agriculture
et la genie de ses habitants. Versailles, 1850. pp. 26.

Mémoire sur les températures de la Mer Glaciale a la surface, a
de grand profondeurs, et dans'le voisinage des Glaciers du
Spitzberg. Paris, 1848. 8vo., pp. 72.

34 METEOROLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS.

Meade, Capt. George G.—Register of water-level and meteorological
observations from January to June, 1861, under the direction
of Captain George G. Meade, U. S. Topographical Engineers,
Superintendent Survey of the North and Northwestern Lakes,
as follows :

Sackett’s Harbor, N. Y., by Henry Metcalf.

Charlotte, N. Y., by Andrew Mulligan.

Fort Niagara, N. Y., by Louis Leffman.

Monroe Piers, Mich., by John Lane.

Thunder Bay Island, Mich., by I. I. Malden.

Ottawa Point, Mich.,; by John Oliver.

Grand Haven, Mich., by Heber Squier.

Ontonagon, Mich., by Henry Selby.

Superior, Wis., by George R. Stuntz, assisted by E. H. Bly.

Meteorological. Society of Scotland.—Quarterly reports and other regu-

__ lar publications of the society.

Fall of raia at thirty-seven stations in Scotland during each
month in the year 1856; published in the Edinburg New Phil-
osophical Journal for April, 1857.

Fall of rain at fifty-five stations in Scotland during each month in
1857. Edinburg New Philosophical Magazine, April, 1858.

Morris, Prof. O. W.—Summary of observations from 1854 to 1860,
inclusive, kept at the Institution for Deaf and Dumb, New York.

Maller, Prof. Dr. Rudolph.—Summaries and diagrams of observations
made at St. Vincent’s College, Westmoreland county, Penn-
sylvania, during the year 1861.

Nason, Rev. Elias.—Record of events, meteorological and general, in
Exeter, N. H., during the year 1861. Pamphlet, pp. 16.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Emden, Hannover.—Die Thermische
Windrose fur Nordwest Deutschland, von Dr. M. A. F. Prestel.
Mit vier figurentafeln. Eingegangen bei der Akademie am 18
Nov. 1860. (Besondrer abdruck aus Band XXVIII, der Ver-
handlungen der K. L.-C. D. A.) Jena, 1861. 4to, pp. 36.

Meteorologische untersuchungen betrefferd die verbreitung des
Moorrauchs in den Tagen vom 20. bis 26. Mai, 1860, die
isobaromotrischen Linien am 22. Mai und die Gewitter am 20.”
und 26. Mai, 1860. Von Dr. M. A. F. Prestel. Kleine schrif-
ten der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft im Emden VIII. Mit
2 tafeln in steindruck. Emden, 1861. 4to, pp. 24.

Bildliche Darstellung des Ganges der Witterung vom 1. Decem-
ber, 1859, bis 30. November, 1860, im Konigreich Hannover.
Nach den Beobachtungen der meteorologischen stationen ent-
worfen von Dr. M. A. F. Prestel.

Navy Department, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery.—Monthly registers
kept at—

Naval Hospital, Chelsea, Mass., year 1861.

Naval Hospital, New York, year 1861.

Naval Hospital, Philadelphia, year 1861. .

Naval Hospital, Portsmouth, Va., January, February, and. March,
1861.

METEOROLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS. 85

Observatoire Impérial, Paris—Daily meteorological observations, by
telegraph, from various parts of Europe. (Lithograph.)

Reale Osservatorio, Palermo, Italy.—Giornale Astronomico e Meteoro-
logico del Reale Osservatorio di Palermo, publicato dal Prof.
Domenico Ragona. Vol. 1. Palermo, 1855. 4to, pp. 188.

Ross, Bernard R., Chief Factor of Hudson's Bay Company.—Observa-
tions at Lake Nipegon, from October 1, 1841, to June 13, 1845.
Thermometer at 6 a. m., noon, and 10 p. m.; wind, weather,
and remarks. No thermometer after March 25, 1845; instru-
ment broken. Register kept by James Anderson, chief factor.

Observations at Fort Simpson, Mackenzie's river, Hudson’s Bay
Territory, from November 1, 1837, to May 24, 1839. Ther-
mometer observed in morning, afternoon, and evening; wind
and weather in a. m. and p. m.

Saunders, Henry D.— Results of the meteorological observations made
at the observatory at Vilna, Russia, from June, 1860, to May,
1861; and at Warsaw in 1860. (2 pages.)

Schmid, Dr. Ernst Erhard.—Lehrbuch der Meteorologie bearbeitet
von Dr. Ernst Erhard Schmid, Professor zu Zena. Nebst
einem Atlas von 21 tafeln. Leipzig, 1860. 8vo., pp. 1010.

Atlas von einundzwanzig Kuppertafeln zu Ernst Erhard Schmid’s
Lehrbuch der Meteorologie. (Allgemeine Encyklopadie der
Physik, xxi. Band.) Leipzig, 1860. Oblong 4to.

Sheldon, H. C.—Monthly and annual summaries of observations at
Providence, R. I., during the year 1861; published in the
‘*vening Press.”’

Smith, Rev. L. M. S.—Summary of observations made at Mill Point,
Michigan, during the year 1861; published in the ‘‘ Grand
Haven News.”’

Smallwood, Dr. Charles —Contributions to Meteorology for the year
1860, reduced from observations at Isle Jesus, Canada Kast,
by C. Smallwood, M. D., L.L. D., Professor of Meteorology in
the University of McGill College, Montreal. 8vo., pp. 4.

Same for 1861, 10 pages.

State Department.—Statistics of the weather and health at Frankfort-
on-the-Mayne during the year 1861, by William M. Murphy,
U. 8. Consul General at Frankfort.

Sternbergh, W. H—Register of thermometer and face of sky at
Panama, in July and August, 1861. (Newspaper.)

Tolman, James W.—Summary of observations made in 1861 at Win-
nebago, Illinois; published in the ‘‘ Rockford Register.’’

Wagner, W. H., Chief Engineer of the Fort Kearney, South Pass, and
Honey Lake Wagon Road Expedition.—Record of barometer,
thermometer, winds, and clouds, made on the route of the
expedition, May 29 to August 16, 1860.

Whitehead, W. A.—Monthly and annual summaries of observations
made during the year 1861, at Newark, New Jersey; pub-
lished in the ‘‘Sentinel of Freedom and Weekly Advertiser.”’

Unknown.—Summary of the meteorology of St. John, New Brunswick,
for October, 1861, in the ‘‘ Morning Freeman’’ of November 9,
signed ‘‘M.’’

86

CATALOGUE OF ENGRAVINGS.

CATALOGUE OF ENGRAVINGS

PRESEN'TED TO THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY C. B. KING, DECEMBER, 1861.

4

19.
20.
Zl,
22.

23.
24.
25.
26.

ai
28.

29.
30.
31.

ouaoH

. Jupiter and Leda. Froma picture by F. Vieira, a Portuguese.

Apollo. Cazenave, del et sculpt.

. Venus and Adonis. B. West. (Bn. 1738, obt. 1820.)
. Jupiter and Semele. West. Cook, sculpt.
. Alfred the Great. West. Sharp, sculpt.

Adoration of Virgin. Rubens. (Bn. Cologne, 1577, obt. 1640.)
Sayers, sculpt.
Mucius Scevola. Rubens. Marchand, sculpt.

. Massacre of Innocents. Rubens. (Engraved by Pontius, 1643.)
. Landscape. J. Asselyn. (Flemish, 1610and 1660.) Major, sculpt.
. Dividing the Booty. Simonini. (Bn. Parma, 1689, obt. 1760.)

Vivares, sculpt.

. Christ in Tempest. Rembrandt. (Bn. 1606, obt. 1665.)
12.
13s
14,
15.
16.
1h.
18.

Trial of Christ. (Etching, 1636.) Rembrandt.

Nymphs Bathing. Dietricy. (Ser. 1712.)

St. Sebastian. Titian. (1477 to 1576.) Cunego, sculpt.

Charles Seymour. Titian. Baron, sculpt.

Apollo. (1590)

Paris and Helen. (Unknown.)

Virgin, Child, and St. John. Van Dyck. (Bn. 1599.) V.
Green, sculpt.

Charles I and Duke d’Espernon. Van Dyck. Baron, sculpt.

Charles I and Court. Van Dyck. Baron, sculpt.

Viscount Fordwich. Van Dyck. Baron, sculpt.

Cartoon, the Annunciation. (Coll. Soc. Jesus.) Cornelio.
Engraved 1571.

Golden Calf. N. Poussin. (1594, 1665.) Baudet, sculpt.

Woman taken in Adultery. N. Poussin.

Architectural Designs. M. Angelo. 6 plates.

The Cardinal Virtues. Domenichino. Srey, sculpt.
They consist of four plates, viz:

A. Justitia.

B. Temperantia.

C. Fortitudo.

D. Prudentia.

Bacchanals. Cesius.

Battle Scene. (Alex. Great.) Pietro Berretini, born 1596,
called Da Cortona. Florentine.

Battle Scene. (Unknown.)

Diana and Acteon. P.Morelze. Dutch, 1571. Mcetham, sculpt.

Scene from Roman History. Giulio Romano. (1492, Rome.)

32.
33.
34.
35.

36.
37.
38,

39.
40.
41.

42.
45.
44,
45.
A6.

AT.
48.
49,
50.
ol.

52.
53.

54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64,
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
13.
74.
75.

CATALOGUE OF ENGRAVINGS. 87

Scene from Roman History. Giulio Romano.

Dance of the Hours. Giulio Romano.

Diana and Acteon. Carlo Maratti. (Bn. 1625.)

Mary Washing Christ’s Feet. P. Veronese or Cagliari. (Bn.
Verona, 1532.) .

Ancient Naval Show in Circus. P. Veronese.

Last Supper. P. Veronese. Saenredam, sculpt.

Le Testament Dechire. J. B. Greuze. (French, 1726.) Le-
vabeur, sculpt.

Le Veuve et Son Cure. J. B. Greuze. Levabeur, sculpt.

Le Gateau des Rois. J. B. Greuze. Flipart, sculpt.

Death of Oedipus. Fuseli. (Swiss. Lived in London. 1741—
1825.) Ward, sculpt.

Caractacus. Fuseli. Birrell, sculpt.

French Second Rate Ship. Vandervelde. TYompins, sculpt.

Spanish Second Rate Ship. Vandervelde.

Nymphs Bathing. Jos. Vernet. (Bn. 1714.) Laurie, sculpt.

Celadon and Amelia. R. Wilson, R. A. (1714—1782.) Wool-
lett, sculpt.

Mine of Fahlun. Vanlerberghe. MMalgo, sculpt.

Venus Aphrodite. Jas. Barry, R. A. (1741—1806.) Green, sculpt.

Vulture. Northcote, R. A. (1746—1831.) Reynolds, sculpt.

Heron. Northcote, R. A. Reynolds, sculpt.

Death of Captain Faulknor. Stothard, R. A. (1755—1834.)
Blackberd, sculpt.

Marriage at Cana. J.B. Jackson.

Dutchess Yorke. Hoppner. (German. Born in London.
1759—1810. Dickinson, sculpt. .

Mrs. Whitebread. Hoppner. Reynolds, sculpt.

Duke of Leeds. Lawrence,R. A. (1769—1830.) Aeadows, sculpt.

Infant Hercules. Reynolds. (1723—1838.) Walker, sculpt. —

Sir Wm. Hamilton. Reynolds. Hudson, sculpt.

Duke of Clarence? Reynolds. Watson, sculpt.

George IV as Prince of Wales. Reynolds. Haward, sculpt.

Duke of Yorke. Reynolds. Jones, sculpt.

Sir J. Leicester. Reynolds. S. Reynolds, sculpt.

Lord Romney. Reynolds. Finlayson, sculpt.

Lord R. Manners. Reynolds. Dickinson, sculpt.

Mrs. Siddons as Tragic Muse. Reynolds. Haward, sculpt.

L’ Allegro. Reynolds. Watson, sculpt.

Viscountess Townshend. Reynolds. (rreen, sculpt.

Hon. Mrs. Parker. Reynolds. Watson, sculpt.

Hon. Lady Delme. Reynolds. Green, sculpt.

Viscountess Crosbie. Reynolds. Dickinson, sculpt.

Mrs. Blake. Reynolds. Dixon, sculpt.

Lady Talbot. Reynolds. Green, sculpt.

Mrs. Tollemache. Reynolds. Jones, sculpt.

(Unknown.)

Balbec. (Ruins, 5 plates.)

Design. (Gateway to Carlton House.)

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The Executive Committee respectfully submit to the Board of Re-
gents the following report of the receipts and expenditures of the
Smithsonian Institution during the year 1861, with general estimates

for the year 1862.
RECEIPTS.

The whole amount of Smithson’s bequest deposited in
the treasury of the United States is $515,169, from
which an annual income at six per cent. is derived of

The extra fund of unexpended income is invested, as
follows, viz :

In 75,000 Indiana 5 per cent. bonds, yielding--------

In 53,500 Virginia 6 per cent. bonds, yielding nothing
during 1861.

In 12,000 Tennessee 6 per cent., yielding nothing
during 1861.

In 500 Georgia 6 per cent., yielding nothing during
1861.

In 100 Washington 6 per cent., will be paid, but not

collected in 1861.

Ae) ae C0)» whe lxiassperh hs» sich
Balance in the hands of the treasurer, Jan. 11, 1861.--

Total receipts. +++++++++++seeeee-

EXPENDITURES
For building, furniture, and fixtures---- $1,734 62
For general expenses.--+++ +++-ee+ eee 10,899 69
For publications, researches, and lectures 10,764 96
For library, museum, and gallery of art. - 5,737 65

Total expenditure PSE Oa MUS 1

Balance in the hands of the treasurer, January 9, 1862

$30,910 14

3,750. 00

34,660 14
16,521 95

—

51,182 09

__

29,136 92
22.045 17

—_—_—_—
—_——

REPORT OF COMMITTEE. 89

Statement in detail of ihe expenditures during 1861.

BUILDING, FURNITURE, AND FIXTURES.

Building incidentals.-........-... 2... 25. $906 19
Furniture and fixtures in general.-...---..-- 1717 26
Furniture and fixtures for museum. .---.-..--- 651 17
+ ——_—— $1,734 62
GENERAL EXPENSES.
Meetings of the board.---...-.-...s.+- eee $66 00
Lighting and heating.----. --.... s+. sees, 1,074 94
Postage nebo a Mate astte) ooh er eNere. “shoal cust Pallorones Norley syiowe! or ar-snelichia 3889 OS
Transportation, general---..-...+-. e+e. eee. 656 24
Exchanges SER rs ere sobsttt: beth el sees - Ty¥3 O07
Stationery besey. sheer Rit lee ee Se, Sab es tat Me: 194 60
General printing pera bch attees 245 ft AP Saki th ec 50 16
Apparatus wef te Se sees |The’. athe, / Ber aa 711 70
Laboratory gb cae ase RP LT. 6S CRG eI S eG 161 42
Incidentals, general......-..-.. 22.22. ee%- 400 38
MeMearelark ‘Hane (126s). BN ia fewest. Sie wre s 434 10
Salaries, secretary --+ ++. cece cee eee eee 3,500 00
chief clerk, bookkeeper, messenger,
anelaborermt)’> 22 .bas2 Fe iE. Sad 2,468 00
10,899 69
PUBLICATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND LECTURES.
Smithsonian Contributions...- ..-..-+-. e+. $3,936 85
Smithsonian Reports Re cc sh ts spe arzet bapeyaksyeneds yanete 915 00
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.--..--. 1,627 63
Other publications ates Lash Rapin Seta, te eotalats BSN Ay oR 310 50
Meteorology De AAG iodo -ijertye cd Bh Reds a-oF. Ree 3,059 04
Researches and investigations---.----.+---+. 111 00
RTI TSG Ry e82 sisi ts te Gh otek 4S Gols, dh Rhee 4 pete ORTS AH 804 94
———— 10,764 96
LIBRARY, MUSEUM, AND GALLERY OF ART.
Cost of books and binding:--..-..-.-++-+++-: $915 78
Pay of assistants in library---- +--+ --.+++-+- 1,141 00
Transportation for library.-+-+.-+++++eeee-- 126 87
Incidentals for library «+--+ +--+ +++ pees eee, 23 12
Museum, salary of assistant secretary-------- 2,000 00
Transportation for museum:-+--+ +++. +++ + 406 33
Incidentals for museum ...- .+ ++ sees eee ees ATT 35
Explorations ER ks he inp Wie Riad oeca'e kd 432 25
Gallery of art.......-- it dh iehs, o BURR R, SEE nee 914 95

Sate gids 1h Be

Total expenditures: +++ ++++ +++ sees “siexeeti ny). Gojoe

90 REPORT OF COMMITTEE.

On account of the delay in obtaining the interest due from the
United States at the beginning of the year, the foregoing accounts
for 1861 were made up to the 9th of January, 1862.

It will be seen that the whole income during the year 1861 was
$34,660 14, instead of the estimated income of $38,626 14. This
difference is caused by the failure of Virginia, Tennessee, and Georgia
to pay the interest on their bonds, and by the treasurer not having
.as yet collected the $6 from the corporation of Washington.

The expenditures during 1861 were $29,136 92, leaving $5,523 22
to be added to the balance in the hands of the treasurer on the 11th
of January, 1861, making $22,045 17 in hand for paying in cash the
expenses of the operations of the Institution as rapidly as the bills
are presented.

The foregoing statement is an actual exhibit of the Smithsonian
funds irrespective of credits and disbursements which have been
made in behalf of other parties. For example: the Institution fre-
quently advances money to pay for the transportation of packages in
connexion with its general system of exchange, and in all such
cases the money when refunded is credited to the appropriation from
which the expenditure was originally made. Again: the use of the
lecture room is, in many instances, granted for charitable and literary
purposes without any other charge than that for the gas consumed
and the pay of the necessary attendants, the whole amounting to
ten dollars each night. Half of this is credited on the books of
the Institution to the account of ‘‘lighting and heating,’’ and the
other half paid directly to the persons employed.

The appropriation from Congress for the preservation of the col-
lections of the exploring and surveying expeditions of the United
States has been expended as usual, under the direction of the Secre-
tary of the Interior, in assisting to pay the expenses of extra assistants
in the museum, and the cost of arranging and preserving the speci-
mens. The sum received from this source has been credited to the
museum, and has served to diminish the amount of expenditures for that
object on the part of the Institution, although it has by no means been
sufficient to defray all the expenses to which the establishment has
been subjected, on account of the preservation and public exhibition
of the specimens.

_ The articles intrusted to the care of the Institution are in good
condition, and the work of the distribution of the duplicates of the
government as well as those of the Institution is in active progress.

A part of the expenditure on the building is due to the introduc-
tion of the Potomac water, but a further expenditure during the pres-
ent year will be required for the same purpose.

Although the income of the Institution during 1861 has been
nearly $4,000 less than was estimated at the beginning of the year,
yet the Secretary, by a proper curtailment of the operations in view
of the unsettled condition of the times, has reduced the expenditures
to $5,000 less than the actual income. All the outstanding obliga-
tions of the Institution for works which have been commenced would
not exceed $2,000, ,so that the establishment could to-day wind up

REPORT OF COMMITTEE. 91

its affairs with $20,000 in cash, besides the undiminished original be-
quest of Smithson in the treasury of the United States, and $141,000
invested in State stocks, from which it is hoped at some future time
the full interest may be received.

It is impossible, in view of the uncertainty of the future, to present
even an approximate estimate of the expenditures during 1862. The
committee would, however, submit the following as a general guide
to the Secretary :

OA NCA HIG» 3.1 Ais Shor om AK serseeid ashore bs $34,666 14
Estimated expenditure :

For building, furniture, and fixtures----.- $2,000 00

For general expenses++++++ sees ++ eee 10,500 00

For publications, researches, and lectures- 10,500 00
For library, museum, and gallery of art. 9,000 00
— 32,000 00

——

The committee have carefully examined the books and accounts of
the Institution for the past year, and find them to be correct.
Respectfully submitted.
J. A. PEARCE,
A. D. BACHE,
Jukes OTP BN,

Executive Committee.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

BOARD OF REGENTS

OF

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

t

WasuHineton, January 15, 1862.

In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution, fixing the time of the beginning of their an-
nual session on the third Wednesday of January of each year, the
Board met this day in the Regents’ room at 11 o’clock a. m.

Present : Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon. J. A. Pearce, Hon. E. McPher-
son, Hon. S. 8. Cox, Hon. Richard Wallach, and the Secretary.

The Secretary stated that since the last session of the Regents the
following changes had taken place in the Board, viz:

Hon. Hannipat Hamuin,. as Vice-President of the United States,
has become ex officio a member of the Board. The vacancy occasioned
by the death of Hon. Richard Rush, has by joint resolution of Con-
gress, approved March 2, 1861, been filled by the appointment of
Hon. Witiiam L. Dayton, of New Jersey ; the vacancy caused by
the expiration of the term of Hon. Gideon Hawley, by the appoint-
ment of Wixiiam B. Astor, of New York; and that by the expira-
tion of the term of Cornetius C. Fetron, of Massachusetts, by the
reappointment of the same gentleman.

The Secretary also stated that on the 7th of March, 1861, the Vice-
President of the United States reappointed Hon. James A. PEaRCEa
Regent for the term of six years, and on the 4th of December, 1861,
he appointed Hon. W. P. Frssenpen, of Maine, and Hon. L. Trum-
BULL, of Illinois, to fill the vacancies occasioned by the decease of
Hon. S. A. Douglas and the removal of Hon. J. M. Mason; and that
on the 19th of December the Speaker of the House appointed Hon.
S. Coirax, of Indiana, Hon. 8. S. Cox, of Ohio, and Hon. E. McPusrson,
of Pennsylvania, as Regents for the term of two years.

In addition to the foregoing, Hon. RicHarpD WALLACH having been

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 93

chosen Mayor of the city of Washington, in place of Mr. Berret, re-
signed, has become ex officio a member of the Board.

The Secretary made a statement relative to the present condition
of the Institution and its operations, but as several of the Regents
were obliged to leave on account of congressional duties, the Board
adjourned to meet on Saturday, February 8.

SaturDay, Hebruary 8, 1862.

The Board of Regents met this day at 10 o’clock a. m. in the Re-
gents’ room.

Present : Hon. H. Hamlin, Vice-President of the United States;
Hon. James A. Pearce, Hon. Lyman Trumbull, Hon. S. Colfax, Hon.
S. 8S. Cox, Hon. Edward McPherson, Hon. R. Wallach. In the ab-
sence of the Chancellor, Hon. Mr. Hamlin was called to the chair.

Mr. Pearce presented the report of the Executive Committee, con-
taining an account of the receipts and expenditures for the year 1861,
and estimates for 1862, which was read and approved.

Mr. Pearce also gave an account of the financial arrangements of
the Institution, the care exercised in expenditures, the examination
of vouchers, &c. :

1. The disbursements are authorized by the Secretary, in accord-
ance with the appropriations made by the Board.

2. The accounts are audited by the Chief Clerk, and in the more
important cases are examined by experts as to the reasonableness of
the charges.

3. The bills are next presented to the Secretary for approval and
for orders on ‘the Treasurer to pay them.

4. They are then copied in detail into a day-book in chronological
order, and the amounts posted in a ledger under the heads of the
different appropriations.

5. The accounts and vouchers are semi-annually placed in the
hands of Mr. W. B. Randolph, (Chief Clerk of the Treasurer of the
United States,) for critical and final revision, and for the preparation
of a general statement of receipts and expenditures during the year.

6. At the end of the year all the books and accounts are carefully
examined by the Executive Committee, and the result reported to
the Board of Regents.

The Secretary presented his annual report of the operations of the
Institution during the year 1861, which was read and approved.

The Board then adjourned to meet at the call of the Secretary.

94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

’ .
Wasuineton, May 1, 1862.

The Board of Regents met this day at ten o’clock a. m. in the Re-
gents’ room.

Present: Hon. L. Trumbull, Hon. Edward McPherson, Hon. R.
Wallach, General J. G. Totten, Professor A. D. Bache, Dr. Theodore
D. Woolsey, and the Secretary.

General Totten was called to the chair.

The minutes were read and approved.

The Secretary announced that since the last meeting of the Board
Dr. C. C. Friron had deceased, and that Congress had by joint reso-
lution appointed THEoporE D. Wootsgy, LL. D., President of Yale
College, to fill the vacancy thus occasioned.

Professor Bache, after a few appropriate remarks, offered the fol-
lowing resolutions, which were unanimously adopted :

fesolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion deeply mourn the loss of their fellow-regent, Cornelius Conway.
Felton, the distinguished President of Harvard University, whose
profound learning and ready use of the rich stores of ancient and mo-
dern lore excited general admiration, while his genial temper, af-
fectionate disposition, and open manners, endeared him as a friend to
every member of this establishment.

Resolved, That in the death of President Felton our country, in
the hour of its trial, has lost a wise and influential citizen, our gov-
ernment a warm and eloquent supporter, Harvard University a
learned and efficient head, and this Institution an active and valued
regent.

fesolved, That we sincerely condole with the bereaved family of
President Felton, and offer to them our heartfelt sympathy in their
deep affliction.

fesolved, That Dr. Woolsey be requested to prepare a suitable no-

tice of President Felton, to be inserted in the Journal of the Board
of Regents.*

fesolved, That a copy of these resolutions be communicated by the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to the family of the deceased,
and to the Faculty and Corporation of Harvard.

Hon. Mr. Trumbull made some remarks relative to the late Judge
Douglas, and offered the following resolutions :

ftesolved, That in the death of the Hon. Stephen A. Douglas the
Smithsonian Institution has been deprived of a most zealous friend ;
the Board of Regents of an active and attentive member; and the
country of a distinguished and influential citizen.

ftesolved, That the Board of Regents deeply sympathize with the

** Dr. Woolsey’s eulogy will be found at the end of these proceedings, page 109.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 95

bereaved relatives of the-deceased, and that a copy of these resolu-
tions be transmitted to them.

Resolved, That the Hon. S. S. Cox be requested to prepare a suit-
able notice of the Hon. S. A. Douglas to be inserted in the Journal
of the Board of Regents.*

The resolutions were unanimously adopted.

The Secretary stated that during a recent visit of Rev. Francis
Vinton to Washington he had obtained from him some additional
facts relative to the Wynns estate, of which the Smithsonian Institu-
tion is the provisional legatee.

Mr. Thomas Wynns, born in North Carolina, resided for a long
time at Grand Turk, Turk’s Island, where he accumulated a consid-
erable fortune, and married at an advanced age Charlotte Arthur, a
daughter of John Arthur, a woman much younger than himself. He
afterwards removed to Brooklyn, New York, where he died about
1851, leaving his widow and one child, adaughter. To the former he
bequeathed alife annuity of $1,500, and to the latter his whole estate,
subject to the foregoing annuity. In case of the death of this daugh-
ter without issue, the estate, now valued at from $60,000 to $70,000,
is bequeathed to the Smithsonian Institution. The property is se-
curely invested in bonds and mortgages, and is under the care of Edw.
Coffin, now residing in London, and Rev. Francis Vinton, of Trinity
church, New York, as trustees. The accounts are rendered to the
surrogate of Kings county, New York.

After the death of her husband, Mrs. Wynns returned to the West
Indies and married Captain Anderson. She now resides, with her
daughter Charlotte Arthur Wynns, in England. The latter is about
seventeen years of age.

The Secretary gave an account of the circumstances connected with
the money left in England by Hon. Richard Rush, as the principal of
an annuity to the mother of the nephew of Smithson, and presented
the following communications from Fladgate, Clarke & Finch, of
London.

40 CRAVEN STREET, STRAND,
London, W. C., May 16, 1861.
Sir: We had the honor, in the year 1838, of acting professionally
for the President of the United States in the suit in the English court
of chancery, under which the funds for the foundation of the Institu-
tion (of which we address you as the manager) were decreed to be

* This eulogy will be found at the end of these proceedings, page 117.

96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

paid over to him for the purpose of establishing the Institution. We
have now to make to you as the manager thereof the following com-
munication :

On referring to the papers connected with the Institution you will
find that a sum of £5,015 three per cent. consols, part of the estate of
Smithson, the founder, were retained in the court of chancery to
answer a claim of one Madame de la Batut. That person was, in fact,
entitled to a life interest in the fund, and at her death it was to revert
to the President as an additional fund for the purposes of the Insti-
tution.

Madame de la Batut is now dead, so that the fund has become
transferable to the President, and it will be requisite for him, or some
person duly authorized by him, to take the necessary steps to obtain a
transfer.

We have had some communication with the solicitor of the lady’s
family, who writes as follows:

‘‘My client, Mr. La Batut, upon taking out administration to his
late mother, Madame La Batut, to whom Lieutenant Colonel Henry
Lewis Dickinson, by his will dated 17th July, 1819, gave half of the
income of his property, for her life, will be entitled to an apportioned
part of such income from the last payment, on the 22d-March, 1858,
to 10th September, in the same year, which would amount to
about £70.

‘‘The property originally consisted of French 5 per cent. rentes,
payable 22d March and 22d September, but by order of the court a
sum of £5,015 three per cent. consols was invested in the name of the
accountant general in this suit, to the separate account of Mary Ann
de la Batut, the annuitant, to meet the payments of the life income.
By the law of France, the life income is apportionable and payable
up to the time of death, and Lieutenant Colonel Dickinson having
been domiciled in France at the time of his death, that law will apply
to this case.

‘*Will you be good enough, under these circumstances, to obtain
the consent of your client in presenting a petition as to the £5,015
and the arrears of dividends due thereon, to ask for the payment to
my client of the apportioned sum out of such arrears, without obliging
him to go to the expense of proving the law of France upon this sub-
ject. Iwill hand you the necessary proof of death, the expense of
which can be included in the necessary costs of the application.’’

We should recommend that the request contained in this letter be
complied with.

We have the honor to be, sir, your most obedient servants,

FLADGATE, CLARKE & FINCH.

To the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

Washington, U. S.

40 CRAVEN STREET, STRAND,
London, W. C., October 26, 1861.

Sir: Your letter of the 14th August reached us in the long vaca-
tion which has just terminated, and we hasten to reply to it.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 97

All that will be requisite to be done in the first instance is, that we
should have the authority of the President of the United States to
present a petition for an order to have the fund paid to him. On our
obtaining this order, a power of attorney will be sent out to the Presi-
dent authorizing some person here to receive from the court of chan-
cery, and transmit to him, or to the managers of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, the fund in question.

Having in the suit had the honor of acting for the President,’ it
might be within our functions to present the petition even without an
express authority, but we did not deem it right to do so without some
communication with the President or with the managers of the Insti-
tution.

Of course, although the order might be obtained without, the fund
can only be dealt with on the signature of the President.

We have the honor to be, sir, your very obedient servants,

FLADGATE, CLARKE & FINCH.

JOSEPH Henry, Esq.,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

On motion of Mr. Trumbull, it was

Resolved, That the Secretary and Executive Committee consult with
the President of the United States and take such action as may be
necessary for obtaining the money referred to in the communication
from the solicitors in London.

The Secretary stated that Congress had passed a joint resolution
granting to the Institution a set of the volumes of the United States
Exploring Expedition.

The Secretary gave an account of the organization of the ‘‘Kstab-
lishment,’’ and stated that although he had regularly given notice to
the members, no meetings had lately been held.

The Secretary presented the manuscripts, maps and collections of
the expedition to the Arctic regions of Dr. I. I. Hayes, which were
referred to Professor Bache.

The Secretary made a statement relative to the system of inter-
national exchange conducted by the Institution, and presented the
following letter :

HampurG AMERICAN PAcKET COMPANY,
New York, October 21, 1861.
Dear Str: In reply to your favor of October 18, we beg to state
chat we shall be most happy to accommodate the Smithsonian Insti-
tution in furthering the wishes you express, and take on freight, tree of
charge, any packages which you desire to ship, be they specimens of

7

98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

natural history, books, or other articles desired to be forwarded to ©
Germany or the continent of Europe, irrespective of bulk.
Very respectfully, yours,
KUNHARDT & CO.

On motion of Mr. McPherson, it was

Resolved, That the thanks of the Board of Regents be bbe ee to
the. ‘Hamburg American Packet Company,’’ for their liberal co-
operation in assisting to advance the objects of this Institution.

The following letters were presented by the Secretary as illustra-
tions of the correspondence of the Institution:

CHATEAU OF KCLIPENDS,
Canton de Vaud, Switzerland, January 17, 1861.

Sir: I beg you to express to the Institution of which you are the
Secretary my sincere thanks for the remittance which you have just
made me of three volumes of your reports, (Annual Reports of the
Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1856, 1857, 1858.)
The learned memoirs contained in these volumes possess great interest
for me, and I am happy to testify my sense of your kindness.

Together with this letter I have forwarded to Dr. Flugel, at Leipsic,
five copies of a volume, which I have but just published, on the ‘‘ La-
custrian Habitations of Ancient and Modern Times,” (XVII plates, 380
figures.) I would ask the favor of you to accept a copy for the Smith-
sonian Institution, as a slight testimony of my high appreciation. As
regards the other four copies, you will confer a sensible obligation on
me if you will present them, in my name, to such scientific societies
of the United States as you may deem most interested in researches
of this kind.

I have had the satisfaction of sending you heretofore some commu-
nications on the lacustrian habitations of Switzerland. Since then
these researches have been prosecuted with success, and we are be-
ginning to make discoveries of remains of the same kind in Wales,
Germany, Scotland, and elsewhere. Africa, Asia, and Oceanica pre-
sent similar constructions. The floating gardens of Mexico are refer-
able to the same usages, end it would appear to me that you must
have in your own lakes remains similar to those of Switzerland. It
has seemed to me important that the discoveries of this kind made in
Europe should be grouped together in one work, with the historical
results which may be deduced from them. You will readily perceive,
at the same time, that it is not the history of the race which is alone
concerned in these inquiries, but that the natural sciences have also
an important interest in them. I would venture, then, to recommend
_ to your favorable attention and to that of your honorable colleagues a
labor whose interest is by no means confined to the boundaries of
Switzerland.

Be pleased, sir, to accept the assurance of my high esteem and
entire consideration.

FRED. TROYON.

To the SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 99

LaUSANNE, January T, 1862.

Sm: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter dated July
18, 1861, and of a copy of my paper on archeology, which has ap-
peared translated in the Institution’s report to Congress printed in
1861. Itis a great honor which has thus been conferred on my little
tract, and I hereby express my sincere thanks for the favor. The
translation is, as you remark, rather literal, but it is wonderfully cor-
rect, as far as the sense is concerned, and this is the capital point.
In due course of time I hope to publish some more papers on the same
subject, and I shall not fail to communicate them to the Institution.

The United States are at present going through a crisis which, for
the moment, cannot be favorable to scientific pursuits. Let us hope
that Providence will so lead matters that the final result shall turn in
favor of the great and noble cause of liberty and of progress. Switzer-
land has seen sad times of intestine discord and of ferment from 1830
to 1847, when a short but decisive civil war settled the question, and
now we are enjoying a state of prosperity such as we never knew
before. May a similar fate await your own country.

As you mention that some more copies of my paper might be sent
to me, I take the liberty of letting you know that they would be very
acceptable.

Believe me, sir, to be yours, very respectfully,
A. MORLOT.

The SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

Sr. Paun, Minnesota, August 13, 1861.

Sir: A friend of mine, Mr. Byron M. Smith, tells me that on the
occasion of a short sojourn in Washington last winter he paid a visit
to the Smithsonian Institution, and, amongst otber things, understood
that there was in preparation, under your authority, a general map
of the aboriginal or other earthworks of North America.

‘As this is a subject in which I have always taken a great interest,
I shall be pleased to assist in the compilation of such a map. If I
can be informed by the draughtsman, of the scale intended, I will for-
ward a correct geographical outline of the country between Lake
Superior (west end of) and the Missouri river. On a map sent to-day
by mail, I have marked in red the localities of such groups of small
mounds as exist to my knowledge. Although these works are utterly
insignificant when compared with those of Ohio and Wisconsin, yet a
knowledge of their exact localities may be useful in connexion with
inquiries in reference to the movements and history of the modern
tribes.

Respectfully, sir, your obedient servant,
ALFRED J. HILL.

Prof. JosepH Henry,

Washington, D. C.

100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

RoyaL ACADEMY OF Mora AND POLITICAL
Science oF Maprip, Madrid, July 16, 1861.

This Royal Academy, being impressed with the fact that nothing
contributes more efficiently to the advancement and propagation of
moral and political science than a frequent communication with per-
sons devoted to its cultivation, has resolved to invite to a reciprocal
correspondence all the principal learned bodies, whether national or
foreign, whose studies or investigations are analogous to those of this
Institute.

As this Academy is the most modern it is proper that it should pro-
pose the commerce of the ideas and theories necessary to the progress
of moral and political science. And it does not hesitate an instant
in sending to your Institution the account of its own commencement
and organization, as well as the publications that have marked its
short life.

The credit which your Institution has acquired for taking so much
interest in all that favors the advancement of civilization and improve-
ment of the people, inspires the Academy of Madrid with confidence
that its wishes will be accomplished, and that the illustrious body to
which it directs itself to-day will honor it with its correspondence, and
accept the exchange of memorials or other works which have been
or will be published in future.

MANUEL GARCIA,
Acting President.

By order of the Academy.

PEDRO GOMEZ DE LA SERRA,
Secretary.
The SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

MEXICAN SOCIETY OF GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS,
Mexico, February 13, 1862.

Drar Str: After some delay this society has received your letter
and the accompanying books.

The society desires me to return sincere thanks, and to say that it
fully appreciates the generous offer that you make in the name of
your Institution.

Our society accepts your propositions. It will soon send, in the
manner that you suggest, some of its literary and scientific pro-
ductions, and also those of the other learned bodies whose works you
ask for. It will also take care to put in the hands of the agent you
refer to, all the periodical publications as they appear.

With the highest consideration, &c., I remain,
D. V. GUADALOUPE.

The SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 10¥

KOENIGSBERG, November 23, 1861.

Str: I have the honor to apprise you of my return from England,
and the result of my labors in the interest of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution; but I must first tender my thanks for having been enabled to
pursue the study of American Neuroptera, to be found in English col-
lections or described by English entomologists.

I must say that my harvest was pretty good, for in most cases I
was able to remove the doubts left in my preceding work. In the
collections of the British Museum, especially, I found the types of
species I did not know, and some also in the collection of Mr. West-
wood, at Oxford, and Mr. Saunders, in London. I hope that with
these new species, received after having sent my manuscript to Wash-
ington, I can make a tolerably large supplement. But the extent of
this supplement and the comparison of species already described by
me will require considerable time. I therefore believe it will be
more convenient to have my work published as soon as printed, and
to give afterwards the novelties and corrections in a separate supple-
ment, which will probably make a pamphlet of about eight to ten
sheets. You may rest assured, sir, that I shall endeavor to perform
this labor as soon and as well as possible; but since I cannot always
dispose of my time, I fear, considering the extent of the labor, that
it cannot be done before six months.

I find that the translation, the first eighteen sheets of which I have
seen, is of perfect accuracy. Unfortunately the work itself leaves
much to be desired. I must, however, consider it a consolation that
for a first attempt I have attained so much, and that my work may
serve as assistance to further and more fruitful researches of the
entomologists of your country. I would be gratified if my, so imper-
fect, labor should call forth numerous rectifications and augmentations
from American naturalists. At any rate the interest for the advance-
ment of science will always urge me on to make the synopsis better
and better.

I have the honor to remain your devoted,
H. HAGEN.

Prof. Henry, cc., éc.

[The following letter is given as an illustration of a number of a
similar character received relative to the distribution of specimens :]

Hamitton Couiece, N. Y., February 1, 1862.

Dear Sir: I presume the president of our college has officially
acknowledged the receipt of the box of shells sent us last month from
the Smithsonian Institution. We consider this donation a valuable ad-
dition to our collection, and our local papers have given very favorable
notices of it. When we arrange the shells in our cabinet we intend
to have printed on each ticket ‘‘ From the Smithsonian Institution.’’

102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

We shall be glad to receive any other objects of natural history of
which you have duplicates to spare. Skins of birds, &c., botanical
specimens, fossils, and minerals will be acceptable ; also, relics of our
Indian tribes. We have a good collection of Indian antiquities
mainly derived from the ancient seats of the Iroquois, and we should
like to improve our collection by adding specimens from the western
Indians.

Yours, respectfully, &c.,
O. ROOT.

Prof. JosepH HENRY.

Otrrawa, Canapa, March 10, 1862.

My Dear Sir: I have to-day received your valuable donation of
books, for which I beg to return my most sincere thanks both to you
and also to the Institution you so ably represent. They are, indeed,
a most valuable addition to my small stock, and are all the more so
from the fact that they were totally unexpected.

A great debt of gratitude is due by the world at large to the
munificent founder as well as to the enlightened gentlemen that con-
trol the Smithsonian Institution, for the great service rendered to the
cause of science by the distribution of such works as those you sent
me. How many thousands are there who, although they have an
earnest desire for scientific and useful knowledge, are, for the want
of such works as these, unable to obtain it? As one of these allow
me again to tender my most grateful thanks for your kindness.

Believe me, dear sir, yours, respectfully,
J. ARTHUR CODD.

Prof. JosEPH fe

Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

New Haven, Jlarch 27, 1862.

My Dear Sir: I have only time to make a few suggestions in ref-
erence to your letter.

It is very difficult to make out a list of mineral species at present.
The most trustworthy authorities on the subject are Haidenjer,
Kennjott, and Rammelsberg.

I think that the names, consisting of a single word, should be
adopted. Where this was bestowed by the discoverer (author) of the
species, I think his name should follow in small capitals; but in italics
only, provided he merely changed the name from a chemical one, or
a long, inconvenient compound designation, to a single one.

The well-settled species might be given in rather large capitals;
those which are less settled, but at the same time probable, in smaller
capitals, while the rest may appear in small type.

I object to the plan of pasting printed or even written names on
specimens. It is nowhere followed in the great collections abroad.
It might answer in the case of large rock specimens and fossils, but
all mineralogists would exclaim against it upon choice specimens,
many of which, as the single cry stals, would be concealed by the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 103

application.» Indeed they very rarely use printed names at all, but
instead employ elegantly written cards, each label costing about 12
or 15 cents. It would certainly confer an advantage upon our public
cabinets if you would strike off sets of labels of all the important
species upon thick card-paper, which might, as required, have the
localities inserted with the pen. This would give uniformity to our
museums, and prove extremely useful.

I would suggest that before distributing your duplicates, you re-
tain them for six months in order to permit exchanges for things
needed by your collection ; such exchanges to be made at Washing-
ton. Afterwards the duplicates should be given to each of the States.

I shall be very happy to form an exchange of meteoric specimens,
in order to obtain a supply of your St. Rosa (New Mexico) iron.

I am very glad you intend to bring the minerals into order. Many
valuable contributions will thus be secured.

Excuse the haste in which J write, and believe me, very truly, yours,

C. A. SHEPARD.

Professor Henry.

University Couuecr, Toronto, January 31, 1862.

Dear Sir: At the request of the faculty, students, and board of
curators of Knox College, the theological institution of the Canada
Presbyterian church, | have ventured to write to you on the subject
of our museum.

We are anxious, by an energetic and united effort, to accomplish
three things.

1. To awaken throughout the country an interest in the world of
nature.

2. To collect, as far as possible, specimens illustrative of all the
zoological, botanical, and mineralogical species of Canada. We think
that the solution of several important scientific problems—the north-
ern limit of species, &c.—are involved in this. The ground is being
gradually occupied. The Geological Survey, the Botanical Society,
the Montreal Natural History Society, the Canadian Institute, &c.,
are all doing their share in the work of research ; but there is a wide
field still open.

Our third object will be to supply societies, museums, &c., with
specimens from this country. In doing this we shall always bear in
mind the fact that the Smithsonian is the great central institution for
the continent, and that in no other way can our ultimate object be so
well attained as by working with you.

A part of our scheme was to issue circulars giving information on
the best methods of procuring, preserving, and forwarding specimens.

Could you furnish us with three hundred copies of your ‘ Direc-
tions?’ We will, with your permission, append a short circular
stating our plan, and appealing to the people to join with us in car-
rying it into execution, and then without delay try to put them all
into the hands of parties who will make a good use of them. Please
aid us all you can in the matter. We have just enough of articles on

104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

hand to form the nucleus of a good museum ; for the rest we look to
the future—to your kindness and to the blessing of nature’s God on
our exertions. If you can spare the pamphlets we will gladly remit
whatever you value them at.

Thanking you most earnestly, dear sir, for the reports and cata-
logues, I have the honor to be, yours, very truly,

JAMES HUBBERT,
Secretary Board of Curators, Knox College Museum.
Prof. JosepH Henry, LL.,D.,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.

Royat HorticuULTURAL SOCIETY,
South Kensington, W., December 21, 1861.

Dear Sir: I am requested by the Secretary, while acknowledging
the receipt of your letter of October 18th, to acquaint you that the
council have much pleasure in acceding to the request that this so-
ciety’s journals should be sent to the various institutions therein
named, with a view to interchange. A parcel will therefore be sent
to Mr. Wesley in a few days for transmission to you.

I am, dear sir, yours faithfully,

HENRY J. DOWDEN.

JosEepH Henry, Esq., Washington.

—_——

Cosourc, CanaDs West, April 1, 1862.

My Dear Sir: I take this opportunity for expressing my warm-
est thanks for your repeated kindness in furnishing me with so
many valuable publications on the insects of this continent, without
the aid of which my progress in the study of entomology would oe
but slow and difficult. I can speak for others in this country, as weil
as for myself, when I say that we are deeply grateful for the assist-
ance we have received from your noble Institution; and that but for its
liberality the natural sciences would have hardly made what advance-
ment they have in this country during the past few years.

I shall be only too glad to reciprocate your kindness to the best of
my ability by furthering the objects of the Institution in any way
that lies in my power.

I remain, my dear sir, very gratefully yours,

CHARLES J. BETHUNE.

Professor. JosppH Henry, LL. D.,

Secretary to the Smithsonian Institution.
HoNoLULU, SANDWICH ISLANDS,
February 10, 1862.

DEAR Sir: I am in receipt of your favor granting me a suite of the
duplicates of the shells of the northwest coast of America in the
hands of Mr. Carpenter.

I had, a short time previous to the arrival of your letter, forwarded
to the Institution a package containing shells and rare crustacea, not
included in my remittance to you two or three years since.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 105

It is my intention to supply you a full suite of the mollusca of our
islands, including typical specimens of those described by myself, and
also one to Mr. Cumings, of London, whose collection I learn from
Dr. Gray will be eventually added to the British Museum.

I venture to ask of you an addition to my library, of the Reports
of the Smithsonian Institution. Ihave purchased the ‘‘Contributions
to Knowledge,’’ but the Reports are not on our islands. One in par-
ticular Iam wanting, which I learn contains a catalogue of transac-
tions or proceedings of scientific societies ; also a few copies, say half
a dozen, of the Check List of the shells of North America, published
by the Institution. Should you be pleased to furnish me the above, be
so good as to forward them to Bailliere Brothers, New York city,
who send me a box of books every few months.

I have been attempting to invent a simple apparatus for the meas-
urement of the tides at our islands, but do not succeed very well.
Natives cannot be depended on for watching any such instrument.
It should be self-registering. Iam satisfied that a register of winds
should be kept in connexion with it, and perhaps also a barometrical
one. If you take any interest in such researches I would be pleased
to hear from you in regard to them as to assistance or advice.

I remain yours truly,
W. H. PEASE.

Professor JosepH HENRY,

Smithsonian Institution.

[Nore.—Dr. Bache, of. the Coast Survey, has lent Mr. Pease a
tide-gauge on the responsibility of this Institution.]

CIRCULAR OF THE INSTITUTE OF RupERT’s LAND,
Assiniboia, February, 1862.

We announce this institute to the public, knowing our many disad-
vantages, but still with a lively hope that our labors will be rewarded
with some good results. Our numbers are small; but we have among
us many who will devote the greater part of their time to collecting
and observing, and these, with their admirable opportunities, cannot
fail to accomplish much good work. Already we have the nucleus of
alibrary. Specimens are coming in faster than we can take care of
them. Necessaries for collecting and observing are being distributed
and communications have been received.

We will shortly be presented with £150, by the friends and admi-
rers of Sir George Simpson, for the purchase of a ‘‘Simpson’’ Tele-
scope, and £60 from the friends of the late much esteemed Dr. Bunn,
for the purchase of achromatic microscopes. And now, with this
commencement, we feel the right, and do ask for countenance and
assistance from scientific men and societies in all countries, promising,
in return, all that energy and zeal can do in the cause of science.

A prospectus accompanies this circular, giving all the necessary
information, and we would ask communications from all to whom those

106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

are sent, with any requests, observations, or information by which
we may benefit them, or they us.
WILLIAM MACTAVISH,
JOHN SCHULTZ,
Secretaries.
The SmiTHsonian INSTITUTION.

Wasuinaton, D. C., March 27, 1862.

Siz: In compliance with your suggestion; I beg to set before you a
few facts respecting Liberia College, in the republic of Liberia,
West Africa.

1. The college is the offspring of the benevolence of citizens of
Massachusetts who, in 1850, organized themselves into an association
for educational purposes in Liberia, with the title of ‘‘Trustees of
Donation for Education in Liberia,’’ and an act of incorporation was
obtained the same year from the legislature of Massachusetts.

2. Their sympathy and exertions have been so generously seconded
that the trustees have been enabled to erect a capacious and substan-
tial building on the heights of Monserrada, in the city of Monrovia,
the capital of the republic. The college building is three stories in
height, with piazzas surrounding it; with dormitories capable of ac-
commodating between thirty and forty students, apartments for two
professors and their families, lecture and dining rooms, chapel, &c.
This building, the material of which is brick, cost nigh $30,000, and
is now finished. The college building has been presented, as a gift,
to the republic of Liberia, for a national institution, and is to be gov-
erned by a body of Liberian trustees, nominated by the President of
the republic, and elected by the senate.

3. Besides the above expenditure, that is for the building, the
‘‘Trustees of Donations,’ &c., have, under their own control, at
interest, an endowment of about $30,000, and a sum of about $40,000
has been left in legacies, for the purposes of Liberian education, and
is under the control of other colonization societies, which will,
without doubt, be ultimately appropriated to the ends of the Liberia
College. <A further sum of $50,000 is promised for the Liberia College
by the several members of an eminent family in New York, in lieu of
alike sum left by their father on his decease, for the college, but
which was lost by a legal decision.

4, Liberal donations of minerals and large gifts of books have been
made to the college, both by distinguished individuals in this country
and by Harvard and Yale Colleges.

A faculty has.already been elected; two of its professors inaugura-
ted; and the college has already, this year, commenced operations.

The undersigned, authorized by the American trustees for the pur-
pose, respectfully requests the addition of the publications of the
Smithsonian Institution to the collections already made for the Liberia
College.

I am, sir, your obedient servant,
ALEX. CRUMMELL.

Prof. Henry.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 107

RECOMMENDATION OF SHEA’S INDIAN LINGUISTICS, REFERRED TO IN THE
SECRETARY’S REPORT.

We recommend Mr. Shea’s series of grammars and dictionaries of
the Indian languages to the attention of the Smithsonian Institution,
and think that a subscription which will insure the continuance of the
series will be eminently within the scope of the foundation, by pre-
serving a number of rapidly perishing monuments of human knowl-
edge, and securing to posterity, in the languages of the native tribes,
the surest clue to their origin and affinities.

K. B. O’ CALLAGHAN. GEORGE LIVERMORE.
Jno. Vo Le PRON. GrorGcEe H. Moors.

5S. B. WooLtwortu. GrorcE W. Riaas, JR.
JARED SPARKS. PETER FoRCE.

GEORGE GIBBS.

MR. SHEA’S ACCOUNT OF HIS LIBRARY OF AMERICAN LINGUISTICS.

With the increasing interest felt in the science of ethnology, much
attention has of late been given to the study of the languages of the
aboriginal tribes of America, and it must be confessed that more
philosophical research, talent, and investigation have been bestowed
upon them in Germany than in our own country. Yet the science is
still in its infancy. Relying on crude or hastily taken vocabularies,
which often confound different languages, many have set on foot
theories, and entered into criticisms, which fall to the ground on the
examination of a carefully prepared grammar or dictionary of the
language. Fortunately, of very many American languages such
works exist, often the labor of early missionaries, whom a long resi-
dence with a tribe, a knowledge of their habits, manners, and usages,
enabled to write with accuracy and judgment.

Very few of these works were printed. Most have remained in
manuscript, and are liable to perish by accident. Every investigator
knows that many which survived till a few years since are now irre-
coverably lost.

The language of a tribe is its most important relic. The mechani-
cal arts were rude, and the remains so scanty, that mound and bone
pit, and deserted village, have given us scarce a clue to the history
of the peoples to whom they belonged. But language is the great
key to the affinities of the tribes, and often enables us to trace their
migrations, and in all cases to determine their kindred.

We owe it to posterity to allow the work of destruction to go no
further, and to put in a permanent form every work now in manu-
script, giving the grammatical structure or a full vocabulary of an
Indian dialect. Our national honor is interested, and. the learned
abroad even now begin to wonder at our indifference.

Impelled by a desire to save these works, I began a series of them,
printing a few copies of each, from the original manuscripts, my ob-
ject being to preserve them; and six grammars or dictionaries of dit-

108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

ferent tribes have already been issued. So much, however, is yet
to be done, that I appeal to the public libraries, the historical socie-
ties, and literary institutions of the country, as well as to ethnolo-
gists, here and abroad, to aid me, by subscribing to the series, as
the greater the number of subscribers, the lower the works can be
afforded, and the greater the number of volumes that can be issued.

The works are handsomely printed on good paper, and carefully
edited, forming a series of royal 8vo. volumes creditable to any col-
lection.

NOW READY.

1. A French Onondaga Dictionary. From a manuscript of

the seventeenth century -+---+ -+++ sees eee eee $4 00
2. A Grammar of the Selish, or Flathead Language. By
Pearman MIDNA TIN crate slater s 4iie une wis le teiee cle cco thaiyneaces 4 00

3. A Grammar of the Heve (Sonora) Language. Edited
from a manuscript of the seventeenth century. By

B. SmivH, Hsq.--- +--+ eee eee cece ee cece et eee eee 1 00
4. A Grammar of the Mutsun( California) Language. By

F. FELIPE ARROYO DE LA CUESTA++++++ seeeee cree 2 50
5. A Grammar of the Nevome (Pima) Language. Edited

from a manuscript of the seventeenth century------ 4 00
6. A Grammar of the Yakama Language. By the Rev. M.

CePA NOS. 4/+ 9 epeie se inte ash 315) seep Seat esas e 2 50

IN IMMEDIATE PREPARATION.

7. A Vocabulary of the Sextapay (California) Language. By PaDRE
B. SITJAR.
8. Vocabularies. Collected by the late W. W. TuRNErR.
9. Maillard’s Grammar of the Micmac Language.
10. Arroyo’s Vocabulary of the Mutsun.
11. Potier’s Radical Words of the Huron Language.
12. Bruyas’ Radical Words of the Mohawk Language.
13. A French-Illinois Dictionary.
14. Potier’s Huron Grammar.
15. Lefevre’s Vocabulary of the Montagnais Language.
16. Bruyas’ French-Mohawk Dictionary.

Various others will be added, and, if encouragement is given, the
series will include an English translation of Molina’s ‘‘ Mexican
Dictionary.”’

JOHN G. SHEA,
83 Centre street, New Ye ork.

The volumes of the series may be ordered of Trubner & Co,
London ; Charles Reinwald, Paris; B. Hermann, Leipzig.

The Board of Regents, having examined the library, collections,
museum, &c., adjourned sine die.

EULOGY

OF

CORNELIUS CONWAY FELTON, LL.D., &C.,

ONE OF THE REGENTS OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

PREPARED AT THE REQUEST OF THE BOARD, BY THEODORE D. WOOLSEY, LL.D., PRESIDENT OF YALE
COLLEGE.

At a meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution,
held May 1, 1862, Professor Henry, the Secretary, having announced
the death of Dr. Felton, one of the Regents, Professor Bache made

a few appropriate remarks, and offered the following resolutions,
which were unanimously adopted:

Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian: Institution deeply
mourn the loss of their fellow Regent, CoRNELIUS Conway FEvton, the dis-
tinguished President of Harvard University, whose profound learning and ready
use of the rich stores of ancient and modern lore excited general admiration,
while his genial temper, affectionate disposition, and open manners, endeared him
as a friend to every member of this establishment.

Resolved, That in the death of President Felton, our country, in the hour of
its trial, has lost a wise and influential citizen, our government a warm and elo-
quent supporter, Harvard University a learned and efficient head, and this
institution an active and valued Regent.

Resolved, That we sincerely condole with the bereaved family of President
Felton, and offer to them our heartfelt sympathy in their deep afHliction.

Resolved, That Dr. Woolsey be requested to prepare a suitable notice of
President Felton, to be inserted in the journal of the Board of Regents.

Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be communicated by the Secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution to the family of the deceased, and to the faculty
and corporation of Harvard.

EULOGY.

The duty has been Jaid upon me of preparing a brief tribute to the
memory of Cornelius C. Felton, late a Regent of the Smithsonian
Institution. I undertake this office the more readily, because a
friendly and most pleasant acquaintance of nearly thirty years standing,
cemented by common pursuits and unbroken by any of those jealousies
which sometimes divide men of the same literary calling, has

110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

enabled me to form a definite opinion of the worth and services of one
whose death the country, in common with Massachusetts and with
Harvard University, deplores.

Cornelius Conway Felton, the son of worthy but by no means opu-
jent parents, was born at West Newbury, Massachusetts, November
6,1807. The first decided impulse in the direction of scholarship and of
a taste for letters was given to him by Simeon Putnam, who kept a
private school at North Andover, with whom he remained as a pupila
year and three months. In this year and a quarter prior to his entrance
into college, Putnam awakened so great an enthusiasm in the mind of
his pupil that the latter, according to a statement in manuscript
drawn up by one of his friends, ‘‘read Sallust four times, Cicero’s
Orations four times, Virgil six times, Dalxel’s Graca Minora five or
six times, and the poetry of it till he could repeat nearly all of it from
memory, the Annals and History of Tacitus, Justin, Cornelius Nepos,
the Anabasis of Xenophon, four books of Robinson’s Selections from
the Iliad, the Greek Testament four times, besides writing a trans-
lation of one of the Gospels, and writing a translation of the whole of
Grotius de Veritate, which he brought in manuscript to college ; also
he wrote a volume of about three hundred pages of Latin exercises,
and one of about two hundred pages of Greek exercises, and studied
carefully all the mathematics and geography requisite to enter
college.’’ That the severe study necessary in order to do all this
in so short a time might be detrimental to his health will be readily
believed. He suffered from these overstrained efforts during his resi-
dence in college and afterward. Still he continued his course of
earnest study through his college life, devoting a good deal of spare
time to extra Greek, and forming an acquaintance with several of the
modern languages and with the Hebrew. Besides which he con-
tributed to his own support in several ways, especially by keeping
school during parts of his sophomore and junior years, and in the
latter year by teaching mathematics for six months in the Round-
hill school at Northampton, under Messrs. Cogswell and Bancroft.
He was prepared, by this introduction into the art of teaching and
by his excellent scholarship, for the employment in which he was
engaged for two years from the time of his graduation—the charge
of a high school at Geneseo. New York, which he undertook in com-
pany with two of his classmates. From Geneseo he was called back,
in 1829, to his Alma Mater to fill the office of Latin tutor, from which
department he was transferred the next year to the Greek. His elec-
tion to the chair of college professor in 1832 showed the estimation
in which he was held by the authorities of the University. On the
resignation of Dr. Popkin in 1833, who had the chair of Greek lit-
erature upon the Elhot foundation, Mr. Felton was appointed his
successor, and continued in this professorship until his elevation to
the presidency in 1860. Thus thirty years of his life were Spee in
cultivating and teaching Greek letters.

As a Greek scholar, he was not surpassed for breadth and accuracy
by any other in the land. His nature was many-sided, and he strove
after complete scholarship both in what pertained to the language

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 11]

and in what pertained to all the branches of the literature of the
Hellenic race. Yet, like every other scholar, he had his favorite
departments of pursuit, while other sides of it had less attraction for
him. To linguistics and general philology and to the verbal side of
Greek learning he was not so much drawn as to all the manifestation
of the Greek mind and life. Here again it was Athens in her palmiest
days ; it was her unrivalled dramatic poets, and especially that prince
of the ancient comedy, who disclosed to us the life of Athens at the
pinnacle of her renown, and when she was sliding down from her
eminence—it was this age and these monuments of Greece which
had the greatest charms for him. The spirit of Aristophanes lodged
in Professor Felton ; he had the same sense of the ludicrous, the same
keen judgment of character,the same underlying earnestness of patri-
otism, the same political conservatism.

A mind which had such a strong relish for exhibitions of life in the
conerete forms would be apt to convey pleasant and profitable instruc-
tion. Professor Felton seems to have been a very genial instructor,
clear in his conceptions and explanations, sufficiently strict in gram-
matical analyses and in keeping his pupils to their tasks, and yet re-
lieving the tedium of the recitation room by lively illustrations of the
author read, so that the lesson was not more a task than a pleasure,
enriching and beautifying everything by reference to ancient art, as
well as by a pure manly taste which went along with its whole schol-
arship.

This esthetical power of his mind deserves a more distinct men-
tion. He had within him a love of art, and his judgment, natively
sound, was improved by devotion to a language and a literature which
cultivate the taste more than any other. To him, therefore, the life
of Greece consisted not solely in its poets, orators, historians, and
philosophers, but in the euphonies of its words, in the rythm of its
periods, in its wondrously exquisite and varied poetical metres, in its
simple but grand architecture, in those works of its sculptors and
founders which immortalized over again the materials of a literature
already immortal.

Here we may add that he had two opportunities of inspecting the
monuments of Greek art, and of visiting that land where so many of
his thoughts had dwelt. In 1853 and the following year he devoted
five months of a European tour to Greece, ancient and modern, to her
present life and the remains of her past glory; and again in 1858 he
spent part of another summer in the same land. Whatever reminded
of ancient days and enabled him to conceive more clearly and under-
stand more fully the meaning of the ancient writers, together with those
reliques of art which time and barbarism have spared—this naturally
claimed his attention first; but he sympathized also with the free,
hopeful, restored Greece of the present; he examined the workings
of her political institutions, visited the halls of legislation at the cap-
ital, formed an acquaintance with the learned men who adorn the
University of Athens, and returned in the faith that modern Greece
has a noble destiny before her. He was led by his tours to connect
the Greek and the Romaic languages more closely together, to urge
the importance of studying the latter, and to advocate the application

112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

of the modern pronunciation to the literature of the ancient tongue.
Not long after his return from his first journey, in the year 1856, he
published selections from modern Greek writers. accompanied with
explanatory notes, and a little earlier enriched an American edition
of Smith’s ‘‘ History of Greece’’ with a preface, notes, and a continu-
ation of Greek History from the Roman conquest until the present
time.

While engaged in the daily duties of a laborious profession, Mr.

Felton found leisure to prepare for the press a number of editions of

Greek authors and other works within the same departmenf. His
maiden work of this kind was an edition of Homer’s Iliad, published
in 1833, with English notes—which were carefully revised and en-
larged in subsequent editions—and with the addition of Flaxman’s
illustrations. Next, in 1840, he sent forth from the press a Greek
reader, contaiing selections from writers of the best stamp—a work
which has been repeatedly printed, and has mantained its ground
among the principal introductions to the study of that language.

This was followed in the next year by an edition of the Clouds of

Aristophanes, with an introduction and a commentary, which appeared
again in a revised form and was republished in England. In 1843,
in conjunction with Professor Edwards, of Andover, and Professor
Sears, then of the Baptist Theological Seminary at Newton, he pub-

lished a work entitled Classical Studies, consisting principally of

translations from the German, his contributions being selections from
the works of Frederic Jacobs. In 1844 he rendered a valuable ser-
vice to classical literature by translating, in conjunction with Pro-
fessor Beck, Munk’s Treatise on Greek and Roman Metres. Three
years afterward appeared his editions of the Panegyricus of Isocrates
—that much polished closet-oration of the ‘‘old man eloquent,’’ and
of the Agamemnon of Aischylus—that difficult chef-d’ceuvre of the
earliest dramatist. Both of these passed into second editions. In
1849 he brought out an edition of the Birds of Aristophanes, and ‘n
1852 ‘Selections from Greek Historians,’’ namely, from Herodotus,
Thucydides, Xenophon, Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Arrian, and
Pausanias. In the course of the same year appeared a tribute from
his pen to the memory of his immediate predecessor in the Eliot
professorship, entitled ‘‘Selections from the Writings of Dr. Popkin,
with a Biographical Sketch.’’

These were his principal contributions through the press and
bearing his own name, to the main study of his lite. But we ought
not to pass over his frequent lectures and anonymous writings, tending
to illustrate and recommend Greek learning, such as his four courses
of Lowell Lectures, and his frequent contributions to the North
American Review.

Nor ought the briefest sketch of Mr. Felton’s life to omit his lite-
rary labors beyond his own immediate province. As his mind strove
to grasp universal knowledge, and as he maintained a lively sympathy
with the literature of most of the cultivated nations, so, from time
to time, he poured forth through the press the gatherings of his rich
and many-sided mind. Among his original works we mention his

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 113

‘‘Life of General EHaton,’’ in the ninth volume of the first series of
Sparks’s ‘‘American Biographies ;’ his biographical notices accom-
panying Longfellow’s ‘‘Poets and Poetry of Europe ;”’ his articles in
the North American, upwards of fifty, and in the Christian Examiner,
upwards of twenty-five in number; his contributions to the New
American Encyclopedia,* and others less elaborate in the daily journals.
If with these we take into view the help which he lent in various
ways to education and science, as one of the Massachusetts Board of
Education, as one of the school committee for the town of Cambridge,
and as Regent of the Smithsonian —to which trust he was elected on
the resignation of Mr. Choate, in 1856, and re-elected for the full
term of six years in February, 1861—and if we bring into account,
also, his labors for a number of years in the office of Regent in Har-
vard University, and that at the same time he gave instructions in a
school under the charge of Professor Agassiz, we shall wonder that
one man, besides the duties of a very laborious professorship, was
able to do so much, and perhaps wonder still more that he did it all
so easily to himself and so well. It is rare, we imagine, to find a life
of so much faithful, patient industry united to a temper so genial and
social as his, so capable of finding entertainment and recreation on
every side.

The services of such an academical officer could not fail to be prized
and honored. Years before his election to the presidency of Har-
vard, his name was prominent among those who were thought of for
that post ; and‘when President Walker felt compelled by ill-health
to retire from the station which he had filled so wisely and satis-
factorily, the voice of the public anticipated the votes of the boards
which constituted Prof. Felton his successor. He was inaugurated
into his new office July the 19th, 1860, and those who heard his ad-
dress pronounced upon that occasion. if they had not known the man
before, must have felt assured’that his administration would be firm
and vigorous. The distinct opinion which he there avows, that no
offences against civil order can be tolerated in a college which wouid
not be borne in the wider circles of citizens—that academical walls
can furnish no refuge for crimes, nor academical relations justify out-
rages on gentlemanly propriety, or on the feelings of fellow-students,
was one which commends itself to all who are acquainted with our
higher institutions of learning, and which, if united in the carrying
of it out with such kindliness as was manifest in the character of
President Felton, would strengthen and secure everything that is
good in a college life. Whatever temporary obstacle or local custom,
‘‘more honored in the breach than in the observance,’’ might oppose
for a time, it is certain that the claims of law and order would at
jJength prevail, and the state of things afterwards become so much
the better.

President Felton entered thus into his new duties, with the con-
fidence of the wisest and best on his side, and gave himself up chiefly

* Some of these were on Agassiz, Athens, Attica, Demosthenes, Euripides, and Homer.

8

114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

to administrative functions, not without deep regrets, we are sure,
at leaving those pleasant toils which had filled thirty years of his
life. But Divine Providence had scarcely invested him with his new
authority when he was summoned away from these earthly responsi-
bilities and labors. A little less than two years of his official life
had elapsed when the complaint of which he died—hypertrophy of
the heart—showed itself in an aggravated form, after having mani-
fested its presence in his system for some twenty years. He was not,
however, so ill at first but that he could undertake a journey, and it
was hoped that a change of climate might do him good. Setting out
for Washington—where he intended to be present at a meeting of
the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution—he had reached the
house of his brother in Chester, Pennsylvania, and was seized with
an attack of disease during the ensuing night. Here he breathed
his last, Wednesday, the 26th of February, 1862. His remains were
removed to Cambridge, where a sermon on his death was preached,
March the 9th, by Dr. Peabody, Preacher to the University, and ap-
propriate resolutions, in honor of his memory, were passed by the
Governing Boards, the Faculties, and others.

We have spoken of President Felton as a scholar and a worker,
earnest and successful, in the field where Providence placed him.
But the man is far more in the scale than the scholar. Let us then
look for a few moments at the man in his traits of mind and character,
and in the conduct of life.

His mind, as may have already appeared from what we have said
of his scholarship, was a rounded, well-balanced, many-sided one,
where no trait was deficient. Yet the predominance of the esthetic
faculty, with the attendant pleasure derived from art and the works
of creative intellect, may have given that direction towards scholar-
ship and belles lettres, towards the concrete form rather than the
abstract metaphysical principle, which somewhat characterized him.
His simple, correct taste, and his judgment, which estimated prob-
abilities aright, and looked below the show and the surface, although,
no doubt, cultivated by the study of language, and especially of Greek
literature, must have had, beyond question, an independent natural
foundation. He had a native curiosity and thirst for knowledge, which
felt and grasped on every side; if you wanted to know about Jasmin,
the Provengal Burns, he had read his poems, he could speak of the
Finnish mythology, and in his later years especially he entered with
zeal into the progress of natural science. Nor ought his keen sense
of the ludicrous and his humor to be forgotten here, which made him
the most entertaining of companions without undermining the manli-
ness of his character. And the easy play of his faculties, working
rapidly and smoothly, without jar or much effort, deserves especial
notice.

Among the traits of President Felton’s character may be mentioned
kindness and sympathy, united with moral energy, courage and firm-
ness in acting up to his convictions. His kindly nature showed itself
in the forms of sociality, friendliness, and generosity reaching to
self-sacrifice. His friendship extended widely beyond the borders

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 115

of his way of thinking in religion and politics, and men of various
opinions and convictions sought his companionship, and partook of
his regards. Few men have had more friends or fewer enemies, and
yet he never shrunk from avowing his own principles. He enjoyed
society, of which, by his pleasantries and other colloquial powers he
was made to be the life. ‘‘He was generous,’’ says his friend Pro-
fessor Peabody, ‘‘to the last degree; no income could have made him
rich, while there were the needy around him; and of time, more
precious than gold, and of the wealth of intellect, he was no less lavish
than of the inferior goods, which he prized only as the means of
making others happy. The labor of hand and brain, which might
have been employed in building up his own fame, was freely given to
all who sought it. Many have been the literary works and enterprises
with which his name was never connected,which owed a large portion
of their merit and success to materials which he furnished, or to his
advice, revision, or criticism.’’ And the same friend bears witness
to his sympathy with ‘‘every noble and generous work for human
progress and well being.”’

If the stranger, after an evening’s acquaintance, may have been led
by Mr. Felton’s companionableness and flow of mirth to regard him
as wanting in moral earnestness, such a judgment would be pro-
nounced hasty and superficial by the many grave and good men who
gave him their friendship and respect. He by no means lacked any
of those qualities which constitute the man ofan earnest and dignified
life. As has been beautifully said of him, ‘‘his force of character,
hidden on ordinary occasions by his gentle and sunny temperament,
appeared impregnable whenever it was put to the test.’’ He had firm
settled convictions and well digested rules of action; he had purposes
which could not be shaken by other considerations than those ad-
dressed to the reason and conscience; he had a noble, manly courage
which could carry him onward in the face of opposition. These quali-
ties, with fidelity, uprightness, and simplicity of character, as displayed
in his college duties, and in other relations of life, secured for him the
esteem and respect of all.

The union of kindness and firmness with sound judgment and per-
spicacity made him an excellent college officer. But for his character
as a ruler over students we will appeal again to what Dr. Peabody says
ofhim: ‘‘I wellremember the early years of his official connexion with
the college; his fraternal sympathy with the students; his gentle dis-
cipline when forbearance was safe and right; his reluctant, yet uniform
corsent to sterner measures, when the cause of order and virtue de-
manded them; his tender consideration for those who were struggling
as he had struggled, bravely and honorably against adverse circum-
stances; his readiness to sacrifice his own ease in aid of those who
sought to transcend the required measure of study, to furnish facil-
ities for their researches, and to contribute from the funds of his own
thought and learning for their growth in knowledge. Such was his
course during his entire life as a teacher; and could we number up the
youth who have been animated by his example, stimulated by
the genial fervor of his enthusiasm, encouraged by his patient and

o

116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

unselfish devotion to their welfare, and sustained in their worthy
ambition after they left these halls by his persistent and effective
friendship, we should have a record of quiet, unostentatious benefi-
cence, that would distance and belittle many life-works of world-
wide and long-enduring fame.’’

President Felton was in his feelings and opinions, like the greater
part of scholars, a conservative, not without sympathy with forward
movements in society, but led by his tastes and acquaintance with
the past to look with suspicion on sudden changes in the established
order of things. In a similar spirit he showed no mercy towards
what he regarded as false pretensions to science. It will not soon be
forgotten with what zeal he followed up the spiritualists, putting their
claims to the test, driving them from point to point, and exposing
what he considered to be intentional fraud. In his political principles
he may be described as a conservative whig, a friend and admirer of
Daniel Webster. In his religious faith he was a Unitarian: Dr. Pea-
body characterizes him as ‘‘reverent and devout, loving the Word
and Ordinances of God, meekly yielding himself to the teaching and
leading of the Saviour, strong in the hope that is full of immortality.’’

He was twice married; the first time in 1838, to Miss Mary Whit-
ney, who died in April, 1845, and again in September, 1846, to Miss
Mary L. Cary, who survives him. He has left five children.

Such is a brief sketch of one of the recently deceased regents of the
Smithsonian Institution*—a man who, by his industry and vigor of
mind, made himself; a man whose genial nature and social qualities
created friends for him on every side; a man who to the highest
attainments in one department united in an uncommon degree a large
and liberal acquaintance with the circle of knowledge ; a man of fine
tastes, of most kindly sympathies, of strict uprightness ; a man who
adorned his professorship by the best qualities of a teacher, and the
mingled kindness and firmness of a wise disciplinarian, and who brought
to the presidential chair of Harvard the firm purpose to raise the
standard of that ancient University in everything that was good and
noble.

* President Felton took a lively interest in the Institution, and actively participated in
the proceedings of the Board. His communications appearing in the reports of the Board
are as follows: In the report for 1857, p. 79, areport on the present of a book from Greece ;
p. 82, one on the purchase of Stanley’s Indian gallery; p. 88, one on Professor Henry’s
communication relative to the telegraph ; and in the report for 1859, p. 104, a eulogy on
Professor W. W. Turner, and, p. 106, one on Washington Irving. In addition to which
he gave several lectures on Greece, and made a number of confidential reports on com-
munications relative to linguistics, which had been referred to him for examination by the
Secretary.

EULOGY

OF

HON. STEPHEN ARNOLD DOUGLAS.

PREPARED AT THE REQUEST OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, BY HON.
SAMUEL 8. COX, OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

At a meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, held May 1, 1862, Professor Henry, the Secretary, haying
announced the death of Judge Douglas, one of the Regents, the fol-
lowing resolutions were offered by Hon. Lyman Trumbull, and unani-
mously adopted.

Resolved, That in the death of the Hon. StepHEN A. Dovatas, the Smith-
sonian Institution has been deprived of a most zealous friend; the Board of Re-
gents of an active and attentive member; and the country of a distinguished
and influential citizen.

Resolved, That the Board of Regents deeply sympathize with the bereaved
relatives of the deceased, and that a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to
them.

Resolved, That the Hon. S. S. Cox be requested to prepare a suitable notice of
the Hon. S. A. Douglas, to be inserted in the journal of the Board of Regents.

EULOGY.

In February, 1854, Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, while a senator
from that State, was appointed one of the Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution, and continued a member ‘of the Board until the time of
his death, on the morning of the 3d of June, 1861. From the pur-
suits of his life and the peculiarities of his course, it might be thought
that he was not well qualified to discharge properly the duty of a
trustee of a fund intended for the increase and diffusion of knowledge
among men. But this would be a mistake, for, although he had
given no special attention to any branch of science, yet his mind was
of that comprehensive cast which enabled him duly to appreciate
the nature of the bequest and the general principles of the different
plans which had been proposed for carrying it into execution. It is
true, as | am informed, that before he was elected a Regent he had
adopted the popular idea that the bequest was intended merely to
diffuse useful knowledge among the people of the United States; yet
when he came to study the precise words of the will of the founder,
and caught, as he immediately did, the peculiar idea of the object in-

118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

tended, namely, the extension of the bounds of science, and not merely
the teaching of what is already known, he fully adopted the views on
which the present organization of the Institution is based, and ever
after continued a warm advocate and an able supporter of the
measures now in successful operation for the realization of the liberal
and enlightened intention of James Smithson.

In accordance with the usage heretofore observed in similar cases,
a resolution having been adopted directing the preparation, for the
proceedings of the Board of Regents, of a sketch of the characteristics
and incidents of his life, and the duty of furnishing this having been
assigned to me, I address myself to the task with an earnestness that
is only tempered by my fear that I have neither sufficient time nor
sufficient ability to do full justice to the memory of one whom I ad-
mired as a public man, and sincerely loved as a friend.

It is, indeed, pre-eminently fitting thatthe name of Douglas, so
fondly cherished by the nation, and so familiarly spoken wherever
American statesmanship is known, should be honored in the journals
of this Institution, for whose prosperity he evinced so earnest a
desire. It was not merely as one of its Regents that he showed him-
self the true and enlightened friend of objects kindred to those of this
establishment. He ever advocated measures which served to advance
knowledge and promote the progress of humanity. The encouragement
of the fine arts, the rewarding of discoverers and inventors, the or-
ganization of exploring expeditions, as well as the general diffusion of
education, were all objects of his special regard, whether in the
councils of his State, or in the hall of the Senate of the Union.

Stephen A. Douglas was born at Brandon, in Vermont, on the 23d
of April, 1813. Like many, perhaps I should say like most, of the
rural neighborhoods of New England, Brandon contained a highly
intelligent and energetic population, independent alike in thought,
speech, and the conduct of their public affairs; and doubtless the fact
of his early years having been passed under the influence of the daily
life and conversation of such neighbors, had some share in imbuing
the boy with the sturdy independence and resolute energy which the
man was so remarkably and so triumphantly to exhibit throughout
his at once brilliant and laborious career.

His ancestors were of Puritan descent; and his father was a physi-
cian of both ability and reputation, but died at a prematurely early
age, leaving his widow in very straitened circumstances, if not even
in actual distress. It may, indeed, be only too reasonably feared that
the latter was the case, for, excellent mother as she was known to be,
she yet was unable to give young Stephen the full education he so
much desired and so well deserved. He attended the district school
during only one-third of the year; during all except the four winter
months he was engaged in the hard labor of a farm or in the shop of
a cabinet-maker. In this alternation of manual labor and imperfect
and interrupted schooling he continued till he was twenty years of
age, when he migrated to Illinois, where he taught school for his sup-
port, while he resolutely studied law. In 1834 he was admitted to
the bar, and we may judge of the character of his early efforts in the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 119

courts from the fact that in 1835, being then only twenty-two years
of age, this young man, whose short life had been so largely taxed
by adverse circumstances, was elected State attorney. From that
time he was continually in the public service. He was, in turn, State
attorney, member of the legislature, secretary of State, judge of the
supreme court of Illinois, and registrar of the land office; and sub-
sequently he was a member of the lower house of Congress, and three
times in succession he was elected by his adopted State to be United
States Senator; and, as is well known, not long prior to his death he
was the very popular though unsuccessful candidate for the highest
executive office in the gift of the nation.

These are the prominent points in the career of Douglas, whose life,
commencing in obscurity and continuing through nearly the half of
its whole duration under the most adverse circumstances, ended in
the full light of high position, and the full glow of popular favor.
The principles which he advocated, and to which he unwaveringly
adhered, as well as the measures he proposed, have been the theme
of both criticism and eulogy elsewhere, but the discussion of them
here would be out of place, and in violation of a rule early adopted
by the Board of Regents, that in the affairs of this Institution parti-
san politics shall forever be unknown. The points, however, in his
personal character which enabled him to obtain so important a posi-
tion, and gave him so great an influence, not only over intimate friends
and colleagues, but also over the public mind, may well claim our at-
tention as a study no less important than interesting.

If continued success be the test of merit, then must all admit that
Judge Douglas was no ordinary man. «That success in a single effort,
which may be referred to a fortunate concurrence of circumstances
over which the successful man had no control, is not the true criterion
of talent is a truth which must be readily admitted. But when the
course of an individual is marked through a series of years by a con-
tinual advancement in the same direction, and especially when that
advancement requires forecast, knowledge, perseverance, and energy,
his success most assuredly is evidence of talent, if not of genius.

Courage, energy, and a working power, both mental and physical,
which have rarely been surpassed, were the qualities which chiefly
served him in his earlier years. The son of a poor widow, and com-
pelled to spend in bodily labor the time which other boys of his age
pass in school, he would probably have remained a poor and obscure
individual had it not been for the resolute WILL to elevate himself,
and the courage, force of character, and determination to AcT in ac-
cordance with that will which characterized his whole life. But of
itself alone, that seemingly inexhaustible power of labor which ob-
tained for him the suggestive sobriquet of ‘‘the little giant’’ would
have been insuflicient to effect the great success which he actually
achieved, had it not been directed and aided by other mental charac-
teristics, which some even of the warmest admirers and eulogists of
the politician Douglas seem to me very insufficiently to appreciate.

In addition to the characteristics which I have already attributed
to him, Judge Douglas was remarkable for his quick perception of the

120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

nature of events, and of the consequences which, with almost mathe-
matical precision, he could predicate as to their results. He had, to
a wonderful degree, the power of seizing on general principles, and
of making them a part of his intellectual stores to be referred to in
whatever particular case he might have to deal with; and his retentive
memory enabled him on the instant to call up alike a general truth,
and a host of particular facts in effective illustration of his premises.

These qualities might have been modified, but could not have been
increased, or even strengthened, by classical training; nay, in becom-
ing more refined and fastidious, it is far from certain that his mind
would not, at the same time, have become less robust, energetic, and
bravely self-reliant. .

We do not intend by this remark to throw doubt on the importance
in general of that early mental discipline which is furnished by the
training of the schools, but to present the suggestion that in particu-
lar cases of extraordinary native vigor of intellect, determined on a
single line of action, the gifts of nature cannot be essentially improved
by the moulding influence of ordinary early education. These cases
are, however, the exceptions to be avoided in directing the minds of
youth, and not the examples of the rule to be generally followed.

Although Judge Douglas was no scholar in the pedantic significa-
tion of the term, yet his mind was duly cultivated in the study of the
law, a branch of knowledge which, when pursued merely in its details
and practiced in its daily routine of office forms, may tend to obscure
the perception of truth in frequent endeavors to make the worse ap-
pear the better cause, is yet in its proper study, through the expo-
sitions of Blackstone and the other systematic writers on English
jurisprudence, one of the most liberalizing and enlarging pursuits to
which the mind of youth or early manhood can be directed. The
generalizations of this branch of knowledge were particularly fitted
to improve the mind of young Douglas, and to prepare him for his
future career.

But even the intellectual qualities we have mentioned are insuffi-
cient alone to account for the distinctive character of the eminence
he attained. With these he might have been the dexterous pleader,
the sagacious judge, the acute politician, and yet have fallen very
far short of that perfect empire which he held not only over the
minds of the few, but also over the hearts of the many. He had other
qualities which may be cultured, but which cannot be created.

The lively sympathy with friends and associates, the intelligent
and appreciating glance, the frank and hearty tone, the kindly grasp
of the hand, the prompt and obviously disinterested service, these
give to him to whom they belong a despotism which we are, perhaps,
too proud to own, but which we cannot, if we would, resist. In the
mere personal presence of Stephen A. Douglas there was a singular
fascination. When you had once experienced the magic of his influ- |
ence you were bound to him forever; his spirit seemed to dare you
to rebel, and what was commenced by admiration for his commanding
ability was consummated by his kind and genial manner. Bold, fierce,
at once haughty in defiance and dexterous in fence, he necessarily

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 121

commanded admiration. But to admire is little else than to wonder;
we admire a brave and gifted enemy quite as much, and, if a little
terror be mingled, we may admire him even more than our true but
less brilliant friend. But in the case of Douglas we loved while we
admired. And this is the true key to his general popularity. His
intellect conquered, but his heart secured the conquest. His innate
and ineradicable kindness, and his genial manner conciliated all who
fell within the*influence of his power. His political and public life
exhibited but the mere outward husk of the man within; it was when
you looked upon the gentle amenities of his home life, upon his love
and devotion to his wife, tenderness to his children, and respectful
attention to his friends, that beneath that somewhat rough exterior
you could discern the character it concealed.

It will not, I trust, be considered improper for me to refer to the
fact that I was one among the many young men of the west who were
honored by his confidence and bound to Judge Douglas by ties of en-
thusiastic friendship, and that therefore I speak from personal expe-
rience when I refer to the magic of his presence and the controlling
influence of his character.

As I have already said, this is not the place or the occasion for en-
tering into particulars as to his political opinions and acts, but, alike
to his friends and his foes, I must say from the convictions of my
head, as well as the suggestions of my heart, that history will be false
to her trust if she does not record the fact that Douglas was a true
patriot as well as a sagacious statesman. If he was a partisan poli-
tician, he never wore his party uniform when his country was in dan-
ger. It was a striking illustration of his character in this respect,
that when the administration of our national affairs was committed to
his political antagonists, he gave his hearty and generous support to
the government at the moment it required his aid.

Some have lamented his death as untimely and unfortunate for his
own fame, since it happened just at the moment when the politician
was lost in the patriot, and when he had an opportunity to atone for
past errors. But man does not change his nature so readily; Douglas
was the same from the beginning to the end of his career, with views
merely modified or enlarged by the expanding horizon which opened
upon him from year to year, in his increasing elevation of thought
and position. The words which escaped him in his last hour were
the expressions of the real sentiments of his inner life.

Observant of the causes which have led to our present civil war he
ever strove by adjustment to avoid their disastrous effects. ‘‘I know
not,’’ said he, ‘‘what our destiny may be, but I try to keep up with
the spirit of the age, to keep in view the history of the country, to
see what we have done, whither we are going, and with what velocity
we are moving, in order to be prepared for those events which it is
not in the power of man to thwart.’’

Placed at the head of the Territorial Committee of the Senate, it
was under his direction that Territory after Territory and State after
State were admitted into the Union. The comprehensiveness of his
views was exhibited in his great speech on the Clayton and Bulwer

122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

treaty, on the fourth of March, 1853, wherein he enforced a con-
tinental policy and refused to prescribe limits to the area over which
the principles of our government might safely be extended.

His position on the Committee of Foreign Relations gave him a
breadth of view in regard to our relations with other countries, which
was enlarged by personal observation in foreign travel, and in special
historic research. His knowledge on this subject was conscientiously
applied in the way which he deemed best fitted to advance the com-
mercial and financial interests of our whole country.

He died in the midst of the people of a district where he had been
cherished and honored during the whole of his public life; in a city
whose commercial and material improvement was the pride of his
heart, and a type of his own character. The maturity of his growth,
the fertility of his resources, and his sturdy energy, rendered his life
a microcosm of the great section of our country with which he was
so closely identified. We may toll the slow bell for his departed
spirit, we may drape ourselves in the emblems of grief; but if his
friends and admirers would truly honor his memory, they will en-
deavor, like him in his last days, to moderate the heat of party strife,
enlarge their views of political science, and emulate his growth in
moral character and clear-sighted patriotism.

GENERAL APPENDIX

REPORT FOR 1861.

The object of this Appendix is to illustrate the operations of the
Institution by the reports of lectures and extracts from correspond-
ence, as well as to furnish information of a character suited especially
to the meteorological observers and other persons interested in the
promotion of knowledge.

LECTURES.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES.

By FAIRMAN ROGERS,
PROFESSOR OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.

[Continued from Appendix to Report of 1860, p. 150 ]

Au the structures for spanning openings which we have thus far
considered, have been so arranged that portions of them are subjected
to a tensile strain; the materials used in them are adapted to resist
such a strain, and also to receive such fastenings or connexions as will
enable them safely to transmit the forces applied.

The building material, however, which is most universally at our
disposal, stone, although it is admirably fitted to bear a compres-
sive force, is not adapted to resist tensile strain, and in making use of
it in bridge-building we must apply it
in such form and such a manner as to
overcome this difficulty.

If we have two pieces of stone,
neither long enough nor strong enough
to span an opening in the way of an
ordinary beam, we may arrange them
as shown in Figure 43, preventing them
from separating below by the tierod A B.

Should it be desirable that the space between the stones or tim-
bers be left without any encumbrance, the tie rod A B may be re-
placed by two abutments, so
firmly seated on the ground
that the thrust of the struc-
ture will not be sufficient to
push them apart or to over-
turn them, as in Figure 44,
where the reaction of the
ground takes the place of
the tension rod. Fi

aie ig. 44.

Now, if it be necessary to

Fig. 43.

125 LECTURE

sustain three loads instead of a single one, we shall have a structure
such as Figure 45.

If the number of loads
is very great, or, what is
the same thing, if the load
is distributed over the
whole span, we shall have
the framing in the form
of a polygon of a great
number of sides, or an

Fic. 45. arch, as in Figure 46.
r Since the pieces com-
posing such a framing or arch are small, and are only subjected to a
force of compression, they may
be economically made of stone
or of cast iron.

In Figure 44, by a well-known
principle of mechanics, the
amount of thrust, or tendency to
i separate the abutments, com-

Fig. 46. pared with the weight supported,
(W,) may be readily determined,
and it will be found to increase with the nearer approach of the

—

Fig. 47.

oblique pieces to the horizontal position, so that a framing, like

Fig. 48.

Figure 47, or an arch, like Figure 48, will-exert a greater thrust
; than either Figure 44 or Figure
46, when loaded with the same
weight. The distance, A B, is
termed the rise of the arch, C D,
the span, and upon their relative
values the thrust of the arch will
depend. In a semi-circular arch,
Figure 49, no thrust is exerted at
its very lowest points, A and B; it
Fig. 49. does not become sensible until we

ON BRIDGES. 127

reach a point a_ little
higher, C D, and then
the arch acts as in Figure
46.

What is known as a \

bow-string girder, Figure Fig. 50.

50, is only a cast-iron

arch, with a tension rod, and the single iron mass may be replaced
by bricks, as in Figure 51, ;

while, still further, by tak-
ing away the tie rod and
substituting the abut-
ments, we come again to
the familiar form of the
arch, as in Figure 48.

In fact, we may build
an arch which has no curved surfaces of any kind, as in Ficure
52, in which it is evident if
we ‘have sacrified nothing
of the principle by per-
mitting the spaces above
and below the dotted lines
to be filled up -by the
projection of the arch
stones.

Since the weight upon
an arch acts always vertically downwards, the portion at the crown
or top, A, Figure
53, acts with all its
weight in the direc-
tion of a radius, A
O, of the circle, but
the portions of the
load towards the
haunches, as at BC,
only act with a por-
tion of their weight
in the radial direc-
tion B O; and if we
desire to equalize , Fig. 53.
these radial strains,
we must increase the weight upon the haunches by loading them
with additidnal material, as at D. Theoretically the upper surface
of this loading should have the form shown at E, in order that the
forces acting along all the radii should be equal: in practice it is
usual to build up to the level of the top, as at F, by which the con-
ditions of the problem are nearly fulfilled. Sometimes in large works
the roadway over the part E is supported by small arches, the space
under them being left open, thereby more nearly conforming to what
is required by the theory.

128 LECTURE

Should the arch have the simple form of Figure 46, especially if
the depth.of the arch stones is small compared with the span, there
is danger that the weight near the
crown, acting with more effect in the
radial direction than that near the
haunches, will rupture the arch, as
in Figure 54, the crown sinking and
the joint there opening on the inside,
and the haunches rising. Conversely,
if an arch is loaded too heavily on
\ the haunches, as it may be by the

Fig 54. weight of masonry at F, in Figure

53, or by soft earth in the same

position, it will fail by the pushing up of the crown. Judgment is,
therefore, required in planning such
works, in order to avoid these accidents.

The cusped arch, Figure 55, much
used in certain styles of architecture,
was originally designed to prevent the
failure shown in Figure 54. It is evi-
dent that the inner points or cusps at
the haunches would resist a change of

Fig. 55. form, as in Figure 54, by increasing the

moment of resistance of the particles

near the outside. This arch should properly be made of only four

stones, as in the figure, and is therefore adapted to small structures,
such as the heads of windows.

The form is a very ornamental and pleasing one apart from its
utility, and admits of elaborate decoration, which is hardly the case
with a simple circular arch.

We must not permit the curved form to become too intimately
associated with our idea of the arch. We have seen in Figures 47,
52 that an arch need not strictly have any curved surface at all, and,
on the other hand, a curved beam is not by any means an arch merely
from its form. The cast-iron structure in Figure 50 ceases to be an
arch when we remove the tie rod which prevents its ends from
spreading, and unless we prevent such spreading by fixed abutments,
a comparatively small weight will cause it to fail, by giving way to
the strain of tension along its lower side, just as any other beam
would do. ‘

In a stone arch the wedge-shaped pieces or arch stones continually
tend to press or pack more tightly together, and thus to keep up the
stiffness of the structure.

Technically, the inner surface of an arch is called the intrados, the
outer the extrados.

Frequently, as in Figure 49, the curves of these surfaces are simi-
lar and parallel; sometimes they differ, this being to a certain extent
a matter of taste or of the fancy of the architect.

Curves other than circles may be employed for the intrados, ac-
cording to certain necessities of construction. The ellipse, as in

ON BRIDGES. 129

Figure 59, is frequently employed, for reasons that we shall consider
further on. Such curves are called by the French engineers basket-
handles, (anse de panier.) For arches which bear no load except that
of their own weight, the catenary curve—that which a chain assumes
when fastened at both ends and allowed to hang
freely—is sometimes used.

Circular arches may either be semicircular,
(full centre,) as in Figure 49, or segmental, as in
Figure 48.

Two segments of a circle of equal radius are
sometimes joined at an angle more or less acute,
as in Figure 56, a form known as the Gothic arch.

This form is frequently used in architecture, but Fig. 56
rarely in bridge-building. The aqueduct of Spo-
letto is a rare instance of its employment in an engineering structure.

Suspension bridges, formed by stretching a rope or chain over a
chasm, and supporting the foot-way from it, were very early used,
since the principles involved in their construction are simple, and
the materials for them are readily obtained in new countries. In
parts of South America they are frequently seen across mountain
chasms and streams, the material used being either flexible rods, or
_ poles properly joined, or tough vines, such as the grape, forming a
sort of rope, from-two of which the foot-way is suspended or on
which it is laid.

There are accounts of very ancient iron chain bridges found in
India, constructed upon the same principle.

The suspension bridge may be regarded as the converse of the
arch, since it is not only inverted in form, but all its parts are sub-
jected to a tensile strain instead of one of compression. Wrought
iron is the material which is naturally the best adapted to this method
of construction, and is generally used.

A suspension structure, to bear a given weight, may be made with
but little waste of material, since tensile strains are usually trans-
mitted with great directness, and, being easily calculated, the mini-
mum of material may be used. For this reason suspension works
are characterized by lightness® and cheapness, two great advantages.

The principal objections to them are, first, their flexibility, which
can be provided against with proper care, and the space which they
occupy beyond their true span—only objectionable in certain locali-
ties.

The weight of the bridge and its load tend to draw the extremities
of the chains together, and if they were merely fastened to the tops
of the towers which support them, these towers would be overturned.
It is necessary, therefore, to extend them on the land side of the
towers, and to anchor them in the ground at a considerable distance
from the foot of the tower to prevent such action. In a city this is
an objectionable feature, since the land chains interfere with the free
passage in the streets. The fundamental principles governing the
suspension bridges are so simple that it will not be necessary to dis-

130 LECTURE

cuss them more at length than we can in treating of the practical
points of their construction.

There are evidently other matters to be considered in building a
bridge than the mere theoretical principles involved in the action of
the beam, the arch, or the suspension chain, and of these we shall
now treat. In designing a bridge for a certain locality, the engineer
must be governed by what are sometimes termed the limits of location.
They may be defined as the two horizontal lines above or below
which the bridge cannot go. The upper limit is fixed by the nature
of the matter which is to pass over the bridge, and by the topography
of the place at which it is to be built. If the structure is a foot
bridge, the upper limit may be high above the surface of the stream
or its banks, since pedestrians can easily mount up to almost any
elevation. If it is for pack-horses or mules only, as-is the case
with some of the bridges of Switzerland and other mountain coun-
tries, the ascent may still be steep. For carriages the ascent must
be less, and the top of the bridge must’ be more nearly on a level
with the banks. For a railroad the upper line of the bridge must be
still more nearly on a level with the surrounding country.

The other limit, or lower line, will be determined by the level of
the stream, by the freshets that occur in it, and by the headway re-
quired under the bridge, if the river is a navigable one. In a locality
where the stream is deeply sunk below its banks, the problem is
simple; but where the country is low, and the stream apt to be
swollen by freshets, the engineer. must exercise considerable judg-
ment in determining upon the best and most economical limits. -

Fig. 59.

Comparing Figures 57, 58, 59, we see that the beam gives for a

ON BRIDGES. 131

given height of roadway the clearest headway under all its parts,
although it is nowhere quite as high as the centre of the arch in the
other figures.

In Figure 58 a small rise of the surface of the stream will much
diminish the water-way just at the time when it should be the largest,
a case that will not occur in Figure 57.

To avoid this the elliptical arch, Figure 59, is often used when the
structure must be arched, and it presents the other advantages of in-
creased headway and more agreeable lines to the eye.

When the engineer has determined the upper and lower limits of
his intended work, (to do which he must carefully study the banks
and surrounding country and collect all the information possible as to
the freshets of the stream,) he must examine the ground with a view
to the foundations and approaches of his bridge. Should it have but
one span or bay, as in the figures, the abutments will be nearly, if not
quite all, on dry land, and the difficulties to be met with in their con-
struction will probably not be great. Should the width of the stream
however be so great as to require several spans, piers must be built
in the water, an operation requiring expensive and troublesome ap-
pliances.

The piers of a bridge contract the water-way and cause eddies and
currents oftentimes very disturbing to the navigation, and the engi-
neer must endeavor to use as few as possible with a due regard to the
cost of the structure that he is designing. Modern practice has ex-
hibited much fewer and thinner piers than were used by the ancient
builders. With them the semicircular arch, with piers almost as
wide as the openings, contracting the water-way nearly one-half, was
frequently used, while now the spans are increased and consequently
the number of intermediate supports diminished, while the piers
themselves are made as thin as they can safely be, to support the su-
perincumbent weight of the structure. Where the current is swift
the piers should be in its direction as nearly as possible, since any
obliquity to the current will give rise to violent eddies, which serve
still further practically to contract the water-way, as in the case of
the Rock Island bridge, on the upper Mississippi, at which the navi-
gation, especially for rafts, is made exceedingly dangerous by such
an arrangement of the piers.

Many experiments have been made upon the proper form to be
given to piers in order that they may obstruct the passage of the
water as little as possible, resulting in the fact that the same form
which enables a vessel to move easily through the water, permits the
water to flow past a fixed pier with the least commotion.

When the number and size of the piers are decided upon, the bottom
of the river must be examined with a view to their foundations.
Many ways of providing a firm base on which to rest the masonry
have heen adopted, the simplest being to remove by a dredge the
soft mud which generally lies on the bottom and then to drop “rough
stone on the proper point until the pile appears above the surface,
when the masons can commence their work. This method suffices
where labor is dear and stone plenty, and where the contraction of

132 LECTURE

the water-way by such masses is not of importance. Another plan is

to make strong timber cribs and to sink them, filled with stone, to |

the bottom, permitting them to reach just to the surface of the water,
a method largely adopted in this country with good results.

The neatest, though much most expensive way, is to build a water-
tight wall or coffer-dam around the place of the pier, and after pump-
ing out the water so as to lay bare the bed of the stream, to build up
the foundations to the surface with concrete or with regular masonry.
The coffer-dam is usually made by driving two rows of piles, one
outside of the other, around the space to be laid dry, and then by
packing clay in between them so as to render the enclosure imper-
vious to water. Pure clay is not as good for the packing as that
which has a slight admixture of fine gravel or sand. When the
stream is deep it will be very difficult to prevent the water from
soaking through the clay puddling, and a steam pump is often re-
quired to keep the space free from leaks and breaks which greatly
delay the work and add to its cost; but it is quite practicable, with
proper precautions, to lay foundations in this way in very deep and
rapid rivers.

We have so far supposed that the natural bottom is suited to bear
the weight of the structure, but frequently we find soil of such a na-
ture as not to be able to do so, especially if the pier is thin, and there-
fore presents only a small bottom surface; in such cases it will be
necessary to provide some means of solidifying the bottom, or of dis-
tributing the weight over a surface sufficiently large to prevent its
sinking. Where the bottom is nearly firm enough, a platform of wood,
somewhat larger than the pier, carefully laid, will be sufficient to pre-
vent any sinking. Such a platform will last under water for gen-
turies, many having been found in a good state of preservation under
old Roman bridges.

In place of a wooden platform a bed of concrete or beton may be
employed, composed of a mixture of mortar made, if necessary, of
hydraulic lime and gravel or broken stones, with some sharp sand,
which is thrown into the space excavated to receive it, rammed and
levelled, and allowed to harden into a solid mass, upon which the
masonry is built. Concrete should not, as a general thing, be ex-
posed directly to the action of running water, since it may be rapidly
worn away, but with the proper precautions it forms the best of
foundations.

Should the soil of a particular locality not prove sufficiently strong
for this, however, recourse must be had to piling; that is, to driving
posts or piles of timber to such a depth that they will not settle-any
further, and laying a platform upon their heads on which the masonry
will rest. The piles, with the bark stripped off, the points sharpened
or shod with iron, and the heads defended by iron rings, which are
afterwards removed, are driven by a heavy weight falling upon them
until they will go no further, or rather only a fraction of an inch with
several strokes. They are placed in rows, at distances apart depend-
ing upon the nature of the ground, and then their tops being sawed

en tt ante Tiare

ON BRIDGES. 133

off to a level, heavy timbers are bolted to them to receive the plat-
form.

Whenever there is any doubt of the foundations, piling will be
found to insure the greatest safety and permanence, although it is
frequently costly; it is only interfered with by natural springs in the
ground which loosen the material around the piles and cause them to
settle or to rise. Piles may also be used to advantage to prevent the
spreading out of a loose, yielding material, such as quicksand. For
this purpose piles sawed out square, so that they will fit tightly to-
gether, are driven around the material to be enclosed, touching each
other, and connected at the top by string-pieces; the soft material
thus confined will present a good bearing mass, after being covered
with a wooden platform.

Solid rock is generally the most certain and satisfactory foundation,
but the labor of preparing its surface under water to receive the first
courses is considerable; hard, gravelly clay and cemented sands are
nearly as good; sand, which makes the best of foundations on the
land, must be narrowly watched under water, since it is easily moved
by currents by the obstruction in the channel, which may wash it
away and undermine the structure.

The abutments or land supports of the bridge may, of course, be
founded in the same manner as the piers; but being mainly on dry
land the difficulties attending them will usually be less.

Piers have been sometimes founded in a stream by building them
on the bottoms of flat scows or caissons and permitting them gradually
to sink, as the weight of masonry is increased, until the whole mass
rested upon the bottom, which has been dredged level to receive it;
the sides being detached, the bottom is left under the pier as a plat-
form.

Cast-iron piles, terminating in an auger-shaped flange, which en-
ables them to be screwed into the soil, invented by an Englishman
named Mitchell, have been extensively used with good results, es-
pecially in the foundation of light-houses and beacons along the coral
reefs of the Florida coast. They are easily screwed down in places
where ordinary piles are difficult to manage, and their resistance to a
vertical pressure is enormous, owing to the surface exposed by the
wings of the screw.

Within a few years since the general introduction of iron into en-
gineering practice, a system of foundations by means of cast or
wrought-iron cylinders sunk into the bottom of the river has come
into favor. These cylinders or pneumatic piles, as they are called,
were first proposed and used by M. Triger, an engineer. of the north
of France, for sinking a shaft through a quicksand; and are known in
England as Pott’s pneumatic pile, although he is really not the in-
ventor. The cylinders, from six to ten feet in diameter, prepared in
the proper lengths, are bolted together and sunk vertically until the
lower edge rests on the earth; the top is then closed by a plate, to
which is fitted an air-lock or chamber furnished with double doors,
like the vestibule of a house, so that a person can enter the lock and

134 LECTURE

shut one door behind him before opening the other, which leads into
the interior of the cylinder.

All being made tight, air is pumped into the cylinder by an engine,
and the water forced downwards in the pile until it is all driven out
at the bottom; workmen then enter through the air-lock, which only
permits a small portion of the enclosed compressed air to escape as
the doors aré opened, and descending to the bottom excavate the soil
under the edge of the pile and in the centre allowing it to sink down
gradually by its own weight. It is directed in a vertical position by
guides above. As the pile sinks, new cylinders are added to the top,
when necessary, and after the whole is down to a firm foundation the
interior is filled up with rough stone or concrete, the air-lock removed,
a permanent cap substituted, and the superstructure raised upon it.

In loose, sandy bottoms these piles have been sunk by permitting
the air to rush out under the edge of the pile and by carrying out
with it the sand so as to make an annular channel into which the pile
settles by its own weight.

Many bridges in England and on the continent, and some in this
country, have been built in this way with great success. One of the
most interesting examples is that of the new bridge over the Rhine
at Kehl, near Strasburg, where caisson piles were sunk to a depth of
sixty feet below the surface of the water. 5

Frequently the bed of the river, between masonry piers and for.
a short distance above and below them, is paved, planked, or covered
with loose stone, to prevent the current from undermining the
structure.

The foundations having been completed, and the piers having been
built up to a certain level, the bottom of the beam of a truss bridge
and the spring of the arch of a stone bridge, preparations must be
made for adding the superstructure.

The truss or beam may be either made on the shore and floated
and raised bodily into its position, as in the case of the water tubes
of the Britannia bridge, or it may be built in its place upon a scaf-
folding or false work erected to support it, as in the case of the land
tubes of the same bridge and of most of the truss bridges built in
this country.

For a stone or cast-iron arch a frame called a centring must be
employed, as shown in Figure 60, the top of which has the form of the

inner side of the arch, so that when the stones are laid upon it they

ON BRIDGES. 135

- come into their proper places in the curve, If the stream can be
occupied during the construction of the bridge by piles driven across
it, the form of the centring ‘will be simple enough, for it can be
supported along its whole length from below ; but if the water-way,
as is frequently the case, must be left clear all the time, considerable
ingenuity is sometimes required in designing a structure which, only
supported at its ends, shall sustain the varying loads during the pro-
gress of the work without change of form.

After the centring is up, the construction of the arch is com-
menced by laying the first stones near the abutments on both sides,
and gradually building up towards the centre ; and as the weight is in
this way increased from the ends of the frame towards its middle, the
centring must be so trussed as to resist the change of figure which
this operation has a tendency to produce.

After the arch-stones, which are cut previously of the proper size
and shape, depending upon the curve of the intrados, are all properly
laid up to the middle, the last stone, usually called the keystone, is
fitted tightly into its place at the crown of the arch, and after per-
mitting the structure to rest for a short time, the centering is slightly
lowered to permit the stones to commence to bear tightly upon each
other. To enable the centre to be thus lowered, or struck, as it is
termed, it is made at first to rest on wedges on the lower part of the
frame, and these wedges being slowly driven back the centre gradu-
ally sinks.

In the bridges of the Alma, the Invalids, and of St. Michael’s, all
in Paris, an arrangement, iagented by M. Beaudemoulin, was substi-
tuted for the wedges with success. Upon the fixed portion of the
frame a series of sheet-iron cylinders filled with fine dry sand, rested,
into which fitted wooden plungers which rested on the sand, and upon
these plungers rested the centring. When the centre was to be
struck, a small hole left at the bottom of the cylinder was opened,
and the sand running slowly out permitted the upper works to settle
down gradually.

When the engineer considers the mortar sufficiently set, the centre
is lowered still further and taken away, leaving the arch to support
itself ; the rest of the masonry work is then carried up, the spandrels
filled in to the level with the crown of the arch, and the pavement,
sidewalks, and parapet walls added.

Great care must be taken that the rain-water which falls upon the
surface of the bridge is not allowed to percolate through the struc-
ture ; as it not only carries portions of the lime with it ‘and disfigures
the surface and the under side of the arches, but is frozen in winter,
and thus tends rapidly to destroy the bridge. Gutters must be laid
on the top, and the water from them conducted away in pipes through
the piers, while the use of asphalte or bitumen as a water-tight cov- —
ering to the backs of the arches, is highly to be recommended.

As a general rule, it seems well to avoid much architectural orna-
ment on a stone bridge, unless it has some obvious connexion with
the constructive features. Many of the European bridges are in-

136 LECTURE

jured in appearance by pediments, cornices, columns, and pilasters,
which are entirely out of place.

There are enough projections and other features which occur natur-
ally in the construction to give the necessary relief, and structures
depending upon these alone have always a neater, bolder character
than those which are encumbered and enfeebled by useless ornaments.

In the United States but few, if any, very large stone bridges have
been built, and we must look to Europe for examples. The ancient
aqueducts, the characteristics of which are usually very high, thin
piers and small arches, are among the most beautiful of the remains
of Roman enterprise and magnificence, while the river bridges of the
same people, however good of their class, are surpassed by those
constructed in the sixteenth century and later, when larger spans,
lighter piers, and segmental and elliptical arches were introduced by
Ammanati, Perronet, and others.

The ellipse or more properly the curve of several centres, Figure 59,
presents several advantages over the circular curves. Apart from
the increased water-way, its form is much more pleasing to the eye,
not only in its own variety, but because in it the broken line which
occurs where a segmental arch joins the face of the pier or the abut-
ment is avoided, and because the flatness of the arch near the top
gives an appearance of lightness which cannot be got in any other
way. The bridge of the Trinité over the River Arno, Florence,
Italy, built by Ammanati, in 1566, is the most graceful structure of
its kind that has yet been produced, and it owes its beauty principally
to the use of this curve. The piers of this bridge are, however,
thicker than they should be, since practice has reduced these parts
very much in later structures, with advantage both as to appearance ©
and to the water-way left beneath them.

At the present time, when many large bridges are built in isolated
places for railway purposes, cheapness and quickness of construction
are matters of the first importance, and as these necessities have led
to the general use of wood and iron, we shall finish this subject by a
description and comparison of two of the most important works of late
date. When the Chester and Holyhead railroad was to be carried
across ‘the Menai straits, which separate the island of Anglesea from
the main land of Wales, a suspension bridge something like a famous
carriage bridge built by Telford at the same point, was proposed, but
the opinion of the distinguished engineer, Robert Stephenson, sup-
ported by nearly the whole of the English profession, was, that it was
impossible so to overcome the flexibility of a suspension bridge as to
fit it for railway traffic, and the idea was accordingly abandoned.
Several plans were then proposed—among them that of a cast-iron
arch—but owing to the restrictions placed on the work by the admi-
ralty, some arrangement was required which would avoid interference
for any length of time with the free passage of vessels through the
strait, and nothing like centring could be used.

Mr. Stephenson first determined to have a wrought-iron truss with
strong top and bottom, and thin plate sides or web supported by
chains at the central point; the chains, however, were afterwards

ON BRIDGES. 137

abandoned and the simple beam decided upon. The bridge is com-
posed of four spans, the two centre ones being 460 feet and those at
the ends 230 feet. The land beams, or tubes as they are called, were
built in their places on scaffolds raised from the ground; but the tubes
oecupying the centre spans were built on platforms on the shore,
afterwards floated into position, and raised by hydraulic presses to
their places, one hundred and four feet above the level of the water.

It is difficult, without a detailed description, to give an idea of the
magnitude and interest of this operation; but when we know that
each beam weighed 1,589 tons, was 470 feet in length, and had to be
floated during a single tide, from its original place on the shore, sev-
eral hundred yards to the foot of the piers, brought nicely into a
niche in the masonry while still on the floating pontoons which sup-
ported it, and then hoisted steadily through a vertical height of 104
feet, we can readily imagine that the work required the greatest care
and the most perfect arrangements. There being two large spans to
the bridge and two beams to each span, for the double track, there
were four to be thus moved, and the successive operations were
watched with great interest by the large crowds that assembled to
witness them.

These operations, as well as the magnitude of the work, gave this
bridge a place in the public mind, and a world-wide importance that
perhaps it hardly merits in an engineering point of view.

The two large spans are 460 feet in the clear—the small ones 230.
The total length of the bridge is 1,511 feet, and the single line weighs
3.1 tons per lineal foot. ‘The two tubes, in their entire length and
their complete state, contain 9,360 tons of wrought iron, 1, 015 tons of
cast iron, and 165 tons of permanent way. They are composed of
about 186,000 separate pieces of iron, pierced by seven millions of
holes, and united by upwards of two millions of rivets. They con-
tain 435,700 feet or eighty-three miles of angle-iron, and their total
weight is 10,540 tons.’’ The total cost of the bridge was about three
millions of dollars.

Elaborate preliminary experiments, costing over twenty-five thou-
sand dollars, were made to determine the proportions of the beams,
by Mr. Fairbairn, to whom much of the credit is due.

The history of this bridge and its construction, in two beautiful
‘volumes, with elaborate plates, by Edwin Clark, will always be
considered a classical work both by the practical engineer and the
student of science.

The other structure to which I referred is the celebrated bridge
built over the Niagara river for the railroad passing through New
York and Canada, by John A. Roebling, C. E. The difficulties here
to be overcome were the crossing of a chasm 800 feet wide and 245
feet deep, at the bottom of which was a deep river with a furious
current, in which no boat could live or no scaffolding could be fixed;
of course no central piers could be used, and a single clear span was
required.

A carriage-bridge had been constructed at this point, which is

138 LECTURE

about a mile and a half below the falls, by Charles Ellet,* in 1848,
and in 1852, it having been decided to carry the railroad across the
_river, the large bridge was commenced at the same locality, by Mr.

Roebling. The fact that the English engineers had decided that sus-
pension bridges were impracticable for railroad purposes, made the
proposition to construct one at this place a bold enterprise, and
great praise is due not only to the genius and skill of the engineer,
but also to the president and directors of the road to whose liberal
views the engineering profession is indebted for this grand experi-
ment.

Suspension bridges for ordinary traffic were in common use in Eu-
rope and in this country, and the well-known one at Fribourg, with a
span of 807 feet and an elevation of 167 feet above the water, built
in 1830, had remained in good condition after more than twenty years
of use; but the doubt existed whether such a structure could be made
stiff enough to resist the undulations caused by a moving weight as
heavy as that of a locomotive and a loaded train of cars.

The cables of the Niagara bridge are four in number, each ten
inches in diameter, and made up of 3,640 iron wires of No. 9 gauge,
anchored firmly into the solid rock about 230 feet from the edge of
the cliff, and passing over massive stone towers 76 feet in height, and
from these the roadway is suspended by wire ropes. Iron drawn into
the form of wire is known to have its strength greatly increased in
proportion to its weight, and, therefore, it can be much more econo-
mically employed than in the form of rods or chains.

Were the roadway merely made strong enough to support the load
to be brought upon it, the bridge would be depressed, owing to the
flexibility of the cables at the point occupied by the load, and would
rise at other points, inducing an oscillation that would soon be destruc-
tive to the bridge, and the roadway is therefore trussed or framed
after the manner of a timber bridge, so as to resist any local depres-
sion and to distribute the weight over a great length of the cable,
and thus prevent such oscillation.

In addition to that, a number of wire stays run from the top of the
tower to points in the truss, on the principle shown in figure 19, which
fix those points and thus add materially to the stiffness. Again, the
track itself rests upon longitudinal girders of great strength, which
serve to distribute the immediate load to more distant parts of the
truss, These are briefly the points upon which the stiffness of the
bridge depends. The railroad is placed on the upper floor of the
truss, while the lower is used for carriages and foot passengers.

It was held by English engineers that a truss which would give
sufficient stiffness to the cables would be strong enough to sustain it-
self and the load, or that the cables would be useless, but this is
plainly disproved both by calculation and by the practical result of
the Niagara bridge, in which the truss is exceedingly light, and when
it serves only the legitimate purpose of stiffening, while the weight

* While these pages are going through the press our country is called upon to mourn
the untimely death of this eminent engineer, who, with generous patriotism, devoted his
talents and his life to the defence of the Union.

ON BRIDGES. 139

is borne by the cables themselves. The bridge has now been in con-
stant use, and since the eighth of March, 1855, when the first engine
passed over it, with perfect success.

It is the duty of the engineer to construct his works so that, while
durability is insured, the object shall be attained at the least cost.
It has been frequently said that there is no limit to engineering
achievements but the want of money, and much less credit is due to
him who accomplishes an important result with a large expenditure
than to him who does the same with limited means. This is espe-
cially true of the public works of this country, where the lines of com-
munication are very long and frequently pass through sparsely settled
regions, which could not by their local traffic suppért expensive struc-
tures. It will be interesting, therefore, to compare the cost and
weight of the two structures which we have described with the view
of determining their relative merits on these grounds.

The Britannia bridge is 1,511 feet in length, the Niagara 800.
The weight of one line of the first is 4,680 tons or 2,340 tons for 755
feet against 1,000 tons for the 800 feet of the second, or nearly twice
as much. Again, the Britannia bridge, completed, cost three millions
of dollars for a double track, while the Niagara bridge cost four hun-
dred thousand for a single track—rather more than half the length;
and taking into consideration that the piers, foundations, &c., would
cost almost as much for a single line as for two, the ratio of cost would
be about one to two and a half, a vast difference in favor of the sus-
pension bridge.

The proof of the practicability of cheap bridges of great spans, due
to Mr. Roebling’s talents, forms a new era in the art of engineering.
Communications which were hitherto considered impossible may
now be made; regions like those of the west coast of the United
States, intersected by deep ravines with vertical sides, may be tra-
versed by railroads, and rivers may now be spanned by bridges at
places which were before entirely impassable.

Mr. Peter W. Barlow, C. E., of England, after a careful personal
examination of the Niagara bridge, has not hesitated to propose a
plan for spanning the river Mersey, at Liverpool, by a suspension
bridge three thousand feet long, at a height of one hundred and fifty
feet above the water, with towers four hundred and fifty feet high, at a
cost of five millions of dollars.

The greatest engineer is not, however, he who builds the largest
work at a greatest cost, but he who, by the introduction of new prin-
ciples, or by the ingenious application of those already understood,
extends the practice so as to enable us to surmount new difficulties
with economy and safety.

LECTURE

2 “SON

THE RELATIONS OF TIME AND SPACE.
*

By PROFESSOR S. ALEXANDER,
OF THE COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY.

.iANY of the truths with which we are conversant have not so much
to do with things as with the relation of things. ‘There are no such
things, in themselves considered, as 3, 4, 7, or 23; and even length,
breadth, thickness, and capacity are not things in themselves consid-
ered, although they belong to all material substances. As with us,
so far as we have to do with them, time and space are not things, but
the relation of beings and things. We occupy space, and pass our
lives in time. There was, therefore, force as well as truth in the ob-
servation of Franklin: ‘‘ Dost thou love life, then do not squander
time, for time is the stuff that life is made of.’’ We avail ourselves
of this pithy saying of his Poor Richard in order that we may vindi-
cate the necessity for our going a little further and ascertaining the
material of which time itself is constituted. This, in the largest sense
of the term, is duration.. Now, without attempting to define either
space or duration, we may readily describe both. Thus it will be con-
ceded that space is that wherein there is room for the whole material
creation, so that bodies in it may exist apart. And so, in a somewhat
metaphorical sense, duration is that wherein there is room for events
to occur; it is that wherein, in one sense, things may happen, or in
which it is essential to space that its portions should be diverse in
position, All experience tells us that our right hand cannot occupy
the same place with our left, and the accurate experiments of natural
philosophy abundantly confirm this conclusion. Not only so, but also
when my right hand goes to the place where my left hand was, it for-
sakes its place, leaves behind that part of space it occupied, and goes
to another part of space, so that it is essential to space that the por-
tions of it should be diverse in position. It is just as essential to
duration, in so far as we have to do with it, that its portions should
exist in succession. Tuesday cannot, by any device, become Wed-
nesday; it has preceded that day. Thursday cannot, in like manner,
become Wednesday; it must succeed it. It is essential to space, there-
fore, that its portions should be diverse, and essential to duration that
its portions should exist in succession. It is, moreover, a result of all

RELATIONS OF TIME AND SPACE. + ay

‘experience that within the same portion of duration, as far as can be

discerned, there is room for the same or similar events to occur in
the same way. It is the result also of all experience, so far as we
can trace the matter, that one portion of duration is like another, so
that no portion of it goes on faster than any other. Now, it is the
uniform continuous flow of duration, thus parcelled out, that consti-
tutes absolute time. Relative time is a portion of duration whose
limits are marked by events. You have something to mark when
that duration begins and when it ends. Absolute time will flow on
whether you mark it or not. When that portion of time is marked
by events, so that you know where certain periods of time begin
and end, it becomes relative time. As then we must speak of the
limit when a portion begins, not when it ends, it is desirable that we
should distinctly indicate what we mean by limit, whether of space
or duration.

Now with regard to the limit of anything that occupies space. The
outside of this table before me is no part of the table; it is only pre-
cisely where the table ends that outer space begins. The outside is
not somewhat in the same sense with the table itself, but only some-
where—where the table ends, and the outer space begins. But this
is still somewhat in its own sense. It has breadth, it has length and
superficial extent, such as may be measured by a square foot. But
the outer edge is not somewhat even in the sense that it covers some-
thing; it merely penetrates space, instead of dividing it. The very
end of the outer edge is not somewhat even in the sense of a line, for
although the outer edge was long, penetrating space, the very end of
it is only somewhere. Thus it is with the centre of a sphere. It is
not somewhat. When we depart from it at all we fersake the central
position we occupied. But you may ask is it not ‘somewhere? Oh,
yes; precisely at the middle; at the same distance from the surface
on all sides. So also with the midnight, with which Tuesday shall
end and Wednesday begin. It is not somewhat in duration. It does
not last at all. When midnight arrives, that instant the following day
will be here. It is not somewhat in duration, but only somewhere; it
is at the precise time when one day ends and another begins that,
if I may be permitted to coin a word for the occasion, it is somewhen.
It lasts not at all, and therefore is only a point of time, that is an
instant. There is a distinction between an instant and a moment,
for a moment is a real portion of duration—a small but indefinite per-
tion—while an instant is no portion of duration whatever.

The natural measure of time, Lord Kames tells us, is the succession
of our thoughts. When the varied incidents of a ‘pleasant journey
pass before the mind in review, the interval thus spent appears to
have been a long one. But if during a tedious journey, or a fit of the
toothache, or, to come still nearer home, a dull lecture, we find time
‘to be long, it will certainly not be long i im review. So, then, time
may appear long or short, according to circumstances, and it is per-
fectly evident that this rule of Lord Kames cannot answer as a good
measure of time. It has been also supposed that the insects which

142 . LECTURE ON THE

live but for a day—the ephemera—may have so many sensations (we
cannot call them ideas) during the course of that day that this period
may appear on the whole as a long life. Such a measurement of time,
varying according to circumstances, is inappropriate; it is evident,
therefore, that some other must be sought.

In a good standard of measure of time there are two or three prop-
erties which are indispensable. And first, it should be readily acces-

sible: a measure shut up so that it could not be reached would be
good for nothing. Second, it should be convenient, both as to size
and mode of application. Third, the measure should, if possible, be
invariable. Now, there is a standard’in nature which embraces these
three properties, and that is, the rotation of the earth about its axis,

It is for some purposes convenient, as regards size and mode of ap-
plication, inasmuch as it is nearly the length of the ordinary day. It
possesses the third property, invariability. But how do we know that
the rotation of the earth is invariable? This fact may be ascertained
by comparing it in the long run, or with something else known to be
invariable. To illustrate this, suppose the minute hand of a clock by
some means to go too fast; when it arrives at 12 the hour hand will be
some way behind the position which it would otherwise have occu-
pied; and this discrepancy, however small at first, if permitted to go on,
will become more and more evident. The moon revolves about the
earth in a certain mumber of days, as days now are. Now, if counting
ages backward, the day had been changed, the whole number of days,
according to our present measurement, would not correspond to the
exact number occupied in the moon's revolution, and therefore the
position of the moon ona given day, by this backward reckoning,
would be found to be untrue. That this is not so is found by a com-
parison of computation with the observation of an eclipse of the
moon more than seven centuries before the Christian era, and from it
is safely concluded that the rate of the earth’s rotation has not changed
one three-hundredth part of asecond. There are causes which might
change this. The most prominent among these is a change of bulk
arising from a lossof heat. The loss of heat does not, in every case,
- produce a shrinking. Cast iron presents a familiar example, as it at
first expands in cooling. It may, therefore, happen that within the
earth a great deal of expansion and contraction occurs, though there
is no sensible shrinking on the whole. Evenif the earth actually
shrunk, the loss of heat and size would not diminish the force of rota-
tion at all, but the time of rotation will diminish with the circuit. If
I take a ball with a string attached, and, by means of the string, cause
it to revolve around my arm, and then wind up the string, as it pro-
ceeds in its revolutions the motion of the ball will become quicker
and quicker, until the string is entirely wound up.

Let me here observe that the earth has more than one motion. It
revolves around its axis, and in that revolution pauses not, while it
also moves around the sun. Before proceeding to consider this fact,
it is desirable to ascertain when a sphere which has two motions has
completed a rotation.

RELATIONS OF TIME AND SPACE. 143

For this purpose, suppose two spheres to be situated as in Figure
1, the one at A, the other at B,
having a meridian on the one paral-
lel to a meridian on the other, and
that the angular velocity of rota-
tion is the same in both. The au-
dience will perceive that the me- é

ridian will continue parallel, and be \ Ye
so found at the end of the rotation. SS (2) =

If, instead of this, we suppose that EEG
the sphere A, while adaeia Gf | SS
was also transferred to the place of Q | A
B, then the meridian on A, when a.
it arrives at B, would be found at e oe
the completion of its rotation to be

parallel to its first position. Noon Fig. 1.

at any place occurs when the plane

of that meridian passes through the sun in the direction of C. If,
after one rotation, the earth were transferred to B, then the meridian
already shown in the figure must be in a direction parallel to its
former position. But noon will not have occurred. ‘To accomplish
this the earth must have revolved as much more as the direction of
noon has meanwhile changed ; that is, until the meridian reaches the
line in the figure passing from B to the sun. Now, if the earth’s due
eastern motion in its orbit were
equable, the solar days would be
equal, for the excess above a whole
rotation (already described) would
in every case be the same. This
cannot be the case, especially be-
cause of two reasons: The first is
found in the oblique position of the
orbit itself. The earth does not move
due east, but eastward, insomuch that
if the direction of the circle passing
through A, in Figure 2, represent a
due eastern direction, the circle
through B would represent that in
which the earth is actually moving.
It will be perceived on either supposition that a quarter revolution
eastward would be accomplished in

the same time, or the position as re-
eards a due eastern motion would be °
the same at four points, these being

eas

the equinoctial and solstitial points.
This is artificially registered on Figure
5, in which the first curve A is made
to intersect the horizontal line at the =
times of the equinoxes and solstices. Fig. 3.
Now, in passing from the equinox
to the solstice, the due eastern motion, as in Figure 3, E B, is less

144 LECTURE ON THE

than that of E A, the actual motion in the orbit. With reference to
its average motion in a due eastern direction, it may be said to lag
behind in its reckoning. The excess of the solar above the sidereal day
will, therefore, be less than usual. Our time by the sun must gain, and
a full quarter of the revolution will still be completed, as before shown,
at the solstice. The fact that time by the sun must gain during
this interval is indicated artificially in Figure 5 by the portion of the
curve A which corresponds to that interval being placed above the line.
In passing from the solstice to the equinox the opposite effect will
take place; our time by the sun will lose, and this is indicated artifi-
cially in Figure 5 by the portion of the curve
A which corresponds to that interval: being
iB placed below the horizontal line. The other
cause of irregularity is found in the orbit
itself. This is elliptical. The deviation from
the circle is exaggerated in the representation
of Figure 4.
The case of motion in the curve requires
that the space, such as C A B, passed over in
a given time by a line drawn from the sun at
Poe A should be equivalent to the space, D A H,
C

passed over in the same time when the earth

Die

een is passing through any other portion of its
orbit. It will be seen that it will require the
Fig. 4. angular velocity of revolution about the sun

to be greater when the earth is nearer to him.
Each half of the elliptic, F B D, will be described in the same time.
In passing around from F to D, that is, from January to July, the
due eastern motion of the earth will, for the reasons now stated, be
greater than the average. This will cause the excess of the solar

= ee 3 we SY sg
<x ~ Ss S
S e = = S = 3

Fig. 5.

above the sidereal day to be greater than usual, and our time by the
sun will lose. This is represented artificially in Figure 5 by the por-
tion of the curve B which corresponds to that interval being placed
below the horizontal line. ‘
During the other half of the year the opposite effect will take
place. This is indicated by the other portion of the same curve

RELATIONS OF TIME AND SPACE. 145

being placed above the horizontal line. The mean solar day is the
average of all the solar days in the year, and the deviation from it,
arising from both the causes already specified, being proportionably
represented at any date in the year on the two curves, A and B,
already described, the effect arising from the combination of the two
will be represented by curve C, which indicates the equation or cor-
rection of time. This will be found to be nothing at irregular inter-
vals, to wit: about the 15th of April, 15th June, Ist September,
and 24th December.

It may be well to notice to some extent the difference of local time,
as it will enable us readily to answer a curious question that has often
been discussed at much length : If from a first meridian, at which it is
noon—say of Tuesday—we count around eastward, we shall find it to.
be later and later in the afternoon of Tuesday, until arriving at the
opposite side of the earth, in longitude 180, we shall find it to be the
midnight with which Tuesday is about to end and Wednesday begin ;
but if from the same first meridian we should count around westward,
we would find it to be earlier in the morning of Tuesday, until arriving
again at the longitude of 180 degrees, we should find the time to be
the midnight with which Tuesday is about to begin. By comparing
these two results it will be perceived that the difference of time between
two places situated beyond 180 degrees—one on the one side and the
other on the other—must be all of 24 hours. This difference, which
exists about midnight, must continue to exist as time moves on, at any
other hour of the day. In passing this limit, therefore, the name of
the day of the week must be changed in the reckoning. Now, as
Christianity, and with it civilization, are overspreading the earth, it
would seem most suitable that the first meridian of reference should
be the meridian of Jerusalem.

The question to which allusion has already been made, is as follows:
Suppose a traveller to be transferred westward as fast as the earth
revolves from sun to sun eastward, so that if at the outset it were
noon with him it would continue so, it is required to know when and
where it would be necessary for him to change the name of the day.
Now, it has already been seen that the place where this ought to
happen, is in the longitude 180 degrees from the first meridian fixed
upon, and the time when this must occur is noon by the very condi-
tions of the problem.

I will now notice the calendar, though I may do it but briefly. It
has, of course, for its object the distribution of time, a primary
division of which is the day. Anciently the twenty-four hours of the
day were named after the sun, the moon, and the five planets, as
follows: Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon, Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars.
The first hour of the first day was named after the sun. This also
gave name to the day, and it was called Sunday. The other hours of
the day were named after the other planets, &c., in the series; and
then the series was begun anew, and having been gone through in
this way three successive times. twenty-one hours received their
names, and the remaining three hours were named by commencing
the series a fourth time and proceeding as before. The first hour of

10

146 LECTURE ON THE

the next day received the name of the fourth in the series, to wit,
the moon; and this also gave name to the day, so that it was called
Moonday or Monday. Thus the several days of the week were named.
The French names of the days of the week still bear marks of this
process. Inthe English names of the days the names of the old
Saxon deities are introduced in place of those of the gods of ancient
heathenism. Thus we have Sun’s-day, Moon’s-day Tuisco’s-day,
Woden’s-day, Thor’s-day, Friga’s-day, and Seterne’s-day.

With regard to the months, January is named from Janus; Febru-
ary from Februa; March from Mars; April from the Latin Aprilis,
called from aperio, to open, being a spring month of the year; May
from Maius; June from Juno; July from Julius Cesar; August from
Augustus Cesar, and the remaining months from their order in the
Roman calendar, September being the 7th, October the 8th, Novem-
ber the 9th, and December the 10th. Our present irregular arrange-
ment is said to have arisen in part from the pride of Augustus Cesar,
who insisted on having as many days in the month named after him
as that named after Julius; in consequence of this but twenty-eight
days were left for February.

In the next place we come to epochs ; an epoch is the period from
which any number of years is reckoned. The birth of the Savior is
an epoch, and the years reckoned from it constitute a Christian era.
According to the Christian era, then, we have arrived at the year
1860. The question whether 1850 ends the first half of the century,
or whether it begins the second, is not a question for speculation.
It is a mere question as to what is the fact. It is somewhat analo-
gous to the question whether a railroad company had directed the first
milestone to be placed at the beginning or end of the first mile, and
so onward. ' At the outset it might be a speculative question as to
which position would be the better ; but after the arrangement had
been made the question would be merely what had been done. Now
it is a fact that those who had the arrangement of our chronology
so settled the matter that the year one should mdicate the first year
of Christ ; so that the year one did not end until the first year was
completed. Hence, the first 100 years did not come to an end until
the year 100 was completed. The first 1800 years did not come to
an end until the year 1800 was completed; and 1850 years of the
Christian era will not have come to an end until the year 1850 shall
have been completed. The succession of 100 years constitutes a
century, the longest period yet employed in the measure of time,
because (observes La Place) ‘‘ the interval that separates us from the
most ancient of known events has as yet required no other.’’ Dura-
tion, however, is inexhaustible, and we next proceed to consider the
infinites both of space and duration.

Now, whether we regard space forward, backward, sidewise, up-
ward, downward, or obliquely—it matters not in what direction—it
is absolutely without limit. Not merely is the limit so remote that
you cannot ascertain it, but space is really boundless in all directions,
absolutely infinite ; so, too, antecedent to all things we still behold,
self-sustained upon the throne of His adorable perfections, the great
First Cause, He who, being the origin of the first beginning, Himself

RELATIONS OF TIME AND SPACE. 147

has none, but ever was, as now, from everlasting. It is in this per-
petual precedent, this underived antecedent of the divine pre-exist-
ence, that we find the realization of eternity past ; so, too, far beyond
the ages to come—innumerable though they may be made by the
flight of years, immeasurable though they may be by the flight of
centuries—must still continue the ceaseless, unalterable being of Him
who alone hath immortality underived, and in that is eternity future.

Now it is the combination of both of these, nothing less than this,
nothing short of it, that constitutes for us the absolute infinite of
duration ; that is, from everlasting to everlasting. Dividing the-two
eternities, as it were, the one from the other, in all worlds at once
stands the instantaneous present. Thus it was from the first moment
of the existence of the first created being, or thing, and thus it will
be when the present system of things, like a worn-out garment, is, as
it were, folded up and laid aside. Through the ever-present now, the
eternity future flows by, and in the metaphorical sense is transferred,
moment by moment, to the eternity past. We recognize this fact
even in our ordinary language ; thus we say when to-morrow comes
[to us] and not when we come to to-morrow.

We are now somewhat prepared to discuss the question whether, if
all the material creation were annihilated, what might be called space
would remain? On the one hand it would seem that it would not be
so, because the outside of this block, for instance, is not somewhat,
but only somewhere, and disappears when the block is removed.
Hence, we might conclude that what is still more complete outside
would disappear if all else were gone. On the other hand, the outside
of this block has a dependent existence. It goes with the block,
though it cannot exist by itself. Wherever the block goes the outside
goes with it. But the block occupies a portion of space and leaves it
behind when it is removed to another. Hence, if all else were gone
it would seem as if space must still exist. Now the statement that
if all the visible creation were removed, there would still be room for
another, proves nothing. It but argues that if there were another
creation it would exist as now in space. But it does not show what
would happen if all these things were gone, or in the absence of
everything tangible. This is a matter so far beyond the pale of our
experience we can assert nothing with respect to it. We care not,
however, whether this question be decided in the one way or the
other ; but we most uncompromisingly assert that space cannot exist
independent of the great First Cause, from whom not merely all things
were created, but by whom they also consist ; who has not merely
made these things what they are, but as they are. On Him are de-
pendent not only all things but all relations of things.

Could space, indeed, exist by itself? It would be a thing by itself
and not a relation of things ; then must it also be independent, and
if it were independent it would be self-existent ; if self-existent it
would be interwoven with the existence of the Almighty. We know,
therefore, of no space which is not pervaded by His presence, as we
know of no eternity which He inhabiteth not.

Let us, for a moment, compare and contrast finite with the infinite

148 LECTURE ON THE RELATIONS OF TIME AND SPACE.

and perhaps a simple illustration, contained in Figure 6, will serve the
purpose,

Fig. 6.

If a point (A) be assumed in a straight line which we may term
specifically infinite, the line in either direction from that point will be
interminable ; and the two portions, one on each side of the point,
may be regarded as being in effect equal. If, again, another point
(B) be assumed in the same line, however remote from the former,
the two portions, one on each side of it, may be regarded as being in
effect equal ; though the whole intervening distance between A and
B will have been added to one of the portions into which the line was
divided at the first point (A) and subtracted from the other portion.
It appears, therefore, that any such distance, however great, must
be regarded as nothing in comparison with a straight line intermin-
able in only one direction. As the point assumed in the interminable
line in effect divides that line into two halves, so the instantaneous
present divides the eternity past from the eternity future. It does
so, in so far as can be discerned, in all worlds at once ; as the same
plane in the figure cuts all the three straight lines which penétrate it,
and which are to be regarded as interminable in both directions from
the dividing plane. The present thus divides those two eternities
now. ‘Through the limit thus ever-present the current of time passes,
in a metaphorical sense ; and moment by moment the eternity future
is transferred to the eternity past, and any portion of: time however
Jong must be regarded as nothing in comparison with either. We
may thus, in some very humble measure, learn how it is that in the
view of the infinite mind a ‘‘thousand years’’ should be as ‘‘one day,”’
and one day as a thousand years.

The relations of things being, as already maintained, constituted
relations ; and they being also constituted in some respects alike, as
appears from the comparisons of time and space, we may even rev-
erentially proceed a step further and conclude, that as any finite, or
-even in some respects boundless, space is worthless, or to be regarded
as of no value in comparison with the absolute infinite of space ;
and as, again, any finite portion of duration is also a relative zero in
comparison with the absolute infinite of duration ; so, also, must the
highest created intelligence and lowest among men be alike worthless,
or regarded as nothing in comparison with the alone injinite one.

Here, therefov, with humble reverence would we rest; for this
discussion has led us to the consideration of great and awful themes ;
but here, also, with heartfelt gratitude would we bow, since He has
revealed Himself, and how He may be to us the Father of Mercies.

LECTURE

ON

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

By DBT. 1. HAYES,
COMMANDER OF THE LATE AMERICAN ARCTIC EXPEDITION.

I appear before you, in obedience to an invitation with which I
have been honored by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
to give an account of my late expedition to the Arctic seas. That
expedition, some of you may remember, sailed from Boston in July,
1860, and returned to the same port in October, 1861. Before pass-
ing to my narrative, a brief statement of the objects of the expedition
may not be out of place.

It was my good fortune to have sailed in 1853 with the lamented
Dr. Kane, as surgeon of his expedition, and I remained in that ser-
vice until late in 1855. Upon my return to the United States I
formed the plan of another expedition. There were many circum-
stances of discouragement, not least among which was an impression
which then had possession of the public mind, that any further efforts
toward the North Pole must be fruitless, and must involve an unjus-
tifiable exposure of life. It was only after many endeavors that here
and there the influences favorable to my design began to affect the
community. The most important of these was, of course, the sanction
given to my plans by those associations by whose opinions the mass
of men are governed in relation to scientific matters; and it gives
me pleasure that I am to-night enabled, on a public occasion like the
present, to express my acknowledgments to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion for the liberal support which was rendered by it to the expedi-
tion, not only by its contribution of scientific apparatus, but through
the encouragement which was given towards effecting its organiza-
tion by the influence of the distinguished gentleman who is the prin-
cipal executive officer of the establishment. To this approval of the
Smithsonian Institution, so widely known and respected, were added
that of the American Philosophical Society, the Geographical Society
of New York, the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Boston Society of Natural History,
and the assistance and encouragement of individuals, among whom
the renowned head of the coast survey, Dr. Bache, was the most con-
spicuous. Yet, inspite of the efforts made in many quarters, my outfit
was a very small one. My original plan embraced two vessels, one-
a small steamer, and the other a schooner, the latter to be placed in
a convenient harbor, near the mouth of Smith strait, and the former
to be used for penetrating the ice to the northward; but to obtain so
large an organization as this plan involved was found to be impracti-

150 LECTURE ON ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

cable. Upon leaving Boston, July 10, 1860, my entire party numbered
only fifteen persons, and we sailed in a schooner of only one hundred
and thirty-three tons burden.

My purpose was to follow up the line of research opened by Dr.
Kane; L[ allude, of course, to that of Smith strait and Kennedy channel.
You will readily understand that I had no such idle purpose as was
sometimes popularly attributed to me, viz: that of merely reaching
the north pole of the earth as a feat of adventurous exploration.

The general object was to procure as mach information as the
restrictions of our voyage would allow beyond the termination of Dr.
Kane’s labors, and in the same direction in which they tended. The
space between the point at which his personal observations ended
and the North Pole is about six hundred and fifty miles, an interval
sufficiently large to admit of very numerous and important observa-
tions.

Coinciding with him in the opinion that at some portion of each
year there exists a large body of water about or near the Pole, I
hoped to extend the evidence which he had collected on this subject
as well as on many others.

It would, of course, have been a source of the highest satisfaction
to have succeeded in setting at rest the question of open water, but
it was by no means the sole object of the expedition.

Various questions connected with the physical condition of the
earth remain to be solved by observations in high latitudes, such as
the currents of the air and water; the temperature of these movable
elements; the pressure of the former and the tides of the latter; the
variation of gravity; the direction and intensity of the magnetic force;
the aurora borealis, &c. Relative to all these it was my intention to
make observations, and I trust when the results which J have obtained
are discussed, as they will be, under the direction of the Smithsonian
Institution, they will not disappoint the reasonable expectation I have
formed of their value.

I esteemed myself fortunate in obtaining the services of Mr. August
Sonntag, the able astronomer and physicist of Dr. Kane’s expedition,

who early volunteered to fulfil the same duties during my own, and
also to aid me as second in command, and upon him were to be de-
volved the most important of the observations. His death soon after
entering our winter harbor left me with the aid only of three young
men, who were dependent almost wholly upon my instruction and
supervision.

I have made these explanations in order that you may the better
appreciate the difficulties which embarrassed us, and that you may
not in advance be induced to overrate the unpretending collections
made during my cruise; yet it is due to the truth to say also that,
notwithstanding these difficulties, the zealous aid of my young asso-
ciates has enabled me to return with some valuable additions to our
previous stores of knowledge.

In order that you may in the outset have a clear idea of the route
of the expedition, I will call your attention to the rude diagram sus-
pended on the wall, representing the Arctic regions in cireumpolar
projection. The centre of the map, therefore, represents the position

*

LECTURE ON ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 151

of the North Pole, and, as far as known, this point of extreme north-
ness is in the centre of a great ocean, almost mediterranean in its
character, for you will observe that the shores of Greenland, America,

Asia, and Europe invest it almost completely, while the islands of

Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen interrupt the only broad entrance to
it from the south.

It has long been supposed by physicists that this large body of
water could not be frozen over, that an open sea of varying extent
would be found within the ice belt which was known to invest it ;
and the correctness of this hypothesis seemed to be, at least partially
confirmed, by the researches of the old Dutch and English voyagers,
and more recently by those of Scoresby, Wrangell, and Parry. To
these evidences were added the important discovery of open water
by one of Dr. Kane’s exploring parties to the northward of Smith
strait.

The great difficulty which has been experienced in solving this in-
teresting problem has been an inability either to push through the
ice belt with a vessel, or to travel over it with sledges sufficiently far
to obtain indisputable proofs.

My experience with Dr. Kane led me to believe that the chances
of, success were greater by the route which had been pursued by
Dr. Kane than any other, and I conceived the idea of carrying a boat
over the ice belt to the open water, having previously penetrated as
far as practicable with a vessel.

You may remember that Dr. Kane’s highest northing with his ves-
sel was latitude 78° 37’ on the eastern side of Smith strait. It
seemed to me that the chances of success would be greater if a ves-
sel could be taken up the west coast, and from my own observations
in 1854, it appeared probable that a latitude between 79° and 80°
could be obtained for a winter harbor. For means of transport across
the ice I relied upon dogs.

How far I was able to execute my plans, it will be my purpose to
inform you in this lecture.

The schooner in which we sailed was originally built for the West
India trade; she was carefully strengthened for the ice encounters

by heavy beams and braces internally, and externally by a thick

wooden sheathing, and by heavy iron plates over the bows and cut-
water. Agreeably to my petition, her name was changed from
‘‘ Spring Hill’ to ‘‘ United States,’’? by act of Congress.

I will not dwell upon the details of our voyage to Greenland, which
was unusually boisterous. The schooner was unayoidably so heavily
laden fhat her deck was never more than eighteen inches above the
water, and was never dry. After touching at Proven and Upernavik,
we reached, on the 21st of August, Tessuissak, the most northern of
the Danish stations, in latitude 73° 40’. At all of these places we
were kindly received, and the officials furnished me with every facil-
ity in their power for procuring the requisite furs and dogs for sledge
travelling.

A brief description of these settlements may not be out of place in
this connexion. You are all, no doubt, aware that Greenland is a
possession of Denmark. It is divided into two principal districts or

152 LECTURE ON ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

inspectorates, each of which is presided over by a viceroy or royal
inspector. These principal districts are known as North and South
Greenland, the seat of government of the former being Godhayn,
situated on the southern extremity of Disko island; and of the latter
at Godhaab. Each of the inspectorates is subdivided into smaller
districts, which are under the immediate control of chief traders or
governors, who are directly responsible to the royal inspector. The
most northern district is that of Upernavik, the seat of government
of which is at the settlement or colony of that name, situated on a
small island, in latitude 72°40’. The settlements of Proven, Tessuis-
sak, and many others of a similar character, are comprised within
that district, and are subordinate to the central authority at Uperna-
vik. The outposts comprise generally only a trader’s house and a
few native tents. Upernavik has besides the government house, a
missionary house, a church, and school-house, two storehouses, a
shop, two blubber-houses, and about a dozen Esquimaux habitations.

The Greenland colonies are for the most part profitable to the
Danish government; and they maintain the government employés and
natives in comfort and abundance. The people live exclusively by
hunting and fishing; and from the district of Upernavik alone, two
vessels, of three hundred tons each, are annually freighted with the
products of their industry and hardy skill, consisting of whale, seal,
and shark oil; seal, fox, reindeer, and bear skins; eider down, walrus,
and narwhal ivory; codfish, and other articles of less value.

My purpose in halting at the several stations which I have men-
tioned was to obtain furs and dogs for my proposed sledge travelling
at the north. Having, through the kindness of the Danish officials,
obtained the needed supplies, as also three Esquimaux hunters and an
interpreter, we set out from Tessuissak on the 22d of August for the
field of our future explorations. Our route lay thence northward
through Melville bay, the usual track of the whalers. That bay was
entered on the morning of the 23d of August, during a thick snow
storm, with a heavy gale and a high sea following us; and without
having encountered any ice we reached Cape York in fifty-five hours.
This passage of the bay was remarkable.

Standing close in under Cape York, I kept a careful watch from
the masthead for Esquimaux, and I soon had the gratification to see
agroup of them running down toward the beach, making signs to
attract attention. The schooner being hove to, I went on shore in a
whaleboat, and was met at the beach by an Esquimaux, whom I
quickly recognized to be Hans, Dr. Kane’s young hunter. Upon his
expressing a desire to accompany me, I took him, together with his
wife and child, on board, and again stood northward.

Beyond the parallel of the Carey islands, near which the whalers
annually pass, and thence to Smith strait, our track was the same as
that of Dr. Kane. The distance from the northern limit of the whale
fishery to Smith strait, you will perceive, is not great, and with a fair
wind we ran it ina few hours. The chief interest of our voyage
commences, therefore, on the 26th of August, on which day we were
a little to the northward of the position of Baffin in 1616, and Ross

LECTURE ON ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 153

in 1818, twenty miles south of Cape Alexander, the entering cape on
the Greenland side of Smith strait.

The strait was entered on the 27th of August; but we were un-
fortunate in meeting near its mouth an ice-pack of extraordinary
thickness, through which no passage could be effected. This pack
trended off to the south and west, and appeared to adhere to the
western coast. Our efforts to find a navigable lead were interrupted
by a heavy gale which broke suddenly upon us and drove us out of
the strait. The gale continued with great force for three days,
during which we were a second time driven out of the strait, and,
having at length sustained serious damage, we made the land and an-
chored.

At that place I went on shore and, from an elevation of twelve
hundred feet, obtained a view to the west and north. The ice was
everywhere closely packed and heavy. On the following day we were
blown from our anchorage, and were much damaged against some ice-
bergs which had drifted in with the current. It was as late as the Ist
of September that we again entered the strait, again to be blown out
and crippled by a sudden return of the gale. It was not until the
evening of September 2d that we effected a permanent lodgment in
the strait. Failing to find an opening toward the west shore, I de-
termined to seek one higher up, near Cape Hatherton; but when
among the ice off Littleton island the schooner became ‘‘beset,”’’ the
iron sheathing on the bows and the cutwater were carried away, and
the rudder was rendered useless. After some hours we reached a
place of safety and anchored. We put to sea, again on the 6th, but
failing to pass Littleton island, and the temperature having fallen to
12°, when navigation was no longer safe, I was obliged to go into
winter quarters in Hartstene bay, ten miles northeast of Cape Alex-
ander, in a harbor which I have named Port Foulke, in honor of my
friend William Parker Foulke, esq., of Philadelphia, who was the
earliest and has been one of the most constant friends of the expedi-
tion. Subsequent observations gave our position, latitude 78° 17’ 41”,
longitude 72° 30’ 57’ W., twenty miles south of the latitude of Rens-
selaer Harbor, (Dr. Kane’s winter quarters,) and distant from it by
the coast line about ninety miles.

At the time of going into winter quarters the vessel was badly
crippled by frequent collisions with field ice, and by twice being driven
upon icebergs. The weather was not only very boisterous from the
time of our first, entering the strait, but thick snow was almost con-
tinually falling. I regretted very much that we had not steam-power.

My plans of exploration being based upon reaching the west coast,
and there attaining a harbor above or near latitude 79°, which I had
thought practicable from personal observations made in 1854, you will
perceive that our winter harbor was very unfavorable for the accom-
plishment of my purpose. I could not attain even as convenient a
position as that of Dr. Kane, whose line of travel, being near the
Greenland coast, was freed from some of the obstacles attending our
passage across the strait, with dog sledge, to Grinnell Land.

Our preparations for the winter were’ similar to those of Dr. Kane.
A house was built on shore to receive our stores, and the hold of the

154 LECTURE ON ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

vessel was converted into a room for the men. The upper deck was
covered with a house made of boards, which had been brought for the
purpose. The ship’s company lived in health and comfort. During
the autumn and winter the officers were engaged in various scientific
observations.

Soon after entering our winter harbor an observatory was rate
upon shore near the vessel, under the superintendence of Mr. Sonn-
tag. It was a frame structure, covered first with canvas and then
with snow, and was eight feet square. In this a fine pendu'um appa-
ratus, constructed under Mr. Sonntag’s supervision by the Messrs.
Bond, of Boston, after the plan of Foster’s instrument, was imme-
diately mounted, and satisfactory sets of experiments were. then
made by Mr. Sonntag, assisted by Mr. Radcliff. The pendulum
beat nearly seconds ; that is, rudely, 3,607 beats in 3,600 seconds of
time. The readings were made when the knife-edge passed the zero
point of the graduated arc. The interval of the readings was ten
seconds, and eleven readings generally made a set. These observa-
tions were continued from September 26 until October 12. They are
yet unreduced, and I am therefore unable to announce to what con-
clusions they lead. I may mention that experiments were made by
Mr. Sonntag and Professor Bond at the Cambridge Observatory prior
to the sailing of the expedition, and that the instrument will be
placed in Professor Bond’s hands for a repetition of the experiments
at the same place.

Upon removing the pendulum apparatus, a unifilar magnetometer
was mounted upon a firm support in the centre of the observatory,
and the scale readings were recorded hourly every seventh day,
and three times daily during the interval, from November to March.
The same instrument was subsequently used for making several sets
of experiments in declination, deflection, and vibration. A corres-
ponding number of sets of experiments for the determination of dip
were also made with a well-adjusted instrument. These four classes
of magnetic observations were, with certain omissions, subsequently
repeated at Cape Isabella on the west side of Smith strait, at Netlik in
Whale sound, at Upernavik, and at Godhavn. All of these observa-
tions are yet unreduced. I should mention that the instruments were
furnished to the expedition by Professor Bache, superintendent of
the United States Coast Survey, under whose supervision the con-
stants had been carefully determined, and to whom the instruments
will be returned for correction.

Near the observatory a suitable shelter was erected for a number
of thermometers, which were read hourly every seventh day, and three
times daily in the interval. These instruments were carefully com-
pared at every 10° of temperature down to —40°, and these records
were referred to a standard which was brought home, and has been
placed in the hands of the maker, Mr. Tagliabue, for further compari-
son. Some of the instruments were manufactured by Mr. Green, of
New York, and were furnished by the Smithsonian Institution. The
remainder were presented by Mr. Tagliabue. These observations
were continued during our stay at Port Foulke, from September, 1860,
to July, 1861. I may mention in this connexion that throughout the

LECTURE ON ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS, 155

cruise a bi-hourly registry of atmospheric temperature was made with
a single instrument, mounted on the vessel when at sea, and on a post
upon the ice when in winter harbor. <A like number of barometer
readings was also made and recorded. A careful record of meteoro-
logical phenomena, including direction and force of wind and general
atmospheric conditions, was kept up during the cruise.

Although there has been no discussion made of these observations,
yet there are some manifest general results which may interest you.
Our winter was much milder thau either of the winters of 1853~ 54
and 1854-55, passed by Dr. Kane at Rensselaer harbor, twenty miles
further north. The weather was, unlike that experienced by Dr.
Kane, generally stormy. Northeast winds, frequently very strong,
prevailed—a fact at least in part accounted for by the open water
which was during our stay at Port Foulke constantly visible outside
of the harbor, and it was doubtless due to the same fact that we ex-
perienced a modification of temperature. March was the coldest
month. It was during this month, and while absent at Rensselaer
harbor, that I recorded the lowest temperature, —68° F. It is re-
markable that on the same day the lowest temperature registered at
Port Foulke was only —29°, and on the day previous, when, I expe-
rienced a temperature of —66.5° near Rensselaer harbor, the tempe-
rature at Port Foulke was —27°.

In the autumn I made, in connexion with Mr. Sonntag, a survey of
a glacier which approaches the sea through a valley opening from the
head of the bay in which we wintered. This had been discovered
by Dr. Kane, and by him named ‘‘ My Brother John’s Glacier.’’ Its
face is nearly two miles from the sea, which it is gradually approach-
ing. With the view of determining its rate of progress, we ascended
to its upper surface and carefully measured a base-line in its axis.
From either end of this base-line angles were taken, connecting it
with fixed objects upon the mountains on each side. Lateral sta-
tions were next established, and these were connected with the base-
line, and with the before-mentioned fixed objects. The angles were
repeated by me after an interval of eight months, and the result
showed a downward movement of the glacier, amounting tominety-
four feet. .

In October I performed a journey upon this glacier and the mer de
glace to the eastward of it, penetrating about fifty miles into the inte-
rior. Our angle of ascent was, at first, about six degrees, decreasing
gradually to from one to two degrees. The surface was at first some-
what broken and irregular, but as we advanced it became smooth and
the ascent regular. Our elevation upon setting out to return was
estimated at about 5,000 feet, when we were quite out of sight of
land.

The sun was absent from us 130 days, and I attributed the remark-
able healthfulness of our party, during that long period of darkness,
in a great measure to the abundant supplies of fresh animal food
which we were enabled to obtain. The reindeer, the blue and white
foxes and hares were quite numerous in the immediate vicinity of
Port Foulke, and through the persevering energy of our hunters a

156 LECTURE ON ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

full supply was procured before the winter set in, not only for the
ship’s company, but for the dogs.

With the winter, however, came serious misfortunes. A disease
which has. been for several years prevailing throughout all Northern
Greenland broke out among the dogs, and by the middle of Decem-
ber all of them had died but eleven. It became then necessary to
open communication with the Hsquimaux of Whale sound, with the
view of obtaining a new supply. It will be remembered that my
plans of exploration were based entirely upon the use of dogs asa
means of transportation across the ice; and from our unfavorable sit-
uation it appeared evident that with our reduced force I had not the
means to prosecute my purposes with the success which I had antici-
pated.

Mr. Sonntag early volunteered to go to the Esquimaux for the pur-
pose before named. His offer was accepted, and he started on the
22d of December with a sledge drawn by nine dogs, and accompanied
by Hans, (Dr. Kane’s young native hunter,) whom, as before stated,
I had found at Cape York. This expedition was attended by an
event which cast a gloom over our whole party. Mr. Sonntag lost
his life in attempting to cross Whale sound. As reported to me by
Hans: In the act of passing a crack which had been recently frozen
over, he broke through the thin ice and became thoroughly wetted.
He was assisted out of the water by his companion, but before they
could reach a place of shelter, five miles distant, Mr. Sonntag was so
badly frozen that he was insensible, and he died soon afterwards. The
body was subsequently recovered and interred near the observatory
at Port Foulke.

Hans continued southward and accomplished one of the purposes
of the journey; but, in consequence of bad management and over
driving, five of his team were killed, and I was left, upon his return,
with only six dogs. The Esquimaux having learned through Hans
of our being at Port Foulke, came to us in the spring, and from them
I was enabled to obtain a sufficient number of dogs to increase my
pack to about twenty; but some of them died afterwards, and I was
left, fitally, with two teams of seven each. With so reduced a force
I became seriously apprehensive for the success of the labors which
were to follow.

On the 20th of March I set out on my first journey. The object
of this effort was to establish a provision depot for use during the
summer, and it was successful. While absent upon this occasion I
visited Rensselaer harbor, Dr. Kane’s winter quarters. No vestige
of the ‘‘Advance’’ could be discovered. She had probably drifted
out to sea with the ice, and been subsequently crushed and sunk.

The preparations for the principal journey were completed early in
April, and on the 4th of that month I started northward with my
entire available force, comprising twelve officers and men, and four-
teen dogs. Our equipment consisted of a metallic lifeboat mounted
on runners, provisions for seven persons for five months, provisions
for six persons and fourteen dogs for six weeks, and the necessary
camp fixtures. .

The open water which continued throughout the winter, within

/

LECTURE ON ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 157

sight of Port Foulke, extended northward in April in a narrow
stream nearly to the parallel of Rensselaer harbor, and I was obliged
therefore to adhere to the eastern shore, instead of pushing over to
the north and west, as I had originally intended. In consequence
of our forced selection of this route we encountered the same condi-
tion of hummocked ice which had embarrassed the exploring parties
of Dr. Kane. The centre of the strait was crowded with ridges of
broken ice, more extensive than I had ever before seen, and through
these, after three weeks’ trial, I found it to be impracticable to trans-
port the boat which I had intended for the exploration of the Polar
sea, and I, accordingly, with much reluctance, was obliged to send the
main party back and to continue northward with two dog sledges and
three companions.

The hummocks became worse as we advanced, and, although we
were only forty miles, in a direct line, from the west coast of the
strait, fourteen days were consumed in reaching it. We were
obliged to return several times upon our track for portions of our cargo,
and the severity of the labor rapidly reduced the strength of the
dogs.

Our track across the strait was nearly the same as that which I had
formerly made, upon my return from Grinnell Land in May, 1854,
when acting under the orders of Dr. Kane. The unfavorable circum-
stances under which my surveys were made, during that journey, oc-
casioned some errors upon the chart, which I was glad, ‘on this occa-
sion, to have opportunity to correct. As I neared the coast of Grin-
nell Land, it became evident that a channel or sound opened westward
from Smith strait, separating Grinnell Land from the Ellesmere Land
of Captain Inglefield. In the mouth of this sound are two large
islands, to the northernmost of which I have given the name of Pro-
essor A. Dallas Bache, superintendent of the United States Coast Sur-
vey, and to the other that of Professor Joseph Henry, secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, to both of which gentlemen the expedition was
greatly indebted for the influence which their names gave to the sup-
port of the enterprise, and for the liberal contributions which the
former made toward my outfit. "

On the 12th of May I entered Kennedy channel, and following the
coast as it trended nearly due north, I reached on the 16th the bay
which bears the name of the renowned geographer—Carl Ritter. The
roughness of the ice and the deep snow had by this time thoroughly
disabled one of my companions and a portion of the dogs ; and I was
obliged, therefore, to continue my journey with one team and a single
comrade, Mr. George F. Knorr, a young gentleman who served
throughout the expedition with remarkable fidelity and spirit. After
the termination of three days’ severe struggling through deep snow
and heavy hummocks, which were piled upon the land ice, our provi-
sions became exhausted and we were forced to return. We had
then reached latitude 81° 35’, forty miles beyond the limit of Dr.
Kane’s explorations on the opposite side of the channel, and further
north than had ever before been attained upon land. To the high-
est point attained I have given the name of my very kind friend,

158 LECTURE ON ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. -

Professor Francis Lieber, and a remarkable peak which rose above my
last camp I have named in honor of the distinguished American artist,
Mr. F. E. Church.

To the northward of Cape Lieber opened a magnificent bay, which
I regretted that I was not able to cross... This bay bears the name of
Lady Franklin. At its head rose two bold mountain peaks, which I
named Sylvia Mount and Mount Cornelius Grinnell.

To the northward were seen Cape Beechy, another high cape be-
yond it, which I called Cape Frederick VII, after his Majesty the
King of Denmark, to whose subjects in Greenland I was indebted for
many favors, and, in the far distance, I could trace the faint outlines
of a magnificent headland, the most northern known land on the
globe. This land I named Cape Union.

Returning upon the same track, we reached the vessel after an ab-
sence of fifty-nine days, during which time we had travelled in our
various goings and comings about 1,400 miles. During this period _
we used for our nightly halt the snow hut of the Esquimaux.

The personal equipment of each member of the party weighed only
eight pounds. Upon my return to Port Foulke only seven of my dogs
remained alive, and these were so much broken that further explora-
tions for the season, with dog sledge, were rendered impracticable.

The physical conditions observed in Kennedy channel are, per-
haps, among the most important of my results. It was in that chan-
nel, and to the northward of it, as I have before observed, that Mor-
ton discovered an open sea late in June, 1854. I did not find open
water, but the ice was everywhere much decayed, often being so thin
that it would not bear my party; and in some places pools of water
were visible. In one of these pools a flock of waterfowl, the Uria
gryliae, were discovered. My stay in Kennedy channel was from the
12th to the 23d of May, a period of the year six weeks earlier than
that at which the observations of Morton had been made; and I en-
tertain no doubt that, could I have returned to the same locality in
the latter part of June, I would have found the sea open. Indeed,
everything indicated a speedy dissolution of the ice. There were
some indications also that the region to the northward is annually
open. I will mention one which struck me most prominently. The
coast on the west side of Kennedy channel, especially where exposed
to the northeast, was lined with a heavy ridge of ice, which had been
forced up under the influence of great pressure. Many of the masses
were as much as sixty feet in height, and they were lying high and
dry upon the beach. The pressure necessary to occasion this result
could not possibly be created by ice-fields moving over a narrow chan-
nel, and I believe the result to have been produced by ice-fields of
great extent coming down under the influence of winds and the cur-
rent from a vast open area to the northward.

The summer was passed in the conduct of such explorations and
surveys as could be made in the immediate vicinity of Port Foulke.
The established routine of observations was continued at the vessel,
and in addition a delicate tidal apparatus was constructed, the read-
ings of which were made to tenths of a foot, and at intervals of ten

}

LECTURE ON ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 159

minutes. We were joined by a tribe of HEsquimaux, living on the
coast between Smith strait and Cape York, and several members
of the tribe continued with us until late inthe summer. This singu-
lar people numbered about eighty souls. They lived in snow-houses
about our harbor, and maintajned themselves by hunting the walrus
and seal.

The schooner, having been prepared for sea, was broken out of the

ice on the 10th of J uly, and we sailed from our winter harbor on the
14th. After much difficulty and two trials, we reached the west coast,
ten miles below Cape Isabella. That cape I was unable to pass in the
vessel, but I succeeded in making its north side in a whaleboat, and
from an elevation of about six hundred feet I obtained a view to the
northward. In that direction the ice was everywhere unbroken; and
as it did not appear probable that I could obtain for the schooner a
more northern harbor, and as I had now only five dogs remaining,
without means of obtaining a new supply, I abandoned the field and
returned home, trusting to be able at an early day to renew the at-
tempt with a small steamer.
_ While crossing over from the east to the west side of Smith strait,
I followed, during a portion of the way, nearly in the track of my
predecessor, Captain Inglefield, and I was struck with the accuracy
with which he had exhibited upon his chart the expansion of Smith
strait; and, although the geographical positions which he has given
to many prominent places are slightly inaccurate, as I had subsequent
occasion to determine while upon shore, yet the points of the western
coast which came successively into view were so clearly his discovery,
that I have replaced upon the map the names which he appended to
the various localities discovered by him. The highest land visible
from the mouth of the strait on the west wide, which is the eastern
extremity of Bache island, bears, therefore, the name of Queen Vic-
toria. Princess Maria bay occupies the northern side of Henry
island, and Cape Albert its eastern extremity.

After leaving Whale sound I continued down the coast, and, under
favorable circumstances, completed the survey of the shore, including
Cadogen and Talbot inlets, as far south as Clarence Head. Here we
came upon a heavy ice pack, and were obliged to hold to the east-
ward. Entering Whale sound, I had an excellent opportunity for
delineating the shore-line of that remarkable inlet. Through a clear
atmosphere I could trace the land around from the north to the south
shore, thus proving the inlet to be a deep gulf, which, out of respect
to the enterprising navigator who first penetrated its waters, I have
designated as the Gulf of Captain Inglefield. Two prominent points
of land on the northern side of the gulf were mistaken by Inglefield
for islands, and I have applied to them the names which he has used.
We found a colony of Esquimaux on the south side of Whale sound,
and we remained long enough with them to become familiar with their
habits, and to obtain some photographs of them.

During this period of the cruise every effort was made to obtain
collections of specimens of natural history, and in this department, as
well as in many others, I had frequent occasion to regret the small-
ness of my corps of workers. We, however, succeeded in obtaining

160 LECTURE ON ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

some valuable collections; these embrace dredgings from the various
points visited, plants from several different localities, skins and skele-
tons of the principal mammals, skins of many of the Arctic birds, and
a large number of skulls of Esquimaux. Our hunters captured up-
wards of two hundred reindeer. The walrus and seal of different
varieties were also abundant. During the summer several species of
waterfowl swarmed upon the islands and cliffs about the mouth of
Smith strait. The most numerous of these were the little auk (Uria
alle) and the eider duck, (Somateria molissima,) several hundreds of
which were captured. From these sources I had no difficulty in con-
stantly supplying our party with fresh food, and to this I attribute in
a great measure our entire exemption from, disease.

Leaving Whale sound, we continued southward, and completed the
survey of the eastern coast of North Baffin bay, from Cape Alexander
to Granville bay. This survey was made independently of the charts
of my predecessors. The shore-line surveyed on the eastern side, a
portion of which is new discovery, equals about 600 miles, and on
the western side, between Clarence Head on the south and Cape
Union on the north, about 1,300 miles. It was with regret that I
turned my back upon the scene of our year’s labors, and entered
Melville bay. After boring through the ‘‘ pack’’ for 150 miles, we
entered the southern water, and reached Upernavik on the 14th of
August, and Disco island September 1. At both these places we
were kindly and hospitably received by the Danish officials. At the
latter place I had the satisfaction to meet the royal inspector, Mr.
Olrik. Upon reaching Godhayn, I was kindly informed by Inspector
Olrik that he had received orders from his government, framed in
accordance with a request made by the government of the United
States, directing him to afford such aid to the expedition as was in his
power; and it gives me great pleasure to be able, on an occasion like
the present, to acknowledge the important services rendered to the
expedition by the Danish government and its officials in Greenland,
exhibiting that characteristic generosity and intelligent appreciation
which have uniformly marked their actions towards all previous ex-
plorations of a similar nature.

Our voyage from Godhayn southward was very stormy, and when
off Halifax such damages were suffered as required us to put into
that port for repairs. Our welcome there was very cordial and highly
grateful to us. The admiral of her Britannic Majesty’s fleet, then in
Halifax harbor, generously tendered the use of the government con-
veniences for repairing my crippled vessel. To the officers of her
Majesty’s civil government, and of the squadron and garrison, and to
the citizens of Halifax, the expedition is indebted for attentions which
exhibited not less a friendly feeling for men who had for so long a time
been deprived of many of the comforts of civilization than respect for
the flag under which our explorations had been made.

Having sailed from Boston, I considered that a proper respect for
those who gave me the vessel required that I should return to that
port. Leaving Halifax on the 19th of October, we arrived in Boston
on the 23d, after an absence of fifteen months and thirteen days.

MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE,

By M. FLOURENS,
PERPETUAL SECRETARY OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY C. A. ALEXANDER,

Tris Academy numbered among its members, in the last century,
two brothers, one of whom left several useful treatises on botany,
while the other is memorable as the first chemist who conceived
a precise and practical idea respecting affinities. It was said with
reference to the latter, by the most spiritual of the partisans of
Descartes, Fontenelle, ‘‘that he had enunciated in 1718 a singular
system—a table of affinities or relations of different substances in
chemistry. These affinities,’’ added Fontenelle, ‘‘ gave uneasiness to
some, who feared lest they should turn out to be attractions* in dis-
guise, the more dangerous as persons of skill knew already too well
how to endue them with seductive forms.’’ .

The distinction of the two brothers became a just ground of pride
to their family, one of whose branches inhabited the small town of
Etampes. There, ina home whose habits were still patriarchal, a
grandmother was accustomed, in the long evenings, when her numer-
ous grandchildren were grouped around her, to enchain their attention
by recitals respecting her own time, in which the names of our two
savans, among their relatives, did not fail perpetually to recur. To
these recitals her simple admiration for renown, no less than her
quality of grandmother, gave a real power ; so that, on one occasion,
a little boy, very delicate and sufficiently light-headed, was prompted
to exclaim: ‘‘For my part, I, too, should like to be famous; but how
to become so?’ ‘‘ By willing it strongly,’’ replied the grandmother;
‘vou bear the same name with those of whom I have been speaking;
do as they have done.’’ ‘‘And you will help me, grandmother ?’’
cried the little enthusiast; an appeal which was responded to, on the
part of the excellent dame, by presenting him with a copy of Plu-
tarch’s Lives of Lilustrious Men.

It was thus that Etienne Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, born the 15th of
April, 1772, was dreaming of future distinction, when his father an-
nounced that having obtained for him a scholarship in the college of
Navarre, he was about to place him there. Here the poor boy was
destined to find the path to fame encumbered with exercises and

= The term attraction, introduced by Newton as a fit word to designate the force which
produced chemical combination, was in great favor in England, where the Newtonian
philosophy was looked upon as applicable to every branch of science, while in France, on
the contrary, where Descartes still reigned triumphant, attraction, the watchword of the
enemy, was never heard but with dislike and suspicion.—TransLaror.

11

162 MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE.

translations which excessively wearied him. As a scholar he had
little assiduity, and manifested no taste for anything but physics.

On leaving college many advantages were offered to determine him
to the church, but this destination he steadfastly declined. His
father, himself an advocate, proposed jurisprudence, but a short trial
ended in disgust. From law he passed to medicine, but with no better
result. To the adventurous spirit which already governed him it
would seem that a career more free and more remote from the beaten
paths was necessary for satisfaction or success.

Urged by a secret impulse towards the sciences, Geoffroy wished
to follow the higher courses of instruction, and with this view was
permitted to unite himself with the students at the college of the
Cardinal Lemoine. The professors of this establishment were eccle-
siastics. Here the good and judicious Lhomond consecrated his life
to the production of works for the instruction of youth, whose very
simplicity has maintained their superiority as models of that class of
compositions, and Hauy, a regent of the college, had just made that
celebrated discovery in mineralogy which changed the face of the
science and inscribed his own name among those of men of the highest
scientific genius. Lhomond, next to childhood, loved nothing so much
as plants, and Hay had been led, through his devotion to this ven-
erable friend, to join in the same botanical pursuits. In their peace-
ful promenades they were now followed, though at a distance, by a
young scholar, who burned with no desire so great as that of being
permitted to associate himself with these distinguished men. Nor
was the opportunity long deferred: a casual interview occurred, in
which Lhomond and Hauy were so much touched with the ingenuous
expressions of interest and respect on the part of their young inter-
locutor that they thenceforth admitted him to a cordial intimacy.

Under the inspiration of Hat, Geoffroy was not backward in
conceiving a passion for mineralogy. Daubenton was then delivering a
course in this science at the college of France, and it was his custom,
after each lecture, to interrogate his pupils. Happening one day to
question Geoffroy on crystallography, he was surprised at the answers,
and observed, with great good nature: ‘‘ Young man, you know
more about it than I do.’’ ‘‘I am but the echo of M. Hauy,’’ re-
plied Geoffroy. The gratitude implied in this ingenuous avowal did
not fail to excite the interest of the professor, and that interest was
ripened by incidents which soon followed into a lively attachment.

It was now 1792, and Geoffroy was twenty years of age ; he began
his serious life amidst the distractions which then afflicted our courtry.
All the instruction he had received had been derived from priests,
and at this deplorable epoch it was sufficient to bear that title to be
marked for persecution.

His former masters of the college of Navarre were arrested and
imprisoned in the church of Saint Firmin, converted into a prison.
Geoffroy succeeded in obtaining access to them, and urged upon them
a means of escape which he had devised, but which, animated by a
sentiment of common interest with their companions in misfor-
tune, they declined adopting. Later, however, he succeeded in
saving some of them, though at the peril of his own life. But

MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE. 163

that which struck him with most consternation was the imprisonment
of Haty. MHastening as soon as he heard of it to Daubenton and
other members of the Academy of Sciences, he procured in the name
of that body a petition for the release of their distinguished associate.
The order of enlargement was signed at ten o’clock at night, and
Geoffroy instantly bore it in person to the prison. But here a new
difficulty presented itself. ‘‘These great men,’’ said Fontenelle, in
speaking of the illustrious class of persons, whom none knew better
than himself, ‘‘these great men are children ;’’ and Haty especially
united to the most astonishing penetration of intellect the simplest
of hearts. In the midst of such dangers as threatened him, Geoffroy
found him wholly absorbed in reassorting his minerals, which had
been thrown into confusion at the time of his arrest, and which he
had succeeded in having brought to the prison. On no consideration
would he consent to their removal at such an hour, and he was fixed,
moreover, in his determination to hear mass the next morning before
his departure. Accordingly, morning being conie and mass duly heard,
Hauy tranquilly withdrew to his humble cell and to his friend Lho-
mond, who, in turn, had been delivered by Tallien, one of his former
pupils. But the cells they had quitted were destined to no long
familiarity with their occupants : it was the eve of the terrible mas-
sacres of September. .

Exhausted by violent emotions Geoffroy became ill, and retired to
his family. The friends he left at Paris, though still overwhelmed by
the tempest, did not cease to cherish aconcern for him, ‘‘I communi-
cated your letter to M. Lhomond,’’ Hauy writes to him, ‘‘as soon as
received, and we have never been so gay since you left us.’’ To
Daubenton, Haty said: ‘* Love and adopt my young deliverer;’’ and
the injunction was observed to the letter. On the return of Geoffroy
in 1793 he was received with marked affection by the now aged pro-
fessor. We are at liberty to believe that, at a time of life when per-
sonal hopes are becoming extinguished, there may enter into the
attachment of age for youth something of a hope to survive in the
gratitude of a later generation. But the effective services of Dau-
benton were soon called into requisition, for the place of superin-
tendent of the cabinet of zoology in the Jardin des Plantes having
been left vacant by M. de Lacepede, Daubenton asked and obtained
it for his young friend.

The Garden of Plants, founded by Louis XIII, enlarged by Louis
XIV, and illustrated by the labors of Buffon, had hecome through
those labors the centre of modern natural history. In 1790 Dauben-
ton had presented to the Constituent Assembly the plan of a vast
and complete institution, worthy of the ideas which had been com-
municated to him by the great naturalist himself. Two years later _
Bernardin de Saint Pierre, superintendent for a short time of the
garden, called for the establishment of a menagerie, referring to
the fact that Buffon had long desired to have that of Versailles, and
adding that ‘‘the most useful remarks of that eloquent writer were
inspired by the animals which he had himself studied, and his best-
colored delineations were those of which they were the models; for-
the thoughts of nature,’’ said Saint Pierre, ‘‘ carry with them their

164 MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE.

appropriate expression.’’? In June, 1793, by a decree of the conven-
tion, the garden took the name of museum, and the instruction given
there was extended to ail branches of natural history, the number of
chairs being at the same time raised from three to twelve. Two of the
new ones were destined to zoology, one of them being given to Lamarck,
while Pallas, the celebrated naturalist of the north, was designated
by some for the other. Daubenton proposed Geoffroy. He was very
young, it is true, but had already given evidence of a passion for
labor. The paramount object with Daubenton, however, was to have
an assurance that the influence of Buffon would be maintained, and
the impulse he had given be carried out. ‘‘I take upon myself,’’ he
said, on seeing that Geoffroy hesitated, ‘‘the responsibility of yoyr
inexperience, and I have in your case some title to the authority of
a father. Enter confidently upon the office of instruction in zoology,
and may it one day be said that you have made of it a French science.’’

Thus we see Geoffroy a professor at the age of barely twenty-one.
He has ingenuously described the embarrassment which he at first
experienced: ‘‘ Obliged to create everything, I acquired,’’ he said,
‘‘the elements of natural history, in arranging and classifying the collec-
tions confided tomy care.’’? He opened, May 6, 1794, the first course
of zoology which had existed in France. A fervid activity redoubled
his success. The collections rapidly increased; but the menagerie
imagined by Saint Pierre not being soon enough realized he impro-
vised one. Word was brought him one morning that a leopard, a
white bear, several mandrills, a panther, &c., were waiting his ac-
ceptance at the gate. The police had just prohibited the public ex-
hibition of these animals. But the museum had as yet neither funds
nor receptacle for a menagerie. What matter? Geoffroy accepts all,
and establishes as he best could his coveted but terrible guests under
his windows. He hastens to communicate his good fortune to his
colleagues, and they, a little surprised and, it may ke, alarmed, quickly
provided the means of securely confining these formidable acquisi-
sitions.

About the time we speak of, the venerable M. Tessier, who had
sought refuge in Normandy from the violence of the revolution, an-
nounced to his friends from the place of his retreat that he had just
made the best of his discoveries, and called upon them to open the
career of the sciences to another Delambre. His letter was accompa-
nied by some memoirs drawn up by his protegé. These were referred
to Geoffroy, who, struck with enthusiasm at their perusal, and yield-
ing to a generous inspiration, wrote immediately to their author:
‘Come and fulfil among us the part of a Linnaus—of another law-
giver of natural history.’’ It would be impossible to characterize Cu-
vier more happily.

On the arrival of the new Linneus, Geoffroy devoted himself with-
out reserve to his interests. To admire, to praise, aud to enjoy the
success of others, was one of the felicities of his life. Having a
lodge at the museum, he shared it with Cuvier, and threw open to
him all the collections. A mutual devotion to study naturally united
their labors, among the first results of which, two may be here no-

MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE. 165

ticed. Of one, the object was the classification of mammifers—and
here the skilfully-sustained idea of the subordination of characters,
which was the great resource of Cuvier, predominates. The other
was the history of the makis, or apes of Madagascar; and in this we
already discern traces of the wnity of composition,* to which Geoffroy
has subjected all comparative anatomy. It was easy to foresee that
two intellects, whose philosophic processes were so different, would
not be long in finding separate paths. Meanwhile their confiding
friendship rendered them perfectly happy. In a science till then so
little cultivated each result at which they arrived was new to all the
world. How often have we heard both in after years recall with
complacency that early and enchanted time when, in the words of
one of them, (Cuvier,) ‘‘they never breakfasted without having first
made a discovery.’’ The truth is, so little was then known of the
structure of animals that it was almost impossible to make the dis-
section of one without perceiving some new organic details.

It was in vain that the jealous friends of Geoffroy expostulated
that he was laying himself too open, and preparing for himself a de-
signing rival, perhaps a master. The effect which these represen-
tations produced on him has been recorded by Cuvier, in terms which
will enure to the lasting honor of Geoffroy. ‘‘They endeavored,’
he says, ‘‘to make him believe that he ought not to befriend me,
that by and by I should have the sole credit of our labors; but this
excellent young man declared to me, with entire earnestness of heart,
that such advice made him unhappy, and that nothing would ever
have the power to change his conduct towards me.”’

The labors of Geoffroy were conducting him at a rapid pace towards
the Institute, when, at the commencement of 1798, Berthollet came
to say to him: ‘‘Come with Monge and me; we will be companions;
Bonaparte is to be our general.’? Whither were they going? It was
what no one knew. In this very mystery there was one attraction
the more for Geoffroy. He embarked, and his lucky star conducted
him to Egypt.

From the moment of his arrival Geoffroy was seized with the de-
sire of exploring everything. He rummages the soil, the tombs, the
ruins. He frequents the catacombs, those gloomy and antique mu-
seums, where the Egyptians of old collected the remains of creatures
which were their cotemporaries, and laid them up, as it were, a deposit
for the study of after times.

Geolfroy brought us from Egypt specimens of the crocodile and the
ibis, entire and perfectly preserved, skeletons of the ichneumon, the
ox, &c. These animals, which lived two or three thousand years ago,
compared with those of to-day are found in no respect to differ from
them. Thus we owe to him the strongest proof that could be given

= ««Tt seems that nature has shut herself up within certain limits, and has formed all
living beings on one sole plan, essentially the same in principle, but varied in a thousand
ways in all the accessory parts. Thus, in each class of animals, the forms, however varied,
all result at bottom from organs common to all; nature has forbidden herself the employ-
ment of new ones.’’—Dissertation sur les Makis.— Magasin Encyclopédique, t. vii, p. 20, 1796.

166 MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE.

of the fixedness of species, an important fact, which he was destined
afterwards to dispute.

A special interest attaches to the human mummies which he col-
lected. Volney had just revived the idea that the people of ancient
Egypt belonged to the negro race, and considered the question de-
termined by one or two phrases of certain historians, who say, in effect,
that the skin of the Egyptians was black. Volney is mistaken. The
color of the skin is here not the decisive feature; it is the form of the
skull, and the skull of the mummies leaves not a doubt. Whatever
may ‘have been their tint, the celebrated people, among whom all
tradition places the first cradle of the sciences, pertained to the same
race of men with ourselves.

Voltaire has styled Herodotus, ‘The father of history, who has
bequeathed us so many fables.’’? Geoffroy seems to have taken upon
himself the task of justifying, as far as the naturalist is concerned,
whatever is most marvellous in the honest statements of the first of ob-
servers. Herodotus tells us, for instance, that the crocodile is, of all
animals, that which is proportionably the smallest at first and largest
at full size; the only one whose upper jaw is moveable upon the
lower; the only one which has no tongue, &c.; and all this may be
said to be true, if due allowance be made for the inaccurate language
of a writer who is no man of science and makes no pretensions to be»
so. The crocodile, which attains as much as seventeen cubits in
length, springs from an egg scarcely seventeen lines long. Its upper
jaw does not move on the skull, but this jaw and the skull, being
united, move on the lower one. It has a tongue, but so short that it
can make no use of it. The historian goes on to say that when the
crocodile lays its head on the bank of the Nile to inhale air. a small
bird enters with confidence into the redoubtable orifice of its throat and
shelters there in safety, while the crocodile does it no hurt nor makes
even a single movement for fear of alarming its little guest. This
Geoffroy had witnessed: a minute bird (the petit pluvier of Buffon)
does, in fact, enter the throat of the crocodile, and exercises with en-
tire impunity the functions of relieving the animal of the insects
which attach themselves to its palate and which the shortness of its
tongue disables it from removing by any effort of its own.

From the time of his arrival in Egypt Geoffroy had apphed himself
to an attentive study of the fishes of the Nile. Among those which he
most wished to examine was the Silurus electricus, which the Arabs,
in their language, not unaptly call the thunderbolt. Though he had
often inquired for this fish, he was able to obtain a specimen only a
few days before the capitulation of Alexandria, and it was amidst the
perils of the siege, whilst bullets were whistling around his ears, that
he might have been seen, like another Archimedes, absorbed in the
meditation of problems of equal interest. His research was di-
rected to that secret bond which connects electricity with the prin-
ciple of life. But Geoffroy, whatever his passion for knowledge,
found, as others have done, that the impenetrable mystery of life is,
like the Isis of Egypt, covered with a veil which no mortal can raise.
It was in the midst of these preoccupations that he learned that, by

MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE. 167

an article of this unfortunate capitulation, the French savans were
to be despoiled of the fruits of the researches from which they pro-
mised themselves so much honor. Fired with indignation, he pro-
posed to his colleagues to employ the time which remained before
the execution of the treaty in burning their collections. This sacri-
fice had been determined on, when the English agent, struck with
respect, paused before so energetic a resolution and the article was
erased.

After four years absence Geoffroy returned from Egypt, ‘‘loaded,’’
as Fontenelle said of Tournefort returning from Greece, ‘‘ with the
spoils of the East.’’ As if inspired with new ardor for study, we
find his re-entrance into the museum marked by even multiplied
labors in the two sciences which have occupied his life, zoology
and comparative anatomy. In the former, it is the equally accurate
and intuitive perception of the analogy of natural beings, what he
himself called the cnstinct of affinities, which peculiarly distinguishes
him. It was this instinct which guided him to a higher law of me-
thod, by virtue of which, in conjunction with the principle of the
subordination of organs, he established that of changeable subordina-
tions; the same characteristic which predominates in one group being
possibly but a subordinate characteristic in another. Thus the teeth,
a dominant characteristic in the group of carnivorous animals, form
but a subordinate one in the group of bats, marsupials, &c., and, if
followed out, would break up all the relations which. constitute the
family in the latter group. Viewing method thus under a new aspect,
Geoffroy finds in general classification no other merit than the nega-
tive one of leaving the natural and direct relationship of species un-
broken. Thus regarded, method is no longer a series of divisions and
interruptions, but a chain of relations which mutually call for and
adapt themselves to one another. In the time.of Linnzus, it was the
wide intervals, the marked differences which engaged the attention
of naturalists, because the number of known species was then incon-
siderable. In proportion as that number increased, (and it increases
continually,) marked differences become effaced, the intermediate
shades melt into one another and the wide intervals are filled up.
The unity of the animal kingdom stands revealed, and we compre-
hend the profound expression of Buffon, that ‘‘shadings (les nuances)
are the great work of nature.’’

If, in zoology, the predominant idea of Geoffroy was the unity of:
the animal kingdom, in comparative anatomy it was his constant aim
to prove that unity by the unity of composition. Thus all his re-
searches in this line tended to the discovery of analogies. Beginning
with the comparative study of the members, he passed from thence
to that of the skull. The skull of the crocodile and of fishes is com-
posed of twenty-five or twenty-six bones, while that of birds and
adult quadrupeds has but eight or ten. It was necessary to reconcile
this apparent diversity with the theory of unity, and one of those
happy inspirations which fall only to the lot-of genius led Geoffroy
to examine the skull of the foetus in birds and quadrupeds. Here all
the primitive bones, which at a later period will unite to form a com-

168 MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE.

plex structure, are still separate, and the problem is resolved: the
number of bones is found to be everywhere the same.

These ingenious investigations, which laid the foundation of en-
tirely new views in science, date from the year 1807. It was in
that year that Geoffroy, a place having become vacant in the academy,
offered himself as a candidate. On this occasion having submitted
some of his memoirs to the celebrated geometer Lagrange, he was
asked by the latter what he thought of his competitor? ‘‘ We know
that he is an accomplished entomologist; but is he a Reaumur or
Fabricius?’’ ‘‘A Fabricius,’’ replied Geoffroy. ‘‘ Yet for my part,
young man,’’ rejoined Lagrange, ‘‘I prefer a few such pages as you
have recently read before the academy to whole volumes after the
manner of Fabricius.’’ Cuvier, in congratulating him on his nomi-
nation, which took place 14th September of the above year, remarked
to him, ‘‘I am the more gratified because I had reproached myself
with occupying a place which rightfully belonged to you.’ This
Geoffroy often pleased himself with recalling, ingenuously adding,
that the expressions of Cuvier surprised him, as the idea had never
occurred to him that his own nomination could possibly precede that
of his distinguished friend.

In 1810 Geoffroy proceeded to Portugal to execute a commission
of the emperor, who, wishing that all the remarkable objects in for-
eign museums should be represented in those of France, sent him to
visit that of Lisbon, which abounded especially in rare ‘and valuable
specimens from Brazil. Before setting out, he provided himself with
all that could be spared from our own galleries, and though invested
with full powers as a commissioner, in a country occupied by our
troops, he took nothing except on the terms of an exchange. This
generous proceeding smoothed all difficulties, and he had the satisfac-
tion, not only of returning with ample collections, but of having
gained for his own country a new title to the respect of foreign
nations.

In his whole scientific career, a career at once so laborious and
enthusiastic, Geoffroy may be said to have realized the idea of a cele-
brated writer, ‘‘that he who sees one truth thoroughly, sees always
an infinity of others, and that he who should see all truths would at
last see but one.’’ To date from the memoir which opened to him
the doors of the academy, his whole thoughts, meditations, and re-
searches were bent on one object: the study of the unity of composition
in animals. This led him to style himself in the words of Saint Au-
gustine: homo unius libri, the man of a single book. It was in 1818,
that he ventured finally to assign this unity of composition as the first
and supreme law of the whole animal kingdom, and that he gave to
the world the work since become so well known under the title of the
theory of analogues or anatomical philosophy.*

* The exact title of this work is: Philosophie Anatomique:—Des organes respiratoires sous le
rapport de la determination et de U' identité de leur pieces osseuses. It consists of four memoirs, pre-
ceded by a preliminary discourse on the author’s theory. ‘‘The views,’’ he says, ‘‘ to
which we are conducted by the presentiment that we shall always find in each family the
organic parts which we have observed in another, are what I have embraced in this work
under the denomination of the Theory of Analogues.”’

MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE. 169

Buffon had already remarked that there exists a constant conformity,
a sustained design, a hidden resemblance, more wonderful than the
apparent diversities: ‘‘It would seem,’’ he eloquently said, ‘‘ that the
Supreme Being had chosen to employ but one idea, and at the same
time to vary it in all possible ways, to the end that man might equally
admire the magnificence of the execution and the simplicity of the
design.’’ This unity of plan or idea was seen, after Buffon, by Vicq-
d’ Azyr and by Camper: ‘‘Nature,’’ says the former, ‘‘seems always
to work after a primitive and general pattern, from which she never
departs without regret, and hence the two characters which appear to
be impressed on all beings, that of constancy in the type and variety
in the modifications.’’ Geoffroy, in turn, became impressed with
these views, but in a manner so original and profound as to entitle
him to be considered the author of anew science of philosophical
anatomy, unknown to all who had preceded him.

The great and proper merit of Geoffroy is to have sought the
means of study and comparison in the primitive and constitutive ele-
ments of the organs. Before him, it was the adult state which had
been studied, where we find only the composite result: in the fetal
state, to which he directed his researches, the primitive nucleus, the
simple fact, stands revealed, destined in all cases to be the subject of
the same fixed and determinate laws of development, complication,
and relative position.* This unity of lawis the last and highest proof
of the unity of design or idea, and thus the profoundest science passes
naturally into the most elevated philosophy. When Newton, at the
close of his immortal labors, recognized the fact that each globe or
world is subjected, not to its own proper or distinctive law, but all to
one sole and common law, he recorded the expressions so worthy the
admiration of every reflective mind: ‘‘It is certain that, as all bears
the impress of one sole design, all must be subject to one only and the
same Being.’’

It was impossible that Geoffroy should have made the general idea
of the unity of composition in animals the subject of such exhaustive
meditation without having had his attention directed to those par-
ticular cases of anomalous or incomplete development which in ages

=I. Law of development. For every organ there is a maximum and a minimum of devel-
opment; and no organ passes abruptly from one of these conditions to the other. A fortiori,
no organ disappears abruptly. The celacea, which have no hinder members, have still a
small bone, the last vestige of these members, hidden under the skin; the carnivora, which
have no clavicle, have a small bone, its last vestige, suspended in the flesh, &c.

Il. Law of complication, or, more ’ precisely, of compensation. When a part is developed
beyond proportion, it is usually seen that some other part is diminished or even effaced.
Among reptiles, the frog, which has members, has not ribs; serpents which have many ribs,
have no members, &c.

I. Law of relative position, or principle of connexions. All parts always preserve, in relation
to one another, the same place: the skull in relation to the vertebre, the vertebra in
relation to the members, all parts of the members, each the same place in its relation to
other parts, &c.

The principle of connexions is the chief, and,-if I may say so, the operative principle of
M. Geoffroy’s theory: it is this which enables him to recognize, which unmasks to him
each part through all the mutations of form, of volume, of use, &c. These may, and, in
effect, do all change; but one thing, the position, is invariable. ‘‘ An organ,’’ says Geoffroy,
‘* is altered, atrophied, annihilated, sooner than transposed.”’

170 MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE.

of total ignorance passed under the name of monstrosities. In the last
century the question regarding monsters had been the subject of a
long debate. between two members of the academy, Winslow and
Lemery, of whom the first may be said to have completed in the 18th
century the anatomy of the human body, commenced by Vesalius in
the 16th; the second was the son of that Nicholas Lemery whom
Mairan styled the Descartes of chemistry. Lemery was himself a
Cartesian, Winslow altogether a Leibnitzian: the former held that
there were no monsters except from accidental and mechanical causes;
the latter simply supposed the pre-existence of monsters, as Leibnitz
had supposed the pre-existence of beings. The dispute lasted for
ten years, until the death of Lemery in 1743; and, as was remarked
by Fontenelle, ‘‘it was not possible, as things went on, that it could
be terminated otherwise than by the death of one of the disputants,
for at every new explanation offered by Lemery, Winslow launched at
him a new monster.’’? It was reserved for Geoffroy to carry the
theory of accidental causes to a point of such clear and incontestable
evidence that it is no longer feasible to seek for any other. And this,
by virtue of two principles which suffice to explain everything, the
principle of arrest of development and that of attraction of similar parts,*
principles educed as well from his own ideas as from the concurrent
labors of the eminent anatomist, Serres, who was the friend of his
whole life. The result of the long and persistent inquiries of Geoffroy
on this subject may be summed up in the expression: there are no
monsters; there are merely accidental and secondary anomalies.

In the first volume of his Philosophie Anatomique, wherein he laid
the foundations of his system, the principle of wnity of composition is
applied, in a direct manner at least, only to vertebrate animals; and,
confined within these limits, this important principle could not be

* By means of the first of these principles Geoffroy explains all monsters by defect; by
the second all double monsters. The parts which are wanting, or of which there is only
a rudiment or vestige, are abortive, that is, parts arrested in their development. When
two foetuses or germs unite, so as to produce the double monstrosity, they always unite by
similar parts, by similar tissues or organs; the heart of one foetus uniting with the heart of
another, the brain with the brain, the half of the pelvis of one with the half of that of the
other, &c. This attraction of similar parts received from Geoffroy the more abstract name
of attraction of self for self, (soi pour soi,) and was regarded by him as a general law of
nature, though we here consider it only as a physiological principle. Lemery had already
said : ‘‘A reflection is forced upon us by a fact often repeated in the subjects before us, the
fact that all destructions and regenerations of parts which have there taken place have only
done so through the reciprocal action of two similar parts. The stomach, for instance,
having effected with another stomach what it could not do with a liver, is there not room
to conjecture that homogeneity of substance permits in the first case what heterogeneity
prevents in the second ?’’—(ijiem de l’ Academie des Sciences, p. 351, 354, an. 1740. )

In 1822 Geoffroy collected his early memoirs on the subject in a volume entitled Philoso-
phie Anatomique: Des Monstrussities Humaines, and in 1827 published in the Dictionnaire Classique
@' Histoire Naturelle an article, Considerations Generales sur les Monstres, which contains the most
precise and elaborate digest of his theories. His son, Isidore Geoffroy, connecting his own
studies with those of his father, published in 1832 the most important and complete work
on this subject which there is room to desire, entitled Traité de Teratologie, or a general and
special history of the anomalies of organization.—(See also Recherches d’ Anatomie Transcen-
dante, &c., par M. Serres—Theory of Growth and Deformity applied to explain the Organi-
zation of Ritta-Christina ; Paris, 1833. Tr.)

MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE. 171

contested. In 1820 he proposed to extend it to articulate animals, *
and opposition at once declared itself. Cuvier let fall some expres-
sions of impatience and disapprobation. In 1830 he proceeded to
include the mollusks within the same principle, and the veil was rent
which had thus far covered the dissatisfaction of Cuvier. The first
claim of Cuvier to renown had consisted in a reformation of the entire
classification of the animal kingdom. He excelled in disentangling,
in description, in characterizing with precision both things and ideas.
Almost all the animals without vertebra had been confounded to-
gether. It was he who separated the zoophytes from the mollusks,
the mollusks from the articulata, and these three groups established,
he had made a fourth group of all the vertebrate animals united in
one bond. He had thus four schemes or types essentially distinct,
and the classification of the animal kingdom, regarded in its great
masses, might be considered as fixed. But now this symmetrical
arrangement, the fruit of so faultless an application of method, seemed
every day more and more menaced by the progress of the ideas of
Geoffroy, who, for his part, would see but one scheme and a single
type.

The discussion was introduced into the Academy of Sciences, and
never did a keener controversy take place between two adversaries
more resolute and unyielding, better fortified with resources for a
combat long foreseen, and, if the expression may be used, more
learnedly prepared not to agree with one another. Between the two,
moreover, there was a characteristic difference: in one there was vast
capacity, guided by a cold and luminous reason; in the other glowing
enthusiasm, heightened by flashes of genius. Outside of the academy
and even of France the disturbance was propagated to all countries
where men thought upon such subjects. We might have imagined
ourselves transported to those ancient times when the sects of philos-
ophy agitated states by the shock of their opinions. The world, in
effect, took sides. The more austere and regular thinkers, those who
were disposed to regard the rigorous logic of science with more favor
than its rapid intuitions, took part with Cuvier; the hardier spirits
ranged themselves on the side of Geoffroy. From the bosom of Ger-
many the now aged Goethe sent him an applauding suffrage. Indeed,
so warmly was the interest of the question felt by Goethe that, meet-
ing a friend in July, 1830, he exclaimed, ‘‘ You have heard the news
from Paris; what think you of this great event? The volcano has
burst forth, and all is in flames.’’ ‘‘ It is, indeed, a fearful account,”
replied the other, ‘‘and from the point which things have reached,
we may well expect the expulsion of the royal family.’’ ‘‘ What! talk
you of royal families?’ rejoined Goethe. ‘‘I am speaking ef the
session of the Academy of Sciences; it is there that the fact of real

= See his Memoirs sur un squelelte chez les Insectes, (read before the Academy January 3, 1820;
Sur quelques Régles Fondamentales de Philosophie Naturelle, January 17, 1820; Sur une Colonne
Vertebrale, &c., dans les Crustacies, February 21, 1820.

172 MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE.

importance has transpired, and the result is a revolution in the human
intellect.’’*

And in effect, though the direct discussion on this occasion might
seem to turn upon the number or relative position of certain organs,
the conflict was essentially that of two philosophies which will for-
ever dispute the ascendency: the philosophy of specific facts and
that of general ideas. In these imposing problems it will always
constitute a strong attraction to the human mind that it seems ever
on the point of arriving at a term which forever flies before it. The
strife between the two systems or methods did not commence with
Aristotle and Plato, nor will it terminate with Cuvier and Geoffroy.
Even considered by itself, the question of the resemblance or the
difference of creatures is one without limits. The more animals are
studied the more are we struck with their diversities, but at the same
time the more do we discover of their resemblances. This truth,
which did not escape the penetration of Aristotle, led him to apply
to animals the name of analogues, or beings similar but diversified.
The discussion before the academy produced the usual effect ; the
two adversaries withdrew, each somewhat more confirmed in his own
views. Geoffroy gave to the public a general view of his opinions
under the title of Principes philosophiques de UV unité de composition ;
and Cuvier announced that he should publish a summary of his under
the title De la varieté de composition dans les animaua.

These two personages, by the brilliancy and force of their ideas,
by the very opposition of their doctrines, mark a new and memorable
epoch in science. When Cuvier, in the last year of the last century,
published his Legons d’ anatomie comparée, the admiration excited was
without bounds. The grandeur of the results, the comprehensiveness
of principles, equally certain and unexpected, struck every one with
astonishment. The same hand which had reared the science of com-
parative anatomy founded one still more surprising, the science of
lost existences. At the voice of genius the earth seemed once more
repeopled with its primitive inhabitants.

To these general and transcendent views succeeded the study of

* Apart from its scientific import, Goethe had both personal and national grounds for
the extraordinary interest in the subject which drew from him the manifestation here men-
tioned. Ina paper which he published in reference to the discussion in the French Aca-
demy, (Sammtliche Werke; Philadelphia, 1856: Band 6, seite 471,) he takes occasion to
relate that the appearance of the first volume of Buffon’s Historre NaTuRELLE occurred in
the same year with his own birth, 1749; and the successive volumes becoming the objects
of his earliest interest, awakened in him a love for the study of natural objects, which soon
led him into the field of controversy as well as of observation. On the other hand, while
his fellow-countrymen, Camper, Kielmeyer, Meckel, Oken, Spix, Tiedemann, &c., are cited
with respect by Geoffroy, and recognized as allies in the attempt to establish the unity of
the animal kingdom, Cuvier, as Goethe complains, had publicly asserted that ‘‘behind this
theory of analogies there lurked, though in a confused manner, another old and exploded
theory which certain Germans were trying to revive in orde: to favor the pantheistical system
which they called natural philosophy.’’ This charge Goethe of course repels, alleging that
‘‘the two processes of reasoning (Denkweise) from the universal to the particular, and from
the particular to the universal, are equally indispensable; and that, notwithstanding their
habitual antagonism, the more vivaciously these menta! functions, like in and out breath-
ing, are carried on together, the better will be the result for science and its friends.’’—
hs '

MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE. 173

details. Facts were no more than facts, and the harvest of grand
ideas appeared to have been gathered. It was at this point that a
new genius arose, bold, original, and penetrating. The whole sci-
ence becomes at once reanimated ; the fact is vivified by the idea;
coujecture unites itself with the most exact observation. The new
adventurer overleaps the recognized boundaries, and, beyond those
boundaries, establishes a new science, to which he communicates
something essentially and pointedly his own: his daring, his love of
abstract and hazardous combinations, his sudden and unforeseen intui-
tions. The renown of Geoffroy will consist in his having laid the
foundation of the profound science of the intimate nature of beings,
plulosophic anatomy.

To his principal ideas on the laws of animal organization, Geoffroy,
towards the latter years of his life, added some others which are but
accessory in relation to the former. These were his views on the
mutability of species, on the filiation of existing species with lost ones,
and that other jfiliation of zras and species which would make of all
beings only successive stages of one and the same being. These
views, in which, it must be confessed, the real does not ‘sufficiently
disengage itself from the ideal, are not peculiar to Geoffroy. They
form no part of that noble assemblage of new and fundamental laws
which constitute his proper doctrine and to which his name will
always be attached.

From the first institution of the faculty of sciences, Geoffroy had
been called to one of its chairs of anatomy and general zoology. Here
it was that he indulged himself in the development of his philosophic
ideas. In the chair which he filled at the museum for nearly half a
century, his principal object was the study of the relations of beings,
a study which he carried so far that it is to be regretted he has left
nothing written upon it.

What gave most force to the lessons of Geoffroy was his enthusi-
astic admiration for the sciences. He would not admit that bounds
could be prescribed to their progress, but expected and required of
them the ever-renewed emotions which constituted the excitement
and charm of his life. In familiar intercourse the inspirations of a
rich and rapid imagination imparted to his conversation not only
fertility of ideas but a certain elasticity of thought, whose manifes:
tations were often as striking as unexpected. He was too much
indebted, indeed, to his imagination not to give it the rein ; at times
perhaps too freely ; for to this source might be imputed the few
moments of estrangement which shadowed the course of his friend-
ships. Yet, even at such moments, it was but necessary to address
one’s self to his heart to find all those traits of youth restored which
governed, as we have seen, his earlier intercourse with Cuvier.
‘‘The excellent young man,’’ as Cuvier then characterized him,
survived to the last ; always under the dominion of some generous
impulse, always ready to spend himself, and, what is still more rare,
to efface himself, in the service of another; always confiding and
open with his friends, as in the first stages of life. Nor were the
acts of generosity and devotion with which his life was filled always
unattended with personal danger. We have seen him risking his

174 MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE.

safety at St. Firmin to effect the deliverance of his former teachers,
and in 1793 he sheltered under his roof the unfortunate Roucher,
author of the poem of ‘‘The Months.’’ Again, in 1830, the same
roof became the asylum of de Quelen, archbishop of Paris, a fugitive
at the time from popular menace and pursuit. Toa friend who pointed
out to him the danger which he incurred by this new act of generosity,
he replied, ‘‘Bear with me this one time more; you know I am an
old offender in this way.’’

He allowed himself no relaxation from his labors, except in the
tender intercourse of his family. To this no one could surrender
himself with more perfect abandonment and relish. He had the
satisfaction of early recognizing in his son a noble intelligence, to
which he might securely confide the care of his fame and the main-
tenance of his doctrines. ‘‘Judge,’’ said he, one day to a friend,
‘‘whether I ought not to be happy. Behold here the most cherished
treasures of my son ;’’ and so saying he opened a closet in which the
young boy had religiously collected every thing which had been
written concerning his father’s labors.

Voltaire, in a celebrated verse, had boldly proclaimed of himself—

‘¢ Yes, I love glory, and I dare avow it.’’

. With an equal love of celebrity Geoffroy was as little disposed to
dissemble it. Perhaps no one ever aspired to renown more frankly
and openly, and it has been given to few solely devoted to the sci-
ences to obtain a greater share of it. His views, his principles, even
his language, have penetrated everywhere, and left everywhere the
impress of his influence. All the celebrated academies numbered
him among their members. Learned strangers made the pilgrimage
of Paris with the sole purpose of seeing him. Our own provinces
and the neighboring nations, especially Germany, that home of
Goethe, that country of the Okens, the Caruses, and the Spixes, sent
every year a throng of young neophytes who desired to hear and to
know this chief of a great school.

In a retired corner of the museum is a little hermitage where
Daubenton, a half century before, had installed Geoffroy. It was in
this domicile, endeared to him by so many recollections, that the latter,
when advanced in years, saw himself surrounded by disciples who
ascribed to him the same infallibility which he himself accorded to
the sciences, and in this regard his belief well entitled him to be the
head of a school of believers. Towards the close of his life he was
affected with total blindness, but this was attended with many alle-
viations. His latter days were soothed by the caresses of two young
children, for whom he fondly anticipated a career like his own, and
the pious cares of a daughter, in whom his own qualities were mir-
rored, surrounded him with tender assiduities. The noble companion
of his life survived to press his faltering hands, the mother of a son
who was the solace and glory of his old age.

- Geoffroy expired tranquilly June 19, 1844. This bold investigator
of nature, who had cast upon her mysteries so penetrating a glance,
in receiving the last farewell of a beloved child, said to her with
calmness : ‘‘ Be assured, my daughter, we shall meet again !’’

THE SUN: ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS,

ACCORDING TO

THE RECENT DISCOVERIES OF M.M. KIRCHOFF AND BUNSEN.

BY AUGUSTE LAUGEL.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FROM THE ‘‘ REVUE DES DEUX MONDES,’’ PARIS,
JANUARY 15, 1862.

Science has just succeeded in transcending one of those intervals
which scarcely the most daring cosmogony or unbridled fancy had
ventured to traverse. Astronomy had weighed and measured the
sun; chemistry, aided by physics, to-day makes an analysis of it. It
says to us, ‘‘The solar atmosphere comprises, in the state of vapor, a
great number of the substances which compose our planet, iron, the
metals which enter into the composition of our alkalies and earth,
potassium, sodium, strontium, calcium, barium; it contains chrome,
nickel, copper, and zinc; on the other hand, neither gold, nor silver,
nor mercury, nor aluminum, nor tin, nor lead, nor antimony, nor
arsenic, nor silicium, at least in notable quantities, are to be found
init. Among the metals at once telluric and solar are to be included
cesium and rubidium, metals yesterday unknown, which had escaped
all the processes of ordinary chemical analysis.’’ These affirmations
of science are so surprising that we might be tempted at first to con-
sign them, without examination, to the reveries of a Swift, a moralist
turned chemist, or the imaginings of some new Micromegas; but the
labors of M.M. Kirchoff and Bunsen present not the slightest trace
of extravagance. We have here no romance, more or less ingenious,
where the plurality of habitable worlds is discussed, where hypotheses
are unceremoniously mingled with facts, cosmic mysteries with the
realities of the sublunary world. The discoveries of the two German
savans are founded on the most rigorous observations, and deserve
to be classed among the most admirable acquisitions of the positive
sciences. Their method, at the same time that it has to some extent
given the means of exploring the sun from a distance, has furnished
to chemical analysis a process of investigation of an unheard of,
almost miraculous, delicacy. We may boldly affirm that by this
method: mineralogy may be revived and renovated, that chemistry
will enlarge its domain and be able to master problems heretofore
irresolvable. Meanwhile the capital result of these admirable re-
searches—the one which most interests the philosophy of nature—i

i
already attained: the identity of the materials which compose the
sun and the earth has been demonstrated. The chemical unity of our
planetary system has been placed beyond dispute.

This is not a discovery to which we can be indifferent. Man had long

176 THE SUN—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.

regarded as the centre of the cosmos the little eccentric ball which
carries him; he thought that between himself and mineral or organic
nature there was no bond or relationship. We know now that ma-
terially we differ in nothing from all that surrounds us; we are living
laboratories through which circulate all terrestrial substances. At
this moment it is demonstrated that these terrestrial substances oc-
cupy our whole planetary system. We were already united with the
animal, the plant, the water, the dust, with the infinitely little; we
are now united with the sun, with the infinitely great.

The alchemists had instinctively suspected the unity of chemical
composition of the planetary system; «at least, they had established,
in virtue of certain mystic ideas, relations between the different
metals and the bodies which revolve around the sun; they never for-
got the stars in studying the great problem of the transmutation of
metals. We must needs be indulgent towards these aberrations of
the human intellect, for truth itself has at times such an aspect of
strangeness and magic as to affect the mind with doubt and bewilder-
ment. The imagination must be poor, indeed, to look with indiffer-
ence on the experiments of M.M. Kirchoff and Bunsen. The ma-
terial of the sun analyzed in the light which it transmits to us! The
most subtle and most inaccessible ‘of things subjected to the most
precise appreciation! Is there not here something to call forth as-
tonishment and admiration? Into his darkened chamber the physicist
admits a solar ray; there, tranquilly and at his ease, he compares his
artificial lights with that light which inundates the universe, which
pours life and heat to distances which thought cannot measure, and
from this comparison he succeeds in deducing a complete theory of
the physical and chemical constitution of the sun, of the grand
phenomena of which that star is the theatre, of the spots which
astronomers descry in it.

The recent labors of M.M. Kirchoff and Bunsen are based on an
analysis of the solar light. To analyze is to decompose; but we can
only decompose that which is not simple. The solar light in effect is
not a simple light; a ray, however attenuate we suppose it, traversing
the eye of a needle, or some crevice incomparably more narrow, is
not homogeneous; it is composed of an infinity of differently colored
rays, which, united in a’pencil, constitute what we call white light.
We have but to cast our eyes around to comprehend that the hght of
the sun comprises all colors; the diversified world which surrounds us
is not a sketch, it is a picture. If the solar beam were simple, all
objects would appear to us with the simple contrasts of light and
shadow, as in photographs: the greatest charm of nature would be
destroyed. The color does not belong to the objects, for when the
sun has disappeared beneath the horizon all tints vanish in the same
darkness.

Is there not a means of decomposing this ray of light, which we
just now imagined as traversing an aperture, in such a way as to
separate the different rays that compose it? Nothing is easier; it
suffices to make it traverse a prism of glass by which the different
rays are unequally refracted. ‘This phenomenon of refraction, which

THE SUN—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 177

is produced wheneyer the luminous rays pass from one substance into
another, explains all that play of light which we witness in the water,
in the atmosphere, in all transparent mediums. We owe to Newton
the first scientific explanation of it.

Let us suppose ourselves in a chamber entirely darkened, into which
light enters only by an extremely narrow slit made ina shutter. Let
a glass prism be presented in the line which the entering sheet of
rays is traversing, and aleaf of paper be placed at a distance of some
feet beyond and opposite the prism. The different rays which com-
pose the white light are not refracted in the same degree in passing
from the air into the glass, nor again in quitting the glass to traverse
the air anew: consequently, in place of a luminous white line, we
shall see on the paper a rectangle covered with differently colored
bands. Newton distinguished therein seven principal colors: violet,
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red; in reality, the tints
pass into one another by san insensible and harmonious transition.
To this expansion of the luminous beam has been given the name of
solar spectrum, though with little justice, for nothing spectral can
attach itself in idea to that beautiful sheet of light, whose tones the
richest pallet would fail to reproduce. The colored bands of the
rainbow are merely a solar spectrum, pale and much weakened, pro-
duced by the refraction of the rays in the minute drops of rain; the
play of light which is so fine in soap bubbles better represents the
brilliancy of the spectrum in the darkened chamber.

So long as curiosity was limited to the simple effects produced by
the interposition of the prism and the reception of the refracted rays
on a sheet of paper or other white surface, there was nothing seen in
the spectrum but the seven elementary colors, without further dis-
coveries; but the spectrum, like every luminous object, may be studied
with magnifying optical instruments, and it was by exploring it in
this way that, about 1814, the German savant Frauenhofer remarked
some singular properties, whose discovery will immortalize his name.
The spectrum, as we have seen, is formed of an infinite number of
bands of different tints united together; the flag, as it were, of nature,
not tricolove, but omnicolore; and among these colored parallel zones
Frauenhofer was the first to perceive bands or rather lines of black,
not only towards the two extremities of the spectrum, where the light
is merged in the surrounding obscurity, but in the most brilliant parts
and in all the colors. He recognized these lines as having the same
invariable place in the spectrum, and since that time they have pre-
served the alphabetic name which he assigned them: we still say the
line A, B, or C, of Frauenhofer, and in thus speaking physicists know
at once in what part of the spectrum these rays are found.

With more delicate instruments and more perfect prisms, there
have been observed in the spectrum many more dark lines than Frau-
enhofer had indicated. In 1860, the English philosopher Sir David
Brewster, to whom optics owes so many happy discoveries, presented
a drawing of the spectrum crossed by a multitude of these lines, and
M. Kirchoff has employed, in the course of the observations just com-
pleted, so delicate an apparatus that, to use his own expression,

178 THE SUN—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.

several thousands of dark lines are distinguishable in the solar
spectrum. :

A phenomenon having been once recognized, it remains for reason
to interpret it. How are we to understand this fact, that the light
includes obscure spaces, and that when the white ray spreads out into
the iridescent band, there should be vacuities in the series of colored
rays? Each of these rays has a power of refraction proper to itself;
it is by virtue, indeed, of this difference of refraction that the white
light is decomposed in the prism; but how is it that rays of a certain
refrangibility are deficient, while those whose refrangibility differs
but by an infinitely small amount, more or less, manifest themselves ?
The light which we call white—would thus seem, if We might so
speak, not to be complete light? Has it not lost something in coming
from its focus to the eye, either in the sun itself, or in the terrestrial
atmosphere? It is certain that the light loses some of its rays in
traversing the erial envelope of our planet. Sir David Brewster
first brought this to notice; he showed that new black lines appear
in the solar spectrum when the sun approaches the horizon, because
the luminous rays pass through a greater space in the atmosphere
before reaching us. These dark lines, however, which are due to the
movement of the sun, are to be carefully distinguished from the in-
variable, normal lines which always show themselves, whatever may
be the altitude of the suninthe sky. If the first are to be explained
by atmospheric absorption, the second can only be owing to an ab-
sorption which takes place at the sun itself.

The explanation of the dark lines by an absorption of rays in the
solar atmosphere was proposed in 1847 by M. A. Mathiessen in a com-
munication made to the Academy of Sciences of Paris. MM. Brews-
ter and Gladstone both adopted it; the former suggesting at the
same time a means of verifying this hypothesis. According to the
English physicist, if the lines are due to the absorbing power of the
solar atmosphere, which would arrest certain luminous rays in pref-
erence to others, the spectrum ought to be more furrowed with the
dark lines in proportion as the rays which produce it issue from
points nearer the edge of the solar disc; admitting that the rays
from the edge traverse the solar atmosphere through a greater space
than those which emanate from the centre. M. Kirchoff points out,
with good reason, that this inference would be unavoidable if the
atmosphere of the sun were inconsiderable in comparison with the
diameter of that body; but everything leads to the belief that the
sun’s atmosphere has, on the contrary, an immense extent, and in
that case two rays, issuing one from the edge, the other from the
centre of the luminous disc, would traverse spaces nearly equal before
reaching our eye. We should not, therefore, expect to observe any
great difference between the spectrum obtained by means of one or
the other of these rays. The idea thus thrown out by M. Brewster
has never been experimentally verified.

The phenomenon of the lines remained therefore unexplained; nor
would the mysterious reasons, doubtless, have ever been penetrated,
had not physicists thought of tudying other spectrums than that of

THE SUN—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 179

the solar light. Any flame may serve for this purpose. The spec-
trum of all sorts of artificial flames have been examined, a8 well as
that of the electric spark, of the luminous arch produced by a current
between two points of charcoal, even that of the more brilliant of the
stars. Observers have it in their power to vary indefinitely the nature
of artificial flames; nothing is easier than to place different substances
in suspension in a flame, either directly by immersing them at the end of
a wire of platina, or mixing them beforehand with the liquid which
supports the combustion. The study of artificial flames has revealed
a phenomenon at least as extraordinary as that of the dark lines of
the spectrum. When certain substances are in a state of ignition in
the flame, the spectrum is traversed by colored bands of a greater
brightness which are vividly depicted on the general ground of the
usual colors. This circumstance had not escaped Frauenhofer, who
had seen with astonishment bright lines traced in the spectrum pro-
duced by the flame of a wax candle. Different physicists, Brewster,
Miller, Schwann, submitted to analysis flames obtained by burning al-
cohol which contained various salts in solution, and they were thus
enabled to observe the bright stripes of artificial spectrums with
great distinctness. Thus it was ascertained that every flame con-
taining sodium furnishes a spectrum in which a yellow line of an ex-
traordinary brightness is delineated. Schwann even observed that it
was sufficient to mix a very small quantity of sea salt, or chloride of
sodium, with the combustible liquid, in order that the spectrum should
disclose its presence by the appearance of the yellow line.

In this ‘discovery there was the germ of a new method of chemical
analysis. Each metal in effect has bright lines of special colors,
which correspond with it, and which retain an invariable position
in the spectrum. A chemist may learn to distinguish these lines as
readily as he recognizes the precipitates obtained in the laboratory by
the ordinary reagents; but with the advantage that the light fur-
nishes a reaction far more delicate and perfect than any with which
chemistry was before acquainted. Arago, who accomplished so much
in behalf of optics, predicted that chemistry would some day derive
-unexpected services from the progress of that science. A ray of
light proceeding froma flame discovers by its physical properties the in-
timate nature of the focus from which it emanates. I shall cite an
example, borrowed from M. Kirchoff, well calculated to excite sur-
prise: ‘The following experiment,’’ writes the learned physicist,
‘ proves that thus far chemistry has no reagents which can be placed
evel in remote comparison with that of the spectrum as regards its
sensibility. We have caused three milligrams of chlorate of soda to
detonate in a part of the hall as far removed as possible from the ap-
paratus, while we observed the spectrum of the flame of a gas-lamp
giving but slight illumination; the apartment in which the experi-
ment was made measures about sixty cubic metres. After some
minutes the flame, reflected in a tawny yellow hue, preseAted with
great intensity the characteristic line of sodium, and this line was not
completely effaced till after the lapse of ten minutes. From the capa-
city of the hall and the weight of the salt employed in the experi-

180 THE SUN—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.

ment, we easily deduce that the air of the apartment held in suspen-
sion but one twenty-millionth of its weight of sodium. Admitting
that a second suffices for conveniently observing the reaction, and
that during this time the flame uses fifty cubic centimetres or 0.0647
grams of air, containing only the twenty-millionth of a milligram of
salt of soda, we may calculate that the eye very distinctly perceives
the presence of less than the three-millionth of a milligram of salt of
soda. In view of such a sensibility as this, we recognize that it
must be seldom, indeed, that atmospheric air, at a high tempera-
ture, does not present the reaction of sodium. The surface of the
earth is more than two-thirds covered with a solution of chloride of
sodium, which, by the agitation of the waves, continually produces
spray; the minute drops of water thus diffused in the atmosphere
abandon in evaporating a highly attenuated dust of chloride of sodium,
which constitutes an atmospheric element, variable as regards the pro-
portion, but rarely, 1t would seem, deficient in the air.’’

Nothing is easier than to produce this apparition of the yellow line
of sodium in the spectrum obtained by the comparatively obscure
flame of an ordinary gas-lamp. While my eye was applied to the
glass with which I was observing the faint spectrum of such a lamp,
M. Grandeau, the chemist, who kindly repeated for me at the labora-
tory of the normal school the experiments of MM. Bunsen and Kir-
choff, struck several times with his hand on the sleeve of his coat, and
I saw the yellow line of the sodium display itself in a momentary
flash on the dim field of the eye-glass. The stroke of a hand on a
garment had sufficed to throw into the illuminating gas some of the
molecules of sodium mixed with the dust, and these scanty molecules
had instantly exerted their almost magic influence on the properties
of the light. M. Grandeau, at the time when he initiated me in the
experiments of the two German savants who had themselves given,
at Heidelberg, an account of their extraordinary researches, was en-
gaged in analyzing the mineral, water of Bourbonne-les-Bains, and
had just detected therein the two new metals which MM. Bunsen
and Kirchoff had discovered in the water of Durckheim. He took
some drops of the water of Bourbonne, introduced them into the
flame, where they were at once converted into vapor, and I had quite
enough time to distinguish on the field of the spectrum the lines which
characterize the new metals, rubidiwm and cesium, the red line of the
first and the blue of the second.

it was, in fact, solely through the inspection of different spectrums,
which they obtained by introducing divers substances into a flame, that
MM. Bunsen and Kirchoff were led to the discovery of these two new
simple bodies. Familiar with the bright lines characteristic of all the
known metals, they were warranted in attributing to new metals the
bright lines which corresponded neither with iron, nor sodium, nor
lithium, nor potassium, &c. Guided by this induction, they were en-
abled to Seek directly for these metals in substances which called forth
in the spectrum the appearance of the new lines. Hence it was that
they extracted cesium from the mineral water of Diirckheim, and
rubidium from a mineral of Roxena, in Moravia, called by mineralo-

THE suN-—1ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 181

gists lepidolite. These two metals are highly alkaline, and take their
place in the chemical series by the side of potassium and sodium, of
which they partake the principal properties.

The optical analysis, by reason of its extreme delicacy, furnishes the
means of recognizing the slighest traces of the metals which possess
the property of communicating a vivid coloring to certain zones of the
spectrum. To give astriking instance: when the ashes of a cigar, a
little moistened with chlorhydric acid, are introduced into the flame
which furnishes the spectrum, we see appear the yellow line of so-
dium, the pale red line of potassium, the intensely red line of lithium,
avery deep orange line and a green one, both corresponding with
calcium; thus in an instant we have verified the presence of five
metals. By the same means we discover in mineral waters, especially
when the experiment is made with mother-waters, (eaux-meres,) the
least traces of the numerous metals which communicate to them
these peculiar medicinal properties. The metals are not in gen-
eral characterized by a single band; that is the case only with so-
dium, whose yellow band is distinguished by very vivid outlines
and a peculiar brilliancy. It is true that we can scarcely introduce
any substance whatever into the flame without the appearance of this
line, even when that substance does not contain sodium; it is suffi-
cient that such body should have been subjected for some time to the
action of the air in order that it should give’ the reaction of sodium
when presented to the flame. We have seen that the dust detached
from clothes at some distance from the apparatus suffices to produce
this effect. The wire of platina, with which many substances are
suspended in the flame, also reveals the presence of sodium when
the wire has remained some time exposed to the air.

After the reaction of sodium, the most sensible and distinct is that
of lithium; this metal gives rise to two lines well defined, the one a
very pale yellow, the other red and brilliant. This reaction is of a
delicacy almost as great as even that of sodium. MM. Bunsen and
Kirchoff have seen the red ray appear after the detonation, at some
distance from the apparatus, of nine milligrams of carbonate of lithium.
They compute that their eye has thus been able to detect the pre-
sence of nine-millionths of the carbonate of lithium in the air. They
have discovered lithium in a multitude of substances where its pre-
sence was not suspected, in sea-water, in the fucus drifted by the
Gulf Stream on the coasts of Scotland, in the granites, in mineral
springs, in the ashes of wood growing on granitic formations, in the
ashes of tobacco and of the leaves and cuttings of the vine, in those
of cereals grown on a granitic formation, &c. Potassium is recognized
by two lines, one situated in the red, the other in the violet, at the
two extremities of the spectrum, and by a third intermediate line
much more faint. The remoteness of the two principal lines, placed
at the two ends of the visible spectrum, render this reaction but
little sensible; the eye can only distinguish about one-millionth of a
milligram of chlorate of potash in a flame.

The alkaline metals have more simple spectrums than the metals
which enter into the composition of the alkaline earths. Strontium

182 THE SUN-—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.

gives eight remarkable lines, six red, one orange, and one blue, and
the eye is able, by means of the spectrum, to perceive even six-mil-
lionths of a milligram of this metal in the air. Calcium, a metal
which combines with oxygen to form lime, gives three lines, green,
red, and blue, which appear only in intense flames. Barium, the
metal of baryta, is distinguished by two green lines. Iron, which
produces very numerous lines, manganese, zinc, copper, gold, all the
metals, in a word, have been tried by MM. Bunsen and Kirchoff, and
they have carefully studied the lines which each of them exhibits in
the spectrum. These bright zones remain invariable, whatever may
be the composition of the salt, in which the metal is contained; they
are still the same when the metal is directly volatilized in the flame
or in passing a strong electric current between two metallic points
placed at some distance from one another. The optical properties
which we have thus indicated are, therefore, attributes of the simple
bodies themselves, and they may be observed at all times when
these latter are raised to a high temperature.

This curious investigation of the bright lines of the artificial spec-
trum has an intimate and close connexion with the explanation of the
dark lines of the solar spectrum. This connexion, however, it is not
easy to discover at the first glance, and it even escaped so inge-
nious a physicist as M. Foucault. In 1849 M. Foucault announced
that he had observed the following fact: when we are examining in
a spectrum the yellow line of sodium, from being bright it becomes
dark if we vividly illuminate the source of artificial light in which the
sodium is in suspension. M. Foucault was observing the voltaic arch
which unites two points of carbon, and he saw a bright yellow line
produced on the spectrum, due to the presence of a compound of so-
dium reduced to incandescent vapor by the action of the current.
Now, when the luminous voltaic arch was traversed by the rays of
the solar light that line became dark.

This strange phenomenon was neither explained nor generalized by
the French physicist. M. Kirchoff was ignorant of it when, in 1859,
he commenced with M. Bunsen his series of fruitful experiments. He
showed that the bright line of sodium occupies in the series of ele-
mentary colors the place which, in the common solar spectrum, is
occupied by the black line w hich Frauenhofer designated as the line
D. To borrow his own expressions, the line D is only the bright line
of sodium reversed, (it would surely be better to say extinguished.)
But how is this line to be extinguished in a flame which holds sodium
in suspension? We have seen that it is by directing upon this flame
the rays of a flame still more vivid. If we observe the spectrum of
the sodium flame, we shall perceive at first the characteristic yellow
line; let us then allow the solar light to penetrate with increasing
intensity into this flame, and the yellow line will grow pale by de-
grees, and at length will become dark when the spectrum produced
by the sun shall have overpowered that of the artificial flame. What
occurs with sodium occurs with all the metals. M. Kirchoff has con-
verted the red line of lithium into the dark line just as he had done the
yellow line of sodium; the other metals likewise present, though with

THE SUN—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 183

less distinctness, the phenomenon of reversal. What is proved by
these phenomena? It is, that of all the rays of natural light which
traverse the artificial flame there are absorbed in greater abundance,
the rays which this flame would emit were it alone shining; or, to
speak more scientifically, the flame has an absorptive power corres-
pondent to its emissive power.

Let us now represent to ourselves the sun consisting of a nucleus, the
focus of an incessant and intense light, and surrounded by an atmos-
phere. This envelope, which is of a temperature less elevated than
the central nucleus, will absorb in preference the rays similar to those
which it would give out in greatest number if, supposing the globe of
the sun removed, the atmosphere remained as sole focus of light and
of heat. Here the solar atmosphere fulfils the part which the pale ar-
tificial flame did in the experiments of M. Bunsen, and the solar globe
that of the more vivid flame which reverses the bright lines of the arti-
ficial flame. The solar atmosphere, isolated from that which it en-
velopes, would furnish a spectrum, crossed with bright lines, corres-
ponding to all the substances which it might contain in ignition.
The intense light of the nucleus of the sun extinguishes all these lines,
and, in place of this imaginary spectrum of dark ground covered with
colored lines, it gives a spectrum of a bright ground covered with
dark lines. The spectrum of the sun is in some sort the negative
proof of the spectrum of its atmosphere; we find a dark line in the
place which corresponds to the bright line of sodium. We may affirm,
then, that this bright line would be found in the spectrum of the solar
atmosphere; or, in other terms, that sodium in ignition is present in
that envelope.

The sun reverses all the bright lines which its own envelope would
furnish; or, in other words, each of the dark lines of the spectrum
reveals negatively the presence of a particular simple body in the at-
mosphere of the central star. Now we count, in fact, thousands of
dark lines in the spectrum. How rich, then, in simple bodies must
be the orb which dispenses to us light and heat! Many of these
lines occupy the places which correspond to known terrestrial metals;
we may say, without hesitation, that the line D pertains to sodium,
another to lithium; here we see sixty black lines all coinciding with
the bright ones of iron, there the lines of calcium, of magnesium, of
sodium, metals so widely diffused over the surface of the earth; we
retrace the brilliant groups of chrome as black Jines in the solar
spectrum. It was highly interesting to search there for nickel and
cobalt, which are almost constant accompaniments of iron in me-
teorites. These two metals produce a very considerable number
of colored lines, less bright than those of iron. All the most vivid
lines of nickel are found reversed; that is, black, in the spectrum of
the solar light. We distinguish also a few of the lines of cobalt; but,
strange to say, not the brightest of those lines. Barium, copper, and
zinc appear to exist in small quantity in the solar atmosphere; on the
other hand, there has no distinct trace been discovered of gold, silver,

‘mercury, aluminium, silicium, which is so abundant among telluric
metals, cadmium, tin, lead, antimony, arsenic, strontian, and lithium.

The discoveries of MM. Bunsen and Kirchoff no longer permit us

184 THE SUN-—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.

to doubt that the sun has an atmosphere of a temperature lower than
that of the luminous nucleus, properly so called, and which holds in
suspension the greater part of the simple bodies which we find on our
planet. This grand conception accords well with the hypothesis of
Laplace, who attributed the formation of all our planetary system to
the gradual cooling of a single nebula, in which the cosmic matter at
present condensed in the sun, the planets and the satellites, was
primitively diffused through th@eentire space which that system oc-
cupies. The smallest bodies naturally cool most rapidly; the moon
appears frozen, without atmosphere, without water, without organic
life; there is something mournful and appalling in its aspect under
the telescope. The earth has cooled less promptly than its satellite,
but far more rapidly than the sun, whose fervid atmosphere still con-
tains the numerous substances which on our planet have been long
since condensed and fixed in the solid rocks. Our impoverished at-
mosphere contains nothing but the elements necessary for the support
of organic life, oxygen, azote, carbon, and water, and our understand-
ing can with difficulty accustom itself to the idea of an atmosphere
charged with iron, with alkaline metals, with bodies the most differ-
ent in a state of combustion. It would require the pen of Dante to
portray that chaotic condition of nature, that rain of metallic fire,
those luminous clouds darkened by the contrast of a still intenser
light, that incandescent ocean of the sun, with its tempests, its cur-
rents, its rushing and gigantic water-spouts; such pictures set at de-
flance even imaginations the most enamored of the fantastic and the
strange, and our dreams evaporate as a drop of water before that
blazing lava, that focus, that refulgence of the world, source of all
warmth, of all movement, of all life.

On such a subject nothing can be more eloquent than the precise
language of science; it derives its force from its very humility. If
metallic vapors surround the sun in the form of an atmosphere, we
comprehend that they may be condensed in clouds, like the vapor of
water in our own atmosphere. Galileo regarded the spots of the sun
as clouds floating before the lustrous body from which the light radi-
ates; but this hypothesis has been generally abandoned by astrono-
mers. In order to understand the theories which are at present
adopted respecting the physical constitution of the sun, let us describe
the appearance which it presents when examined under a high
magnifying power.

The entire surface appears covered with innumerable small in-
equalities, similar to marbling, or rather to the rugosities of an
orange. On the luminous ground are seen dark spots of a brownish
grey or black color, and of very irregular forms. When these
spots are observed for several days in succession we perceive that
they make their appearance on the eastern border of the disc, ad-
vance towards the centre, pass it, and disappear behind the western
border. Sometimes the same spots are seen to reappear after having
made an entire circuit. It is this phenomenon, indeed, which has
afforded the means of estimating the velocity of rotation of the sun. '
‘The spots of the sun have very distinct outlines; they usually exhibit

THE SUN—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 185

a black portion, nearly central, surrounded by a penumbra not so
deeply shaded and sharply defined as regards the darkest zone. The
penumbra is generally a little lighter around the central black spot.
It is quite rare to witness a spot without penumbra or a penumbra
without a spot.

When we observe a spot during several days, very curious changes
are remarked in the outlines of the black portion and the penumbra.
If the spots were adherent to the body of the sun itself and, as La
Hire and Maupertuis still believed at the close.of the last century,
were species of isles or scums in the solar ocean, we should naturally
see first one part of the penumbra vanish, then the black central
nucleus, then the other side of the penumbra. Itis observed, on the
contrary, that as the spot advances towards the western border of
the solar disc, the western penumbra, instead of diminishing, in-
creases in size, the eastern penumbra shrinks and is effaced ; lastly,
the black central nucleus itself disappears before the western penum-
bra. In reference to this observation, which is due to Wilson, and
to give an explanation of it, William Herschel, in 1779, surmised
that the sun has an envelope of a nature altogether peculiar. In
the centre he supposed there might be a solid and opaque nucleus,
surrounded on all sides by a gaseous and transparent atmosphere, as
in the case of the terrestrial atmosphere; this might be composed of
two strata: an exterior luminous one, the true photosphere of the
sun; and alower stratum, obscure or feebly illuminated by reflection.
How, by this hypothesis, are we to explain the phases of the solar
spots? Imagine that a hurricane, rends the atmosphere over an
immense expanse, (there are spots whose extent is not less than the
whole surface of the earth ;) at the bottom of the gulf thus formed,
the terrestrial observer will perceive the solid nucleus of the sun as
a dark spot, and the first atmosphere, slightly transparent and faintly
illuminated, as a penumbra encircling the central spot. It will thus
be easily comprehended that the movement of rotation of the sun
will, by presenting the object obliquely, withdraw from our view one
of the sides and the bottom of this vast chasm before withdrawing
the opposite side. All the phenomena described by Wilson are thus
very easily accounted for. But by the influence of what forces is it
that the luminous veil of the sun and the second semi-diaphanous veil
are torn apart to show us the opaque nucleus? This no one has been
able to explain. Herschel supposed that the solid nucleus was cov-
ered with volcanoes, whose vapors, discharged with great force, might
break up through the solar atmosphere; but this is a supposition
wholly gratuitous, which nothing has seemed to confirm.*

A discovery made by Arago, in 1811, seemed to give anew degree
of probability to the strange hypothesis of Herschel on the consti-
tution of the sun. It had been long believed that the light emitted
by incandescent bodies was not polarized ; Arago observed, on the
contrary, that the light proceeding from an incandescent body, solid

* Phenomena lately observed indicate that the nucleus of the sun, as well as its atmo-
sphere, is subjected to violent commotions. Iii

186 THE SUN—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.

or liquid, always presents traces of polarization. The flame of a gas
in combustion alone presents the properties of normal light. This
observation furnished a very simple means of discovering the physi-
cal constitution of the sun. If it were composed of an incandescent
liquid mass it ought to transmit polarized light. If the photosphere
were gaseous, the contrary ought to take place. Now, in regarding
the sun with a polariscope, Arago found no indication of polarization;
thence he concluded that the luminous part of the sun is gaseous, and
not liquid or solid.

The two atmospheric envelopes, which, as Herschel and Arago
agree in admitting, exist around an opaque central sun, possess a
probable thickness of about 4,000 kilometres; but the singular phe-
nomena observed during the total eclipse of the sun of the 8th of July,
1842, obliged astronomers to recognize the existence of still a third
solar atmosphere above the photosphere properly so called. These
phenomena were perceived anew during the eclipse of the year 1860.
At the moment when the moon has entirely covered the luminous
solar disc, the lunar screen is surrounded by a brilliant luminous
aureola, to which has been given the name of corona; from the border
of the moon are projected elevations or protuberances, which ob-
servers compare sometimes to serrated rose-colored mountains, some-
times to masses of ice tinted red, sometimes to immovable red
flames. These protuberances are of a height which may reach to
80,000 kilometers, a distance which surpasses even the diameter of
the sun. The old theory of Herschel can render no account of these
strange appearances. If the sun had the photosphere for its exterior
envelope, the sky ought to be completely obscure at the moment
when the lunar disc entirely covers the luminous body. We have
been compelled, therefore, to admit that there exists a third atmos-
phere, of considerable transparency and vast extent, which encompasses
the photosphere itself.

It was impossible that M. Kirchoff, in the sequel of the admirable
discoveries which he had made with M. Bunsen, should not think of
reforming the astronomical doctrines relating to the central star of our
planetary system. He has arrived at the conclusion that the visible
disc of the sun is not formed by a photosphere; he does not believe
in the two envelopes of Herschel and in the opaque central nucleus;
he regards the sun as an incandescent body of which the outlines are
those of the luminous globe itself, which our eye perceives, and which
is surrounded by an immense atmosphere rich in substances of the
greatest diversity. The old theory was entirely founded on the ap-
pearances of the spots. M. Kirchoff considers them as clouds floating
in the solar atmosphere; he admits that these clouds may be formed
at different heights, as occurs in our own atmosphere. Two super-
posed clouds, of unequal extent, appear to us far off as a dark spot
encompassed by a penumbra. It cannot be denied that in placing at
‘the centre of the sun an opaque nucleus, and in giving it, for a first
atmosphere, a zone half obscure, we present to the understanding an
hypothesis which strongly contravenes the instinctive inductions of
good sense. If the photosphere is the focus of solar heat and light,

THE SUN—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 187

it is hard to comprehend why all the substances it contains have not
been gradually raised, however feeble the conductibility, to the tem-
perature of incandescence. One may keep for a time a piece of ice
ina warm chamber, but it always ends by melting. Suppose the
nucleus of the sun as cold as you please, sufficiently cold to be inhab-
itable by beings like ourselves, the radiation of that furnace which we
call the photosphere must gradually elevate the temperature of the
first atmosphere and that of the solid globe itself. Ithink, therefore,
that M. Kirchoff has reason to reject a theory which is opposed to
all the known laws of the diffusion of heat. :

There still remains, however, the celebrated observation of Arago.
Tf, as M. Kirchoff contends, the luminous disc is not a gaseous photo-
sphere, how is it that it transmits to us unpolarized light? On this
point, the German savant remarks that if liquid luminous bodies emit
polarized light, it is because we observe them when at rest; if we
examined them when agitated, he thinks that the light being then
emitted under the most different angles there, would be no uniformity
in the direction of the vibratory movements, consequently no polar-
ization. He conceives, therefore, that the visible surface of the sun
may very well be liquid and yet emit unpolarized or natural light,
‘because that vast ocean of fire has not a smooth surface like a mirror,
but is unceasingly furrowed by enormous waves and swept by tremen-
dous tempests. To form such suppositions is not to yield to the sway
of the imagination, All movement of air or water results from a
simple difference of temperature: some degrees less from the pole to
the equator on our earth, and we see the ocean traversed by currents
and counter-currents, the atmosphere open to the winds, agitated by
tempests; but the fluctuations of temperature, so comparatively slight
on our planet, must, if we reflect, be immense in the sun and around
the sun. The condensation of the metallic vapors of the atmosphere,
the vaporization from the solar ocean, are phenomena far otherwise
stupendous than our terrestrial thunder-storms. What force must
the winds have on a sphere so vast as that of the sun! What fear-
ful deluges must pour from the bosom of clouds as extensive as our
widest continents and charged with metals in ignition! The varia-
tions of temperature in the solar atmosphere may be estimated, with
great chances of probability, at many hundreds of degrees; the atmos-
pheric pressure’ must vary in the same proportions, while it is by
millimetres only that, in terrestrial barometers, we compute the varia-
tions of pressure in the mercurial column which forms the equilibrium
to the weight of the atmosphere. And yet, we know a rapid fall of
some millimetres in the barometric column is the certain forerunner
of a violent tempest.

After having described the sun as an incandescent liquid globe,
encompassed with a dense atmosphere pervaded by simple bodies,
which we find in our own planet, M. Kirchoff stops. He seeks not
to explain how this focus of heat has been kindled, nor how it is
maintained. This question, if it cannot be completely resolved, de-
serves, at least, to be discussed. If the sun were only a heated body
radiating in space, like a red-hot cannon ball, we must conclude that

188 THE SUN-—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.

it could not long remain so bright as it appears to us and as it ap-
peared to our most remote ancestors. The heat which it loses by
radiation is truly enormous. M. Pouillet has calculated that during
each second it gives out 13,300 calories, that is to say, 13,300 times
the quantity of heat necessary to raise one gram of water from zero
to 15 degrees C. Would we have an idea more easily appreciable of
that quantity of heat? Employed to exert a mechanical effect, it
would be sufficient to raise a weight of 5,600,000 kilograms to an
altitude of one metre.

This expenditure of heat is so enormous that the surface of the
sun would, without doubt, soon become obscure if the process went
on without variation, and nothing returned to the sun the heat which
it is constantly losing. Now, whence is derived this heat thus con-
tinually renewed? Can we imagine that it results from a chemical
combination, from the combustion of different substances? If thesun
were a mass of incandescent charcoal, it has been computed that
1,200 kilograms of that body would be consumed every hour for each
square metre. Ifthe central orb was of the same composition as our
gunpowder, during each minute a layer of powder one metre in thick-
ness would be burnt, and our present sun would disappear in nine
thousand years. On the same hypothesis the solar diameter would
eight thousand years ago have been double what it is to-day. I pre-
sent these singular suppositions only to make it apparent that the
phenomenon of the solar heat perpetually maintained cannot be com-
pared with the phenomena of combustion, with which our experience
is most familiar. We must prepare our minds for something extra-
ordinary when the question relates to that immense focus whose
activity seems never to slacken. Evervthing leads us to believe that
the sun does not consume itself alone, but that it receives incessantly
from without, new materials, which are preeipitated into its orbit and
there become incandescent. Let us suppose that the sun is encom-
passed by an immense cosmic ring formed of a multitude of meteorites.
Attracted by the powerful mass of the sun, these meteors will describe
spirals more and more closely approaching the centre with a velocity
always increasing. Arrived in the solar atmosphere, they will fall
upon the sun with the prodigious velocity which gravitation will com-
municate to them, a gravitation which at the surface of the sun is
twenty-eight times greater than at the surface of the earth. The
swiftness of a meteor arriving at the sun exceeds 600 kilometres a
second; supposing that it has entered the solar atmosphere with the
frozen temperature of the interplanetary spaces, we see that it must
there promptly be raised to temperatures higher than we can imagine.
M. Thomson, a learned Englishman, at once a mathematician and phys-
icist, has calculated that to maintain the actual solar heat it» would
suffice that there should fall every year into the solar focus a quantity
of meteoric matter which would cover the surface of the sun to the
thickness of nine metres. Suppose, if you will, that twice as much is
necessary, that every year the level of the solar seas is raised eighteen
metres by virtue of this continual rain of incandescent meteors, it
would require four thousand years in order that the apparent diameter

‘

THE SUN—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 189

of the sun should be increased by one second—forty thousand years
that it should be enlarged by one minute. At this rate, at the end
of two thousand years a terrestrial observer who should have lived
all that time would not see the sun differ more from itself than we see
it differ every year from season to season, In proportion as the earth
approaches or recedes from it. If the mass of the sun were aug-
mented by the addition of meteoric substances, we should not be in
a position to perceive it, while, in return, the constancy of the sun’s
diameter affords no argument for rejecting this hypothesis, which has
the advantage of assigning a rational cause for the development of
the solar heat.

It will be asked, perhaps, whence come those meteors whose fiery
torrent falls incessantly on the surface of the orb which lights us.
Have you never seen, on a clear evening of March or September, at
the time of the equinoxes, a whitish gleam in the western part of the
heavens? It occupies from twenty to thirty degrees in extent and
projects itself above the horizon, following nearly the direction of the
ecliptic. This has been called the zodiacal light, because those who
first observed it conceived it to be limited to the zodiac. Under the
hazy sky of our climates this pale glimmering is perceived but rarely
after the evening twilight or before the rising of the sun at the beginning
of spring or autumn, and it is easily confounded with the gleams of
the receding or approaching day ; but under the tropics the phenome-
non displays itself im all its magnificence. On the summits of the
Cordilleras, in the prairies of Mexico, under the transparent skies of
Cumana, upon the coasts of the Sea of the South, the zodiacal light
appeared to Alexander von Humboldt more lustrous than the milky:
way. At the equinox, at the moment when the solar disc sinks be-
neath the horizon, total obscurity succeeds almost immediately to
day; and at once the zodiacal light is seen stretching up to half the
height of the heavens and only vanishing at the approach of mid-
night.

Domenico Cassini, in 1683, was the first who observed the zodiacal
light, and he considered it as a sort of luminous ring connected with
the solar equator ; he recognized in effect that this light follows the
solar equator in proportion as the latter withdraws itself from the
ecliptic. Thomson thinks that this vast luminous ring is the reser-
voir of the meteors by which the central sun is maintained. Such a
theory adapts itself readily to the great cosmogcnic conception of
Laplace : The zodiacal ring extended between the sun and the orbit
of the earth would, under that view, be a residue of the cosmic mat-
ter which, in the beginning, composed the entire nebula from whence
emerged by degrees our complex system of planets.

However this may be, in proportion as astronomy studies with more
care the phenomena of the heavens, does it meet there with more sur-
prising marvels. What admirable discoveries have been recently
made in our own solar system which had been supposed to be entirely
explored! Among these discoveries, that of MM. Kirchoff and
Bunsen must be regarded as one of the most important. The spectral
analysis of the solar atmosphere has furnished the proof of the chemi-

190 THE SUN—ITS CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.

cal unity of our planetary system, and perhaps it will some day reveal,
when applied to the brighter stars, a physical relationship between
our own system and all those which fill the immeasurable depths of
space ; but if it opens to us in some degree the portals of the infi-
nitely vast, it reconducts us by another route to the idea of unity in
nature. In studying the spectrum we at present recognize each sim-
ple body held in suspension in the flame whose rays are decomposed
by the glass-prism ; but what is a simple body which betrays its
presence, not by one bright stripe alone, but by two, three, some-
times by sixty stripes? In proportion as the spectrum increases in
distinctness, the number of luminous stripes increases for each sub-
stance ; shall we ever see them all? It may well be doubted. Here,
then, there is a multiplicity and indeterminateness which accord but
ill, it must be confessed, with the theoretic idea which we entertain
of a simple body, a substance not compounded, always identical with
itself, the substratum of all chemical combinations. Must we admit,
with some resolute spirits, that the bodies which we call simple, ap-
pear so to us only because thus far we have not succeeded in decom-
posing them? Should we conclude that the different simple bodies,
if there are really such, are but formed of one and the same matter
in different states of condensation? We thus find ourselves attracted
towards the idea of unity of substance. Gas, liquids, solids, vacuum
and plenum, bodies and celestial spaces, satellites, planets, suns, &c.,
would be but transitory forms of something eternal, the ephemeral
images of something which cannot change ; in the vortex of phenom-
ena, in the eternal movement of allsubstance, the cosmic history every-
where shows us the future in the present and the present in the
future.*

** Al) the facts in regard to solar chemistry can be briefly stated as follows:

1. Solid and liquid bodies when highly heated give a continuous spectrum without lines.

2. Flame in which solid or liquid substances are volatilized give a spectrum crossed with
bright lines.

3. Each substance in the flame gives a line or a series of lines peculiar to itself, so that
the presence of any substance in a flame may be known by inspecting the spectrum of the
flame. Hence the value cf the spectrum in chemiczal analysis.

4. When a bright beam of light from a solid or liquid behind a flame that is producing
bright lines is sent through this flame, the bright lines disappear and dark lines take their.
place. These dark lines are called the reverse or negative lines of the substance in the flame.

5. The spectrum from the sun is crossed with a large number of dark lines, many of
which are found to exactly coincide in position and magnitude with the negative lines
produced by various metals found on the earth.

6. The complex system of negative lines of iron, for example, is found in the spectrum
of the sun, and hence it is inferred from strict analogy that this and other metals exist in
a volatile state in the atmosphere of the sun.

7. The constitution of the sun to produce this result must be that of a solid or liquid
nucleus emitting light of great intensity, and surrounded by an atmosphere also emitting
light, but of less intensity.

8. The dark lines of the spectrums of the planets are the same as those of the sun.
This is what might be expected, since they shine by reflected sun light; but the lines of
the fixed stars, of Sirius, for example, are different from those of the sun.

9. The inferences drawn from the facts above stated have not been fully accepted as yet
by scientists of celebrity. Since the lines in the spectrum of the sun are very numerous,
there is a possibility that those which are found to indicate iron, for example, may be
an accidental agreement. But Kirchoff has calculated the chances of an accidental agree-
ment, aud finds it to be one divided by one million of millions of millions.

SECRETARY, S. J.

PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.

FROM THE MONTHLY NOTICES OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, FEBRUARY 14,
1862. No. 4.

ADDRESS DELIVERED BY THE PRESIDENT, DR. LEE, ON PRESENTING THE GOLD
MEDAL OF THE SOCIETY TO MR. WARREN DE LA RUE.

GENTLEMEN : In the report which has been read to you, you have
been informed that the council have assigned the gold medal of the
society to our worthy secretary, Mr. Warren De La Rue ; and, as it
is the custom, it becomes now my duty to explain to you, in a few
words, the grounds of their decision.

You know that for many years Mr. De La Rue has devoted the
energies of his mind, a large expenditure, and such leisure as he
could abstract from the complicated cares of an extensive and well-
known commercial concern, to the earnest cultivation and systematic
pursuit of practical astronomy, and that he has been one of the most
frequent contributors to our evening meetings, upon a variety of
subjects—all requiring much knowledge, skill, and labor in their
treatment.

Discoveries in the regions of science so crowd upon us in our own
times, that valuable inventions and striking results soon fade from the
memory, and are lost in the brilliancy of those which rapidly succeed
them.

I must therefore request your indulgence whilst I lay before you
what it is that Mr. De La Rue has done to entitle him to receive, and
which justifies the council in awarding him the highest honor that it
is in the power of the Royal Astronomical Society to bestow.

Mr. De La Rue has not only conducted the usual observations
which are made at most private observatories, but he has directed
‘the resources of a rare mechanical genius to improvements in the
most approved methods of polishing the specula of reflecting tele-
scopes, and perfecting the mechanical arrangements by which opera-
tions of such refined nicety are performed.

On this subject there can be no higher authority than Sir John
Herschel, who, in an article on the telescope, published 1 in the Ency-
clopedia Britannica, says :

“Such is Mr. De La Rue’s mechanism, which has afforded very
admirable results in the production of specula 13 inches in aperture
and 10 feet focal length, the perfection of which is enhanced by his
practice of bestowing the same care and precision on every step of
figuring of the speculum, from the grinding, the smoothing on a bed
of hones, or rather a slab of slate cut into squares, carefully brought
to the same figure, and to the figuring of the polisher itself, which
being thus previously rendered almost perfect, the speculum is saved

192 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.

the rough work of having to figure the polisher for itself on every
occasion of repolishing.’’

In a more private communication to myself on the same subject,
Sir John adds that ‘‘Mr. De La Rue’s machinery, though grounded
on Mr. Lassell’s rotary principle, is by no means a servile imitation
of Mr. Lassell, inasmuch as several distinct improvements have been
introduced tending to distribute the polishing action more equally
over the whole surface of the metal. One of these improvements
consists in his interposition of a plate between the supporting plate
and sliding plate of Mr. Lassell’s traversing slide, which, being made
to revolve, causes the traversing movement of the speculum to take
place, not across the same diameter of its area, but at every stroke
across a different diameter ; and he also obviates the irregularity of
the motion of Mr. Lassell’s polisher on its centre, by governing that
rotation by mechanism, instead of leaving it to be determined by the
excess of external over internal friction.’’

But it is in celestial photography that Mr. De La Rue has made his
most important discoveries, and displayed an unfailing fertility of
mechanical invention. Wisely acknowledging the growing vastness
of the several departments of the same science, he has latterly, ina
great measure, restricted his researches to the delineation of the
various aspects of the heavenly bodies, through the medium of pho-
tography.

It is only by acknowledging and adopting the principle of the
division of labor that great results can be obtained, either in the
pursuits of commercial industry or abstract science.

The days of the admirable Crichton have long since passed away.

Indeed Lord Bacon himself, in the Novwm Organum, well observes,
in anticipation of the influence of this general principle :

_ ‘Then men shall begin to find out their own powers when all will
not essay to do the same things, but each man will employ himself in
the work for which he is most apt.’’ *

Mr. De La Rue’s claim to the special notice of astronomers, as a
delineator of celestial objects through the medium of photography,
does not rest on the absolute priority of his application of a well-known
art in a new direction. It is rather based on the fact that by methods -
and adaptations peculiarly his own, he has been the first to obtain
automatic pictures of the sun and moon, sufficiently delicate in their
detail to advance our knowledge regarding the physical characters of
those bodies, and admitting of measurements astronomically precise.

The late Mr. Bond, of Cambridge, in the United States, in the
year 1845, with the assistance of Messrs. Whipple and Bond, obtained
good pictures.of a Lyre and of Castor ; and that, in this year, Signor
De Vico made an unsuccessful attempt to photograph the nebule in
Orion.

At about the same time, or a little later, the Rev. J. B. Reade took
photographs of a Lyre at my observatory at Hartwell, and at his
own observatory at the Vicarage of Stone.

* ‘Tum enim homines, vires suas nosse incipient, cum non eadem infiniti, sed alia alii
’ es ? ?
restabunt ”—Liber 1, aphor. cxiii.
, ap

PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY, 193

Mr. Glaisher, writing in 1851, as reporter upon philosophical in-
struments in the great exhibition, Class X, and upon Mr. Bond’s
daguerreotype of the moon, taken in 1850, and which was placed in
the exhibition of 1851, says upon photography: ‘‘Let us now view
photography in its application to science: a process by which transient
actions are rendered permanent, and which enables natwre to do her
own work—or, in other words, which causes facts permanently to re-
-cord themselves—is too well fitted for the purpose of science to be
long overlooked; but the difficulties to be overcome in its application
have been and still are great, and the results proportionably few in
number. We consider, however, that the commencement of a sys-
tematic application of the photographic process to the purposes of
astronomy is indicated by the daguerreotype of the moon by Mr.
Whipple; and great, indeed, will be the benefit conferred upon
astronomical science when we obtain permanent representations
of the celestial bodies and their relative positions through the agency
of light.’’

Enlarged copies of Mr. Bond’s photographs were laid before the
Royal Astronomical Society in May of the same year. At the meet-
ing of the British Association of Science, held at Ipswich in July,
1851, under the presidency of the learned astronomer royal, a daguer-
reotype of the moon was shown to the members of the mathematical
section by Mr. Bond; and his royal highness the Prince Consort,
whose loss we now deeply deplore, was present on the occasion and
inspected the daguerreotype.

On the subject of the connexion of photography and chemistry with
astronomy some interesting remarks appear in the admirable lecture
on the sun, delivered by the respected Professor Walker before the
British Association of Science, under the presidency of our esteemed
member Lord Wrottesley, in 1860, at Oxford.

There are several references to celestial photography in the various
volumes of the Comtes Rendus, which can only be brought to your
notice in the form of notes.*

It was the sight of these very promising daguerreotypes of Mr. Bond
which, in 1851, first gave the impulse to Mr. De La Rue’s labors in
this direction. In 1852 he availed himself of the collodion process
invented by Mr. Archer in the preceding year, and succeeded in ob-
taining a good picture of the moon. In 1853 Professor Phillips ob-
tamed talbotypes of the moon at York. In 1854 lunar photographs
were secured at Liverpool under the supervision of our respected

*1849.—Vol. xxxviii, p. 241. ‘* On the Observations of the Sun.’’ By M. Faye.

1858.—Vol. xlv, p. 705 and following pages. ‘‘On the Photographs of the Eclipse of
March 15, by MM. Porro and Quinet.’’ By M. Faye.

1859.—Vol. xlvili, p. 174. ‘‘ Report on a Memoir addressed by M. Liais on the occa-
sion of the Total Eclipse of 1858, September 7.”’

1859.—Vol. xlix. ‘‘ Second Memoir on the coming Eclipse of 18 July.”’

1860.—Vol. li, p. 965. ‘On the State of Astronomical Photography in France.’’

1861.—Vol. liii, p. 997. ‘On the Perfecting Meridional Observations of the Sun with-
out an Observer.’’ By M. Faye.

1862.—Vol. liv, pp. 43 to 159. ‘*On Photographs of the Sun, taken by M. Belfort
during the Eclipse of the 3lst of December last.’’

13

194 ~ PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.

member Mr. Hartnup. In 1855 the Rev. J. B. Reade, who has dis-
tinguished himself by his discoveries in photography, obtained special
notice and honorable mention at the Paris exhibition for his photo-
graph of the moon. Others also have been taken at Rome by Signor
Padre Secchi, at Brighton by Mr. Fry, and in the vicinity of London
by Mr. Huggins. All these photographs possess merits of their own,
and give decided promise of future and greater success.

Admiral Smyth, in the Speculum Hartwellianum, pp. 249, 250, and -
285, speaks of Mr. Bond’s labor in celestial photography, particularly
pointing out that in 1857 a photograph was sent to the astronomer
royal taking in the whole field between Mizar and Alcor, with such
exactitude as to show their angles of positions and distances.

Mr. De La Rue’s success in obtaining photographic pictures of the
moon possessing great sharpness of definition and accuracy of detail
is owing to the happy combination of a variety of causes. Possessing
a large mirror of such exquisite defining power that but few existing
telescopes equal it in accuracy of definition, and brought into figure
by his own hands, and by peculiar machinery of his own contrivance,
he was at once freed from those imperfections in the actinic image
which are of necessity inherent in the very best refractors, even when
corrected most accurately for chromatic dispersion.

Mr. De La Rue at first had no clock-work apparatus to govern the
motion of his telescope, and, after making several successful lunar
photographs with the aid of the hand-gear of the telescope, he dis-
continued his selenographical experiments until he had removed from
Canonbury to Cranford—a change of residence which, for the in-
terests of astronomy, he had for some time previously in contempla-
tion. He then furnished his telescope—his own in a double sense—
with a clock-work apparatus, which from time to time has passed
through numerous alterations, and which is still in course of improve-
ment. The mechanical problem before him, as the fellows of this
society well know, was one of extreme complexity; for not only must
the motion of the clock-work be perfectly smooth and equable, but it
must also be capable of acceleration and retardation, to keep pace, so
to speak, with the ever-varying velocity of the moon in the heavens—
a variation compounded of its diurnal motion and its ever-changing
velocity in its orbit.

Lastly, by a rare and happy combination of chemical with mechani-
cal skill, the time necessary for the exposure of the collodion film
was materially shortened. The final result is this, that images of the
moon have been repeatedly taken in the focus of the mirror, admit-
ting of very considerable amplification, and exhibiting details on the
moon’s surface sufficiently clear to admit of delineation under a mi-
croscope provided with a camera lucida, and thereby furnishing ma-
terials for a more accurate selenography than has heretofore existed.

Neither must we altogether omit that by stereoscopically combining
images of the moon, taken in different phases of her librations, more
particularly enlarged copies, eight inches in diameter, Mr. De La Rue
has brought to light details of dykes, and terraces, and furrows, and
undulations on the lunar surface, of which no certain knowledge had

PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. ! 195

previously existed, and which I have had the exquisite pleasure of
beholding in his observatory at Cranford.

‘** Man looks aloft, and, with erected eyes,
Beholds his own hereditary skies.”’

I must now turn to a department in celestial photography, where
Mr. De La Rue stands almost alone. I speak of heliography. In
April, 1854, Sir John Herschel, in a letter to Colonel Sabine, recom-
mended that daily photographic records of the sun should be obtained
at some observatory. Accordingly the Royal Society placed at the
disposal of the Kew committee a sum of money to promote that ob-
ject, and Mr. De La Rue was requested to administer the grant.

It becomes necessary to mention that Arago, in his elegant and
popular work on astronomy, translated by two eminent fellows of our
society, states that MM. Fizeau and Foucault, in 1845, obtained a
photographic image of the sun, and two spots on its disk, delineated
with much apparent sharpness and accuracy; but, however this may
be,* it is certain that no uniformly successful method of taking images
of the sun had been devised until Mr. De La Rue took up the problem
for investigation.

Yet great as had been the difficulties in obtaining a really accurate
and available picture of the moon they sink into insignificance when
compared with those which had to be overcome in the photography
of the sun; for to obtain any automatic pictures of the sun’s photo-
sphere available for practical purposes it was found necessary to in-
stitute a series of preliminary experiments before actual operations
could be successfully commenced. At first nothing but burnt up and
solarized pictures could be obtained by any method that had hitherto
been devised, or with any the least sensitive of the media that could
be procured. Now, with the help of the Kew photoheliograph, as
devised by him, and described in vol. xv of the Monthly Notices,
heliography is ‘the easiest and simplest kind of astronomical photo-
graphy. The method devised by Mr. De La Rue will enable any pho-
tographer of common average skill to take excellent heliographs.
Professor Selwyn, of Cambridge, succeeds in getting good pictures
of the sun with the apparatus made for him by Mr. Dalmeyer, after
the pattern of the Kew photoheliograph.

Mr. De La Rue announced at the last meeting of the society that
by applying the stereoscope to the examination of the sun’s disk, as
he had formerly done in the case of the moon, he had discovered
that the facule on the surface of the sun are to be found in the outer
or highest regions of the solar photosphere.

I ought not to conclude without alluding to Mr. De La Rue’s obser-
vations on the solar eclipse of 1860; but it must not be forgotten
that one daguerreotype picture was taken by Dr. Busch of the solar

* Respecting this photography of the sun, the index of the Comptes Rendus has been
searched all through, under the heads of Arago, Photography, Soleil, Fizeau, Foucault, Daguer-
reotype, and Faye, and no mention has been found whatever of the sun’s picture in 1845;
and there has not been found any reference to it, excepting the plate in the body of the
original work itself.

196 ' PROGRESS OF. ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.

eclipse in 1851, and of the solar eclipse in 1860 four small pictures
were also taken during the totality by Professor Monserrat, under
the direction of MM. Aguilar and Secchi, at Desierto de las Palmas,
in Spain. ,

Mr. De La Rue, during the progress of the same eclipse, took many
large and exquisitely defined pictures, and secured two during the
totality. I have no need to enter into details, as he has already de-
scribed at several meetings of this society the numerical results that
follow from the discussion, and the comparisons of the photographs
which he took on that occasion. A paper giving the result of his
labors during the expedition to Rivabellosa has been presented to
the Royal Society, and is to be considered in March of this year.

Mr. De La Rue has invented an ingenious micrometer, lately ex-
hibited at one of our meetings, by means of which he fully confirms
the hypothesis that the colored protuberances belong to the sun, and
renders it almost certain that the commonly received diameters both
of the sun and moon require a correction.

More recently still, photographic pictures of the sun have been
obtained by Mr. De La Rue, not only exhibiting its well-known
mottled appearance, but showing traces of Mr. Nasmyth’s ‘‘ willow
leaves,’’ and by the aid of stereoscopic pictures rendering it certain
that the facule are elevations in the sun’s photosphere.

I need not enlarge on the wonderful discoveries which have been
made’ and the astonishing results that have been obtained by Newton
and his successors in this the most fertile and exact of all the applied
mathematical sciences. Neither would it become me, an humble but
zealous worshipper of science, to hazard conjectures as to the future
progress of astronomy. And yet I cannot refrain from expressing my
belief that the success already achieved by our friend warrants us in
entertaining the hope that before long he will be able, with the aid
of stereoscopic pictures, to exhibit to us the rose-colored prominences
depicted on the sensitive plates as plainly as the facule have already
been photographed. The depths and the successive strata of those
strange interlacing outliers within the solar spots may be brought
into tangible view. The different planes of Saturn’s rings* will also
come into relief, the belts of Jupiter may be manifested as portions
of his dark body, and ere long the mountains and elevated continents
of Mars will rise up into solidity before our delighted gaze.

I may also, perhaps, be permitted to remark, that while our great
national and public observatories—indeed, I ought to say those of the
civilized world as well—are day by day adding to that enduring record
of the transient phenomena of the heavens which, will enable future

*If the subject of the present address were not now of necessity confined to improve-
ments in celestial photography, I should here refer at some length to those exquisite and
unequalled hand-drawings by Mr. De La Rue, of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, and the comet of
1858, which have so often delighted and informed our society. They have embodied with
micrometrical accuracy the results of years of scrupulous and skilful labor; and, as an in-
stance of the reliable nature of the results obtained, I may mention that, by placing under
the stereoscope two of Mr. De La Kue’s hand-drawings of Saturn, taken at two distant
periods, the inclinations of the planes of the rings alluded to in the text become unmistak-
ably apparent.

4

PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 197

ages to reach the final finish and last perfection in the calculation of
the tables of the motions of the moon and the planets, to eliminate
any element of error, however minute, and to detect any latent dis-
turbing force, however feeble its effect; yet it is to private observato-
ries and to observations made in the remoter regions of starry space
that we are chiefly to look for new discoveries. It augurs well for
the future that there is no lack in our own day of such establishments,
or of accomplished observers to use them. It is almost, if not alto-
gether, needless to bring before you the names of Admiral Smyth, or
Lord Rosse, or Mr. Lassell, or Lord Wrottesley, or Mr. Dawes, or
Mr. Carrington, and a host of others familiar to many of you. The
elliptic motions of binary stars round their common centre of gravity,
the colors of others, the discovery of new planets, the calculation of
cometary orbits, the laws of change in the variable stars, the sudden
burst upon the sight of some stars, and the gradual evanescence of
others, will afford for many generations suitable and exhaustless sub-
jects of sustained astronomical research. The instant splendor and
gradual decay of certain stars is one of the most wonderful facts re-
corded in the history of astronomy. In 1572, Cornelius Gemma ob-
served a star in the chair of Cassiopeia, transcending Venus herself
in brightness. It was Hipparchus who first, I believe, noticed the
sudden appearance of a star of singular brilliancy before unknown.
By this strange discovery he was urged to construct a catalogue of
stars visible to the naked eye, ‘‘that posterity might know whether
time had altered the face of the heavens.”’

’The art of photography is of the very highest importance in the
promotion of exact science.

It stereotypes, so to speak, for the use of all time to come, the
present aspect of the heavens.

As astronomical observations ranged in tables record the present
positions of the heavenly bodies, so photography registers their pres-
ent aspect. It may be that the pictures of the sun now taken will
enable future ages to test the prediction of the poet,

“The stars shall fade away, the sun himself
Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years.’’

If, then, we take collective note of all Mr. De La Rue’s long and
varied labors since the 14th March, 1851, when he became one of our
members—such as the perfecting of the figures of mirrors, the graphic
observations of the planets, tite incomparable photographs of the
moon, the invention of the photoheliograph, the observations on the
solar eclipse, the invention of the new method of obtaining numerical
data, the application of the stereoscope to the examination of the sur-
face of the moon, and afterwards to that of the swn—sure am I that
the society at large will unanimously approve of the award of their
medal made by the council.

It may, however, be said by some ingenious critic that photography
is only an art which bears but indirectly on the promotion of astron-
omy, and that the reward of its suceessful manipulation is rather the
province of those societies to confer which cultivate the art of pho-

198 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.

tography, or the science of chemistry. ButI cannot admit the justice
of this view. What should we now say of the early fellows of the Royal
Society, if they had relegated Newton, when he invented the telescope
that bears his name, to the Company of Spectacle Makers for his meed
of praise? What should we now think, had the barren honors which
grace scientific discovery been denied to such mechanical inventors
as Hadley, or Dollond, or Sir William Herschel, or Lord Rosse, or
Lassell? With them the name of De La Rue, I feel, will hold no
inferior place.

The President, then delivering the medal to Mr. De La Rue, ad-
dressed him in the following terms:

Mr. De La Rvs: In compliance with a resolution of the council, I
have the pleasing duty of placing in your hands the highest tribute
to merit which they have in their power to bestow. The instruments
made or improved by you, the important uses to which you have ap-
plied them, and the liberality with which you have communicated the
results of your discoveries to the public, all indicate, in the opinion
of the council, a mind highly cultivated, whose energy has been
directed, during many years, to the attainment of scientific perfection.

But your unceasing efforts and delicate manipulation in reducing
the new and wonderful art of photography to astronomical purposes,
and in rendering chemistry a handmaid to astronomy, supply the
more immediate motive of their approbation.

May Divine Providence continue to bestow upon «you health and
intelligence, and every social blessing, enabling you still further to
illustrate the glory of the Creator, and to promote the rational enjoy-

ment of our fellow-creatures.
s$

REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS

SITUATED BETWEEN

MARS AND JUPITER.

By M. G. LESPIAULT,
PROFESSOR OF THE FACULTY OF SCIENCES OF BORDEAUX.

TRANSLATED FROM THE ‘' MEMOIRES DE LA SOCIETE DES SCIENCES PHYSIQUES ET NATURELLES DE
BORDEAUX,’ 1861. BY C. A, ALEXANDER.

I.

In proportion as the discovery of small planets between Mars and Ju-
piter has been multiplied, those bodies have become, especially in Ger-
many, the objects of a great number of highly interesting researches.
The powerful magnifiers of the refractors of Dorpat and Munich have
been applied to the study of their physical constitution and to the
measurement of their diameters; their elliptical elements have been
determined and rectified; their ephemerides calculated and occasion-
ally even the principal pertur bations of their movements. Attempts
have been made to ascertain the law of the distribution of their orbits
in space, from the position of the nodes and the inclination of those
orbits to the ecliptic and other fixed planes, as well as from the meas-
ure and direction of their greater axes. It has been asked whether
the course of these small bodies, describing curves so singularly inter-
laced, might not some day bring about a collision, or at any rate some
approximation so considerable as to give rise to problems altogether
new in celestial mechanics. The chief results of these various re-
searches are to be found scattered through the publications of MM.
Encke, d’ Arrest, Littrow, Moedler, &c., in the Astronomische Nach-
richten, and the treatise on astronomy of Sir J. Herschel; as yet they
have not been collected, and are, in general, but little known in
France.* This defect I have «endeavored to supply in the present
notice, in which the actual state of our knowledge with regard to the
small planets will be set forth, though for this purpose it has been
found necessary to extend to seventy of these asteroids which we now
know certain calculations which had been made only with respect
to a part of them. This undertaking, in which I have been
jomed by M. Burat, professor at the Lyceum of Bordeaux, has led us,
as will be afterwards seen, to modify or even to reject some of the
conclusions at which the German geometricians had arrived.

* Professor Alexander, of Princeton, has long been occupied with the subject of the rela-
tions of the asteroids, and is now preparing an account of his results for publication in the.
‘¢ Smithsonian Contributions.’’

200 REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS,

Il.

Struck by the large interval which separates Mars from Jupiter,
Kepler had been led, by theoretical considerations, to interpose be-
tween those two bodies an unknown planet: ‘‘ inter Martem et Jovem
interposui planetam, (mysterium cosmographicum.y’ But of his own
accord he afterwards renounced this hypothesis, which had been un-
favorably received by learned cotemporaries.. An astronomer of
Florence, named Sizzi, protested, with particular earnestness, against
such a doctrine. ‘‘There are,’’ said he, ‘‘but seven openings in
the head, two eyes, two ears, two nostrils, and the mouth; there are
but seven metals, and but seven days in the week; there are, there-
fore, but seven planets.’’ These, in the system of Ptolemy, were
Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon.

The idea of Kepler was revived in the second half of the 18th cen-
tury. Lambert, Titius, and Bode successively called the attention of
astronomers to the void which seemed to exist between Mars and Ju-
piter; Bode especially attached extreme importance to the celebrated
law which bears his name, although, by his own acknowledgment,
that law was due to Titius. In seeking a numerical relation between
the distances of the planets from the sun, Titius had conceived the
idea of the following series, in which each term, proceeding from the
third, is double that which precedes :

On} Ht6, yd, ot Dds Lue ew 296)
By adding 4 to each of these terms, we obtain a new series :

£7) Ty PO, ATR a28) nb BanhOes
In this series, 4 representing the distance of Mercury, 7 would repre-
sent the distance of Venus, 10 that of the earth, 16 that of Mars, 52
that of Jupiter, 100 the distance of Saturn; but the number 28 re-
presented nothing and seemed properly to correspond to the distance
of the Sun from an unknown planet. This hypothesis enlisted new
partisans, especially in Germany, when, in 1781, the discovery of
Uranus lent unexpected confirmation for the law of Bode. The
Baron de Zach went so far as to publish in advance, in the Almanach
of Berlin, the elements of the supposed planet, and he organized
an association of astronomers for the search after that object. The
zodiac was distributed into twenty-four zones, each of which was
assigned to the special examination of one of the members of the
society. The discovery was indeed not long in being made, but it
proceeded from another quarter. .

Piazzi, an astronomer at Palermo, had been for ten years occupied
with the correction of the catalogue of Wollaston. A false indication
in this catalogue called the attention of the observer to a certain re-
gion of the heavens and led him to examine minutely the most imper-
ceptible stars. One of these, whose position had been determined
the 1st of January, 1801, was found to be sensibly displaced the fol-
lowing day, and still more so on successive nights. Piazzi at first
took it for a comet, and followed its course till the 11th of February,
on which day his observations were interrupted by bad weather and

REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS. 201

sickness. As early as the 24th of January he had sent intelligence
of his discovery to Bode and Oriani; but his letters were two months
in reaching them, at which time the new star was lost in the rays of
the sun. Bode, therefore, could not distinguish it, but he remained
convinced that this was the unknown planet, an opinion to which
Piazzi subscribed and gave the name of Ceres to the object of his
discovery.

A problem in astronomy, altogether new, now presented itself to
geometers to determine, namely, the orbit of a planet after six
weeks of observation. Many trials were made, but with results little
accordant. The illustrious Gauss, then scarcely known, arrived at a
solution by methods peculiar to himself, and it was by taking this
calculation for the basis of his researches that Olbers found the planet
anew, Ist January, 1802, a year, to a day, after its first discovery.
From that time Ceres took a definite place in our system, very nearly
at the distance from the sun indicated by the law of Bode, thus filling
the gap which Kepler had signalized.

While constructing special charts to facilitate for the future the
finding of Ceres on the celestial sphere, Olbers perceived, 28th of
March, 1802, a star not in the catalogue: he followed it for several
days and recognized, from its proper movement, a second planet
situated at the same distance from the sun as the former, but describing
a wholly different orbit. This was more than astronomers had asked for,
and Pallas was received with a greater degree of reserve than Ceres.
Some astronomers went so far as to deny its planetary character, an
opinion to which the great eccentricity and extraordinary inclination
of its orbit gave countenance by assimilating it to the comets, its re-
semblance to which was still more enhanced by the vaporous appear-
ance which it assumed through the imperfect telescopes of Schreeter.

As to Olbers, he regarded the two bodies as fragments of a more
considerable planet which some unknown force had shattered. On
this hypothesis, it resulted from the laws of mechanics that ail the
projected asteroids, while describing orbits of very different eccen-
tricity and inclinations, must continue to maintain the same mean
distance from the sun, and repass, moreover, in each of their revolu-
tions, the point in space where the catastrophe had occurred. That
point was necessarily one of the nodes of the orbits of Ceres and Pal-
las, situated, the first in the constellation of Virgo, the second in
the Whale. It was in these two regions of the heavens, according to
the theory of Olbers, that the trajectories of fragments still unper-
ceived must meet, and here, above all, that an attentive examination
of telescopic stars might be expected to yield new discoveries; a con-
jecture which did not long remain unverified. The 2d of September,
1804, Harding perceived in the Whale a third planet, which he named
Juno; and Vesta, the fourth and long the last, was discovered by
Olbers himself, the 29th March, 1807, in the northern wing of Virgo.
Vesta is much less remote from the Sun than the three other aste-
roids. The difference amounts to a fourth of its mean distance, that
is, to twenty millions of leagues, a fact not calculated very strongly

202 REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS.

to confirm the hypothesis of Olbers. In its oppositions, this planet
comes sufficiently near the earth to attain the sixth degree of magni-
tude and be visible to the naked eye, and owes its name to the white-
ness and purity of its light. ‘

IH.

Dating from the discovery of Vesta, the researches of astronomers
remained long unfruitful, although their attention was constantly
awake. It is true that Wartmann, at Geneva, in 1832, and Caccia-
tore, at Palermo, in 1835, gave notice of telescopic stars possessing
a distinct and quite rapid movement of their own; but their observa-
tions, interrupted by unfavorable weather, were too incomplete and
uncertain to admit of their following or again finding these assumed
planets ; nor was it till 1845, thirty-eight years after the discovery of
Vesta, that a postmaster named Hencke, who occupied his leisure
moments with astronomy, perceived the fifth of these small planets,
and gave it the name of Astrea. Two years later he discoved Hebe,
and, dating from this epoch, the new asteroids have succeeded one
another so rapidly that their number at present is seventy [three. |

It is not without some surprise that we see discoveries of this kind,
after having ceased for more than the third of a century, crowd upon
us in the course of late years. This astonishing success of cotem-
porary astronomy may be explained, in great measure, by the in-
crease in the number of observers, and by the construction of more
extensive and exact charts than those of which our predecessors -
could avail themselves. The charts of Berlin, especially, which give
the stars of the first ten magnitudes in the ecliptic regions, have been.
of the greatest service to astronomers in this kind of researches, while
the more recent charts of the observatory of Paris are already be-
coming of signal utility. It is very rarely that the discovery of an
asteroid can be regarded as the result of a lucky casualty. It is most
frequently only in the course of laborious watchings devoted to this
determined purpose, that a savant succeeds by means of a minute
and patient comparison of the different regions of the sky with the
charts which represent them, in detecting a disagreement, discover-
ing a star not catalogued, and verifying the existence of a proper
_ movement which shall assign a star to the class of planets. It may
be added that charts of the requisite completeness are as yet pro-
vided but for a small portion of the heavens, and the explorer who
would extend his search beyond this favored region must begin by
constructing a special chart of the tract which he proposes to survey.

The ill success of Olbers in the ten last years of his researches is
attributable to the fact that his examination was not extended to stars
of less than the eighth magnitude. With not more than two or three
exceptions, the planets discovered within the last fifteen years
hardly transcend the ninth degree, while the greater part are of the
tenth, and some even below the twelfth degree of magnitude. It is
not easy therefore to estimate too highly the sagacity and admirable
patience of those volunteers in astronomy who, in the strength of

-

REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS. 203

their own resources, far from the great observatories, and often with-
out the aid of the more exact class of charts, have added new
worlds to our system and sometimes raised themselves, by the num-
ber and brilliancy of their discoveries, to the level of the most dis-
tinguished astronomers. Among these laymen of science the first
rank belongs to our fellow countryman, M. Goldschmidt, who, but a
few days ago, introduced to us his fourteenth planet, the seventieth
of the group, and who has been, this year, the recipient of the gold
medal of the Astronomical Society of London. In offering this tes-
timonial, and in justification of its choice, the president of the so-
ciety took occasion to point out the scantiness of the means at M.
Goldschmidt’s disposal in comparison with the grandeur of the re-
sults which he had obtained. Lutetia, for instance, the first of his
acquisitions, has but the lustre of a star of the ninth or tenth magni-
tude, which is to say that its examination requires the closest atten-
tion on the part of astronomers who wish to observe it, even with
the help of the great meridian instruments of Paris and Greenwich.
And yet it was with a telescope, the aperture of which was but
twenty-three lines, that our cotemporary proceeded to the discovery
of this imperceptible object ; a telescope supported on the bars of a
chair and commanding but so limited a space of the heavens as might
be seen from the windows of a garret in the Pays Latin.

The most fortunate competitors of M. Goldschmidt have been
MM. Hind and Luther, who have each discovered ten planets, while
M. de Gasparis has discovered eight, M. Chacornac six, M. Pogson,
four, and M. Ferguson three.* To M. Hencke, as stated before, we
owe two, and it is to him that the honor pertains of having first re-
entered on the path of discovery which had been closed for thirty-
eight years, and of having adopted, before any one else, the charts
of Berlin as the basis of his researches. Within a space of some few
days M. Temple associated his name with two of these minute stars,
and there are seven astronomers who have severally attained a single
success: MM. Graham, Searle, Laurent, Marth, Forster, Tuttle, t
and Schiaparelli. Thus, by adding the four older planets, we have
a total of seventy [three] asteroids actually known.

RY,

We cannot quit this subject without calling the attention of our
readers to a singular circumstance connected with it, and which has
been repeatedly taken notice of, especially of late, by the commission
of the Academy of Sciences for prizes in astronomy. The distribu-
tion of the discoveries of small planets over the last fourteen years
is strikingly unequal, and this inequality becomes still more remark-
able if we compare months and weeks. Often, after a barren year,
astronomers seem to wake up, and, in a space of some days, perceive
three or four unknown asteroids; then they seem to relapse into slum-
ber, and again, at the end of some months, rouse themselves for a
new outbreak of discoveries. To be convinced of this extraordinary

* Of the National Observatory, Washington.
+ Mr. Tuttle, of Harvard, has discovered another.

204 REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS.

fact it is but necessary to cast an eye on the table of discoveries of
asteroids. We shall there see more than one fortunate night in
which science has been enriched with two of these minute bodies,
and privileged weeks which have given us four of them. The 5th
of October, 1855, for instance, M. Luther discovers Fides, and M.
Goldschmidt, Atalanta. Erato springs into light at Berlin, and Ti-
tania in the United States, the 14th of September, 1860. The nights
of the 9th and 12th had already been signalized by discoveries made
by MM. Goldschmidt and Chacornac. April 26, 1861, Hesperia
and Latona succeed one another at two hours’ interval, and Sep-
tember 19, 1857, with a success unheard of in the annals of astron-
omy, M. Goldschmidt, for his own share, detects, very near one
another, the twin planets Pales and Doris. Often the same planet, in
the same night or nights but little remote, has been perceived by two
and sometimes by three astronomers, observing from widely distant
stations. It is in this way that M. Gasparis might dispute Irene with
M. Hind, and Massilia with M. Chacornac. By a coincidence still
more surprising, the Ist of March, 1854, Amphitrite is simultane-
ously discovered by MM. Marth, Chacornac, and Pogson, while, on
his part, M. Luther discovers Bellona. There will be found in the
table concurrences not less extraordinary in connexion with the
names of Lutetia and Calliope, Themis and Phoccea, Pomona and
Polymnia, Isis and Daphne. To what cause are we to attribute facts
like these, too numerous to be fortuitous? Thus far, it must be
acknowledged, astronomers have given no satisfactory explanation.
By some it has been asked if we should not recognize herein an indi-
cation of cotemporaneous formations, and of condensation actually
taking place in the cosmic ring which gravitates between Mars and
Jupiter, and if this idea does not find its confirmation in the mysteri-
ous changes of the rings of Saturn, recently signalized by MM.
Bond and Lassell; but this hypothesis appears to us rash, and, on the
whole, unphilosophical.

ME

The observation of the small planets is so difficult, and the discov-
eries are almost all so recent, that the notions which astronomy has
gained with respect to each of these bodies in particular are still very
small, there being several whose elements are determined with so
little certainty and precision that the differences between one table
and another extend, not merely to seconds, but to minutes and some-
times to degrees. We might cite a planet, Daphne, for instance,
whose orbit is so little known, that for four years, notwithstanding as-
siduous research, astronomers have not been able to rediscover it.
Nevertheless, the results obtained up to this time, incomplete as they
are, suffice to enable us to group the asteroids according to the anal-
ogies and differences which they present, to study them collectively
and in their mutual relations. This study is founded, in great part,
on the analysis of the numerical tables which will be found at the end
of the present notice.

Humboldt has classified the planets, after certain natural charac-

REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS. 205

ters, in three families. The four superior planets, Neptune, Uranus,
Saturn, and Jupiter, are distinguished by considerable volume and
slight density; the time of rotation about their axes is about ten
hours, and from this there results in these bodies considerable flatten-
ing; moreover, of the twenty-two satellites of the solar system,
twenty-one pertain to this group. The four znferior planets, Mars,
the Earth, Venus, and Mercury, have, on the contrary, much smaller
volumes and much greater density; they revolve on themselves in
nearly twenty-four hours, are but little flattened, and possess, among
all the four, but one satellite, the Moon.

It is between these two groups so distinct, that the singular family
of the asteroids revolves. Their orbits, in general more eccentric
and more inclined to the ecliptic than those of the ancient planets,
their volumes much inferior to those of the smallest satellites, and
above all their mean distances from the sun constantly interme-
diate between those of Mars and Jupiter, evidently make of these
small bodies a planetary family very different from the two others,
and seem, indeed, rightly to consign them toa common origin. Such,
as has been said, was the first idea of Olbers, from the time of his
observing Pallas, and though his hypothesis must needs have ap-
peared less probable after the discovery of Vesta, the geometers
judged it sufficiently worthy of attention to be submitted to calcula-
tion. We find in the Connaissance des Temps for 1814 a curious me-
moir, in which Lagrange determines that, taking into account the
velocity of translation of the primitive planet, and considering the
thirty-four degrees of inclination of the orbit of Pallas as the maximum
inclination of the new orbits of each fragment, a force capable of
communicating to these fragments a velocity equal to twenty times
that of a 24-pound cannon ball would have sufficed, in order that each
of them should pursue an elliptical orbit around the sun, the common
intersection of the new planes passing at the point where the explo-
sion had taken place. A geometer would not nowadays undertake
this calculation ; for an examination, however rapid, of the mean dis-
tances of the 70 [three] asteroids at present known, permits us no longer
to believe that their orbits could ever have passed at the same point.
These mean distances, in effect, which will be found expressed in radii of
the earth’s orbit in one of the columns of our tables, vary between the
numbers 2.20 for Flora or Harmonia, and 3.45 for Maximiliana, one of
the planets most recently discovered. This important difference cor-
responds to about fifty millions of leagues of four kilometers. What
would it be if we should compare the extreme distances? We should
see Phoccea and Melpomene approach the sun as near as 1.79 radii of
the earth’s orbit, while Euphrosyne and Maximiliana withdraw from
that luminary to distances marked respectively by 3.83 and 3.93.
What is usually called the zone of the small planets extends, there-
fore, over a width of ninety millions of leagues, that is, over a space
greater than the distance of the sun from the inferior border of that
zone. The zone of the interior planets is twice as narrow, and there
is consequently no more reason for regarding the asteroids as frag-
ments resulting from the explosion of a single planet, than there

206 REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS.

would be for referring Mars, the Karth, Venus, and Mercury to a sim-
ilar origin. It would be in vain to rely on the great eccentricities of
the orbits with the view of instituting an inquiry, whether, notwith-
standing the differences in their great axes, those orbits did not pre-
sent some points sufficiently adjacent to lend a degree of probability
to the hypothesis of Olbers. We should find twenty-five millions of
leagues to be the least distance for the orbits of Harmonia and Doris,
thirty millions for Mnemosyne and Flora, forty-five millions for Maxi-
miliana and Ariana. It is true that the nodes and apsides change
their places, and, notwithstanding the slowness of those digplace-
ments, it is possible that, some thousands of ages before the present
era, the orbits in other relative situations may have presented points
more approximate than at present. But in vain should we ascend the
course of ages, or even arbitrarily modify the position of the planes in
which the asteroids revolve ; we shall still have to dispose of minimum
distances of at least fifteen millions of leagues, since the aphelion of
Nemausa, for instance, is but at 2.52 units of distance from the sun,
while the perihelion distance of Mnemosyne is indicated by 2.82, and
that of Maximiliana by 2.96. It cannot be admitted that the pertur-
bations of the planetary system could have produced such difference,
and the hypothesis of Olbers is thus shown to be absolutely irrecon-
cileable with the data which we now possess with regard to the aste-
roids. Is it necessary on that account to renounce the idea of a com-
mon origin? Not so; for, if we admit, with Laplace, that the planets
have been formed by the condensation of rings of vapor successively
abandoned by the sun in cooling, it suffices, in order to explain the
coexistence of all the asteroids between Mars and Jupiter, to suppose
that there existed in one of the rings many simultaneous centres of
attraction, and we must acknowledge, with M. Le Verrier, that the
difficulty is not to account for the exception, but, on the contrary, to
comprehend why it did not become the rule.

VI.

If science shall ever succeed in resolving these delicate questions,
it will doubtless be by adopting as a basis the relations of form and
position of the different planetary orbits. What we should propose at
present is less to mark out the work than to inquire in what direction
the future seems likely to hold a discovery in reserve for astronomers.
For that purpose we must see if the comparison of analogous elements
reveals the existence of any remarkable law.

DISTANCES FROM THE SUN AND THE EARTH.

Let us add to what has been just said on this subject in discussing
the hypothesis of Olbers, that the mean of all the distances of the
seventy asteroids from the sun is 2.645 radii of the earth’s orbit,
or about 105 millions of leagues ; which is almost exactly the distance
of Fides, and less than that of Ceres and Pallas which best corre-
sponds with the law of Bode. Of the seventy ecrbits, thirty-eight
have their greater axes below the mean, and thirty-two above—an

REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS. 207

inequality readily explained ; for the difficulty of discoveries increas-
ing iu proportion to remoteness from the sun, the planets known to
us will naturally be more thronged together the nearer they are to
that luminary. It is to be presumed, for the same reason, that the
real mean is higher than that stated ; for it is doubtful if existing
instruments would enable us to discover an asteroid whose perihelion
distance might be higher than three.

The distances of the small planets from the earth vary between
widely extended limits, which may reach from one to five radii of the
earth’s orbit. The nearest approach evidently takes place at the in-
stant of the star’s opposition ; the distance being then about 0.8 for
Phoccea, Melpomene, Iris, and Flora, and rising to 1.8 for Mnemosyne
and 1.9 for Maximiliana. It is only at this point of time, for the
most part, that the discovery or even the observation of one of these
minute bodies becomes possible. Hence we must hasten to calcu-
late its elements, if we wish again to find it in the heavens, after an
absence of several months. - When the calculation is founded on ob-
servations either imperfect or made at too short intervals, it sometimes
happens that the planet is lost.* Oftenest, however, succeeding
observations permit us to rectify the errors of a first result; thus it
was at first believed that Nysa would intersect the orbit of Mars,
while, in fact, it is always at least fifteen millions of leagues beyond
that planet. Nemausa promised still more. M. Valz had announced
that it would pass at eight millions of leagues from the earth, and that
some day it might even approach within three millions of leagues.
Astronomers have been obliged to renounce this hope, and that to
their great regret; for the oppositions of this little orb would have
furnished them an excellent means of determining the distance of the
earth from the sun, a base so essential and yet so inaccurately known
for all the dimensions which we attribute to the solar system.

TIMES OF THE SIDEREAL AND THE SYNODAL REVOLUTIONS OF THE ASTEROIDS.

We know that by the third law of Kepler the sidereal revolution of
a planet depends on the length of half the greater axis of its orbit.
The number 2.645, which has been assigned, as above stated, for the
mean planet, corresponds to a mean heliocentric movement of 824.8,
and to a sidereal revolution of 1,571 days, that is to say, of about 43
years. The shortest revolutions are those of Flora (1,192.9 days) and
of Ariana (1,197.7 days ;) the longest are those of Huphrosyne (2,048
days) and of Maximiliana (2,343 days, or more than six years.) We
see that these numbers vary nearly as one to two. Of these planets
sometimes two and even three have the duration of their year almost
identical; thus between Metis (1,346.31 days) and Iris (1,346.46)
the difference is but 34 hours, and is but that of one day between
Asia (1,551 days) and Pseudo-Daphne, (1,552.) We may also remark

* This occurred in the case of Daphne. In spite of assiduous and laborious research,
M. Goldschmidt has not been able to rediscover this planet ; but, while thus engaged, he
detected Pseudo-Daphne. This again having been lost in turn, he has but just suc-
_ ceeded in refinding it, (August 27, 1861,) after sounding the heavens for three mouths,

208 REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS.

Pandora, (1,683.18 days,) Pallas, (1,683.86,) and Leetitia, (1,684.8.)
These numbers, it should be added, are far from being definitive.
We have adopted the tables of M. Meedler, who inscribes the names
of the calculators, besides. the results they have obtained. Should a
different catalogue be preferred, that, for instance, of the Annuaire du
Bureau des Longitudes, these approximations might perhaps disappear,
but we should find others quite as remarkable. It were to be wished,
on that account, that the attention of astronomers should be directed,
in preference, to those asteroids whose revolutions present, in point
of duration, but slight differences ; perhaps those differences will be
still further diminished by a more rigorous calculation of elements.
In any case, when their progression shall have brought into helio-
centric conjunction two planets, describing their orbits in the same
number of days, their prolonged proximity will compensate, no doubt,
for the feebleness of their masses, and there must result perturbations
of a singular nature—perhaps a libration, which will reduce their
mean years to a perfect identity.

The synodal revolution of an asteroid is evidently so much the
longer as its mean movement is more rapid. Thus Flora or Ariana
come into opposition but nine times in thirteen years, while Euphro-
syne or Maximiliana do so nine times in eleven years.

Eccentricities.—The orbits of the asteroids are, in general, much
more eccentric than those of the elder planets. The lowest eccen-
tricities (Concordia 0.040, Harmonia 0.046,) are three times greater
than those of the earth; the highest (Polymnia 0.338, Asia 0.320,)
are almost equal to that of the comet of Faye. On the whole, of the
70 orbits now known, 18 are more eccentric than the orbit of Mer-
. eury, (0.2056,) 8 less so than the orbit of Mars, (0.096;) and the rest
are of intermediate eccentricities. Hence it results that if the small
planets have, like the great, a daily movement about an axis more or
less inclined to the plane of their orbits, the duration of seasons must
be there very unequal, and the temperature, for one of their hemis-
pheres, much more extreme than on the earth. Polymnia, for in-
stance, is twice as near the sun at its perihelion as at its aphelion ;
the heat and light, therefore, which fall on its entire surface vary in
the ratio of 4 to 1: the apparent diameter of the sun is then 8’ 27”
at its maximum and 4/ 11” at its minimum, while, for the earth, the
extreme numbers differ by only #5 of their amount. From this it re-
sults that, if the equator of Polymnia is not very much inclined to its
orbit, the seasons there depend, above all, on the distances from the
sun, which circumstance determines winter or summer for all the
points of the planet at the same time.

Vil.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE REMARKABLE POINTS OF THE ORBITS ON THE CELESTIAL
SPHERE.

It is sufficient to cast an eye on the columns in which are inscribed
the longitudes of the perihelia, or those of the ascending nodes, to
see that these longitudes are not distributed after a uniform manner

REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS. 209

between 0° and 360°. This, astronomers had already remarked,
when as yet they were acquainted with but from 12 to 15 asteroids,
and it has been confirmed by further discoveries : it is a fact highly
worthy of attention, on account of the consequences which may per-
haps be some day derived from it in relation to the origin and forma-
tion of the planets. Unfortunately it does not seem easy to detect.
the law of the phenomenon ; but in this there is nothing surprising.
For, on one hand, the perihelia and nodes are constantly being dis-
placed, and, on the ‘other, the plane of the ecliptic, itself movable,
is unimportant in the general aggregate of the solar system. It was
natural, then, to inquire whether we might not arrive at a more marked
convergence, by substituting for the lines of the nodes of the plane-
tary orbits the intersections of those orbits with a fundamental plane,
such as the invariable plane of the solar system, or even the equator
of the sun itself. At the epoch when MM. Medler, Cooper, d’Ar-
rest, &c., undertook these researches and others of the same kind,
their investigations embraced scarcely half the planets now known,
nor did they, moreover, pursue a uniform method. By M. Burat and
myself all the calculations of these astronomers have been repeated,
adopting the numbers which appeared to us most worthy of confi-
dence, as well for the elements of the asteroids as for the determina-
tion of the solar equator or invariable plane. We have, besides, con-
formed to a constant rule in our search for the centre of convergence of
a system of lines of the same kind. This rule, at once simple and
natural, consists in regarding these lines as so many equal forces and
in seeking the direction of their resultant. The same calculation
gives also the quantity of this resultant, a quantity evidently so much
the more considerable as the convergence is more marked ; for this
reason we give the name of coefficient of convergence to the quotient of
the total resultant by the sum of the components.

Convergence of the perihelia.mThe rule just indicated gives us 47°
20’ for the longitude of the perihelia on the celestial sphere, and
0,255 for a coeflicient of convergence. The hemisphere, which has
for its pole the point thus determined, comprehends the perihelia of
46 asteroids, having a mean eccentricity marked by 0,168. The
opposite hemisphere contains but 24 perihelia, and the mean eccen-
tricity of the corresponding orbits is but 0,137. The centre of con-
vergence determined by M. Meedler for the first 58 asteroids had for
its longitude 52° 25’, and approaches, consequently, much more
than ours the group of the Pleiades, where, as is known, M. Meedler
places the centre of the immense orbit described in space by the sun
followed by its retinue of planets.

Convergence of ascending nodes.—The point of convergence of the
70 ascending nodes, on the plane of the ecliptic, has for its longitude
135° 53’, and the coeflicient of convergence is 0,256, very nearly as
for the perihelia. Forty-six ascending nodes are found in the hem-
isphere which has for its pole the centre of convergence, and 24 in
the opposite hemisphere. The ratio of these two numbers is the
same as for the perihelia, and we will recall, in this connexion, a
singular remark which was made by M. Cooper some years ago, that

14

210 REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS.

in considering the 10, 20, 30, 40, or 50 planets first known, we shall
always find, nearly to a unit, the same number of perihelia and of
ascending nodes in the respective hemispheres where these points
have their centres of convergence.

The inequality in the distribution of the ascending nodes on the
celestial sphere is still more marked when we take the angular sub-
divisions lower than 90°. If we divide, for instance, the ecliptic into
six arcs of 60°, reckoning from the fifth degree of longitude, we find:

From 5° to 65°..-...++-+ 205. 10 ascending nodes.
Prom 65° 10 1250» < sn 5 cee os ent 12 do.
From 125° to 185°-..-. es... sees 23 do.
Brom 18h" TO Dea as «ars ais ere wie 10 do.
From 245° to 305°..-....-+-. +. 6 do.
Prom, SOD? GO. Wao » assis ee 2 = ba 9 do.

The general table shows, moreover, independently of the predomi-
nance of nodes in one part of the heavens, a general disposition of
these nodes in partial groups, isolated one from the other; for instance,
towards the 8th degree of longitude, the 43d, the 68th, the 80th, &.

It may be asked, as we have already observed, whether a more
perspicuous law might not be obtained by substituting for the plane
of the ecliptic the invariable plane or the plane of the solar equator.
We have made this double calculation for each of the 70 planets, be-
ginning with a determination as exact as possible of the position of
the invariable plane—that is to say, by taking account, in conformity
with the remarks of Poinsot, of the areas which arise from the rota-
tion of the sun and the great planets. This plane, whose elements
differ little from those which Laplace had adopted, is only inclined
about 1° 41’ to the ecliptic. It hence results that the nodes group
themselves on the two planes much after the same manner, and that
the consideration of the invariable plane casts no new light on the
question.

At first view it would seem to be quite otherwise with regard to
the plane of the solar equator. As early as the beginning of the
last century, (Ifemoires de V Academie des Sciences, 1734,) Cassini had
observed that the intersections of the equator of the sun with the
orbits of Venus, the earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, grouped them-
selves on an arc of less than 25 degrees in extent. In 1851 M. d’ Ar-
rest made an analogous calculation for the first thirteen asterords,
and found that, notwithstanding a more considerable mean divergence
of the ascending nodes on the solar equator, eleven of those nodes
out of thirteen were situated in the same hemisphere with the nodes
of the ancient planets. We have taken up and completed the work,
as well for the eight great planets now known as for the 70 asteroids,
and we give the results at which we have arrived, while adopting
for the position of the solar equator the numbers ascertained by M.
Langier:

Longitude of the ascending node of the solar equator on the

OCLIDBIE Ws). ei SNL EC EN A. Pe IL Star ate 75° 8B

Dea RTT hale Us a he ls forse TARTS Ae favs hablar eee ne ele le vai'e 4 aned tee ae eee TO 9!

: REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS. 211
For the Jarge For the small
‘ planets. planets.
Arc of the solar equator, reckoned from the as-
cending node of that equator on the ecliptic
to the centre of convergence...--. +++. +++. 184° 9! 164° 56’
Coefficient of convergence -..... eee eeeeees 0,904 0,624

These coefficients are, we see, much more considerable than those
found above. Moreover, of the 70 ascending nodes, 62 are situated
inthe same hemisphere with the centre of convergence, and only
eight in the opposite hemisphere. But, notwithstanding the apparent
singularity of this result, a little reflection will suffice considerably
to diminish its importance, for it arises, in great measure, from the
fact that the planetary orbits are less inclined to one another than to
the equator of the sun. We perceive, in effect, without difficulty,
a priori, that closely adjacent planes, conformably with lines closely
approximate, must intersect another plane, which forms with each
of them an angle of some degrees. The same considerations explain
why the convergence is more marked in regard to the great than the
small planets. It must be admitted, then, that this phenomenon has
not the importance attributed to it by Cassini and some modern
astronomers; but the calculation, of which we have just given the
results, is not less useful on that account for determining, better than
the nodes on the ecliptic could do, the position in space of the mean
orbit of the asteroids, of which the masses should be considered
as equal. We may, with M. d’Arrest, regard as the plane of the
mean orbit the plane which cuts the solar ecliptic according to the
line of convergence, under an inclination equal to the mean of the
inclinations of all the asteroids; that is to say, under an angle of 9°
58’. No doubt the inclination thus determined is not absolute, and
would change slightly at each new discovery. But as we find results
but little different when the calculation is confined in succession to
the 30, 40, or 60 first known asteroids, we are justified in concluding
that these results are sufficiently approximate to that which the whole
number of the small planets would give, if-all were discovered.

RELATION BETWEEN THE ECCENTRICITIES AND INCLINATIONS OF THE ORBITS.

M. d’ Arrest, while remarking that great inclination is not always
accompanied by great eccentricity, and that a consideration of the
separate orbits guides us to no relation between these two elements,
conceives, nevertheless, that if these orbits are suitably grouped in
the order of their inclinations to the solar equator, the mean of the
inclinations, for each group, would increase with the mean of the
eccentricities ; he has even arrived, for the first thirteen planets
grouped by fours and by threes, at the following empirical formula,
in which 7 expresses the mean inclination, and e the mean eccen-
tricity of each group: :

e — 0.0851 + 0.0068 7.
M. Littrow, who has given this formula in his Astronomy, (1854,)

212 REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS.

adds that it would probably be confirmed by the discovery of new

asteroids. The results obtained by us are not in accordance with
this supposition. In whatever manner we may group the orbits, it is
impossible to arrive at any law for inclinations below 12 or 13 degrees.
The sole remark which remains true is, that. the orbits, much in-
clined to the solar equator, are also in general very eccentric; but
as, on the other hand, these orbits are much inclined to the ecliptic
as well as to the solar equator, we see that there is nothing in the
preceding remark which can be specially relative to this last plane.
Still, exceptions to the rule ought to be pointed out; for instance,
the most eccentric of all the orbits, that of Polymnia, makes but an
angle of two degrees with the ecliptic, and of six with the solar
equator; while the orbit of Egeria possesses, with inclinations of 16
and 11 degrees to these same planes, an eccentricity of only 0.089.

VIL

INTERLACEMENT OF THE ORBITS AND APPROXIMATIONS OF THE SMALL
PLANETS.

If we compare two by two the positions of the orbits of the
asteroids, we see that it is rarely that one of them is completely
enveloped by another; most frequently they are intertwined after the
manner of the rings of a chain. M. d’ Arrest was the first to remark
that if we represented all the orbits under the form of material hoops,
these hoops would be so intervolved that we might by means of one
of them raise all the rest. When but thirteen of the small planets
were yet known, they seemed to form two separate groups, between
‘which the planet Iris served as a connecting link; but at present this
remark is no longer applicable. ;

M. Littrow, the learned director of the Observatory of Vienna,
has particularly occupied himself with the research of the physical
conjunctions which, from this time till the end of the century, may
lead to remarkable approximations among the asteroids. The problem
consists of two parts: Ist, to find the shortest line which can be drawn
between two orbits; 2dly, to calculate the epoch at which the planets
describing those orbits shall pass nearly simultaneously by the two
extremities of that line. The first part of the problem is the most
important and most difficult. M. Littrow has investigated it by a
graphic method, which consists in seeking the intersection and mutual
inclination of the two orbits under consideration, tracing out the two
curves, taking the plane of one of them for the plane of projection,
and describing the other by the processes of descriptive geometry.
The astronomer of Vienna has thus found for the 42 orbits submitted
to discussion, 548 mutual distances less than the tenth part of the
radius of the terrestrial orbit—that is, than four millions of leagues.
In more than eighty cases the elements of the orbits are so com-
pletely different that it is impossible to foresee between these. curves |
any remarkable approximation, and yet the graphic method spoken
of brings them nearly to an intersection. The cases of double ap-

4
‘

REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS. 213

proximations are computed at one hundred and eight; sometimes two
orbits continue very near one another through a great part of their
circuit; thus, for a space of 192 degrees, the orbits of Huterpe and Mas-
salia are never separated more than a tenth part of the half of the
creater axis of the earth’s orbit. The approximations being once indi-
cated by the graphic method, we can determine them more exactly
by means of calculation, and it is easy afterwards to investigate the
period at which two planets must pass at the same time by the nearest
points of their respective orbits. M. Littrow has thus found that the
42 planets he has studied would, in the decennial period, 1858 to
1867, undergo eighteen physical conjunctions, to which he has invited
the attention of astronomers. It is readily conceived that the num-
ber of these conjunctions increases by a law much more rapid than
the number of new planets in such sort that, if we should recommence
the calculation for the 70 planets now known, we should doubtless
find. many other approximations of the same kind; but this would
require long and tedious application, without leading to definitive re-
sults as long as there shall remain asteroids to be discovered. There
are cases, however, where the investigation of physical conjunctions
only requires a graphic construction extremely simple; such is the
case where the two orbits to be considered have very nearly the
same line of nodes and the same inclination to the ecliptic. We may
particularly specify the orbits of Fides and Maia; their elements
present less difference than often exists between the elements of one
and the same planet, as given by different calculators. This is shown
by a comparison of the two following tables:

Fides. Maia.
Longitude of the ascending node. .+-+-++++++-+:-- Bo, ua ae ke
WMNGMUNALLON =< 2d e633 Bebe tee ee eee ee Rom! 3° 5!
Semi-great axis: + -+++ csee ee eee eee eee e ee ees 2,642 2,654
Eccentricity PEATE Pet ancy olache tsccretor eho: cbsice en 6 aie, stays nex sy sets 0,174 0,155
Longitude of perihelion. --+-+- e+e. seer eee eee 65° 7’ 43° 54!

If we disregard the mutual inclination of the two orbits, which is
but of two minutes, we may trace these two orbits on the same plane,
and we thus find two points of intersection, one of which almost
coincides with the perihelion of Maia. The distance between the
two curves rises at no point beyond the twentieth part of the radius
of the terrestrial orbit. At the present time the mean longitudes of
the two planets differ about forty degrees, but this difference con-
stantly diminishes, though slowly. When it shall have disappeared,
the two planets, notwithstanding their inconsiderable mass, and by
reason of their continual nearness, will exert upon one another an
action, perhaps, sufficiently strong to unite them in one single body,
or cause them to revolve, as the components of a,double star, around
their common centre of gravity. :

-

214 REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS.

1X.
ASPECT, PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION, AND REAL MAGNITUDE OF THE ASTEROIDS.

At the commencement of the present century Schroeter devoted
himself particularly to the telescopic study of the four planets Ceres,
Pallas, Juno, and Vesta. The care which this astronomer employed
in his observations gave great importance to the results of his labors.
Hence these results were long admitted without dispute; and we find
them reproduced in the most recent French treatises, although. for
the most part, they have been shown some years ago to be inexact.
Thus Schroeter had deduced from multiplied measurements the ap-
parent diameters of the four planets, and had concluded that the
largest amongst them, Pallas, presented nearly the same magnitude
as the moon. William Herschel, on the other hand, obtained num-
bers considerably lower, and yet these numbers were still too high,
* by reason of the effects of irradiation. This we ascertain from the
observations made, under unusually favorable circumstances, by
MM. Medler and Lamont, with the aid of the excellent refractors
of Dorpat and Munich. From the opposition of 1836, M. Lamont
found 0’.51 for the angular diameter of Pallas, at the mean distance
2.17, which gives about 250 leagues for the real diameter of the
planet. In April and May, 1847, M. Medler found in like manner
one hundred leagues for the diameter of Vesta. It is equally to the
effects of the irradiation that we must refer the cause of the vapor-
ous appearances assumed by Ceres and Pallas in the telescope of
Schroeter; appearances so marked that the astronomer of Lilienthal
attributed to those planets atmospheres 200 leagues in height. The
great refractor of Dorpat exhibits the disc of Pallas as clear as that
of Vesta, and thus vanishes one of the analogies which has been often
insisted upon between the comets and the asteroids.

The existence of a very considerable and turbulent atmosphere
would have sufficed, according to Schreeter, to explain the remark-
able variations which that astronomer had detected from day to
day in the brilliancy of Pallas or Ceres. At present it is neces-
sary to seek elsewhere the cause of this phenomenon, the reality of
which has in the mean time been confirmed by later observations.
It is probable that the asteroids, as an effect of their daily movement,
present to us in succession, regions unequally adapted to reflect the
light of the sun. But differences of this nature do not, according to
M. Littrow, sufticiently account for the rapidity and extent of the
variations observed, and, above all, for the truly stellar brilliancy with
which the planet Vesta sometimes sparkles, even when its disc pre-
sents no appreciable dimensions. The astronomer of Vienna thinks
that the asteroids are of irregular or polyhedric forms, and that they
sometimes turn towards us lustrous facets like those of the diamond,
or even endowed perhaps with an intrinsic light. However this may
be, these variations of brightness are observed in several of the

REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS. 215

asteroids discovered within fifteen years. For instance, M. Gold-
schmidt observed that on the 26th January, 1858, Pales was invisible
through a telescope which showed stars of the twelfth magnitude,
while on the 2d of February following, this same planet equalled in
brightness neighboring stars of the eleventh magnitude.

We have just seen that the attempts of Schroeter, Herschel, La-
mont, and Meedler to arrive at a direct measurement of the diameters
of Pallas, Ceres, or Vesta, have yielded results but little accordant.
With regard to the other asteroids such measurements have not
been even attempted; but the approximative value of the real dimen-
sions of each of them has been obtained from indirect considerations.
In fact, the magnitude under which a star shining by a reflected hight
is to be classed, depends evidently on the distance of that star from the
sun, on its distance from the earth, on its real diameter, and on the re-
flective power (albedo) of its surface.. Four of these quantities being
given, we can find the fifth. For the ancient planets, the albedo alone
is unknown; for the magnitude of each of them is easily expressed in
numbers by taking for bases the photometric measurements of MM.
Steinheil and Seidel. We thus find that the albedo is nearly the same in
Saturn, Jupiter, Venus, and Mercury; a little inferior in Mars, on account
of the red color of that star. As the asteroids, moreover, have in gene-
ral the white tint of the four first planets, we see that it is allowable to
suppose, also, that they have the same reflective power. Hence the
real diameter of these small bodies will alone remain unknown.

This being granted, it results, from the investigations of M. Seidel,
that the magnitude of a star increases by one unit when its distance
from the earth increases in the ratioof | to 1.6. From this M. Arge-
jander has deduced a very simple formula.

Let:

b= 1.6;

a, the semi-axis major of the orbit of a planet;

7, the mean distance of that planet from the sun;

A, the mean distance of that planet from the earth;

M, the magnitude of the star for =a and A=a—1,;
m, the magnitude of the star forr=r, and A= A,;

d, the real diameter expressed in leagues of 4 kilometers.

We shall have:

log. d= 2,7913 —m log. b+ log. r, + log. A,,
= 2,7913 —M log. b + log. a + log. (a — 1.)

216 REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS.

This formula gives the following table for the magnitudes of 50
asteroids and for their real diameters :

Jiestheee neers in 6.5 LOS oil), Buterpe 235 So ee 10. 2 15
Ceres eee sc san tiek wigs 7.4 89 ‘DE LLOM A aes daar tue eee te 10.3 24
Palins Viel Mo, 8.2 61 7" Ratena. 0 oe 10.3 16
Mris IL Sh Pe Po Sue 8.3 39 Bhocea ees 2 ee 10.5 14
Bp be Why coh ob ees 8.4 39 WP StIR = OR our oe 10. 6 15
PMNOMIG 20058 oe ejcine 8.5 AG) eo WIGeS oS Foca oh ees 10.7 18
Pectilie yaa ee ee 8.6 ADP? Nevsaue 2. LISLE Aaa eS 10.7 17
WMiora, 6s eseas Sie. 8.8 2° Fie Pala, 2%. ee a es 10.7 16
Fano sade se chs seek 8.9 427). Calliope: s 42228. ese 10.8 20
Metis» stack 32) 2 8.9 30 Bales: s422 28. eecemee 10.8 18
aemoniage cee. oa. ot A0F 1 | neroserpinaeea. ao sees 10. 8 16
Amphitrite 22055. Jt ou 33 Liedat Chetan ee 10. 9 15
Massilia’ so 2edeneld. Qo< 951 27 Isis. ssbb ieee eeGuee 10.9 10
Parthenope ..:.-==---- 9.4 25 Pomonajen: | arrestee 11.0 138
Melpomene. 2.0 ae. ae a 9.4 21 EKuphrosyne. --.------- 11.3 20
MBETIA 22 cee wee athe 9.4 28 Polynmia- 202235252222 11.3 14
Miygelae wae Sto6 oh. 935 AO ATE Dorister2a3 yee ate 11.4 21
Hortunay. 52 322-5. 322. 9.5 24 Aglaia: ceo S53: eee 11.4 15,
NE GME eee eee b tous 9.6 2d Ni), Cuneo yt. he ea eee 11.5 9
Urania eee se 9.7 20). Hugenias. casi aa ee 11.6 11
Piychesy fetes tS 9.8 86 dl *Dhemipcs, ba, jaleeed 12.1 14
Meiers ees ens 1 9.8 24) \| Levenitioe se. 33222 o.u 12.1 9
WiGhorta Sac ee dcces 10.0 2 > tVETS ii aoe see 12.4 8
Ariana, C2 SOULE Tote 10.0 4) |) Hhestin) 42° eeceeee ees 12.5 6
Daphne use oase ues 10. 2 lf) |), Atalanta.o.3. 23220234 12.9 8
|

It will be remarked that this calculation gives for the diameter
of Vesta nearly the same number as the direct measurement, but a
much less number for the diameter of Pallas. We are struck, also,
at the extreme smallness of some asteroids, such as Hestia, Verginia,
Atalanta, Circe, Leucothoe, &c., which have a radius of scarcely three
or four leagues, and whose surface is less than that of one of our
smallest departments. A good walker might make the tour of one of
these microscopic globes ina day. With an equal density, gravita-
tion at its surface would be three or four times less than on the earth.

In short, if we take our computation from the preceding table, we.
find that the united volumes of the 50 planets above enumerated
would give scarcely the two-hundredth part of the volume of our
satellite.

X.
PERTURBATIONS OF THE ASTEROIDS, ETC.

The investigation of the perturbations of the asteroids has been as
yet scarcely sketched out ; the extreme difficulty of the problem re-
sults, on the one hand, from the small number of observations of
which astronomers can ayail themselves, and, on the other, from the

REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS. 217

magnitude of the inclinations and eccentricities of the orbits. Hence,
as has been already said, there are several of these orbits of which
the elements are at present known with but very little exactness. A
more rigorous determination of these elements, and the investigation
of their secular variations, constitute one identical problem whose
solution exacts the employment of new methods. There have been
constructed, indeed, from year to year since the beginning of the
century, tables of the four older asteroids by following the processes
of interpolation indicated by Gauss and Encke. MM. Brunow and
Hansen have even extended these processes to some of the more re-
cently discovered planets, such as Flora. But we arrive in this way
only with great difficulty at the analytic expression of the periodic
or secular inequalities. M. Hansen has recently published a new
theory of the planetary perturbations, the advantages of which are
pre-eminently decisive when the orbits are very much inclined or
very eccentric, and the distinguished astronomer has himself applied
this theory to the calculation of the perturbations of Egeria. M. Le
Verrier, on his part, has discovered the great inequality of Pallas by
a method wholly ‘different, to which M. Hoiiel has lately added some
improvements which facilitate its application. Such are very nearly
the attempts which have been made by geometers up to the present
time to master the theory of the small planets.

We have here as well one of the most recent as most interesting
of astronomical questions. The perturbations, necessarily very great,
which result from the attraction exerted by Jupiter, will give, when
they shall have been calculated, a very exact determination of the
mass of that planet. It will be more difficult to calculate the indi-
vidual masses of the asteroids, but we shall arrive probably without
excessive difficulty at a knowledge of the precise value of their com- _
bined masses. M. Le Verrier has already deduced from his investi-
gations respecting Mercury and Mars the higher limit of that value,
and it is to the following formula that he has himself reduced his re-
markable conclusions :

Ist. Besides the planets Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars,
there exists between the Sun and Mercury a ring of asteroids which
collectively constitute a mass comparable to that of Mercury itself.

2d. At the distance of the earth from the sun there is found a
-second ring of asteroids whose mass is at most equal to the tenth part
of the mass of the earth.

3d. The total mass of the asteroids comprised between Mars and
Jupiter is, at most, equal to the third of the mass of the earth.

4th. The masses of the two latter groups are complementary one
of the other. ‘Ten times the mass of the group situated at the dis-
tance of the earth, plus three times the total mass of the small planets
situated between Mars and Jupiter, form a sum equal to the mass of
the earth.

If we compare these results of the calculus with what has been
said above of the smallness of the volume of the asteroids, we shall
arrive at a remarkable consequence. By supposing that the mean
density of these bodies is equal with that of the earth, the united

218 REMARKS ON THE SMALL PLANETS.

masses of those with which we are acquainted would, at the most,
form the ten-thousandth part of the mass of our globe ; that is to
say, about the two-thousandth part of the total mass of the cosmic
ring comprised between Mars and, Jupiter. The number of the un-
known asteroids would then be at least two thousand times more con-
siderable than the number of those already discovered. It is in this
sense that M. Le Verrier says that these small bodies are indefinite
in number, and it is on this account especially that he is opposed to
the designation of each of them by a particular name, since it will
be necessary some day to stop doing so. But to this M. Hind and
almost all other astronomers answer that the number of the asteroids
which our instruments will enable us to perceive is probably suf-
ficiently restricted, and that there would be great inconvenience in
substituting simple ordinal numbers for the present nomenclature, on
account of the inevitable confusion which would result therefrom.
We are ourselves of this opinion, and we may perhaps be permitted
to add, as corroborative of the good reasons already given, that if
the proposal of M. Le Verrier were adopted, all investigations of the
nature of that which we now publish, after the example of what has
been often done in Germany, would by that means become almost im-
possible.

We terminate this paper with the table of the elements of the
small planets, prepared from the last edition of the Astronomy of M.
Meedler, and the last numbers of the Astronomische Nachrichten.

Synoptical table of the elements of the small planets.

maa : .
ee eae ar:
| $8 = Ss "ane SNe
mf oO , 2 = : ated
No. Names. Authors of the | Date of the | ss Sé = 3 3 = 3
discovery. discovery. | _« Se 2 a = ==
== D a es to 5 tae
| de | -£ 3 3 FAM te Sos:
= = o = as 4
| Days. | par a eee
DO MOEKES, loleinisls oivs EEDA Zl cle alts pete Jan. 1,180i | 2,766} 160,26 |} 0,080] 1036] 80 50| 149 97
A Pallas: 4 «sm sjeles Olbers: ...2 Mar. 28,1802 | 2,770 | 1683,86 239 | 34 42 ie ee 2 7
3| Juno ........| Harding.. -..| Sept. 1,1804 | 2,669 | 1593,21 955 | 138 3] 17
4 AV OBER danisscnst | Olbers ...,......| Mar. 29,1807 | 2,360 | 132484| 090|- 7 8] 10396| 950 21
© | AStrea ..c.0.. Hencke. sac. ss. Dee. 8,1845 | 2,576 | 1510,55 190 5 19 | 141 33 | 134 44
6 | PHOEBE: vsicsjseuie | ELONCKE. 5 c-isiesls\ cc July 1,1847 | 2,425 | 1579,63 | 0,201 | 14 46 133 30 15 13
lessee Abie de Windy alaasee ve Aug. 13,1847 | 2,386 1946, 46 2a ° a7 259 ai al 29
lOF seccscees ENC aatcie al biacaielats . 18,1847 2,201 1192,99 56 t 2 F
5 Metie ae eee : Guns PY Bi ccs Apnl 2571848 2386 | 1346,21 123} 536] 6833) 71 10
10 | Hygeia ....... Gasparis..... +... April 12,1849 | 3,149 | 2041, 40 100 | 3 47 | 287 45 | 227 55
11 | Parthenope ...| Gasparis.........| May 11,1850 | 2,452 | 1402,91 | 0,099 437] 125 5) 316 11
12 | Victoria ...... ETUC eis cis aE a(9 oie Sept.13,1850 | 2,334 | 1302,71 219 8 23 235 42 | 301 47
13 | Egeria........| Gasparis... ....| Nov. 2,1850 | 2,575 | 1509, 72 088 | 16 32] 4320) 119 32
PLUM Citas) ately biaeie May 19,1851 ie Ebe m RP 4D 9
WA Irene: .)..00: Gasparis......... May 93, 1851 2,589 | 1522,01 165 9. ZN eB 4208 S789
15 | Eunomia ,.... Gasparis'cinas (s/s) July 29,1851 | 2,643 | 1569,37 188 | Jl 44 | 294 1 27 52
16 | Psyche ....... Gasparis.........| Mar. 17,1852 | 2,926] 182841]. 0,135 | 3 4| 15037{ 12 35
7 Thetis sean eon LAUER ce cates April 17, 1852 | 2,474 | 1421,07 126 | 5 35 | 125 30 | 259 26
elpomene ...| Hind...........0. June 24,1852 | 2,296} 1270,61 217} 10 9] 150 6 15 19
19 | Fortuna ...... FRING icon weisiete picts Aug. 22, 1852 | 2,441 1393, 29 158 1 32 | Qi 32 30 24
a: Gasparis ........| Sept. 19,1852 | 2, 2
20 | Massilia..... ; Chie Sept, 2071852 | 2, 409 1365,96| 143| 041 | 206 43| 98 36
|
21 } Lutetia sc... Goldschmidt..... Nov. 15,1852 | 2,435 | 1388,21] 9, Le | 4 a ee 4 ee i
22 | Calliope ...... LENG ote vole ehateise Nov. 16,1852 | 2,909 1812, 28 3 | 13 44 3
93 | ‘Thalia .......4| Hind «2... 1101] Dees 1521852 | 97625 | 1553739/ 235/ 1014] 68 1| 193 16
24 | Themis........ Gasparis ........ April 5,1853 | 3,142 | 2034,22 117 0 48 36 11} 139 9
25 | Phocea.......! Chacornac ..... »'| April 6,1853 ! 2,402 1 1359.99 253 | 21 351214 51! 302 55

REMARKS

ON

THE

SMALL

PLANETS.

Synoplical table of the elements of the small planets—Continued.

Names.

Euterpe..

Urania
Pomona
Atalanta...
Fides.

Leda .....
Letitia .

Daphne

Verginia...

51 | Nemausa......
52 | Buropa......
53 | Calypso.......
54 | Alexandra ....
55 | Pandora, 2.4:
56 | Pseudo Daphne
57 | Mnemosyne...
58 Concordia ele
59 a-adaae
60 erst:
UG MEICHO ccs fos.
62 | Erato..... eee a
65 | Ausonia ......
64 | Angelina......
65 | Maximiliana ..
65 | Maia .....
BP PAIR testis
68 | Latona .......
69 | Hesperia.....
70 | Panopea......
|
7L | Niobe. .
72 Feronia.. sistecelate
AL row atttatc ce waeleenle

Amphitrite ..

Proserpina ....

Bellona......

Euphrosyne..

Polymnia . a i
Circe ..... masa
Lencothea....

teens

Harmonia... hist

te menee

BSIS ws sice miadistatata

fae wae

PPBLGH vis a s/ere'e ais

z

219

}

o 2 =
a5 3
Si S es
| 2 a Ps =
Authors of the | Date of the; Ts mS =
discovery. discovery. SIS =
ge] ‘2 2
ae Ea 5
a & a
Days.
y 5,1853 | 2,656 | 1581,08 | 0,087
. 8.1853 | 2,247] 1313,55] 7172
. 1,1854 2, 778 | 1691,57 150
ee » 1,1854
Pogson ....... ..-| Mar. 1,1854 | }2,555 | 1491,58 072
Chacornac ...... Mar. 2,1854
Hind ieee crenere July 22,1854 | 2,364 | 1327,75 127
Ferguson........| Sept. 1,1854 | 3,156 | 2048,01 | 0,216
Goldschmidt..... Oct. 26,1854 | 2,586 | 1519.56 082
Chacornae ..,...| Oct. 28,1854 | 2,864 | 1770,89 337
Chacornac ...... April 6,1855 | 2,688 | 1609, 46 105
Luther.......-..| April 19,1855 | 2,985 | 1883,66 222
Goldschmidt.....} Oct. 5,1855 | 2,749 | 1664,50 | 0,298
Luther .....0e0..| Oct. 5,1855 | 2,642} 1568,64 175
Chacornac ......| Jan. 19,1856 | 2,740 | 1656,58 155
Chacornac,......| Feb. 8,1856 | 2,771 | 1684,84 11h
Goldscbmidt..... Mar. 1,1856 | 2,268) 1247,45 046
Goldschmidt..... May 22,1856 | 2,400 | 1358,30 | 0,202
Pogson... sc0.-- ss May 23,1856 | 2,440 | 139220 225,
EOPSOn=.. snemes oe April 15,1857 | 2,204 | 1197, 74 167
Goldschmidt..... May 27,1857 | 2,424 | 1378,59 149
Goldschmidt... .| June 28,1857 | 2,716 | 1634,72 081
Pogson ..........| Aug. 16,1857 | 2,518 | 1459,24; 0,144
MAEMO Tr talete eles ete Sept. 15,1857 | 2,883 | 1788,11 128
Goldsehmidt..... Sept. 19,1857 | 3,109 | 1997,90 077
pee uonae easier Sept.19,1857 | 3,086 | 1980,20 238
erguson ..... Oct. 4,1857 | 25 =~
futher accesses Oct. 19, 1857 he, BAO aS Taaet a
Laurett......... Jan. 22,1858 | 2,378 | 1539,33 | 9,063
Goldschmidt... Feb. 4,1858 | 3,100 | 1993, 47 101
MEM Or eis cteteis cise April 4,1858 | 2,610 | 1540,45 213
Luther ..........| Sept. 10,1858 | 2,708 | 1627,31 199
Searle...........| Sept. 10,1858 | 2,769 | 1683,18 139
Goldschmidt.....| Sept.13,1858 | 2,583 | 1552,00 | 0,227
PENN en eee a's Jan. 1,1860 | 3,155 | 2047,10 106
TAWA Cr ere ttgiac ss Jan. 10,1860 | 2,693 1619, 01 040
Chacornac ...... Sept. 9,1860 | 2,605 | 1501 196
Goldschmidt..... Sept. 12,1860 | 2,975 | 1875 163
Ferguson......... Sept. 14,1860 2, 392 1352 0, 185
Forster & Lesser..| Sept.14,1860 | 3,124) 2019 169
Gasparis......... Feb. 10,1861 | 2,397 1356 123
Tempel .........| Mar. 4,1861 | 2,678 | 1602 125
Tempel .... Mar. 81861 | 3,452 | 2343 14]
Muttleccacteeesta April 9,1861 | 2,654 | 1580 0,155
Pogson .. .. April 17,1861 | 2,582 | 1516 320
Luther . »-»..| April 26, 1861 2,775 1688 204
Schiaparelli- ebees April 26,1861 | 3,075 | 1958 194
Goldschmidt..... May 5.1861 | 2,499} 1445 071
MUther tec 5/0s: Aug. 13,1861 | 2,756 | 1671 0,173
Safford. ......:..| Feb. —, 1862 | 2,145 | 1148 0,119
FISEIEUICs a afolcteie,« civic April 7,1862 |No elem/ents have |yet been

|

DMD e

ad

~~

— O

* ce
5 | 32

5 =

S | 33

oO =>

= as
> ah ° !
3 36 45 56
1 35 93 45
9 Qt | 144 40

6 7 | 356 27 |
29 6; 308 15
96 25 81 29
5 29 | 220 52
157] 919
5 26 | 184 49
8 12} 356 11
18 42 | 859 12
Seats
6 58 | 296 31
10 21 | 157 23
4 16 93 33
15 48} 180 9
8 35 &4 30
3 28 | 264 32
3 42/131 3
6 35 | 148 7
2917) 181 31
5 0| 433
6 30 | 185 16
3 Br} 290eBr
2 48 | 173 34
10 15 | 175 39
725 | 129 59
5 8 | 144 16
11 47 | 313 52
el 10 56
7 56 | 194 58
15 4} 200 9
5 3| 161 2
6 36 | 167 9
18 17 | 334 19
3 34 | 191 58
213 | 196 41
5 45 | 338 3
120/311 2
3 29 | 159 9
|

3°54) evil
63 204 39.)
7 58 44 50
8 27 | 186 54
117 47 24
23 18 | 316 18 |
5 23 | 208 1 |

publish ed.

a | Longitude of the
perihelion.

190
102 4

293
10

995 1

53 25
177
337
340

93

[it will be seen that we have added to the original list three asteroids discovered since the middle of 1861,
for an account of which we are indebted to Professor Hubbard, of the National Observatory.—Sec. Smith. Inst.]

DIRECTIONS FOR OBSERVING
THE SCINTILLATION OF THE STARS,

By CH. DUFOUR,
PROFESSOR AT MORGES, SWITZERLAND.

TRANSLATED ¥OR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, FROM THE ‘‘REPERTORIUM FUR METEOROLOGIE,””
ETC.: DORPAT, 1859.

*

Even to the most recent times the scintillation of the stars has not
formed the subject of any series of observations. We find here and
there, it is true, some isolated observations, and a few persons have
proposed different explanations of this phenomenon, but as yet no
course of investigation had been seriously prosecuted. J may claim
to be the first who undertook a labor of this kind. My observations
at Morges in 1852 were at first but a succession of attempts, but from
1853 to the present moment I have allowed no evening, when the
stars could be seen, to pass without carefully observing the scintilla-
tion. And now, after the dedication of six years to such inquiries, I
feel authorized to pronounce that this study is important, and well
deserves to occupy a place among meteorological observations.

But in order that the results may be general and more complete, it
is desirable that systematic observations analogous to those which I
have undertaken should be prosecuted elsewhere in other climates
and under varied meteorological circumstances. There can, at pres-
ent, but four stations be counted where I am justified in hoping that
this inquiry has been entered upon and will be persistently carried
on:
1. Morges, Switzerland, 46° 30! north latitude, 4° 9’ east longitude |
from Paris. Since 1853 I have taken at this station nearly 24,000
observations of scintillation. The principal results thus far obtained
from these numerous observations have been published either in the
‘Comptes Rendus’’ of the Academy of Belgium, or in those of the
Academy of Paris, or in the Notices of the Astronomical Society of
London, or in the Bulletins of the Vaudoise Society of the Natural
Sciences. I propose soon to communicate some of these observations
to the ‘‘Repertorium,’’ &c., as a sequel and complement to the pres- |
ent directions:

2. The great St. Bernard, in the Alps, at an altitude of 2,480
meters. The monks, who pass the whole year in these elevated re-
gions on the borders of perpetual snow, have consented to continue

|
|
|

THE SCINTILLATION OF THE STARS. 2O1

the observations which I began there in the summer of 1856, during
a sojourn amongst them.

3. Cairo, where Mahmoud Effendi, director of the observatory,
has commenced or will immediately commence a series of observations
analogous to that at Morges.

4. Peak of Teneriffe, where Mr. Piazzi Smyth, director of the ob-
servatory of Edinburg, has already on one occasion spent several
months with a view to scientific inquiries. He has promised me that,
if, as he hopes, it shall be in his power to continue his researches on
this isolated mountain, the scintillation of the stars will be a subject
which will engage his particular attention. .

Four stations, however, are but a small affair for the whole surface
of the globe; among others, there are certain climates and countries
with regard to which no information is accessible,, for example:

The torrid zone—There is on this zone no point of observation.
The Peak of Teneriffe approaches it more closely than any other, but
it would be important to know how the stars scintillate in the view
of an observer situated between the tropics, in the hottest and proba- —
bly the most humid countries of the globe.

The southern hemisphere.—Observations made beneath the skies of
the other hemisphere would also possess great interest; for not only
would the observer be placed in very different meteorological con-
ditions, but he could observe certain stars which are always invisible
to us, among others, Achernar and Canopus. The beautiful stars of
that hemisphere, Sirius and Rigel, which we see only in winter, are
visible to the south of the equator during the hot season; they pass,
moreover, nearer to the zenith. It would be interesting to see how
the scintillation is modified by this assemblage of circumstances.

The boreal regions.—-The countries, however, which would afford
the best opportunities for valuable observations are those situated to
the north. It would be of consequence to know how the stars scin-
tillate during the cold and serene nights of Siberia, or even of Russia,
in Kurope—what appearance they present in this respect on the polar
seas during those long nights which last for several consecutive
months. Hence, I particularly commend this study to the numerous
savans who live in Russia, who, from Dorpat to Archangel, from the
borders of the Frozen ocean to the shores of the Black sea and the
Caspian, might collect a numerous series of important observations.

I commend this study also to explorers who may be called to pass
entire winters amidst the ices of the pole. I greatly regret that my
own observations did not commence ten years sooner, as I might have
had the opportunity of pointing out this line of inquiry-to the. nu-
merous navigators who have traversed the polar seas in search of Sir
John Franklin and been imprisoned whole winters by the ice. Such
expeditions may be, and probably will be renewed. I take the lib-
erty of calling the attention of these future explorers to the scintil-
lation of the stars as a department of research which may prove In
their hands fertile in interesting results.

222 DIRECTIONS FOR OBSERVING

But to save observers from fruitless trials, and to place at their
service the experience which I have acquired from the numerous ob-
servations made at Morges, as well as to render the indications of one
observer comparable with those of another, I think it proper to
recommend the following instructions:

1. Manner of observing.—tI have tried different scintillometres, all
those indicated by ei and even a new one proposed by myself;
but I have come definitively to the conclusion that for observing,
none of them are equal to the naked eye.

It is easy, when one is a little accustomed to it, to judge with sufli-
cient exactness whether one star scintillates more than another, and
the scintillation may be indicated by a number, as in meteorology we
mark by a number the state of the sky or the force of the wind. For
my own use I have, desiguated by 0 an absence of scintillation, and
by 10 one of those strong scintillations which are seldom witnessed
except when the star is near the horizon, when it appears to scin-
tillate, change color, or even disappear. With a little practice, we
succeed even in distinguishing degrees between the scintillations 0
and 1 and 1 and 2, &c.; we can then appreciate the scintillation with
more exactness, and designate it, for instance, by 0.4, 1.6, &. It
is scarcely possible, however, to carry these subdivisions of gradation
beyond the scintillations 4 or 5.

This is my own scale; another observer may frame such an one as
he thinks suitable. The figures may vary, but the relations will re-
main essentially the same; thus my brother Marc, who has been
engaged nearly a year in observing the scintillation, employs a much
lower scale, yet we are generally in accord as to the relation of the
numbers; we are always so in regard to the question whether one
star scintillates more or less than another, and whether the scintilla-
tion during one evening is stronger or more feeble than during another
evening. Now, this is the important point, for since all the observa-
tions cannot be made by the same person, it will be often difficult to
know if the scintillation is exactly of the same intensity at Pulkova,
at Archangel, on the Peak of Teneriffe, or at Morges.

I shall show presently, however, how these inconveniences can
be obviated within certain limits.. But in all cases, by following the
mode of observation just indicated, it will be possible to know how at
each of these stations the scintillation varies from one day to another,
and whether this variation appears to bear a relation to any meteoro-
logical perturbation.

It is scarcely necessary to add that the height of the star which
scintillates must always be known, or at least be capable of determi-
nation. But in place of observing this height directly, it is more
simple to calculate it from the hour of the observation, and, to abridge
the calculation, a table may be prepared in advance, indicating, with
reference to the latitude of the station, the height of the stars ob-
served at different sidereal hours. My own table gives these heights
for Morges from half hour to half hour. This table answers the pur-
pose, for in the interval of a half hour one may interpolate with all
the necessary exactness, since it is useless to know the height of a star,

THE SCINTILLATION OF THE STARS. 298

within a few seconds; an approximation of a degree or half a degree
suffices. ©

2. Reduction of observations.—It is well known that, all things be-
sides being the same, the scintillation is so much the more feeble in
proportion as the stars are nearer the zenith, whence it would seem
impossible to compare observations if they have not been all made at
the same height.

But, as I shall explain in a subsequent note, in comparing a great
number of observations made under highly favorable conditions, inas-
much as there had been no apparent atmospheric perturbation, neither
- for some days preceding nor following, I have ascertained that the
scintillation really decreases when the star aproaches the zenith, and
that for any height whatever the scintillation is sensibly proportional
to the product obtained by multiplying the thickness of the stratum
of air which the luminous ray traverses by the astronomical refraction
for the height under consideration.

- Let us designate this product by P. By representing the height
ot the atmosphere by 1, and counting the refractions by sexagesimal
seconds, we find that for different heights the values of P are:

Height of the star. Value of P. Height of the star. Value of P.
20° 444 55° 49.7
25 286 60 38.7
30 198 65 30.0
30 143.1 70 22.5
40 106.9 75 16.1
45 81.8 80 10.4
40 63.6 85 d.1

These numbers sufficiently well represent the gradation of the nor-
mal scintillation at Morges, when the height of the star above the
horizon varies from 20° to 75°. Below 20° the calculated values do
not correspond with the observations, but the proximity of the hori-
zon affords a sufficient explanation of this deviation, while as regards
the stars situated at a greater height than 75°, their scintillation is
in general so feeble, that the smallest error in the appreciation of it
modifies very considerably the relation of the numbers.

In this way, when we have observed at a height of 60° a scintilla-
tion of 1.6, and would know the scintillation of the same star under
the same conditions if it had been but at 45° above the horizon, we

should have :
: 1.8
Scintillation at 45° = aes . ih At

3. Hrrors to be avoided.—Often, from one day to another, the scin-
tillation varies considerably, but it augments or diminishes in a
proportional manner for all the stars, except perhaps for those which,
near the horizon, have always a strong scintillation, and aside also
from accidental causes which may momentarily modify it. Among
these accidental causes we may cite first the crepusculum which
almost always considerably augments the scintillation, and secondly
the neighborhood of clouds. It was M. Kemtz, I believe, who first
observed that the scintillation is greater when there are clouds in the

224 DIRECTIONS FOR OBSERVING

sky, especially clouds chased by the wind. The fact is certain. I
have recognized its truth in thousands of circumstances, and I am not
aware of having detected a single exception. In view of this, I do
not say that observations made on stars in the vicinity of clouds are
to be rejected, for these observations may also have their importance,
but it is necessary that regard should be had to this circumstance
which sensibly modifies the results.

As the light of the moon interferes with observations, those made
at full moon must necessarily be less exact than those made on moon-
less nights.

4. Comparison of observations made by different persons.—Here is
the delicate poimt. What has been said may serve for the study of
the phenomenon of scintillation when a single person is charged with
making all the observations. But when there are several, how shall
we know that the scintillation which one observer designates by 2.5
is equal to that which another designates by 2.5?

This uniformity I believe it impossible to realize; and, unless the
observers were formed in the school of more experienced observers,
I am certain that it is not to be attained, Yet I shall proceed to
show that there is a mode of recognizing whether, in absolute value,
the scintillation is stronger at one station than at another station.

At Morges, on nights of strong scintillation the stars in the zenith
have a very distinct scintillation. During nights of average scintil-
lation, the scintillation of stars at a very high elevation is weak,
though alwaysappreciable. But, on nights when scintillation is weak,
the stars near the zenith have none at all. And the weaker the scin-
tillation during an evening, the more extended is the spherical canopy
of which the zenith is always the centre, and which comprehends the
stars whose scintillation is inappreciable.

Thave sometimes observed that,at a time of very weak scintillation
the stars ceased to scintillate when they had ascended 42° above the
horizon, but I have never seen scintillation entirely cease in stars at
a lower elevation; and yet, according to Arago, this sometimes hap-
pens. He cites, among others, the observations of M. de Humboldt,
who says: On the banks of the Oronoco no scintillation can be dis-
tinguished in the stars, even at 4° to 5° above the horizon. Le
Gentil asserted, that at Pondicherry, in the months of January and
February, the stars have no scintillation. Beauchamp writes to
Lalande that at Bagdad the stars, when they had ascended 46° above
the horizon, no longer scintillated.

Garcin announced in 1743 that at Bender Abassi, on the-shores of
the Persian gulf, in spring, summer, and autumn, the stars- showed
no scintillation; it was in winter, only, that a slight one could be dis-
covered. According to Humboldt, scintillation is, in general, not
perceptible at Cumana when the stars are at an elevation of 25°, &c.

Assuredly, I have never witnessed at Morges, during six years, so
weak a scintillation, but in thus discriminating the heights at which
the stars cease to scintillate, the observations which I have made are
susceptible of being compared with those of Le Gentil and Humboldt.
Hence I particularly invite the attention of observers to this point,

THE SCINTILLATION OF THE STARS. 225

as probably affording the best means of comparing the values obtained
at different places on the globe.

While scintillation is readily appreciable for stars of the first mag-
nitude, it is much less so for those of a lower grade; and thus in
considering the stars as they become less and less brilliant, we arrive
finally at those in regard to which scintillation is wholly unapprecia-
ble; though this limit itself varies from one day to another, according
as the general scintillation is stronger or weaker. Here, then, we
have still another criterion for a comparison of the scintillation. It
suflices to say to what degree of magnitude the stars appear to scin-
tillate; and as we have seen that the height of stars above the horizon
has a great influence on the intensity of the phenomenon, it will be
always necessary to cite by name some of these stars, and to indicate,
besides, what is their height above the horizon, or at least the hour.
of the observation.

5. Variable stavs.—Of all the stars which I have observed, alpha
of Orion is that whose scintillation has appeared to me most irregular,
but we know that the brightness of this star is not always the same.
Now, in regard to the variable stars, we know at most but the dura-
tion of their period, and hence their scintillation is also an interesting
phenomenon for our study. It would be interesting, especially in
relation to 7 of the Ship, the singular variations in the brightness of
which have so much surprised astronomers for 30 or 40 years past.
Unluckily this star only begins to be visible at 31° of north latitude,
and it is necessary to proceed nearly to the equator before it can
attain an elevation of 30° above the horizon; that is, a height sufi-
ciently great for the satisfactory study of its scintillation. This in-
vestigation must be resigned, therefore, to those who have an oppor-
tunity of observing the skies of the other hemisphere. .

6. Scintillation of planets —It is the general belief that the planets
have no scintillation, or next to none. Yet Venus and Mars have
often a very perceptible scintillation. In some rare instances I have
even detected a slight scintillation in Jupiter and Saturn. It would
be of some importance to those who seek to explain the phenomenon
of scintillation to know whether, in fact, the scintillation of these
planets is ever very distinct, and the inquiry may be properly recom-
mended to those who may be placed in such physical circumstances
as render the general scintillation unusually strong. Perhaps Jupiter
and Saturn might then be seen to scintillate with great distinctness.

T. Accidental observations.—In order, finally, to completé the study
of this phenomenon, it will be necessary not to neglect exceptional
circumstances, among others the observation of scintillation in case
of an aurora borealis, whether in regard to the stars which seem im-
mersed in the light of the aurora or those situated in other regions
of the firmament. During six years I have not been able to make,
at Morges, any observation of this kind. As to observations of the
scintillation by those stationed on mountain heights, M. Piazzi Smyth
recollects that scintillation appeared very weak as observed from the
summit of the Peak of Teneriffe, and I constantly realized the same

15

226 DIRECTIONS FOR OBSERVING

fact during my sojourn at the Great St. Bernard. Is it always the
case ?

8. Accessory observations.—That observations made upon the subject
in question may be really valuable, it behooves us that they should
be accompanied by meteorological observations as complete as pos-
sible. Let the indications of the barometer, the thermometer, and
the hygrometer at least be noted, as well as the state of the sky and
the force and direction of the wind. It is probable that in the
localities where scintillation will be observed, meteorological obser-
vations will also be made and published; whence I presume it will
not be deyolving on observers any great increase of occupation if
they be persuaded to combine the records which have been made
for the study of meteorology with those collected for the study of
scintillation.

There remain, doubtless, a number of other details, depending on
the views of the observer and the circumstances in which he is
placed—details which I omit because they will naturally vary with
each individual. Iam content with having indicated the principal
subjects to which I would call the attention of observers, and whose
importance has been disclosed to me by experience.

I may be allowed, in conclusion, to address to those who shall be
disposed to observe the scintillation of the stars, particularly to those
residing in any climate greatly differing from that of Morges, the
earnest request that they will communicate to me a brief summary of
their observations. That the results at which they arrive will be of
the highest interest to me none can doubt, and the courtesy will be
gladly reciprocated on my part by furnishing other details to such as.
may be induced to engage in these researches.

I may state, in addition to what has been said in the foregoing
article on the subject of the planets, that I have seen Jupiter and
Venus distinctly scintillate, the last particularly, on the 3d of January,
1841, when the weather was stormy and the barometer rapidly sink-
ing. The feeble scintillation of the stars was, I remember, quite
striking when I viewed ‘them from the elevation of the Faulhorn.

I propose to give, in future numbers of the ‘‘ Repertorium,’’ various.
instructions for the observation of phenomena which are seldom the
subject of investigation, such as the polarization of the light reflected
by the atmosphere. Iu many phenomena this plays a more consid-
erable part than is generally believed, and since, in observations upon
Donati’s comet, the assertion has been frequently made that its hight
was polarized, as was determined also by Arago with regard to the
comets of 1819 and 1835, I take occasion to cite the following remarks
of Brewster, which occur in the ‘‘ Comptes Rendus’’ of the Academy
of Sciences, XLVIII, 384: ‘‘I am not aware that those who have ob-
served traces of polarization in the light of comets have noticed the
direction of the plane in which it was polarized. Without such an
observation, however, we cannot discover the cause. If the light is
polarized in a plane passing by the sun, the comet, and the eye, we
must infer that it is polarized by the reflection of the light coming

THE SCINTILLATION OF THE STARS. ze

from the sun; if it is polarized in an opposite plane, the polarization
may be due to the refraction of the atmosphere. If it is polarized
quaqua versus, (on every side,) that may depend on three causes, viz:
on the refraction by the surfaces of the object and eye-glasses; or on
an imperfection in the annealing of the glass of which the lenses are
formed; or on the circumstance that one or more of the lenses are
compressed by the mountings. Supposing it to be an effect of the
first of these causes, the openings of the object and of the eye-glasses
should be reduced to a central band, which would eliminate the light
polarized in an opposite plane, and would leave that which is polarized
in a plane perpendicular to the direction. By turning the tube or
the lenses the direction of the polarization would be changed. If the
polarization is produced by a defect in the manufacture of the glass
of the lenses, the existence of such imperfection will be rendered
evident by exposing the lenses to the polarized light. If the observed
polarization is owing to the reflection of the rays of the sun by the
comet or its envelopes, the small stars will be seen more distinctly
through it when the polarized light has been extinguished by one of
Nicol’s prisms.”’ :
L. F. KAMTZ,
Editor of the ‘‘ Repertorium.”’

SYNTHETICAL STUDIES AND EXPERIMENTS
ON METAMORPHISM
AND ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS.*

By M. DAUBREE.

TRANSLATED BY T. EGLESTON, FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

INTRODUCTION.

Ln varietate unitas (LEWwNITZ )

Ons of the first and most important problems which geology has
been called upon to solve is to determine what, in the formation of
the solid crust of the globe, is the part to be assigned to aqueous and
that which ought. to be attributed to igneous action. The question,
although it has been a long time under discussion, has not yet been
definitely settled ; it has even been complicated, since, in studying
more rigorously the different strata, there have everywhere been
found those which unmistakably exhibit evidence of a double origin.
Was it at the time of their formation that these ambiguous strata
acquired their double characteristics, or was one of these character-
istics acquired after the other, and, in the latter case, how can such
a succession of effects be accounted for? Such are the subjects, the
study of which constitutes, in its greatest generality, that part of
geology which has been called metamorphism.

When the influences which the interior regions of the globe exer-
cise on the surface show themselves by daily phenomena, such as hot
springs, eruptions of volcanoes, earthquakes, or by effects of which
man has not been the witness, but of which he finds stupendous
traces, such as the eruption of rocks and the upheaving of mountain ,
chains, it is a subject full of interest, and in which every one is ready
to engage. But when these influences have produced only slow
modifications invisible, inaccessible to direct observation from the
depth at which they have taken place, and are without doubt still
going on, it is easily conceived that they excite incomparably less
interest, and, moreover, that they present peculiar difficulties of in-
vestigation. If, however, we consider that these great transforma-
tions were carried on over a large part of the earth’s crust, and that,
according to all probability, their importance increases from the

* Annales des Mines. 5 series, vol. 16, pp. 155 and 393.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 229

surface downwards to the point where they become predominant in
the depths ; that, in fine, they are in intimate connexion with all the
other manifestations of the internal activity of the globe, it must be
admitted that their study well merits the most serious attention.

It is this study of a phenomenon, so far as it is possible for us to
understand it at this day, that I present in this work. I shall divide
it into three parts: the first will be devoted to the history of the
question ; the second to the exposition of those facts which can be
considered as certain, and which the theoretical explanations which
form the subject of the third part, ought to explain. |

I have given considerable development to the historical part. To
signalize the efforts by which the theoretical ideas which we now
possess have been gradually acquired, is not only to render a just
homage to those who have illuminated science by their works, but
also to present a salutary warning against illusive speculations. Imn-
pulses of the imagination in the domain of geology are so much the
more to be deprecated, as even the induction founded upon observa-
tion is here most frequently without means of verification.

Although the historical citations are numerous, there are still many
gaps ; but not to too much extend this sketch, I should say that I
restrict myself to works of a fundamental character.

PART FIRST.
HISTORY.
CHAPTER I.

STATE OF GEOLOGY AT THE APPEARANCE OF THE HUTTONIAN SYSTEM.

During the last two centuries there have been men who, without
being what we now call geologists, have advanced such remarkable
ideas concerning the system of the globe, that they have had an in-
contestable influence on the works of those who, since their time,
have specially studied this part of science. Thus Descartes considered
the earth as a sun cooled on its surface, preserving in its interior a
central fire, which was the cause of the return of the waters of infil-
tration towards the surface, of the presence of metals in veins, and
of the dislocations of the solid crust.*

' From the same hypothesis of an original fluidity, Newton deduced

© The Princip'es of Philosophy of Descartes first appeared in 1644, (Latin edition of Am-
sterdam.) The acute genius of Descartes divined, as it were, several general facts, which
observation has since then established.

‘‘Feignons que cette terre a été autrefois un astre—en sorte qu’elle ne différait en rien
du soleil, sinon qu’elle etait plus petite. Au-dessus de la croite intérieure fort pesante, de
laquelle viennent tous les métaux, est une autre croite de terre moins massive qui est
composée de pierres, d’argile, de sable et de limon. Ce n’est pas le seul argent-vif qui
peut amener soit les métaux de la terre intérieure a ]’extérieur les esprits et les exhalarsons
font le semblable aux regards de quelques-uns, comme le cuivre, le fer et l’antimoine ’’—
(French edition of 1668, IV part, §§2, 44 and 72.)

230 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

by calculation the flattening which the terrestrial spheroid* should
present, and this idea was also adopted by Halley.

Still later, Leibnitz, stimulated both by the ideas of Descartes and
the very judicious observations of Stenon, published a work which,
notwithstanding the inevitable paucity of the facts on which it was
founded, bears the stamp of the genius which conceived it.t It was,
without doubt, from this source that the illustrious author of Les
Epoques dela Natwre drew his most profound inspirations;{ but the
works of Buffon, although exciting the attention in the highest de-
gree, were not calculated to convince, but to strike the imagination
very forcibly, and thus provoked precise observations destined to
solve the doubts which they had raised.

It was not in reality until the end of the last century, at the same
epoch when there was opened up for chemistry so new an horizon by
the discoveries of Lavoisier, Schile, Priestley, and Cavendish, that
the history of the globe began to disengage itself from preconceived
opinions, and that observation began to take the place therein which
belonged to it. The exact facts which men endowed with a genius
for observation, such as Agricola, Bernard de Palissy, and Stenon had
before signalized, were merged in an ocean of hypothesis. The
ideas concerning the history of the earth, published by Linneus, the
rival of Buffon, as historian of nature, presented only a summary of
the facts known and the ideas in vogue at that period.§

De Saussure, Pallas,** and Werner inaugurated, by works nearly
contemporaneous, the era of positive gevlogy, and all these disapprov-
ing emphatically of the boldness of Buffon, opposed his ideas, even
those which were well founded.tt Of these savants, all eminent ob-
servers, the two first were sparing of their inductions. But Werner
went further : he tried to analyze, to classify, and to co-ordinate facts,
and to describe them in definite and precise language, and gave to
the science the name of geognosy in contradistinction to geology,

= Principia Mathematica Philosophie Naturalis, 1667. .

{Leibnitz gave a sketch of the dissertation, known under the name of Protogea, in the
Acta Eruditorum, in the month of January, 1693; but it was not until thirty-three years
after his death, in 1749, the very year that Buffon published the first three volumes of
Natural History, that the whole Protogea was published.

{La Theorie dela Terreis dated 1749. Les Hpoques de la Nature appeared nearly thirty
years later, in 1778. Before Buffon, Mairan, having aspecial object in view, had developed
the idea of a central heat.

|The influence which Buffon exercised over the progress of geology has been deservedly
acknowledged by Mr. Elie de Beaumont. —(Legons de G'éologie Pratique, p. 24.)

§Systema Nature, 1775.

€De Saussure was born in 1740. He commenced his travels in 1760, and published in
1779 the first volumes of his Voyage dans lcs Alpes, where he has recorded so many im-
portant facts which have served, as it were, for the foundations of geology.

**Pallas published in 1777 his observations on mountains, and a few years after the nar-
rative of his long travels.

¢{These three great observers believed, as did Linnzus, that the strata were formed by
aqueous action, and that the volcanic phenomena were simply local accidents. De Saus-
sure declared, in 1798, after having visited Auvergne, that he could not admit that basalt
was of igneous origin, much less could he admit this origin for granite.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 231

which up to that time had been little else than an assemblage of
conjectures. *

To go back to the doctrines which were in vogue at the time when
the idea of metamorphism appeared, we ought first to call to mind the
fundamental principles of the celebrated professor of Freyberg, es-
pecially those which have disappeared in the progress of subsequent
discoveries. According to Werner, granite and the other crystalline
rocks are marine deposits, as much. so as the stratified and fossilifer-
ous rocks. Ata remote period the different materials from which the
strata were derived were either dissolved or held in solution in the
ocean. It was from this chaotic ocean that all the strata were, one
after the other, precipitated, some by chemical and others by me-
chanical means. This later mode of formation distinguished the
crystalline from the sedimentary rocks. According to this system,
granite, which composes the highest peaks of the globe, and which
also supports the regularly stratified deposits, was formed first, to-
gether with gneiss and the crystalline schistose rocks which are as-
sociated with it. As no organic remains are ever found in them, the
formation of these deposits necessarily preceded the existence of ani-
mals and vegetables, whence they received the name of primitive ; af-
terward the sea became shallower, and sank away into the interior
cavities of the earth.t During this second period a chemical precipi-
tation of the silicates continued to take place, but at the same time
mechanical deposits began to be formed. By this double process, at
once chemical and mechanical, the intermediate or deposits of transi-
tion which contain crystalline associated with sedimentary fossilifer-
ous rocks were formed. During a new period of the decrease of the
waters the secondary strata were deposited, the highest mountains of
which, it was then thought, never reached the altitude of the peaks
of the older deposits. They are often in horizontal beds and abound
in organic remains. During their consolidation, the strata expe-
rienced ruptures from which resulted cavities of all dimensions.
The water, in leaving these cavities, incrusted the long fissures,
through which it flowed, with the different materials it held in solu-
tion, and thus gave rise to metallic veins. Such, according to Wer-
ner, is the origin of all the strata composing the crust of the globe,

‘not including, however, the alluviums, the vegetable earth, and the
products of ‘volcanic fire, which he attributed to the conflagr ations of
the beds of carbonaceous combustibles. He explained the intimate
relation which evidently exists between the primitive and secondary
deposits, both in their mineralogical relations and in their association,
by supposing that the composition of the ocean, and consequently
the nature of its deposits, have varied from the time when granite
was precipitated from it, sometimes by a gradual and sometimes by a

*By the aid of positive facts, which Fuchsel had previously, in part, described in 1762,
Werner proved that a kind of chronology of the physical events eck had contributed to
the formation of the globe could be established

yLeibnitz had already tried to explain the drying up of continents i the retreat of the
water into vast interior voids, which he attributed to ancient cavities of gaseous inflation
produced at the time of the primitive fusion.

232 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

7
sudden process*. In short, according to the system of Werner, all
the strata were produced at their origin as they now exist. The in-
ternal activity of the globe is completely disregarded as well in re-
spect to the formation of crystalline rocks and metalliferous deposits,
as to its being the cause of the dislocations undergone by the strati-
fied deposits of all ages.

CHAPTER II.
HUTTONIAN SYSTEM.
While the teachings of Werner began to captivate general atten-

' tion and excite the enthusiasm of his pupils, thanks to the graces of
speech of the master and to the power of the method with which the

facts then known were brought together, another and a very different.

doctrine arose in Scotland. Gifted with a genius for observation not less
eminent than the professor of Freyberg, James Hutton came to opposite
conclusions on certain fundamental phenomena, and these two antago-.
nistic schools were simultaneously established. As far back as 1785.
Hutton published his Theory of the Earth.t Ten years later, after
having made several journeys in Scotland to collect new observations,

he developed his ideas in a more voluminous work under the same.

title. But what contributed more than anything else to make Hut-
ton’s doctrine known was the work of John Playfair, { his disciple:
and friend, who was at the same time a mathematician, a geologist,

and. a distinguished writer. His talent of exposition and elegance of.

style vigorously sustained the new ideas, as well against the violent
attacks of a small number who accorded to them a serious considera-
tion, as against the disdainful indifference of the majority, who re-.
garded them as unfounded. The importance of the works of Hutton

and of Playfair, in which, for the first time, we find certain fundamen-.

tal ideas of modern geology established and developed, and in par--
ticular the principle of metamorphism, obliges me to give here their
leading propositions, as I have done for those of Werner. This is, in

** When the solution covered the whole of the globe, and was of great depth, it wag,

tranquil and pure. For this reason the first rocks were exclusively crystalline. After-
wards, when the level of the sea was lowered and the earth appeared above it, currents

exercised a greater influence and destroyed a part of the pre-existing masses. On the-

other hand, atmospheric agencies attacked the emerged rocks. It is thus that mechanical
deposits were formed, and even became abundant.

{ Theory of the Earth, or an Investig tion of the Laws Observable in the Composition, Dissolution,
and Restoration of Land upon the Globe; by James Hutton, M.D., F R.S. Read the 7th of
March and the 4th of April, 1785, before the Royal Society of Edinburg ; 96 pages, in
4to. A second paper on the same subject appeared in 1786. The second edition of the
work is entitled, Theory of the Earth, with Proofs and Illustrations. In four parts. Edinburg,
2 vols., in 8vo., 1795.

On the other hand, Werner published his, /reatise on the Characters of Minerals, in 1774, at:
the age of twenty-four years. Soon after, about 1780, he began to develope in his lectures,
the principles of Geognosy. His Classification and Description of Strata dates 1787, and his New-
Theory of the Formation ef Veins in 1791.

t Playfair’s Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth. “Edinburg, 1802.

he es be pent le ie

‘

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 233

reality, the only way to do justice to the author of these fundamental
discoveries and to his successors. We shall follow the order adopted
by Hutton and his commentator.

The author remarks in the outset that certain deposits, which he
qualifies as primitive, appear to have been formed in the same manner
as the recent sedimentary strata. It is thus that the beds of the
Alps, considered as primitive, cannot be anterior to the existence of
vegetables, since they contain numerous remains of them in the form
of mineral combustibles. Furthermore, other crystalline deposits con-
tain beds consisting of sand and pebbles; they were, therefore, formed
from the detritus of pre-existing deposits; for if we should admit,
with Deluc, that quartz sand is a chemical deposit, we cannot explain
why there is none existing in the midst of the most crystalline masses,
particularly in granite and metalliferous veins. The compactness
of these rocks, which are at the same time sedimentary and crystal-
line in structure, could only result from the action of heat and from
softening. According to Hutton, if a foreign substance in a state of
solution had penetrated the pores of the rock, the liquid would have
of necessity left certain cavities. The masses of lamellar limestone
which often accompany this species of crystalline rock also supply
him with an argument; for he assumes, as beyond a doubt, that lime-
stone, in which Black had just discovered carbonic acid, could only
retain its gaseous element at a high heat when the rock was at the
same time submitted to great pressure. He adds that, under these
circumstances, carbonate of lime can even be melted. We know that
this bold conjecture was afterwards confirmed by the experiments of
his most celebrated disciple.*

The modé of occurrence of the different species of mineral com-
bustibles contributed to the support of this same theoretical idea.
After having remarked that, in the Isle of Sky, ordinary lignite
changes, under the basalt which covers it, into a compact combusti-
ble, with a brilliant fracture like coal, Hutton concluded, as Buffon
had previously supposed, that coal had the. same origin as lignite;
that the beds of coal and deposits of bitumen result from the transfor-
mation of vegetable and mineral matter by heat and under the influ-
ence of pressure.

-In the generalization of this idea, he came even to include gra-
phite in the series of products derived from the burial and transfor-
mation of organic bodies. Thus. by an idea entirely new, the illus-
trious Scotch geologist supposed water and the internal heat of the
globe to have successively co-operated in the formation of the same
rocks.

It is a characteristic of genius to comprise, under a common origin,
very dissimilar phenomena. Subterraneous heat, according to Hut-
ton, not only consolidated and mineralized the strata at the bottom
of the sea, but it had, moreover, raised and depressed beds which were
originally horizontal. Saussure had then just observed the elevation

*= Sir James Hal!, whose conclusions on the simultaneous action of heat and pressure
will be noticed presently.

234 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

and subsequent depression of the celebrated conglomerates of Valor-
sine, without, however, giving an opinion as to the cause of the phe-
nomenon.* Another discovery, due also to Hutton, had an important
influence on geology; I refer to the eruptive origin of granite. In
the study of this rock in his own country, especially at Portsoy and
in Glen-Tilt, he perceived that it forms veins in the surrounding
masses, showing that it was injected in a fluid state; and, further,
that its mineralogical nature indicated the action of heat. It is,
however, just to add that Strange, a compatriot of Hutton, had just come
to the same conclusion.t The rocks known to the English under the
names of trap, toadstone, and whinstone, have also been injected in
regions where there were no indications of volcanoes.t Hutton
proves this by the numerous examples which he had observed in
Scotland, a country eminently favorabie for this kind of study. He
investigated, besides, the cause of the difference between these subter-
ranean lavas and those thrown out from volcanoes, in which neither
zeolites nor calc spar are found. Here, too, it is heat under pressure,
which appears to him to explain this difference. To the author of
these fundamental deductions, metallic veins, as Descartes had previ-
ously suspected, could only be injections of melted masses.

In short, Hutton explained the history of the globe with as much
simplicity as grandeur. The atmosphere is the region where the
rocks decompose; their detritus next accumulates at the bottom of the
sea. In this great laboratory the shifting material, under the double
action of the pressure of the ocean and of heat, is mineralized, and
transformed into crystalline, having the appearance of the primitive
rocks, which are afterwards to be raised by the action of this same
internal heat, and again demolished in their turn. The disintegra-
tion of one part of the globe serves, therefore, for the continual recon-
struction of other parts, and the continuous destruction of the infe-
rior deposits produces, without cessation, rocks in a state of fusion,
to be injected in turn through the sedimentary deposits. It is a
system of destruction and of reconstruction of which it is impossible
to conjecture either the commencement or the end. As in the plan-
etary motions, where the perturbations correct themselves, we see
continual changes, though restrained within certain limits, of such a
character that the globe shows no signs either of infancy or of old
age.

* The observations of Stenon on the same subject, which Elie de Beaumont has
brought to light, (Annales des Sciences Naturelles, vol. xxv, p. 137 to 183,) appear to have been
entirely forgotten at that time,

+ Transactions, vol. 1xv, p. 5, 1775.

{ We must, however, remember that Desmarets had already long ago proved the igneous
origin of the basalt of Auvergne, of Italy, and of the northern coast of Ireland, (1768-
1771.)

\|| Speaking of the very conceivable error which Hutton committed on the origin of these
calcareous infiltrations, [ cannot help remarking with what penetration Spallanzani, an-
other great observer of nature of the same period, recognized the mixed origin of the
amyydaloid rocks of the Euganwan Hills. The disposition of their cavities satisfied him
that the rock had been melted, at the same time that the presence of carbonate of lime in

ttoresult from infiltrations.

a irre a tt

i a a i a i a Gl i

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 235

In considering this action as a continuous phenomenon, Hutton ob-
secured his beautiful conception, but he rendered an immense service
in showing that natural agencies which operate under our eyes ought
to serve as a sufficient explanation of the history of the globe, and
that we need not have recourse to other means of action than those
which nature now uses, while all the other systems, on the contrary,
suppose occurences which have no analogy with what now takes place.
Thus Hutton is really the founder of the prolific principle of the
transformation of sedimentary rocks under the action of heat.

However, we shall see, further on, that there are a great many
exceptions to be made to such absolute conclusions.* Like most men
of genius who have opened new paths, Hutton, it must be admitted,
exaggerated the range of the ideas which he originated. We can-
not, however, reflect without admiration on the profound penetra-
tion and the rigor of induction of this clear-sighted man, who, at a
period when there were very few precise observations, was the first
to recognize the simultaneous action of water and heatt+ in the forma-
tion of the strata, and imagined a system which embraces the entire
physical history of the globe. He laid down principles which are
now universally admitted, at least so far as they are fundamental.t

CHAPTER III.

SUCCESSORS OF HUTTON.

Even before the publication of Hutton’s doctrine an Italian ob-
server brought to light a fact from which he inferred that recent
igneous action may transform sedimentary rocks, even such as are
most modern. As early as 1778 Arduino| announced in the clearest

= Tron pyrites, so abundantly distributed, as well asall the minerals of veins, appeared to
him to be the productions of the dry way ; it served him asa proof of the action of heat
which the strata had undergone. He extended this observation to the flints of the chalk,
the solidity of which contrasts with the physical state of the silica known in laboratories.

+ In the cosmologies of Leibnitz and Buffon the central fire is supposed to have acted
only at the origin of the globe, before the formation of deposits. Combating certain ideas
which were in vogue, Hutton clearly shows that the internal heat of the earth can exist
without any interior inflammation or combustion.

{ Hutton, born in 1726, made observations in the wildest parts of Scotland, and medi-
tated more than forty years before publishing his first sketch. The sight of the veins of
granite of the valley of Glen-Tilt struck him as with a ray of light. He himself dis-
covered a larger part of the facts upon which he based his theories.

|| Osservazioni Chimiche sopra Alcuni Fossili; Venice, 1779. After having been employed
at the mine of Montieri, in the Maremme of Sienna, Arduino went to live at Vicenza,
where he was a surveyor. (Letters of Fortis on Vicentin.) Pazini has noticed his work
in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of France, vol. iv, p. 112.

‘: ]t appears to me,’’ says Arduino, ‘‘ that magnesia is only lime, possessed of peculiar
properties consequent upon subterraneous igneous action.’’ ‘‘ I have only found it in the
great ruptures of the calcareous beds of our mountains.’’

It is extremely remarkable that this new and bold assertion was made during the very
year that magnesia was discovered by the experiment of Retzius and Bergmann to be an
earth distinct from lime. It was not until eleven years later, in 1791, that Dolomieu
called attention toa peculiar kind of magnesian limestone which he had noticed in Southern
Tyrol.—(Journal de Physique, vol. xxxix, p. 3.) ‘The next year Theodore de Saussure pub-
lished the analysis of this rock, and gave it the name of dolomite, which it has still pre-
served.—(Journal de Physique, vol. xl, p. 161.)

256 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

manner the idea that the dolomites of Lavina, in the Vicentine, had
been formed at the expense of secondary limestone. The brechiform
nature of the rock caused him to think that the limestone had been
broken, and that the modifying and igneous agent had afterwards
penetrated from below, through the fissures. Twenty years later,
an English geologist, Dr. G. Thomson,* after having examined the
blocks of crystalline limestone from Mt. Somma, so rich in various
minerals, was led to consider them as Apennine limestone which
had been modified by heat, and propounded the question whether
the marble of Carrara had not had the same origin.

But what at that time contributed most of all to the support of the
newly-established principle of the transformation of rocks was a
series of experiments made by Sir James Hall.+ They were suggested,
he says, as far back as 1790 by Hutton. This was, properly speaking,
the first time that any one had seriously tried to introduce experi-
mental synthesis in the study of geological phenomena by bringing
to bear upon it something else than the observation of facts, as nature
presents them, and chemical analysis. Hall was encouraged in this
research by the frequent presence of nodules of crystalline limestone
in trap. He proved that under a definite pressure carbonate of
lime can at a high heat retain its carbonic acid, and that the combined
effect of heat and pressure is to agglutinate this substance into a solid
mass, which is sometimes crystalline.

He perceived also that wood under the same conditions changes
into a kind of lignite. Although this was the demonstration of a fact
very simple in appearance, Hall devoted not less than three years to
his experiments, which were more than one hundred and fifty in
number; this gives an idea of the difficulties to be encountered in
operating with heat under high pressures. t

Perhaps no country presents more beautiful and more numerous
examples of the intercalation of eruptive rocks than certain regions
of Scotland. It is naturally in a country broken up in this way that
the first notions of this kind of phenomenon should be obtained.
The important memoirs also, published by Macculock,|| which will
hereafter be classic, furnished new arguments for the support of the
theory with which the same country had inspired Hutton. It may
well surprise us that ideas for the most part profoundly correct, and
supported at the time by many precise observations, should have re-
mained so long disregarded or perhaps unknown on the continent.
Even at Edinburg, Jameson, an ardent disciple of Werner, contro-
verted doctrines which might be called Scotch with arguments bor-

* On the nature of the marbles thrown out from Vesuvius and on the possible extent of
volcanic influences. — Bibliotheque Britannique, vol. vii, p. 40,1798 Brieslach adopted and
defended this opinion.

y Account of a series of experiments showing the effects of compression in modifying
the action of heat. Read June 3, }805.—Hdinburg Philosophical Transactions, vol. vi, 1812.
{ Bucholz has announced that crystalline carbonate of lime can be obtained by calcine

tion under ordinary pressure.

|| D.scription of the Western Islands of Scotland, 3 vols., 1819.

According to Macculock, amphibolic schists appear to result from the decomposition of
clays.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 237

rowed directly from the school of Freyberg. In France, Dolomieu,
Giraud-Soulavie, Faujas-Saint-Fond, who since the end of the last
century earnestly combatted the hypothesis of Werner gn the aqueous
origin of basalt, and d’ Aubuisson, whom the study of Auvergne obliged
a little later to adopt an opinion opposed to that of his master, gave
but little attention to ideas towards which it would seem they ought
to have felt themselves strongly attracted. Cuvier, in the report on
the progress of natural science since 1789, which was published in
1808, only cites Hutton to speak with great doubt of the opinion of
this savant on the intervention of heat in the origin of basalt.*
‘‘How,’’ asks Cuvier, ‘‘are we to resolve the problems of the his-
tory of the globe with the forces of nature which we know to be at
present in existence ?’’ +

It is, in reality, only since 1815, after the relations of Great Britain
with the continent were renewed, that the labors of Hutton and his
disciples began to be known to the rest of Europe; it was then only
that there appeared in Paris a translation of the works of Playfair,
which had been published thirteen years before in Edinburg.

A few years after, Dr. Boué,{ who had studied geology in the
Scotch capital, and who had explored Scotland, contributed to propa-
gate these ideas. Moreover, establishing himself on the modifications
observed in the neighborhood of the plutonic rocks of the Isle of Sky,
at Monzoni and elsewhere, he put forth the idea that gneiss and other
crystalline rocks contiguous to the granite are only sedimentary strata
transformed by ancient eruptions of that rock. Doubtless this was
greatly to exaggerate the extent and power of the phenomenon; cer-
tain geologists, however, have retained this theory to the present
time.|| After having visited Scotland, Mr. Necker also became an in-
terpreter of the principal views of Hutton.$

Sir Charles Lyell did his part, by elegantly written works, to make
known the Scotch doctrine. As early as 1825 he summed up, under

*“Hdition in 8vo, p. 171-2.

t Report before cited, p. 180. This last phrase is a criticism of the other principle which
Hutton tried to establish, that ancient phenomena appeared to be due to the action of
actual causes sufficieutly prolonged.

** This progression is too slow to be immediately perceived by man ; the most remote
fact that experience can furnish ought to be considered as the momentary increment of an
immense progression, which has no other limits than. the duration of the world. Time
takes upon itself the function of integrating the parts of which this progression is com-

posed.’’—Playfair. Dolomieu was entirely opposed to this opinion.
‘‘It is not time, but force that I invoke. Nature demands of time the means of repair-
ing disorder, but it receives from motion the power of overthrowing.’’—(dournal de ©

Physique, vol. ii, 1792.)

{ Tableau de l’Allemagne, Journal de Physique, 1822, Mémoire Geologique sur le sud-ouest
de la France. (Annales des Sciences Naturelles, vol. ii, p. 387, 1824.) Mr. Boué tried to
show the eruptive origin of granite, of porphyry, and of grunstein in the different parts of
Germany. He based his principal conclusion on the excellent observations of Palassou in
the Pyregees. The beds of iron in the environs of Vicdessos appeared to him to have been
formed by sublimation,

|| Thus, according to Leopold de Buch, all the gneiss of Finland is only the result of the
tranformation of argillaceous schists, under the action of substances which were disengaged
at the time of the upheaval of the granite; this is, he adds, the opinion adopted by all
geologists.—(Ueber granite und gneiss. Abhandlungen der Akadamie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
p. 63, 1842.)

§ Voyage en Ecosse e aux iles Hebridés, 1821.

238 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

the name of metamorphism, the changes which, according to the
theory of Hutton, the rocks of sedimentary origin have undergone
by the action of central heat: this is the name that since then has
been adopted .*

But, at this epoch, what excited attention in the highest degree
was the work of Leopold de Buch, on the geology of the southern
Tyrol, published in 1822,+ Already in the last century, as we have
before said, Arduino had attributed the origin of the dolomite of
Vicentine to a transformation of limestone. Twenty years after,
Heim, a German geologist, whose works contain a great number of
facts which were then new and judiciously observed, made observa-
tions in Thuringia which led him to the same conclusion. t

Leopold de Buch presented this hypothesis anew in a striking
manner, while giving it a wider scope. For him the colossal and
ruptured masses of dolomite in the valley of Fassa are only limestones,
into whose innumerable fissures the eruptions of melaphyre, which
raised and broke them up, have introduced magnesia in a state of
vapor. He was thus brought to the conclusion that it is not heat
alone, but also chemical emanations which have had an influence
in the transformation of rocks.|| This was, moreover, increasing the
importance of mechanical dislocations by showing how they might
open sources of sublimations or vapors, which afterwards act upon
the rocks. It was, in a word, a new point of view introduced into
the science by one who was then already at the head of geologists.

Later research has shown that certain modifications must be applied
to this conclusion; but the questions which the bold hypothesis of
the metamorphism of dolomite gave rise to elicited investigations
which have enriched science. An idea which leads to discoveries
rests, in general, on some profound relation and denotes an inventive
mind.

The Alps, which will ever be a classic region for geology, as much
on account of the energies which produced this chain as of the deep
and imposing rents through which it exposes its internal construction,
have furnished, together with Scotland, the fundamental observations
for the theory of metamorphism.

Previously, in a memoir which marks an epoch in science, and
which appeared at the time that Cuvier and Brongniart published

* Metamorphic rocks form a part of his hypogene rocks.

tLettres sur la Geologie de Tyrol méridional.—-( Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol. xiii,

1822. Tuaschenbuch, vol. xix and xx, 1824.)

{Speaking of the cavernous dolomites of the Zechstein, he says that the same kind of
dolomite is found in the Muschelkalk ; that it is only a peculiarity of limestone. It was.
not known at this time that this rock contained magnesia. This modification of limestone,
he adds, is in relation with the accidents which have been produced from below upwards,
and, among natural forces, vapors are the only ones which could have produced such an
action ; they have at the same time formed gypsum, which is always associated with the
dolomite.—-Heim, Geologische Beschreibung des Thuringerwaldgebirgs, 1806.

||However, before this time Breislach, in his excellent description of the Solfatara of
Puzzuoli, had shown that vapors alter rocks. Cordier, in 1820, had also shown that.
alunite results in general from the action of sulphurous vapors on feldspathic rocks.— (Annales
des Mines, 1st series, vol. v, p. 303.)

—

Be Fim tie

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 239

Essai de la géographie minérologique de environs de Paris, Brochant*
had signalized, in the most precise manner, the passage of sediment-
ary to crystalline rocks, then reputed primitive in the Alps of the
Tarentaise. Still later he had the good fortune even to find fossils
in them. Applying to these crystalline rocks nearly the same argu-
ments which Hutton had used, he concluded that the granular, mica-
ceous and talcose limestones, the micaceous, talcose and amphibolic
schists of this region of the Alps, were of sedimentary origin, and
he referred them to the formations of transition, on account of their
analogy to those of Germany. He even went so far as to bring
together in the same group the granitic rocks of Mont Blanc and the
talcose and feldspathic rocks with which they are associated, and be-
lieved he could establish the relatively recent age of these supposed
alpine granites. Without adopting the principle of the transforma-
tion of rocks, he, nevertheless, contributed, perhaps without knowing
it, and with a remarkable clearness and rigor of deduction, to the
development of these new ideas. +t

An excursion into the Alps of Glaris, made by Studer and Mérian in
1826, revealed for the first time a passage of the secondary fomations
(flysch) to rocks as crystalline, as the micaschist and gneiss of St.
Sothard and Chamouny.{ As said Elie de Beaumont,|| in a letter
that he wrote twelve years later, after having visited the same locali-
ties, ‘‘We have before our eyes one of the most evident facts of
metamorphism in the Alps, and at the same time one of those which
best prove that these phenomena are not exclusively confined to the
oldest formations.’’

Such is, moreover, the important conclusion to which Elie de
Beaumont had on his own part arrived, nearly at the same time with
Studer, in a careful examination of the Alps of Daupheny and
Savoy, an examination which was of immeasurable importance for
geology. He recognized in the graphite of the Col du Chardonnet,
which is associated with feldspathic rocks, a result of the transforma-
tion of anthracite,§ and after a mature consideration he proposed to
refer the age of a part of these crystalline rocks to the jurassic for-
mation.

Thus the prestige of antiquity belonging to the formations of
the Alps, which had already been shaken by Brochant and Leopold
de Buch, was forever overthrown; and at the same time Elie de

=Geological observations on the formations of transition of the Tarentaise and other
parts of the chain of the Alps.—-(Annales des Mines, Ist series, vol. xxiii, p. 321; 1808.)

Considerations on the place that the granitic rocks of Mont Blanc should occupy in the
order of primitive rocks.—(Annales des Mines, 1st series, vol. iv; 1816 )

Discovery of organic fossils in the crystalline rocks.—(Annales des Mines, 1st series, vol.
iv; 1819.)

yAttention was again attracted to the beds which compose the chain of the Alps by the
work of Blackwell —(Zravels in the Alpine parts of Switzerland and Savoy ; 1822.)

{Zeitschrift von Leonhard, vol. xxv, p. 1; 1827.

Letter from Elie de Beaumont to Studer, cited in Leonhard’s Jahrbuch, p. 352; 1840.

ton the occurrence of vegetable fossils and graphite at the Co! de Chardonnet, depart-
ment of the Haut Alps.—(Amnales des Sciences Naturelles, vol. xv; 1828 }

240 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

Beaumont made known how recent is the elevation of the greatest
chain of mountains in Europe. These results, at the same time so
novel and so grand, deeply impressed all minds, and gave an extra-
ordinary impulse to geological studies.

Appointed at this time to the chair of geology at the School of
Mines, Elie de Beaumont thenceforth powerfully contributed to spread
the geological doctrines on which he had conferred so many ac-
quisitions, especially through observations made by himself in the
Alps, or derived from the memoirs of Maccullock on Scotland. The
comparison by which he summed up the gradual transition of sedi-
mentary to crystalline rocks, likening it to ‘‘the physical structure of
a brand half burned, in which we can trace the ligneous fibres far
beyond those points which still preserve the natural characters of
wood,’’ is as clear as it is profound.* He showed, besides, that lime-
stones and other rocks might have crystallized without having been
fused, just as occurs with a bar of iron long heated below its point of
softening.t

When Elie de Beaumont, discovered a few years after, in the
midst of l’Oisans { granitic rocks jutting out above the jurassic lime-
stone which had become saccharoidal, and in contact with which they
have produced little veins of metallic minerals, while it modelled itself
exactly to the undulated contours of the surface, he still more en-
larged the field of metamorphic phenomena.

Facts exactly like those which had just been discovered in the Alps
were recognized in the region of the Apennines. The marble of
Carara, and the mass of talcose and micaceous schist which accom-
pany it, were, by the observations of Pasini, Pareto, Guidoni, and
Paul Savi, which were confirmed by Hoffman,§ classed in the
secondary jurassic or cretaceous formations. Tuscany had furnished
to Savi, as far back as 1829, many remarkable examples of vari-
ous alterations in the neighborhood of serpentine. The Pyrenees
also revealed at the same epoch facts which confirmed and extended
these new ideas.

In 1819 Palassou, an observer as judicious as modest, after having
for four years explored these mountains, announced with certainty
that no primitive limestones existed in this chain, and that beds of
limestone as crystalline as the marble of Paros alternated with fossil-
iferous beds, and sometimes even contained them.4 :

= Annales des Sciences Naturelles, vol. xv; p. 362-372.

+ Annales des Mines, 3d series, vol. v, p. 61.

{ Faits pour servir a l'histoire des Montagnes de 1’Oisans.—(Annales des Mines, 3d series,
vol. v, p. 1.)

|| The works of these geologists have been reviewed by M. Boué in the Bulletin de la
Societé Geologique de France, vol. iii, p. 42.

§ Entdechkungen wher den Marmor von Carrara.—Jahrbuch, p. 102, 1833. Gebirgs Ver-
haltnisse der Grafschaft Carrara.—Juhrbuch, p. 563, 1834. Karsten’s Archiv, vol. 6, p. 229.

We ought here to call to mind that M. de Blainville had at this time previously discov-
ered in the polished specimens of this last rock unequivocal vestiges of polypiers.

{ Memoir on the limestones of the Pyrenees.— (Suites des Mémoires de Palassou. Pau, 1819.)

De Charpentier had also noticed like alterations in his important work on tbe Py-
renees, 1823.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS, 241

Dufrenoy showed that these transformations were due to the in-
tercalation of granitic masses; that they existed throughout the en-
tire extent of the chain, and that they affected formations of different
ages, up to and comprising the chalk.* He afterwards showed that
accumulations of iron ore in the neighborhood of granite also took
place after the formation of the chalk and in consequence of the up-
heaval of that chain.t Thus the formation of metamorphic rocks and
of metalliferous deposits attested the power of the action of granite.
Besides this, Dufrenoy also found in the cretaceous formation the
traces of peculiar alterations due to the proximity of ophites.t

Among the first observers of metamorphic phenomena it is just to
mention M. Keilhau, who in 1826 discovered that the deposit of
transition in the environs of Christiana is generally modified near
granite;§ and also Dr. Charles Jackson, who in 1827 announced that
amygdaloidal rocks were produced by the action of trap rocks on the
sandstone in Nova Scotia.

CHAPTER IV.

WORKS RELATING TO OTHER EFFECTS WHICH THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
EXERTS OVER THE EXTERIOR CRUST, AND WHICH ARE RELATED TO META-
MORPHISM.

Besides the effects of transformation of which we have just spoken,
‘there are various other phenomena which appear also to result from the
action which the interior of our planet has exercised in ancient times, or
still exercises, upon the external crust; such are volcanoes, eruptions
of the older rocks, metalliferous deposits, and the mechanical disloca-
tions to which chains of mountains owe their origin. These different
chemical, physical, or mechanical effects of the internal action of the
globe are very probably associated, and it would leave a blank not
briefly to notice in this history the labors which have indirectly con-
tributed to illustrate the effects of metamorphism.

§ 1. Eruptions of Volcanoes.

The extinct volcanoes of central France, whose identity with ex-
isting volcanoes|| was ascertained in 1751 by Guettard, revealed at a
later period to Dolemieu an important fact; it was that volcanic phe-

* Kspecially in the environs of Saint Martin de Fenouillet. Caractéres de la craie dans
le sud de la France.—(Annales des Mines, 2d series, vol. viii, page 311, 1830.)

+ Memoir on the geological position of the principal iron mines of the eastern part of
the Pyrenees, accompanied by considerations on the time of upheaval of Canigou and on
the nature of the Rancy limestone.—(Anna/es des Mines, 3d series, vol. v, page 307, 1834.)

{ Memoir on the connexion between the ophites, the gypsums, and the salt springs of
the Pyrenees.—(Annales des Mines, 3d series, vol. ii, p. 21, 1832.)

Sac also had perceived a part of these modifications.—(See p 100 of the work cited
above.)

§ M. Keilhau assigned as a cause of these changes, which sometimes extend for 1,000
yards, simple molecular action, without the intervention of heat, nor of emanations from
below. He thought that eruptive were only sedimentary rocks situated at a greater
depth, and become liquid.—( Darstellung der Uebergang’s Formation in Norwegen, 1826 ; Ueber
die Bildung des Granits.—Karstens Archiv., vol x, 1837.—Gaa Norvegica, 1, 1830.)

|| Memoir on some of the mountains of France which have been volcanoes. —(Mémoires de
* Académie, 1752.)

16

242 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

nomena have their origin under granite and the other primitive forma-
tions; that is to say, below the solid crust of the globe.* This idea,
with which we are now so familiar, appeared new at an epoch when
volcanic eruptions were generally considered as isolated, superficial,
and insignificant accidents. In fact, the experiment of Lémery on
the spontaneous combustion of a heated mixture of sulphur and
iron,t or the supposition of the subterraneous conflagration of car-
bonaceous combustibles sanctioned by the almost sovereign authority
of Werner, had led everywhere to the assignment of some local focus
as the cause of these phenomena. Buffon himself, the most ardent
promulgator of the primitive heat of the globe, took no other view
of them. Thus the grand idea of Descartes, which had thus early
connected these phenomena with the formation of hot springs and
metallic veins, and even with ancient fractures of the earth’s crust,
had passed into an oblivion scarcely conceivable. And it was by
being brought back to this idea through the force of facts that Dole-
mieu contributed so much to the rapid advance which geology then
made in France.

But the human mind is in general not freed from erroneous ideas
except by long and successive efforts. It was then believed, and
Dolemieu sought to explain it by unfounded hypotheses, that lavas,
instead of deriving their heat from internal fires, acquire it by a sort
of interior combustion which they undergo on arriving in the atmos-
phere; that, moreover, they are kept liquid by some kind of flux,
such as sulphur. It was necessary that Spallanzani should perform a
long series of experiments on the fusion of lavas in crucibles and
glass furnaces to overthrow these prejudices.{ The exactitude and
the genius for observation of the illustrious professor of Pavia showed
itself in his studies on the nature and origin of volcanic rocks, as well
as in his brilliant discoveries in animal economy; and he is one of
those who had the merit of introducing the experimental method in
geology.§ Since then Alexander Von Humboldt, after having ex-

* 1st. The products of volcanic action belong here (in Auvergne) to a mass of matter
which differs from the granites and lies below them. 2d. Volcanic action has exerted itself
here under the granite, and has been at work in the depths much inferior to it. 3d.
Granite is not the most ancient rock, since it is of necessity posterior to that which sup-
ports this mass.—(Report made to the Institute on the travels of the years 5 and 6, Jour-
nal des Mines, vol. 7, p. 897, 1798.)

A few lines further on (p. 398) Dolomieu adds, “ that there are reasons for extending these
conclusions to all other volcanoes, without regard to the nature of the soil that sur-
rounds them. Volcanic agents everywhere have their seat at great depths below the con-
solidated crust of the earth.

+ Memoires de ]’ Academie des Sciences, 1700.

Afterwards Pallas was led to refer the cause of volcanoes to the crystalline schists con-
taining pyrites, like those he had had an opportunity of seeing in the Ural.

t Voyage dans les Deux Siciles, 1792, introduction and fourth volume.

§Spallanzani further discovered the marine acid (chlorhydric acid) among the gases
which puff up the lavas, and hydrogen in the natural fires of Barigazzo.

In closing his observations on lavas, Spallanzini reproduces this remarkable opinion of
Faujas-Saint-Fond. ‘It is not impossible that water united with fire may bring about
combinations unknown to, and unattainable by art.’’—(Vol. iv, p. 75.) E

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS 243

plored the immense volcanoes of the two Americas, and Leopold de
Buch, who so profoundly studied the structure of the Canary islands,
have, upon other considerations, still further evinced the power and
universality of volcanic action, and the varied forms under which it
manifests itself.

§ 2. Hruptive rocks.

Auvergne, which, like Scotland, presents in its geological constitu-
tion features that command attention immediately, has likewise fur-
nished the first well-attested examples of rocks which, without having
come from the crater of a volcano, have, beyond a doubt, had an
eruptive origin. Desmarets recognized the igneous formation of basalt
during an excursion that he made in that country in 1763, and pub-
lished it in 1768;* seventeen years, therefore, before the publication
of the first memoir of Hutton. It was then that the long discussion
took its rise between the neptunians and the plutonists, a discussion
which sometimes degenerated into a keen dispute, and which, it is
remarkable, was prolonged for more than half a century after the
eruptive origin of basalt had been ascertained in Auvergne, in Italy, *by
this same Desmarets, and in the Hebrides by his successor, Faujas
Saint Fond. Itis evident from a report made by Cuvier, in 1808, that
the arguments of the school of Werner still preserved their prestige
even in a country where facts supported by so much evidence plead
on the opposite side, and where such remarkable examples of the
intrusion of rocks had been recognized by Strange, Hutton, Hauss-
mann, and Leopold de Buch.t Without doubt the question would
have been more speedily settled if Huropean communications and
relations had in those days presented the same facilities as in our
own.

$3. Formation of metalliferous deposits.

Since it has been recognized that metalliferous veins, as Descartes
had inferred. have been filled by exhalations coming from the depths
of the earth, their study has contributed to throw light on the subject
with which we are occupied; of this we shall see the proof further on.

$4. Mechanical dislocations of the crust of the earth.

The formation of mountain ranges presents in its history phases not
less singular than that of eruptive rocks.

= Mémoires de 1’Académie, 1768.

{ ‘* It was in conformity with the observations of Desmarets that a volcanic origin was for
a long time attributed to all the basalts, rocks very similar to certain lavas. It appears,
however, that the formations which resemble lavas do not all have the same origin. Such
are the rocks called wacks, which cover great tracts in certain parts of Germany; they
are there perfectly horizontal, have no elevation that could be regarded as a crater, and
yest upon very combustible coal, which they have not altered. ‘They are not therefore
voleanic. Werner had perfectly proved these facts, and as a result of his observations a
multitude of formations lost the origin attributed to them The opinion of Hutton and
James Hall that they were melted im situ at the time of a genera) and violent heating
of the globe will hardly hold good.’’ Edition in 8vo., pp. 171 and 172. Desmerets was a
witness to all this long discussion and of the report which thus condemned his conclusions,
for he died in 1815.

‘244 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

Descartes had given a new proof of his admirable penetration of
mind in attributing the dislocations of the terrestrial arch to the cool-
ing and contraction of the internal mass.*

Stenon, relying on the precise observations which he made in
Tuscany, thought, as early as 1669, that he had grounds for conclud-
ing that the stratified formations had lost their first horizontality,
probably from the influence of subterraneous vapors.t He published
his work after having remained two years in Paris in company with
Descartes, | whose system made a profound impression upon him.

The beautiful conception, however, of the French philosopher rela-
tive to the origin of the asperities of the globe, notwithstanding the sup-
port given to it by Stenon, was for a long time slighted, and gave place
to hypotheses which we now know have no foundation. Leibnitz him-
self, although founding his opinions on the ideas and observations of
these two great men, preferred to attribute the drying up of the an-
cient beds of the sea to the infiltration of a part of the water into
abysses which he supposed to have been produced by the ebullition of
the primitively melted mass.

Buffon, although attributing much to primitive heat, was not more
happy than Leibnitz in the two opposite and contrary opinions which
he successively published on the formation of mountains.§ It was,
in fact, only after a century that Hutton, James Hall, and Saussure,
were brought back by new paths to the very prolific idea of Descartes. ||
It still, however, remained vague, unsettled, and veiled, as it were,
by the school of Werner, when Leopold de Buch, and afterwards
Elie de Beaumont, gave it definitively a fundamental importance, by

* ‘The fissures enlarging, the external parts could no longer sustain themselves, and
the arch breaking up suddenly made it fall in large pieces on the superficies of the inte-
rior; but as this superficies was not sufficiently large to receive all the pieces in the same
situation in which they previously were, it was necessary that some should fall to one side
and should rest the one on the other.’’—(§42, page 322, Works of Desmerets, edition cited
above.) v

+ The work published by the Danish savant, alike avatomist and geologist, under the
title, De Solido intra Solidum naturaliter contento, Dissertatio Prodromus, in an extent of 76
pages only, constitutes, by the justness and importance of the observations which are
noticed, by the connexion and vigor of its reasoning, the precision of its style, and the
somewhat geometrical form that its author has given it, one of the most remarkable
works on geology, as Dr. Bertrand de St. Germain has well remarked.

A long time since Elié de Beaumont called attention to the principal conclusions of
Stenon in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, vol. xxv, 1832.

Stenon also distinguished volcanic from stratified rocks, and, among these last, ancient
and recent beds.

{From 1664 to 1666.

§ Hither in the sea, by the motion and sediment of the waters, (Théorie de la Terre,) or by
fire at the time when the globe was still incandescent and consequently long before there
were seas and living beings, Hpogues dela Nature, which, as we know, appeared nearly
thirty years after the first work.

|| We are indebted, however, to Robert Hooke for very exact observations in regard to
earthquakes, 1705; to Lazzaro Moro, 1740; to Fichtel, Ueber die Karparthen, 1791; Heim,
Geologischen Beschreibung des Thuringewalds, third part. ‘This last observer had entered into a
number of ingenious considerations on the possibility of the upheaval of mountain chains
by basalts and porphyrys, on the sublimations of metals and minerals in rocks, as well as
on the alterations produced in different rocks by igneous eruptions.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 245

giving it precision and at the same time supporting and developing
it by numerous and exact observations. *

It was discovered, besides, that the formation of thermal and gaseous
springs, as well as of metalliferous veins, had some connexion with this
system of fracture, even in regions which are not traversed by erup-
tive rocks. t

$5. Internal heat of the earth proved by direct measurement.

Although the internal heat of the earth forms the foundation of the
entire system of Hutton, it was not until later that this capital fact
was verified in a positive manner, that is, by measurements suffi-
ciently exact and numerous enough to establish the trtth of it beyond
a doubt. By an exception which is rare in the sciences of observa-
tion, speculative ideas, had, in this particular case, anticipated the dis-
covery of the reality. Before the first memoir of Hutton there ex-
isted scarely anything relative to the increase of temperature below
the earth’s surface, but the observations cited by Kircher in 1644, +
and those made by Gensanne in 1749, in the mines of Giromagny.
The measurements made in Saxony by Freiesleben and Humboldt
date from 1791; they were, therefore, only anterior to the second
edition of the work of the chief of the Scotch school. From this time
observations have succeeded one another in great number up to the
present day; the principal of which are due to Aubuisson, de Trebra,
Arago, Dulong, R. Fox, Boussingault, Reich, Delarive, Ermann, Wal-
ferdin, and some others. There were still, however, causes of error
which raised objections to the main fact, when Cordier, in his
essay on the temperature of the earth, (read in 1823 before the Academy
of Sciences, and published in 1827,) overcame the last doubts. Be-
fore this publication, this savant, whom the aspect of Teneriff had
long before confirmed in the ideas which he had imbibed from Dolo-
mieu, had rigorously determined by the aid of a new process of analy-
sis the mineralogical constitution of volcanic rocks, and the analogy
which unites them all, even when they are of a different composition.§

Finally, we know that several geometricians have sought to study by
calculation the condition of the interior of the globe at different epochs.

= The superposition of granite and porphry in the formations of transition of the environs
of Christiania, which Haussmann, observed in 1805, and the slow and gradual rising of the
soil of Sweden, were irresistible arguments to Leopold de Buch.

Among the oldest observations of the same kind we must cite those of Count Marzari
Pencati, who had accompanied Fonjas Saint Fond to Italy, and who had given his atten-
tion to the superposition of the rocks reputed primitive and to stratified formations, par-
ticularly in Southern Tyrol, (1819.)

7 Hoffman was one of the first to clearly point out this relation for the gaseous springs
of the north of Germany.—(Nordwestliches Deutschland, 1830.)

{ The same year that Descartes published his ideas on internal heat. hese first experi-
ments are due to Schapelmann, Bergmeister at Schemnitz, in Hungary.

§ Recherches sur les différents produits des volcans.—(Journal des Mines, vol. xxi, p. 249,
1807 ; vol. xxiii, p. 35, 1808.) Mémoire sur les substances dites en masse qui entrent dans
la.constitution des roches volcaniques de touts les ages.—(Jowrnal de Phyisque, vol 1xxxiii,
1816.)

246 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

I can only cite here the important investigations made for this pur-
pose by Fourier, Lagrange, Laplace, and Poisson.*

In short, it has been by several very different paths that we have
come to admit the idea of a central heat as a fundamental idea in
geology, and to recognize the importance of the doctrine of metamor-
phism which attaches itself to it as an effect to its cause.

Gur ALP PER PTVe

MODIFICATIONS WHICH HAVE TAKEN PLACE SINCE THE TIME OF HUTTON IN
IDEAS RELATING TO METAMORPHISM.

Up to the time to which our third chapter brought us, that is to
say, during the first third of this century, heat aided Ly certain vola-
tile substances had been considered, after the example of Hutton, as
almost exclusively the cause of metamorphic phenomena. It was
thought that the transformed rocks had crystallized, after having
been softened and perhaps penetrated by the neighboring or subja-
cent igneous masses.{ We shall see further on that all the synthetic
experiments of metallurgical works and of laboratories seemed com-
pletely to ratify this view of the subject. Certain more attentively
observed facts, however, arose to combat this generally admitted
hypothesis. it was in vain that, to do away with the serious objec-
tions which were raised, the action of cementation, of electricity,§ and
of the possible solution of certain silicates, the one by the other, were
appealed to. Grave doubts had sprung up, and from that time they
only continued to increase. At this moment a new way seemed to
open; we shall presently see who were those that first entered
upon it.

It was first ascertained that metallic veins could not, for the most
part, have been filled either by means of fusion or of sublimation,
but by matters held in solution in water which was at a high tempe-
rature.

*“Note sur le rapport qui existe entre les refroidissement progressif de la masse du globe

terrestre et celui de la surface.—(Comptes Rendus, vol. xix, 1844, and l’ Institut, p. 32, 1845.
Memoire sur la théorie mathématique des températures terrestres. — Annales des Chimie et de
Physique, vol. ii, p. 387.) Several important memoirs by Mr. Hopkins and Mr. Hennessy.

Tinstead of attributing, as did Hutton, the heat subsequently acting upon certain sedi-
ments to the temperature of the bottom of the sea, which we now know to be very low,
it is explained by other causes, as we shall see in the third part of this work.

{ Boué. mémoire cited above, 1824. —(Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 2d series, vol. 1x,
p. 291, 1835.—Societié des Sciences de Lyon, 1845.—Bulletin de la Societié Géologique de France, 2d
series, vol. ix, p. 222.)

Fournet, who represented this school in France, compared these phenomena to the
absorption of the sides of a cupell. He tried to prove by experiment that argillaceous
schists submitted to the combined influences of heat and of certain fusible bodies, will be
penetrated by them with the greatest ease, and will thus undergo chemical action. The
quartz nodules (ganglions) found in micaschists were due to this cause. Quartz, in con-
sequence of a peculiar kind of surfusion, might be consolidated after more fusible substances.
It is thus that Fournet explains the alteration of the eruptive by the surrounding rock, an
alteration which he calls endomorphism. '

§ Virlet has attributed the effects of metamorphism to electro-chemical action ; devel-
oped, perhaps, by the aid of high temperature.—(Bulletin de la Socieié Géologique de France,
vol. v, p. 313, 1835.)

|

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 247

The remarks of Longchamp on the relation between the thermal
springs of Chaudesaigues and the lode of iron pyrites from which
they spring*, and on the other hand, the ingenious experiments by
which Becquerel was able by the humid process to imitate galena,
sulphuret of antimony, and other minerals of metallic veins, contri-
buted to recall ideas in this direction.t Since 1833, Fournet,
after having studied the metallic veins of Pontgibaud, in Auvergne,
concluded that they had probably been filled by the incrustations of
mineral waters.{ The mineralogical resemblance between the veins
of Saxony and the silicious and metalliferous deposits of the lias, in
Bourgoyne, which, according to all probability, could only have been
made in the wet way, confirmed this opinion, as has been shown by
Baron de Beust.§ Besides, as Elie de Beaumont had a long time
before said, in his lectures at the School of Mines,|| metallic veins are
generally found near lines of contact of the stratified with the un-
stratified rocks which have penetrated them; and such is also the
usual position of hot springs, which at the present time very fre-
quently deposit stony or metallic substances in the channels through
which they run. The important conclusion to which this collation of
facts led, on the mode in which metallic veins have been filled, dif-
fered in essentials still more from the hypothesis of Werner, than
from those of Descartes and of Hutton.

Moreover, the study of the metamorphic formations themselves
brought to light circumstances which the dry process could not ex-
plain, and especially the extent and uniformity of the transformed
masses, the mode of dissemination, and the arrangement of the mine-
rals which were formed in these rocks, which were ascertained not to
have been softened and never to have been submitted to a very high
heat. This last induction results from different facts which will be
noticed in the third part of this work.

Durocher, in the sequel to a memoir published in 1846,{1 where
he recorded many observations of his own, attributed the effects of
metamorphism to slow action and to molecular transference very anal-

*= Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol. xxxii, p. 294, 1826.

} Annales de Chimie et de Physique, October, 1829 ; September, 1832; May, 1833.

{ Bulletin de la Sccietié Géologique de France, vol. v, p. 188—vol. iii, p. 251.

In 1837 Mr. Robert Were Fox (Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society for 1836)
showed how lodes appear to owe their origin to hot springs; he attributed their forma-
tion to thermo-electrical effects—the traces of which he thought he had found in the ex-
periments he had made on metallic veins.

De la Beche adopted these ideas in his Geological Report on Cornwall and Devon, 1839.

§ Aritische Beleuchtung der Wernerschen Gangtheorie, p. 6, 1840.—The author points out the
striking resemblance of the deposits contained in the beds of arkose of Burgundy, with the
veins of Freyberg.

The interesting observations of Bischof on the formation of iron pyrites and on hot
springs have contributed to confirm this result. The memoir which he published on the
filling up of metallic veins, bears date 1843.—( Ueber die Entstehung des Quarzes und Erz Ginge.)

|| Explication de la carte Greologique de France, vol. 1, p. 43, 1841.

{| Etudes sur le métamorphism, Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, 2d series, vol.
ae oe 1846. Métamorphism dans les Pyrénées.—( Annales des Mines, 3d series, vol. vi.
p. 78.

248 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

ogous to cementation. Other considerations which tended to the
conclusion that water had probably served as a vehicle of the heat
are due to Fuchs, Silliman and Dana,* and to Schalfaiitl.t Nor
must we fail to speak of the labors of Bischof, who, possessing great
critical judgment and knowledge of the resources of chemistry, did
not cease, during many years, to combat the ultraplutonic ideas which
were in vogue at the time of which we are speaking.{ Volger also,
following this example, has brought numerous arguments to bear
against the action of heat, which he even entirely rejects.

After having studied the volcanic phenomena of Iceland in all
their principal peculiarities, Bunsen called attention to the action
of gas and water at temperatures comparable to those of the existing
fumaroles, and considered them as a cause of metamorphism at least
as powerful as heat.§ Cotta likewise, in describing the great ex-
amples of metamorphism in the Alps, remarks, with justice, that
such effects cannot have been produced without the co-operation of
water, which proceeded either from the humidity of the rocks or from
hot springs.|| Still later, Delesse has examined, by help of the
chemical analysis, the nature of eruptive rocks and of those which
surround them at their point of contact.) Judging from a great
number of facts, he has also come to the conclusion that trap and
granitic rocks appear to have modified the rocks which surround
them, less by their own heat than by aqueous emanations which were
charged with different saline or acid substances.**

At the same time that the observations of which we have just
spoken tended to cause the action of water in metamorphism to be
admitted, it was recognized, on the other hand, that granite, the erup-
tive rock to which the most energetic power of transformation over
the surrounding masses had been attributed, could not itself have

* If a rock is calcined 12 yards in depth, it must have been melted not less than half
this distance, where heat has been the cause of the transformation. The heat appears to
have had water for a vehicle.—(Siliman’s Journal, vol. xlv, 1843.)

+ Die neuesten geologischen Hypothesen und thr Verhiiltniss zur Naturwissenschaft iberhaupt.
Leonard’s Jarbuch, p. 858, 1845.

{ A work very rich in observation by M. Bischof was published from 1847 to 1855,
entitled, Lehrbuch der chemischen und physikalischen Geologie.

One of the principal arguments which Mr. Bischof develops against the dry way, con-
sists in the production of minerals resembling those of the crystalline rocks as pseudomorphs
or epiginies, that is to say, in conditions where the minerals could not have been formed
but in the wet way. He does not, however, attribute an important part to the vapor of
water, after remarking its feeble action on rocks both in the burning mine of Dutweiler,
which has been on fire for two centuries, and in the soffionis of Tuscany.

§ Ueber den innern zusammenhang du pseudovulkanischen Erscheinungen Islands.
Annalen du Chimie und Pharmacie, vol. \xii., p. 1, 1847. Ueber die Processe der Vulkanis-
chen Gesteinbildungen Islands. Pogg. Ann., pp. 83, 197, 1851; Leonhard’s Jarb., p. 537,
1851.

|| Geologische Briefe aus den Alpen, p. 243, 1850.

§| Etudes sur le métamorphism.—(Annales des Mines, 5th series, vols. xii and xiii, 1857
and 1858.)

** It is a fact analogous to that which proves the association of metalliferous deposits
with eruptive rocks.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 249

been produced by a purely igneous fusion. Breislack,* Fuchs, and
Boucheporn, Schafhaiitl and Scheerer, ¢ concluded from the abundance
of isolated grains of quartz, from the manner in which its elements
are grouped together, in fine, from the presence of pyrognomic mine-
rals sometimes found in it, that granite originally contained water,
and, moreover, that the presence of this water could have prolonged
the plasticity of the mass much below its point of actual fusion.
Elie de Beaumont showed, in addition, that granite probably owes
its mineralogical composition to different substances, which, since its
consolidation, have partly disappeared with the water, such as com-
pounds of chlorine, fluorine, and boron. Thus the mode of formation
of granite takes a character intermediate between the origin of me-
tallic veins and that of volcanic and basic eruptions, { and the emi-
nently crystalline condition of this rock is not caused by its having
been solidified at great depths. :

The ingenious observations of Sorby on the liquids enclosed in
the microscopic vacuities of rocks have entirely confirmed the inter-
vention of water and heat in the formation of granite.§ It will be
remembered that the attention of Davy had been already arrested by
the minute drops of liquids, accompanied by gaseous matters, which
may be distinguished by the naked eye in certain crystals, and that
their examination had led him to suspect that water, with the aid of
pressure, had contributed to the formation of rock crystal. Later,
Sir David Brewster has given greater extent to this species of
researches.

Another order of facts which has still further confirmed the induc-
tion that granite might have been plastic without the intervention of
a very high temperature is, that the rocks into which it has been in-

= Breislack, although approving with energy the ideas of the neptunists, remarks, that
from the order of consolidation of the elements of granite, and the presence of drops of
liquid which quartz sometimes contains, it is difficult to admit that this rock has ever been
in a real state of fusion. ‘‘ Why could not water and fire have co-operated together at
different times in the production of our earth, and sometimes even have joined their
efforts ?’”’—Jnstitutions Géologiques, (French translation,) vol. i, p. 68, 1818.

Thus he sought to follow out the idea of which Faujas-Saint-Fond and Spallanzani had
already caught a glimpse, in bringing together two agents which are in no way incompati-
ble, as his two antagonists pretended, and which he, on the contrary, saw intimately as-
sociated in the volcanoes of which he had made a profound study. ‘‘If,’’ says Breislack,
‘*experiments ought to serve as a guide to philosophy, and if those which are carried on
in volcanoes are the most important which we can collect, why may we not use them ?’”

7 Discussion sur la nature plutonique du granite et des silicates cristallins qui s’y ral-
lient.— (Bulletin de la Societié Géologique de France, 2dseries, vol. iv, p. 468. Réponse aux
objections de Durocher, Idem, vol. vi, p. 644, and vol. viii, p. 500.)

it Note sur les émanations volcaniques.—(Bulletin de la Societié Géologique de France, 2a
series, vol. iv, p. 1291.) Elie de Beaumont describes the plastic state of granite under the
name of gelatinous surfusion, p. 1310.

§ Sorby on the microscopical structure of crystals, &c., Quarterly Journal of the Geologi-
cal Society, p. 453, 1858.—(Comptes rendus de V’ Academie, vol. xlvi, p. 46.)

nets de Chimie et de Physique, vol. xxi, p. 182, 1822.

he topaz of Brazil, according to Sir David Brewster, also contains different Jiquids.—
(Poggendorff’s Annalen, yol. vii, p. 493.)

250 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

jected in the state of paste sometimes show but a scarcely perceptible
alteration, even in their immediate contact with it.*

The eruptive rocks other than granite in like manner appear to
have been formed through the co-operation of water, and for the most
part at a temperature much lower than had been supposed.t+ Butif
tue eruptive rocks themselves have been dispossessed of the prestige
of high temperature which they have so long enjoyed, much less could
their heat alone have produced the energetic effects which are often
attributed to them.

Thus by three different ways the conclusion has been arrived at
that water, aided by certain substances, has nearly everywhere been
a powerful co-operator with heat in the metamorphism as well as in
the formation of the principal metalliferous deposits, and of the
eruptive rocks themselves.

I have spoken of the first observations which disclosed the meta-
morphic state of certain dolomites. Since then this origin has been
attested in different countries. Lardy, in his excellent memoir
on the geognostic construction of St. Gothard, (1829,) remarks that
dolomite and gypsum must have had some connexion with the opening
of the crevasse which forms the valley of the Tessin.{ The polypiers
changed into dolomite, and found at Gerolstein by de Verneuil,
have, moreover, furnished in favor of the transformation of this rock
an argument of which Elie de Beaumont long since showed the
weight.

Elie de Beaumont, supporting his idea on the remarkably po-
rous and cracked state of many dolomites, such as those of Tyrol, Lu-
gano, and of Franconia, proved as long ago as 1829 that this structure
was owing to an epigenesis, and the substitution of carbonate of mag-
nesia for carbonate of lime in equivalent proportions.$

As to the manner in which this substitution may have taken place,
the study of the dolomites and gypsums of the valley of the Tessin
had suggested to de Collegno, in 1834, that the carbonate of lime
had probably been transformed simultaneously into gypsum and dolo-
mite by the action of mineral waters, the traces of which he even
investigated in the Val. Canaria. It was this idea which afterwards
led Haidinger and de Morlot to imitate dolomite{ artificially.

* M. Delesse has recently well summed up the facts which prove it, including with them
his own observations on the metamorphism of contact.—(Bulletin de la Societié Géologique de
France, 2d series, vol. xv, p. 728.)

Henry Rose has also recently put forth arguments to the same purpose: Ueber die
Verschiedenen zustande der kieselsaure Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1859.

} The above cited memoir of Mr. Delesse enumerates the principal proofs.

{ Denkschrift der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft, vol. i, p. 200, 1829.

§ Note sur Ja forme Ja plus ordinaire de objections relative & l’origine de la dolomie.—
Annales des Sciences Naturelles, vol. xviii, p. 269, 1829.—Bulletin de la Societié G'éologique de
France, vol. viii, p. 173, 1826,

|| Notes sur quelques points des Alpes Suisses —(Bulletin de la Societié Géologique de France,
vol. vi, p. 110, 1834.)

4 Some savants, among others, Daubeny, Leube and Grandjean, consider dolomite
as the result of the action of the atmospheric waters on magnesian limestone.

Others, as Rozet and Puggaard, have attributed an eruptive origin to certain dolomites
which form veins and contain embedded fragments. (Framont, Grisons, Fulda, Helsingfors,
and Sorrente. )

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 251

In many stratified formations, however, such as the trias, dolomite
is found in regular beds ;: if there has been a substitution it must have
been at the very time of its deposit. This reservation has been made
by Elie de Beaumont, especially in favor of the dolomites of the
Marnes Irisées.*

It has been also discovered that in certain formations the gypsum
resulted from a transformation of the limestone. I will mention only
the observations of Hoffmann and of Coquand on the gypsums produced
by the fumaroles of the Lipari islands and in Tuscany, and those of
Dufrenoy on the gypsums associated with the ophites of the Pyrenees.

The formation of the dolomite, of anhydrite, and of rock salt, has
given occasion to very numerous works, which it is impossible to men-
tion here.t

CH ALPSD Hi Vel?

METAMORPHISM OF STRUCTURE.

In the time of Hutton it had not been remarked that the foliated
structure so frequent throughout entire masses of rocks, results from
an action posterior to their formation, and consequently thus consti-
tutes metamorphism.

The distinction which we now recognize between a foliated struc-
ture and stratification had, however, been described by different
authors at the commencement of this century, among whom, Lasius, t
Voigt,§ Mohs, || de Hoff, and Schmidt** ought to be cited. In Eng-
jand, John Phillips had clearly recognized the difference between
the trwe and the false cleavage. Professor Sedgwickt+t afterwards con-
firmed and generalized the fact, showing that in Wales the plates are
very generally oblique to the stratification. tt

Another very remarkable circumstance, which was signalized by
Mr. Sedgwick, is the astonishing constancy with which the plates con-
form to one another over extensive tracts, and even amidst the most
marked convolutions*of the beds to which they belong. This ob-
servation has been completely confirmed by Studer and Forbes in

* Observations sur les différents formations qui, dans le systtm des Vosges, séparent
la formation nouillére de celle du lias.—(Mémoires pour servir a la description géologique de lu
France, vol. i, pp. 78, 153, 192.)

+ Among the principal I mention the work of d’Alberti, the memoirs of Fournet and
of Boue.—(Ueber die Dolomite. Sitzungs Berichte der Acad. der Wissens. zu Wien, vol. xii, p.
422; 1854.)

{Das Harzgebirge.

§ Praktische Gebirgskunde, 1797.

|\Molls Ephemeriden, vol. iii, p. 71; 1807.

4 Slate quarries of Lehesten, in Franconia.

= In Westphalia.

yt On the chemical changes produced on the aggregate of stratified rocks.—- (Transactions of
the Gevlogical Society, vol. iii, p. 354; 1835 )

{{ Mr. Parrot, engineer of mines, according to a manuscript report of 1826, noticed the
same distinction in the slates of the Ardennes.--(Lxplication de lu carte géologique de France,
vol. i, p. 262.)

252 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

the Alps; by Sir R. Murchison and Darwin in the Andes; by Rogers*
in the Appalachian mountains, and by other geologists.

There exists, however, between the position of the lamelle and
that of the beds, relations which Baur and Sharpe have with great sa-
gacity brought to light.

The cause of the development of the foliated structure of the
phyllades has been attributed to crystalline, polar, or electric agen-
cies. These vague hypotheses could hardly find foundation but in
the fact announced by R. Fox, that wet clay in presence of electri-

cal currents will become per ceptibly. foliated.t These causes, which
may be qualified as occult, have, however, been adopted by eminent
savants, such as Sedgewick, Sir H. de la Beche,t Sir J. Herschel,$
Hopkins, || and Scheerer.{ This is easily explained, for the re-
markable fact which was more particularly calculated to lead to a
right explanation was only recently discovered by Baur.** This
geologist was the first to show, in his remarkable work, (1846,) that
the cleavage took place at the time of the convolvement of the beds,
and that it seems the result of a pressure normal to that which de-
veloped the convolutions. It was not until a year later that Sharpe,
to whom the priority has often been given, came to the same con-
clusion, founded on other very precise observations on the distortions
produced upon fossils. He afterwards established the same fact for
rocks in which no organic remains are found. +t

The first attempt to imitate this phenomenon mechanically was
made by Professor Sorby, to whom we owe other ingenious researches. tf

He discovered by a microscopical examination of the disposition of

their elements, as well as by the compression of certain thin layers,
that the schistose rocks had undergone compression. Professor Tyn-
dall went still further ; he produced a foliated structure exactly like
slate in different plastic substances, as pipe-clay and wax, by com-
pressing and submitting them to a process of rolling.§$ It was thus,
without doubt, that this expert physicist was afterwards induced to
pay attention to the structure and movement of glaciers.

I conclude by calling to mind that Laugel, engineer of mines, and
Professor Haughton have sought to subject to talculation the effects
of pressure which have produced a schistose structure.

** Proceedings of American naturalists and geologists ; 1845.

+ Report of the Cornwall Polytechnic Society ; 1837. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great
Britain, vol. i, p. 433.

t Geological Report on Cornwall and Devon, p. 181; 1839. The polar forces, the author sup-
poses, are probably in connexion with terrestrial magnetism.

§ Lyell. Manual of Geology, 5th ed., vol. ii, p. 448.

; On the connexion of geology with terrestrial magnetism.

{| Karstens Archiv. fur Mineralogie, vol. xvi, p. 109 ; 1842. Geological Observations on South
America, p. 168.

*% Karstens Archiv., vol. xx, p. 398; 1846. °

+t Quarterly Review of the Geological Society of London, vol. ili, p. 74; 1847. Geological Pro-
ceedings, November, 1854.

t{ In laminating clay, in which he had scattered pellicles of oxide of iron, Sorby noticed
that they placed themselves perpendicularly to the pressure.—(Hdinb. Phil. Journal, 1853.
Quarterly Review, vol. x, p. 73; 1854.)

§§ Comparative view of the ‘cleavage of crystals and slate rocks.-—(Philosophical Magazine;
1856.)

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 253

The history of the succession of ideas on the formation of lamelle
in schistose rocks may serve for instruction in a philosophical point
of view. We see how easy it is, especially in geology, for the ablest
minds to err when they deviate from the path of observation and of
facts. Moreover, even after the influence of mechanical pressure had
suggested the probable cause of the phenomenon, it was ten years be-
fore one of the most simple experiments which it would seem ought
to have been immediately thought of, was brought forward to verify
this induction.

CHAPTER VII:
NOTICE OF OTHER OBSERVERS WHO HAVE INVESTIGATED METAMORPHISM.

The facts upon which the doctrine of metamorphism is based have
been observed in all regions of the globe, especially during the thirty
years that attention has been called to the subject by many other ge-
ologists, some of whom have very much exaggerated or falsified the
bearing of the phenomenon. ‘The observers are so numerous that it
would be impossible, without lengthening this work beyond measure,
to do more than notice the principal names. They are:

In France—-Alexander Brongniart,* d’ Omalius, de Bonnard, t Four-
net,t de Boblaye,§$ Virlet,{ A. Burat, de Boucheporn,{i Gras,**
Charles Deville, Coquand,tt Puton,{{ Gueymard, Lory, Angelot,
Drouot, Delanoue.

= Sur les ophiolites ; sur les caractéres zoologiques des formations.—-(Annales des Mines
1821.) Sur le Cotentin —-(Jowrnal des Mines ; 1815.)

+ Annales des Mines, 1st series, vol. viii; 1824.

, Besides the memoirs, in which Fournet has published since 1836 very many pre-
cise observations and ingenious suggestions on metamorphism, as I have said above, this
learned professor has collected at the Faculty of Sciences of Lyons an interesting collection
which has been studied by many savants. I shall again cite his Hides sur les Alpes, (1845
to 1849.)

§ The discovery in the formations of transition of schists, containing at the same time
macle and many fossils, by Boblaye, has introduced a new element really positive into
the question of metamorphism.— (Comptes Rendus de I’ Academie, 1838. Bulletin de la Société
Géologique, 1st series, vol. x, p. 227.)

|| Virlet long since made known numerous effects of metamorphism in Greece, and
has even extended the ideas on metamorphism to the utmost in applying them to eruptive
rocks, such as granite, protogene, trachite.-—(Geologie de la Grece, pp. 67, 184, 294, 298, 304,
and 306. Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, vol. vi, pp. 279 and 313, 1834 ; vol. vii, p.
3810, 1835 ; Ist series, vol. xiv, p. 501. )

§, De Boucheporn, in exaggerating the action which I had previously attributed to fluor,
has admitted that, by heating, the elementary matter of granite had given off fluorites of
silicium and of the alcaline metal, which are the cause of the transformation of the neigh-
boring rock, (page 271 of his work.) His original idea on the action of cyanogen in the
formation of the globe merits attention.

== Gras has made important observations on the crystalline rocks of the Alps,
Dauphin and Savoy, and considered the spilites of this chain-as metamorphic.

+fCoquand has furnished very interesting facts, particularly in describing the solfa-
taires of Tuscany, and in studying the formation of gypsum and of dolomite.

tt The work of Puton on the metamorphisms which have occurred in certain rocks
ef the Vosges (1838) contains many well observed facts.

254 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

In England—Sir James Mackenzie, Jameson, Conybeare, Buchland,
Greenough, Sir R. Murchison,* Sedgwick, Sir H. de la Beche,+ John
Phillips, { Colonel Portloch, Doubney, Berger, Poulett, Scrope, Hens-
low, Ramsay.

In Germany—Humboldt, Naumann,§ de Leonhard, Mitscherlich,
Haussmann, W. Haidinger,|| B. Cotta, G. Rose, Abich, d’ Alberti, de
Morlot, Blum,** Credner.

In Switzerland and Italy—Escher de la Linth,t+ de Charpentier,
Lardy, de Collegn,}} de la Marmora, A. Favre,§$ de Marignac, Théo-
bald.

In the Scandinavian peninsula—A. Erdmann.

In America—Rogers, Hitchcock, Whitney, Sir W. Logan, Sterry
Hunt.

CHA PT HRY LEk:

HISTORY OF SYNTHETICAL EXPERIMENTS, TENDING TO ELUCIDATE THE
QUESTION OF METAMORPHISM.

The progress which we have just sketched has cost more effort tham
we could at present suppose, for there was scarcely any other guide
than purely geological facts, elucidated by analogy and induction.

We should have reposed in views of necessity very vague, if synthet- °

ical experiment had not followed direct observation, to substantiate
and complete it.

It has seemed best to me to enumerate by themselves, and withsome
details, the principal attempts which have been made up to this time
to imitate minerals and rocks artificially. They throw light on the dif-
ferent processes which may have been broughtto bear in the very various
reactions of nature ; besides, that these are the first steps in a method
which appears destined to reveal very important facts for the history
of formations and for metamorphism. Leibnitz, it is true, had pro-
foundly appreciated the utility of experiments for the interpretation
of the formation of strata, and compared, as far ashe was able, the

-

*The works of Sir R. Murchison on the silurian formations of England, on the Alps,
and the Ural, present numerous and important examples of metamorphism.

+ Sir H. de la Beche, in his Vhesretical Manual, his Art of Observing, his Geological Re-
searches, and his Geological Report on Cornwall and Devon, has published a great number of
judicious and ingenious observations on metamorphism, as on all other subjects of geology.

{Among the works of Mr. J. Phillips, we must here make mention of a report on
schistose cleavage, inserted in the memoirs of the British Association.

§ Besides his observations made in Saxony and Norway, Naumann has treated metamor-
phism in detail in his excellent work on Geognosy.

|| Haidinger proposes to distinguish anogenous and categenous metamorphism, according as.
they occur near the surface or at a great depth.

| Especially in the Geologische Briefe aus den Alpen.

In his studies on the pseudomorphs, Blum has described many facts akin to metamor~
phism.

++ Numerous observations made in Switzerland with Studer,

{{Sur le metamorphisme des terrains de sédiment. Bordeaux ; 1842.

§§ Notice sur la géologie du Tyrol allemand ; 1849.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 255

products of nature with those of the laboratory ;* but it was under the
inspiration of Hutton that the first important synthetical experiments
were undertaken. t

$1. Fusion and cooling of rocks.

Buffon had rigorously established, by direct experiment, that
granite and the principal crystalline rocks can be vitrified. He
thought that these immense masses of “natural glass’’ had acquired
their crystalline state after very long annealing.t At the end of
the last century Sir James Hall, at the same time that he was study-
ing, as we have before seen, the combined influence of heat and
pressure on limestone, undertook numerous experiments with the
view of testing whether, as the adversaries of Hutton pretended, the
rocks formed by fusion should have remained vitreous.§ He discov-
ered, as Buffon had foreseen, that certain silicates, instead of becom-
ing vitreous, may, by slow cooling, become crystalline and assume
a stony appearance, similar to that of eruptive rocks. These exper-
iments, which were continued by other savants, proved further, that
a vitreous mass can even crystallize without passing through a state
of fusion. |

* “ Tt will be, in our opinion, an important work, to carefully compare the products
taken from the bowels cf the earth with those of laboratories; for then will the striking
relations which exist between the products of nature and those of art be made visible to us.
Although the inexhaustible Author of nature might employ different means for bringing
about what He wills, He delights in consistency amid the variety of His works; and to have
found the means of reproducing them is really a great step towards the knowledge of things.
Nature is only art on an extended scale.’’——(Protogea, French translation cited above, § 9.) ‘‘Do
not these general Jaws of the physical world operate in our laboratories as well as in the
interior of mountains ?’’—(Sausswre, Voyage dans les Alpes, § 750.)

+ The experiment by which Lemery, in 1700, tried to imitate volcanic phenomena, by
heating a mixture of iron and sulphur in damp earth, was founded on a false resemblance,
and only led to an entirely erroneous conclusion ; it made, however, a sufficient sensation
to justify an allusion to it. —(Mémoires de V Académie des Sciences, 1700.)

{ Histoire naturelle des minéraux. ‘* These vitreous substances,’’ he says, ‘‘ melt without addition
at the same degree of heat as our artificial glass.’’ Button had, besides, remarked that feld-
spar is much more fusible than the other elements of granite.

Leibnitz had, it is true, previously said that the earth and the stones submitted to fire
yield glass ; that glass is but the base of the earth, (Protogea, § 3 ;) but he here confounded
all rocks, including limestone, silex, and sand, and there is a wide interval between this
vague conception and the first precise experiments made by Buffon.

I have mentioned above (chapter iv, § 1) the experiments of Spallanzani on this subject.

We must also cite the experiments made by Buffon on the cooling of spheres of different
dimensions—some of metal, some of sandstone or marble——in order to represent the condi-
tions of the cooling of the terrestrial globe. Newton had before announced his intention
to make experiments of this kind.

G. Bischof, with the same end in view, made a series of interesting observations of the
fusion and cooling of spheres of basalt.—(Die Wérmelehre des innern Erdkeerpers, 1837, p.
443 to 505.)

§ The experiments of Sir James Hall on the consolidation of basalts and melted rocks,
date 1800.—( Edinburg Phil. Trans., vols. v and vi.)

|| The experiments of Hall were continued on a larger scale by Gregory Watt.— (London
Phil. Trans., 1804, and Bibliotheque Britannique, No. 256.) At the same time Dartigues
~ published his experiments on the devitrification of glass.— (Journal de Pharmacie, lix ; Journal
de Physique, 1x ; Annales de Chimie, vol. 1.) Fleuriau de Bellevue, sur ]’action de feu dans
les yolcans, 1x, 1805. Drée. Nouveau gendre de liquéfaction ignée. — (Journal des Mines, vol.
xxiv, 1805; Mémoires del’ Académie des Sciences, 1805 ; Mémoires del’ Académie, 1739 ; London Phi-
losophical Transactions, 1776 and 1782.)

Recent observations on devitrifications vy Dumas and Pelouze, (Comptes Rendus, 1845, 1855,
1856,) and by Messrs. Mitscherlich, Gustave Rose, Charles Deville, and Delesse on the
fusion of rocks.

256 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

§ 2. EKeamination of crystals accidentally obtained in metallurgical manu-
factures.

It was thus that the examination of the silicates which flow in abun-
dance in a state of fusion from metallurgical furnaces, was naturally
suggested. In accordance with the idea of Leibnitz, Professor Hauss-
mann, in 1816, availed himself of this kind of observation in order to
explain geological phenomena, and since that time, this veteran of
science has not ceased to render it important tributes.* Soon after
Mitscherlich discovered that peridot, pyroxene, and other mineral
species crystallize accidentally in the slags of manufactories.t It was
a worthy complement of his work on the relation between the forms
of crystals and their chemical composition, which had just made such
a brilliant mark in mineralogy and chemistry. Since then, under
this interesting point of view, metallurgical scoria has been exam-
ined with care by Berthier, Vivian, Bredberg, Sefstrém, Zinken,
Weebler, Karsten, Plattner, Rammelsberg, F. Sanderson, Percy,
Miller, and other savants. Professor de Leonhard has recently pub-
lished a work on this subject in which all the known facts relating to
it are carefully summed up and compared. ft

The products obtained in manufactories by the crytallization or
liquation of melted matters, are not the only ones that are of a nature
to interest the geologist. There are some, such as galena, oxide of
zinc, blende,‘ which separate themselves from furnaces either by
direct sublimation, or by the volitilization of a part or of the whole of
their elements. Among these results of condensation, the most
remarkable is feldspar, which has at different times been collected in
the upper part of the copper furnaces of Mansfield, in the sublima-
tions of zinc furnaces, the presence of which, simply suspected at
first, was proved beyond a doubt by the examinations of Heine and
the analysis of Karsten.§ The formation of this important mineral
by means of vapor, merits so much the more attention, because, not-
withstanding many attempts, it has never yet been obtained crystal-
lized by a direct fusion.

$3. Synthetical experiments by simple fusion or by different mixtures.

The inspection of crystals, which are accidentally formed in manu-
factories, necessarily led to direct experiments in the dry way by
different methods.|| It is to Berthier that we owe the first attempts
in this interesting direction.

* Gottingsche gel. Anzeigen, 1816, p. 489.—This first memoir was followed by others, both
numerous and important, on the same subject.

Koch, in 1809, had described some crystals of the manufactories, among others, the oxide
of zinc, The graphite which separates itself from cast iron had also been long remarked.

7 Abhandlungen der k. Akademie der Wissenchaften zur Berlin, 1823, p. 25.—Annales de Ohisie
et de Physique, vol. xxiv, p. 355.

{ Dr. Gurtlt. Pyrogennete kitmstliche Mineralien, 1857.—Von Leonhard, Huttenerzeugnisse,
1858. Idocrase, gehelenite, are among the most frequent products.

§ Poggendorff’s Annalen, vols. xxxiii, p. 336, and vol. xxxiv, p. 531.

|| Attempts have been made to facilitate the crystallization of different substances by
acting upon large masses, which cool very gradually, and by blowing gas into them with
& view to producing geodes.

ON: THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 257

By melting silica with different bases in definite proportions, he
obtained in 1823 crystalline combinations identical with those of na-
ture; especially pyroxine.* Afterwards, Ebelmen succeeded, by a
very ingenious process due to him, in obtaining infusible combinations.
This process consists in employing solvents in a state of fusion, and
which can be vaporized slowly at very high temperatures, such as
boracic acid, and the alkaline phosphates, or carbonates. It is thus
that he produced corundum, the different kinds of spinel, cymophane,
peridot, perowskite, and other species.t

The mutual reaction at high temperatures of the volatile metallic
fluorides and oxygen compounds constitutes a process which has
lately furnished to its authors, Henri Deville and Caron, very beau-
tiful reproductions of infusible minerals, such as corundum, colored
in different ways, and staurotide.{ The same chemists have invented
a different process for reproducing apatite.§ It is likewise by a par-
tial volatilization that M. Gaudin has obtained artificial ruby by melt-
ing at a very high temperature a mixture of alum and sulphate of
potash.|| Despretz has announced that he has obtained the dia-
mond by different processes based upon the transposition and slow
deposition of carbon by the electric current. By melting certain
mixtures of salts and treating the residue with water, M. Manross
has imitated sulphate of baryta, apatite, wolfram, and other minerals.**
Rock salt alone employed as a flux has sufficed Forchhammer for
producing crystallized apatite, operating, as he did, even on rocks
which contained only traces of phosphates.tt If we reflect on the
enormous amount of chloride of sodium contained in the liquid en-
velope of the globe, we can hardly doubt that this salt has co-operated
in the crystallization of certain species, especially at the time when
the water was not yet entirely condensed. Charles Deville has
recently made experiments in this direction, by heating clay or a
quartz sandstone previously moistened with chloride of sodium. tt

Sec. 4. Synthetical experiments by the aid of vapors reacting mutually
or on fixed bodies.

Some minerals may be imitated by simple sublimation; such are
arsenic, galena, and senarmontite.§$ But it is especially by causing
certain vapors to react among themselves, as in metallurgical manu-

= Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol. xxiv, p. 365, 1823.

+ Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol. xxii, p. 221, and vol. xxv, p. 279.—Amnales des
Mines, 5th series, vol. ii, p. 349.

{ Comptes Rendus del’ Académie des Sciences, vol. xlvi, 1858, p. 765.

§ Apatite and wagnerite have been obtained by a kind of distillation of the phosphates
in the chlorides of the same metals. —(Comptes Rendus, vol. Ixvii, p. 985, 1858.)

|| Comptes Rendus, vol. xlvi, p. 765, 1857.—The melted alumina in the form of ruby, pre-
viously obtained by this author, was amorphous, vol. v, p. 803, 1837.

{| Comptes Rendus, vol. xxxvii, p. 369, 1853.

= Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, vol. 1\xxxii, p. 348, 1852.

t1 Poggendorff’s Annalen, vol. \xxxi, p. 568, 1854. Forchhammer has even proposed
this method for detecting phosphates and certain metals in rocks, when by the ordinary
processes only slight traces are found.

tt Comptes Rendus de V Académie, vol. xlvyii, p. 80, 1838.

§§ Annales des Mines, 5th series, vol. i,

be

258 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

factories, that various results can be arrived at. It is thus that Gay
Lussac obtained peroxide of iron crystallized like natural specular
iron, by decomposing at a high temperature perchloride of iron by
means of the vapor of water. This reaction sometimes takes place,
as M. Mitscherlich discovered, in the pottery furnaces into which
chloride of sodium is thrown.* I myself tried, in 1849, a reaction
founded on the same principle, in order to verify, experimentally,
the action which, on purely geological observations, I had previously
attributed to veins of tin ores. By the decomposition of the bichlo-
rides of tin and titanium, I obtained the crystallized oxide of tin,
having the same lustre and hardness as the natural mineral, but
isomorphous, with the oxide of titanium known under the name of
brookite; I have also produced this last mineral itself.t By bringing
sulphuretted hydrogen to act on different metallic chlorides reduced
to a state of vapor, Durocher has obtained some of the principal
sulphurets contained in metallic veins, such as grey copper.t

Instead of causing the vapors to act one on another, they can
be used to attack fixed substances, and thus to develope new com-
binations. It was upon this principle that I first artificially obtained
apatite, as well as topaz.§ Still later I produced, by means of the
chlorides of silicium and of aluminium, crystallized silicates and alu-
minates.| I also imitated the red oxide of manganese or hausman-
nite. Mention ought also to be made here of the production of
dolomite by Durocher, by the action of chlorine and magnesian
vapors on limestone;** of the experiments of Charles Deville on
the alteration of silicious rocks by sulphuretted hydrogen and water ;tt
as well as of those of Rogers on the manner in which water charged
with carbonic acid decomposes, even in the cold, the principal nat-
ural silicates. It has been said that the vapor of water, if it is at a
high temperature, is sufficient to attack numerous silicates.{{ Thus,
according to M. Jeffreys, bricks heated to the temperature of the
fusion of cast iron give off, to a current of the vapor of water, silica,
which is condensed in the form of snow.§§$ It is by a similar action
that water corrodes enamels in the porcelain furnaces.||i

* Poggendorff’s Annalen, vol. xv, p. 630.—M. Noggerath has also noticed it as the result of
a fire in a salt mine of Wieliczka. The furnaces in which carbonate of soda is manufactured
at Framont in the Vosges, by decomposing the chloride of sodium by iron pyrites, have
produced splendid coatings of specular iron on the surface of the bricks..

+ Researches on the artifieial production of some crystallized minerals, particularly the
oxides of tin and titanium, and of quartz.—( Observations sur I’ origine des filons titaniféres des
Alpes ; Annales des Mines, 4th series, vol. xvi, 1849.)

{ Comptes Rendus, vol. xxxii, p. 823.

§ Annales des Mines, 4th series, vol. xix, p. 669, 1851.

|| Comptes Rendus, vol. xxxix, p. 135, 1854.

{| Annales des Mines, 5th series, vol. i, 1852.

*=* Oomptes Rendus, vol. xxxiii, p. 64, 1851.

tt Comptes Rendus, vol. xxxv, p. 261, 1852.

tt Annales des Mines, 3d series, vol. vii, p. 448, 1835.

§§ Jeffreys’s Report of the British Association, 1840.— (Bibliotheque Britannique, vol. viii,
p. 441.)

||\| Alex. Brongniart and Regnault haye verified this fact at Sévres.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 259

§$ 5.—Humid process. .

The action of the vapor of water on the chlorides and on the sili-
cates, which has just been noticed, is, as it were, an intermediate
one between the dry and the wet way. -It remains for us to sum
up the results of this last. Bequerel has long ago shown the influ-
ence of slow action, aided by electricity of very feeble tension, in
precipitating insoluble combinations which imitate those of nature.*
It was also by the slow decomposition of silicic ether that Ebelmen
produced a hydrated silica in solid, compact masses, similar to hyalite
and hydrophane.t Gustave Rose has skilfully analyzed the condi-
tions under which carbonate of lime is precipitated in the state of
arragonite. Bischof and Sterry Hunt have made divers experi-
ments, the first to verify his ideas on the formation of minerals, the
second in support of his theory of the origin of magnesian rocks.
Charles Deville has examined how it is that water, with the sole
aid of carbonic acid, and without the help of pressure, can contribute
to the formation of dolomites.§ From reactions which are produced
in the manufacture of hydraulic limes and cements, Kuhlmann has
deduced interesting results for geology.|| Mention may here be made
of the action of the alkalies on rocks, by Delesse.{ It is especially
at high temperatures.and under pressure that we succeed in imitating
mineral substances in water.

Hall** and Cagniard-Latourtt long ago discovered that vegeta-
bles in these conditions are affected in a peculiar manner. By sub-
mitting wood in water to a temperature of about 300° centigrade, I
produced a real anthracite.{{ At a lower temperature Baroulier,
by means of vegetables enclosed in moist clay, obtained an imitation
of coal.§$

The beautiful experiment of Haidinger and Morlot on the formation
of dolomite has inaugurated the use of water under pressure for the
formation of minerals.||| Instead of forming dolomite by the reaction
of sulphate of magnesia on carbonate of lime, Favre and Marignac
have since used the chloride of magnesium to produce the same
effect. 19

De Senarmont has undertaken a long series of experiments,

** Annales de Chimie e de Physique, vol. xxxii, p. 244, 1823.
t Annales des Mines, 4th series, vol. viii, p. 149; Comptes Rendus, vol. xxi, p. 527;
Leonhard’s Jarbuch, p 807, 1858.
{ Bibliotheque de Geneve, 1857, p. 268.
§ Comptes Rendus, vol. xlvii, p. 90, 1858.
+ || Comptes Rendus, vol. xii, p. 852; vol. xxxv, p. 739.
{ Bulletin de la Societié Géologique, 2d series, vol. xi, p. 127.
= Hall obtained a kind of coal by the dry way.
+} Comptes Rendus, vol. xxxii, p. 275, 1857.
tt Annales des Mines, 5th series, vol. xii, p. 305, 1857.
§§ Comptes Rendus, vol. xlvi, p. 376, 1858.
|\\| Mémoires de Vv Académie de Vienne, vol. 1, p. 305, 1847.
© Bibliotheque de Genéve, May, 1849.

260 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

which have thrown much light on very important phenomena.*
Operating with the aid of water at a temperature of 130° to 300°
centigrade, he succeeded in producing, in a crystallized state, the
principal minerals which characterize metallic veins—among others,
quartz, t spathic iron, the varbonates of manganese and zinc, sulphate
of baryta, sulphide of antimony, mispickel, and red silver. To com-
prehend at this time all the importance of the problem which was
thus solved by this savant, we must remember that until then we
had not been able to imitate the greater part of the minerals occuring
in veins. Now, the most characteristic species of these formations,
numbering more than thirty, have been reproduced by a process
similar to that which observation led us to suppose, and by the aid
of the element the most widely distributed in hot springs. This
memorable achievement, for the first time, showed in geology that
an induction relative to an entire order of facts may be demonstrated
by experimental synthesis.

De Senarmont has also shown that the sole action of water sut-
ffices, with the aid of a high temperature, to isolate the bases of cer-
tain salts. It is thus that anhydrous oxide of iron and crystallized
alumina or corundum have been produced by the decomposition of
solutions of chloride of iron and chloride of aluminium. Brochantite
(sub-sulphate of copper) and azurite have been recently obtained by
the same process. Up to that time the humid way had not served
to produce anhydrous silicates. I have been able to do this by a
series of experiments, the principal results of which I shall give in
the third part.

We may add that nature herself continues to make daily experi-
ments (if the expression may be used) of the same kind with those
which we only perform with so much difficulty, employing probably
processes analogous to those which she has resorted to from the most
remote ages. Unfortunately these reactions take place in regions
that we can very rarely reach. It is only in a very few instances
that we can be witnesses of the formation of contemporaneous
minerals. It is sufficient to go down a few yards into the subsoil of
Plombieres, and to enter the masses infiltrated for centuries by
thermal waters to discover sulphuret of copper in crystals identical
with those of Carnwall, and a whole series of zeolites, arranged as in
basaltic rocks.§ What would be the result if we could penetrate
deeper into the ducts through which these hot springs ascend?

* Expériences sur la formation artificielle par voie humide de quelques espéces minérales.
qui ont pu se former dans les sources thermales sous ]’action combinée de la chaleur et de
la pression.—(Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol. xxviii, p. 693, 1849.) Expériences sur
la formation des minéraux par voie humide dans les gites métalliféres concretionnes.—
(Annales de Chimie et la Physique, vol. xxxii, 1851.) ;

T Anzeigen, p. 557, 1845.

{ Observations sur le métamorphisme et recherches expérimentales sur quelques-uns des
agents qui ont pu le produire.—(Annales des Mines, 5th series, vol. xii, p. 289, 1857;
Bulletin de la Sociétié Géologique de France, 2d series, vol. xv, p. 97.)

§ Memoire sur la relation des sources thermales de Plombieres avec les filons métalliféres
et sur la formation contemporaine des zeolites. —(Annales des Mines, 5th series, vol. xiii, p.
227.) The formation of iron pyrites, which is a mineral so widely dispersed, has been but
very seldom seen ; and first by Longchamp at Chaudesaigues, Bischof met with it at Brohl,
and Bunsen in Iceland,

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 261

When we can succeed in thus taking nature by surprise, after the
first emotion of pleasure at having wrested from her one of her
secrets, we experience a feeling of humility in seeing at the cost of
what difficulties we are able to reproduce a few of the most simple
mineralogical formations; yet the results already’ attained show that
we have no reason to be discouraged, and that we have it in our power
to imitate no small number of minerals without the intervention of
centuries.

SECOND PART.

EXPOSITION OF THE FACTS WHICH CONJOINTLY CON-
STITUTE METAMORPHISM.

The variety of the facts which I have to present induces me to
group them in five chapters. I shall first examine metamorphism of
juxtaposition; secondly, regional metamorphism. I shall then pass in
review metamorphism of structure; then the phenomena relating to the
deposits of dolomite, rock salt, sulphur, and bituminous deposits; finally,
the general relation of metalliferous deposits and thermal springs to met-
amorphism.

The observations relating to primitive gneiss, the origin of which is
doubtful, will be reserved for the third part, which will terminate
this memoir.

This exposition will be very brief; for it has for its object well-
known facts, which it is only necessary to recall in order that we bear
in mind the conditions which the theoretical explanation ought to
satisfy.*

FIRST CHAPTER.

METAMORPHISM OF JUXTAPOSITION. if

When a rock has been thrown up from below, the beds which it
traverses have generally been modified in its neighborhood. Some-
times this modification of the enclosing rocks is reduced to a very
narrow bordering, of a few sixteenths of an inch, and the changes
produced upon this thin layer are not very decided.{ In others,

*“ The examples known would form an entire treatise on descriptive geology. I shall
not give them in detail, but content myself with simply announcing them. I shall refer
pe eeu to the best works on general geology, particularly to those of Naumann, Studer
and Lyell.

7 It seems best to me to use this denomination rather than that of metamorphism of
contact, which is ordinarily employed, because the modifications which it explains extend
far beyond the contact of the rocks. . The word local does not appear to me to be suffi-
ciently characteristic.

¢As an example, I will confine myself to citing many veins of basalt which intersect
the jurassic formation of the Wurtemberg Alps. Granite itself has not always modified
the schist, even when it was in a sufficiently fluid state to be injected into it in veins, as
in the Vosges near Wesserling.—(Bulletin de la Société Géologique, vol. iv, p. 1446.)

262 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

and particularly when the eruptive rock is of a granitic nature, the
extent of the modified zone, as well as the more complete changes
that have taken place, denote a much more energetic action.

Not only the extent of the modified zone varies according to the
nature of the eruptive rock, but for the same rock, and in the same
country, this extent presents great differences.* Near the granite
it is often of some hundred yards, and, exceptionally, even 3,000
yards: for instance, in the environs of Christiania this band is on an
average 360 yards; in the Pyrenees it attains 1,500 yards, perfectly
characterized in its effects.t In general, it is remarked that the
transformation has extended further between the re-entering angles
formed by the eruptive rock than opposite the salient parts. —(Champ-
du-Feu in the Vosges, { environs of Christiania.) With regard to the
nature of the modifications undergone by the surrounding rocks, they
are so various that it is difficult to give a summary of them.§

Sometimes only a new molecular arrangement has taken place; lime-
stone has become saccharoidal like statuary marble; elsewhere sand-
stone has been changed into quartzite.—(Isle of Sky.) The mineral
combustibles have generally been modified by losing a part of their
constitutive elements. It is thus that lignite has been changed into
coal, into anthracite, and sometimes even into graphite, (graphite
mined in the tertiary formation at Omenatk, in Greenland, in which
formation it isalso knownin Java.) Coal has sometimes been changed
into one of these two last states, (graphite of Scotland, graphite and
anthracite of Worcester, Massachusetts.) More rarely coal and lig-
nite have been transformed into a kind of coke.1_ Bitumen, accidentally
isolated from these combustibles, has been lodged in the rocks which
were more or less uear.—(Lobsann, in the Bas-Rhine, Hering, in Tyrol.)
Most frequently new crystalline combinations have been developed,
either with the pre-existing elements of the rock, or by the aid of
new elements which have been introduced, or by the elimination of
some of those which were originally there.**

* The chalk of the northwest of Ireland, near certain veins of trap, is not modified in the
least ; it has, on the contrary, become crystalline near those that are very large; in this
last case the modification rarely extends beyond three yards. The same rock forms veins in
the Isle of &ky, in Scotland ; near some of them the lias is modified, whilst it is not at all
affected near others, nor are we able to account for the cause of this difference.—
(Karsten’s Archiv., vol. 1, 2d series, p. 99.) The rocks of the transition formations of the
Vosges, into which granite has penetrated in veins, presents still greater differences ;
sometimes the moditication is imperceptible, as in the valley of Wesserling ; sometimes it
is very distinctly marked, as at Andlau and at Barr.

+ Durocher, memoir cited above.

{The transition formation is modified in a manner much more complete and over a
greater expanse at the top of the valley of Barr than in the valleys of Villé and d’ Andlau;
and this appears to result from the fact that, instead of simply bordering on the granite, it
forms in the first locality a long band, which is as it were let in between the granite and
the syenite.— (Description Greologique du Bas Rhin, p. 54.)

§ Annales des Mines, 5th series, vol. xii, p. 89.

|| Which does not prevent them from often having acquired new minerals like the other
rocks, as the zeoliths, for instance.

{ This last transformation, pointed out near Newcastle, for instance, has not as yet been
obgerved in the proximity of granitic rocks.

Me she

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 263

Among the minerals which are most frequently formed in argilla-
ceous schists are macle, or chiostalite, staurotide, disthene, mica
belonging to two species, which is often in very small spangles; the
feldspars, orthose, and anorthite ; amphibole, which is sometimes
sufficiently abundant to constitute an amphibolic schist, * tourmaline, t
&c. These minerals are generally found in the neighborhood of
granite. It is chiefly in limestone that a great variety of minerals
have been found, among which I will mention garnet, idocrase, am-
phibole, wollastonite, epidote, paranthine, dipyre, couzeranite, mag-
nesian mica, gehlenite, chondrodite, spinel,{ serpentine, talc, chlorite,
seladonite, the zeolites, certain clays, &c. These different minerals
do not, however, belong exclusively to calcareous rocks.§ Thus the
zeolites are found not only in limestones, but also in argillaceous
rocks, sandstones, and sometimes even in mineral combustibles, when
these rocks have been traversed by eruptions of trap.|| In the
neighborhood of all kinds of eruptive rocks, granite and others,
quartz is often accumulated, either in crystalline or compact masses,
or as jasper.) This ubiquity belongs, also, to other minerals of
metallic veins, such as the carbonates with lime, magnesia, and iron,
as bases, sulphate of baryta, fluor spar, and specular iron.** As ex-
amples of this action, the varieties of which are numberless, I men-
tion the classic locality of the Hartz, where the schist that borders
on the granite (hornfels) contains mica, feldspar, tourmaline, chlorite,
garnet ;tt Cornwall, where effects of the same kind are produced ;{{
the Vosges,§§ the Pyrenees, Britanny, ||| Norway, &c.

Sometimes the rocks bordering on granite or syenite are modified
to such an extent that they themselves assume the character of
eruptive rocks. ‘Thus, in the Vosges, argillaceous schist passes by in-
sensible gradations to a feldspathic rock, which is sometimes porphyro-
idal, and to green porphyries studded with anorthite and amphibole.
Similar facts have been observed in other countries. The trans-
formed rock often becomes amygdaloidal; in certain parts of Ger-

* Environs of Christiania.

+ Hornfels in the Hartz.

{ Monzoni, Somma,; the silurian limestone of Sparta, in the United States.

§ Some, however, as wollastonite and gehlenite, have as yet only been found in lime-
stone.

\| Tertiary limestone of the conglomerate of Puy de la Piquette, marls of the Cyclops
islands, containing beautiful crystals of analcime, argillaceous schists of Andreasberg, in the
Hartz, and of the Isle of Anglesey, tertiary sandstone of a vitrified appearance in Wilden-
stein, in Veteravia. Zeolites have even been formed in granite, near veins of basalt which
traverse it, in the Isle of Arran, for instance.—(Boué —Zysai Geologique sur I’ Ecosse, p. 499 ;
and at Haustein, in the Forét-Noire ; (Schill, Newes Jarbuch, 1857, p. 36.)

{ Tuscany, Greece, Ural, &c.

*% Sometimes quartz has been simply isolated by the decomposition of pre-existing sili-
cates, as we shall see in the third part; sometimes it results, as in the other gangues of
metalliferous veins, from a manifest deposit.

77 According to Hoffman and Zincken.

tt De la Beche.—(Geolagical Report on Cornwall, p. 267.)

§§ Daubreé.—( Description Géologique du Bas Rhin, pp. 32 and 52.)

||\| According to the pre-cited memoirs of Palassou, Dufrénoy, and of Durocher.

Q Bulletin de la Sociéié Géslogique, 1st series, vol. vii; Comptes Rendus, vol. xix, p. 857;
Reisnach Oural, vol. ii, p. 185.

264 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

many it there bears the name of schaalstein.* We know, moreover,
that the eruptive rock itself often undergoes modifications in the
neighborhood of the enclosing rocks. +

The different transformations which I have been noticing form, so
to speak, irregular aureoles around granite and the other eruptive
rocks. Elie de Beaumont has shown that, according as the rock
is acid, that is, contains an excess of silicic acid or basic, the metal-
liferous deposits in connexion with it present two distinct types.
The same is true of the metamorphic aureoles of which I have just
spoken, and the observations of Delesse have contributed to prove
it. Thus, on the one hand, the zeolites which have so often been
found near trap rocks have not been found near effusions of granite.
On the other hand, this last rock produces certain minerals, to the
exclusion of all others, such as, for instance, the aluminous silicates,
known under the name of macle and staurotide, so common in the
argillaceous schists of Britanny. Micaceous and feldspathic schists
very frequently envelop granite to a great depth in the Pyrenees and
elsewhere ; we do not know of anything analogous near the traps.

CHAPTER II.
REGIONAL METAMORPHISM. $

Trepeat that Lam speaking here of the schistose masses whose meta-
morphic origin is clearly proved; consequently I refer to the third part
of this memoir, the examination of primitive gneiss, mica schists, and
other subordinate rocks, which are inferior to the stratified fossiliferous
formations. Considerable masses of stratified rocks, occupying entire
counties, often exhibit very marked traces of metamorphism, even
when it is impossible in these formations to discover the least out-
crop of eruptive rocks.|| This modification is easily verified in coun-
tries where it has been of so feeble an intensity as not to have entirely
destroyed the sedimentary character of the rock; such are Wales,
the Taunas, and the Ardennes. In the silurian and devonian periods
of this last locality the rocks have in part become schistose, and over

* These amygdaloidal rocks frequently pass to fossiliferous limestones, and often them-
selves take the form of a conglomerate. (Steingraben, in the Vosges, Nassau, county of
Brilon in Westphalia, where they are associated with a Labradoric porphyry ; Paimpol, in
Britany, Lake Superior, and Nova Scotia ) Certain spilites of the Alps and of l’Esterel are
considered as metamorphic by Mr. Gras.

+ Whence the name of endomorphism, proposed by Fournet; often, according to Delesse,
it is impregnated with a magnesian hydrosilicate.

{ Durocher ; memoir cited above, p. 607 and 614.

§ The name of regional metamorphism, which I have proposed, appears to me more
exact than normal metamorphism, and less vague than that of general metamorphism.

|| The difference in the nature of mineral combustibles, lignite, coal, anthracite, which
varies according to the formation, may be considered as an example of a metamorphism
that has taken place without the intervention of eruptive rocks; it has acted, perhaps, on
more impressionable substances than rocks. It is on this account that anthracite only is
found in the Alps and in the talcose schists of the Basse-Loire, and that the eocene forma-
tion of Tuscany contains a real coal.—(Monte Bamboli.)

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 265
a great extent chlorite, in innumerable microscopic crystals,* has
been formed between their lamelle ; feldspar has also sometimes been
introduced ; furthermore, a multitude of quartz veins, some parallel
to the lamelle and others oblique, have been isolated within them, and
these veins themselves often contain the minerals which have just
been cited; lastly, sandstones have been changed into quartzites.t
Now we can hardly admit that stratified and fossiliferous formations
could have originally possessed those mineralogical characters, and
hence it is conceded by all that they owe their present nature to a
transformation undergone since their deposition.

But when the same phenomenon presents itself under a more ad-
vanced phase, it needs a more attentive examination to authenticate
it, nor is it always possible to attain a certainty, because the primi-
tive type has been more or less completely effaced by chemical action
posterior to the formation of the sedimentary rock. Thus, in the
immense masses of crystalline rock of the Alps, we find, as in the
Ardennes, a chlorite schist with veins of quartz and often of chlorite,
but it is in general more perfectly crystallized. (Zillerthal, in Tyrol,
Salsbourg.) It is associated with a series of other crystalline rocks, of
various natures, which alternate irregularly among themselves, espe-
cially talcose schist, green schist, { amphibolic schists, and even some
schistose diorites,§ talcose gneiss, (described by Saussure under the
name of veined granite,) quartzite,| calcareous and often micaceous
schists, more rarely dolomites and gypsum, also studded with a variety
of minerals. (Environs of Airolo.){ Yet, notwithstanding the pe-
culiarly crystalline character of the rock, the greater part of the ge-
ologists who have described the Alps have considered them as of
sedimentary origin.

The conclusion that certain crystalline and very extended forma-
tions, such as those of the Alps, are metamorphic, rests upon many
evidences which are, however, very nearly of the same order with
those which prove the metamorphism that has taken place in the
neighborhood of eruptive rocks. I mention the following :

1. The analogy of composition which unites certain groups of
crystalline with sedimentary rocks is at this day still striking, not-
withstanding the modifications which the first appear to have under-
gone. We find, in effect, asin the sedimentary rocks, beds of limestone,

* M. Sauvage discovered by analysis the existence of chlorite, even in those varieties of
phyllades where the naked eye cannot distinguish it. It is under these same conditions
that sericite is found in the schists of Taunus.

+ Explication de la Carte Géologique de France, vol. i, p. 77. Durocher ; memoir cited above,
p- 603.

{The rocks named green schists by Mr. Studre, and which are certainly metamorphic,
have been recently carefully examined by Mr. Rath. They are of a very variable compo-
sition, and often contain aligoclase and albite.— (Zeitschrift der Deutsch. Creol. Gesellschaft, vol.
ix, p. 211.)

§ We have before mentioned that the schistose diorites of the Ural are generally consid-
ered as metamorphic.

|| Lransactions of the Geological Society of London, 1st series, vol. iv, p. 264; 2d series, vol.
i, p. 53; Cosmos, vol. i, p. 305.

{| Serpentine itself, in certain of its formations in the Alps, the Ural, the Alleghanies,
and elsewhere, appears to result from the metamorphism of different amphibolic and
other rocks, as numerous observations prove.

266 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

of dolomite, of gypsum, of a quartzose rock or quartzite, in fine chloritic
and talcose schists, which it would often be impossible to distinguish
from rocks of the same character, belonging to a well-characterized
silurian formation. JI will also call to mind, as Bischof has observed,
that the elementary composition of certain argillaceous schists of the
transition formations is often very perceptibly the same as that of
granite and of gneiss.

2. The same country will present instances of the passage, unques-
tionably gradual, of crystalline into stratified fossiliferous rocks.
These insensible transitions, which prevent the establishment of a
line of demarcation between these two categories of rocks, and that
suggested to Werner the name of formation of transition, (Uebergangs-
gebirge,) which he gave to the group in which they occur most fre-
quently, have been too often described to make it necessary to enlarge
on this subject*. There are localities, however, especially in the
Alps, where crystalline rocks are inserted in the midst of sedimen-
tary rocks, which are but slightly modified.

3. We know that the crystallization which has taken place in prox-
imity to eruptive rocks has not always effaced the trace of fossils.
Distinct vestiges of them still exist in the midst of rocks studded
with crystalline silicates. It is sufficient to cite the fossiliferous silu-
rian limestone of Norway, which at Brevig contains paranthine and
garnet, and at Gjellebeck amphibole with epidote, the jurassic lime-
stone of Angoumert, in the Ariege, containing dipyre; the schists of
Britanny, so well described by M. Boblaye, of which the same speci-
mens contain macles of several sixteenths of an inch in length, with
orthis, spiriferes, and calymenes; the white sub-crystalline limestone
containing encrinites, discovered in the Ural, on the borders of the
river Miask, by Murchison and de Verneuil, in the midst of a region
of granite, serpentine, and metamorphic rocks;+ in fine, the amphi-
bolic rock of Rothau, in the Vosges, in which polyps, without
changing their form, have been replaced by crystals of amphibole,
garnet, and axinite.{ The same thing occurs in the masses of crys-
talline formations which we are now considering. Since the in-
stance cited by Brochant: De Charpentier, Lardy, and Studer, have
discovered in the neighborhood of St. Gothard belemnites in the
midst of a micaceous schist containing garnet. The possibility
of a transformation appears, however, proved by the blocks

* Among the numerous examples that we could cite, it will be sufficient to mention
Britanny, (Ezplication de la Carte Géologique de France, vol. i, p. 234 ;) Saxony, where these
transitions have been remarkably well described by Naumann ; the Alps of Dauphiny, of
the Tarentaise, of Switzerland, of Tyrol, of Saltzbourg, of Carinthia, according to Brochant,
Elie de Beaumont, Sismonda, Gras, Lory, Studer, Escher, Lardy, Favre, Murchisson, Cred-
ner, and many others ; the Ural, according to Murchisson and G. Rose, and the United
States, according to Lyell. ~

The green schists in the different parts of the Alps (Grisons, Piedmont, &c.) form the
passage between rocks evidently sedimentary and those that are crystalline. —(Studer, Phys-
ikalische Geographie, vol. i, p. 148.)

+ Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains, vol i, p. 420.

{ Annales des Mines, 5th series, vol. xii, p. 318.

§ Particularly at the Col de la Nufenen, near Airolo. M. de Charpentier, as long ago
as 1822, found belemnites in the supposed primitive limestones of the Col de Seigne.—
(Cosmos, vol. i, p. 541.)

ee er

ea i i in eA |

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 267

which come from Mount Somma, where there is every description of
transition, from the compact limestone of the Apennines, containing
pectunculus, to the lamellar limestones and to dolomites, filled with
crystallized silicates.

4, In rocks in which the crystalline state is still more distinctly
marked, where no traces of animal forms are any longer to be seen,
the remains of plants are sometimes preserved. We find, for in-
stance, vegetable imprints in feldspathic and micaceous rocks, which
are so crystalline that they might be mistaken for eruptive rocks,
especially if they were to be determined by isolated specimens.
Such are the feldspathised grauwacks of Thann, the schists of Bus-
sang, in the Vosges, the pierre carrée of the banks of the Loire, which
is frequently associated with anthracite, rocks which are assigned to
the carboniferous or anthracite formation.

5. When the forms of the vegetables themselves are no longer
found, these schistose crystalline rocks often contain carbonaceous
compounds which, in all probability, are of organic origin. It is thus
that the micaceous schists of Ariolo, which are studded with garnets
and long prisms of amphibole, still contain, according to an assay
that I made of them, as much as 5 per cent. of carbon;* the same is
true of many slaty schistst.

It follows, from what precedes, that it would be difficult to estab-
lish a distinction between metamorphism of juxtaposition and regional
metamorphism, if we were to judge by mineralogical characters only;
the two phenomena differ principally in the extent of their action.
It is chiefly in the lower beds of the series of stratified formations
that the effects of regional metamorphism are remarkable.

A splendid example of the transformation of the paleozoic forma-
tions occurs in the Ural; the sedimentary origin, and the age of
the crystalline schists which compose it, have been placed beyond
question by the admirable work of Murchison, De Verneuil, and
Keyserling.{ The very feebly consolidated silurian formations of
Russia, in these mountains are transformed into crystalline schists,
which have here and there preserved, as if to prove their origin,
strips of fossiliferous rocks. The same is true of the carboniferous
formation. The white and soft limestones of Moscow are found in
the Ural with the same fossils, (Productus gigas and Spirifer mosquen-
sis,) but under the form of a hard, dark, and crystalline limestone.
Regional metamorphism, however, is not exclusively confined to the
primitive formations, and, on the other hand, it does not, of necessity,
belong to them. Thus, on the one side, we find schists that have be-
come crystalline as high up as the beds containing belemnites, and
even in the nummulitic formation, (as in the Grisons.§$) Onthe other

* After having removed the carbonate of lime by an acid, the carbon was determined by
the oxide of copper, as in organic analyses.

+ It is very possible that the bituminous matter found by M. Delesse in the protogine of
Mount Blanc is of organic origin.

{ Russia, vol. i, pp. 402, 438, and 465.

§ According to Sir R. Murchison, these rocks are allied to eneiss.—(Geological Quarterly
Journal, vol. v, p. 211, 1848.)

268 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

hand, some silurian formations are hardly modified at all, even in their
inferior beds, as we see in Russia, Sweden, and in the United States.*

The remarkably crystalline state of many paleozoic formations
should not, then, be exclusively attributed, as has been supposed, to
a certain peculiar position in which the earth was at the time of their
deposition, but in reality to peculiar agencies which have affected
certain regions in preference to others.

© Bray Tab RPh i.

METAMORPHISM OF STRUCTURE.

Many masses of rock can be more or less perfectly divided into
parallel lamelle.+ These lamelle are not caused by a cleavage of crys-
tallization, nor are they owing to stratification. The plane of the
lamelle is frequently oblique to that of the beds. There are coun-
tries, however, where the transversal disposition is exceptional, and
where the lamelle are generally parallel to the stratification. t

This lamellar structure is particularly developed in argilaceous
schists or phyllades, but it is not exclusively peculiar to them; it be-
longs to rocks of different natures, such as quartzites, sandstones,
limestones, especially when they are impure. Different circumstances
show that Jamellar rocks have undergone mechanical action, particu-
larly energetic pressure, which has produced upon them indelible
effects. The greater part of the fossils which they contain have been
compressed and drawn out in a very characteristic manner. It is to
the slips which have. resulted from this pressure that the lamellar
structure appears to owe its origin, as is confirmed by the experi-
ment which we shall presently cite.

Certain peculiarities of structure, less marked than the cleavage,
result likewise, without doubt, from mechanical action. Such are the
secondary joints, known to those who work slate ;§ the fibrous structure
which results asif from a folding of the lamellz;| the structure called
pseudo-regular, which occurs frequently in quartzites and coal. These
different methods of division are therefore to be also mentioned as a
metamorphism of the kind we are describing. The abnormal schistose

* According to the very recent observations of Sir R. Murchison, metamorphism has
played a more important part than was suspected in the constitution of the silurian for-
mation of Scotland.

+ Often the joint is not more distinct in the rock before it is brought out by a shock than
cleavage in crystals ; it is, as it were, latent, as we see in the slate quarries.

{ This habitual parallelism has been noticed in the Hartz, in Saxony, in Britanny, in Scot-
land, in Devonshire, and in the system of the Rhine, by Hausmann, Naumann, Durocher,
Macculoch, De la Béche, Baur, and De Dechen.

§ The chief of these secondary joints is called longrain by the quarrymen of the Ar-
denves,

|| The bacillary structure of some limestones of the Alps, such as those of Klam, in the
Tyrol, is an example of it.—(Havre ; Géologie du Tyrol Allemande ; Bibliotheque de Genéve, 1849.)

De la Béche has given examples of these divisions in his Geological Report of Cornwall,
p. 271.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 269

structure, or, in other words, the lamellar structure, which does not
owe its origin to stratification by deposition, although it is of frequent
occurrence in the primitive formations, is not always found there, nor
is it peculiar to them. On the one hand, we do not find real phyl-
lades in the silurian formations of Sweden, of Russia, or of the United
States, which have remained horizontal, and which have been men-
tioned above as in general not being metamorphosed. On the other
hand, the schists suitable for being quarried as slates are found in the
more recent formations which have been dislocated, as in the creta-
ceous formation of the Pyrenees and of Terra del Fuego,* and in the
nummulite formation of Switzerland, in the environs of Glarus. Thus
the origin of the lamellar structure, as of the metamorphic state, ap-
pears to be essentially connected with the existence of dislocations.

© AGP BR, Vin

DOLOMITE, GYPSUM, ROCK-SALT, SULPHUR, AND BITUMINOUS DEPOSITS IN
THEIR RELATIONS WITH METAMORPHISM. |

We know that certain dolomites result from the transformation of
limestone.t This epigeny may be explained, as the synthetical experi-
ments which have been produced upon this subject tend to show, by
the action of combinations of magnesia on carbonate of lime. There
is, however, nothing to prove that this transformation into dolomite
has always been produced by the same agents, and that the dolomite
of Campo-Longo, for instance, with its tourmalines, its corundums,
and its various minerals, is to be assimilated with the dolomite of the
other parts of the Alps{ and of Nice, or those which are near the de-
posits of calamine in Belgium.

But there are dolomites, and this is the case with the greatest
number, situated in regular beds, which are often horizontal, consti-
tuting very extensive geognostic formations. When they contain
remains of testaceous molusca the shell has disappeared; they are
often crystalline and riddled with holes in such a way as to suggest
a substitution. It is possible that the principal part of these last
dolomites was directly precipitated.§ But on account of the disap-
pearance of the shells we must admit, with Elie de Beaumont,
that this second case allies itself with the first, by the reaction which
the medium in which the precipitation has taken place, has exerted
on the matter precipitated, a reaction of such kind that the carbonate

* According to Mr. Darwin.

+ To the simple exposition of facts I will add in these three chapters a few theoretical
considerations. This will exempt me from recurring to these phenomena in the third part.

{ See especially the memoirs of Studer and his Physikalische Geographie, vol. i, p. 146.

§ Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol. xxviii, p. 710 ; Erdmann Jahrb. fur pract. Chem., vol.
xlix, p. 52, 1850.

270 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

of lime has disappeared. Indeed, we notice that pure limestone never
alternates with them.

Stratified dolomites are in general associated with deposits of an-
hydrite and gypsum, rocks which have been also considered as owing
their origin to an epigeny ;* they likewise frequently accompany de-
posits of rock-salt. These last three rocks, which have remarkable
analogies in their modes of occurrence, have been, like dolomites,
referred to two types of formation. Most frequently they are regu-
larly subordinated to stratified formations, of which they constitute
a characteristic element, as we see in the trias of western Europe
and of Spain, and in the tertiary formations of the Carpathian moun-
tains. Elsewhere there are casual deposits which appear to be di-
rectly connected with dislocations, as is admitted in regard to the
beds of the Alps of Salzbourg and of Bavaria, of the Pyrenees, and of
Algeria; thus the characteristic of a double origin attributed to dolo-
mites is also found in the gypsums, anhydrites, and rock-salt which
accompany them.

A very remarkable character of all formations containing salt, and
which also shows the analogies and the singularity of their formation,
is the uniform or variegated red tint of the clays, sandstones, and even
of certain masses of the salt which compose them. I shall not be
able here to reproduce the considerations by which Khe de Beaumont
has compared these different connected facts, and has shown that in
the mass of waters, which deposited the marnes irisées, phenomena
analagous in their results to those which accompany volcanic action
have taken place.t These red formations often cover perfectly regu-
lar beds, the coloration of which presents nothing abnormal; such are
the marnes irisées which rest upon the muschelkalk. This circum-
stance, in connexion with the vast superficies which they often oc-
cupy, would seem to show that the heat of the earth had only exercised
its action upon them in an indirect or circuitous manner, by heating the
water of the sea. It would, therefore, perhaps be in virtue of a high
heat and a chemical action with which the concentration of chloride of
sodium was not unconnected, that the sea itself tinted the saliferous
formations, thus leaving, as it were, a witness of a temperature which
it had exceptionally experienced at certain,epochs and in extensive
portions of its basin.

We have just said that the regularly stratified dolomites are at-
tributed to an epigeny of limestone, and that it was at the time
of the deposit of this limestone and before it was protected by other
depositions that this transformation had taken place; now, precisely

* Ecplication de la Carte Géologique de France, vol. ii, p. 90.

{ Huplication de la Carte Géologique de France, vol. ii, p. 94.

De Senarmont has discovered that peroxide of iron may be dishydrated even in
water, at a temperature between 160° and 180° centigrade. This reduction, in an experi-
ment that I made, took place in a saturated solution of chloride of sodium at only 150°.

I also verified, by analysis, that the red part of the variegated clays not only differed
from the green parts by the state of combination of the iron, but also by a very much
greater proportion of the metal.. This observation led me to imitate exactly the ordinary
variegations of clays in passing successively vapors of chlorhydric acid and water over hot
clay. Some parts of the clay became colorless, while other parts took a red tint at the
expense of the first.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRSYTALLINE ROCKS. Jou

the same thing is true of some metalliferous deposits. The schists
containing copper of Mansfeld, the formations of lenticular iron ore of
the Voulte and of Privas, the beds containing jasper and metallic
minerals of the environs of Nontron, have been formed, as M. Gruner
remarks, anterior to all the beds which now cover them.* This kind
of immediate epigeny, in the very water where these different deposits
have been formed, appears then to constitute a common character
with dolomites, with the reddish and variegated rocks, as well as
with many metalliferous beds.

As another relation between these same formations I will further
remark, that in strata of various ages metalliferous deposits are often
associated with dolomite in such a peculiar way that there can be no
doubt that there is a common bond of origin between these two kinds
of deposits. We may cite as an example of this fact the masses of cala-
mine overlying the carboniferous limestone of Vielle-Montagne and of
Hifel ;+ those of San Juan de Alcarras and of the province of Santan-
der, in Spain; the formations of the same metal in Silesia and Poland ;{
the dolomite containing zinc, of England ; the small deposits of cala-
mine of central France, such as Durfort, (Losére), Combecave, (Lot,)
Alloue, (Charente ;) the formations of galena of Alpujarras; the mass
of iron ore of Vicdessos and of Canigou in the Pyrenees; the forma-
tions of the manganese of Nassau and those of Nontron, (Dordogne, ) &c.§

Native sulphur, in its principal formations, is generally associated
either by the relation of cause to effect or by the relation of effect to
cause, with deposits of gypsum.|| We see this in Sicily, in several
parts of Italy, in the environs of Wieliczka in Poland,‘ in Teruel in
Spain,** and on the banks of the Volga.tt If the sulphur came from
below in the state of sulphuretted hydrogen, as in the solfatares and
certain metalliferus deposits of Tuscany, where it is now daily being
deposited on the wood-work in the galleries of the mines, and was
there partially transformed into sulphate of lime by a more or less
perfect combustion ; or if the beds of sulphate of lime have undergone
an interior reduction, and by a well-known reaction produced sulphur,
under the influence of organic matters with which it is very often
associated,t} there is in either case a relation of metamorphism or

= Annales des Mines, 4th series, vol. xviii, p. 91.

+ Max Braun, Zeitschr d. Deutschen Geologischen Creselischaft, Jarhrg, 1857 ; Bulletin de la
Sociéié Géologique, 2d series, vol. viii, p. 105.

{ Memoirs of Karsten, De Carnall, and others on this interesting country.

§ We may include in this enumeration the beds of schist containing copper, of Mans-
feld ; the beds of sandstone, containing lead and copper, of the Moselle, which appear to
have been formed, like those cited above, before all the beds which now cover them.

|| Sometimes also with alunite, and less frequently with sulphate of strontian, as in
Sicily.

{| Annales des Mines, 4th series, vol. xviii, 1850.

*% The tertiary beds of Teruel, in which the lymneaare filled with sulphur, without de-
stroying the shell, and where this same substance has replaced the fibre in the stem of the
chara, are well known from the descriptions given by Hsquerra del Bayo, Max Braun,
De Verneuil, and Collomb.

ft Pallas, vol. i, p. 197 and 202 ; Russia, by Murchison.

tt It is doubless owing to a phenomenon of this kind that the sheathing of ships in some
of the African seas is attacked, as also the fact observed by Captain Wilmot on this coast
that there is deposited from the sea a mixture containing nearly an equal weight of organic
matter and sulphur.—(Jnstiiut., March 13, 1844.)

272 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

epigeny between the gypsum and the sulphur. We may remark,
however, that the first phenomenon appears to be almost always ac-
companied by a high temperature, while the reduction of sulphates,
even in a state of solution, appears paralyzed by every elevation of
temperature capable of stopping the putrid fermentation or the de-
composition which organic matter spontaneously undergoes. *

Bitumens and other carburets of hydrogen, according as they
are in a solid, liquid, or gaseous state, sometimes impregnate beds,
sometimes flow from them, (petroleum, ) sometimes escape from the soil,
as in the salses, mud volcanoes, and inflammable springs, which are
in general only the vents of bituminous deposits.t The different
formations of bitumen present as general, or at least, remarkably
frequent characteristics:

1. Of being associated with salt bearing formations, (Soultz-sous-
Forets in the Bas-Rhin, Landes; salt mines of Teklenbourg, in the
north of Germany; decrepitating salts of Wieliczka and other parts
of the Carpathian mountains, Brassa, near Spalatro; in Dalmatia,
Albania, Persia, China, United States, &c.)

2. Of being situated in the neighborhood of combustible deposits
or formations containing beds of vegetable remains, (Lobsann, Basses-
Alps; Seefeld and Hering, in Tyrol; Bovey, in Devonshire; Derby-
shire, environs of New Castle and of Glasgow, &c.)

3. Of being connected with accidents of igneous origin, both
ancient and modern; that is to say, volcanoes or eruptive rocks, (Val
de Noto, near Etna; Auvergne; Gaujac, in the Landes, where bitu-
men flows, at the foot of a peak of ophite, from a saliferous forma-
tion containing lignite; Java, Cape Verd,) or of being associated with
dislocated formations, (Hering, in the Tyrol, salses of the Crimea,
and of the promontory of Tamant and of the Caspian sea, which are
in the prolongation of Caucasus.)

4. Of being often accompanied by sulphurous hot springs and de-
posits of sulphur, (permian formation of the Volga, promontory of
Kertch, and various localities near the Caucasus, environs of Mosul,
in Persia.) These two last circumstances seem to result from the
associations of which we have spoken above.

Several of my experiments account for these relations. By sub-
mitting pieces of wood to the action of superheated water I have
transformed them, in the midst of the water itself, into lignite, coal,
or anthracite according to the temperature, and have moreover ob-
tained liquid and volatile products resembling natural bitumens, and

*The reduction of a sulphate to a sulphuret, according to the experiments of De
Senarmont, does not take place at high temperatures. Thus the conditions that are favor-
able to putrid fermentation are also suitable for the reduction of sulphates to sulphurets.

I will add besides that the sulphuret of copper is formed and crystallizes ia the hot
springs of Plombieres, at a temperature of about 70° centigrade, as I have elsewhere an-
nounced.—(Annales des Mines, 5th series, vol. xii, p. 294.) This phenomenon of reduction
explains. perhaps, the origin of some beds of metallic sulphurets, such as the copper
bearing schists of Mansfield.

+ This last relation is apparent in the Appenines, in Albania, in the promontory of
faman, and in the environs of Tiflis, &c.

} Mémoires de la Société Géologique de France, vol. ili, 1838.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 273

even possessing the characteristic odor of the petroleum of Bechel-
bronn. In this way we can understand the presence of bitumen in
some concretionary metalliferous veins, (Derbyshire, Camsdorf, Raibl
in Carinthia.)

In short, the bitumens are probably derived from vegetable sub-
stances;* they appear not to be the products of a simple dry distilla-
tion, but to have been formed with the co-operation of water, and
perhaps under pressure; graphite would be but the most exhausted
product of these substances.t These different combinations of car-
bon are connected with the transformations which are going on in the
interior of rocks, probably under the influence of a high temperature.
The activity, and even the violence, sometimes capable of producing
a slight earthquake, with which the disengagement of carburetted
hydrogen takes place in Tauris, on the borders of the Caspian sea,
and in the environs of Carthagena, in South America, prove that the
causes which have formerly isolated bitumen are still in activity.

CHAPTER V.
METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS IN THEIR RELATION TO METAMORPHISM.

_ Metallic combinations, derived from the interior of the earth, are
very frequently accumulated in the clefts which exist in the strata, and
have formed metallic veins. Sometimes also these and the various
other combinations which accompany them are diffused through the
rocks, and in penetrating them have caused them to undergo very
decided transformations. It is thus that the masses of specular iron
of Framont, the deposits of the Banat, of the environs of Christiania,
aud of Turjinsk, have been introduced in the neighborhood of erup-
tive rocks. In these localities the metallic minerals have been inter-
mingled with silicates, produced at the same time with them in the
sedimentary rock itself. In this way tin has been introduced in many
of the formations where it is now found, reacting profoundly on the
surrounding rocks, as I long ago pointed out, and forming in those
rocks characteristic minerals.

When entire masses of rock have undergone transformations, it
sometimes happens that, over vast extents, metallic substances have
been lodged between their lamellae, under such circumstances that
it is impossible to resist the idea that their presence has been inti-
mately connécted with the very cause which produced the metamor-
phism. As an example, I mention gold associated with iron pyrites
or with mispickel at Zillerthal in the Tyrol, at Galicia in Spain,
where it is also accompanied with tin; but it is especially in the Oural,

* Although Berthelot and other chemists have been able by ingenious methods to
obtain by synthesis the compounds which are called organic, nothing authorizes us for the
present to believe that this can be done for the bitumens.

+ Graphite and bitumen are associated in Java in the neighborhood of volcanic forma-
tions, and with lignite in a tertiary formation, from which jets of carburetted hydrogen
escape.

18

ote EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

in Brazil, and in the Alleghanies,* that these formations, at the same
time gold-bearing and metamorphic, attain great dimensions. In
short, the metalliferous deposits, as well as the silicious discharges
which furrow many countries, are but peculiarities of metamorphic
phenomena.

CHAPTER VI.
DECOMPOSITION OF SILICIOUS ROCKS, AND MINERAL SPRINGS.

Causes, which appear to have some analogy with those which have
changed the sedimentary deposits into crystalline rocks, have often
produced an inverse effect, and have transformed silicious crystalline
rocks into hydrated silicates; sometimes earthy and amorphous, such
as clays, steatite, seladonite; sometimes crystalline, as the zeolites.
We know, especially since the researches of Kbelmen, how atmo-
spheric agents gradually decompose the siliciousrocks.t The carbonic
acid of the atmosphere, the nitric acid which is there daily developed,
as the very general phenomenon of nitrification proves—in fine, the
organic acids resulting from the decomposition of vegetable matter,
gradually dissolve out the alkalies and the alkaline carths, and the
residues, in which alumina is more and more concentrated, finally be-
come hydrosilicates of alumina of the family of clays. But it is not
alone in the neighborhood of the atmosphere that clays may have
been derived from the transformation of crystalline silicious rocks.
Volcanic fumaroles often reduce the masses through which they pass
into real clays, ordinarily variegated, (Lipari islands, Solfatares of
Pouzzoli, Iceland, Azores, Kamtschatka.){ This is, without doubt,
the origin of the mud sometimes thrown out by the great volcanoes of
the Andes. Carbonic acid, as Fournet long ago discovered in Au-
verne, itself suffices to produce analogous decomposition. The alka-
line solutions which many hot springs contain, those of Plombieres, for
instance, appear to decompose the silicious rocks as effectually as the
acids of the fumaroles.

Like effects are often found in the neighborhood of metalliferous
deposits. Thus the beds of kaolin, in Saxony, certainly result from
a decomposition of granite near veins of iron, which traverse it; this
example may be considered as the type of many facts of the same
kind.§ The various. masses of kaolin which are worked in Cornwall

* A recent memoir of Leiber on this country gives interesting and detailed accounts.

+Ican only mention here the important labors of Fuchs, Berthier, Forchhammer, Tur-
ner, Fournet, Al. Brongniart, Malaguti, and others on this subject.

+ According to the observations of Breislack, Hoffman, Bunsen, Darwin, and others.
Charles Deville has explained by an experiment this reaction of sulphuretted hydrogen on
rocks.

§ Sosa, in Saxnoy, near a vein of quartz containing iron ore ; environs of Alengon, near
a vein of quartz; deposits of the Loire, according to Gruner and Rozet; decomposed
feldspar of the arkose of central France,&c.; halloysite of Louhassoa, near Bayonne; kaolin of
Eschassieres, (Allier,) in feldspathic porphyry, according to Boulanger.

It was facts of this kind that induced Brongniart and Malaguti to attribute the decom-
position of feldspar to voltaic action.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 275

are also associated with deposits of tin; they bear, as long ago re-
marked, the date and trace of their origin, in the substitution of oxide
of tin and of tourmalin for the crystals of feldspar which have been
dissolved. The kaolin of Middletown, in Connecticut, situated near
silicates containing fluor and columbite, probably result from a like
action.

These last facts authorize us to think that analogous phenomena
must have produced the decomposition of crystalline rocks into kaolin,
even where we do not now find any traces of metalliferous deposits;
for, in this case, it is possible that the waters which have acted did not
contain any metallic solutions. Thus the granite of the Vosges is
often altered to avery great depth, especially at Plombieres. Some-
times even. as I have elsewhere shown, the decomposition and regen-
eration of see have often taken place at neighboring points, thus
constituting, as it were, two complementary phenomena. *

It is, ae ice to agencies of the same character that we must at-
tribute the transformation of entire masses of feldspathic porphyry to
clay, which has caused this variety to be called in Germany thon-
porphyr; the crystals of feldspar, although perfectly formed, are in
general nothing but kaolin.

The springs of Plombieres, which have afforded us examples of the
production of minerals, also show that some hydrosilicates of alumina
of the group of clays do not originate from a decomposition in posi-
tion. Halloysite, (or savon de Plombieres,) of which these springs
bring the elements in solution from the interior of the earth, is de-
posited in the channels of the springs like a true chemical precipi-
tate.t <A similar origin may be attributed to the halloysites, litho-
marges, and other hydrosilicates of alumina, which in central France,
in the Har tz, in Saxony, and elsewhere, often accompany the metal-
liferous deposits bordering upon granite. t We shall show further on
that the zeolites also are often the result of a real epigeney.

With regard to the frequent substitution of the silicates of mag-
nesia, steatite, serpentine, and talc, or chlorite, for different minerals,
it appears to result from processes of tranformation, not without analogy
with those which we have just been considering.§

t we take metamorphism in the most extended sense of the word,
some phenomena of a superficial origin would perhaps be found indi-

= Annal-s des Mines, 5th series, vol. xii, p. 315; 1857.

+ Bulletin dela Sociéié Geologique de France, 2d series, vol. xvi, p. 567.

t Annales des Mines, 2d series, vol. iii, p. 255; 3d series. vol. iii, p, 393.

Halloysites with manganese, near Nontron and Thiviers; with galena and calamine, at
Villefranche, Angleur near Liege, Vieille-Montagne, ‘larnowitz; with oxide of iron, at la
Voulte ; with oxide of tin, at Ehrenfrie ndersdorf, Zinnwald, &c.

§ Attention was long ago directed to the epigenies, of which we know remarkable ex-
amples at Gopfersgrun and Thiersheim near Wunsiedel in Franconia; at Snarum in Nor-
way ; at Predazzo in Tyrol; in Canada, and in the crystalline rocks of the Alps, including
protogene. Blum, Bischof, Volger, and others have made numerous remarks on the
probable origin of these interesting substitutions.

The hypothesis of an epigeny is conlirmed by an observation made by de Senar-
mont, that crystals of serpentine, cut in thin plates, allow the light to pass without giving
it any of those properties which characterize a true crystal, and which, consequently, co:
not belong to crystals sui generis. —(Annales des Mes, 5th series, vol. viii, p. 495.)

276 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

rectly connected with the subject which occupies us; as the precipita-
tion of iron ores in bogs, the production of nitrates, the formation of
carbonate of soda at the bottom of lakes and that of clay stones, the de-
composition of pebbles into kaolin, &c. But it would be difficult here
to embrace in their whole extent these incipient transformations which
are, as it were, the life of the inorganic world. I shall confine my-
self to activities of a deeper origin.

THIRD PART.

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE CAUSE OF META-
MORPHIC PHENOMENA: SYNTHETICAL EXPERIMENTS IN
SUPPORT OF THEM.

In the theoretical considerations which I am about to present, I
shall first treat of those rocks whose metamorphic origin is demon-
strated by the circumstances in which they are found. The oldest
crystalline rocks, which have also been sometimes considered as
metamorphic, but without the same corroborative proofs, will be the
subject of an appendix which terminates this essay. With regard to
dolomites, and the rocks which are connected with them, I shall add
nothing to the facts and explanations which I have noticed in the
second part.

CHAPTER i.

INTERNAL HEAT; ITS EFFECT ON METAMORPHISM ; IT IS NOT SUFFICIENT TO
EXPLAIN ALL THE PHENOMENA.

The modifications undergone by the formations comprised under
the name of metamorphic have incontestably taken place at a higher
temperature than that which we now have on the surface of the
globe. We can infer it, in the first place, from the single fact of the
mineralogical analogies which these formations have with the erup-
tive rocks, and especially the presence of numerous anhydrous sili-
cates, which forms one of their most remarkable features; in the
second place, from their evident relation to the dislocations, whose
starting point is always in the interior regions of the earth, and
which incontestably are referred to the internal heat of the globe as
a first cause.

The heat of the globe necessarily decreases from the centre
towards the surface, and consequently when the sediments deposited
in the ocean at the relatively low temperature which exists in its
deeper parts were afterwards covered by other beds, they must
have acquired a greater degree of heat by reason of their greater

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 277

remoteness from the surface of radiation.* The superposition of
heavy detritus, as in some stratified formations, was often sufficient
to cause a notable increase of the heat of the masses beneath, after
their deposit, especially at epochs when the increase of heat, in a
vertical line, was subject to a much more rapid law than now.

This observation may be added: that the bottom of the greater
part of the ocean does not now appear to exceed the temperature of
from three to four degrees centigrade, owing to the single fact that a
sedimentary deposit would be dried up in the temperate regions, and
that its surface would consequently gain several degrees of mean
temperature, all the points situated on the same vertical should in-
crease in temperature equally.t Thus the regular propagation of
the heat of the globe might have acted upon entire formations, and
produced upon them a gradual transformation which Elie de Beau-
mont characterized under the name of normal metamorphism.

Setting aside the effects of.this general, and, as it were, latent
cause, there are circumscribed places where the heat has come very
near the surface, especially in the suite of eruptive rocks. Hence
there are special centres around which internal heat has produced
accidental metamorphism or metamorphism of juxtaposition. Never-
theless there are very strong reasons for thinking that in both one
and the other case it is not heat alone that has acted. Even when
the temperature was sufficiently high to produce a softening of the
transformed rocks, which is most frequently altogether improbable, ¢
it would be insufficient to explain the diversity of effects which have
been ascertained. The following observations prove it: If heat alone
is the cause of the modifications observed in formations, the thick-
ness of which is often more than a thousand yards, how did its action
penetrate through such an extent? Why, at least, in accordance
with the known laws of the propagation of heat and the feeble con-
ductability of rocks, is it not of incomparably less energy in the re-
mote parts than in those near the surface by which it arrived? This,
however, is not the case, and the grandeur, as well as the uniformity
of effects produced in entire mountainous masses is a phenomenon of
the most striking significance.§ Moreover, if, setting aside the rela-
tions of the general whole, we pass to facts of detail, we still find
in the manner of grouping of the minerals of the metamorphic rocks
a multitude of circumstances of association or of formation which
forbid our admitting for those minerals an origin due to heat alone.
To cite an example, I will mention the very frequent occurrence of

* This remark is due to Mr. Babbage, (London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, V, 213.)
Sir John Herschel has made some experiments on the chemical reactions which the strata
have undergone owing to this ulterior elevation of temperature.—(Leonhard’s Jarbuch, 1838,
p. 98; 1839, p. 347.)

The bottom of the sea being at a low temperature, Hutton’s idea of the heating of
the sedimentary deposits cannot be admitted in the terms in which he described it.

+ According to an observation of Sir John Herschel, noticed above.

{ Bischof and Durocher have insisted upon arguments of this kind.

§ Often, also, in metamorphism of juxtaposition, it is not always in the parts the nearest
to the contact of the eruptive rocks that the effects have been most energetic. Durocher
has given several examples of this kind.

278 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

crystallized silicates of alumina, as chiastolite and staurotide, in the
midst of phyllades containing fossils, as well as that of garnet,
pyroxene, or feldspar in limestone, also of sedimentary origin, which
very often are not sensibly modified. Heat, and the crystallization
which is a consequence of cooling, might, it is true, cause a separa-
tion or liquation between substances which were primitively dis-
solved, the one in the other. It is thus that carbon is separated in
crystals from cast iron in the state of graphite. But direct experi-
ment shows us nothing analogous to the development of isolated
crystals of garnet, pyroxene, feldspar, and disthene, by the agencies
of heat, in a calcareous gangue, which has not even been softened,
and which, according to all appearances, has been very feebly heated.*
We can conceive that the slow agencies which nature often employs
to form mineral products are perfectly capable of producing results
which man is entirely unable to imitate; but have we the right to
seek for explanations which there is nothing else to justify, exclu-
sively, in the duration of time and in vague causes which are, so to
speak, occult ?

The same mineral is often found entirely isolated and crystallized
in very different matrices; tourmaline, mica, feldspar, garnet, and
epidote, for instance, are often found with the same characters in the
midst of quartz, or imbedded in limestone or dolomite. This inde-
pendence of the silicates in relation to their gangue appears to show
that minerals are not. the simple products of liquation, since media
so different would not have secreted identical combinations. Besides,
we meet everywhere in metamorphic rocks with minerals very un-
equally fusible, which have crystallized in a succession entirely op-
posed to the order of their fusibility.

Arguments of various natures, therefore, oppose themselves to the
admission that a metamorphism having no other cause than heat could
have given rise to the minerals that we find in the rocks which have”
undergone its action, even when they do not appear to contain simple
bodies foreign to their primitive normal condition. But how much
more is this conclusion to be relied upon when we see, as in Brazil,
the altered condition of the rocks visibly coincide with the introduc-
tion of peculiar bodies, which, according to all probability, could not
have come there until after their formation.

CHAPTER II.

OF CERTAIN VAPORS CONSIDERED AS AUXILIARIES TO HEAT; THEIR ACTION
COMBINED WITH HEAT IS STILL INSUFFICIENT.

If heat alone could not produce the effects of which we have just
spoken, will its action, aided by certain bodies, either gaseous or

* The association of graphite, with the silicates having protoxide of iron for a base, as
mica and amphibole, could not have taken place at a high temperature, (Bischof’s Geologie,
vol. ii, p. 60,) for at the least a partial reduction of iron to a metallic state would have
resulted. The frequent presence of graphite in limestone led Bischof to the same con-
clusion, for the two bodies at a high temperature would react the one on the other.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 279

easily reducible to vapor, become sufficient for their explanation?
This is the first idea which naturally presents itself to our minds; for
nature shows us an abundance of vapors of energetic affinities in the
exhalations from the craters of volcanoes or their still incandescent
lavas. These vapors and gases are combinations in which electro-
negative bodies predominate, which the former mineralogists called,
as if by instinct, the mineralisers, as chlorine, sulphur, carbon, more
rarely fluorine and boron. The recent observations of Boussingault,
Bunsen, and Charles Deville, have contributed to make known the
nature of these gaseous or volatile ejections.

Carbonic, sulphydric, and even sulphuric acid might formerly have
acted on some rocks in a manner similar to what we now see in some
formations of gypsum and of alunite, or in the rocks near the volca-
noes of the Andes and of Java, which are reduced under their action
tomere mud. The decomposition of vapors containing chlorine forms
under our eyes specular iron, and might have heretofore given rise
in many formations to oxide of tin and of titanium, as both observa-
tion and synthetical experiment have taught us. It is in a similar
manner that crystallized magnesia or periclase contained in the lime-
stones thrown out of Mount Somma, might have been produced from
the decomposition of chloride of magnesium by carbonate of lime.
This supposition, which the abundance of chloruretted vapors of the
active volcano rendered probable, has been corroborated by an ex-
periment in which I artificially imitated that mineral.* It is remark-
able to see the same substances which have produced periclase at
the expense of the limestone form, when in solution and at a lower
temperature, dolomite. The part which these chlorures at high tem-
peratures have borne in producing the crystallization of minerals is
clearly shown from the very recent experiments of Manross, Forch-
hammer, and Henry Deville.

e Other experiments have shown that the chlorides of silicium and
of aluminum by reacting, in a state of vapor, on the bases which
enter into the composition of rocks, form simple or multiple silicates
which are identical with natural products.t But if mica subjected to
heat still gives off the fluorides of silicium, boron, and lithium, shall
we venture to affirm that granitic pastes did not also originally con-
tain the chlorides of silicium, boron, and lithium, although we do not
now find them in the neighborhood of volcanic orifices? for they could
not be otherwise than decomposed and precipitated by the vapor of
water before arriving in the atmosphere. Do we not still see chlorine
fixed in considerable quantities in crystalline masses, as in the syenite
containing zircon, of Norway, and in the rock of Ilmen, (miascite, )
where it is principally combined with eleolite, and where it appears
in the train of zirconium, tantalium, and other rare elements, which
are almost exclusively peculiar to those rocks? With regard to fluo-

2 Researches on the artificial production of minerals belonging to the families of the
silicates and the aluminates by the action of vapors on rocks. —(Cumptes Rendus del’ Académie,
vol. xxxix, p. 135

+ Comptes Rendus de V Académie, vol. xxxix, p. 135.

280 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

rine and boron,* I long ago showed that they appear to have been
instrumental in the formation of masses of tin.t In effect they enter
into the composition of characteristic silicates, as topaz and tourma-
line, which were certainly formed at the same time as the oxide of
din. t

These conclusions are equally applicable to the rocks whose origin
is due, according to all probability, to analogous phenomena. Such
is the well known rock found at Schneckenstein, in Saxony, where
topaz and tourmaline appear to have glided between the divisions of
the schists, at the same time cementing, in conjunction with quartz,
the numerous fragments into which this schist had been broken. The
same is true of entire formations in Brazil, such as those that contain
topaz in the county of Villarica—schists in which gold and the diamond
with the same characteristic minerals have been found over vast ex-
tents of country. These formations are, as it were, but an accumula-
tion over a great space of the habitual gangues of oxide of tin.§$
There still remains in granite a sufficiently sensible quantity of fluo-
rine and of boron to allow us to admit that it is possible that this
rock, before solidifying, gave off large quantities of vapors in which
those two bodies were in combination. These ideas on the interven-
tion of fluorine and boron, which date twenty years back, have ac-
quired still greater value since Henry Deville has crystallized a
series of minerals by the aid of the fluorides, and since the presence
of fluorine and boron has been discovered in many mineral waters, and
fluorine even in sea-water.

We can explain by heat, accompanied by the auxiliaries which
have just been mentioned, a greater number of transformations than
by heat alone; but with those agents only we cannot explain some
very important circumstances, except by attributing to the vapors a
part evidently much exaggerated. Bischof, and other savans have
clearly substantiated this fact by numerous considerations. ||

* The presence of fluor, already discovered in different modern volcanic rocks, has been
verified by M. Scacchi in a recent deposit of the fumaroles of Vesuvius. With regard to
boron, the enormous quantities which come from the safioni of Tuscany and the extensive
deposits of the craters of volcanoes hardly permit us to doubt that it exists in many other ©
localities which have been passed unnoticed up to the present time.

+ On the origin and artificial production of oxide of tin. —(Annales des Mines, 3d series,
vol xx, p. 65, 1841; 4th series, vol. xvii, p. 129, 1849 )

{This first comparison between boron and tin, established on purely geological grounds,
has been followed by the discovery of an unexpected analogy between two bodies whose
chemical properties are so different. I speak of their isomorphism, which has been demon-
strated by the labors of M. Sella.

_ §1 am very far from thinking that these different quartzose rocks have been formed
without the presence of water. I shall presently revert to this subject.

|| How, for instance, can we admit of such an origin for the formation of crystals of
feldspar or garnet in regular strata, which are often hardly modified at all ?

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 281

CHAPTER III.
WATER CONSIDERED AS AN AGENT OF METAMORPHISM.

But in volcanic exhalations there is a body which did not at first
attract attention, because under the dominion of former ideas it
seemed altogether inert, especially in the presence of minerals whose
formation was to be explained. It does not exist in minute quanti-
ties like the vapors of which we have just spoken; it is, on the con-
trary, at the same time, the most abundant and the most constant
product in all the eruptions of the globe. This body is water, and
we shall see that the most important part was assigned to it in meta-
morphic phenomena, as well as in the eruptions of volcanoes. The
singular property which the incandescent silicates of lavas possess of
retaining for a very long period, even up to the time of their solidifi-
cation, considerable quantities of water, clearly proves that the
action of heat does not exclude that of water, and appears also to
show that water has even at high temperatures a certain affinity for
these silicates.

Of the masses situated at a certain depth in our globe, we only
know what is brought up by volcanoes. Now, these ejections all,
without exception, contain water, either combined or mixed; we
are, therefore, justified in thinking that water plays a very important
part in the principal phenomona which have their origin in the depths
of the earth. We have seen, in the historical part of this work, that
conclusive arguments have caused a most powerful action to be at-
tributed to water, such as the formation of many metalliferous veins,
and an incontestable influence in the crystallization of the eruptive rocks
themselves, comprising granite. In truth, the hottest lavas, and those
which are most charged with water, as basalts and trachytes, do not
modify rocks to any considerable depth; but this is, without doubt,
owing to the fact that as soon as they are exposed to simple atmo-
spheric pressure, the water escapes by being reduced to the state of
vapor. The numerous blocks of limestone in the tufas of Mount
Somma, which have come from the seat of volcanic action, show, in
their numerous geodes, adorned with such a variety of, and such well
crystallized minerals, what rocks may undergo, when, under pressure,
they are subjected to the permanent action of certain agents, without
which some of these agents would not have acquired their power,
and cthers not even have existed.

Something altogether like this is seen in the little basaltic mass of
Kaiserstuhl in the Grand Duchy of Baden.* A strip of limestone,
torn off by the action of basalt from the formations which it has
traversed, has been modified by it most completely. This limestone
has become entirely lamellar, and contains crystals of titaniferous
magnetic iron, iron pyrites, magnesian mica, perowskite, pyrochlore,
crystallized quartz, and innumerable needles of apatite. The very

* Annales des Mines, 5th series, vol. xii, p. 322 ; Naumann, Geognosie, vol. i, p. 791.

282 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

exceptional peculiarity among rocks in contact with basalt, which
characterizes the limestone of Kaisersthul, appears to me to result
from the conditions of its formation. This limestone was situated at
the bottom of a crater of elevation. Before the last dislocation, un-
dergone by the formation, brought the limestone to the surface, it
had been subjected, at a certain depth, and consequently under pres-
sure, to the action of the hot water with which the basalt itself was
saturated, and which also deposited minerals in its numberless cavities.
The limestones of Mount Somma, so rich in various minerals, and
those of Latium, have been produced, like the limestones of Kaiser-
stuhl, at points where craters of elevation have been formed. When
the beds which hermetrically sealed the spot where these chemical
reactions took place gave vent, in breaking, to the agents which pro-
duced them, these reactions ceased to take place. But what difference
of action can there be, in the case of which we are now speaking,
between what passed on the surface and what took place in the depths
of the earth? No other, according to all appearance, than that
which is owing to difference of pressure.’ Let us add, that if the
vapor of water which, at a very high temperature, no less than liquid
water up to its point of ebullition, fail to produce, in the ordinary
experiments on the silicates, results like those which the metamor-
phic formations present, it is because something essential is wanting,
and everything shows that what is wanting is pressure.

In fine, we have just seen on what grounds we may rightfully sus-
pect the concurrence of heat, water, and pressure, as capable of pro-
ducing the principal phenomena of metamorphism. What is wanting
is to place ourselves in conditions resembling, as much as possible,
those under which nature appears to have acted, and to see whether
the reproduction of characteristic minerals would be obtained. Such
is the object of a series of experiments which I have undertaken, and
of which I am about to give an account.

CHAPTER LV.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE ACTION OF SUPERHEATED WATER IN THE FORMATION
OF SILICATES.

Several of my experiments have been already described in a former
memoir.* I have thought proper, however, to reproduce here the
principal results which were recorded in my first publication, and to
add to them those which I have more lately obtained. Even count-
ing for nothing the dangers of explosion, which are often of a vio-
lence altogether surprising,t the difficulties of experimenting have

© Annales des Mines, 5th series, vol. xii, p. 289, 1857; Bulletin de la Sociélé Géologique de
France, 2d series, vol. xv, p. 97, 1858.

+ Tubes made of iron of the best quality, having an interior diameter of 0.8 inch and
0.4 inch in thickness, sometimes burst. They break in the direction of one of their gene-
ratrices, and are thrown into the air with a noise like the report of a caunon. If the iron

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 283

prevented me from multiplying results as it would have been desira-
ble to do. The facts, however, already discovered are conclusive,
and show the fecundity of this method of experimenting.

The principal difficulty consists in finding walls and fastenings that
will resist for a sufficient length of time the enormous tension which
steam acquires when the temperature is raised towards a dull red
heat. Water and the matters that are to react are placed ina glass
tube, which is then sealed. This glass tube is next introduced into a
very thick tube of iron, which is closed in a forge at one of its ends.
The other end is often closed by means of a screw, having a square
head, which can be turned with a wrench. Between the head of the
screw, which should be made with great precision, and the end of
the tube a washer of very pure copper is placed; it should be thin
enough to be crushed by the pressure when the tube is closed, and
penetrate into the grooves made for that purpose. For closing the
second extremity, however, I have now adopted another plan in prefer-
ence; I introduce hot a very strong bolt, which, if the welding is
skilfully done, becomes part of the tube. A workman must be very
skilful to succeed in this operation; for it is essential that the greater
part of the tube remain cold, in order that the water in the interior
may not, by evaporating, hinder the operation. To counterbalance
in the interior of the glass tube the tension of the steam, which
might burst it, water is poured around it, between its sides and those
of the iron tube which surrounds it. In this way the principal strain
is put upon the latter tube, which offers the mest resistance. This
apparatus, like those which de Senamont used, is laid on the dome,
or in the conduits of the retort-furnace of a gas-works in contact
with the masonry, which is at a dull red heat, and is buried beneath
a thick bed of sand. At a temperature which is a little below nas-
cent red heat water reacts very energetically on certain silicates.

In this manner ordinary glass, at the expiration of a few days,
gives two, and often three, distinct products: 1. A white and alto-
gether opaque mass, which results from the complete transformation
of the glass; it is porous, sticks to the tongue, and would look like
kaolin if it were not for its very decidedly fibrous structure. The
substance has lost a large part of its weight, nearly half its silica, and a
third of its alkali; a new silicate has been formed which has fixed the
water, and belongs, by its composition, to the family of the zeolites.*
2. An alkaline silicate which has been dissolved, carrying with it
the alumina. 38. Often there are developed, in addition, numerous
perfectly limpid and colorless crystals, which bave the ordinary

had no fault, and we suppose that it preserves at 300° centigrade the same tenacity as when
cold, such an explosion would indicate an interior pressure of more than 1,000 atmospheres.
It is to be noticed that, before bursting, the tube swells out into the form of an
ampulla of one and a half to two inches in length, and opens in its middle so as strikingly
to call to mind the gibbosity of the profile of Etna, with the central notch of the Val de
Bove, the origin of which was long since, by de Buch and Elie de Beaumont, attributed to an
expansive force of the same kind.
© Bulletin de la Suciéié Géologique de France, 2d series, vol. xvi, p. 588. Ata higher tem-
perature an anhydrous silicate, which appears to resemble wollastonite, is obtained.

284 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

pyramidal form of quartz, and which, in reality, is nothing more than
crystallized quartz. Some crystals, thus formed, have attained at the
end of a month .07 of an inch in length. Sometimes they are iso-
lated in the opaque paste, sometimes lodged on the sides of the glass
tube, where they form veritable geodes, which, with the exception of
their size, it would be impossible to distinguish from those so fre-
quently found in crystalline rocks. What renders this transformation
of glass still more remarkable in a geological as well as a chemical
point of view is, that it is obtained with a very small quantity of
water, which in weight is not equal toa third of that of the trans-
formed glass.

Volcanic glass, known under the name of obsidian, acts in a manner
similar to the artificial. Pieces of obsidian, heated under the same
conditions, are changed into a gray product of a crystalline nature,
having the aspect of a fine-grained trachyte. Its powder, examined
under the microscope, presents exactly the characters of crystalline
feldspar, and especially resembles rhyacolite or vitreous feldspar. In
fact, we know that obsidian greatly resembles feldspar in its chemical
composition; favorable circumstances would, without doubt. have de-
termined the reunion of its elements in definite proportions. The
tendency of forming in the wet way that feldspar thus manifests is
to be taken into account in divers geological circumstances.

With the fragments of obsidian on which I operated there were
pieces of vitreous feldspar detached from a trachyte of Drachenfels,
and, also, a piece of oligloclase from Sweden. These two last min-
erals underwent no appreciable change.* We cannot, however, af-
firm that if the water had not immediately found an alkali to remove
from the vitreous envelope it would not have acted upon the feldspar.
We here see a kind of a confirmation of the preceding experiment on
the stability of the silicates, which have, perhaps, originally crystal-
lized in conditions very similar to those in which they were again
placed. The same is very nearly true of thin lamine of the potash
mica of Siberia; they hardly lost their transparency. Crystals of
pyroxene also do not change their aspect, except that, like the pieces
of feldspar and obsidian, they are so completely enveloped with
crystals of quartz that it is necessary to break in order to recognize
them.

To examine, as far at least as the presence of glass will permit,
how the solutions of natural silicates which we usually find in water
act when superheated, I used water from the-hot springs of Plom-
bieres, which is comparatively rich in silicates of potash and soda.

Not being able, however, to operate on more than from twenty to
thirty cubic centimetres, I concentrated it beforehand by an evapora-
tion so rapid that the carbonic acid of the air did not sensibly decom-
pose the silicates, and in such a way as to reduce it to one-twentieth of
its former volume. After an experiment that was stopped at the end
of only two days the sides of the tube were already covered with a
silicious coating in the form of crystallized quartz, and also of chalce-

*Feldspar, however, can be decomposed cold by trituration,.—(Annales des Mines, 5th
series, vol. xii, p. 547.)

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 285

dony. As the glass was as yet only altered on its surface, this deposit
must have come, almost all of it at least, from the decomposition of
the alkaline silicate contained in the water of Plombieres. Thus,
without the use of a single chemical reagent, under the single influ-
ence of heat, water holding alkaline silicates, such as those of the
springs of Plombieres in solution, deposits crystallized or crystalline
quarts.

A new proof of the facility with which minerals of the feldspar
group can be produced in the presence of water is furnished by the
following experiment, which [ made with a view of explaining the
feldspathization of many rocks, even those containing fossils. Kaolin,
perfectly purified from all feldspathic debris, by washing, having
been treated in a tube with water from Plombieres, this earthy mass
was transformed into a solid substance, confusedly crystallized in little
prisms which scratched glass. After having purified this substance
by washing it with hot water, we find that it has become fusible into
a white enamel; chlorhydric acid no longer attacks it. It is a double
silicate of alumina and an alkali, having all the characters of a feld-
spar; it is mixed with a little crystallized quartz. The reaction
which we have just explained may be compared to the ease with
which a cold silicate of alumina absorbs lime in hydraulic mortar.
On the surface and in the interior of the whitish mass resulting from
the transformation of the tube I found a great quantity of very small
crystals, but of a perfectly distinct form, having great brilliancy and
perfectly transparent; they had different tints of green, and many of
them that olive-green tint which is peculiar to peridot. Their form
is that of an oblique symmetric prism, the bases of which are re-
placed by two bevels; the two opposite edges are ordinarily truncated,
as in the pyroxene which Haitiy called homonome. These crystals
scratch glass very perceptibly; they remain unaltered in the presence
of concentrated and boiling chlorhydric acid. They melt before the
blow pipe into a black enamel. In fine, they have the composition of
a pyroxene. having a base of lime and iron; and from their transpar-
ency, they belong to the variety diopside. Some of these crystals are
isolated, some grouped together in such a way as to form little glob-
ules bristling with points, and more rarely they are under the form
of thin incrustations. Allof them, by their aspect, immediately recall
the best known crystals of diopside.

The clay of Klingenberg, near Cologne, which is used to make glass-
house pots, when heated in glass tubes, is covered with a multitude
of white, pearly pellicles, possessing the lustre of mica. They are
hexagonal, and have an optical axis of double refraction.* They are
fusible, and indicate before the blow-pipe the presence of silica.
They are attacked by chlorhydric acid, which manifests the reactions
of alumina. The quantity of these pellicules that I have obtained has
been as yet too small to permit of my making a quantitative analysis.
It appears, however, very probable that the substance is a mica of
one axis or a chlorite.

* According to an examination which M. de Sénarmont was kind enough to make.

286 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

The fossil vegetables having undergone modifications under the in-
fluence of the same agents as stony matters, it is proper to see what
becomes of wood in superheated water. Fragments of spruce were
transformed into a black mass, having a bright lustre, perfectly com-
pact—in a word, presenting the aspect of a pure anthracite ; it was so
hard that a steel point could with difficulty scratch it. This kind
of anthracite, although infusible, is entirely granulated under the
form of regular globules of different dimensions, from which it clearly
results that the substance has been melted in the process of trans-
formation ; by calcination it yields only traces of volatile matter ; the
ligneous matter has therefore arrived at its last stage of decomposi-
tion. This kind of compact carbon burns very slowly, even under
the oxidizing flame of the blow-pipe. It differs from the carbons
formed at high temperatures in the fact that, like the diamond, it does
not conduct electricity. The veins of silver at Kongsberg, in Nor-
way, which are encased in gneiss, contain anthracite which very
much resembles the artificial anthracite we have just mentioned. It
has moulded itself in the midst of carbonate of lime and native silver,
under a form that shows that it has passed through a softened state.
At lower temperatures, but in conditions otherwise analogous, wood is
transformed into a kind of lignite or coal. In these experiments I
obtained, as I have before said, liquid and volatile products resem-
bling natural bitumens, and possessing even their characteristic odor.

To recapitulate: superheated water has a very energetic influence
on the silicates ; it dissolves a great many of them, destroys some
combinations of multiple bases, and forms new ones, either hydrated
or anhydrous; in fine, it causes those new silicates to crystallize far
below their point of fusion. In these changes the silicic acid, set at
liberty, isolates itself under the form of crystallized quartz. Trans-
formations so complete are, moreover, obtained with a very small
quantity of water. In general we can distinguish this law, that near
the point of nascent red heat the affinities of the wet way acquire, so
far as concerns the production of silicates, the same character with
those of the dry way. |

\ CHAPTERS?

DEDUCTIONS DRAWN FROM THE PRECEDING EXPERIMENTS, FOR THE EX-
PLANATION OF THE CRYSTALLIZATION OF SILICIOUS, ERUPTIVE, AND META-
MORPHIC ROCKS.

The results which we have just given enable us to account for what
takes place in the crystallization of silicious rocks in general, as well
the eruptive as the metamorphic. Let us first examine the former of
these, commencing with the lavas.

Whatever may be the molecular state of the water in lavas, it in- »
tervenes to cause them to crystallize much in the same way as in the
experiments of the laboratory for transforming obsidian into crystallized
feldspar, and for producing pyroxene in perfect crystals. Thus, in

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 287

one as in the other case, the water appears to favor the elimination of
substances which would remain mixed, and to permit the crystalliza-
tion of silicates at a temperature very much lower than their point of
fusion.* It is again through the influence of this kind of mother
water that the same silicates crystallize in a succession which is often
opposed to their relative order of fusibility. We know, for instance,
that amphigene, a silicate of alumina and potash, which is infusible,
has been developed in the lavas of Italy in crystals which are often
very large, and in which are imbedded numerous crystals of pyrox-
ene, a substance of known fusibility. These apparent anomalies are
shown -in a still more striking manner in granite, which differs from
all the products of dry fusion with which we are acquainted, and dif-
ferent conjectures have been offered to explain them. It can be ex-
plained nearly in the same manner ; only in the formation of granite
the action of water, according to the observations of Elie de Beau-
mont, appears to have been aided still more than in the lavas by some
auxiliaries, such as the chlorides and the fluorides. In the felds-
pathic porphyries containing quartz, water alone would have sufficed
to produce the bipyramidal crystals which characterize this rock.
This is again another capital phenomenon which has nothing analo-
gous in the products of the dry way. .

The remarkable association of anhydrous and hydrous silicates which
basalt, phonolite, and other rocks present, is not surprising after
the experiments that I have just described. For during the same
operation, and in the same tube, I have obtained crystals of pyroxene
disseminated in the midst of a zeolite ; that is to say, the two con-
stitutive elements of basalt simultaneously. A still greater difficulty
presented itself when, on the one hand, the soft state or even fluidity
of some eruptive rocks was considered; and on the other, their low
primitive heat, which is well established by different circumstances.
This difficulty is also done away when we consider what has taken
place in these sume experiments. The glass tubes which were per-
fectly regular were found, after the operation, bent, deformed, and
covered with ampulla in such a manner as to prove that they had un-
dergone an unmistakable softening. Furthermore, sometimes the tube
had almost disappeared ; it was transformed into a kind of mud, pre-
senting probably great analogies, as well in consistence as in com-
position, with the original state of some eruptive rocks. A very re-
markable phenomenon, to which I shall have occasion to revert, is
here produced ; although the glass in the transformation loses a part
of its elements, it augments considerably in volume ; this augmenta-
tion is more than a third of the primitive volume. When we see the
important part which water plays in the phenomena just passed in
review, should we not also be led, with still greater reason, to attri-
bute to it the most important part in metamorphic action, especially

* J will here recall the opinion of Dolomieu on the crystallization of lavas: ‘‘I repeat,
perhaps for the hundredth time, the compact lavas are not vitrifications, and their fluidity
at their exit from volcanoes, which continues a much longer time than their cooling should
permit, is the very singular effect of a cause which is not yet determineJ.’’—(Journal des
Mines, No. 37, p. 402, 1797.)

288 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

if we consider the great extent and the remarkable uniformity of its
action?

Before examining this latter agency of water, it seems natural to
examine to what extentits presence is possible in rocks. Let us first
say that it follows, from the experiments already cited, that a very
small quantity of water only is necessary to produce, under favorable
conditions of pressure and temperature, very marked changes. We
cannot, in effect, see without astonishment that such a complete trans-
formation in the chemical and physical state of glass can be obtained
by a quantity of water equal to about a third of its weight. This
shows us how the water of constitution of some rocks, as the clays
for instance, was sufficient to produce metamorphism when heat gave
it the power to react upon the elements with which it was associated.

With regard to those rocks which do not contain any water of con-
stitution, let us first make the remark that many of them are destitute
of the water called quarry-water. We cannot suppose that this water
has been lodged otherwise than in the pores of the rock. All rocks
are, therefore, porous; and what takes place in the artificial colora-
tion of agates proves that stones which are in appearance perfectly
compact are by virtue of the sole force of capillarity penetrated by
a liquid.

We cannot deny that if water can insinuate itself, by crevasses,
into the solid crust of the globe at a depth only equal to that of the
sea, it acquires a pressure of several hundred atmospheres. by the
aid of which it penetrates more easily, perhaps, into the most
minute pores of the rocks, especially at the temperature which it
possesses at such a depth. This action is, without doubt, aided by
eapillarity within limits of which we can form no idea. It, however,
the rocks were altogether impermeable, provided the water be
endowed with the power of attacking their surface, time only is
necessary in order that its action should be gradually propagated to
considerable distances. Indeed, in the tubes prematurely withdrawn
I was able to see that the attack had taken place by successive layers,
in such a way that there yet existed between the two surfaces of the
glass a portion that was transparent and altogether unaltered. Thus,
whether the water of rocks is that of constitution or penetration, we
are justified in expecting, as soon as the temperature is sufficiently
raised, reactions comparable to those produced in our experiments,
as well as in eruptive rocks. This, however, will be verified by an
example as conclusive as surprising, which abounds in new facts, and
has the double merit of being contemporaneous, and of having been
performed under conditions which are now perfectly well known.

CHAPTER VI.

CONTEMPORANEOUS METAMORPHISM OF PLOMBIERES.

The concrete which the Romans put down nearly to the points of
emergence of the thermal springs is composed of fragments of brick

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS 289

and of party-colored grit, without admixture of sand, and cemented
by lime. It rests sometimes on the granite itself, sometimes on
alluvial gravel. Under the prolonged action of the mineral water,
which continually penetrates this mass of concrete, I have found that
the calcareous cement and the bricks have been partially transformed.*
The new combinations appear chiefly in the cavities of the mass,
where they form mamliated and sometimes crystallized coatings.
The products, the most remarkable on account of their abundance,
are the silicates of the family of the zeolites, and especially apophyl-
lite, chabasite, and harmotome. Besides the presence of the zeolites,
which have crystallized in the cavities, the pieces of brick which form
a part of the Roman concrete have often acquired a very peculiar
aspect; they have been thoroughly impregnated with silicates, resem-
bling those which have crystallized in geodes; they have undergone
a genuine metamorphism. I have been able to determine accurately
all the conditions under which this metamorphism has taken place.

Notwithstanding its extreme hardness, the Roman masonry gives
access to the thermal water as well by its pores as by the fissures
and cavities that exist init. The pressure from the springs, more-
over, forces the water to circulate slowly through the mass, which
is thus not only bathed but traversed by the mineral water. The
water, therefore, is not stagnant; there is a current, very slow it is
true, but this current is continuous. On the other hand, the mineral
water of Plombieres contains only a very small quantity of saline
matter, (4.6 grains to 60 cubic inches of water,) which is composed
in part of silica, potash, soda, lime, and alumina; but continual
renewing and indefinitely prolonged action permit deposits of these
substances to accumulate in notable quantities. Itis in this way that
very feeble agencies are multiplied by the aid of time. Up to the
present moment this condition of time is wanting in the greater part
of the experiments attempted for the purpose of imitating nature; but
its capital influence over certain geological phenomena will be easily
appreciated.

By means of the alkali which this water contains it gradually acts
npon some of the substances which it traverses, and perhaps even
without there having been a real solution, but only a kind of cementa-
tion. It then causes the formation of double hydrous silicates, which
belong to the group of the zeolites. It is to the union of these two
circumstances, circulation of the water and its chemical agency, that
these modern formations are due. In order that the silicates which
are formed should crystallize perfectly, there is really no necessity
for so high a degree of heat as has been supposed; a temperature of
from 60° to 70° centigrade, which is that of the mineral springs of
Plombieres, is sufficient for the production of at least some of them.
Zeolites have consequently often been formed in this rock under simple
atmospheric pressure, and even on the surface of the soil. It is re-
markable to see these silicates crystallizing perfectly, in water, at a

=Annales des Mines, 5th series, vol. xiii, p. 227, 1858; Bulletin dela Socié!é Géologique de
France, 2d series, vol. xvi, p. 562.

19

290 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

temperature at which they are reputed to be insoluble in it. At
points as near each other as a few sixteenths of an inch we see dif-
ferent products forming, according to the nature of the substance on
which the water acts. Thus it is that apophyllite, a silicate contain-
ing lime as well as potash, crystallizes in the cavities of the lime. I
have never met with it in the brick. It is, on the contrary, almost
exclusively in the cavities of this last that we find chabasite, a double
silicate of alumina and potash. The same solution, therefore, attack-
ing rocks of different natures, develops combinations special to each
of them. Such a marked localization of certain zeolites appears to
show that their elements were not entirely contained in the water
imbibed by the masonry; it only contributed a part. The comple-
mentary elements necessary to the composition of the new minerals,
lime, alumina, and others, were contained either in the mortar or in
the bricks which gave them up to the water.

While the bed of concrete abounds in zeolites, the alluvial sand
over which the masonry was built presents no indication of the for-
mation of these silicates, although the thermal water traverses it be-
fore reaching the concrete. It confines itself to depositing between
the interstices of the pebbles a yellowish argillacious mass, which is
one of those imperfectly defined substances known under the name
of chemical clays or halloysites. This contrast shows further that
the zeolites are not the first deposit of the thermal water, but that it
is produced only by the reaction of this mineralized water on other
silicates.

What is going on at Plombieres has been evidently accomplished
on a wide scale in certain geological formations. The collection of
minerals disseminated in the innumerable cellules of the masonry,
the zeolites, opal, and arragonite, constitutes an association which is
frequently the appendage of certain eruptive rocks. Furthermore,
the whole of the conditions under which these contemporaneous min-
erals exist recall, in the most minute particulars, their disposition in
the layers of basalt and trap, which have an amygdaloidal structure.
If it were not for the difference of color it would be quite possible to
mistake the parts of this concrete which contain the zeolites for the
basaltic traps in which the same minerals have been formed. The
bricks, with their cavities and druses, surprisingly imitate amygda-
loidal rocks. Such an identity of results incontestibly indicates
striking analogies of origin. Near the volcanic rocks of Aitna, of
Iceland, and other countries, we find a rock to which the name
palagonite* has been given. This hydrous silicate is easily fusible,
gives a jelly with acids, has often a resinous aspect, presents the
strongest analogy with the silicates of Plombieres, and, according to
all probability, results from a transformation similar to that which gave
rise to these last. But it is especially with regard to metamorphism
that we should here state the results of the action of the springs at
Plombieres.

* Rammelsberg, Chemische Mineralogie, 3d and 5th supplement, pp. 93 and 185; Annales
des Mines, 5th series, vol. xii, p. 474.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 291

CHAPTER Vit.
CONCLUSIONS TO BE DRAWN FROM THE FACTS OBSERVED AT PLOMBIERES,

It has been justly remarked that there are but few insoluble sub-
stances when the solvents circulate by millions of gallons. Yet we
must not conclude from this that the insoluble minerals formed by
water in the interior of rocks have been purely and simply deposited by
it after the action of centuries. One of the newest and most important
facts which reveals what is going on at Plombieres is, that in general
only a small part of the elements constituting these minerals is fur-
nished by water. The other elements pre-existed in the rocks, and
appearing to obey an energetic tendency to crystallization they seize,
as it were, upon what first passes, according to their affinities, and
the mineral is, so to speak, formed in situ.

In metalliferous veins, on the contrary, almost everything that is
deposited in the channel of circulation of the spring appears to be
foreign to the rock forming its sides. These are the very different
effects of the same cause, and their union in the same place, at Plom-
bieres, leaves no doubt of their corfilmon origin.

There is a striking analogy between the formation of the crystal-
lized silicates of the concrete of Plombieres and the formation of the
silicates which are found in a great many metamorphic rocks ; such
are wernerite, garnet, feldspar, and pyroxene in limestones, often
hardly modified at all ; and macle or staurotide in argillaceous schists.
The production of mica in rocks is not more difficult to understand
than that of apophyllite at Plombieres, which is also a silicate con-
taining fluor.

When a dislocation produces a group of hot springs is it not prob-
able that the greater part of the formations traversed by these
springs will undergo an action of which an idea is given by what has
happened at Plombieres? This action, gradually extending with the
aid of time, would occasion metamorphism over zones of very great
extent. At Plombieres, before the hollowing out of the valley gave
issue to the springs, the thermal water already arrived from the in-
terior of the earth,* and if it appeared on the surface it was, without
doubt, only by a scarcely apparent transudation. In diffusing itself
through the beds of the lower triassic formation, which are in contact
with the granite, it deposited there jasper, crystallized quartz, and
several other products. Thus water circulating in the interior may
cause a very energetic metamorphic action without evidence of its
existence being shown on the surface by thermal springs. It is
probable that in many cases the silicification of polyps and wood in
certain beds, the precipitation of crystallized quartz in others, such
as those that are found in the tertiary basin of Paris, the complete
silicification of some beds that were formerly limestonet have no

* See the memoir on Plombiéres, referred to above.—(Annales des Mines, 5th series, vol.
xiii, p. 232; Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, 2d series, vol. xvi, p. 562.)
} Description Geologique du Bas Rhin, pp. 325 and 326.

292 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

other origin. A tepid and scarcely mineralized water has been suf-
ficient to transform this masonry and produce in it ‘hydrated and
crystallized silicates. Would not the effect have been much more
considerable if water greatly superheated, and yet. retained by the
pressure of the masses above, had slowly circulated across certain
rocks, as it has done in the concrete of Plombiéres, and had acted on
them at the high temperatures which are necessary to the formation
of anhydrous silicates ?

CHAD PATE Reve Ee 1%

OTHER PECULIARITIES OF METAMORPHISM EXPLAINED BY THE AID OF THE
FACTS MENTIONED IN CHAPTERS IV AND VI.

In comparing the results obtained by the experiments on super-
heated water, with the facts gleaned from the contemporaneous
phenomena of Plombieres, we can explain the greater part of the
phenomena of metamorphism. I shall add only a few examples to
those of which I have spoken above. One is the well-known de-
velopment of pyroxene and amphibole in the secondary limestones
of the Hebrides andthe Pyrenees. I will mention also the production
of such various minerals in the blocks of limestone of Mount Somma,
the geodes of which are incrusted with diopside, mica, and other
substances. A frequent phenomenon of metamorphic rocks is the
development of feldspar in their mass. Among the numerous facts
of this kind, I will recall the schistose formations which border upon
granite, (Britanny, Saxony, &c.,) and even the schistose masses near
which we do not see any eruptive rock, (Taunus, Ardennes, &c.) In
the carboniferous formations of the Vosges, at Thann, for instance, the
perfectly regular beds of greywacke are studded with crystals of
feldspar, which have isolated themselves from a petrosilicious base ;
the numerous vegetable fossils which the rocks contain will not allow
of its being considered asa porphyry. The limestone of Mont Blanc,
formerly noticed by Brochant, and which Brongniart named cal-
ciphyre feldspathique, has peculiar analogies. We should not, how-
ever, lose sight of the fact that here, as in other cases of the same
kind, the limestone which has thus been modified has not always
changed its primitively compact for a crystalline state.

Among the frequent associations of anhydrous and hydrous silicates,
I shall restrain myself to mentioning the chloritic rocks which form
the gangue of tourmaline, amphibole, pyroxene, &c. The crystals
of the feldspar called adularia, which are penetrated with chlorite,
(Pfitschen, in Tyrol,) sometimes even with stilbite, (Sella, or St.
Gothard,) show us that the anhydrous were even sometimes crystal-
lized after the hydrous silicates.*

* Although chlorite has not yet been imitated, we may believe, from its chemical analo-
gies to the zeolites, as well as from the preference it shows for those formations which
have undergone a commencement of modification, as the schistose formations of the Ar-
dennes, that it has been formed at a high temperature.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 293

In the silicious rocks quartz has been isolated in a great variety of
forms. The granitic rocks and some porphyries contain it in grains
or in isolated crystals. In the schistose rocks it is sometimes under
the form of veins or thin flakes, lodged between the lamillz, with an
uniformity of thickness and parallelism that is surprising, as in mica,
chlorite, and talcose schist, leptinites, phyllades, &c., sometimes
under the form of veins which distinctly cut the lamelle at the same
time that it attaches itself to them. Sometimes, even, quartz ina
granular state constitutes considerable masses, as in the rocks
(itacolumites) of Brazil, which are associated with gold and diamonds.
In the greater number of cases, however, quartz appears to be the
product of a decomposition of silicates, just as in my own experiments,
where it was produced in different ways. Thus quartz, which under
so many forms constitutes a part of eruptive and metamorphic rocks,
should be considered equally with that of veins as a witness for the
wet way.*

We may conclude from what happens in the experiments on super-
heated water, as from the example of limestones so charged with
minerals, which are thrown out from the interior of Mount Somma,
that heat and pressure appear to be indispensable to the production of
an energetic metamorphism. On the other hand, an intense metamor-
phism has been sometimes developed near the surface, as in Brazil,
where the crystalline schists containing gems extend more than 200
miles in length. There seems to be a contradiction between these
two facts, and yet, when the superheated water is impelled from
great depths toward the surface through the substance or the scarcely
opened fissures of a rock, it must be remarked that the laws of hydros-
tatic pressure are not applicable to it, as it would be to water ascend-
ing freely in a crevasse. We can easily understand that in the first
case its pressure, and. consequently its temperature, might be pre-
served, as it were, ina close vessel, up to only a few feet from the
surface. It is therefore possible that many phenomena, such as the
crystallization of granite and of certain masses of tin, which contain
the same minerals as the rocks of Brazil, may have taken place under
pressure, although at no great depth.

It is possible that some minerals, the anhydrous silicates, for
instance, are not easily produced in water except at determinate tem-
peratures. Too much heat, as well as a want of heat, is prejudicial
to their formation. Moreover, experiment seems to show that the
feldspars are sometimes produced and sometimes destroyed in water,
according tothe temperature. Itis probable, that because in some-parts
of the Alps, such as the Grisons, the higher portions alone furnished
a proper temperature, that metamorphism and the various minerals
which are, as it were, witnesses, have been produced there rather than
in the beds situated lower down, whose section we can follow in the

» ® My experiments thus fully confirm the views which Schafhaut and Bischof have
published on this subject.

294 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

immense chasms.* This fact would be analogous to the condensation,
in the superficial beds of volcanic mountains and of lavas, of sal
ammoniac, the different chlorides, sulphur and specular iron, or to
the well-known enrichment of numerous metallic veins in their upper
art.

é To sum up, when we are to explain the origin and the formation of
silicates in most of the rocks, it is not to the dry but really to the
hydrothermal way that we must oftenest have recourse. This asser-
tion is founded on the following considerations:

1. Formation by the wet way takes place at temperatures incom-
parably lower than the point of fusion; this is a condition of which
we have previously recognized the necessity.

2. The hydrated silicates which we find in nature often associated
with anhydrous silicates are easily formed in the wet way, as we have
seen, at the same time as these last (zeolites with pyroxene,
chloritic schist with tourmaline and feldspar, &c.); their forma-
tion is with difficulty explained in the dry way.

3. Quartz is extremely abundant in nature. Now, as soon as super-
heated water is in contact with a great number of silicates, soluble
or insoluble, we see that a part of the silica isolates itself and becomes
agenuine crystalline quartz, which does not at all resemble the glass
produced by the fusion of quartz.

It will be remembered in effect that silica, whether melted or
obtained by. the decomposition of the silicates, has none of the prop-
erties of quartz; that it is not as dense, nor as refractive, nor as hard,
nor as refractory with alcaline agents.t It is possible that this dif-
ference of properties is the cause of the easy decomposition of the
vitreous silicates: the menstruum attacking the silica under its solu-
ble modification, then, perhaps, without there being any necessity
for a change of circumstances, they precipitate it under the modifica-
tion corresponding to insoluble quartz, only serving then, so to speak,
to cause the silica to pass by a kind of continuous evolution from one
molecular state to the oppositet.

4. In fine, instead of uniform masses, such as fusion generally pro-
duces, we see in the products of the wet way mixtures of different
crystallized substances, whose mode of association is entirely inde-
pendent, as is the case with the greater part of rocks of their rela-
tive degrees of fusibility.

* This fact, which results from former and unedited observations of Elie de Beaumont,
has been recently pointed out also by Sir Roderick Murchison,

+ Pogg. Annalen, 1859.

{ Stannic acid presents something similar, when we see one of its modifications, (stannic
acid, properly so called) passing by the simple action of heat to the other state of modifica-
tion, (metastanic acid,) and thus separating itself from certain solvents.

-

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 295

CHAPTER IX.
APPLICATION OF THE SAME FACTS TO ERUPTIVE ROCKS.

Eruptive rocks present a great analogy of composition with meta-
morphic rocks; many minerals are, in fact, common to the one and the
other. It is thus that the elements,of granite (feldspar, mica, and
quartz) are often found in the beds that it has traversed, and where
they are, as it were, extravasated.* When granite or syenite have
enclosed fragments of pre-existing rocks, they have even been in some
sort assimilated, as I have elsewhere shown.t We find a very re-
markable example of this in the masses of compact limestone of Mount
Somma, in the interior of which, amphigene, sodalite, and anorthite,
have crystallized, as well as in the lavas which are adjacent to them.
The limestone of Kaiserstuhl, with its titaniferous oxydulated iron, its
pyrochlore, its perowskite, its apatite, manifests also its relation with
the doleritic rock, which has furnished the principal elements of these
minerals. It is on this resemblance of composition, sometimes stri-
king, that the conclusion that the minerals of metamorphic rocks have
been produced in the dry way has often been based.

I will reverse the argument by saying that if components, such as
feldspar, mica, quartz, amphigene, pyroxene, &c., are found in strati-
fied rocks, under conditions where they could not have been formed
but by the intervention of water, we ought to regard it as very
probable that water has acted in the same way in the crystallization
of the eruptive rocks themselves, a conclusion to which we have be-
fore been drawn by other considerations. If it were necessary to
propose an hypothesis on this singular association of water with
eruptive rocks endued with a high temperature, we should be apt to
consider these hydrated masses as a very concentrated solution of the
silicates, a kind of watery fusion rendered persistent by pressure.

When these silicates have crystallized, their mother-water, accom-
panied by various substances, t has disengaged itself from them, pre-
serving, however, a temperature and a pressure sufficiently great to
penetrate into the surrounding rocks and modify them extensively.
From this fact result, perhaps, the analogies which have been men-
tioned above between the eruptive rock and the rock which has been
traversed. Thus to recapitulate and follow out the part that we are
led to assign to water in eruptive rocks, I will say that we can distin-
guish three principal agencies, which it exercises under three condi-
tions: 1. Arriving in a state of combination with these rocks, of
which, with the concurrence of heat, it causes the softening; 2. Dis-
engaging itself from the rocks as they consolidate, traversing and
metamorphosing the neighboring rocks; 3. Escaping sometimes to

* According to the numerous observations of Elie de Beaumont, de la Béche, Gruner,
Naumann, and many others.

} Annales des Mines, 5th series, vol. xii, p. 319.

t Like the chlorides of the lavas.

.

296 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

the surface, either in a state of vapor or as hot springs.* Let us
remark, however, that this extravasement of minerals ready formed,
of which I spoke above, is, without doubt, only an appearance, and
that the feldspar or the mica which is in the neighborhood of granite
was probably formed in situ by borrowing, as at Plombieres, a part
of its elements from the medium in which it was developed.

Tt is here that we may advert, ina few words, to the singular destiny
of pyroxene. The crystals of pyroxene, so frequently disseminated in
lavas, were formerly considered as having been detached from a pre-
existing rock, and, to better express the idea already put forth by
Dolomieu, that they were not formed in the volcanic rocks which
contain them, but that they had been simply imbedded in them.
Haty gave its name to pyroxene, in the sense which its derivation
indicates—stranger to jire.t Afterwards it was ascertained that, on the
contrary, it had crystallized in the lavas, especially since the experi-
ments of Berthier and Mitscheralich, and it has been considered as
the type and exclusive product of the dry way. Is it not strange to
see that, by its great tendency to form in superheated water, it is this
mineral which appears at the present time the most important among
the best characterized products of this new method? Let us add,
further, that water might have had its influence even in the mechan-
ical action of the eruptive rocks. Indeed, in the recital of my ex-
periments I have designedly dwelt on the augmentation of volume
which glass transformed into a zeolite by the agency of water has
undergone, in order to draw from it the conclusion that, in all proba-
bility, at the moment of their hydration certain rocks have undergone
a phenomenon of increase analogous to that of which we have numer-
ous natural examples when anhydrite changes into gypsum. This
increase was probably sufficient in many cases to bring about the
extrusion and the eruption of rocks; this would be particularly the
case with phonolites and. basalts.

CHAPTER XI.

METAMORPHISM OF STRUCTURE } ITS RELATIONS TO ORDINARY METAMOR-
PHISM. ;

We have seen, in the first and second part of this memoir, that the
schistose structure appears to be the result of pressure and of slips
undergone by the strata under the action of energetic forces. The
experiments on this subject, which I undertook before knowing of
those of Mr. Tyndall, but which I made by other processes and on a
larger scale, confirm this theory. I used for the purpose powerful

* To this are to be referred the springs of which metalliferous veins and other deposits
neighboring on eruptive rocks attest the existence. They have probably, with time, di-
minished in temperature and volume, and have at last dried up, when the masses from
which they came arrived at their last stage of consolidation and refrigeration.

7 ‘‘The name pyroxene apprises us that the crystals of lavas are not in their native
place.’’—(MMineralogie de Haity, 1st edition, vol. iii, p. 90.)

!

ON-THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 297

means of compression, not only rolling-mills, but also the lever presses
moved by steam, which are used to stamp sheet iron into various
utensils. All these methods of compression, whether gradual or by
shocks, were successively employed. The matter upon which I prin-
cipally operated was clay brought to a peculiar state of desiccation.*
The clay submitted to these different processes of compression
acquires a very marked schistose structure;+ but for that, besides
pressure, two other conditions are indispensable.

Ist. It is necessary that the substance be capable of sliding and
extending itself by an inchoate lamination; then the lamella develop
themselves parallel to the sides—that is to say, normally as regards
the pressure. No result is obtained if the body cannot yield and
change its form in the direction perpendicular to the pressure. A
piece of clay, cylindrical in form, placed in a cylinder of cast iron of
the same form and dimension, was powerfully compressed by a piston
of the same calibre. The substance acquired very great consistency,
but showed no indication of lamelle, not even of cleavage. This, I
repeat, takes place only when the mass of earth fits exactly in its
rigid envelope; otherwise deformation takes place, and consequently
the formation of lamellz.

2d. The substance to be compressed ought to possess a high degree
of plasticity. Too dry, it breaks; too soft, it becomes laminated
without any lamellar structure being perfected.- Specimens of the
same clay in different states of dryness, submitted simultaneously to
compression, furnish superposed layers, some of a schistose structure,
others of an irregular fracture, whose contrast is very significative.
I have tried also to produce by the same process the schistose struc-
ture of the silicates at the moment when they pass from a state of
fusion to a solid state. The slags of iron blast furnaces which I sub-
mitted to pressure while they were still in a state of paste did not
become schistose. The fracture of the cooled mass only showed dif-
ferent colored veins in lines normal to the pressure. What I have
said above, concerning the influence of plasticity in the formation of
the lamelle, explains the frequent transitions which we see in the
same mass of partially schistose rocks. It is thus that, to cite an ex-
ample, the porphyry of Mairus in the Ardennes, becomes gradually
schistose.

It is proper here to call to mind that glass acquires a very remark-
able schistose structure from causes entirely different from those
which we have just mentioned. At the same time that the glass tube
transformed by superheated water swells considerably it takes this
schistose structure in a very marked manner. The lamelle into
which it easily cleaves, are so thin that sometimes more than ten can
be distinguished in a thickness of the sixteenth of an inch.{| When

=These experiments took place at the factory of Karcher and Westermann, at Ars-
sur-Moselle. I used especially the refractory clay of Villy-en-Trode, (Aube,) which comes
from the neocomian formation and from the grey supraliasic marls.

+ Certain tiles obtained by a peculiar process of moulding which is employed at Epinal,
also often present a commencement of the foliated structure. :

{Sometimes they can be as néatly detached the one from the other as the leaves of a
quire of paper.

298 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

the glass is incompletely acted upon, the centre, although still vitreous,
also shows very fine zones, like onyx, the whole reminding us of the
characteristics of certain schistose and crystalline rocks. The schis-
tose structure which the glass tubes acquire is evidently the effect of
their mode of fabrication, which has given to the mass a structure by
superposed layers. It is a species of heterogeneity which can be
made evident by the subtle action of polarized light, but which, to
the naked eye, is at first concealed by an apparent homogeneity. It
appears when water, by an unequal action, has marked out the zones
of different natures, and still better when the substance already modi-
fied in part has undergone contraction. These lamelle are, in effect,
more apparent in some tubes than in others. A manifest proof of a
fact of which we find different examples in manufacturing, * and which
shows how the primitive disposition of the constituent materials of a
rock, although they may have disappeared by ulterior action, may
still be present in a latent state, and reveal themselves when new in-
fluences bring them to light.t+

A phenomenon which almost always accompanies a schistose struc-
ture in crystalline rocks, is the remarkable parallelism which a part
of these crystalline elements presents.{ Those which have the form
of spangles, whatever may be their nature—mica, chlorite, tale,
graphite, or specular iron—are arranged flatwise, according to the
planes of their lamelle; sometimes they even present a sort of align-
ment, which has been called linear parallelism, as if there had been a
drawing out. The chlorite, micaceous, and talcose schists offer. the
best characterized examples of this phenomenon.

It is even to these spangles, which were supposed to assume an
arrangement in parallel planes under the influence of calorific or
magnetic action, that, in accordance with the views of Sir John Her-
schel,§ the cause of the lamellar structure has often been attributed.
Sorby has sought to confirm this influence of spangles by an ex-
periment which consists in laminating a mass of paste containing
them. I cannot accede to this view, and I think that the alignment
of the spangles, instead of being the cause, is, on the contrary, only
the consequence of the pre-existence of these lamella. I found my
opinion on four principal reasons : Ist. A lamellar structure is some-
times developed in nature, and I have seen it perfectly produced, in
the experiment previously cited, in the absence of all kinds of span-
gles. 2d. Crystals which are far from having the lamellar form, as

** We know, for instance, that in shaping pieces of porcelain clay, the person who does
the rough work at the lathe and the moulder must take great care to produce an equal
pressure on all the parts of the piece which they are executing. Very small inequalities of
pressure, at first completely imperceptible, become evident after baking by numbers of
irregularities, some of which are known under the name of screwing, (vissage. )—(Brongniart,
Arts céramiques, vol. i, p. 123.)

The fabrication of Chinese image mirrors appears to be founded on a principle of the
same kind.

{The experiments which I have recently made bring out the schistose structure in a
metal which would seem as little disposed to acquire it as brass.

{ All the schistose minerals and rocks do not show this alignment; thus the macles are
not in general disposed parallel to the layers of the phyllades, of which they form a part.

§ Manual of Geology, Lyell, 1857, vol. ii, p. 447.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 299

garnet and magnetic iron, present, notwithstanding, a very regular
alignment. 3d. I have observed, in experiments similar to those of
Sorby, that the spangles really have a tendency to arrange them-
selves gradually in the direction of the movement determined by the
pressure, in such a way that the friction resulting from the sliding
will be the least possible. Nevertheless, their alignment is very
_ imperfect in comparison with that of nature, often so remarkable in
its regularity, and that of these spangles, those which are not able to
arrange themselves in the general plane, appear to disturb the for-
mation of the lamella. 4th. A process has given me results which
are almost identical with those of nature; it consists in impregnating
clay, before submitting it to lamination, with water heated to 100°
centigrade, and saturated with boracic acid; then laminating it on a
plate of cast iron heated by a furnace, so as to avoid the precipitation
of the acid before the formation of lamelle. But in this experiment
the spangles of boracicacid, which are produced between the lamellz
by an ulterior cooling of the liquid, present an alignment infinitely
more regular than in the experiment of Sorby, and altogether
like that of certain micaceous schists.*

By comparing the facts which we have just cited with the data
which the metamorphism at Plombiéres has furnished us, we arrive at
a conclusion of the highest probability. If the materials, concrete
or bricks, into which the water of Plombiéres penetrates had a lamel-
lar structure, is it not evident that the mode of circulation of the
water would have been influenced, and that the liquid veins insinu-
ating themselves in preference between the layers would have given
rise on their passage to crystals in lamelle or otherwise sensibly
aligned? In the case where the metamorphism would not have taken
place but by a water of constitution, we yet comprehend that the
crystals would be developed profiting by the planes of cleavage in
the mass. The papyraceous arrangement, so remarkable in its regu-
larity, which the quartz of some leptynites and porphyries presents,
may have had an analogous origin, since, as we have seen, water inter-
venes also in the crystallization of eruptive rocks.

CHAPTER XII.

COMPARISON OF ALL THE PHENOMENA WHOSE SEAT IS IN THE INTERIOR OF
THE EARTH.

If thermal springs are the agents of metamorphism, we need not
be surprised that the same mode of metamorphism extends over ex-
tended regions, since we still see mineral waters grouped together
in families of analogous composition in regions of great extent; thus
they are generally carbonated in Auvergne and Eifel, sulphurous in

* I do not, however, pretend to say that this lamination in some cases has not continued
after the alignment of the spangles in the rocks; it is easy to be convinced of the contrary
by examining the different schistose crystalline rocks.

300 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

the Pyrenees,* &c. We meet with these analogies still more strongly
characterized in the metalliferous deposits, which appear to be also a
product of like origin, and although the greater part of them contain
numerous mineral species often distributed in a very unequal manner
in different parts of the same vein, the nature of the gangues, as well
as that of the metals, which can be mined with profit, show they are
generally grouped in systems. These systems sometimes embrace
entire regions, especially on the continents whose geological structure
is not parcelled out like that of Western Europe; as, for instance, the
argentiferous groups of Mexico, the great auriferous bands of the
Alleghanies and Brazil, the stanniferous zone of Malaya.

The same fact is well known of volcanoes. If there are any that
are isolated, the greater part constitute a series, as de Buch long
ago demonstrated, when he compared them to vents which had been
formed on a line of the same great fault. As to earthquakes, we
shall only mention them to associate them with volcanoes, to which
they seem so intimately related.

The families of thermal springs, of metalliferous veins, of volcanoes
with their earthquakes, occupy extents quite comparable to those
which we have established for regional metamorphism, the seat of
which occupies entire countries. As with all these families, the met-
amorphic formationst are exclusively confined to regions where dis-
locations have taken place.

On the one hand, in effect, the oldest stratified formations of Russia
and Southern Sweden, as well as those of North America, which have
preserved their primitive horizontal position, are not sensibly trans-
formed. On the other hand, the recent formations, but whose strati-
fication is very much disturbed, such as the jurassic and cretaceous
beds of the Alps, the Apennine mountains, and Tuscany, have, on
the contrary, been entirely modified, even where there are only a
few eruptive masses. The phyllades are but the first term of much
deeper transformations; so they are never found outside of zones
which have been more or less dislocated.

It is, then, difficult not to see, in these different kinds of phenomena
of which I have just spoken, the manifestations of one and the same
agent, whose seat extends beneath entire countries. This essential
agent is water, aided by heat of different intensities, with which are
joined, as secondary causes, the emanations which accompany it.
For volcanoes the thing is evident; for metalliferous veins there can
hardly be any doubt, especially after the labors of Hlhe de Beau-
mont and the experiments of de Senarmont; and with regard to
metamorphism we think that our assertion has become extremely
probable. Thus we think that water acts without cessation in the
lower regions of the earth, after having there acquired a temperature

* Longschamp remarked that in the entire length of this chain, which is more than
sixty miles, there are more than one hundred and fifty springs, all of the same kind, and
only differing within very narrow limits by the proportion of their elements.—(Memoir
read at the Academy of Sciences, August 12, 1833.)

t At the least, those that are posterior to the silurian formation.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 301

more or less elevated by means of the heat of the globe. Its action
is at some points patent, demonstrated as it is by volcanoes, earth-
quakes, solfionis, and hot springs which issue on the surface ; at other
points it is latent, where the thermal springs, possessed of an ascen-
sional motion, are lost by reason of the thickness of the beds, or
when the water of constitution only of the rocks reacts upon them
and produces metamorphism. Such is the idea which has dictated
the title inscribed at the head of this memoir.

APPENDIX.

CONSIDERATIONS ON THE FORMATION OF THE SCHISTOSE
ROCKS WHICH PRECEDED THE SILURIAN PERIOD.

Below the silurian formation we only know at present of rocks
which are eminently crystalline. In general the passage from the one
to the other is gradual, but sometimes the line of demarcation is
quite evident, as in Sweden, Finland, and the United States. Thus
the oldest beds (Potsdam sandstone) which this last region of the
globe presents have undergone no modification, and rest horizontally
upon the azoic formations with vertical lamelle.*

The effects of metamorphic action show themselves, as we have
seen, in the formations of different ages. It is the oldest beds, how-
ever, which have the most completely undergone this action. The
cause which produced it appears, therefore, to have been enfeebled
by time, and to have probably possessed, before the silurian forma-
tion, a considerable energy, that is to say, that it evinced itself nearer
the surface. Thus we comprehend why very many geologists thought
that they saw in these antesilurian deposits the first sedimentary
beds, but that they had undergone a metamorphism. This supposi-
tion is supported by the great resemblance between the primitive
and stratified rocks, whose metamorphic origin is not doubted. As
in these last, so in the midst of gneiss, which constitutes the greater
part of the formations of which we are speaking, we find limestones,
dolomites, amphibolic schists, quartzites, petrosilicious rocks, (halle-
flinta of the Swedes,) and masses of metallic ores, which often cannot
be distinguished from those found in the upper beds. This resem-
blance is so striking in the limestones, on account of the minerals
which they contain, and their mode of association, that we might,
for instance, easily confound the crystalline limestones containing
spinel and chondrodite, which are subordinated to the gneiss of
Pargas, in Finland, or Canada, with those of Monzoni, in Tyrol, and
of Mount Somma, which belong to formations comparatively recent.

As still another analogous fact, we should mention graphite, or the

* Foster & Whitney’s sketch of the silurian formation of Lake Superior.—(Bulletin de la
Société Géologique de France, 2d series, vol. viii, p. 89.)

302 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND

carbonaceous combinations which we meet with in the more ancient
formations, * (graphite of St. Marie-aux-Mines, anthracite of Konigs-
berg, in Norway, or of Dannemora, where it is in a gray limestone
hardly crystalline, bitumen of the veins of granite of Finbo, near
Fahlun, and the numerous iron formations of Sweden.)

Other geologists, on the contrary, struck with the intimate con-
nexion which exists between the granite and this gneiss, have con-
sidered the latter as a granite which has become schistose by having
been flattened out. If this was so, it would be necessary to conclude
that certain masses of limestone, quartzite, magnetic iron, and other
metallic ores, pre-existed in the granite, and that they ‘have been
softened at the same time with it, so as to be susceptible of being
extended simultaneously, and thus take the form of plates parallel
to the foliations of gneiss, imitating stratification in a very striking
manner. ‘This is a supposition that can hardly be admitted.

There are still two important remarks to be made on this subject :
Ist. The absence of transition in the azoic schistose rocks of the
silurian formation shows that the first rocks had already acquired their
crystalline state, before the deposit of the oldest known fossiliferous
rocks. This fact is confirmed by the pebbles of well characterized
gneiss, which the formations of transition sometimes contain. 2d.
There is no indication that these same ancient rocks have in certain
countries ever been covered by any considerable thickness of other
rocks, otherwise we should have to admit, and we have no ground for
doing so, that extended and scarcely undulated countries like Scandi-
navia or Canada, have undergone enormous denudations. Besides,
formations like those of Scandinavia and North America, which we
have just cited as examples, are found in all parts of the globe with
analogous characters ; they form almost universally a kind of cover-
ing for granite.

Supposing that the mass of all our seas were diffused as vapor in
the atmosphere, the pressure on the surface of the globe would
amount to at least two hundred and fifty times what it now is 5} it
would even be greater by reason of the intervention of gases and of
other vapors. There could, then, not have existed liquid waters on
the earth, until the temperature of its surface was reduced below that
degree of heat which can give to the vapor of water a tension of
two hundred and fifty atmospheres. The surface of the globe, then,
was at that epoch at a very high temperature, and if there existed
any silicates on the surface of the earth they must have been formed
in the dry way. Afterwards, when water had commenced forming in
the liquid state, it would have reacted on these previously existing
silicates, and would have given rise to an entire series of new pro-

* So long as synthesis, which in the hands of Berthelot had led to much remarkable
results, has not imitated the anthracites of Sweden without the aid of plants, we must
believe that these combustibles are of vegetable origin, and consequently that the plants
existed when the gneiss which these deposits contain was formed.

+ Admitting, with Baron Humboldt, a mean depth of 1,900 fathoms for the ocean, we
should have 1,400 fathoms as the depth of a bed of water uniformly spread over the globe,
which corresponds to a pressure of 248, or in round numbers 250 atmospheres.

ON THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 303

ducts. By a true metamorphic action the water of this primitive
ocean first caused the structure proper to these melted masses to dis-
appear by penetrating them, and afterwards formed, as in our tubes,
crystallized minerals by means of the very principles which had
caused it to dissolve them. These matters formed or suspended in
the midst of the liquid, would be precipitated to its bottom with
variable characters in the deposit, in proportion as the heat of the
liquid diminished. Are these different periods of chemical decompo-
sition and recomposition, in which the wet way intervenes under those
extreme conditions which touch so nearly on the dry way, the era of
the formation of granite and of the schistose rocks which are alto-
gether azoic and crystallized? We cannot affirm it absolutely, but
we must presume so, especially if we consider that on this hypothe-
sis there have been formed two series of products, the one entirely
massive, the other presenting traces of sedimentary origin, and which
connect themselves one with the other in an insensible manner. This,
in effect, is what exists in nature with regard to granite and gneiss.

In concluding I will remark, that if there has ever been a time
when rocks were exclusively under the dominion of the dry way, they
have passed under the regime of the wet way at an epoch much more
remote than has until lately been supposed. We can hardly find now
on the globe rocks to which we can assign with entire certainty a
formation exclusively due to the dry way, without any concurrence
of water. There is, however, an example which shows us what rocks
of sucha kind might be, and itis furnished us by the aerolites. These
bodies in effect do rot offer in their essential constitution either water
or hydrated combinations. Is it not singular that, formed of silicates
of the same bases as those of our globe, they have never presented
either quartz, mica, or granite, but bodies which we do not meet with
on the crust of the earth, such as metallic iron and metallic phosphu-
rets and carburets? The existence of these bodies appears wholly to
protest against the presence of water. Is not this a new motive, al-
though a little far-fetched it is true, for believing in the impotence
of heat alone to produce granite ? :

According to the hypothesis which we have just mentioned, the
first deposits of the sea would have remained a long time in a soft
state eminently favorable to the production of the schistose structure.
The lamelle of these rocks, as well as of those of the more recent
metamorphic formations, have in general a position near the vertical,
even outside of mountain chains in countries like Sweden, the Li-
mousin, and Moravia, the outlines of which present nothing peculiar.
From what we have said above on the production of a lamellar struc-
ture, the lateral pressures to which it appears to owe its origin must
have acted almost horizontally. They were probably of the same na-
ture as the compression which afterwards gave rise, in more solid
stratified formations, to those different foldings and convolutions which
characterize mountain chains. Thus, as the fibrous structure of iron
shows the mechanical action that it has undergone, so these more an-
cient formations appear even then to have testified to the force of

304 EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM, ETC.

\
contraction which afterwards produced mountain chains. This force
was perhaps limited in these first epochs to producing the schistose
character of the rocks, at the same time that, by reason of their flex-
ibility, it augmented their thickness by folding, while scarcely undu-
lating them.

Whatever may be the fate of hypotheses by which we allow our-
selves to be carried away, even while recognizing that they rest as
yet on grounds not sufficiently solid, we have a right to believe that
the older gneiss demonstrates the high temperature of the globe in
very ancient times. The universal production of crystalline rocks in
these fundamental formations concurs with the whole assemblage of
metamorphic phenomena to compel the admission of a general cool-
ing of the interior of the globe. It is an argument of the most pos-
itive nature to oppose to the indiscriminate partisans of existing
causes, who, with Hutton, envelop the origin of our planet in a
night of indefinite duration, during which geological phenomena
never ceased to revolve in the same circle.

Although these questions are still very obscure, we discover a grand
simplicity of agencies which have given rise to a great diversity of
effects; and the immediate productions of a superheated sea, the crys-
tallization of eruptive rocks, the metamorphism of stratified beds,
appear to be only different modes of action of the same phenomenon
in different ages. Conclusions less vague, however, should be ad-
journed to the time, perhaps not far distant, when we shall succeed
in producing granite artificially. Synthetical experiment has already,
since the time of Hall, been exceedingly useful, and it is to it that
the office of throwing still more decisive light on a formation where
direct observation has doubtless little more to learn, appears to be-
long. If experimentation, armed with its most ingenious processes,
has been necessary for understanding the phenomena which belong to
our own day, and of which we are witnesses at all times, such as the
weight of air, lightning, &c., with how much greater reason ought
we to have recourse to it when the question relates to geological facts,
the most important of ‘which are not now repeated at least under our
observation, and have left as the only witness a final result, preserving
no trace of the intermediate activities which have produced it?

Up to the end of the last century geology was altogether hypo-
thetical ; it then entered upon a positive career based upon the ob-
servation of facts and induction. It is not long since anew era seems to
have opened in which it seeks light from phenomena of every order—
chemical, physical, and mechanical—by synthetic experimentation,
thus undergoing the phases which physics have passed through
since the time of Galileo, to arrive at the point which it has now
attained.

REPORT ON NITRIFICATION.

PRESENTED TO THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1858.

BY DR. B. F. CRAIG.

,

I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of a communication
from the Smithsonian Institution, requesting me to furnish information
aud suggestions upon the subject of the formation of nitre, with espe-
cial reference to its production in this country, and in accordance
with this request I respectfully submit the following.

An opinion upon any one branch of the subject of nitrification can-
not be fairly based upon anything but a statement of our knowledge
of the whole, nor-can the practical value of any source of nitre be
estimated without a comparison of it with other known or attainable
means of supply. In order, then, to be enabled to give the required
information, I have felt myself called upon to take up the whole sub-
ject of nitrification, a subject of much difficulty and intricacy, the
obstacles to the study of which are increased by the circumstance
that information on it is only to be found scattered here and there
through the pages of scientific publications. The difficulties attend-
ing it, together with the pressure upon me of other occupations, I
would offer as an apology for my delay in answering your communi-
cation. To obtain clear ideas on those points on which information
is most to be desired, it will be necessary to consider the subject
under the following heads :

Ist. Our knowledge of the laws which govern the formation of nitre.

2d. The manner and extent of its production in nature.*

3d. The methods that have been practiced for its artificial formation.

4th. The methods of artificial formation that have been suggested,
or those which the present state of our knowledge would suggest.

5th. The experimental investigations that it would be desirable to
make, for the proper advancement of the theory and practice of the
manufacture of nitré.

I. Since nitrates +} are continually being produced under different cir-

* Nitre is not found accumulated in masses like most minerals, but forms continuously
in various places, whence it is extracted from time to time.

7 The nitrates that are to be met with where nitrification has taken place, and which, for
the sake of convenjence, may be spoken of as a class, include saltpetre or the nitrate of
»otash, the nitrate of soda, the nitrate of lime, and the nitrate of magnesia. Their chem-
ical formulas are as follows:

Nitrate of potash, NO, K.

Nitrate of soda, NO, Na.
Nitrate of lime, NO, Ca.
Nitrate of magnesia, NO, Mg.

The three last are convertible by simple means into nitrate of potash, the conversion
tequiring, of course, a supply of potash, which is usually obtained in the form of a ley of
wood ashes.

The nitrate of soda is met with in South America. Those occurring elsewhere are, mainly,
the nitrate of lime and the nitrate of potash.

20

306 REPORT ON NITRIFICATION.

cumstances, it is natural that something should have been known
about the manner of their formation from a very early period in the
history of modern science. We find, accordingly, that as far back as
the 17th century it was held that the origin of nitre was due to the
decomposition of organic matters, both animal and vegetable. That
nitrates have, in large part at least, such an origin has long been
well established, and it has been the opinion of many that, when-
ever nitrates are formed, organic matters must be looked to as their
source. The way in which such matters come to be the source of
nitrates has been partially elucidated by modern investigations.

Organic bodies as they are found in nature contain nitrogen in
greater or less quantity, and in decomposing they give it off in the
form of ammonia,* which is known to be convertible by the joint
action of oxidizing agents and of mineral bases, such as lime, potash,
&c., into nitrates of those bases. It is shown by different examples,
and by general chemical analogy, that this conversion is greatly facil-
itated by the presence of solid substances in a finely divided or porous
condition, and we may assume that nitrates are formed from the am-
monia given off from decomposing matters by the action on it of at-
mospheric oxygen, and of porous bodies containing lime, potash, and
other mineral bases.t Experiments directly to this point are, those of
the French Academy, by which it was found that chalk, hung up in
a basket over decomposing blood, was partly converted into nitrate
of lime;{ and those of Dumas, who formed nitrates by passing ammo-
nia, mixed with moist air at a temperature of 212° Fah., over pieces
of chalk moistened with a solution of potash.§ Kuhlmann, who has
made very important contributions to our knowledge of the subject,
converted the compounds of ammonia into nitrates by means of
various oxidizing agents. || _

This last-named chemist also performed the converse experiment
of producing ammonia from nitrates by the action on them of nascent
hydrogen and of such reducing or deoxidizing agents as furnish hy-
drogen. Upon these experiments, and upon other facts, he based
conclusions of considerable importance to agricultural chemistry. He
sets forth that when nitrates are mixed with an ordinary soil at that
depth below the surface at which they are out of contact of air, they
are reduced to ammonia by the agency of the organic matter present;
and that conversely, when the ammonia in the soil rising to the sur-
face comes into contact with the air, it is converted into nitrates of
lime, potash, and whatever other bases may be contained in that par-
ticular earth. The reduction of the nitrate to ammonia in the deeper

* The chemical formula of ammonia is NH,. It is evolved in the gaseous form, in
combination with certain volatile acids, also the products of organic decomposition, chiefly
with carbonic and hydrosulphuric acids.

+ Good examples of such bodies are found in ordinary earth ; and a mode of producing
nitrates, long practiced and well known, consists in mixing earth with organic matters,and
allowing decomposition to go on with exposure to the air.

{ Memoires des Savans Divers, vol. xi.

§ Comtes Rendus, December, 1846.

|| Comtes Rendus, November, 1846.

REPORT ON NITRIFICATION. 307

soil prepares it for the food of the plant, and the ammonia that might
have escaped from the surface of the ground by reason of its volati-
lity is prevented from doing so by its conversion into non-volatile
nitrate.*

Nitrification, being much influenced by the temperature, goes on
with the most rapidity in tropical countries, and this Kuhlmann con-
siders as one cause of their greater fertility, since but little ammonia
can escape unaltered through the surface stratum of the soil in those
regions. It is evident that during dry weather nitrates must aecu-
mulate at the surface of the ground, and that upon the occurrence of
rain they must, being very soluble, be washed down into the soil,
and be there reconverted into ammonia.

Another set of circumstances under which nitrates are generated
from ammonia-yielding substances are those brought forward by Dr.
R, A. Smith in his researches on the air and water of towns. He shows
that the drainage from sinks, cesspools, and other depots of organic
matter, undergoes oxidation in passing through water-bearing strata,
the oxygen dissolved in the water co-operating with the porous soil
to convert the nitrogen of the decomposing matter into nitrates, and
the sulphur into sulphates. t

In this way water purifies itself from the contaminations that are
so largely poured into it so effectually that a well separated from a
sink by a few feet of porous soil will be kept free from offensive
matter, the conditions required being that the medium through which
the filtration takes place shall not be a surface soil which is too muck
loaded with organic matter for oxidation to go on in it; and that there
shall be sufficient supply of water containing oxygen in solution,
which, of course, must be the case wherever springs or wells occur.
When well-water becomes charged with organic impurities, it is be-
cause the drainage through the surface soil enters the well without
passing through the deeper or water-bearing strata. Thus the pro-
duction of nitrates takes place both at the very surface and deep in
the ground, while there is in fertile soils a middle zone charged with
organic matter, where their conversion into ammonia goes on.

Until the present century it was universally believed that organic
matters were necessary in every case of the formation of nitrates, and
up to the present time the opinions of a number of scientific men seem
to be inclined to the conclusion that wherever nitrates are produced
in large quantity they originate from the decomposition of such sub-
stances. In 1823, however, Longchamp read a paper to the French
Academy, in which he advanced the doctrine that nitrates are gener-
ated from the nitrogen of the air, and not from that of organic suh-
stances. Since the time of Cavendish it has been known that the
nitrogen and oxygen of the air may be converted into nitric acid. If
the electric spark be passed through air confined over a solution of
potash, nitrate of potash is generated ; if over simple water, we have
nitrate of ammonia. Again: when a mixture of nitrogen and hydro-

= Exps. sur la Theorie des Engrais, C. R., November, 1846.
+ Proceedings of the British Association, p. 66, 1851.

308 REPORT ON NITRIFICATION.

gen is burnt in the air, or in oxygen, nitric acid is produced in small
quantity.

The possibility of the formation of nitrates from the nitrogen
of the air being established, Longchamp argued that in many
cases of the occurrence of these bodies the supply of organic matters
was too small to account for the whole quantity.

Facts* that were known then, and some that have since been ob-
served, seem strongly to sustain Longchamp’s position, and have in-
clined many chemists to look upon his views as in the highest degree
probable, and as explaining a large part of the production of nitre ;
at the same time, however, not questioning the facts of the first-men-
tioned mode of nitrification.

There is great difficulty in demonstrating that in any given case of
nitrification the nitrogen cannot all come from ammonia, since am-
monia and ammonia-yielding substances reach the nitrifying soil, or
rock, in so many ways and from so many sources. They exist every-
where—on the surface of the earth, in all soils, and in many rocks; they
are diffused through the air and are washed down from it by rains,
and the water which percolates through the earth often carries large
quantities of them with it, so that, although it can be pointed out
that in certain cases the supply of them seems too small to account for
the whole production, yet it would be very hard to reduce this to
positive demonstration.

While it has been long known that the nitrogen of the air will, un-
der certain circumstances, enter into the composition of a nitrate, it
has not until very recently been clearly shown by experiment that
this takes place under those particular circumstances under which
nitrification goes on in nature. —

In a paper read to the French Academy in November, 1855, M.
Cloez details experiments made by passing air, carefully freed from
organic matters and from ammonia, through porous substances of dif-
ferent kinds, (pounded bricks, broken earthenware, &c.,) impregnated
with potash and lime. After a certain time nitrates were found to
have been generated. These experiments attracted a good deal of
attention, and they have been repeated and some additional observa-
tions made.

Though we have the fact of the production of nitrates from atmos-
pheric nitrogen clearly shown, we have still to settle the question as
to what is the modus operandi of the transformation -—a point which is
not so simple as it might seem at first sight to be. While there are
several compounds of nitrogen and oxygen, none of them can be
formed by the direct union of these elements. They are derived in
one way or another from the decomposition of nitric acid or of the
nitrates; and in the case of the nitrates themselves, it does not appear
that they can be produced by the direct combination of nitrogen,

* In 1775, a prize being offered by the French government for an essay on nitrification,
a large number of papers on the subject were received and referred to 2 commission of the
Academy. from these, aud from the proceedings of the commission, Longchamp drew
most of his facts. The substance of them is found in ‘‘ Les Memoires des Savans divers,”’
vol, xi.

REPORT ON NITRIFICATION. 309

oxygen, and a metal.* Viewing the subject by the aid of such lights
as science affords, the hy pothesis which appears to be best in accord-
ance with the facts known concerning the combination of oxygen and
nitrogen is that propounded by Dr. G. C. Scheeffer, which is based
upon “that general chemical action by which various bodies assume
the elements of water in such a way as to produce salts of am-
monia. This action takes place very commonly with those substances
which are produced from ammoniacal salts by the separation of the
elements of water, and may be effected under the influence either
of acid or of alkalies, and sometimes by the action of water alone at
a high temperature.

Nitrous oxide (N QO) will generate the nitrate of ammonia by the
assumption of the elements of water; for, by the action on it of water
and potash, at an elevated temperature, ammonia is evolved and
nitrate of potash formed, showing that there has been a production
of nitrate of ammonia and a subsequent decomposition of it by the
potash.t Supposing nitrogen to act in the same way, viz: to assimilate
four equivalents of water, { it will form nitrate of ammonia, which, bya
well known tendency of the nitrates, will pass into the condition of a
nitrate. If potash be present, the nitrate of potash will be produced
by decomposition of the ammoniacal salt, and the ammonia set free
may be itself nitrified. Without going into theoretical discussion, this
hypothesis may be alluded to as one arrived at by legitimate analo-
gies, and which it would be interesting and useful to test by experi-
mental investigations. The foregoing being considered as a brief
sketch of the known laws of nitrification and of one or two of the most
important speculations on the subject, we may now glance at the
various circumstances under which the process goes on in nature on
a scale of economic importance.

II. The most important of the sources of nitre is the nitiferous soil of
Hindostan, where the earth in certain districts becomes impregnated
with the nitrates of lime and of potash, chiefly the latter. This takes
place during the dry season, when the ground, which has been flooded
by previous rains, is subjected to uninterrupted evaporation. Du-
ring the rains, a large amount of organic matter must be washed down
into the earth and there undergo decomposition.

Now we may suppose that the ammonia rising to the surface under-
goes nitrification after the manner pointed out by Kuhlmann,§ or that
its oxidation takes place at a considerable depth, in a way similar to
. that gf the cases instanced by Dr. Smith. In either case, the nitrates

* A way of trying this would be by modifying the experiment of Cavendish so as to pass
the electric spark through perfectly dry air confined in a tube with metallic potassium or
its oxide.

+ There are numerous substances which are formed from salts of ammonia by the separa-
tion of the elements of water, and which will regenerate the salt by reassuming them.
They are known to chemists as amids, anhydrids, or nitryls.

t The action consists in the assumption of the water by two equivalents: of the nitrous
oxide in one case, oe "a the nitrogen in the other. In the case of nitrous oxide it may
be represented thus : 0,+H, 0,—NO,NH,, ; and in the case of nitrogen, N,.-H,0,—
NO,NH,.

5 See ‘page 306.

|| See page 307.

310 REPORT ON NITRIFICATION

would accumulate on the surface by reason of the continued evapora-
tion going on there, a process which tends to draw up soluble matters
of all sorts from below, and to deposit them above; for the water, as
it evaporates, leaves behind it the non-volatile substances dissolved
init, and, after evaporation, is replaced by fresh fluid from the deeper
and moister parts of the ground, which brings with it fresh supplies
of soluble matter. Either of the modes mentioned will account for
the formation of the nitrates, supposing their origin to be from organic
matter, and will account for any case in which they accumulate on
the surface of the ground during dry and warm weather.

In various other countries the soil, in certain localities, becomes
impregnated with considerable quantities of nitrates. This is the
case in Persia, in Egypt, in Hungary,* and in Spain. The product is
of less importance than that of Hindostan, and the explanation of it
probably depends upon the same principles.

The production of nitre in the open air, in such quantities as to be
of value, only takes place under particular circumstances, but in caves
a considerable amount of nitrates is often produced. The earth cov-
ering the floor of caverns containing ammonia-producing matters as
well as mineral salts, the oxidation of the ammonia into nitrates takes
place wherever the air is not entirely stagnant; and being protected
from the rain, the nitrates will accumulate, until, after a series of
years, the quantity becomes considerable. Longchamp remarks,
that the earth in caves nitrifies itself sufficiently for extraction in
eight or ten years. Whether we suppose the nitrates to be produced
entirely from ammonia or not, the conditions furnished by a cavern,
of protection from the weather, together with a moderate and uniform
degree of moisture, will be equally operative.

In the western part of this country many caves exist, especially in
the geological formation known as the cavern limestone, which have
the earth on their floors impregnated with nitrates. The most noted
of these is the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. During the war of 1812
they were pretty industriously worked for nitre, and, it is said, in
large part exhausted. What the exact amount got from them. was
I have no means of ascertaining; nor have I seen any systematic cal-
culation of what is probably obtainable from them now since they
have had time to re-nitrify themselves.{ All approximative estimates
of those who are best informed put it down at but a fraction of the
present annual consumption;$ but on this point I speak more from

* Nitre is found in Hungary in large quantity, mostly in boggy places, and in those
subject to inundation: there is also much artificial production of it there.

{ The formation of nitrates in these caves may in some part be due to a kind of nitrifi-
cation described further on, (page 312) which takes place on the surface of the rock itself

The nitrate produced in these caves is nitrate of lime, which has to be converted into

saltpetre by the action of a solution of carbonate of potash. Having to furnish the potash
adds greatly to the expense of obtaining nitre from such sources Supposing that we used
commercial potash, 100 pounds of the best American ash would be required to form 133
pounds of nitrate of potash. The difficulty of supplying a sufficiency of potash became a
serious obstacle in the working of these caves. The wood which grew near the scene of
operations was burnt in large quantity, and the ley extracted from its ashes used. Here,
however, this impediment arose, that the country being, for the most part, purely lime-
stone, the ashes of plants growing there are much less rich in potash than in lime.

§I have heard the amount estimated at 150,000 pounds.

i
a
*
«Tr
.
Do
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,
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REPORT ON NITRIFICATION. 311

general impression than from positive knowledge. It is not to be
forgotten that this is a crop which, when once reaped, it will take
years to renew.

Probably the best mode of managing these caves, in view of a
national emergency, would be to carry into them quantities of a nitri-
fiable earth, preferably one arising from the decomposition of a felds-
pathic rock, and to leave it there until a serious call for nitre should
arise.

The earth of caverns is nowhere worked as a source of nitre to
a very important extent; but a formation of nitrates, which goes on
under circumstances somewhat similar to those prevailing in caves,
- is in Europe one of the chief indigenous modes of production. In old
buildings, especially in cellars and in damp outhouses, nitrate of lime
is found largely in the mortar, the plaster, and sometimes in a porous
limestone which has been used as a building material. We have
here, as in caves, a protection from rain, and a moist atmosphere;
there is also, however, in many cases a particular exposure to the
emanations from decaying organic inatters, as in the cellars and
foundations of buildings in a badly-drained soil. The decay of walls
from the formation of nitrates is known as the saltpetre rot, (saltpe-
tre frass.) The French, during the wars of the revolution, were greatly
indebted to this source for their supply of saltpetre.

A rather unique nitre formation is that of South America, where
nitrate of soda, a salt not occurring largely elsewhere, is found in
immense quantities. In the desert of Atacama, which lies on the
western slope of the Andes, at the boundary between Peru and Chile,
it forms beds of from two to three feet in thickness, in which it is
mixed with various impurities.* It is also diffused through the soil
over a large extent of ground. Other parts of the desert are covered
with an efflorescence of saline matters, chiefly of sulphate of soda.t

The nitrate of soda has been long known in commerce under the
names of cubic nitre and of Chile saltpetre, and being cheaper than
nitrate of potash, has been largely used for the manufacture of nitric
acid, and for other purposes where a nitrate is required.{ It is too
deliquescent to be readily used as an ingredient of gunpowder, but,
like the other nitrates, it can be converted into saltpetre by the action
of a salt of potash.

If it were desired to get a large quantity of a nitrate at once, the
nitrate of soda would be the most available, being ready formed and
accumulated to an immense extent. It is not certainly known whether
the production in these South American beds is continuously going
on, or whether the nitrate has resulted from actions which have now
ceased. Speculations as to the origin of this formation would require
a detail of circumstances which it is not, perhaps, worth while entering
upon.

* Silliman’s Journal, vol. 39, p. 375.

+ Chemical Society’s Quarterly Journal, 1855, p. 308; also Chemist, 1855, p. 345.

{ Nitrate of soda was first carried to Europe in 1820 In 1831 it came into use, and
since then has been an important article of commerce. The quantity imported into Great
Britain in 1850 was about 12,000 tons. The price in 1851 was 15s. per cwt.—Ure's Dict.

$12 . REPORT ON NITRIFICATION.

There are two cases of the production of nitrates in nature which
seem rather to belong to a class by themselves, or at least to have
strong points of dissimilarity from any other well known instances. I
allude to the nitre-bearing chalk of the basin of Paris and the nitrif-
erous caves of Ceylon. In both localities the face of the rock, when
chipped off, is found to be impregnated with nitrates, which renew
themselves on the exposed surface twice a year or oftener, and some-
times appear as an efflorescence. In the French formation the pro-
duct is nitrate of lime, which forms where the rock is exposed to the
southward, and chiefly in hot and damp weather. The quarries have
been long worked, and the annual product is said to be about 15,000
pounds.

The nitre caves of Ceylon, which are between twenty and thirty
in number, are excavations in a porous rock, consisting of limestone,
talc, and feldspar. The nitrates formed are those of potash, lime,
and magnesia, the former predominating. Several of the caves were
visited and examined by Mr. John Davy. One of them he describes
particularly as a cavity of regular shape, about 200 feet long and 100
broad. In it sixteen workmen are employed during six months of
the year in chipping off the face of the rock and in extracting the
nitre from the stone thus collected. Each of the men pay as an
annual tithe to the government a half cwt. of nitre, so that the total
quantity obtained must be considerable.

In these caves, as well as in the French quarries, it is only to the
depth of a fraction of an inch below the surface of the rock that the
nitrates are found, and after this thin coat has been removed it re-
quires from one to six months for the fresh surface to become im-
pregnated. In both these instances the conditions under which
nitrification goes on are very similar, taking place on the surface of a
porous rock which is continually moist, and is exposed to a warm
temperature, for in France the nitrates form only on a southern ex-
posure, and mainly during summer. ‘The action is a more rapid one
than that of the ordinary nitrification of the earth in caverns, and is
to be distinguished from it. The formation of nitrates on the surface
of a rock is said to take place to a less extent in other localities, among
them in some caves in this country, but the nitrification in our west-
ern caves appears to be, mainly at least, that of the earth on their
floors.

Both the Paris chalk and the Ceylonese caves have been cited as
good arguments for nitrification without access of organic matters.
We may, perhaps, imagine the filtration of water charged with the
products of organic decomposition into the rock, and it has been sup-
posed by some that the nitrogen of the animal remains which are
contained in limestone may become a source of nitrates. There is
one point, however, to be noted in regard to the nitriaries of the
Seine: that the chips of stone, after being lixiviated, are heaped up
into walls, on the surface of which the nitrate forms as on the rock
itself. This seems to point to the texture of the rock as the cause
of nitrification rather than any supply of organic matter.

REPORT ON NITRIFICATION. 313

Til. Such are the different circumstances under which nitrates are
produced in nature. An artificial mode of nitrification has been long
practiced, and on the continent of Europe a large amount of labor
and attention has been bestowed upon it.*

The general plan has been already alluded to, (page 306, note.) It
consists in mixing earth, old mortar, and rubbish of various kinds
with animal matters, (stable manure, &c.,) making the whole into
heaps called nitre, beds, and keeping these exposed to the air and
moderately moist until nitrification is completed. This is practiced,
under many variations of detail, in different places. The most per-
fect system seems to be the Prussian, according to which the mass is
made into walls, which are steep on one side and cut into steps on
the other. The tops of these steps are made into gutters, in which
water is poured which percolates the wall and evaporates from the
opposite or vertical side. On that side, of course, the nitrates accu-
mulate and effloresce, and the earth from it being scraped off from
time to time, is leached for the purpose of extracting them. While
this is done, fresh material is added to the steps, so that the size and
shape of the wall is preserved. In many places the materials are
piled into heaps and turned over, from time to time, to expose a fresh
surface to the air.

The great objection to all nitre beds I should say to be this: that
while nitrates are formed on the surface, where the air has free access,
in the interior of the heap the organic matters present tend to recon-
vert them into ammonia; and thus, between the influences of twe
opposing forces, the process of nitrification goes on but slowly. It
is found in practice that it requires about three years for an ordinary
nitre bed to become fit for extraction, and as, during that time, much
labor must be bestowed upon it, and materials used that would be
valuable for agricultural purposes, the utility of keeping them up
has been much questioned in Europe.

The large importations of nitre from India, made in recent times,
have diminished considerably the cultivation of the saltpetre planta-
tions, as they are called, and, in fact, they are found not to be remu-
nerative under present circumstances, and are too slow in their
operation to serve asa provision against sudden emergencies. If,
instead of making these heaps, the ammoniacal exhalations from the
organic matters were made to pass, duly mixed with air and moisture,
into a porous earth or other nitrifiable mass, the transformation would,
in all probability, be much more rapid.

IV. We may now inquire what better modes of artificial nitrification
are suggested by our present knowledge of the nature of the process
and by the industrial means at our command. The various possible
plans divide themselves into two general classes: first, those which
involve the oxidation of ammonia; and second, those which depend
upon the fixation of the nitrogen of the air. The first of these more
especially demands our attention, as being of more cértain feasibility,

* In Sweden every peasant is obliged to muintain a nitre bed, and to furnish a certain
amount to the government.

$14 REPORT ON NITRIFICATION.

or at least as requiring less recondite investigations to bring them
into practical operation. We know of various plans by which the
conversion of ammonia into nitrates has been effected, and can devise
many more by which, in all probability, it would be effected. The
first point to be considered, in connexion with this, is the means of
supplying ammonia.

Ammonia is largely produced in the manufacture of coal gas, from
which, after leaving the retorts, it 1s removed ; partly by condensa-
tion as ammoniacal liquor; partly by a sort of mechanical entangle-
ment in the lime purifier; and sometimes by the agency of water, with
which the whole body of gas is washed; and sometimes, also, a special
purifier is used for the ammonia, whose presence in the gas is injuri-
ous. The ammoniacal liquor is sometimes used for the manufacture
of compounds of ammonia, sometimes as a manure, but frequently is
allowed to run to waste. From the amount experimentally obtained
from coal, it has been estimated that the ammonia producible from
one ton would form about seven pounds of sulphate of ammonia.*
If the ammonia in this were nitrified it would produce 10.71 pounds
of saltpetre. This amount of ammonia is probably not all produced
from coal by ‘the ordinary distillation for gas, and what is evolved is
in large part not collected.

The cheapest of the salts of ammonia in use is the sulphate, which
costs eighty or ninety dollars a ton; a large part of which cost is
that of the sulphuric acid used in its manufacture. <A ton of this, if
used for the production of saltpetre, would produce about 3,300
pounds of the latter. A rectified ammoniacal liquor, at one time
sold in England, afforded ammonia at one-third of the expense in-
curred by buying it in the form of the sulphate. It was obtained by
distilling the liquor of the gas-works, but never came into general
use.

The sulphate of ammonia is used largely as a nitrogenous manure.
and for this purpose the ammoniacal liquor itself is not very available
since most of it is produced during the winter, when it cannot be
applied to land, and the ammonia being volatile cannot easily be kept,
unless it is converted into a non-volatile compound.

For the purpose of generating nitre the ammoniacal liquor could
be used as fast as produced, either being condensed into a portable
bulk for transportation or used on the spot. That part of the am-
monia which escapes condensation in the gas liquor may be removed
from the gas by various methods, one of which now in use is that of

* Analysis by J. C. Wrightson. Estimates of the ammonia obtainable from coal are,
many of them, considerably greater than this; but some assertions that have been made
with regard to the large amounts of this and of other products got from coal by certain
methods cf distillation are to be received with suspicion. The assumption that all the
nitrogen contained in coal is given off as ammonia during distillation must be altogether
erroneous, and only deserves mention because it has recently been advanced, apparently
without suspicion of its fallacy. Thus we find upon such grounds the extravagant estimate
made that one ton of coal will produce a hundred weight of sulphate of ammonia.—
(Chemist, 1855, p. 339.) Taking the estimate which I have given in the text, the gas-
works of the city of London produce enough ammonia for the formation of about 2,000
tons of saltpetre annually.

NE.

REPORT ON NITRIFICATION. 315

Mr. Croll, in whose purifier sulphuric acid is used for the purpose of
combining with the ammonia. This has been adopted by various
gas-works in London, where several tons of sulphate of ammonia are
said to be produced by it daily.*

There are certain plans that, as far as I know, have never been
tried, some one of which would, in all probability, be the most con-
venient for the purpose of removing ammonia from gas, with a view
to the subsequent production of nitre from it. These involve the
use of substances which form ammoniacal compounds easily decom-
posible by heat, such as phosphate of magnesia or boracic acid.

Ordinary animal matters, in their moist state, furnish enough am-
monia for the production of from one-fourth to one-third of their
weight of saltpetre. The most ancient mode of obtaining an ammo-
niacal compound is that practiced in Egypt, which consists in the
distillation of the soot which arises from the combustion of the dried
dung of animals. Ammonia is also made by the destructive distilla-
tion of bones and of other animal matters, such as blood, scraps of
hide, &c. When bones are used, bone charcoal is got as residue,
and other animal substances yield a charcoal which is used for the
manufacture of Prussian blue. Ammonia is evolved from animal
matter either by distillation or by spontaneous decomposition, and
much that is now refuse might be utilized by a properly-arranged
system of nitrification. The distillation of peat has lately become a
source of the salts of ammonia.

We may, in brief terms, say that the production of ammonia is
from cheap and abundant sources, and that the supply is capable of
being augmented on occasion to any amount required.

The means of oxidizing ammonia into the condition of a nitrate
may be considered under two heads:

Ist. Those which depend upon the direct action of the oxygen of
the air under such conditions as are alluded to on page 306, or
under some modification of them. The general principles of this
mode require no comment here.t

2d. Those in which substances are used, termed carriers of oxygen,
that take up oxygen from the air, and part with it to the body to be
oxidized. Thus the deutoxide of manganese, under the influence of
heat, will give up a part of its oxygen to ammonia, converting it into
a nitrate; and the reduced oxide, on being heated, with exposure to
the air, will resume oxygen and pass again into the condition of a
deutoxide, which can be used for the conversion of fresh ammonia,
and so on, the same oxide being, in this way, used continuously.
- Kuhlmann, whose researches have already been noticed, proposed,
after experiments on the subject, the use of the deutoxide of manga-

* In this country the gas-works throw away the ammonia even of the ammoniacal liquor.
At least that is the case in those of Philadelphia, one of the largest and best conducted.

7 A patent was taken out in Wngland, in 1852, for the conversion of ammonia into a
nitrate by the agency of porous bodies, of which a variety are specified, (spongy platinum,
&c.) At the same time, of course, a base, such as potash, was to be used for the purpose,
as it was expressed, of fixing the nitric acid. The patent did not certainly involve any
principle previously unknown, nor does it appear that the patentee had an experimental
knowledge of the value of any particular mode of procedure.

316 REPORT ON NITRIFICATION.

nese in this way for the purpose of supplying saltpetre in the event
that France should be engaged in a war which should cut her off
from foreign sources of this necessary article. Other substances,
deutoxide of barium, &c., have the same property with deutoxide of
manganese.

There is one body which has been found to have remarkable power
in bringing about the oxidation of ammonia, the precise mode of
whose action may be a little doubtful. According to the experiments
of Mr. Ashe, when the vapor of ammonia, mixed with air, comes
into contact with freshly-prepared sesquioxide of chromium, it under-
goes such rapid oxidation that .the oxide glows and remains red hot
until the ammonia is consumed. This takes place not only with am-
monia, but with many other combustible vapors.*

Mr. Ashe supposes the rationale of this action of the chrome oxide
to be the same as in the similar case of spongy platinum—to depend,
in other words, upon the physical condition of great porosity, and
this is, undoubtedly, the main cause, but possibly the chrome acts
also as a carrier of oxygen by passing alternately from a higher to a
lower degree of oxidation. However that may be, this employment
of the oxide of chromium deserves attention, as promising to furnish
a most excellent mode of nitrification.

The second mode of producing nitrates (by the combination of the
elements of the atmosphere) is one which has experimentally been
shown to be possible, and which probably goes on upon a large scale
in nature in conjunction with the first-mentioned method. The
economy of a manufacture based on this mode, if it could be brought
into extensive operation, is very apparent; but the subject has been
so imperfectly investigated as yet, that what could be said upon its
feasibility would be merely conjectural. —

V. The fifth and concluding branch of the topic is this: By what
means may experimental science best be advanced in regard to the
subject of nitrification ?

It must strike every one that, considering the importance of the
subject and the length of time during which an interest has been felt
in it, our actual knowledge of it is remarkably limited. Dumas re-
marks, in this connexion, that such a length of time and so much
trouble would be required to watch the process as it goes on in nitre
beds, that no one has had the courage to undertake it; and the same
thing holds, to a great extent, with regard to the study of nitrifica-
tion under any aspect. Within the last twenty-five years experi-
ments have been made from time to time that have thrown light on
particular points; and occasional observations upon the natural pro-
duction of nitre have given us something to build conjecture upon,
but inquiries of either kind have generally not been pushed beyond
the isolated fact in which they began, but have stopped after show-
ing that a nitrate might be generated in some particular way, or
describing some locality in which it was found. Even such contribu-

* Lond. Ed. and Dub. Ph. Jour., 1853.

REPORT ON NITRIFICATION. SLT

tions to our knowledge have not been frequent, and most of what.
has been done in an experimental way has been in connexion with
researches in agricultural chemistry.

In a subject so complicated, involving the solution of so many
questions, each of which by itself is but an inconsequential step
towards a complete theory, the demonstration of a few detached
truths does not seem to be a satisfactory return for any great labor
or expense, and no one could think of taking it up in a thorough way
without a greater command of time and means than is usually pos-
sessed by chemists. The most important drawback to a determina-
tion of proper means for the artificial production of saltpetre is to be
found in the want of a stimulus from manufacturing enterprise. Al
such manufacture has been greatly discouraged of late years by the
large importations from India and South America; and the prospect
of any considerable and permanent rise in prices is too remote to be
the occasion of speculation or outlay.

We have, indeed, every reason to believe that if a certain amount
of progress were once made in the matter it would become an im-
portant and profitable branch of industry, under all circumstances;
but new methods of manufacture generally owe their development
not to their promise of future usefulness, but to the pressure of some
immediate want.

At present, the subject of nitrification is of interest, not so much
to the practical chemist, who seeks for some easy step to immediate
profit, as to the statesman, who looks forward to times of national
emergency, when nitre shall become an article of vital necessity, and
the usual modes of obtaining it be cut off. This country is so situated
as to make this a matter of peculiar interest. No other nation, per-
haps, can in any war in which it is likely to be engaged be so com-
pletely deprived of this important article. We have no saltpetre
plantations in actual operation, not many buildings whose walls we
could expect to find much nitrified, and our only natural resource is
one which, we have every reason to believe, would be a very insuffi-
cient one, viz: that of our western caves.

Great Britain could, in a war with us, very easily stop our impor-
tation of saltpetre from her own possessions in Hindostan, and that
of nitrate of soda from the few ports of South America whence it
can be obtained, and could check, to a great extent at least, attempts
on our part at getting supplies from Europe. While we could be
severely pressed in this way by a single power, a combination against
us would increase our isolation, and call on us for still more exhaust-
ing efforts. To provide against such contingencies is, indeed, a thing
entirely practicable.

While modern warfare calls for enormous expenditures of saltpetre,
modern science has the power of finding means for a corresponding
production. But this power. to become available, must be studied;
and its study, which the ordinary course of peaceful events gives
no stimulus to, should be the especial care of government, as one of
the most important means of providing for the common defence.
Not only should principles be established, but details should be de-

318 REPORT ON NITRIFICATION.

termined on, and some adequate system of operations should be at
least sketched out, even if not brought into present practice. To do
this will not be the work of a day, nor, perhaps, of a year; it will
require thought and labor, as well as enterprise, and it should not be
left to a time of hurry and emergency.

I respectfully submit the above paper, hoping that it may be of
some assistance towards the desired object. In it I have sought rather
to give a statement of the different questions to be considered than
to enter into lengthy discussions of them. If a fuller detail should
‘be desired on any particular branch of the subject, I shall be happy
to do whatever les in my power towards furnishing it, but I am
strongly inclined to think that reliable conclusions on those points
that I have left untouched or unsettled can hardly be attained by any
other means than those of original investigation.

Note BY THE AUTHOR.—A great obstacle to the cheap artificial pro-
duction of nitrate of potash is the high price of the potash which
must be used in its manufacture.

The nitrates of soda, of lime, and of magnesia, which can be more
cheaply obtained than ordinary nitre, have not heretofore been used
in the manufacture of gunpowder, for the reason that they have a
strong tendency to absorb water, and to render damp the powder
into whose composition they enter.

Of late years, however, water-proof cartridges of various kinds
have been brought into use, and it would be perfectly feasible to
employ in these gunpowder made from the more deliquescent nitrates.

Solid blocks of gunpowder with a water-proof coating of collodion
are said to have been tried with good results in both cannon and
small arms; and if this, or any equivalent contrivance, should be in-
troduced into our military service, it would, by facilitating the use of
the cheaper nitrates, open a way through which we might render
ourselves less dependent upon foreign countries for a very essential
material of war.

One of the various things which it may be recommended to the
government to do is, to have made and tried gunpowder, manufactured
from the nitrate of soda, and put up in water-proof cartridges, or in
collodion-covered blocks.

NOTES ON THE HISTORY OF PETROLEUM OR ROCK OIL.

Bro Ehy ° SE) RyRy ee Nie D evi Absa te chy, RES)
OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA.

(From the Canadian Naturalist and Geologist.)

Pusuic attention has lately been drawn to the petroleum furnished
by the oil wells in Canada and the United States, and we have there-
fore thought it well to bring together some few facts which may serve
to explain the origin of this and of similar substances, including
naphtha, petroleum or rock oil, and asphalt or mineral pitch, all of
which are forms of bitumen, the one being solid and the others fluid
at ordinary temperatures. These differences are, in many cases at
least, due to subsequent alterations; the more liquid of these sub-
stances are mixtures of oils differing in volatility, and by exposure to
the air become less fluid, and partly by evaporation, partly by oxida-
tion from the air, eventually become solid and are changed into min-
eral pitch. These substances, which are doubtless of organic origin,
occur in rocks of all ages, from the lower silurian to the tertiary pe-
riod inclusive, and are generally found impregnating limestones, and
more rarely, sandstones and shales. Their presence in the lower
paleozoic rocks, which contain no traces of land plants, shows that
they have not been in all cases derived from terrestrial vegetation,
but may have been formed from marine plants or animals ; the latter
is not surprising when we consider that a considerable portion of the
tissues of the lower marine animals is destitute of nitrogen, and very
similar in chemical composition to the woody fibreof plants. Besides
the rocks which contain true bitumen, we have what are called bitu-
minous shales, which, when heated, burn with flame, and by distilla-
tion at a high temperature yield, besides inflammable gases, a portion
of oil not unlike in its characters to petroleum. These are, in fact,
argillaceous rocks intermixed with a portion of organic matter allied
to peat or lignite, which, by heat, is decomposed and gives rise to
oily hydrocarbons. These inflammable or lgnitic shales, which may
be conveniently distinguished by the name of pyroschists, (the brand-
schiefer of the ee are to be carefully distinguished from rocks
containing ready-formed bitumen ; this being easily soluble in benzole
or sulphuret of carbon can be readily dissolved from the rocks in which
it occurs, while the pyroschists in question yield, like coal and lignite,
little or nothing to these liquids.

It is the more necessary to insist upon the distinction between lig-
nitic and bituminous rocks, inasmuch as some have been disposed to

regard the former as the source of the bitumen found in nature, which ‘
they conceive to have originated from a slow distillation of these
matters. The result of a careful examination of the question has,
however, led us to the conclusion that the formation of the one ex-

320 HISTORY OF PETROLEUM OR ROCK OIL.

cludes more or less completely that of the other, and that bitumen
has been generated under conditions different from those which have
transformed organic matters into coal and lignite, and probably in deep
water deposits, from which atmospheric oxygen was excluded. Thus
in the paleozote strata of North America we find in the Utica and
Hamilton formations highly inflammable pyroschists, which contain
no soluble bitumen, and the same is true to a certain extent of some
limestones, while the Trenton and Corniferous limestones of the same
series are impregnated with petroleum or mineral pitch, and, as we
shall show, give rise to petroleum springs. The fact that interme-
diate porous strata of similar mineral characters are destitute of bitu-
men, shows that this material cannot have been derived from overly-
ing or underlying beds, but has been generated by the transforma-
tion of organic matters in the strata in which it is met with. This
conclusion 1s in accordance with that arrived at by Mr. S. P. Wall, in
his recent investigations in Trinidad. He has shown that the asphalt .
of that island and of Venezuela belongs to strata of the tertiary forma-
tion, (of upper miocene or lower pliocene age,) which consist of lime-
stones, sandstones and shales, associated with beds of lignite. The
bitumen is found not only in the famous pitch lake, but in situ, where
it is confined to particular strata, which were originally shales con-
taining vegetable remains ; these have undergone ‘‘a special mineral-
ization producing a bituminous matter instead of coal or lignite. This
operation is not attributable to heat, nor of the nature of a distilla-
tion, but is due to chemical reactions at the ordinary temperature,
and under the normal conditions of climate.’’ He also describes
wood partially converted into bitumen, which last, when removed by
solution, leaves a portion of woody tissue. —(Proc. Geol. Soc. London,
May, 1860.)

The sources of petroleum and mineral pitch in Europe and in Asia
are for the most part like those just named, confined to rocks of newer
secondary and tertiary age, though they are not wantirg in the pale-
ozoic strata, which in Canada and the United States furnish such
abundant supplies of petroleum. In the great paleozoic basin of
North America bitumen, either in a liquid or solid state, is found in
the strata at several different horizons. The forms in which it now
occurs depend in great measure upon the presence or absence of
atmospheric oxygen, since by oxydation and volatilization the naphtha
or petroleum, as we have already explained, becomes slowly changed
into asphalt or mineral pitch, which is solid at ordinary temperatures.
It would even appear that by a continuance of the same action the
bitumen may lose its fusibility and solubility, and become converted
into a coal-like matter. Thus in the calciferous sandrock in New
York a black substance, which has been called anthracite, occurs in
cavities with crystals of bitter spar and quartz. It sometimes coats
these ¢rystals or the walls of the cavities, and at other times appears
in the form of buttons or drops, evidently, according to Mr. Vanuxem,
having been introduced into these cavities in a liquid state, and sub-
sequently hardened as a layer above the crystals, which have con-
formed to them, showing that this coal-like matter was once in a plastic

HISTORY OF PETROLEUM OR ROCK OIL. 321

state. It is very pulverulent, brittle, of a shining black, and accord-
ing to Vanuxem yielded but little ash, and 11} per cent. of volatile
matter, which he regarded as water, (Vanuxem, Geology of New
York, iii, 33.) A similar material occurs in the Quebec group in
Canada, the equivalent of the calciferous sandrock, and fills cavities
and fissures in the limestones, sandstones, and even in the accom-
panying trap rocks, as at Quebec, Orleans island, Point Levis, and at
Acton, presenting mamillary surfaces as noticed by Vanuxem, which
evidently show that it has once been semi-fluid. This matter from
the first two localities is completely infusible, and insoluble in benzole;
it readily crumbles between the fingers and gives a very black powder.
When exposed toa high temperature it gives off abundance of in-
flammable strong-smelling vapors, which condense into a tarry oil,
and leave a black residue, which when heated slowly burns away,
leaving only atrace of ash. The volatile portion is equal to from
19.5 to 21.0 per cent. The mineral from the Acton copper mine is
much harder and less friable, and approaches to anthracite in its
characters. When heated it gives off watery vapor without any
bituminous odor. Its loss by heat was 6.9 per cent., and the residue
of ash was equal to 2.2 per cent.

An evidence of the presence of unaltered petroleum in almost all
the Lower Silurian limestones is furnished by the bituminous odor
which they generally exhibit when heated, struck, or dissolved in
acids. In some cases petroleum is found filling cavities in these lime-
stones, as at Riviere & la Rose (Montmorenci,) where it flows in drops
from a fossil coral of the Birdseye limestone, and at Pakenham, where
it fills the cavities of large orthoceratites in the Trenton; from some
specimens nearly a pint of petroleum has been obtained; it is also
said to occur in the township of Lancaster in the same formation.
The presence of petroleum in the Lower Silurian rocks of New York
is shown in the township of Guilderland, near Albany, where, accord-
ing to Beck, considerable quantities of petroleum are collected upon
the surface of a spring which rises through the Hudson river or
Loraine shales. On the Great Manitoulin island, also, according to
Mr. Murray, a petroleum spring issues from the Utica state, and he
has described another at Albion Mills, near Hamilton, rising through
the red shales of the Medina group; these have probably their origin
in the Lower Silurian limestones, which may in some localities prove
to be valuable sources of petroleum.

In the Upper Silurian and Devonian rocks bitumen is much more
abundant. Eaton long since described petroleum as exuding from
the Niagara limestone; and this formation throughout Monroe county,
in western New York, is described by Mr. Hall as a granular crystal-
line dolomite including small lamine of bitumen, which give it a
resinous lustre. When the stone is burned for lime the bitumen is
sometimes so abundant as to flow like tar from the kiln. In the cor-
niferous limestone at Black Rock, on the Niagara river, petroleum is
described as occurring in cavities, generally in the cells of fossil
corals, from which, when broken, it flows in considerable quantities.

21

822 HISTORY OF PETROLEUM OR ROCK OIL.

It also occurs in similar conditions in the Cliff limestone (Devonian)
of Ohio.

Higher still in the series, at the base of the Hamilton group, occur
what in New York have been called the Marcellus shales; these en-
close septaria or concretionary nodules which contain petroleum,
while at the summit of the same group similar concretions holding
petroleum are again met with. The sandstones of the Portage and
Chemung group in New York are in many places highly bituminous
to the smell, and often contain cavities filled with petroleum, and in
some places seams of indurated bitumen. A calcareous sandstone
from this formation at Laona, near Fredonia, in Chatauque county,
contains more than two per cent. of bituminous matter. At Rock-
ville, in Alleghany county, according to Mr. Hall, the same sandstones
are highly bituminous and give out a strong odor when handled, and
in the counties of Hrie, Seneca, and Cattaraugus abundant oil springs
rise from the sandstones, and have been known to the Seneca Indians
from ancient times. In the northern part of Ohio, according to Dr.
Newberry, petroleum is found to exude in greater or less quantity
from these sandstones wherever they are exposed, and the oil wells
of Pennsylvania and Ohio are sunk in these Devonian sandstones,
often through the overlying carboniferous conglomerate, and in some
cases apparently, according to Newberry, through the sandstones
themselves, which are supposed by him to be only reservoirs in which
the oil accumulates as it rises through fissures from a deeper source;
in proof of which he mentions that in boring wells near to each other
the most abundant flow of oil is met with at variable depths. In some
instances the petroleum appears to filter slowly into the wells from
the porous strata around, which are saturated with it, while at other
times the bore’ seems to strike upon a fissure communicating with a
reservoir which furnishes at once great volumes of oil. An interest-
ing fact is mentioned in this connexion by Mr. Hall. In the town of
Freedom, Cattaraugus county, New York, is a spring which had long
been known to furnish considerable quantities of petroleum. On
making an excavation about six yards distant, to the depth of fourteen
feet, a copious spring of petroleum arose, and for some time afforded
large quantities of oil ; after which the supply diminished in both the
old and new springs,. so that it is now less than at the first settlement
of the country. Notwithstanding its general distribution throughout
a considerable region in the adjacent portions of New York, Penn-
sylvania, and Ohio, it is only in a few districts that it has been found
in quantities sufficient to be wrought with profit. The wells of Mecca,
in Trumbull county, Ohio, have heen sunk from 30 to 200 feet in a
sandstone which is saturated with oil; of 200 wells which have been
bored, according to Dr. Newberry, a dozen or more are successfully
wrought, and yield from five to twenty barrels a day. The wells of
Titusville, on Oil creek, Pennsylvania, vary in depth from 70 to 300
feet, and the petroleum is met with throughout. The oil from differ-
ent localities varies considerably in color and thickness, and in its
specific gravity, which ranges from 28° to 40° Baumé, (from .890 to
830.)

HISTORY OF PETROLEUM OR ROCK OIL. SEO

The valley of the Little Kanawha, in Virginia, which is to be
looked upon as an extension of the same oil-bearing region, contains
petroleum springs which, so long ago as 1836, according to Dr. Hil-
dreth, yielded from fifty to a hundred barrels yearly. It here rises
through the carboniferous strata, and, as elsewhere, is accompanied by
great quantities of inflammable gas.

The black inflammable shales of the Devonian series in western
Canada, which were formerly referred to the Hamilton group, and
are now considered to belong to the base of the overlying Portage
and Chemung, appear at Kettle Point, on Lake Huron, and in por-
tions of the region southward to Lake Erie; but the oil wells sunk in
Enniskillen show that the source of the oil is really below the horizon
of these shales, inasmuch as the underlying argillaceous shales and
limestones of the Hamilton group are there found near the surface,
and have been penetrated 120 feet, at which depth oil is still met
with, leaving but little doubt that it is derived from the limestones
beneath, which both in New York and in Canada are impregnated
with petroleum. A somewhat slaty brownish-black bituminous dolo-
mite belonging to the corniferous limestone from Pine creek, near
Alma, in Kincardine, gave me not less than 12.8 per cent. of bitu-
men, fusible and readily soluble in benzole, and another from the
Grand Manitoulin island, which was a brown crystalline dolomite,
yielded from 7.4 to 8.8 per cent. of similar bitumen. The solid form
of this bitumen at the outcrop of the rocks is probably due to the
action of the air.

The existence of liquid bitumen in the corniferous limestone in
western Canada was pointed out as long ago as 1844 by Mr. Murray,
who tells us that this rock is generally bituminous, and_ that cavities
in it are often filled with petroleum; the quarries near Gravelly bay,
in Wainfleet, are cited as an example.—(Report of Geological Survey,
1846, p. 87.) In the report for 1850 we find a notice of what are
called oil springs, in which petroleum rises to the surface of the water
near the right bank of the Thames, in Mosa, and in two places on Bear
creek, in Enniskillen. Subsequently Mr. Murray described a con-
siderable deposit of solid bitumen or mineral tar, which occurs in the
same township, extending over about half an acre, and in some places
two feet in thickness, doubtless formed by the drying up of petroleum
springs.—(Report for 1851, p. 90.) I had already, in the report for
1849, p. 99, described this bitumen from specimens in the Museum of
the Geological Survey, and called attention to its economic applica-
tions, remarking that ‘‘the consumption of this material in England
and on the continent for the construction of pavements, for paying
the bottoms of ships, and for the manufacture of illuminating gas is
such that the existence of these deposits in the country is a matter
of considerabie importance.’’ At this time solid bitumen was thus
employed, but in the liquid form of petroleum its use was chiefly con-
fined in Europe to medicinal purposes. Under the names of Seneca
oil and Barbadoes tar it had long been known and employed medi-
cinally by the native tribes of America. Its use for burning, as a
source of light or heat, in modern times has been chiefly confined to

324 HISTORY OF PETROLEUM OR ROCK OIL.

Persia and other parts of Asia, although in former ages the wells of
the Island of Zante, described by Herodotus, furnished large quanti-
ties of it to the Grecian Archipelago, and Pliny and Dioscorides de-
scribe the petroleum of Agrigentum, in Sicily, which was used in
lamps under the name of Sicilian oil. The value of the naphtha an-
nually obtained from the springs at Bakoum, in Persia, on the Caspian
sea, Was some years since estimated by Abich at about $600,000, and
the petroleum wells of Rangoon, in Burmah, ‘are said to furnish not
less than 400,000 hogsheads yearly. In the last century the petroleum
or naphtha obtained from springs in the Duchy of Parma was em-
ployed for lighting the streets of Genoa and Amiano. But’ the thick-
ness, coarseness, and unpleasant odor of the petroleum from most
sources were such that it had long fallen into disuse in Europe, when
in 1847 the attention of Mr. Young, a manufacturing chemist of Glas-
gow, was called to the petroleum which had just been obtained in
considerable quantities from a coal mine at Riddings, in Derbyshire,
from which, by certain refining processes, he succeeded in preparing
a good lubricating oil. This source, however, soon becoming ex-
hausted he turned his attention to the somewhat similar oils which
Reichenbach and Selligue had long before shown might be economi-
cally obtained by the distillation of coal, lignite, peat, and pyroschists.
To this new industry Mr. Young gave a great impetus, and in con-
nexion with it attention was again turned to the refining of liquid and
solid bitumens, it being found that the latter by distillation gave great
quantities of oils identical with those from petroleum. About the
year 1853 the attention of speculators was turned to the deposits of
bitumen in Enniskillen, just described, but it was not till 1857 that
Mr. W. M. Williams, of Hamilton, with some associates, undertook
the distillation of this tarry bitumen, when they soon found that by
sinking wells in the clay beneath it was possible to obtain great
quantities of the material in a fluid state. Large numbers of wells
were subsequently sunk by Mr. Williams and others in the southern
part of the township of Enniskillen, along the borders of Black creek,
and also about ten miles further north on Bear creek. Nearly one
hundred wells had been sunk when I visited the place in December
last, and many more have since been bored. Of these but a small
proportion furnish available quantities of oil, but the whole amount
already obtained from the district is perhaps not less than 300,000 or
400,000 gallons. Owing to the difficulties of communication and of
procuring casks sufficient for the oil these wells have not yet been
wrought in a continuous manner; large quantities of oil are, however,
taken out at intervals of some days, and it is probable that if continu-
ously worked the supply would be still greater. Here; as in Penn-
sylvania, considerable variations are found in the quality of the oil;
that from the wells on Black creek is more liquid and less dense than
the oil from Kelly’s wells on Bear creek, and it is said that wells re-
cently sunk to a considerable depth in the rock have yielded an oil
still thinner, lighter colored, and less dense, which is prized as being
more profitable for refining. The present wholesale price of the
crude oil from Kelly’s wells, delivered at the Wyoming station on the

HISTORY OF PETROLEUM OR ROCK OIL. 325

Grand Trunk railway, is about thirteen cents a gallon. The oil ob-
tained by Mr. Williams is refined in Hamilton, while that from the
northern part of the township has hitherto been sent to Boston, though
refining works are now being erected at the wells. The process “of
refining consists in rectifying by repeated distillations, by which the
oil is separated into a heavier part employed for lubricating machinery,
and a lighter oil, which, after being purified and deodorized bya pe-
culiar treatment with sulphuric acid, is fit for burning in lamps.

These wells occur along the line of a low broad anticlinal axis which
runs nearly east and west through the western peninsula of Canada,
and brings to the surface in Enniskillen the shales and limestones of
the Hamilton group, which are there covered with afew feet of clay.
The oil doubtless rises from the corniferous limestone, which, as we
have seen, contains petroleum; this being lighter than the water
which permeates at the same time the porous strata, rises to the
higher portion of the formation, which is the crest of the anticlinal axis,
where the petroleum of a considerable area accumulates and slowly
finds its way to the surface through vertical fissures in the overlying
Hamilton shales, giving rise to the oil springs of the region. The
oil is met with at various depths; in some cases an abundant supply
is obtained at forty feet, while near by it is only met with at three or
four times that depth, and sometimes only in small quantities. Every-
thing points to the existence of separate fissures communicating with
a deep-seated source. At Kelly’s wells, however, it would appear
that a reservoir has been formed much nearer the surface, where in
a bed of gravel and boulders, underlying the superficial clays, the oil
rising from the rocks beneath has accumulated. The inflammable gas
which issues from the wells is not necessarily connected with the
petroleum, inasmuch as it isan almost constant product of the decom-
position of organic matters, and is copiously evolved from rocks which
are destitute of bitumen. It is similar to the gas of marshes and to
the fire damp of coal mines. A curious circumstance is, however, no-
ticed by Mr. Robb; the gas which accumulates in the oil pits becomes
charged with vapors which produces ‘upon the workmen a sort of
intoxication like nitrous oxyd.* This is not surprising when we re-
member that volatile hydrocarbons, like amylene, closely related to
the hydrocarbons of petroleum, produce similar effects when their
vapor is respired.

The oil wells of the United States are for the most part sunk in the
sandstones which form the summit of the Devonian series, but the oils
of western Virginia and southern Ohio rise through the coal measures
which overlie the Devonian strata, while the wells of Enniskillen are
situated much lower, and are sunk in the Hamilton shales, which im-
mediately overlie the corniferous or Devonian limestone. It is not
impossible that in Ohio some of the higher strata, such as the sand-
stone, were originally impregnated with the bitumen, but in Canada,

= Mr. Charles Robb, C. E., has published in the Canadian Journal for July an interesting
paper on the oil wells of Enniskillen, to which, as also to a paper by. Prof. E. B. Andrews,
of Ohio, in Silliman’s Journal for July, 1 am indebted for several facts.

326 HISTORY OF PETROLEUM OR ROCK OIL.

from the absence of this substance diffused through the shales in
question, we are forced to assign it to a lower horizon, which is
doubtless that of the bituminous Devonian limestone. This view I
have for some time maintained in opposition to those who conceive
the bitumen to be derived from the black pyroschists; see my lecture
before the Board of Arts, reported in the Montreal Gazette of March
1, where [asserted that the source of the petroleum was to be sought
in the bituminous Devonian and Silurian limestones; besides the cor-
niferous limestone (Devonian,) we have shown that both the Niagara
and the Trenton, (of Upper and Lower Silurian age, ) contain petroleum.
The question of the extent of the supply of petroleum is not easily
answered; the oil now being wrought is the accumulated drainings of
ages, concentrated along certain lines of elevation, and the experience
of other regions has shown that these sources are sooner or later ex-
hausted; but though the springs of Agrigentum, like those of Derby-
shire, have nearly ceased to flow, those of Burmah and Persia still
furnish, as they have for ages past, immense quantities of oil; nothing
but experience can tell us the richness of the subterranean reservoirs.
It is not probable that the Devonian limestone is equally rich in pe-
troleum throughout its whole distribution, but the exposures of it in
the west are too few to enable us as yet to say in what portions the
petroleum predominates; as, however, this rock underlies more than
one-half of the western peninsula, we may look for petroleum springs
much further east than Enniskillen. A well yielding considerable
quantities of petroleum is said to occur in the township of Dereham,
about a quarter of a mile southwest of Tilsonburg, and we may reason-
ably expect to find others along the line of the anticlinal, or of the
folds which are subordinate to it.

It is now many years since Sir William Logan described the occur-
rence of petroleum springs in Gaspé, and collected specimens of the
oil, which are preserved in the Geological Museum. One of these,
near Gaspé bay, is described as occurring on the south side of the
St. John’s river, about a mile and a half above Douglastown, where it
may be collected by digging pits in the mud on the beach. Another
locality is about 200 yards up a small fork of the Silver brook, which
falls into the southwest arm six or seven miles above Gaspé basin.
The oil collects in pools along the stream, and may be gathered in
considerable quantities. The cavities in a greenstone dyke on Gaspé
bay were also found to be filled with petroleum, and the odor of it
from the rock was perceived at a considerable distance. The dyke,
which marks a fold in the stratification, runs in the direction of the
petroleum springs, and the evidences of the distribution of petroleum
are thus, as Sir William Logan has remarked, visible along a line of
twenty miles.—(Report for 1844, p. 41.) Attention has recently
been drawn to these indications, and a company formed, with a view
of exploring this region for petroleum. Here, as well as in western
Canada and the United States, the connexion is evident between the
springs and undulations of the strata which favor the accumulation
of the petroleum.

HISTORY OF PETROLEUM OR ROCK OIL. 520

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE.

We have stated in the preceding paper that the different mineral
combustibles have been derived from the transformations of vegetable
matters, or in some cases of animal tissues analogous to these in com-
position. The composition of woody fibre or cellulose, in its purest
state, may be represented by C,,H,,0,,, or as a compound of the
elements of water with carbon; the incrusting matter of vegetable
cells, to which the name of lignine has been given, contains, how-
ever, a less proportion of oxygen and more carbon and hydrogen than
cellulose, so that the mean composition of recent woods, as deduced
from numerous analyses of various kinds, may be represented by
C,,H,,-,0,,-,- We may conceive of four different modes of trans-
formation of woody fibre, all of which probably intervene to a greater
or less degree in the production of mineral combustibles ; and in con-
_ sidering these changes we shall for greater simplicity adopt for the
composition of woody fibre the first-named formula C,,H,,0,,.

I. When wood is exposed to the action of moist air, oxygen is ab-
sorbed, and carbonic acid and water are evolved in the proportion
of one equivalent of the first for two of the last. We may suppose
that for H,, which is oxydized by O, from the air, the wood loses
CO, ; so that while the carbon increases in amount, the proportions of
oxygen and hydrogen are unchanged. In this way an equivalent
of cellulose, by absorbing sixteen equivalents of oxygen and losing
eight of carbonic acid, (8 CO,,) and sixteen of water, (16 HO,) would
leave C,,H,O,. Such is the nature of the decay of wood when ex-
posed to the air, and the process, could it be carried out, would leave
aresidue of carbon only. If, however, the wood is deeply buried
ad excluded from the oxygen of the air, two reactions are conceiva-

le.
II. The whole of the oxygen of the wood may be given off in the
form of carbonic acid, while the hydrogen remains with the residual
carbon. The abstraction of ten equivalents of carbonic acid from
one of woody fibre would leave a hydrocarbon C,,H,,.

III. Instead of combining exclusively with the carbon, a part of
the oxygen of the wood may be set free as water, in combination of -
the hydrogen. The abstraction from an equivalent of woody fibre
of four equivalents of carbonic acid and twelve of water would leave
a hydrocarbon C,,H,.

IV. These decompositions are, however, never so simple, as we
have supposed in IL and III; fora portion of hydrogen is at the
same time evolved in combination with carbon, chiefly as marsh gas,
C,H,. The amount of this gas evolved from decaying plants sub-
merged in water, and the immense quantities of it condensed in coal
beds and other rocky strata, (forming fire damp,) show the great ex-
tent to which this mode of decomposition prevails.

In nature these various modes of decomposition often go on to-
gether, or intervene at different stages in the decomposition of ¢hqi-
same mass; they are, besides, seldom so complete as w% bitumen.

328 HISTORY OF PETROLEUM OR ROCK OIL.

resented them. The first process results in the formation of vegeta-
ble mould, which always retains portions of carbon and hydrogen;
while the incomplete operation of the processes II, III, and IV, gives
rise to peat, lignite, brown coal, bituminous coal, and pyroschists, in
all of which the proportion of the oxygen is much less than the
hydrogen, so that their composition may be approximately repre-
sented by mixtures of hydrocarbons with vegetable fibre. The fol-
lowing results have been selected from a great number of analyses
by various chemists, and are for the most part taken from Bischof’s
Chemical Geology, (vol. I, cap. XV.) The nitrogen which, in most
cases, was included with the oxygen in the analysis, has been disre-
garded, and the oxygen and hydrogen, for the sake of comparison,
have been calculated for twenty-four equivalents of carbon.

Te Vesetabie tibre or cellulose F052 008 . 12 Se PID SG Se Gress

257 Wiood}:mean ieomposition! 2. Jt) 2s Se pie Ore,

ment ean (aux pie noobs 2 aheleeiouo. Jepncey Bight, eee

i Peal (Mesnaalt)sit liewy Aped ico. a). pests se gH iy 4Ogt;

O. comanrconl,.(ochnotter)iis. eu cee et eats ath og On eae

6. Brown coal, (Woskresensky)- 1 nese ei epee oe Jn gH yg Ov

MEU VATE re a nea cae a bien ibe hee te ais otthanes Clock

8. Lignite, passing into mineral resin, (Regnault) -...-.-.--. Coa His Oesg

Be, SSMTNOUS COM 3 EPNAUIL) o's sae ule cite e minpe = «se Se aig Ela ghee
1g, sinenmogs coal (heenanity... 220301 oe oe ata aes
Ti Bituminous coal; (Reenault) S422. 22 22 22S eee. g4tln-40ies
$27;0Eituminous coal;'( Repriault) 22000021 Of. Soe oo 24HgQo-9
13. Bituminous coal, (Kiihnert and Griiger)...........--- 5g ep, OF
14. Bituminous coal, mean composition, (Johnston).......- C,,H,0,-0,
doy -Adb@ut,.coal,(Wetherell) i a2 -c7aut-blegee Saat des ce oa¢@Hi sp Oq-6
Mite PMMA MPN TE VCR ONS pee Cc ie a Ke A fh le a teh tL gay 7-7O5-9
Ty eR OMoneNADIOR Leite cot oie ee he iene meee 2 lage Oa
PS eM RS ARLOONE SS ooo ahs ccm aha phyn, shove ophahinic tee eacmeee ee 94H 6Qo+7

19. Elastic bitumen, Derbyshire, (Johnston) ...........- :

Py ear ee
SURPErOMeu Ort se eee One ome ete oe eee Eee
gin@otroienm and. napnuna lc oo SOI 22 OF Ole ee Oe pEte

In the above table we see the transition from peat and brown coal
to lignite, and thence to bituminous coal. Professor Johnston, from
his experiments in various coals, including cannel from Wigan, splint
* coal from Workington, and caking coal from Newcastle, deduced the
composition given in 14, in which with C,,H, the oxygen varies from
two to four equivalents. It will be seen from a comparison of the
infusible Albert coal with the bitumens 16, 17, and 18, how gradual
is the transition to the true petroleums and naphthas, from which
oxygen is absent. The asphalts also, as will be observed, differ very
much in their composition, and though generally much richer in hy-
drogen than the bituminous coals, the variety from Naples (17,) which
is completely fusible at 140° C., contains less hydrogen and more
oxygen than the Albert coal analyzed by Wetherell; while the idria-
line or bitumen found with the mercury ores of Idria approaches very
nearly in composition to the bituminous coals 11, 12, and 13, with

of i. many asphalts may be said to be isomeric. It is, however, prob-
~'Soge oxygenized bitumens, unlike the coals, are products

HISTORY OF PETROLEUM OR ROCK OIL. 329

of the oxydation of naphtha or petroleum by a process similar to that
by which resins are derived from vegetable hydrocarbons. These
formulas must be taken as representing not the true equivalents, but
only the proportions of the elements in the bodies in question; which
are in most cases mixtures of various substances. This is especially
true of naphtha, which may be taken as the representative of pure
unoxydized petroleum, and which is separated by distillation into oils
of very different boiling points. The late analyses by Uelsmann of
the rectified rock oil from Sehnde near Hanover, gave the formula
C,sH2o, and according to De la Rue and Miiller, the greater part of
the Rangoon petroleum consists of hydrocarbons in which the number
of equivalents of hydrogen is a little greater than the carbon; one
gave C,,H.,. Associated with these are, however, portions of bodies
containing a less proportion of hydrogen, so that we may conceive
the mean composition of petroleum to be represented, as in the pre-
ceding table, by equal equivalents of hydrogen and carbon; many
forms of solid bitumen also, as ozokerite and hatchetine, have the
same general composition.

By referring to what has been said above it will be seen that the
final result of the third process of decomposition of woody fibre, in
which the air being excluded, the oxygen is shared between the car-
bon and hydrogen, would be C,,H,;. A similar result would be ob-
tained with the simultaneous evolution of marsh gas, if we suppose
6 CO, +8 HO + 3 CH, to be removed from an equivalent of woody
fibre, leaving C,,H, = C2,9Hs = C2,H9.5, which approaches the
composition of most bituminous coals and of idrialine. A further
elimination of marsh gas would leave a residue of pure carbon, and
thus, as Bischof has suggested, vegetable matters may be converted
into anthracite without the intervention of a high temperature.

The elimination of the whole of the oxygen in the form of carbonic
acid would leave a compound with a large excess of hydrogen, of
which it would be necessary to remove a portion in the form of water
or marsh gas in order to reduce the residue to the composition of pe-
troleum. We know of no combination of carbon and hydrogen in
which the number of atoms of hydrogen surpasses by more than two
those of hydrogen, the general formula being C,H,12, so that oils
like C,;,H»» and C,,H»,, contain nearly the maximum quantity of
hydrogen, aud a body like C,,H2o0, whose formation we have sup-
posed above, could not exist, but must break up into marsh gas and
some less hydrogenous oil like petroleum.

We do not know the precise conditions which in certain strata favor
the production of petroleum rather than of lignite or coal, but in the
fermentation of sugar, to which we may compare the transformations
of woody fibre, we find that under different conditions it may yield
either alcohol and carbonic acid, or butyric and carbonic acids with
hydrogen, and even in certain modified fermentations the acetic,
lactic, and propionic acids, and the higher alcohols, like C,,H, 202.
These analogies furnish suggestions which may lead to a satisfactory
explanation of the peculiar transformation by which, in certain sedi-
mentary strata, organic matters have been converted into bitumen.

EXPLOSIBILITY OF COAL OILS.

By T. ALLEN,
PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND.

So recent has been the introduction of coal oil into general use for
burning in lamps, that few persons have as yet had satisfactory oppor-
tunities of obtaining a knowledge either of its peculiar properties or
of the peculiar processes lately invented for extracting oil from coal
in quantities sufficient to constitute a new and important article of
commerce.

Some of the qualities of coal oil sold in the market having proved
dangerously explosive, the directors of fire insurance companies have
become alarmed, and have increased the rates of fire insurance on
property where such oil is stored or burnt in lamps, deeming it to be
extra hazardous, like camphene and ‘‘burning fluid.’’ But a manifest
difference being discoverable in the inflammability of the oils sup-
plied from different establishments, it is evident that some mode of
distinguishing the safe from the unsafe oils has finally become indis-
pensable for the security of the insurers as well as for the satisfaction
of the insured. Accordingly, in compliance with a request of the
board of directors of the Rhode Island Mutual Fire Insurance Com-
pany, the following investigations have been made to determine, by
practical experiments, the tomparative explosibility of coal oils, and
the consequent probable danger of the use of them in lamps for
lighting manufactories and dwellings.

Several of the experiments may appear to be very simple; but as
they serve to exhibit instructive facts for popular information, they
are none the less valuable for dispelling unfounded fears of danger,
and for inducing due caution where there may exist causes for alarm.

All the liquid products of the distillation of coal are popularly con-
sidered as ‘‘coal oils;’’ but there is an extraordinary difference in
their volatility and inflammability, from the explosive flash of volatile
spirits, resembling ether and alcohol, to the dull heavy blaze of a
smoking tar. The several peculiar qualities of the products of the dis-
tillation of bituminous coal will be most readily learned from a de-
scription of the processes practically adopted by the distillers for
obtaining them.

The process of making common coal gas by the distillation of bit-
uminous coal in red-hot iron retorts or ovens, set over furnaces, is well
known; but it may not be generally known that before the iron
retorts become heated red-hot, a tarry liquid or oil first comes over
into the main gas-pipes, and is collected in a separate cistern. This
dark liquid has an exceedingly strong and disagreeable odor, and the
only use of it at first was that of making coal tar. A nearly similar

EXPLOSIBILITY OF COAL OILS. san

tarry oil had previously been discovered in ancient times, flowing
naturally out of crevices of rocks on the surface of the earth like
springs of water. This peculiar tarry oil received the name of ‘‘ pe-
troleum,’’ from the original Greek words signifying ‘‘rock oil,’’ as
being descriptive of the source from whence this extraordinary liquid
was first obtained.

The natural petroleum so nearly resembles the artificial tarry oil
obtained by the distillation of bituminous coal, as above described,
that the same name will be applied to designate both of these products,
as being alike the results of the distillation of the same material.
The question is often asked, Whence is this petroleum produced ?

The region of our country where the oil-springs are found gushing
forth on the surface of the earth is near the frontier line dividing the
anthracite coal-fields of the seaboard of the United States and the bitu-
minous coal-fields of the great valley of the Mississippi. In this
intermediate region are vast beds of bituminous coal, originally com-
posed of the woody fibres of peat and other vegetable bodies, organ-
ized by the action of sunshine on the surface of the earth, and
then covered over securely from accidental combustion. The coal is,
however, exposed to a heat in the depths of the earth, which is in-
creased regularly 1° from 50 to T0 feet of descent, the temperature
at 200 feet depth having been found to be 85° in an English coal
mine. The decomposition of the coal at great depths is constantly
going on, and the coal gas is often heard in the galleries of coal mines
rushing in hissing streams through crevices, and forming the explosive
‘*fire-damp,’’ which renders the safety-lamp of Sir Humphrey Davy
a blessing for the preservation of the miners.

One of the deserted coal mines near Newcastle, having a 4-inch
pipe connected with its chambers, has continued to distil sufficient
coal gas to forma jet of flame from its open aperture on the surface
of the ground ‘‘nearly sufficient to light a small town,’’ as a recent
writer has stated. From the end of a similar pipe, inserted in a drill-
hole in the rocky strata on the banks of the Kanawha river, in West-
ern Virginia, perforated to the depth of about 1,000 feet to obtain
salt water, sufficient coal gas to light a city has continued for several
years to rush forth, commingled with the salt water. The gas is
used as fuel to boil the salt water for the production of salt. Ina
furnace beneath a salt pan, 100 feet long and five feet in width, the
writer beheld the flame of burning coal gas, sweeping throughout in
one continuous sheet, waving and flashing in wreaths of resplendent
brilliancy, whilst at the same time a steam-engine was operated
briskly by the same natural flow from the earth into an adjacent fur-
nace beneath a steam-boiler. Sufficient coal gas was here discharged
to evaporate the brine for making about 400 bushels of salt per day.
Happening to arrive at a spot where another similar drill-hole had
just been completed, an equal volume of coal gas and salt water ap-
peared jetting upwards from the drill-hole in the rock thirty or forty
feet into the air, with loud belching sounds resembling the asthmatic
pantings of a powerful locomotive engine. The coal gas, here natu-
rally elaborated, was perfectly pure and free from the disagreeable

332 EXPLOSIBILITY OF COAL OILS.

skunky odor which characterizes the coal gas artificially elaborated
in city gas-works.

The petroleum being separable by distillation from the: coal at a
more moderate temperature than coal gas, there is reason to believe
from analogy that the same process of elaboration of petroleum goes
on naturally beneath the earth as is artificially accomplished on its
surface. The fact of the increased heat of the interior of the earth,
in the vicinity of both the gas-springs and oil-springs in the valleys of
the Alleghany mountains, is manifested in the numerous ‘‘hot springs’
which gush forth unceasingly between the adjacent mountains in
Western Virginia, together with numerous ‘sulphur springs.’’
Indeed, this distillation of the carburetted hydrogen gas and oil from
the bituminous coal, under intense pressure at great depths in the
earth, constitutes a natural process of coking, whereby the flaming
bituminous coal becomes gradually converted into anthracite or flame-
less coal.

The constantly decreasing supply of whale oil, and correspondingly
increasing price of it, has recently stimulated industrial enterprise to
seek out other sources of supply of this necessary article. The long-
neglected oil-springs freely offered in tiny streams naturally flowing
from the earth, have at last attracted attention. Impatient, however,
of the stinted supply thus freely offered without labor, even some of
the same resolute men who have pursued the whales among the
icebergs of the polar seas and to the remotest waters of the globe,
have laid down their harpoons and taken up steel drills to tap the
very fountains of coal oil, in the hidden depths of the earth, in the
western valleys of Pennsylvania.

The results of some of the attempts to obtain a more abundant
supply of coal oil, or petroleum, have proved so successful as to ap-
pear marvellous and incredible. From one of these recent drill-holes,
termed ‘‘oil wells,’’ the petroleum gushed up with such violent force
as to discharge the stream high in the air, and the flow continued so
abundant that it reached the furnace of the steam-engine used for
working the drill-rods. Becoming thus kindled, a vast flame lighted
up the surrounding country at night. Before the conflagration could
be extinguished many hundreds of barrels of petroleum flowed in a
blazing flood into the adjacent rivers. In another instance, the reser-
voirs of petroleum being tapped by the drills earlier than anticipated
and before a supply of empty casks was provided, the gushing stream
was turned into a ravine and there collected by a dam to preserve it
for use. Over considerable extents of valleys an abundance of
petroleum has been thus obtained from reservoirs, in which it has
been gradually accumulating from the natural process of distillation
of bituminous coals in the depths of the earth. The ample supply
of petroleum available from these sources has quite recently reduced
the price of it to about fifty cents per barrel, and has nearly super-
seded recourse to the artificial distillation of bituminous coal. This
unexpected gift to the children of men may well excite their wonder
and their admiration of the provident care in anticipating human
wants thus manifested by a bountiful Creator.

EXPLOSIBILITY OF COAL OILS. 830

Both the artificial and natural petroleum in the crude state of a
tarry oil are found unfit to be burnt in lamps. After numerous at-
tempts to'refine the crude petroleum by a second process of distilla-
tion, three remarkably different products were separately obtained.
Each one of these three substances having a different evaporative
or boiling point, like water and alcohol, they are readily separable
during one continued process of distillation, by gradually increasing
the heat beneath the still.

The first product that comes over from the condenser is the volatile
spirits resembling ether and alcohol, called naphtha, benzole, benzine,
&c., which boil at a lower temperature than alcohol, (about 150° to
160° Fahrenheit’s scale.) Naphtha evaporates as rapidly as ether,
producing similar lethean effects on breathing the vapor, and even
exceeds ether and alcohol in inflammability.

It appears to be the common practice of the distillers of petroleum,
or coal tar, to keep the heat beneath the stills very low until this
naphtha has time to become evaporated at its boiling point of 160°,
and to flow from the condenser in a crystalline stream into a cistern
arranged to receive it. When, by the test of a hydrometer, its
specific gravity is found to become increased to a certain degree by
containing some of the heavier coal oil, the stream from the con-
denser is diverted into another cistern designed for receiving the
second product of the distillation, being a heavier coal oil, commonly
known as ‘‘kerosene.”’

The exact point where the naphtha becomes exhausted and the kero-
sene begins to flow is a nice question to be decided upon by the dis-
tiller. The extreme inflammability of the naphtha renders it unsafe
for burning in lamps; and it cannot be advantageously reduced to va-
por to be mixed with coal gas, because it does not form a permanent
gas; for the vapor, like that of alcohol, becomes condensed to a liquid
whenever it is cooled, as occurs on its passage through cold iron gas-
pipes under ground. The only available use of naphtha is for dissolv-
ing India-rubber, and for mixing with painters’ oil as a substitute for
spirits of turpentine. For these reasons naphtha is nearly worthless
for sale in the market; and as it constitutes ten or fifteen per cent. of
the petroleum used for distillation, there is a strong temptation to
the distillers to. divert the current of naphtha into the kerosene oil-
cistern to gratify the cupidity of purchasers by thus affording the oil
at alow price. Thus both sellers and buyers are alike tempted to
disregard the danger resulting from mixing the naphtha with the kero-
sene oil.

To gratify purchasers of coal oil by an extraordinary low price, it
has been stated that dealers have contracted for the waste naphtha
and residuary heavy coal oil or tar for preparing a mixture of about
the same specific gravity as kerosene oil, and resembling it in appear-
ance. The hydrometer is not, therefore, available for detecting this
spurious article, and there remains no other mode of ascertaining its
dangerous character than by actually testing its inflammability ex-
perimentally by the degree of heat indicated by a thermometer, at
which it will become kindled by the application of a lighted match,

334 EXPLOSIBILITY OF COAL OILS.

and begin to exhibit a lambent flame flickering over its surface, as
over that of blazing alcohol. If the sample of oil contains much
naphtha, it will be found capable of emitting sufficient gaseous vapor
to take fire at the ordinary temperature of the air on plunging a burn-
ing match in a cup of the oil. Other samples will require to be
heated to 90°, and even to 160°, before they can be similarly kindled.
There is all this difference in the inflammability of the article sold in
the market for coal oil. Judging of all the qualities of coal oils by some
few cases of the explosive inflammability of the lowest grade in the
market, they have all been subjected alike to doubts and suspicions.
As the coal oils offered for sale by establishments of known respecta-
bility are really most valuable and economical substitutes for whale
oil for purposes of illumination, it is unwise, as well as unprofitable,
to embrace them all in one sweeping clause of condemnation without
experimental examinations to determine the facts in relation to this
novel subject of inquiry.

The presence of naphtha in kerosene oil essentially contributes to
the brilliancy of the light for illumination, whilst at the same time
it improves the combustibility of the oil by a less tendency to emit
smoke. It is, therefore, for the interest of the consumer of coal oil
to retain as much of this light volatile spirits as can be safely used;
for it really seems like throwing away bread to reject so valuable an
element of human comfort and enjoyment available as a source of light
and warmth. The present waste of this material, which is now suf-
fered to take place from fear of its wonderful combustibility, will
probably be obviated ere long by new artificial chemical combina-
tions, as ether has been reduced to alcohol and wood sawdust to a
kind of sugar, so that its violent explosive tendency may be thus sub-
dued toa moresafe and manageable condition for general use in lamps.

It has, therefore, now become an exceedingly important and inter-
esting question for insurers as well as for the insured, having property
exposed to risks of fire from burning kerosene oil in lamps, to inves-
tigate carefully and judiciously the real extent of the danger and haz-
ards resulting from this use of it for illumination, so as not needlessly
to restrict the general enjoyment of this economical and valuable sub-
stitute for whale oil, and even coal gas. This investigation has be-
come the more important as the source of supply of coal oil appears
to be limited only by the supply of the vast beds of bituminous coal
stored up in reserve in the depths of the earth for future generations
of mankind.

To ascertain the comparative qualities of the kerosene oil made in
different parts of this country, samples were procured and tested by
the simple process of pouring some of each kind of oil into a cup by
itself, and by placing them all afloat together in a basin of water
heated by a spirit lamp, and with a thermometer immersed in the
water to indicate the temperature while gradually rising from 60° to
212°. During the progress of the increase of temperature, blazing
matches were passed over the surface of the oil in each cup succes-
sively at short intervals of time, until the increased heat caused suf-
ficient gaseous vapors to arise from each to take fire; which they all’

EXPLOSIBILITY OF COAL OILS. 335

finally did, at degrees of temperature varying from 80° to 162°, ex-
hibiting faint flames quivering over the surface of the oil, precisely
like those hovering over the surface of spirits of wine or alcohol
when similarly kindled. The flames were quite as readily extin-
guished by a blast of the breath, and not the least symptom of any
explosive character became manifest when each one took fire. Until
the evaporative point of each sample of oil was produced by the in-
crease of heat applied, and until lambent flames were kindled, burn-
ing matches were extinguished when plunged into the coal oil, as
effectually as if they had been similarly plunged into water. The
average heat at which all the samples emitted sufficient vapor to
admit of being kindled was about 125° of Fahrenheit’s scale.

After ascertaining the temperature requisite to kindle the several
samples of coal oil, it next becomes an interesting subject of investi-
gation to ascertain the heat to which coal oil is ordinarily elevated
whilst burning in lamps. The results of actual experiments showed
that in glass lamps the temperature is increased about 6°, and in
metallic lamps but 10° or 12°, above that of the apartment; which,
being 67°, produced a heat in the oil of about 71° to 79°, leaving a
considerable Sane of temperature below the average of 125°, above
stated.

Finding by onl observation that only the gaseous vapors arising
from the heated oil exhibit the phenomenon of flame whilst ascend-
ing, and combining chemically with the oxygen of the air, it became
manifest that no explosive action could be anticipated to take place
from any kind of oil or inflammable spirits, unless these gaseous vapors
were first evolved by a previous increase of temperature, and then
brought into contact with the atmospheric air before applying a match
thereto. There being no room left for either the gaseous vapor of
the oil or for atmospheric air to combine therewith, in the chamber
of any lamp entirely filled with oil, every attempt to produce explo-
sive action with a full lamp, at all temperatures up to the boiling
point of water, utterly failed when lighted matches were applied to
the open orifice of the lamp. The only result produced by increasing
the heat of the coal oil was an increase of the evaporation of the gas,
and a higher jet of flame steadily rising, as from the jet of a gas-burner.
So long as lamps are kept full of oil, or even of explosive camphene
and ‘‘burning fluid,’’ there can be no explosive action whatever.
For this special reason it may be adopted as a safe rule to cause all
lamps containing highly imflammable liquids to be kept as full as prac-
ticable by being daily replenished.

As nearly all the published accounts of the explosions of camphene
lamps, and of the consequent dangerous and frequently fatal conse-
quences that have ensued, represent the occurrences to take place
during the process of filling them whilst empty, the chamber of the
lamp or of the feeder being then occupied by gaseous vapor com-
mingled with atmospheric air, an experiment was made with a glass
factory lamp under similar circumstances, as being favorable for ex-
hibiting the most violent explosive action producible by means of
coal oil. Accordingly a lighted match was plunged into the orifice of

335 EXPLOSIBILITY OF COAL OILS.

a burning lamp containing a little kerosene oil of the ordinary temper-
ature, without producing any perceptible explosive effect. In this
state it was also filled safely. To test the effect of increasing the
heat of the coal oil higher than 80°, the lamp, whilst still burning,
was placed in a basin of water, the temperature of which was gradu-
ally raised to the boiling point. During the progressive increase of
temperature burning matches were continally inserted into the orifice
of the lamp without perceptible effect in kindling vapor, until the
heat became increased to nearly the temperature at which the oil had
been found susceptible of being kindled in an open cup. The only
mode of producing a slight explosive puff on inserting a burning match
was by violently shaking the lamp to increase the evaporation and
mix the gaseous vapor more thoroughly with the atmospheric air.
But when the temperature of the coal oil became further increased
to about 160°, the rising gaseous vapor entirely filled the chamber
of the lamp and expelled the atmospheric air so completely as to cause
lighted matches to be extinguished within the chamber, whilst the
ascending gas continued to blaze with a slight flame above the open
orifice. Indeed, with the sample of oil which did not emit sufficient
gaseous vapor to become kindled at a temperature below 125°, it re-
quired dexterous manipulation to so apportion the gaseous vapor and
the atmospheric air as to exhibit the faintest action of an explosive
character.

Continuing the experiment with the kerosene at a still higher tem-
perature than 212°, by pouring it into an iron ladle over a hot fire,
the gaseous vapor arose therefrom still more rapidly, until it became
a visible smoke ascending regularly in a column from the ladle even
whilst heated red-hot, without becoming kindled into flame until a
lighted taper was brought into contact with it; then the gaseous
vapors became resolved into a bright column of steady flame without
any evidence of an explosive tendency.

Whale oil, tallow, rosin, and pine sawdust were similarly exposed
in the same heated ladle with precisely similar results, showing that the
kerosene was no more explosive than either of. these substances, and
that they all alike became decomposed at a high temperature into
their constituent elements of carbon and hydrogen, or carburetted
hydrogen gas. One measure of this inflammable gas is found to forma
new chemical combination with about three measures of atmospheric
air when kindled, and to exhibit the phenomenon of an elongated
flame whilst the combination is taking place between the ascending
particles of the surface of the gas and the particles of air in immedi-
ate contact therewith. This result is manifested in the form of the
flame of a lamp or gas-burner. But if one measure of carburetted
hydrogen be thoroughly mixed with four or five of atmospheric air,
so that the particles be all brought into intimate contact with each
other, then the combination takes place simultaneously throughout,
producing the sudden and violent expansive action denominated an
‘‘explosion.’’? In order, therefore, to produce an explosion of a lamp
or of any other vessel, it is only necessary to mix the gases of de-

EXPLOSIBILITY OF COAL OILS aot

composed oil, coal, or wood with this combining portion of atmos-
pheric air, and then to apply a lighted match to the mixture.

Dangerous explosions are thus often produced in common stoves on
suddenly decomposing the wood, shavings, or paper used therein for
kindling, by throwing red hot coals upon them. The carburetted
hydrogen, rising in the form of a dense smoke, becomes commingled
with the atmospheric air occupying the chamber of the stove, and on
being kindled the whole simultaneously flashes into flame. TH ‘* air-
ticht stoves’ these explosions have often proved destructively vio-
lent to persons and property.

Thus there may ensue dangerous eulwauinhe even in lighting a fire
in a stove; and most fearful explosions have often taken place in
apartments of dwelling houses when about one-fifth part of the space
therein becomes occupied by coal gas escaping from leakages of gas-
pipes. The difference ‘in the extent of the violence in such cases is
simply due to the greatly increased quantity of the explosive gas accu-
mulated in large rooms, as compared with the diminutive chambers of
common lamps. The extent of the danger to both life and property
is thus correspondingly magnified. Even adjacent buildings have thus
been damaged and many lives destroyed by such explosions of coal
gas.

There is, therefore, the same danger of explosions in the use of
coal gas in houses as in the use of coal oil in lamps where ordinary
care and caution are not exercised. Were about five parts of atmos-
pheric air mixed in a city gas-works with one part of the coal gas,
and thus distributed for use, the jet of gas kindled at a burner would
communicate the flame to the interior of all the main pipes and gas-
holders, and a general simultaneous explosion of all would ensue.
The same parallel has been applied to excluding atmospheric air from
the chambers of kerosene oil lamps by keeping them filled with oil.

To compare practically the violence of the explosion of common
coal gas with that of the inflammable kerosene coal gas and of naphtha,
a small tin vessel ofsthe capacity of a factory lamp was made for the
experiments; the results of which showed that the coal gas was the
most readily explosible, the extent of the explosion, however, being
only a slight puff from the orifice of the tin vessel.

The slightness of all the explosions in the experiments that have
been recapitulated is ascribable to the small proportion of one-fifth
pure oxygen gas contained in the atmospheric air, the remaining four-
fifths being composed of incombustible nitrogen. Were pure oxygen
substituted for the diluted atmospheric air, the explosions would have
been dangerously violent. Indeed, were the atmosphere composed
of pure oxygen, the iron grate bars of a furnace would burn more
brilliantly than the most combustible fuel placed thereon, and explo-
sions and conflagrations would continually occur with irresistible vio-
lence. It is owing to the presence of the pure oxygen gas evolved
by heating saltpetre, and commingled with the carburetted hydrogen
gas evolved from the ignited pine floors and partitions of warehouses,
that the most frightful explosions have occurred, which have often
blown up great warehouses and destroyed many lives. This fact

22 -

338 EXPLOSIBILITY OF COAL OILS.

appears to have been lost sight of in the numerous discussions of the
questions of ‘‘the explosibility of saltpetre,’’ which have been pub-
lished, and in the experiments that have been made to solve practi-
cally this unsettled question. These experiments have shown that
where fragments of charcoal not finely pulverized, such as are pro-
duced from burning wood, and from cloth commonly used for bag-
ging, are thrown upon heated saltpetre, a prolonged vivid combustion
has ensued, termed deflagration, in contradistinction to explosion, the
contact of the two substances being confined to the surfaces of the
solid masses. To produce explosive action with saltpetre and char-
coal when ignited, it has therefore been found necessary to pulverize —
both substances very finely and then to commingle them, atom to atom,
artificially, with the utmost care, as is practically accomplished in the
manufacture of gunpowders When thus prepared, the saltpetre sets
free sufficient pure oxygen to be chemically combined, atom to atom,
with the charcoal or carbon in the confined chamber of a cannon,
independently of a supply of the oxygen gas from the external
atmospheric air. In this way only is an explosion directly produci-
ble by saltpetre. But indirectly, as occurs in a burning warehouse,
a still more violent explosion than that of gunpowder is producible
by simply mixing together the gaseous products of saltpetre and
burning wood, as the following experiment, made in the laboratory of
Brown University, with the co-operation of Professor Hill, will forci-
bly demonstrate.

Some saltpetre was put into a retort, and subjected to the heat of
a furnace, to represent the action of the intense heat of a burning
warehouse on saltpetre stowed therein. The gas evolved from the
saltpetre was collected in a glass receiver. Some fine sawdust was put
into another retort, similarly heated in a furnace, and the rising car-
buretted hydrogen gas was collected in another receiver inverted over
water. The two gaseous products were commingled in the proper
combining proportions, and introduced into a small tin tubular cham-
ber, with a cover loosely fitted on its top, and a small hole pierced in
its side, to which a lighted match was applied. An explosion ensued
so violent and rapid that the top of the circular cover was burst off
from its soldered edge before it was lifted up, and the hoop of it split
open and thrown to a distance with a deafening report.

After witnessing the violent and stunning explosion thus produced
by a minute quantity of the mixed gases of pine wood and saltpetre,
the professor remarked that a room full of such an explosive mixture
might produce the terrific effect of the explosion of a magazine of
gunpowder. ;

The dense smoke of burning floors, constituted of carburetted
hydrogen, and the pure oxygen evolved by the heat of them from
the saltpetre, might ascend into some adjacent room and remain com-
mingled there, ready to explode by the first flash of flame which
might reach them there.

The explosiveness in this case manifestly originates from the chemi-
cal combinations of the oxygen gas, set free by heating the saltpetre,
with the carburetted hydrogen gas, set free by the heating of the

EXPLOSIBILITY OF COAL OILS 339

pine wood, and not from any explosive property in the saltpetre itself.
For this special reason saltpetre stored by itself, without the proximity
of wooden floors beneath it, should not be considered in the class of a
hazardous risk for fire insurance, or intrinsically dangerous.

As the dangerous inflammability of coal oil appeared to be as-
cribable to the naphtha not separated therefrom, the following experi-
‘ments were made to ascertain the extent of the inflammable properties
of pure naphtha.

Finding that the liquid naphtha evolved sufficient vapors at the
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere to become instantaneously
kindled into flashing flames, the cup containing it was immersed in a
freezing mixture of snow and salt to reduce the temperature to the
zero of Fahrenheit’s scale. At this low temperature the naphtha
appeared to blaze with equal violence. Then a quantity of snow was
mixed with the liquid naphtha and thoroughly stirred, for still further
reducing the temperature. Even at this extreme degree of cold the
naphtha continued to flame so furiously that it was necessarily thrown
from the cup, upon the ice covering the ground where the experiment
was made, in the open,air, whilst the thermometer indicated an at-
mospheric temperatur@lef 19° below the freezing point. The naphtha
still continuing to burn upon the surface of the ice, a covering of
snow was thrown over it to extinguish the flame. Through this
covering of white snow the bright flames still continued to shoot up,
presenting to view the extraordinary spectacle of burning snow.

On repeating similar experiments on the comparative combustibility
of spirits of wine or alcohol, camphene, and burning fluid, they did
not emit sufficient gaseous vapors at the freezing point, or 32°, to
become kindled into flame, when burning matches were plunged
therein, but with a little increase of temperature they all became
kindled.

The preceding experiments seem to exhibit impressively the ex-
traordinary. inflammability of naphtha, arising from the facility with
which it emits gaseous vapors. Susceptible of being readily kindled
into flames, even through a mantle of snow, naphtha, like ether, emits
gaseous vapor, which, with surprising facility, pervades the air; and
the odor of it being rather pleasant than offensive, like that of art -
ficial coal gas, the utmost caution is requisite to prevent not only
unexpected explosions; but also the almost unextinguishable violence
of its conflagration, for practically the application of water does not
subdue the conflagration of naphtha in quantity, and only the exclu-
sion of atmospheric air appears to quench the fury of its flames. To
prevent the escape of the gas through the porous wooden staves, it
has been found necessary to coat the inside of the barrels with a
solution of glue.

The insidious nature of the gaseous vapor of naphtha is therefore
its most dangerous quality, for when stored in barrels in a warehouse,
with the bung holes of the barrels open, sufficient vapor escapes into
the air of a close apartment to produce a violent explosive action on
introducing a lighted candle. In this way, notwithstanding the pre-
cautions used at the distilleries of coal oils, several of them have been

340 EXPLOSIBILITY OF COAL OILS.

first shattered by explosions of the naphtha vapor and then burned
down,

Petroleum contains a considerable percentage of naptha, and con-
sequently partakes in a degree of its dangerous properties. There
appears to be sufficient reason for classing these liquids as specially
hazardous.

In making experiments with the tin vessel of the capacity of a
common lamp, (before described,) a single drop of naphtha was found
to yield sufficient vapor to produce as much explosive action as could
be produced by the most inflammable coal oil for sale in the market,
when similarly experimented with ; and after every experiment failed
to exhibit the slightest explosive tendency of the best kerosene oil,
a single drop mingled therewith rarely failed to yield sufficient vapor
to manifest its presence by a slight explosive puff when kindled by a
lighted match. The combustion in this case was confined te the
minute quantity of naphtha gas, without either kindling the kerosene
oil, or dangerous results.

In all the accounts of the explosions of camphene and burning-fluid
lamps there appears to be no statements of any damage or injury to
life or property by the mere mechanical for eveloped. The prin-
cipal disastrous results are caused by the scattering about of highly
inflammable liquids, which instantaneously spread the conflagration
over surrounding combustible substances. It is sufficient to produce
the most disastrous consequences, if a lamp containing any of these
highly inflammable liquids produce only a sufficient gust of an ex-
plosive character to disperse the blazing contents over the dresses of
adjacent persons or surrounding combustible matter. The rapid
communication of the flames has in this way often proved fatal to life
and destructive to buildings. For this reason the rates of premium
for fire insurance have been enhanced on property jeopardized by the
use of camphene and burning fluid in lamps for lighting factory build-
ings. As the accidental fall and breakage of camphene, or burning-
fluid lamps on a floor have often produced the loss of life and property
by communicating fire, as above stated, an experiment was made to
test the comparative results which might be anticipated from a simi-
lar accident to a burning lamp containing coal oil, which required to
be heated to 125° before it emitted sufficient gaseous vapor to be
kindled by a lighted match. Some coal oil of this quality was poured
out of a burning lamp upon a floor and the blazing wick dropped
therein. There it continued burning until the heat of it raised the
temperature of the surrounding coal oil to 125°, when the blaze be-
gan gradually to spread over the surface of the oil on the floor in an
enlarging circle, but no sudden flash of flame spread over the whole
surface at once, as was the case when burning-fluid and camphene
were similarly experimented upon,

To represent the effect of accidentally spilling the kerosene oil from
a burning lamp upon a cotton dress, a piece of calico cloth was moist-
ened with the oil, and then held up in contact with the flame of a
lamp. The kerosene required a little time for its temperature to
become raised to the evaporative point of 125°, before the blaze

EXPLOSIBILITY OF COAL OILS. 341

began to spread over the surface of the calico, and it was readily ex-
tinguishable by the breath when first kindled. Although a single
calico dress may of itself be deemed dangerously inflammable, yet it
requires more time to become ignited whilst wet with kerosene oil,
but the intensity of the flame becomes finally much greater.

When a similar experiment was repeated on cotton cloth moistened
with burning fluid, camphene, and spirits of wine, the blaze spread
instantaneously over the surface of the cloth with terrific violence,
affording ample reason for the belief of an increased hazard in using
them in lamps even for household illumination ; and yet how few are
the disastrous accidents which have occurred from this cause, in
comparison of the vast number of cases where lamps supplied with
these inflammable liquids have been harmlessly used with ordinary
care.

An important incidental security, resulting from the use of kerosene
in lamps, is an exemption from the crusts of coal which are found to
collect on the wicks where whale oil is burnt, and which not only
obscure the radiance of hight, but frequently sparkle off upon adja-
cent combustible bodies. It is necessary often to trim the wicks of
whale-oil lamps, which in manufactories is frequently done by work-
men, impatient at the waning ghmmer. The burning crusts of the
wick, knocked off without regard to surrounding combustible matter
in cotton mills, has often set them on fire and burned them. Tur-
pentine is also used for lighting the wicks of such lamps, which in-
creases the danger in cotton mills. For these reasons it is believed
that the comparative hazard from fire by the use of whale oil in lamps
in cotton mills is greater than where coal oil is similarly used, of the
quality before stated.

Although pure sperm oil may be free from the preceding objection,
yet, so great is the temptation of a profit of about one dollar per
gallon from mixing the cheaper whale oil with sperm oil, that it has
become nearly impracticable to obtain a sufficient supply of the latter,
even for oiling machinery. So great, indeed, has been found the
difficulty of procuring pure sperm oil in England for this purpose,
that the heavier coal oil has been there successfully substituted in
place of it for this special purpose.

Ample capital and skill have recently been applied to the new
branch of business of the distillation of coal oils, and no deficiency
of an abundant future supply will hereafter occur for purposes of
illumination, or, when properly prepared, for lubrication of ma-
chinery. It appears that an entire cargo of coal oil has recently been
exported to Italy. The supply of coal oil will not fail until the
supply of coal in the depths of the earth becomes exhausted. How
long this may continue has already become a curious subject of cal-
culation.

The consumption of coal for purposes of navigation, and for motor
power in the useful arts, is manifestly destined to go on, increasing
with an increasing population to a vast extent, whilst no compensa-
ting supply is accumulating in new deposits or formations of fresh
beds of coal to replenish the decreasing stock. In anticipation of the

Sea EXPLOSIBILITY OF COAL OILS.

exhaustion of the coal mines of England, the question of restricting
the exportation of coal has been debated in Parliament, and a recent
writer has published in the London Quarterly Review an estimate,
limiting the supply to a period of about one thousand years, and
then, he observes, ‘‘recourse must be had to the vastly more exten-
sive coal fields of North America.’’ In a sort of geological inventory
of the stock of coal on hand in the possession of some of the principal
nations of the earth, it appears that there are about 135,000 square
miles of area of coal fields in the United States, 18,000 square miles
in British North America, 12,000 in Great Britain, 3,500 in Spain,
and only 1,700 in France. The possession of abundant supplies of
coal and iron by races of men having the intelligence and vigor to
use them effectively, constitutes, at the present day, the basis of
natural greatness, as exhibited in the effects of the annual production
of seventy millions of tons of coal by Great Britain for the develop-
ments of manufactures, commerce, and the physical comforts of the
people.

These facts impart to the present subject of inquiry exceedingly
interesting as well as instructive considerations connected with the
probable future supremacy in the useful arts and national power of
the people of different countries of this earth. The coal fields of this.
western continent have only recently begun to yield up their hidden
treasures of mineral coal and petroleum. Our country is still literally
‘‘the new world.’ Provided with a tenfold greater supply of coal
and iron than Great Britain, and with far more than all the rest of
the continent of Europe besides, this physical power is destined to
be developed with a paramount influence on the affairs of men in
remote ages of futurity, after the present wilderness of North Amer-
ica shall have been made ‘‘to blossom as the rose.’’? Inspired with
glowing anticipations of the future destiny of America, resulting from
the possession of vast regions of fertile land and mineral treasures.
hidden beneath its surface, Bishop Berkely inscribed his prophetic
verse—

‘* Westward the course of empire takes its way.”’

The preceding experimental facts have been investigated for the
special purpose of showing that all these bountiful provisions, stored
up for the future well being of man on earth, may be safely used with
due care and forethought, without which even a draught of cold
water might prove a fatal beverage. The minuter details have also
been added, to dispel unfounded apprehensions of danger in the use
of coal oils properly distilled at establishments of known credit and
respectability, and to awaken caution where there is real cause for
alarm, that these gifts of a bountiful Creator may be rendered sub-
servient to human enjoyment and happiness.

DESTRUCTIVE: EFFECT OF TRON-RUST.

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN JOURNAL ‘‘ AUS DER NATUR,’ VOL. 13, pacH 153.

Ir has been frequently observed that in timber of old ships where-
ever iron nails or bolts have been driven the wood in their proximity
is entirely altered. All around, to a distance of an inch and more,
and parallel to the. direction of the woody fibres, as far as the iron
has entered, a part of the material is dissolved away, leaving the re-
mainder half charred, as it were, and quite brittle, so that it may be
easily broken into pieces, the fibres having entirely lost their cohesion.
Thus, the wood around the nails has the appearance as if these nails
were driven in when red hot. This injurious effect of the iron-rust
may be considered as one of the principal causes of the want of dura-
bility of our ships.

Rust not only originates in places alternately wet with sea- water
and again exposed to the air, but also where the iron is permanently
submerged under water, for this also contains the elements for the
production of rust, namely: carbonic acid and oxygen. Rust, as is
generally known, is an oxide of iron, and as soon as it comes into
contact with wood it gives off part of its oxygen and becomes reduced
to protoxide. ‘The latter takes up a new portion of oxygen and
transfers it again to the wood, and by the uninterrupted repetition
of this process a slow oxydation or decay of the wood is effected.
Thus the protoxide of iron in this case plays a part similar to that of
the nitric oxide in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, with the only
difference that the transfer of oxygen in the one case is of essential
benefit to arts, and in the other, decidedly injurious.

In order to demonstrate the fact that oxide of iron is reduced by
the mere contact with organic substances not yet in a state of putre-
faction, Kuhlmann, in Lille, has instituted different experiments, the
results of which confirm the correctness of this assertion. When
hydrated oxide of iron was shaken with cold solutions of several col-
oring matters. such as log-wood, Brazil-wood, cochineal, curcuma,
mahogany, but not indigo anid litmus, they became decolorized, lac dyes
having been formed. In these the iron was found in the state of
protoxide, and consequently the oxide of iron had lost a portion of
its oxygen by the action of the coloring matter. Solutions of cane-
sugar, grape-sugar, and gum were boiled with hydrate of oxide of
iron. Of these the grape-sugar acted powerfully, reducing the oxide
even when cold; this action was less with cane-sugar, and least with
gum. When oil of bitter almonds was heated with dry hydrate of
oxide of iron, to a temperature of 100°,* it was altered into benzoic
acid, which enters into combination with the protoxide of iron.

“Probably Celcius scale.—TRANSLATOR.

344 DESTRUCTIVE EFFECT OF IRON-RUST.

Similar cases, where oxide of iron acts destructively upon organic
substances, frequently occur in everyday life. If, for example, linen
or cotton cloth in which there are inkstains is repeatedly washed with
lye, the texture of the stained spots becomes tender, or even falls out.
Like injury is done by the lustre(?) colors, (rust-yellow and black-
brown,) which are fastened upon the cloth by first soaking it in a
solution of sulphate of protoxide of iron or protoxide of manganese,
passing it when dry through lye of caustic potash, and then exposing
it to the air, by which the protoxide is changed into oxide. By this
process the cloth loses its durability, and the common saying is, that
it is burnt in dyeing. But this diminution of the strength of the cloth
is not an exception, produced by a mistake in the application of the
method; it is the normal result. As an explanation of this process,
it was supposed that any oxydizing substance may dispose any other
with which it is in contact to combine with oxygen, even when otber-
wise not inclined to such combination. According to Kuhlmann,
however, the oxide of iron directly transfers the oxygen to the cloth,
and ceases its action only when the destruction is complete.

Several phenomena, observed in bleaching, can be explained in the
same manner. If, for instance, the inner surface of the soaking tubs
made of sheet-iron and used in dyeing or bleaching becomes bare
by the removal of the calcareous sediment, and if the cloth comes
into immediate contact with the iron, then those places to which the
air has access are covered with rust, and the strength of the cloth is
inevitably impaired. In bleaching the ordinary goods, which are
made from refuse cotton, all the parts of the material which in the
carding process have become soiled with iron are exposed to this
oxydizing action, and-this often to such a degree that within four or
five days holes are eaten through the texture.

Kuhlmann thinks that this energetic action of the oxide of iron is
an additional condition for the spontaneous combustion of refuse cot-
ton and wool, which so often occurs. It is true the ready reception
of oxygen by the oil, with which such refuse is always more or less
saturated, favors the spontaneous ignition, yet the oxide of iron may
frequently afford an additional cause and favor the commencement of
the combustion.

The objection to the use of iron nails, which we mentioned, is of
sufficient importance to induce us to look for a remedy. In order to
avoid the destructive action of rust upon wood-work, copper nails
must be used instead of iron ones, wherever the first cost is not an
essential object. They are, however; too expensive for general use,
and therefore iron nails éoated with tin or zine should be substituted.

How important inferences for agriculture may be drawn from these
observations, we shall see in another article.

ARCH OLOGY.”

THE LACUSTRIAN CITIES OF SWITZERLAND;

DISCOVERY OF A LOST POPULATION.

LACUSTRIAN HABITATIONS OF ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES, BY M. FRED-
ERIC TROYON: LAUSANNE, 1860.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FROM THE REVUE DES DEUX MONDES: PARIS,
FEBRUARY, 1862.

Our historians have often regretted that they were reduced to
hypotheses respecting the ancient inhabitants of Gaul. Nineteen
centuries have already elapsed since the expeditions of Cesar, and
it is only to-day that a ray of light falls upon the tribes once scattered
over the territory which is now our country. The Roman conqueror
who boasts of having exterminated a million ofygur ancestors on the
field of battle is also the first writer who ndeMfiately describes the
manners, the religion, the political constitution of the different tribes
comprised under the name of Gauls; but to what origin are we to
refer all those tribes—Belgians, Celts, Iberians? History, in the
received sense, is almost silent in this respect, and it is to other
sciences that we must have recourse if we would trace through the
obscurity of cenéuries the migrations of our fathers and the shifting
boundaries of their possessions. Inductions derived from language
and from comparative anatomy assist the learned in these difficult re-
searches, but do not suffice to give the character of evidence to the
conclusions generally adopted. Conjectures are not yet transformed
into indubitable facts.

If the ancient names of places disguised by long usage are of great
importance for the reconstruction of the history of the Gauls, the
remains of the monuments they raised are ofpmuch higher value. A
few ruins studied with sagacity teach us more respecting the manners,
the domestic life, and the true history of lost populations than whole
dictionaries of recovered words. Even nations which have left us

* The article entitled ‘‘ General Views on Archzology,’’ by A. Morlot, of Switzerland, of
which a translation was given in the last Smithsonian Report, has tended so much to
awaken a new interest in the study of the remains of the ancient inhabitants of this con-
tinent that we have been induced to insert a number of other articles on the same subject
in the present report.—Secretary S. I.

346 , ARCHHOLOGY.

\
their chronology and the story of their deeds seem to live anew when
we make the discovery of their habitations, of the thousand objects
with which their daily life was familiar, of the very articles on which
they subsisted. Has not that history of Assyria, which seemed so
remote, been reanimated by means of the bas-reliefs and winged bulls
of Nimroud, and is not an image of Roman society recalled through
the excavations which have restored Pompeii? Unhappily, traces of
the successive populations which have inhabited Gaul are rarely to
be met with in places where we might especially have hoped to find
them. It is not on the rich and fertile plains, nor on the banks of
the great rivers. where the potent communities of Gaul were hereto-
fore established, that we must seek the remains of the habitations of
our fathers. Their destroyed cities have been succeeded by so many
others richer and more populous, the soil has been so often turned
over and over, ruins have been so repeatedly mingled with older
ruins, that all remains of the ancient occupation have mouldered into
dust; time and man have labored in concert to efface every vestige.
In order to surprise the secret of those elder populations we must
explore the barren tracts where habitations have been always thinly
scattered, above all, the forest districts which invited the hunter, but
offered no inducements to agricultural colonists when conquest had
once deprived them of their primitive inhabitants. While the more
historic regions of our country scarcely present any remains older
than the Gallo-Roman epoch, the heaths of Brittany and the wooded
vales of Poitou have preserved their dolmens and their ranges of men-
hirs ; the sterile downs of central France exhibit their fosses a lowps,
marges, oY mardellest#which formed the under-ground story of the
Gallic houses; and when we penetrate into the deep pine woods of
the Landes we are surprised at the sight of the vast clotes hollowed
in the earth and left untenanted since the day when some invasion of
Celts or Basques drove away the occupants.. Solitude has protected
these retreats of a people which no longer exists.

The interior of the soil has preserved, in great number and still
better than the forests and the wolds, evidences of the sojourn of our
ancestors. Many natural and artificial caverns are rich in Gallic anti-
quities. Beds of alluvium, lightly deposited by flowing waters, em-
bosom remains of human industry, and form, as it were, an immense
museum, which modern explorations have as yet scarcely disturbed.
Even lakes and rivers hide under their crystal or turbid expanse
genuine archelogical treasures consisting of all the objects abandoned
by the riparian tribes. Certain researches made in Ireland had already
given an idea of what might be expected from the scientific explora-
tion of lakes, when accident threw the savans of Switzerland upon
the track of the most important discoveries. Thanks to them, and
especially to M. Troyon, their principal interpreter, the field of our
knowledge has been singularly enlarged : a lost population has been
discovered in the lacustrian basins of the Alps and the Jura. We
have here no fact of simply national interest; itis the best established
indication which science possesses for the ancient history of western
Europe. Although the localities of these discoveries oblige the

ARCHEOLOGY. 347

author of the Habitations Lacustres to confine himself almost exclu-
sively within the actual limits of Switzerland, it is not the less certain
that the ancient civilization with which he is engaged spread itself
extensively over both Gaul and Italy.

L

During the winter of 185354 a remarkable depression was ob-
served in the level of the Lake of Zurich: the retreat of the waters
laid bare a wide surface, of which the inhabitants of the shores took
advantage to construct dykes far in advance of the ancient water line,
and thus acquired extensive tracts which had been hitherto sub-
merged. Near the hamlet of Obermeilen the laborers occupied in the
-work of embankment discovered, under a bed of mud of half a demi-
metre in depth, some piles, bits of charcoal, stones blackened by fire,
bones and various utensils which indicated the existence of an ancient
village. Having been informed of this interesting discovery, M. Fer-
dinand Keller, of Zurich, hastened to investigate the relics just dis-
covered, and soon after announced to the scientific world the result
of his researches. This formed the starting-point of incessant ex-
plorations. MM. Uhlmann, Jahn, Schwab, Troyon, Forel, Rey, Desor,
and many others have from that time been engaged in having the shoals
of the Swiss lakes dredged. For the purpose of discovering traces of
ancient habitations, they sounded the alluvial deposits formed on the
lacustrian strands and in the deltas of rivers, and with the same view
they have visited the lakes of Italy, those of the French Jura and of
Savoy; hence their collection of historical materials is constantly in-
creasing. Within the limits of their own country alone they have
discovered under the surface of the waters the remains of a hundred
and fifty villages, and no season passes without their announc-
ing new ones. Already the larger cities of Switzerland and many
learned individuals offer to the inspection of the curious archzological
museums comprising thousands of ancient relics. From the aquatic
village of Concise alone, which is situated in the lake of Neuchatel,
about twenty-five thousand objects have been obtained, and perhaps
even a still more abundant crop may be gathered, since the historic
layer spread along the bottom of the lake is of the thickness of a
metre.

It is easy to conceive the principal reason which determined the
ancient tribes of Helvetia to erect their constructions on the shallows
of lakes. Before the Roman epoch the valleys of the Alps were cov-
ered with immense forests, through which roamed the bear, the wolf,
the boar, the urus, and other formidable animals, while man, since
war must from time to time have raged between the scattered tribes,
was still more to be dreaded than the wild beasts. The first care of
each group of families, therefore, was to secure its safety against an
unforeseen attack by establishing itself in some place defended by
natural obstacles. In mountain regions, some would select high and
precipitous acclivities; others take refuge in caverns on the sides of
perpendicular rocks and fortify the entrance to their subterranean

348 ARCHAOLOGY.

abode. In watered plains, the peninsula formed by the confluence
of two rivers or by the windings of the stream offered inducements
for a residence, while those who inhabited countries strewn with
lakes, like Switzerland and Savoy, abandoned the dry land and built
their huts in the midst of the w aters, at some distance from the shore.

Here they found the surest means of guarding against sudden attack,

with the advantage of being able to transport themselves at pleasure
in their canoes to every point of the coast, their rude structures serv-
ing at the same time as stations for fishing. Perhaps, also, in
choosing the surface of the lakes as a sojourn, they obeyed that irre-
sistible attraction which allures every infant colony towards the wa-
ter. At all the epochs of history, and in all parts of the world, the
requirements of defence and the facilities of fishing, jomed with the
natural charm of beauty in sheets of water, have determined many
tribes of men to build their habitations, whether of boughs or of
reeds, above the surface of the waves. There are Assyrian bas-re-
liefs, which show us men inhabiting artificial isles formed of inter-
laced reeds, and, according to Hippocrates, the colonists of the
Phasis, whom the fishermen of the Volga imitate to this day, raised
their huts of rushes in the midst of the river. A well-known passage
of Herodotus informs us that the Peonians of Thrace likewise built
their villages on piles driven into the soil of the shallows of Lake
Prasias. In our own day the Malays and Chinese established at
Bankok and on the coasts of Borneo construct their houses on posts
planted in the water at some distance from the shore. Again, when
the Spaniards discovered the lagoon of Maracaibo they were sur-
prised at seeing a city on piles, a diminutive Venice of wood, to
which one of the republics of Colombia owes its present name of
Venezuela.*

It would be easy, even if all the structures of this kind existing in
different parts of the world furnished no medium of comparison, to
rebuild in thought, by help of the numerous relics found at the bot-
tom of lakes, the lacustrian cottages of ancient Helvetia. A mere
glance of the eye through the transparent water enables us to per-
ceive piles in parallel rows, or planted, it may be, without order.
The charred beams which are seen between the posts recall the plat-
form once solidly constructed at a height of some feet above the waves.
The interlaced boughs, the fragments of clay hardened by fire, evi-
dently belonged to circular walls, and the conic roofs are represented
by some layers or beds of reeds, ‘straw and bark. The stones of the
fire-place have fallen just below the place which they formerly occu-
pied. The vessels of clay, the heaps of leaves and of moss which
served as beds for repose, the arms, the trophies of the chase, the
large stag horns and skulls of wild bulls which adorned the walls, all
these different objects, mingled together in the mud, are nothing else
but the ancient furniture of the habitations. By the side of the

*The crannoges of Ireland, some of which were still inhabited so late as 1610, differed
from the lacustrian settlements of Switzerland: they were real wooden fortresses built on
artificial islets.

ee

ARCH BOLOGY. 349

piles we can still distinguish remains of the hollowed trunks of trees
which served for canoes, and a range of posts indicates the pristine
existence of a bridge which led from the threshold of the lacustrian
dwelling to the neighboring shore. Not only are we enabled to de-
termine from the number of piles what were the dimensions of the
largest aquatic cities, composed generally of two or three hundred
cabins ; we can even measure in some cases the diameter of the huts
constructed so many ages ago. The fragments of the coat of ¢lay
which lined them on the inside show on their convex face the marks
of the interlaced boughs of the wall, while their concave side is
rounded into the are of a circle ; by calculating the radius of this
are we find that the size of the habitations varied from three to five
metres, (10 to 16 or 17 feet,) dimensions quite sufficient for a family
which seeks in its dwelling a simple shelter.

Athwart an interval of thirty or forty centuries we can conceive
how picturesque an effect must have been produced by this agglom-
eration of small huts closely compacted together in the midst of the
waters. The shore was uninhabited ; a few domestic animals alone
fed in the grassy clearings; great trees spread their masses ef ver-
dure over all the slopes; a deep silence brooded in the forest. Upon
the waters, on the contrary, all was movement and clamor; the smoke
curled above the roofs; the populace bustled upon the platforms ; the
canoes passed and repassed from one group of dwellings to another,
and from the village to the shore; in the distance floated the boats
which served for fishing or for war. The water seemed then the
real domain of man.

From the first of their discoveries the Swiss archeologists decided
that the lacustrian habitations did not all date from one and the same
epoch. The study of the objects found at the bottom of the lakes
has led them to divide the first cycle of our history into three ages:
the age of stone, of bronze and of iron: The scientific inquirers of
Scandinavia had already established these three successive periods in
reference to their own country ; but these ages were not cotempor-
aneous in the two countries. Civilization was then propagated with
the utmost slowness, and centuries passed away before each progres-
sion in human industry could penetrate from the south of Europe into
the cold regions of the north. The habits of the people were only
changed by force of prolonged wars or through distant migrations.

It is in German Switzerland chiefly that the traces of settlements
belonging to the age of stone have been recognized. Western Swit-
zerland likewise possessed important lacustrian cities, among others
that of Concise, near the southern extremity of Lake Neuchatel, but
the Lakes of Zurich and of Constance appear to have been the most
active centres of population. It was then that the pile-work of Ober-
meilen was erected, the discovery of which was the starting point of
all that has been since effected. Thanks to the relics obtained at
that point, and on the shores of the Lakes of Constance, of Pfaeffikon,
of Sempach,-of Wauwyl, of Mooseedorf, we can at this day sketch in
broad lines the manner of life of the lacustrian populations, and give
some general but certain indications with regard to their history.

350 ARCH AHOLOGY.

One of the most surprising considerations suggested by the view
of the remains of these primitive constructions is the vast amount of
labor accomplished by men who had at their disposal no other imple-
ments than flint-stones and the brands of their fires. There was an
abundance of trees, tall and straight, growing in the forest, but to
fell and trim them it was necessary to employ alternately the sharp-
ened stone and the flame, and afterwards, by the same means, the
end of the log was to be reduced to a point, that it might penetrate
easily into the soil to a depth of several feet. The hewing of the
trunks of trees, which were to serve for floors and esplanades, and
which were cleft with wedges of stone, in order to form a sort of
planks, demanded still more labor than the preparation of the piles.
What time and pains must have been expended when it was requisite
to level a trunk of oak from 10 to 15 metres long, and to shape it into
acanoe! Some villages, of which we still see the remains, were reared
on more than forty thousand piles. It was the work, no doubt, of
several successive generations, but for each of these an incessant labor
is not the less implied. In addition, ‘the lacustrians (for it is by this
name that these primitive populations are now designated) dug lines
of trenches on the firm lands to protect their domestic animals from
wild beasts; they reared ¢wmuli and other religious monuments on the
heights; at one and the same time they carried on war, the fishery, and
the chase; they likewise cultivated the ground, and for so many dif-
ferent occupations had no instruments at their command but those of
stone and of bone. The fabrication and the repairing of these instru-
ments must have required inexhaustible patience, for the stone must
be cut with stone, and it is with difficulty that we can conceive how
these unwearied artisans succeeded in giving a finish to points and
blades of silex. They attacked the hardest substances, and worked
even in rock-crystal.

‘‘The hatchet,’’ says M. Troyon, ‘‘ played the ereatest part in the
primitive industry.” This implement is found by hundreds on the
sites of the ancient villages. Not only was it the weapon of hunting
and of war; it served also for the most various domestic uses, dnd
probably never quitted the hand or the belt of its owner. The blade
of the Swiss hatchet, most frequently hewn from a block of serpen-
tine, is much Srifailer than that of the hatchets used in Scandinavia
during the age of stone, and is of an average measure only of from
4 to 6 centimetres. The mode in which the handle was attached to
these sharpened stones varied considerably: some were adjusted, by
means of ligatures or mortises, at the end of curved sticks; others
were made fast to handles of deer-horn. It was as the national
weapon that it most exercised the imagination of the workman and
artist. Hach warrior modified it according to his personal taste, and
perhaps ornamented it with feathers and fringes, like the Indian red-
skin. Other arms, of less importance than the hatchet, were the
arrows of flint or of bone fixed in the end of long reeds; they resemble
those discovered in France, in England, and on the banks of the Missis-
sippi, but in general they are not so long as those of Scandinavia. It
is very probable that the sling was in use. Rough stones also served

ARCH ZOLOGY. 351

for projectiles, as is shown by the pebbles with sharp corners lying
heaped together in the mud at the side of the piles; too small to be
used in the fabrication of implements, they could have been intended
for no other purpose but that of defence. Not content with these
arms, the lacustrians, skilled already in the art of war, had contrived
incendiary balls and bullets formed of charcoal kneaded with clay.
These instruments of destruction, which were generally pierced with
a hole, that they might be better thrown, could only have served
for attack; they were ignited, and then tossed on the roofs of the
hostile huts. If some projection detained them, they burned insid-
iously on the dried thatch, the fire spread by degrees, and soon the
top of the structure was wrapt in flames. It was thus that the Nervii
fired the camp of Cesar. From the first days of his history man has
employed his ingenuity-in burning and destroying.

Among the instruments of labor manufactured by the lacustrian
people of the age of stone may be cited blades of silex, edged or
toothed, which served as knives and saws, hammers, anvils, awls of
bone or of deer’s horn, paring-knives, and needles, which were des-
tined, no doubt, for cutting or sewing leather or skins. The frag-
ments of pottery which occur are formed of a coarse clay, the paste
of which is usually intermingled with small grains of quartz. These
vessels betray the infancy of the art, and very seldom present traces
of ornamentation. Some, of quite a fine paste, have a smooth surface,
and are colored black by means of graphite. At Wangen, on the
borders of the Lake of Constance, at Robenhausen, in the Lake of
Pfaefiikon, mats of hemp and of flax, and even real cloth, have been
discovered, as well as small baskets in all respects like those of an-
cient Egyptian tombs. The lacustrians manufactured likewise cords
and cables from textile fibres and the bark of various trees. Vain,
like all savages, they bestowed great pains on their corporeal beauty,
and sought to enhance it by numerous artifices; they tucked up their
hair with pins of bone, decorated their fingers with rings and their
wrists with heavy bracelets, and loaded their shoulders with collars
formed of balls of deer’s horn, mingled with bits of stone; on their
breasts they wore the teeth of bears, doubtless to endue them with
the force of the wild beast and preserve them from mischances. The
large disks of stone found at the bottom of their lakes served as quoits
to amuse them after the arduous labor of the day. The pierced nuts
now scattered in the mud were, no doubt, toys with which, as rattles,
the mothers amused their little nurslings.

Other discoveries have been made which show that agriculture was
somewhat advanced among the lacustrian tribes of this first period,
and we should consequently assign them a much more elevated rank
than was originally supposed. Doubtless hunting and fishing sup-
plied the greater part of their food, as is indicated by the very situ-
ation of their homes in the midst of the waters, and by the bones,
partly devoured, of the urus, the bison, the deer, the elk, the roe,
the chamois, and birds of the woods, which are found ‘in the beds of
turf or mud of their ancient habitations. Wild fruits also furnished
a portion of their aliment, as there have been found amongst the

352 ARCH ZOLOGY.

remnants of their fare pine and beech nuts, walnuts and seeds of the
raspberry; but at the same time they reared herds of beeves, sheep,
goats, swine, and were accustomed to employ the dog as a substitute
in the care of their domestic animals. They manufactured a kind of
cheese in vessels pierced with holes, cultivated the apple, pear, and
plum tree, and stored away their fruit for the winter. They sowed
barley and different sorts of grain of excellent quality. Among the
ruins of a lacustrian village, on the lake of Constance, M. Lohle has
discovered an ancient storehouse, containing about a hundred meas-
ures of barley and wheat, both shelled and in the ear. He found
likewise a portion of real bread, which had been preserved by its
carbonization, and consisted of crushed grains, to which the bran still
adhered. Thus, with the exception of poultry and eggs, the food of
the primitive inhabitants of Helvetia in all respects resembled ou
own.

The possession of the cereals, those humble plants which constitute
the most important acquisition of the human race, would, of itself,
suffice to prove that the nameless tribes of the age of stone might
lay claim to a long period of past progress. The attentive ex-
ploration of lacustrian villages has shown that their inhabitants also
practiced on a large scale what we call the division of labor. Cer-
tain localities, in fact, such as Moosseedorf, Obermeilen, and Concise,
present so great a profusion of implements, some finished and others
simply rough-hewn, that we cannot help recognizing those settle-.
ments as real places of manufacture. They were the industrial cities
of that era, and each of them exercised a peculiar specialty, which
implied a considerable system of exchanges between the different
centres of production. There must have existed also no unimportant
commerce with distant countries, for there have been found on the
lacustrian sites a great number of substances foreign to Switzerland.
The rocks of the neighboring mountains, the horns of deer and bones
of wild animals might have served, it is true, for the fabrication of
almost all the implements; but the projectile arms, made of silex,
could have come only from Gaul or Germany. By exchange from
one hand to another, the lacustrians received coral from the tribes of
the Mediterranean, purchased yellow amber from the dwellers on the
Baltic, and imported the valuable nephrite from the countries of the
east. Those among the learned who believe in the Asiatic origin of
all nations may assume that the lacustrians had themselves brought
from Asia a considerable quantity of nephrites; but how could they
have obtained the silex, amber, and coral, unless by commerce ?
People who pursue the chase do not fear expeditions which shall last
for weeks and months. Thus it was that before the arrival of Euro-
peans the Indians of the great lakes were in constant communication
with those of the lower Mississippi. Whether with a view to traffic
or to form alliances against enemies nearer at hand, they fearlessly
undertook journeys of prodigious extent across the savannahs, the
forests, and the great rivers.

If their agricultural knowledge, their industry, and their extended
commerce were of a nature to raise in the scale of races these primi-

ARCH. ZOLOGY. 353

tive tribes, whom we should have been tempted at first to consider
but little developed, their religion—that is to say, the highest ex-
pression of their genius—bore also a good testimony in their favor.
Like the Celts, the lacustrians seemed to have adored the Divinity
in open nature, on the summit of hills, under the mysterious shades
of the wood, on the bosom of the waves, or more especially at the
foot of the erratic blocks, which they doubtless regarded as stones
fallen from heaven. Most archeologists do not hesitate to attribute
to them the erection of a great number of menhirs and other stones,
improperly designated under the general term of druidical. The
most considerable of the tumuli of Switzerland equally pertain to the
first age, for they never enclose any relics but those of the primitive
industry, without a trace of metal. The remarkable elevation of
these tumuli, which often rise from 10 to 20 and even 30 metres in
height, seems to prove that the men of the age of stone cherished a
profound respect for their dead. These were deposited in the sepul-
chral cavity, with the arms folded across one another on the breast,
and the knees drawn up beneath the chin, as if to testify by this
attitude —which is that of the infant before birth—that man in dying
enters into the womb of the universal mother. Even recently some
communities of the Alpine valleys observed an affecting ceremony in
their funeral rites. -When the tomb was just closed, the mothers
drew near to shed a drop of their milk on the freshly-stirred earth.
It is perhaps to the age of stone that we should attribute the origin
of this custom. In no instance has there been found any vestige in
the tumuli of this era which would authorize us to suppose that the
aborigines of Switzerland had ever sacrificed human victims to the
manes of their dead. Those ferocious rites, which the Helvetians of
the age of iron celebrated at a later period, were completely un-
known to the lacustrians.

To what periods of history must we refer that age of stone re-
vealed to us in the deposit of archeological remains in the lakes of
Switzerland? In this we have one of the first questions which pre-
sents itself to the mind. M. Troyon sought at first to resolve it by
studying the formation of the turf on the sites of different lacustrian
villages. By an ingenious process, which recalls that of the botanist
computing the age of a tree from the number of its concentric rings,
he endeavored to establish the age of the accumulations of imple-
ments and utensils at the bottom of the lakes by determining how
many centuries have been required for the deposit of the superposed
layers of turf; but, unfortunately, the production of the turf is effected
with more or less slowness, according to laws not yet known, and M.
Troyon has been obliged to recur to another mode of determination,
which was furnished by the lacustrian villages of western Switzer-
land.

Under the alluvial strata deposited by the torrents which discharge
themselves into the lakes of Geneva and Neuchatel there have been
discovered numerous groups of piles dating evidently from the age
of stone. An ancient lacustrian site of this epoch is found near Vil-
leneuve, at more than 450 metres from the present shore of Lake

23

354 ARCHAEOLOGY.

Leman. There have been also recognized traces of villages of the
same age on different points of the alluvial deposits of the Neuchatel
basin: at the mouths of the Mantua and the Reuse; in the midst of
the marsh of the Thiele, and chiefly in the marshy valley of the Orbe,
which stretches to the south of the town of Yverdun. In order to
know the age of these piles buried under the deposits of alluvium, it
suffices to measure the distance which separates the present bank
from the ancient one, and to find between these two concentric lines
a given point of which the age is known, and which may furnish an
approximate estimate of the rate of progress of the alluvium. This
point exists in the valley of the Orbe: it is the site of the ruins of
the ancient gallo-Roman city of Eburodunum. Between the down on
which they rest and the lake, on the space partly occupied by the
town of Yverdun, there is found no vestige of Roman antiquities;
and we may thence conclude that, at the commencement of our era,
the shore of the lake approached much more nearly to the foot of the
down. Admitting that its waters bathed the walls of the castrum
eburodunense, it would have required at least fifteen centuries for the
formation of the zone of 800 metres in extent, which lies between
the ruins and the shore; but it is highly probable that the retreat of
the waters has not been so rapid, for the Celtic name of Eburodunum
testifies in favor of a more ancient establishment than that of the
Romans. However, if we accept as a point of comparison this datum
of fifteen centuries, (evidently too little,) we perceive that another
period of eighteen centuries must have been necessary for the filling
up of the space of 1,000 metres which separates the down from the
ancient piles situated to the south, at the base of the hillock of
Chamblon: thus we are carried back to the fifteenth century before
our era. At the latest it was at this epoch, and, perhaps, long be-
fore, that the lacustrian village of Chamblon, invaded by the turf
and the alluvium of the Orbe, must have been abandoned by its in-
habitants. In order to arrive at the epoch of the foundation, it is
still necessary to ascend the course of ages, and to add some centu-
ries for the filling up of the strait which separated the village from
the ancient shore, still easily recognizable at the foot of the isolated
little hill. While acknowledging that these figures establish nothing
absolutely, M. Troyon is led to fix the construction of the lacustrian
habitations of Chamblon by the primitive colonists of Helvetia at two
thousand years before the Christian era. It might, perhaps, be ob-
jected that the level of the lake may have sunk considerably during
the historic ages, and have left dry the marshy plain of Yverdun;
but the ancient shore is situated at exactly the same height with the
present shore. The level of the lake has, therefore, remained the
same during the last forty centuries of history.

The result to which M. Troyon has been conducted by the exami-
nation of the alluvial deposits of the valley of the Orbe seems to us
one of the greatest triumphs of geology. This science, which had
already taught us the relative age of the fossil plants and animals of
our globe, serves now to determine the critical chronology of the
races of men which have succeeded one another on the surface of the

ARCH Z OLOGY. 355

earth. Where historical monuments and written testimonies fail,
there it is that the function of the geologist begins. He explores
these beds deposited by the waters one grain of sand after another;
he exhumes the gnawed bones, the pottery, the relics of every kind
long stored up in the archives of the strata; and the examination of
these objects suffices him for the retrieval from oblivion of engulphed
populations. Thanks to his researches, the history of man in the
countries of western Europe is removed backward two thousand
years. Henceforth it is a fact assured to science, that a race of
hunters, of agriculturists, and of artisans, lived in Helvetia eight or
ten centuries before the war of Troy, and commenced with the tribes
established in Germany and on the coasts of the Baltic. The field
of natural history is equally aggrandized; for, if the mammoth and
other animals cotemporary with the races of men had long disap-
peared, the bison, the great elk, the wild goat, the beaver, still in-
habited the forests of central Europe. Finally, we learn a fact of
the greatest importance for the history of the globe itself, namely,
that the climate of Helvetia has not sensibly varied since four
thousand years ago. The trees and plants which grow to-day in that
region grew there then; the same fruits, cultivated and wild, served
for human aliment; the sole difference revealed by the study of the
remains of the age of stone is, that the water-caltrop (trapa natans )
and the dwarf water lily, which exist no longer in the lakes of Swit-
zerland, then grew there in abundance. This equality of climate
during a period of forty centuries is a serious objection to the hypo-
thesis of polar deluges first proposed by M. Adhémar, and since de-
veloped by MM. Le Hon and De Jouvencel.

Tk

Articles made of metal were not absolutely unknown to the lacus-
trians at the close of the first age, as is shown by some relics found
at Obermeilen and Concise; but the perfection, as well as rarity of
the objects discovered, evince that they came from abroad, whether
in the way of exchange or through the chances of war. It would
be absurd to suppose that those primitive tribes had proceeded fully
prepared to the fabrication of bronze without having previously
availed themselves of copper and tin. The phenomenon of an alloy
of the two metals can only be explained by the arrival of a new
people bringing with them a new civilization. In Hindostan, in
Central Asia, in America, the age of copper succeeded slowly and
gradually to the age of stone—the age of bronze, in turn, replaced
by degrees the age of copper; but in Helvetia, as well as in all
western Hurope, this latter period is not represented: the bronze
abruptly follows the stone. It is because two races had come into
collision. The end of the first age must have been marked by terrible
events. In almost all the lacustrian villages the verge of the two
epochs is sharply indicated by the burning of dwellings and the
massacre of the people. The intruders, probably of the Celtic stock,
wielded axes of metal, and by virtue of the superiority of their arms

356 ARCHEOLOGY.

must have had their own way with the poor natives—just as the
Spaniards mastered the Indians with ease when they invaded Mexico
and Peru, mounted on fiery steeds and launching death from a dis-
tance.

It would seem that the lacustrian population of eastern Switzerland
suffered most from the conquest. The greater part of the pile-work
settlements of that region were completely abandoned, and since that
epoch their remains have been buried beneath the waters. The
aquatic villages of western Switzerland equally exhibit distinct traces
of conflagration; some, such as the celebrated Steinberg, (mountain
of stones,) situated in the lake of Bienne, were reconstructed on the
same site; others, after their destruction, were rebuilt at a greater
distance from the shore, so as to be beyond the reach of incendiary
projectiles; in fine, numerous groups of habitations were reared on
the shallows, till then unoccupied, of the lakes of Geneva, Neuchatel,
Bienne, and Morat. Atthe commencement of the age of bronze, the
lacustrian population of the country seems to have removed in mass
to escape the vicinity of the enemy who had seized upon the whole
of eastern Helvetia, now occupied by the Swiss, who speak the Ger-
man language. Withdrawn into the territory which forms the present
French-Switzerlana, the lacustrians were fortunate enough to repress
all invasions, and at the same time to appropriate all the industrial
secrets which their conquerors had brought with them from the east.
Thanks to this contact with a more civilized race, a new era of pros-
perity seems to have opened for them, and the census of the lacustrian
population largely increased.* The villages of the age of bronze
much surpass in number those of the preceding period, and in the
fens of the Thiele, between the lakes of Bienne and Neuchatel, the
piles are found in such quantity as to have given rise to an actual
trade in wood.

The wear and waste, more or less complete, of the posts suffices
in general to indicate whether the villages whose sites have been
recognized pertained to the age of bronze or that of stone. Almost
all the piles of the more ancient epoch have been wasted away by
the waters to the very surface of the ground, while those of the
second period still project to the extent of one or even two metres.
In general, the lacustrian constructions underwent no change of form,
doubtless because the customs of the people had remained the same;
yet M. Troyon also mentions cabins built on rafts, and habitations
similar to the huts of the Bosphorus, perched, at different heights, on
long poles oblique and crossed like the interlaced boughs of a tree.
As to the choice of sites there is apparent, in the second age as well
as the first, a rare sagacity. The points of the shore over against
the places colonized by these old lacustrian tribes have, for the most
part, not ceased to be occupied even to our own day by cities or

* By measuring the dimensions of fifty-one aquatic settlements of the age of stone, dis-
covered in 1860, M. Troyon computes that the total populatiou of the lakes amounted to
31,875 persons. By an analogous calculation, sixty-eight villages of western Switzerland,
constructed during the age of bronze, would have contained a population of 42,500
jnhabitants.

ARCHEOLOGY, 357

important villages. The city of Zurich covers a lacustrian settlement
of the age of stone; during the age of bronze a village on piles might
have been seen‘on the site of the present city of Geneva.

Once in possession of metal, industry attained a great superiority
over that of the preceding period, but a resemblance subsists in the
form and nature of its products. The axe continues to be the faithful
comrade of the warrior, and the artist employs all his skill in decora-
ting it. To this arm of battle new instruments of death are added,
the sword of bronze and the mace of stone; but arrows have become
very rare, which proves that instead of engaging in combat at a dis-
tance, like their fathers, the natives were accustomed to march straight
up to the enemy and fight face to face. They had not forgotten the
use of incendiary projectiles. Among the industrial remains of that
age we find in like manner knives, reaping hooks, stones for grinding
and sharpening, needles, pins, weaver’s shuttles, fish hooks, quoits,
toys, ear-drops, ornaments in rock crystal, pieces of amber, necklaces
of glass and of jet. The potter’s ware resembles that of the age of
stone, and is composed of an analogous paste, mixed most frequently
with small silicious pebbles. Yet the art of the potter has made in-
contestable progress: the variety of forms is greater and the orna-
ments more numerous. All the settlements of any importance had
their manufactory of earthenware, as is proved by the specimens
which have been disfigured in baking and rejected as unmarketable.
There were special manufactories for instruments of bronze, for an
elegant mould for hatchets has been discovered at Morges and real
founderies at Echallens, in the canton of Vaud, and at Dovaine, near
Thonon. Moreover a bar of tin which was taken from among the
piles of Estavayer proves that the bronze was not imported from
abroad in a state of alloyage. The people of Helvetia knew how to
procure raw metals, and those valleys of the Alps, which even during
the age of stone had been a centre of commerce, on the one side with
the Baltic and on the other with the Mediterranean, now exchanged
their products with the islands of the Cassiterides. Agriculture de-
veloped itself simultaneously with commerce, and it was probably to
the progress made in the production of alimentary commodities that
the population owed its marked increase. The breeding of domestic
animals equally augmented in importance, and the horse, scarcely
represented in the age of stone, appeared now in numbers.

The advances of the lacustrian colonies appear not to have deeply
modified their religion. After the invasion of the Celts, the priests,
faithful to ancient usages, rejected the metal introduced by the pro-
fane tribes, and continued to make use of instruments of stone, as in
the primitive age. The erratic blocks ceased not to be true altars,
as is testified by the numerous objects brought together from neigh-
boring settlements occupied only during the age of bronze: among
these venerated blocks are cited the stone of Cour, situated in Lake
Leman, below Lausanne; the stones at Niton, which form islets at a
short distance from Geneva, and not far from Estavayer, in Lake
Neuchatel; the Pierre au Mariage, on which, even in the last century,
the betrothed went to swear mutual fidelity. If the religion of the

358 ARCHEOLOGY.

lacustrians underwent no change during the age of bronze, it is nev-
ertheless probable that their zeal gradually diminished in consequence
of their ever-increasing relations with their neighbors, the Celts.
The tumuli which they raised during the second period are much less
high than those of the first age, and their dead have no longer the
folded position of the embryo in its mother’s womb; they are simply
seated or even extended on the ground. The lacustrians never
adopted at least the custom of the incineration of the corpse, which
the Celts had imported from the east, and which, in the religious
sentiments of the former, must have seemed a crime against the dead.

The duration of the lucustrian settlements of the age of bronze
was very long, if we judge of it from the thickness of the beds of
remains and the great difference of the waste which appears in the
piles planted at different epochs on the same site; but the destruc-
tion of these settlements was as violent as that of the aquatic habita-
tions of the preceding age, for what remains of them under the surface
of the waters incontestably bears traces of. pillage and conflagration.
A new people, armed with blades of iron, invaded the vast undulated
plain which stretches between the base of the Alps and that of the
Jura, and after a war of more or less duration, finished by possessing
themselves of the wooden fortresses in which the lacustrians had
taken refuge. The catastrophe was nearly total, for, of seventy or
eighty villages which existed in the second age, eleven only present
traces of the following age, and of this number we can scarcely count
three of them which give indications of a prolonged occupation. The
lacustrian villages of Steimburg and Graseren, in the lake of Bienne,
and of La Tene, in the lake of Neuchatel, were the only important
localities in which the primitive population could seek a refuge.
Perhaps some families of the vanquished might have become allied
with those of the invaders; but it is probable that the great mass of
the aborigines was destroyed or was forced, as a herd of slaves, to
adopt the customs of the Helvetian conqueror. The people disap-
peared, and history has not even recorded their ruin. The lacus-
trian villages, which had been during the course of so many centuries
the residence of a powerful race, were replaced by miserable huts,
where the families of fishermen, suspended above the waves, sought
a meagre existence. Some remains of rude pottery, dating from the
Roman epoch, show that these aquatic abodes were still inhabited at
the commencement of our era.

The destruction of the greater part of the lacustrian villages having
taken place when iron began to be diffused through the country, we
are enabled to fix the epoch of invasion within the limits of a few
centuries. The Phoceans of Massilia and the Belgic Cimbri, emi-
grants in the north of Gaul, had introduced the use of this metal,
the former from the commencement of the sixth century, and the latter
during the fourth century before the Christian era. By their means
iron arms must have soon superseded those of bronze among a great
number of the tribes with whom they had commercial intercourse.
Thus, towards the fifth or fourth century, iron, the true metal of war,
was more or less known to the Gauls, and perhaps the Lacustrian

ARCHEOLOGY. 359

tribes had already received swords of iron, with other products of
industry, from the Phoczans or the Cimbri. Yet the use of arms of
bronze was still general when the aboriginal races, attacked by a
people with superior arms, sunk in an unequal strife. The invaders
are known; they could be no other than the Helvetians of Gaul or
of southern Germany. All the testimonies collected by archeologists
agree in identifying their Gallic origin; the Celtic denomination of
their villages; the form of their arms, identical with those worn by
the Gauls of Brennus during the occupation of Rome; the crescents
which they bore as amulets; the practice, in a word, of burning their
dead.

The Helvetians were certainly superior to the primitive people in
the material part of civilization. The lacustrian deposits of the two
first ages offer nothing comparable to the thousands of objects which
have been discovered at Tiefenau, near Berne, in the soil of a field
of battle of the Helvetian period. Not only did they possess iron
and forge swords, which might even now be considered master pieces
of art; they also produced glass and enamel, fabricated ornaments of
great richness, and, if we believe the testimony of Latin authors,
were acquainted with the art of writing. Unfortunately this people,
so remarkable for their industry, professed a barbarous religion.
There are still to be seen, in different parts of Switzerland, the
remains of their sacrifices of human victims. Not far from Lausanne,
in the forest of Bois-Genou, rises a tumulus which covered four
earthen vases filled with human ashes. A cavity formed above the
urns contained the charcoal and cinders of the funeral pile, as well as
the calcined remains of animals, among which were recognized the
dog, the ox, and the horse. Still higher there was spread ‘‘an un-
even bed of large, rough stones, on which lay, without order, four
human skeletons, whose irregular position showed that the bodies
had been thrown with violence on this rude couch. Bracelets, rem-
nants of small chains, brooches, and various ornaments indicated the
attire of females, whose youth was evidenced by the incomplete
development of the wisdom teeth, still hidden within the alveolus.
The limbs of these unhappy victims had been broken by the stones
which covered them and which had been cast with such violence that
a portion of the ornaments had been shattered by the shock. At a
distance of two hundred paces from the tumulus still exists an altar
on which, without doubt, the immolation of the wives of the deceased
had taken place.’? Again, at the further distance of two kilometers
there was found, under the shade of oaks another tumulus of the
Helvetian era, containing twelve skeletons of young persons crushed
by blows of the club.

We know that after a sojourn of some centuries in the valleys of
the Alps and of the Jura, the Helvetidns, always restless and desirous
of change, left their mountain country to go to establish themselves
in the plains of Gaul. It was then that, for the first time, they enter
upon the theatre of history, properly so called, thanks to Ceasar,
from whom they sustained, at Bibracté, a bloody defeat. The arche-
ological discoveries made in various parts of Switzerland enable us

360 ARCHEOLOGY.

now to ascend the course of time and to reconstruct, in its general
features, the history of the Helvetians up to about the fourth or fifth
century of the ancient era; but if the chain of ages is reunited for
this Gallic tribe, it is not so for the lacustrian colonies, whom the
' Helvetians had exterminated or reduced to slavery.

What were these aborigines whom archeology has, as it were,
resuscitated by an examination of the remains found in the mud of
the lakes? Were they of Finnish, Sicilian, Iberian, or Pelasgic ori-
gin? Should we seek their native country on the table-land of Iran,
or on the soil of western Kurope itself? One thing only seems cer-
tain, that they were men of small size, more remarkable for their
-agility than their force. Their narrow bracelets could only encircle
delicate arms; their swords, with short handles, could not have been
grasped by the large hands of the Gauls and required a certain skill
in fencing; in viewing them one might say that they had been wielded
by agile warriors like our basque soldiers. Nothing, however, as
yet, authorizes the learned to give a definite answer. The form of
the skull of the lacustrians would be a datum of great importance in
the question, but the skulls and other bones found on the lacustrian
sites and in the tombs of the age of stone are rare and offer only
remains which it is difficult to study. By a singular contrast, we
know the origin, the wars, the migrations, and even the royal gene-
alogies of many ancient people whose manners are unknown to us;
and here we have tribes who reveal to us their intimate life, their
domestic habits, and who make a mystery of their name. Their pro-
ductions are collected in our museums, we have been able even to
draw up their statistics Im an approximative manner, but they pass
before us in history like apparitions, and we know not how to con-
nect them with any of the races which precede or which follow
them. Let us hope that in the near future the methodic exploration
of the antiquities of Europe, and the comparison of all the testimo-
nies furnished by the still buried remains, will enable science to class
the lacustrians, to follow their migrations, and mark their halting
places. Already have recent discoveries established, in a positive
manner, that they also inhabited the lakes of Savoy and upper Italy.
We shall, doubtless, succeed in ascertaining what was the extent of
their domains at different ante-historic epochs, and, what is even
more important, their intimate life; their moral civilization will be
elucidated by a thorough study of the tribes which have sustained a
development under parallel conditions in different points of the globe,
and which still exist in an age of stone and of lacustrian habitations.
It is then that we may attempt to write the comparative history of
adolescent races—one of the most interesting chapters of the great
ook of man.

While awaiting the results of systematically organized researches
on all the continents, we should highly congratulate the scientific
explorers of the lakes of Switzerland on having recovered these
humble remains, so long hidden under the waters. These relics also
speak a language not less eloquent than that of the great monuments
left by the Roman conquerors. The nations whose life is recounted

ARCH XZ OLOGY. 361

by all the voices of history are not the only ones which have exer-
cised a great and durable influence on their successors; the savage
or barbarous tribes forgotten by the fugitive memory of their de-
scendants have also accomplished their work. Even yesterday, before
the piles had been observed through the transparent water of the
lakes, we knew nothing of that nation which, during perhaps twenty
centuries, had prepared our soil for the civilization which it this day
sustains. It is that which contended with the ferocious beasts,
cleared fhe forests, cultivated the earth; it is that which performed
the great work of first colonization attributed by the Greeks to their
demi-gods. The heroes of Gaul do not bear, like those of Greece,
the glorious names of Hercules and Theseus; but, though fallen into
oblivion, they have not forfeited their right to,our grateful recogni-
tion. The living generations are joint heirs with those which have
long since disappeared, and in the estimate of our vaunted modern
civilization a large share should undoubtedly revert to the tribes

without a name of the ages of stone and of bronze. _
ELISEE RECLUS.

THE FAUNA OF MIDDLE EUROPE DURING THE STONE AGE.

By DR. L. RUTIMEYER: Basset, 1861.

[Condensed from the German. ] °

To the ante-historical eras, which cannot be measured by solar
years, the names of stone and bronze age are applied. By these
expressions periods are indicated in which certain nations made
their implements—whether for domestic, hunting, or agricultural
use—of stone, or, later, of copper or some alloy of this metal, but
never of iron. Though in the case of some of the ancient nations
the time when they changed their implements of stone for those of
bronze can be determined chronologically, in general, we can only
say that one period succeeded another, as the geologist speaks of
older and newer strata, without being able, however, to state any
definite periods of time.

Among the most remarkable relics of the stone age are the sup-
posed Celtic implements of flint which have been discovered in the
tertiary debris of Amiens and Abbeville. Of later date are the
relics of the lacustrine remains in Switzerland. They are found
either under the surface of the waters of the Helvetian lakes, or,
partly overgrown with turf, upon the ancient beds of inland lakes.
The primitive people built their dwellings upon palisades either
partly or entirely in the water; and hence the name sometimes
given of ‘‘palisade buildings.” Mingled with the remains of these
buildings, historical records are found, in the form of implements of

362 ARCH AZOLOGY.

the ancient people; and also bones—in most cases the remains of
ordinary meals or festive celebrations. From these documents we
learn that the ancient people spun and wove cloth garments, and
also that they produced pottery by hand.

If any one should have taken the trouble to gather up all these
bones, and to submit them to anatomical comparison, he could have
advanced various branches of science. He could have enabled the
archzologist to show which of the animals were hunted and which
were reared by those people; he would have also assisted the
anatomist to discover what changes had taken place in skeletons of
animals during very long periods of time; he would also have fur-
nished the geologist with the means of determining which species
and genera had lived contemporaneously in one or the other locality;
he even would have presented facts to enlighten the zoologist as to
the interesting and exciting but very difficult questions regarding
the origin of species and the possible mutability of types; and,
finally, he could have given interesting materials to the husbandman
tending to throw light on the history of the more important domestic
animals. All these desiderata have lately been most successfully,
though modestly, furnished by Professor Riitimeyer, of Basel. A
short abridgment of his work may not be without interest; the
more so as the results arrived at by this Swiss savant are helping
to penetrate the barrier which heretofore has separated history from
geology.

The antiquarians of France, remarks Riitimeyer, find stone axes in
the mammoth strata of Bretagne; and in the Swiss palisade buildings
occur the diluvial bovine species—Bos primigenius and B. trochoceros—
both domesticated.

Among the bones of the lacustrine habitations 66 species of verte-
bratz were recognized, viz: 10 of fishes, 3 of reptiles, 17 of birds,
and 36 of mammals; 8 domesticated, to wit: of the dog, the hog, the
horse, the ass, the goat, the sheep, and at least of two bovine species.
Among these neither the bones of chickens nor of cats are found.
Predominant above all are the bones of the stag; after these those of
the cow. This proves that the chase furnished the principal portion
of the food. The bones of hogs appear numerically third in rank.
These animals seem to have been more in use as game than as domes-
ticated stock. Still more rare are the bones of deer, goats, and sheep.
In later settlements the latter commenced to prevail over the goat.
The dog appears quite scarcely represented, as is also the case with
the horse and the donkey. The bear, the wolf, the auerox, the bison,
the elk, the chamois, and the ibex seem to have served occasionally
as game.

Critical comparison enabled science to distinguish the bones of
wild from those of domestic animals. Those of the former exhibit a
deep brown, almost black, color; a surface smooth and greasy to the
touch, and in most cases a wonderfully increased specific gravity;
more distinctly marked carinew; greater roughness, and more acutely
cut muscle insertions—in short, the greatest possible distinctness. of
all the edges and protuberances, together with the least possible

ARCH ZOLOGY. 363

quantity of indifferent surfaces. On domestic animals the bony sub-
stance appears—if the expression may be allowed—more soft, spongy,
and yielding to plastic impressions. We cannot doubt, says Dr.
Riitimeyer, that the new relations of life following the domestication
of animals causes a weakening of all the energies of the system, by
increased nourishment, and lessened exercise, and additional fattening.
These are the results, not of centuries, but of much shorter spaces of
time. -

It is not to be wondered at if we find the remains of the bear, the
badger, the stone marten, the tree marten, the pole-cat, the ermine, the
otter, the wolf, the wildcat, the hedgehog, the squirrel, and the wood-
mouse; for all these animals inhabit the country even now. It is very
remarkable, however, that the fox, during the palisade age, was much
smaller than he is now, attaining then only in few cases the average
size of what it is at present. Since the ancient times this species has
grown one-third larger. The dimensions of animals are thus change-
able ; but this instance must be considered in connexion with others
to be mentioned, in which the size has been considerably diminished.

Of the common rat no traces were found, and we know that tlis
animal immigrated into Europe as late as the middle age ; the Asiatic
wandering rat is also absent; therefore during the stone era no mam-
mal vermin infested the palisade settlements.

Of the hare only one single relic has been discovered, and we may
with some propriety conclude that among those ancient people the
eating of this animal was prohibited.

At the time of the palisade buildings the beaver still existed in
Switzerland, and maintained itself up to 1846 in the river Leeh. It
was even found in 1857 at the mouth of this river. If this interest-
ing rodent could have been protected by state laws, its existence would
have been extended a few generations more. The beavers would,
however, have died out, for these harmless animals can only exist in
complete solitude. How large the distribution of beavers must have
been in Bavaria is shown by the fact of the existence of sixty chro-
nographical names which are combined with the word beaver.

During the palisade era, three races of swine (Sus scrofa, L.) were
in existence, viz: the domesticated, (S. se. domesticus,) the same in a
wild state, (S. sc. ferus,) and the turf hog, (S. sc. palustris.) The lat-
ter race was then found wild and also domesticated, but ceased to
exist in its former state during the historical time.

The ancient wild hogs were distinguished from their present de-
scendants by a much superior size, and generally by the more promi-
ee characters by which they are distinguished from the domestic

og.

The characteristic of the turf hog asa distinct race lies in the teeth,
especially in the eyeteeth and also the tusks. The latter are much
smaller than those of the domestic and the common wild hog ; they
also remain three-edged when old, while those of its congeners
become gradually cylindric. The turf hog still exists in several val-
leys of Rhatia and Granbunden.

The stag, (Cervus elaphus,) now extinct within the limits of the

364 ARCH ZOLOGY.

lacustrian habitations, furnished the ancient Swiss with by far the
greater part of animal food. The size of this animal was extraordi-
nary, exceeding in height even our largest horse.

The elk was also well represented, and maintained itself on the
Rhine down to the tenth and eleventh centuries.

The ibex (Capra ibex) was found only once, notwithstanding the
little town of Unterseen, in the canton of Bern, carries the figure of
this animal in its coat-of-arms.

The chamois is also rare, and it is probable that this and the former
were brought only occasionally from the mountains down to the less
elevated regions.

The bison (Bos bison) appeared quite frequent all over Switzerland
during the stone age, but still more common was, the auerox (Bos
primigenius,) Which, during those times, long passed, was one of the
oldest and most constant inhabitants of Switzerland. He existed
there in company with certain pachyderms, whose congeners since
have receded to Africa.

In the schieferkohle (slate coal) of Diirnten (C. of Ziirich) most
complete remains of rhinoceros leptorhinus were found, lying side by
side with the teeth of Bos primigenius and Cervus elaphus. While
this pachyderm had long ceased to exist in Switzerland, both its con-
temporary ruminants held out there until a people arrived which
spun and wove the fibre of the flax, and reared and milked the pro-
geny of the auerox.

In the lower beds of the drift which, thirty feet thick, overlies the
coal of Diirnten, the remains of an elephant are found, which are not
only distinct from that represented in the coal, but which never have
been discovered lying together upon the same horizon. Higher up,
this drift consists of debris of glaciers with remains of marmots and
reindeers. Upon an area of but few miles circumference, and within
a vertical of only thirty feet, we thus find, first, the auerox associated
with Elephas antiquus in the coal of Diirnten; afterwards the
auerox and the mammoth, in the diluvium of the valley of the Rhine ;
still later reindeers and marmots, of which the one now is removed
from twenty to twenty-five degrees northward, and the other has
ascended to the more elevated alpine zones. Finally, on the top in
the higher situated turf of Robenhausen, the auerox again appears in
company with Bos bison and Cervus alces.

These are, indeed, extraordinary changes, and it is not improbable
that the human species witnessed and suffered under them.

In regard to birds, reptiles, and fishes, the ancient fauna differs but
little from that of our day. It is worth noticing, however, that from
the condition of the bones of the wild swan we must infer that these
birds must have been eaten by the ancient Swiss. It also proves that
the lacustrine habitations were not mere summer residences, but must
have been occupied also during the cold winter season, when the lakes
were frozen over, at which time alone the swan appeared so far south.

The rarest domestic animal of palisade age is the dog, which was
occasionally eaten, but was used more commonly to assist in hunting.
It is a very remarkable fact, however, and important for the history

ARCHEOLOGY. 365

of the canine family, that during the whole era of the palisade build-
ers but one single race can be found, which, according to its unvary-
ing characteristics, is identical with that of our pointer. The hog, as
a domestic animal, was first wanting during the palisade era; after-
wards the turf hog (Sus scrofa palustris) appears domesticated before
the progenity of the common wild hog (Sus scrofa ferus) was raised
to that honor.

The horse was exceedingly rare, so much so that we must conclude
that this animal was not domesticated by the palisade builders, but
was introduced only occasionally perhaps among war spoils.

Of the tamed bovine family a type appears locally limited, which
approaches the fossil species of Bos trochoceros from the diluvium
of Arezzo and Sienna, in Italy. A peculiarity of it is the direction
of the horns, which, instead of the three-fold curvature which the
auerox exhibits, describe a simple arch in one and the same plane.
This race afterwards disappears from Helvetian ground, as also does
that of Bos primigenius, which has the auerox for a stemholder.
The former, however, is preserved in the sub-race of Friedland, Olden-
burg, and Holland. The third race of the palisade era, Bos brachy-
ceros (identical with Bos longifrons of Owen) is considered by Dr. Riiti-
meyer the same as the so-called ‘‘ Thurfox Thurfcow,’’ a race which,
under the name of brown cattle, is still found in the counties of
Schwyz, Wallis, Obertrasts, and Granbunden. The same anatomist
also favors the views of some modern cattle-breeders who recognize
among the endemic stock only two races, which are said to hold on to
their geographical distribution with the utmost tenacity. The stock-
breeders there regarded always only external and seemingly trifling
but at the same time very constant characters, and their sagacious
suggestions have been fully sustained by the latest osteological re-
searches.

The first and older race is the so-called ‘‘Braunvieh’’ (brown cattle,)
Bos brachyceros of a natural or deer color, without any purer tint and
especially lacking in pure white, but otherwise exhibiting every shade
from light gray to a dark blackish brown. A peculiarity of this
race is also the colors of the hair, which never appear distinct, but
invariably run into each other.

The other race is the spotted or speckled, which did not exist among
the palisade builders, but was introduced from the north within his-
torical times. It originates from Bos frontosus. This race is pre-
served in its purest state in Saanen and Simmenthal. To it also
belongs the black and white spotted race of Fryburg. The pure
colored, spotted, or speckled race always shows either uniformly red
(bay) or sorrel or black, or white and bay or sorrel, or white and black.
One individual showing all three colors is only an exception to the rule.

Of human remains but one skull was discovered. If this should
really belong to the palisade age, and if we could be permitted to
base a conclusion upon one single specimen, we would say the cranial
type since those days has suffered no change, or the palisade builders
did hot differ osteologically from the Swiss of our own days. It seems
the ancient Helvetians did not leave their lacustrine habitations until

366 ARCHEOLOGY.

the time of the first invasion of the Romans, when probably this sin-
gular mode of habitation was abandoned.

We also received by Dr. H. Christ an account of the flora of the
palisade age, which presents some noteworthy phytographical results.
There were found changed into a hard shining coal with a metallic
lustre on the surface well-developed unwrinkled remains of wheat,
resembling our Z'riticum vulgare, but much smaller. The grains of
our modern wheat measure from seven to eight millimetres, while those
of the ancient wheat are only from four to seven millimetres in maxi-
mum length. The spike of the ancient wheat-is much more full and
crowded, whereby the spiculz are forced into an almost horizontal
position.

Hordeum hexastrilmus is also found, but Triticum spelta, oats and
rye, have not been noticed. Thus it appears that wheat, even in our
more northern regions, was the oldest cereal in cultivation. One
species of Zanum has also been found with the seeds and capsules
most perfectly preserved. It approaches L. montanum and also L.
perenne, but is unlike our usitatissimum, the native land of which has
not yet been discovered.

Of hemp (Cannabis) no traces have been discovered, and therefore
the ancient Swiss could not have immigrated from a region where
this plant is indigenous.

Apples cut in halves, and probably prepared for preservation, show
by their kernels, capsules, and general outlines, a size surpassing that
of the modern form of Pyrus malus, as represented in the Swiss
mountains. ;

Of pears but one doubtful piece was obtained. A species of Prunus
(spinosus, )perhaps the plum(P. insititia,) and sweet cherry, were present.
Among the forest trees the presence of the dwarf pine (P. maghus)
in the lowlands is remarkable because this species has since retired
to more elevated alpine and sub-alpine regions. It seems generally
that since the palisade era the flora has undergone no material
changes, which is contrary to the observations made in Denmark,
where the remains of turf exclusively contain but pine and afterwards
oak, where now the beech constitutes unbroken forests. This proves
some kind of natural rotation, but it is erroneous to suppose that the
growth of leafy trees of necessity must be preceded by the lower or-
ganized conifers.

Since the palisade age various aquatic plants have receded to the
mountains; for instance, Nuphar pumilum and Trapa natons, which
latter now only occurs at Langenthal and Elgy. This change of habitat
deserves the more consideration as there is no ground for the belief
that the migration of these plants has been influenced by man.

It is as yet impossible to fix the time of the lacustrine habitations
chronologically. The last period of it, when the turf hog in its wild
state had ceased to exist, and the older bovine races (Bos trochoceros
and B. primigenius) had been replaced by the northern spotted cattle,
(Bos frontosus,) which announce the period of domesticated races, per-
tains to historical times. The chronological space backward towards
the oldest remains of the palisade age cannot be estimated; it ought
not to be measured even with the unlimited scale of geological periods.

ARCH ZOLOGY. 367

The builders of the palisade habitations could not have arrived in
Switzerland before the glacier era, which forced the elephant and the
rhinoceros far down into Africa, and drove the marmot and the reindeer
into the Swiss lowlands. But when middle Europe was warmed up
again by sunnier days, a repopulation by a partly new fauna and flora
took place upon the ground where before the reign of the glaciers,
the auerox, and those large pachyderms, had been grazing together.
At this time man made his appearance, accompanied by the dog, the
goat, the sheep, the domesticated auerox, and the turf cattle; the
latter he may have introduced already tamed, or he may have tamed
it after he had found it there in a wild state.

The lake inhabitants of Wangen and Moosedorf, therefore, were
not autochtons, in the strict sense of the word, and it is even doubt-
ful whether another race did not inhabit middle Europe before them,
and even anterior to the glacier age; for recently there were dis-
covered in a cave near Aurignac (Hautegaronne) seventeen human
skeletons, with a number of bones of the mammoth and a contempo-
raneous rhinoceros, besides those of many other animals. Some of
these bones had been artificially opened by human hands for the sake
of the marrow—similar to bones which were found under the lacus-
trine habitations. Those bones in France also exhibit the marks of
the teeth of the cave tiger and the hyena spelea; of both these
animals also numerous bones have been found. Remains of the
auerox, the reindeer, and the stag were also found there. Thus
science has at her disposal the relics of predecessors, witnesses, and
followers of the glacier era. Even the horse and the ass were found
to be represented there; only the dog is looked for in vain.

On the strength of this fact Dr. Rutimeyer concludes that man ex-
isted before the glacier era, having domesticated at the time several
animals, while the elephant and the rhinoceros existed in the regions
of middle Europe.

REPORT UPON THE ANTIQUARIAN AND ETHNOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS

OF

THE CANTONAL MUSEUM AT LAUSANNE.
By FRED. TROYA.

[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution. ]

Mr. PRESIDENT AND GENTLEMEN: The collections of the Cantonal
Museum, which you have intrusted to my care, are those of antiqui-
ties and ethnology, on which, in compliance with your circular of the
19th instant, I proceed to report. .

The collection of antiquities includes objects of very various origin
which may be classed under two general heads, namely, of Swiss
antiquities and foreign antiquities. The Swiss antiquities quite

368 ARCHAZ OLOGY.

naturally fall into subdivisions corresponding to the various ages to
which they belong; the others, few in number in comparison, are
classed according to the countries from which they come.

The interest that attaches to these relics arises not mewely from
their greater or less antiquity, or from their art, more or less perfect,
but far more from their being the expression of the different degrees
of ancient civilization. Thus the articles discovered in Switzerland
give us the history of the state of industry in ancient Helvetia, and
those which came from abroad furnish us with an idea of the develop-
ment peculiar to other lands than our own. Certain of those articles
are all the more precious because they belong to an age anterior to
the earliest written documents, and allow us, in the absence of these,
to reconstruct the history of the early ages of humanity, just as geology
enables us to retrace the history of our globe by the study of its strata
and its fossils.

The ethnological collection includes the productions of the industry
of modern tribes who, as yet, are strangers to European civilization.
It is very closely connected with antiquities because, equally with
them, it tells us the story of the various degrees of development
through which men pass ere they attain to civilization properly so
called. We may safely affirm that the various degrees of present
human development characterize the successive phases of that de-
velopment in antiquity. It is easy to appreciate the civilization of a
people according to the character of mineral materials used in its
industry; and there is a long series to pass through from the savage
who supplies the want of metals by the use of stone and bone to the
people who use the most various materials. Placing ourselves at that
point of view, we perceive that the greater the use of the metals, and
especially of iron, among a people, the greater is their industrial de-
velopment. The application of these observations to antiquity is
fertile in unforeseen results. The articles discovered being classed
according to the materials employed and the manner of working them
up will furnish us with series which, taken in the same country, will
indicate the successive phases of that country’s civilization. We
shall find one age in which, just as among the savages, stone supplied
the place of the metals. In another age, copper, tin, gold, and a little
silver will be employed for ornaments and for various instruments, as
among the Mexicans before the discovery of Columbus. Ina third
age iron will be superadded to the materials previously known and
used, and it is then, and not until then, that we find writing is intro-
duced and get the first historical data. The Helvetians had the arts
of writing and of using iron in the time of Julius Cesar, and our first
historical traditions are no older, although, at that date, a great many
generations had succeeded each ‘other in our country.

These general considerations suffice to give an idea of the kind of
interest possessed by antiquarian and ethnological collections which
are, as it were, a picture of human progress, studied in one case in
the series of successive ages, in the other in the series of contempo-.
rary nations. Let us now see how far our collections exhibit this
double series.

ARCHEOLOGY. 369

I. SWISS ANTIQUITIES.

A. Tue Stone Ace.—The name of the stone age is given to the
ante-historical period during which the primitive inhabitants of the
country were ignorant of the use of the metals, and employed instead
of them stone, bone, and even wood. Switzerland was already in-
habited during this early period. The museum possesses seven instru-
ments of these rude times which were found in the canton of Vaud,
and some fac-similes of similar articles from the country are in vari-
ous hands. The specimens preserved are exceedingly interesting.
If their number is very limited, we must bear in mind how far from
extensive have been discoveries of the kind in this canton.

B. Aas or Bronze.—This age takes its name from the metal used,
in the absence of iron, for cutting instruments, and also for various orna-
naments. The bronze of that period is an alloy of from 10 to 15
parts of tin to from 85 to 90 parts of copper. The tin being brought
from England, indicates a certain progress in commerce. The greater
part of the copper also must have been imported into our country;
which, however, as is proven by some discoveries, possessed found-
eries, and the art of alloying the metals.

The collection of antiquities includes fifty-eight articles in the
bronze of that period, among which are two swords and two daggers
complete, three javelin or lance heads, and several celts, (a sort of
hatchets and chisels,) two sickles, bracelets, brassards, or arm-pieces
of armor, and a great number of hair-pins. Most of these articles
were found in tombs, others in open ground, and some, of which M.
F. Forel is the donor, amidst the wreck of the lacustrian habitations
of Morges.

©. First AcE or Iron—Aelvetian period.—The study of the pro-
gress of industry in the country and of the various modes of sepul-
ture has enabled me to distinguish a certain number of tombs and
of antiquities which characterize the Helvetian period prior to the
Roman domination. It appears, from various observations, that the
Helvetians were not the earliest inhabitants of our country. They
subjugated a more ancient population, and brought with them
the knowledge of iron, which is found in most of their tombs. We
also find in their burial places Gallic coins, of from four to two
centuries earlier than our era. The Helvetian antiquities are not
distinguished solely by the introduction of a new metal; the ma-
terials which had previously been used are employed with a new art;
new forms and new ornamentation appear. Colored or enamelled
glass is used for bracelets, formed of a single ring, and for neck-
lace beads. It willnot be deemed irrelevant to add, upon this point,
that Pliny the elder, as early as his day, attributed to the Gauls great
skill in glass-work.

The museum possesses only seven articles belonging to this third
age, namely, two bronze rings, one necklace of beads of glass and.
amber, two glass bracelets, one lignite bracelet, and a disc, in bronze,

24

370 ARCHEOLOGY.

formed of eoncentric circles. The use made of this last article it is
difficult to conjecture.

D. Suconp Acs or Inon—HTelvetic-Roman period.—For a long time
Roman antiquities monopolized the general attention, and accordingly
the museum contains about two hundred and fifty articles of that
kind, not including a few fragments of but little value. Iron is em- |
ployed for axes, arrow-heads, keys, horseshoes, sickles, nails, and
various other things; but it is remarkable how rare it is to find the
sword of the conquermg people, which is wanting in most collections
of Roman antiquities.

The museum contains twenty-two statuettes in bronze, some of
which are specimens of admirable ancient art. Among them I may
mention a Gaulish Jupiter, a Mercury, and a small goat, found at
Ursins. As very precious objects, I would also cite the great lamp
in bronze, from Nyon; the taurobole, (sacrifice of the bull,) from Vidy;
a bronze medallion, and an Etruscan mirror, found in the ruins of
Aventicum. There are also several clasps or buckles, in bronze and
in silver gilt, which are not without interest; also a series of bracelets,
found at Biére, characterize Helvetian art under the dominion of
Rome. The red earthenware articles are but few, and but little re-
markable. With the exception of a few fragments, I need only men-
tion the vase found at Fraidaigues, the reliefs of which have a stag
hunt for their subject. Some plain pottery articles are well preserved.
Three funeral urns, six large amphore, a number of weights, tiles,
and pipes for the baths, complete our collection of Roman pottery.
As objects of domestic use, the museum contains some household
utensils in bronze, and a dozen of grinding stones for hand-mills.

The Roman marbles have been somewhat more increased this
year, but even now they but very imperfectly represent the number
and the beauty of the decorations of the buildings of that period. As
objects of art I have little to cite beyond a small torso from Avenches,
a mutilated head of St. Saphorin, a few sculptured fragments of
elegant capitals, and a fragment of a sun-dial supported by an eagle
rising into flight, a cornice placed in the choir of the cathedral, and
a cylindrical vase from the neighborhood of Nyon. ‘To the marbles
are attached the Roman inscription, which words are seven in num- |
ber, and are completed by fac-similes disposed in tapestry. The
mosaics consist of a table and some slabs from a pavement at Orbe,
presented by M. de Bonstetten. The mosaic from Bangy can be re-
moved from the workshop of M. Doret when the marble room is ready,
and that will also be the time for taking up the pavement from Vul-
lierens, deposited in the academy, as well as the mosaic from Yvouand,
which I hope can soon be removed.

E. Helvetic-Burgundian period, (from the 5th to the 9th period.) —The
objects of this new period, to the number of 140, come almost exclu-
sively from sepaltures, and are connected with the industry which
characterizes the origin of modern civilization. The most remarkable
portion consists of fifteen damascened clasps, and nine clasps with

ARCH Z OLOGY. ol

Christian symbols. These last have taken their place in science,
revealing, as they do, the commencement of Christian art, and a sym-
bolism especially peculiar to our country. A gold buckle, set with
red glass, reminds us of the importation of an oriental art. A small
balance, found, together with a sword, in a tomb at Severi, indi-
cates that the person buried there had beena judge. Necklace-beads
present curious resemblances to the most ancient art of the Phceni-
cians, whose productions were found in the ancient tombs of Egypt
as well as in those of most European countries from the Crimea to
the shores of England. The arms consist chiefly of cutlasses, some
lance heads, and two axes. We may also mention four clay vases and
four in stone, worked by means of the turning wheel. Finally, the
epitaph of the young Laudoalda belongs to the end of that period.

' If we look at those objects, in connexion with their prototypes, we
shall see reason to be surprised at finding how few models have
been borrowed from Roman art, while most of them are found either
in the Gallic antiquities of the first iron age, or in those of Siberia,
preserved at St. Petersburg.

F. Mippte Acr.—Only fifty articles belong to the middle age. The
most ancient, and perhaps the most precious, is a small reliquary of
sculptured ivory with silver leaves. That article was found in a
tomb in the court of the castle of Lausanne, and is connected with the
ancient establishment of St. Maire. Some church vases, in brass,
bear inscriptions, of which only one is clearly legible—Warr GELucK
ALL ZeIt, be always happy. These vases were much used during the
twelfth century ; they are found precisely the same from Syracuse to
Drontheim. <A great number were made at Lubeck ; and in the north
of Germany I have seen some still employed upon the baptismal fonts.
A small stained glass circular window presents a subject of national
interest, the grue, (crane,) of Gruyere.. I must further mention keys;
spoons; four seals, in bronze; a cutlass; a dagger; a lance head, in iron;
knightly spurs; horseshoes; halberds; a crossbow, and some stat-
uettes, in bronze, of the time of the Renaissance. A capital, orna-
mented with a curious sculpture, found at Maladeire, near Montreux,
may take its place in the marble room with some fragments of the
architecture of the middle age, found behind the castle of Lausanne.

G. Ancient Firt-arms.—A few specimens of fire-arms have been
placed in the museum, which may some day form a portion of an
armory room. ‘The two pieces of the greatest national interest are a
cannon and a mortar, in iron, relics of the great battle of Grandsau.
They were presented by Lucien Valotton, of Vallerbes. Six muskets,
or fusils, are more or less ornamented ; some swords belong to the
latter centuries. Two cartridge-boxes with the crane are, no doubt,
of a time posterior to the counts of Gruyere.

One of the ornaments of the armory which is yet to be created
will, undoubtedly, be the articles connected with the first Napoleon,
the gift of M. Noverraz, viz: three saddles, in velvet and gold lace ;
three bridles, plated with silver; three snaffles; four fusils; the key.

ate ARCH ZOLOGY.

of Napoleon’s house at Longwood; a map of Switzerland, with strate-
gic annotations; a volume of the Imperial Almanac for the year 1807,
and a certain number of medals relating to Napoleon I.

II. FOREIGN ANTIQUITIES.

A. Eaypr.—Thanks to the generosity of our compatriots, the mu-
seum of Lausanne possesses some specimens of Egyptian antiqtities.
Those articles, it is true, are far from numerous, still they suffice to
give some idea of that kind of art, and itis to be hoped that, in the
course of time, we shall have, if not an Egyptian museum, at least
articles sufficiently numerous to give a better idea of the age of the
Pharaohs. 7

Two mummies, well preserved, occupy a separate case. The
Egyptian skeleton has been completely set up, but for the present it
has been left in the glass-fronted case of the botanic hall, where also
is a handsome wooden sarcophagus in which the bones composing
this skeleton were found. We have, also, two mummies of children,
a small crocodile, some statuettes and amulets in vitreous clay, four
statuettes in bronze, four in wood, some stuffs, and a wooden tablet
covered with hieroglyphics.

B. ALBANO.—Seven vases, the gift of the Countess de Rumine,
were found in a bed of peperin, situated between Albano and Marino,
to the southward of Rome. At that point the most ancient pottery
of Italy is found.

C. GreEece.+-The ancient art of Greece is represented only by
seven vases, found in the vicinity of Athens, and given by Dr. Auguste
Chavannes. Their interest consists chiefly in their showing that the
art of the potter proper to Magna Grecia was net unknown to Greece,
properly so called, a question a long time doubtful, but completely
decided by various discoveries.

D. Magna Grecia.—Thirteen vases, six of which are added to her
other generous contributions by the Countess de Rumine, are more or
less ornamented with the paintings to which the Egyptians have
given their name, pictures representing subjects of history, mythol-
ogy, or common life. Notwithstanding the small number of these
vases they suffice to give us an idea of the development of that kind
of art in Magna Grecia.

E. Roman ANTIQUITIES OF ITALy.—Some slight fragments of marble
or stucco, which travellers have brought from different parts of Italy,
scarcely deserve mention. But that can by no means be said of some
objects found at Rome and presented to the museum by M. the Con-
sul Begré. They consist of coarse potteries and some articles in
bone, such as punches and dice for gaming.

These various articles are about fifty in number. Our own country
possesses enough of Roman fragments to make it worth our while

ARCHEOLOGY. Site

industriously to search for them, which would in nowise prevent us
from receiving with gratitude the gifts sent to us from other countries.

The collection of antiquities numbers about seven hundred objects.
Of that number one hundred are foreign to Switzerland; most of the
others have been found in the canton of Vaud, and seventy-two be-
long to a time anterior to the Roman domination in Helvetia.
Although this collection is not very large, it yet possesses many arti-
cles well worthy the attention of antiquaries.

ETHNOLOGICAL COLLECTION.

This collection is devoted to the exhibition of the products of
modern industry among peoples strangers to civilization, properly so
called. The interest which belongs to this species of study consists
not so much in the forms, more or less original, of arms, utensils, and
ornaments, as in the diversity in the degrees of contemporaneous
development, and in the connexion of the series with that of the
successive phases of civilization through past centuries. The produc-
tions of people who at the present day are without knowledge
of the metals enable us to form amore complete idea of the pro-
gress made. in bygone ages by an industry which was equally without
the metals. On the other hand, the analogy of the forms and pro-
cesses employed in ancient and modern times shows us that the
savage state is in reality only the extension of the age of stone,
but it is important to prove that every stationary state is a state of
degradation. And accordingly the lacustrian peoples, even in the
most remote antiquity, differed in very many respects from the
existing savage. We see among the earliest population of Hu-
rope the same lack of materials, but even in their early age that
population progressively developed its industry. One of the chief
causes of the stationary state is the immobility of ideas arising from
the want of communication which constitutes the isolation that is
always hostile to progess. Isolation had the same effect upon the
first emigrants into the west as upon the savages of our own time,
but with this difference, that with the former the conditions of exist-
ence changed, while with the latter they remained the unchanged and
the insurmountable barriers to progress. Like causes produce
like effects, and we may aftirm in general terms that man placed under
analogous conditions of existence acts in an analogous manner, inde-
pendently of both time and place. For this reason the study of the
various degrees of contemporaneous industry serves to throw new
light upon that of anterior ages. -The astonishing variety of industrial
products, in ancient as well as in modern times, proceeds from general
laws, the application of which, in substance the same, proves in a very
striking manner the unity of the human mind.

Our collections are, doubtless, very insufficient to justify these
observations to their full extent, but it is to this result that they must
tend if they are to have a really scientific value.

It will suffice to indicate, according to the places of their origin,
the objects collected in the museum, to note some of those resem-

374 ARCH Z OLOGY.

blances, and to have an idea of the nature of a certain number of
articles which must have been made and used by the primitive people
of our own countries, but which the destroying action of long ages
has prevented from coming down to us.

A. Norra Amertca.—Thirteen arrow heads of flint, found upon
the banks of the Ohio, and precisely like those of Europe in the age
of stone.

Arrows, with their shafts.

Two pipes, one of them from Canada.

A saddle, in cloth.

Moccasins and a cap.

A basket of the Esquimaux of the coast of Labrador.

B. Antittes.—A fan from the island of Cuba.
Five arrows entirely of wood, from the island of St. Croix.

C. Sour AmericaA.—The hammock, or cot, of a Brazilian chief.
It is composed of stuff and decorated with garlands of feathers.

D. Sociery IsLANDS.—Stuffs in bark and Otaheitan paper.

EH. FRIENDLY IsLANDS.—A fly-flap; a club of carved wood; a
basket.

F. New Careponta.—A club of carved wood; two scalping instru-
ments, one of stone, the other of hard wood; a bag for sling-stones.

G. East Inprrs—Asta.—Six arrows, with iron heads.

A sagaye, (African assagai,) a kind of spear for either thrusting with
the hand or hurling from it.

A sandal wood necklace, from Bengal.

H. Cuina.—aA large parasol and shoes.

I. Senecat—Arrica.—A bow and a quiver containing fifty arrows,
with iron points or heads.

K. ARTICLES FROM COUNTRIES UNMENTIONED.—Two aprons to con-
ceal the nakedness of women; two fans; stuffs; a purse; seven woven
baskets; seven vases, made of calabashes; an oar; two slings; a bow;
several arrows; four casse tétes, or tomahawks; and two hatchets, in
serpentine, which give an idea of the manner in which this instru-
ment was furnished with its handle in the olden time.

OBSERVATIONS.

The foregoing details will show that the collections of antiquities
and ethnology are not without considerable value, although there
are some very important blanks yet to be filled up.

ARCH AOLOGY. 375

It is especially our duty to complete the national antiquities, which,
as regards Switzerland, may supply the lack of written documents.
When the pecuniary resources of a country do not allow of its pro-
curing the béautiful productions of ancient art, that country should
at least, to the fullest extent, avail itself of the resources which it
can command. Had the State consented to examine by means of the
dredge, or, still better, by means of the diving-bell, some of the
lacustrian sites, which are so numerous on our shores, there would,
undoubtedly, have . been recovered very many objects which are
imbedded in the mud and slime of our lakes, and, from one or
more points, we should have recovered relics of the age of stone,
which at present is represented by only a very small number of spe-
cimens.

If our collections are really and considerably to be extended, re-
searches should also be made at points where we find burial places
or ruins, which hitherto have been but superficially examined; but I
am well aware of the difficulties which present themselves to this
class of researches.

As relates to foreign antiquities, of which we already possess some
specimens, opportunities occasionally present themselves for pur-
chasing, at a moderate price, articles which, though of not the very
first importance, would serve to complete series. As relates to this,
we should offer proper inducements to our compatriots abroad to
come to our aid.

I will suggest two>other methods which, beyond all doubt,
would contribute to the increase of our collections. The first would
be to-open rooms for systematic exhibition, so that the intelligent
public should be not only interested but instructed. It is especially
necessary that the cabinet of antiquities, too often a mere sealed book,
should be more freely thrown open, and not kept, as it is now, more
frequently closed than the other collections. More than once 1 have
heard, from both compatriots and learned foreigners, complaints
of the close of the cabinet of antiquities, even when the other de-
partments of the museum have been open. No doubt the difficulty
arises from the lack of a sufficient sree ane: over all the rooms
when open, a point upon which great improvement is very much
needed. That surveillance could be maintained on open days by two
or three gendarmes, who might be taken either from the military
post or from the town sergeants, under the authority of the munici-
pality of Lausanne.

Finally, if we would induce donations, we must not only exhibit
our treasures properly, and make them to the utmost extent
accessible, but we must impress upon the public the true end pro-
posed in forming national collections. There are various means by
which this object may be secured. We may insert in the public
journals reports both more frequent and in greater detail, or we
may publish a small and popularly written work on the present
condition and contents of the museum, which work would be greatly
aided and facilitated by the reports which are required from the con-
servators of the cantonal collections. The better and the more

376 ARCH Z OLOGY.

widely to make known both what we possess and what we stand in
need of, a certain number of copies of the suggested work might be
distributed in the country; and it would not be amiss to send, also,
some copies to those of our compatriots abroad who are in a position
to aid us. The interest which the Swiss everywhere take in all that
eoncerns their fatherland is too well known to allow of any doubt
that such an appeal would be properly answered.

SUMMARY OF SUGGESTIONS SUBMITTED FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF THE
COMMISSION OF THE MUSEUMS.

1. To undertake researches with the dredge, or, still better, with
the diving-bell, upon the sites of lacustrian habitations.

2. To grant an allowance to some of our compatriots abroad to
enable them to collect antiquities or ethnological objects in Italy, the
Indies, Australia, and America.

3. To hasten the completion of the repairs of the marble room.

4. To open the cabinet of antiquities as often as that of the other
rooms of the museum.

5. To have gendarmes or civic police in attendance on the open
days.
6. To publish a popular work on the object and present state of the
museum.

REPORT TO THE COMMISSIONERS OF THE MUSEUMS OF THE CANTON OF VAUD,

ON THE

RESEARCHES MADE AT CONCISE,

FROM SEPTEMBER 23 TO OCTOBER 19, 1861.
Biya eh EDS) DR OW. O Nr,

THE proceeds of the public exhibitions at Lausanne, in the year
1859, for the benefit of the cantonal collections, allowed a sum of
six hundred francs to be devoted to the acquisition of antiquities for
the museum. The allotment of that sum enabled me, in the same
year, to make researches, the result of which is described in my work
on Lacustrian Habitations, pages 132, 139. Shortly afterward the
remainder of the money devoted to the museum of antiquities was
absorbed by the purchase of a great number of specimens discovered
during the construction of the railway at Concise ; but that advance
having been repaid to me by the state, it has served as current
funds until quite lately, when further expenses for new researches
put an end to our resources.

Among the numerous places of exploration Concise was especially
fitted for our researches by its high antiquity and the great number

ARCH ZOLOGY. att

of relics which it had previously afforded. There was yet another
consideration to recommend it had any such been required. The
fabrication of counterfeits invited by the great prices obtained by the
railway laborers for the antiquities which they found at Concise, had
caused much doubt alike as to the authenticity of many articles, and
even as to the scientific value of the discovery. Those counterfeits,
distributed in great numbers, are the more to be regretted, because
the lacustrian site of Concise presents specimens of a peculiar indus-
try, among which working tools of wood and stags’ horn occupy an
important place. In spite, however, of the existence of these nu-
merous counterfeits, it is possible to distinguish the authentic types;
but this being a business of appreciation it is not to be wondered at
that opinions differed very much in regard to it. It was important
therefore to undertake new researches at Concise and to adopt all
possible precautions against counterfeits, so as to restore this locality
to the place that it deserves to hold in the history of the discovery
of lacustrian antiquities.

One of the best means for working with but limited resources, in
sites covered with water, is the employment of the dredge or drag,
which I have already described in my report to the commission of
the museums of the 27th of December, 1858, of which subsequent
experience has established the utility. Professor Gay, vice-presi-
dent of your commission, and M. Bridel, engineer at Yverdon, have
had an armed drag constructed’ which perfectly answers our purpose.
The directors of the West Switzerland Railway Company on their
part very kindly placed at our disposal a raft and the other things
needful for our enterprise. Three laborers were sufficient to work
our drag, which they did under the inspection of a person charged
with that duty, and enjoined to place the produce of every haul into
a chest furnished with a padlock. Two theological students in suc-
cession exercised this surveillance of the laborers, M. Alexis de Loés
and M. Auguste Buttin, both of whom deserve our thanks for the
conscientious manner in which they performed their fatiguing task.
M. de Loés having during the first fortnight superintended the works
with much zeal, was, at the end of that time, sueceeded by M. But-
tin, who, with like zeal, superintended during the next fortnight. I,
also, went several times to Concise to inspect the works and to make
various observations. The dredging continued from the 23d of Sep-
tember to the 19th of October, but bad weather limited the actual
working time to nineteen days. The care and precautions bestowed
upon these researches left no room for the slightest doubt as to the
authenticity of the articles obtained from the dredge.

The lacustrian deposit of Concise, notwithstanding the considera-
ble amount of detritus removed by the steam dredge in 1859, is still
very far from being exhausted. It forms a submerged hill or mound of
four hundred and sixty feet in length by two hundred and fifty feet in
breadth, its greatest diameter being almost parallel to the railway.
The bed of materials accumulated above the primitive bottom of the
lake is about four feet, consisting of mud, sand, gravel, and stones,
varying in diameter from a few inches to one or two feet, and con-

378 ARCH Z OLOGY.

tains in its whole depth relics of ancient industry, so that its forma-
tion corresponds with the duration of the village or hamlet which ex-
isted at that point. A stone hatchet has even “been found among the
flints on the surface of the ground, and it was covered with a thick
layer of soft, sandy stone upon the face that was in contact with the
water, whence it follows that this little hill has not been increased in
height since it has ceased to be inhabited by man. It is possible that
the stones and gravel were at various periods deposited by the in-
habitants of the village or hamlet with a view to consolidating the
piles. However that may have been, it is amidst those deposits that
innumerable remains of past industry may be found.

Pieces of wood and planks, carbonized more or less completely,
have been drawn out of the depths of the artificial bed; and seem to
indicate that on more than one occasion fire has wholly or partially
destroyed the lacustrian dwellings of Concise. Upon some spots, de-
composed branches form thick beds which contain various grains and
different utensils; on others, the mud has especially accumulated:
but in a general way, flints, many of which have been broken by the
hand, are scattered over the whole site.

The piles which supported the cabins of this ancient hamlet have
been shortened by the destroying action of the waves to the surface of
the mound, while their lower extremity, deeply sunken in the earth,
remains very perfect. Many of them penetrate but a little into the
primitive bottom of the lake, and it is not uncommon to see the very
notches made by the stone axes still remaining... The diameter of the
piles varies from three to nine inches, and some of them consisted of
pieces of wood cleft by the aid of the wedge. The principal kinds
of timber employed were fir, birch, and especially oak. More than
seven hundred and filty objects bearing the marks of human industry
were obtained by our latest researches, not. reckoning innumerable
bones of animals, most of which have been broken with the hammer.

The most remarkable and also the rarest articles are instruments
which are still furnished with their handles. Of these I shall first
mention an axe of the material called serpentine. It is fixed toa
handle of buckhorn, the square extremity of which, opposite to the
stone, entered the lateral mortise of a handle of fir wood. The three
pieces, 7. e., the stone axe and the handle pieces, respectively of fir
and buckhorn, were brought up together by the drag, and quite
evidently all belonged to and formed one instrument. Although the
wood is broken at the mortise, the manner in which the three pieces
were formed into the one working tool is perfectly obvious. But it
is probable that the adjustment was consolidated and strengthened by
ligatures like those which I copied in my work upon the lacustrian hab-
itations of ancient and modern times.

Three other fragments of axe handles show that their greatest di-
mensions corresponded with the cutting edge of the instrument, so
that the strokes should be more certain, while the part adapted to
the hand was slighter and lighter. Of those implements the whole
length is scarcely a foot. Another axe, of serpentine, is still con-
nected with its buckhorn handle of the same form as the preceding.

* ARCH ZOLOGY. 379

Two small axes of the same material are fixed to bifurcated handles.
Five chisels of stone, still connected with buckhorn handles, present
some varieties of form. Two of them, very like modern instruments
of the same kind, have a blade of only five or six lines in width and
a total length of from thirty-seven lines to five inches. The other
two are shorter and wider, having at the end of the handle furthest
from the blade a cylindrical ‘bit of wood, the evident use of which
had been to allow the hammer to be used without injury to the buck-
horn. Two handles of this last kind preserve each a stone, the edge
of which in avery decided segment of a circle can scarcely have
served but as a mere knife for cutting through slight or soft articles.
The imperfection of these rudely contrived tools might make one
doubt their antiquity were not the circumstances under which they
were discovered an abundant guarantee on that head. It is to be
remarked that many of the stones which are still furnished with their
handles penetrate but a little way into the buckhorn, and are rea-
dily taken out of the kind of socket which holds them. But as that
slightness of adherence essentially results from the action of time, it
is not an absolute characteristic of authenticity, for six of the pieces
described above still preserve so great a strength of cohesion that
the stones cannot be removed but with great effort.

Some of the buckhorns are armed with punches of vegetable mate-
rial, the conical form of which is very greatly altered by desicca-
tion. An axe handle is traversed lengthwise by a piece of wood
broken at its thicker extremity and terminating in a point at the
other. A cylinder twelve lines high by an inch in diameter and
another buckhorn of egg shape serve as handles to wooden punches
or bodkins. Two of these*punches or bodkins and eight handles of
this latter kind were also found, three of the latter being in an
unfinished state.

Out of six buckhorn hammers, pierced transversely with a square
or oval aperture, five have still attached to them the remains of their
fir wood handles. Two of those hammers have at one of their
extremities a cavity, in which we suppose a stone was sometimes
fastened; and it is very possible that in some cases this was even
sharpened into an axe.

Hight arrow points in bone, very like punches, bear traces of a
blackish mastic and of fine ligatures. One of these has still attached
to it a small fragment of its shaft, and shows, at the point of fracture
of the mastic, a line of very small holes, formerly filled with the
ligatures that bound the two pieces together. Among the relics in
bone which must have been similarly used is a fragment of the inner
bone, or tibia, of a leg, the cavity once filled by the marrow serving
for the shaft-socket. Numerous staghorns have been used as handles.
Six end pieces of antlers have at their thicker extremity a hoHow which
imitates the form of the stone article used as a cutting knife. One
antler bears the impress of a flat instrument which had penetrated
two inches deep into the handle; and in another similar article the
cavity gives the form of the punch; finally, the cavity of one of these
crooked handles resembles the socket of an incisor tooth of a rumi-

380 ARCHZ OLOGY.

nating animal. Though we cannot precisely decide as to what
instruments fitted into these antlers or parts of antlers, it is, how-
ever, quite certain that they served as handles for tools of various
forms. Ten buckhorn handles, four inches in average length, and
cut at both ends, have those cylindrical or conical cavities which,
according to the objects discovered, may have held either punches
or poignards. Some others of various forms, like a raven’s beak, or
curved naturally, also bear positive marks of having been used as
handles. Sixty pieces, having the form of the foregoing, but without
the hollow imprint of instruments, must be looked upon as unfinished
articles kept in reserve for daily-occurring emergencies, according
to a custom still observed by the inhabitants of that neighborhood.

Of fifty-one handles intended to receive stone chisels, twenty are
perfect, sixteen have been formerly broken, and fifteen were never
finished.

The buckhorn, which plays so considerable a part in the discov-
eries at Concise, has been especially used for axe handles. The last
research there brought to light above two hundred, including sixty
fragments, some of which, to be sure, may have belonged to the same
article. Of that number, sixty-two are perfect, and forty-eight, not
reckoning the small fragments, have been more or less so injured as
to be useless. These handles are of three different forms. The great
majority of them are made with pieces of buckhorn of an almost cyl-
indrical shape, those of the second kind have on one side a promi-
nence which serve as a rest for the hand, and the others, only eight
in number, are bifurcated in facets on the part which enters into the
handle in such wise as to enable the adjustment to be strengthened
by means of awedge. Twenty antlers, some of which have served as
handles, are worn at the point into the form of chisels. Several
pieces, also, have been cut into the form of elongated wedges.

A buckhorn and four canons or tibia sawed or split lengthwise,
sharpened to very keen points may have served as weapons of war
or as instruments of peaceful use. One hundred and one bone punches
of from one inch to four inches in length, have rounded, oval, or
square points. Four show the wear produced by the thread round
the punch; six were arranged in the mud brought up by the dredge
in the form of the teeth in a comb, but there was no trace of ligature
which would warrant the assertion that that arrangement was not
merely accidental. Thirty of the punches were made from the rib
bones of different animals, and forty exhibited, on the end opposite
to the point, a roughness which would have hurt the hand had
not the instrument been inserted into a handle. The small dimen-
sions, also, of some of them would have made it almost impossible to
use them without handles. The same remark applies to the bone
chisels, some of which are pointed at both ends; their length varies
from one inch to five inches, and their cutting edge or point is from
a line to eight lines in breadth. The chisels discovered during the
last dredging were forty-six in number. Four teeth of the wild boar
are sharpened into the form of a knife, or a miniature bill-hook.

Bone and buckhorn were also used in the manufacture of a variety

ARCH Z:OLOGY. 381

of ornaments. A pin, in the shape of a Roman T, is of remarkable
fineness, taking into consideration the instruments used by the maker.
The fragment of another article of the same kind has a_ cylindrical
head. A crooked pin thirty-five lines in length exhibits less neat-
ness of workmanship. Four pieces, clumsily cut into the form of tile-
nails, are evidently unfinished. A small antler, only twenty-four
lines long has been carved so as to imitate seven necklace beads placed
one above the other, and diminishing from the base to the summit.
Two bear’s teeth, one having a hole pierced through it, and the other
a groove around its roots, were suspended as ornaments or amu-
lets, if we may judge from the subsequent custom. A fragment of
a boar’s tooth has also a hole pierced through it. Finally a small
bead, of a whitish paste and two lines in diameter, testifies the love
of even the most primitive people for personal ornaments.

Ata period when the metals were unknown, stone held the first
rank in manufacture, and the hatchet or axe was used for the most
various purposes. Its dimensions, generally very small, varied from
one inch to five inches in length, and from six to seventeen lines in
breadth. But though this instrument sometimes supplied the place
of the chisel and the knife, these two instruments are found in very
clearly defined forms. Our dredgings have enriched the museum
with a hundred and forty-five of those instruments, most of which are
of opaque, or translucent serpentine. Of this number forty-eight
are perfect or nearly so; fifty-eight useless from breakage or exces-
sive wear; thirty-one were left unfinished or were broken while
being cut; three present a very oblique blade. Some pieces are of
remarkably fine finish, but others are equally coarse, and some mere
splinters or fragments of stone have been simply sharpened on the
edge so as to serve as knives or chisels. Among the unfinished
pieces, one of serpentine was intended to receive an elegantly curved
form; and five fragments of an instrument combining the axe and
the hammer are of fine work, polished on their whole surface, and
although broken at the cavity intended for the handle, they testify
to an indisputable progress in the art of cutting and drilling stone.
The various kinds of silex that have recently beeh discovered at
Concise, whether opaque or translucent, and whether black, gray,
brown, or of a milky white, are, for the most part, foreign to Switz-
erland, and probably came from France. Two pieces have been cut
into arrow heads, one of them having the form of a lozenge. Five
pieces are punches, which are quite perfect and may have served
either as punches or as arrow heads; one of them is no less than
sixty-four lines in length; twelve pieces, more or less fine, and with
the edges cut into teeth, were intended to serve as saws, knives, and
scrapers. A bone, having a longitudinal groove, was intended to
receive one of these instruments; seventeen fragments of worked
pieces, or of pieces detached by the hammer, complete, with a rock
crystal, the series of this description of objects. I must add, how-
ever, that among the numerous flints which, in a proper state, lay
scattered through the whole thickness of the artificial bed, there

382 ARCHAEOLOGY

were found numerous pieces of granite and quartzite, which have
received the form of triangularly cut lamine of silex.

Twelve stone discs, from thirteen lines to two inches in diame-
ter, and from two to eight lines in thickness, have a funnel-shaped
hollow on each side or face; the incomplete hollows on two of
them enabled us to perceive the workman’s mode of procedure. He
commenced by cutting away the stone by gentle strokes of an angular
instrument, working first on one side of the desc or plate, and “then
on the other, and when the two hollows met he finished the boring
by turning a punch—of silex, no doubt—rapidly round and round,
until he had smoothed away all the inequalities left by the first ope-

ration. The use of these plates or discs, of various kinds of rock,
is doubtful as yet; they may have served as spindle whirls or as
veights fora net. A small pebble, oval in form, and pierced on
both sides so as to be suspended from a string, would seem rather. to
indicate the latter as their use.

It is probable that the hammer which served for cutting stone was
a piece of flint from the shore, and that when it got broken its an-
gular parts performed the part of the gimlets or awls. The last
operation was performed with the aid of grindstones of soft freestone.
Of these a great number have been discovered. Thirty of them
have been put aside for the museum; all are worn in such a manner
as to indicate the use that has been made of them, and many are
sufficiently small to have been held in the hand, as our peasants use
sharpening stones on their scythes. On one there is a concave and
rounded groove, of two or three lines in width, reminding one of the
erindstones in the north, on which they sharpen gouges.

Three heavy stones, with concave surface, have served as mill-
stones, between which grain was ground. Though as yet only a very
small number of seeds of wheat have been found at Concise, we know
that it was cultivated in Switzerland in the stone age, and that in
some parts quite abundant stores of it have been found. Raspberry
seeds, wild. plums, and especially nuts, are by no means rare among
the specimens of Concise. Some seeds still remain to be decided
upon.

The articles of pottery are, in general, very much damaged. Accord-

ing to the fragments that have been collected, the predominant form
was that of the cylinder; though the forms of the urn, the saucer,
and the bowl have also been discovered: Some specimens have promi-
nences on the upper edge to enable the vessel to be held; in other
cases there are holes through which a cord could be passed to serve
asa handle. The coarse clay was kneaded with silicious flints, and
shaped with the hand; the thickness of the sides is frequently from
four to five lines. Some slender fragments of a much finer gray-
ish clay, or covered with a black glazing, and ornamented with
grooves or zig-zag lines, show that it is not always easy to distinguish
between the pottery of the first age and that of later periods. The
vases which were used for other domestic purposes served also for
cooking, as is evidenced by the carbonized coating which still ad-
heres to the inside of some of them.

ARCHEOLOGY. 383

It is interesting to find some wooden articles which give an idea of
what the industry of the stone age could produce with the imperfect
instruments which were at its disposal. The wooden handles, already
spoken of, exhibited at the moment of their discovery—that is to
say, before they were dried—a surprising finish. Two handles, termi-
nating in a wide knob, were not without some taste. A cup or drink-
ing vase of yew wood, about fifteen lines in depth, four inches in
length, and twenty-two lines wide, has been cut with great delicacy.
One especially interesting article is a fragment of plank, fifteen lines
thick, eleven inches Jong, and between four and five inches wide.
On one of its sides three:grooves are cut in the form of a swallow
tail, at a distance of between four and five inches from each other;
the central one, two inches wide and six lines deep, still retains one
of the pegs, intended to join this plank to another. That sort of
junction exactly resembles a practice of our own day in some coun-
try houses; but this fragment seems to be more likely to have formed
part of a door of a cabin, unless, indeed, wooden buildings on
our lakes were unknown at so early a period. At the north we have
indications of them from the most distant periods; only it is probable
that they fastened the planks together otherwise than by pegs.
This piece, carbonized on both sides and on one of its ends, is a relic
of the fire. Another fragment, with swallow-tail grooves, also came
from the midst of the bed of gravel, as did all the pieces of other plank
which bear marks of fire. These planks could scarcely have been
procured excepting by splitting the trunk of a tree by means of
wedges; the stone axe smoothed away the inequalities, and the chisel
served to hollow out the grooves. The junction of those pieces by
means of pegs, proves that the art of building was carried much
further by the lacustrian populations than we should infer from a mere
inspection of their working tools. It is not easy to say what was the
purpose of a plank pierced with a square and oblique hole. A piece
of wood three inches wide was hollowed out into the form of a pipe
or gutter to convey water from a roof, but in drying it lost the form
which it had when taken out of the water. Various fragments ap-
pear to have been oars, clubs, and other instruments. Some are cut
into the form of punches; others, which are in that of wedges, have
probably been rounded by rolling in the water; a great number
were buried at the same spot amidst the piles. These, as I have
already mentioned, show the notches made by the stone axe. Even
a large mushroom was brought up from amidst the sands. In
the fear that I might not be able to keep sufficiently intact some of
the specimens, in spite of the means I employed, I had copies of them
made in plaster, which exactly represent their forms before they
were altered by drying.

The drag or dredge recovered from the middle of the artificial bed
of Concise a considerable number of ¢eeth and bones of animals, of
which I may first mention the vertebra of a fish and a piece of rough
epidermis, of what creature I cannot as yet say. Some staghorns
are of considerable size, and many of them bear the imprints of the

384 ARCH ZOLOGY.

teeth of some gnawing parasite. Other horns are those of the elk
and the roebuck. :

We find the bear, the boar, the beaver, and a number of jaws of
small species of gnawing and carnivorous animals. The horse seems
to be as yet rare, the ox is abundant, the goat, the sheep, the do-
mestic swine, and the dog complete the list of domestic animals.
This list, still incomplete, can give no adequate idea of the numerous
bones discovered; their aggregate weight reaches to many hundred
pounds. They are in general very much broken, which may result
either from the fabrication of instruments or from the decided taste
of the lacustrian population for marrow. Professer Rutimeyer will
be good enough to pass judgment upon this rich collection of bones,
and while awaiting the results which he will communicate to us I
copy from that learned naturalist his list of the animals, the bones of
which, preserved in the museum of Lausanne, had been previously
obtained from the site of Concise. They are the primitive ox races,
trochoceros and brachyceros, the goat, the marsh hog, primitive races
of the sheep and the dog, the stag, the elk, the goat, the bear, the
boar, the wolf, the fox, the beaver, the badger, the pole cat, and the
martin. The first vertebra of a human back bone must be mentioned,
as well as some fragments of skulls which have passed into other
hands. Itisin the remarkable work that M. Rutimeyer has published
upon the fauna of the period of the lacustral habitations in Switzer-
land that we must study the important scientific questions suggested
by these determinations.

Notwithstanding the very numerous and various objects brought to
light by our latest dredgings, it is a remarkable fact that not one
article of metal was dredged from the bottom of the lake on these
occasions. Yet in the labors of 1859 some bronze instruments were
discovered; but it must be borne in mind that they were obtained
from one of the extremities of the lake at which we had not time to
place our drag. Everything tends to establish the belief that, after
the destruction of the hamlet, a few cabins which escaped at the
time of the fire, or which were subsequently built, were still in ex-
istence at the commencement of the following period. I say at the
commencement, because during the second age new habitations were
built further advanced in the water, where the bronze sword was
found which is preserved in the museum of Neufchatel.

The various kinds of objects of industry which have been dis-
covered at Concise were not distributed in the same abundance at all
points of the site. The whitish and veined silexes come from the same
point, and the two principal kinds of axe helves also come from two -
different parts of the site. The stone dises with a hole hollowed in
them were almost all found in the same place. The spot which con-
tained the most of uninjured objects was called by the laborers ‘‘the
handle warehouse.’? Without attaching too much importance to those
different species of deposits, it is yet not without interest to add that
observations of the same kind have been made at some other sites
of lacustrian habitations, which lead to the inference that there already

ARCHEOLOGY. 385

really did exist actual workshops. Starting from this point of view,
we might admit that the workers in bronze occupied only one wing
of the. hamlet, but the extremely limited number of articles of metal
previously found, compared with that of the instruments of stone and
of bone, discovered in thousands, sufficiently shows that it was long
before bronze was known, and that it was not generally used before
the destruction of the old hamlet.

The aggregate of the specimens recently found at Concise shows to
how great an extent bone and stag’s horns were used in primitive
industry. Independently of the serpentine axes fixed in buckhorn,
stone knives and chisels also have their handles of this material.
Wooden punches still adhere to their handles, and a bone arrow head
still exhibits traces of the shaft.. Numerous stag horns bear the hollow
impress of the instruments of various forms to which they have served
as handles. The authenticity of these pieces is a fact important to
science. It is to be regretted that the advanced period of the season
compelled the suspension of the dredgings earlier than was intended,
but I hope that they may be resumed, for the repository of Concise
has not yet given its last response.

In my last work I gave the historical results which appear to me
to flow from the researches made in late years in the lakes of
Switzerland. I shall not, therefore, endeavor to deduce from the
preceding data all that results from them as to the industry and the
mode of life of the primitive populations of our country, but I will
just so far enter into particulars as to show the astonishing abundance
_ of objects in the spot which we have examined.

The dredge, which was worked on this last examination during
nineteen days, brought up from the lake at least seven hundred and
fifty pieces bearing the impress of human industry, without counting
innumerable bones of animals, which, after being carefully culled,
covered the raft twice a day with rubbish to be thrown on the slope
of the railway. In 1859 the steam-dredge, which worked twenty-
five days, recovered from the lake at the same spot fifty raft loads a
day. One of the two rafts which attended the steam-dredge was that
which we employed, and, according to the statement of the laborers,
the amount of rubbish sent to the railroad was at least double that
which we obtained from the culling of the objects of industry. It
may be added that the steam-dredge brought up antiquities from the
beginning to the end of its working. It follows, then, that twelve
hundred and fifty raft loads were taken from the same site in 1859,
_ while we in our later dredgings took only thirty-eight, and admitting
an average equality of riches of antiquities, the wrecks of industry
discovered two years ago amounted to above twenty-four thousand
pieces, which is not out of proportion to the sums of money realized
by the railway laborers.

The comparatively small number of objects collected by our
late dredgings includes articles which had not before been ob-
tained from Concise; as, for instance, a portion of the wooden
handles, the planks furnished with swallow-tail grooves, the yew-tree
cup, the bone arrows, with traces of mastic, and the wooden punches

25

386 ; ARCHEOLOGY.

fixed in their handles. It is not to be wondered at that the first
dredgings, which were thirty-two times larger, should have brought
to light some objects of which we have not had the fortune to recover
counterparts. I may mention, among others, the teeth fixed to stag’s
horn, of which M. Rossine, the engineer, got a specimen for the Can-
tonal Museum on the first day of the working of the steam-dredge,
which was before the fabrication of the counterfeits.

Without laying too great stress upon the foregoing figures, they
suffice to give a notion of the riches of this site, of its importance,
and of the duration of its occupation, as well as of the variety of
the types which it may still contain, for all the dredgings have not
nearly exhausted the vast bed of the deposits of the antique hamlet of
Concise.

ANCIENT MOUNDS AT ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI, IN 1819.

Br T. RB. PEALE,
CHIEF EXAMINER IN THE UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE.

THE contents of an old portfolio will sometimes restore a lost fact
which may be useful when connected with the observations of the
day. So I hope it may be with the accompanying map of a series
of mounds as they existed about forty years since, in the vicinity of
the city of St. Louis; these mounds, like all other vestiges of the
aborigines of our country, must soon pass away. The map may fix
a remembrance of one period of their existence, and it is for this
purpose that it is offered to the Institution without further apology.

An exploring expedition, destined for the upper waters of the
Missouri river and the Rocky mountains, was fitted out at Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania, in the spring of 1819. It was placed in charge of
‘Major (now Colonel) 8. H. Long, of the United States topographical
engineers, and was accompanied by a scientific corps, of which the
writer of this article was the junior member.

For the use of the expedition a small steamboat was constructed on
a plan supposed to be well adapted to the purpose, and named
‘‘Western Engineer.’’ It was furnished with two propelling wheels
placed in the stern, one of which bore in large letters the name of
James Monroe, and the other that of John C. Calhoun. The Presi-
dent of the United States and the Secretary of War were thus
represented as the propelling power of the expedition.

This little steamer, the first which ascended the Missouri, and per-
haps the only one known to history as bearing three names, produced
a great impression on the sons of the forest as they beheld it strug-
gling against wind and currents, belching forth flame and smoke from

ARCHZ OLOGY. 387

the head of ‘a serpent on its bow, and awaking the echo by its loud
and stentorian breathing.

SS wMwMw@w@w@wy!/7
SSW . 4
SSW WZ
Ss

See

=
WATENS—-SOK. NOY

While this expedition was stopping at St. Louis to repair the
steamer, in June, 1819, the late Mr. Thomas Say, also one of the ex-
pedition, and myself made a survey of the ancient mounds then in

e
»

388 ; ARCH ZOLOGY.

the vicinity of the city. An account of these mounds was published
in 1823 in a note to the first volume of Long’s Expedition, page 59,
but without the map, which was omitted to give place to what was
considered more important matter, and has remained unpublished
until now. The survey, although not made with great precision, was
sufficiently accurate to give a definite idea of the form and relative
position of the mounds.

The following notes were made at the time and published ‘by Mr.
Say. The opinion of my much-respected friend concerning the objects
of these earthworks, given in the extract, have since been corrobo-
rated by other observers:

«Tumuli and other remains of the labors of nations of Indians that inhabited
this region many ages since are remarkably numerous about St. Louis. . Those
tumuli immediately northward of the town and within a short distance of it are
twenty-seven in number, of various forms and magnitudes, arranged nearly in a
line from north to south. The common form is an oblong square, and they all
stand on the second bank of the river. The statement given below of the
forms, magnitudes, and relative position, is the result of actual admeasurement
taken with care, and with as much accuracy as their present indefinite bounda-
ries, together with the dense growth of underwood covering their surface, and
tending to beguile and obstruct the vision of the observer, will admit. |A
pocket compass and tape measure were the only instruments used. |

“Tt seems probable these piles of earth were raised as cemeteries, or they
may have supported altars for religious ceremonies. We cannot conceive
any useful purpose to which they can have been applicable in war, unless as
elevated stations from which to observe the motions of an approaching enemy;
but for this purpose a single mound would have been sufficient, and the place
chosen would probably have been different.

“Nothing like a ditch or an embankment is to be seen about any part of these
works.

“What we have called dase in the following statement, is in reality the length
of a line passing over the top of the mound from the termination of the base
each side.

“'The numbers refer to the map. The heights are estimated, with the excep-
tion of two.”

No. 1 is the remains of what was reported to be the bastion of an
old Spanish stockade, indications of a ditch being still visible.
No. 2. A square with a hollow way, gradually sloping to the top; or
in other words, a hollow square, open behind.

ep a sete tietek s 8s nisl ue oi Pextisdar irae, v, vo =. s'iebepoyste STM pin te. ‘ 50 feet.
Height Peseta yeiehre ohtusastia watiehbis\ (aioli sieielce dcleusenan hetel ayia eee
Distance north from the Spanish bastion---. 29.
No. 3. An oblong square.
Longitudinal DAS @as cheer errs -etpeiebeie cele ects ati eres he 1414, Fxes
TETAS VOLSE i DASC! «we mieaccece <calew al bporaretanetces Siero tye BHO aes
Length at top (or flattened iposvieni he: teens Bo)
Perpendicular height: - sees as
Distance from No. 2 ee beet eee eee eee 115 oki
No. 4. An oblong square.
Longitudinal base --.. +++: esees+sseee sees RAs
(Flattened portion) top -+++++e+eeee ee eeeee he ties
Perpendicular height .«.++..eeeses sees wees 4 %&

a

ARCHEOLOGY. 389

No. 4. Distance north from No. 3.----- +--+ eeseee 251 feet.
Nos. 2, 3, and 4 are each about 33 ordinary paces from
the edge of the second bank of the river. :
No. 5. An oblong square; longitudinal base------.- ae fF
SS ola ret eee yes ee et nak nn 35
Perpendicular height Ss rey S ierarattaieehe Becie es ‘ast A uae
Distance west from No. 4---- +++ eee + cere 1b5 _ %
No. 6. Different in form from the others. It is called the Full-
ing Garden, and consists of three stages, all of equal length,
and of the same parallelogramic form. The superior stage,
like the five succeeding mounds, is bounded on the east ‘by
the edge of the second ‘bank of the river. The second and
third stages are in succession on the declivity of the bank,
each being horizontal, and are connected with each other,
and with the first, by an abruptly-oblique descent.
Longitudinal base --..--...-.- sss205 seeses 114 feet.
Top or flat portion Prcieh on atolotansiadeteks Leu aioe aekonele 88
Transverse base of the first stage----+-+-+--- aher§
height of the first stage---..--- PIs
Declivity to the second stage.-.- +++. +++--- S408
Transverse surface of the second stage------ ee ce
Declivity to the third stage.--.++-+---+---. aU een.
Transverse surface of third stage-.--.--+---- he
Declivity to the natural slope (on the east)- -- 19
No. 7%. Like the three succeeding ones, conical.
Distance northward from No. 6.---+- +--+: Day. ths
NV AS Guay sbaasy ab os evereber bids iecaoase: pane (oid pagisiapaeusk a shearer o 83. 6
Top Sicheparal'e ae “chore lite gy « alle:ehai sive alee ereite ckalenmiers amore 34 = =§6
Height.---- ey STNG] Her EWS loihd wtlah tale la tabeeheb aacaetaws © 43 ge
No. 8. Distance about north from No. T-----.-+--- ga yee
IPDS Sve cay thers) oieta Go wre ar eyetaars despise o: 1g 16) aitsp avalos Shab ettel Ge Ste OR Ee
Top ata Reeewrere ee, eb araye ico tere tie sus oj were apaee tence She nee
Height ae emetalseciia toll siciiokevevese) aiiane tase efice tot aiciteusa saat yet ee
No. 9. Distance about north from No. 8-----.-+--- Ge 364
AS Gis Miuhatee Biol 2 Le Ge MAIS adele wetaaectebebere ta PEAR wc
Top E Meta Teks 2 GL PLLSE ASS, cole ol in te bpeparene nen e Oa Ree. bbe 56 SS
Hoightised soo kt U pu, Wollal eee Aa 1G
No. 10. Distance about north.--. +--+. esses eee eee v4; X
EPA Maas vs So tate 0 WES ae Soe Tere eats aitate ts uta tahatete Ot eee
Top Wa wat pix Dlets Leebe ls la ele Wiel fone aldwoveh sl chete caste eke cawa 34 =¢&
Height-.-. a Syeraceds facts fol eiietepteee oye) whe icedednetan erat lee 8or10 ‘*
No. 11. Nearly square, with a large area on the top; (a brick house is

erected at the southwest corner.) The eastern side ap-
pears to range with the preceding mounds.

DisthinGeyere ste s «07s < c20ise ids Sepeperabeterer etek lane ae 158 feet.
RAGE: oeunie ariante te ire % o-rano %, & 7%) ban Sim cache Gaaihadarehe ae 179

Top ee feNOVATARN EL Ge wine say'w le. ster alig iw te abit ai sha teie? ooane meer LOT *
Height, west side, say++++ esse es sees en eees Bac
Height, ROUMSSIG Gis fo: 3.7% © 4 w Fs) Cader RGSS IE) ote e Ait aes

Height, east side+-ss.se eee cece ee cece eens Tior 20° **

390
No.

No.

No.

12.

tS.

. 14,

iad,

wi t6.

wi Ashe
18.

ARCH ZOOLOGY.
Nearly square, westwardly, a little north from No. 7, and dis-
Tant frou! Wisin 5 ates ie o> ncn Sik ee aise ers 30 feet.
Base@iris «ie sca aiete walks cy, 2 ceinte ape Wel bole ee es oe PaO rues
"TOPs eteace = eine sisi el Bite iawn a ar pfale ie nia de 50S
Height SPaibs chicsSusievere) te svepardye Ure olel ba tal eere jeMe Reeeene ne Qs. oes
A parallelogram placed transversely, with respéct to the
group.

MART GR «kp. acta 2 qb ein 0! dhe.Ghkk Pw ME btw wah atate eee oe 30 feet.
Distance from No. 5 north 10 west ...-...-- 350
Longitudinal Pa Se satewntel tore shavers lavietelatchciat ad ratceme Zi") es

Top ib aleatuasclelale: eile baetetisl ie AV Oe aa aeEe aia ge ae
DP ranSE BERG IAReys ae. ia Sick Belmore Gale oleic 188 $5

‘Pop af stalia} alarloh.e fe lo! ie {ewes otra tab tiene tonehens OT we
Height dak sBaORRLaNG Re S3ae Teielea Baiehe wee Lae Ns artic ae? Se
ALGCORVER MOUMNG >: WEEE +. o1610 Hu. sieil steep © bey neers 55 fs
BR Ce mea ie teceso Reb Ato dss.ch Saha, a snjel ee vedere ahat argh at ceebete 95 §5
Height aay ered Shoda coRe ke ks g3scatiechisie | obeys he VANES Bs Set, teal oie Oui e
Together with the succeeding ones, more or less square.
Distance: Bort wept wacisis s ods ie alles © he ted geass 17 feet.
VERSO oles ve talked s wswoPeiis Caeohc ne 4 alo uakrauaucs 2 seen \lerteien cc otie ene rete 10
BA ab cai otfa tag ei © meee pis elias sect ope nie eee 4 i
Distance north dO0:eagt. «agin gems en ceee es ey $OB at
TRS GIR eae caiel chop okin cork ok hE RCTS Wt ee Sie LL alee aiereete naa. rene oe
AS STANCR TEIN «ess ofa sd 6 etoin ae isla) oth ai chee TS, ee
Ea awa, 'ale c shadeld a bee wie sacbels tel eiabare kh) he Glaeser tere 82.
Distance north northeast....+-...+ e+. aia ie T1384.
EG tase ehh OR erick se mG pee 6,10) wi as Ae lala prey ch pone fees

The mounds from 14 to 18, inclusive, are so arranged as to form
a curve, which, when continued, terminates at the larger mounds
Nos. 15 and 19.

No. 19. A large quadrangular mound, placed transversely, and with

. 20.
a ie
a.
. 23.

ats

No. 13, ranging in a line nearly parallel to the principal
series, (from 2 to 11.)

Distance north northwest from No. 13-..... 484 feet.

Distance east northeast from No. 18-------. 70

ain Rast ese oGi ctl & CSiahe rer ake GiakcR ee Seep eu: *

Top Re auan erate Wev avers cobieh ial at exalt lohel etl nidued cuiduer eh seenemauetat < 68 *

Height (by Eidusepe nica) de relersimiarots Lap 6 lejeyarn ie Be iat

A small barrow, perhaps two feet high, and of proportionably
rather large base, SAY + see e ee cece eee eeeee 15 or 20 feet.

A mound similar to the preceding, same height, west of No.
1G) AGE ble: 0 ee sia le Sos nm, wiale en fm TO Pee hakeliam are 25 feet.

Quadrangular, distance west from No. 16.--- S19. a

BAC tena Sa) eRe ES Bieri wats Sy Sea eC Enter 2S Hse ue

A mound of considerable regularity, but owing to the thick-
ness of the bushes we cannot at present satisfy ourselves
of its being artificial, though from its corresponding with
No. 25, we suppose it to be so.

Appears to be an irregular mound ten or twelve feet high,
and one hundred and forty-five feet base.

ARCHZXZ OLOGY, 391

No. 25. Distant north 10 east one hundred and fourteen feet,
and following this course one hundred and thirty-two feet
we arrive at an elevation on its margin, as is also the case
with No. 24, and which we have numbered 26.

No. 26. Of which the base is eighty-nine feet and height ten or
twelve. It is distant W.NW. from No. 19,538 feet.

No. 27. Is the largest mound, of an elongated-oval form, with a
large step on the eastern side, distance north from No.

(Bicradevecsme poreragerei cu stceeen store noe eres maoheuedeyeseneheie 1,463 feet.*
Longitudinal base-.-. .++... cece cere ee eee BU9 88
Longitudinal COP cee eee cee eee cee e ee ceeeee eS Hi. Coe
SPY AT AMETS OLDS E velco: edeneteien sister ciceh ale ele te teh ek oheriet ols PHSr eh
Transverse top-:+++ sess cece cere cece cee ees Pers Se
Step transversely Ry epe TaisetaES: ch of cane hetetehomane ercpiotenste LO ae
Height by measurement -----+-+-+-s++-e+-- oe ott

At the distance of a mile to the westward is said to be another
large mound. /

On the summit of No. 27 are found several graves. ‘‘We opened
five of them, but in one only were we fortunate in finding anything
interesting, and all that this contained was a solitary tooth of a
species of rat, together with the vertebre and ribs of a serpent of
moderate size and in good preservation; but whether the animal had
been buried by the natives, or had perished there after having found
admittance through some hole, we could not determine.’’ These
graves are similar to many found on the hills in the neighboring
country, and evidently contained the relics of a more modern people
than those who erected the mounds. ‘‘They do not rise above the
general surface, but their presence is ascertained by the vertical
stones which enclose them and project a little at either end of the
grave. When the included earth and the numerous horizontal flat
stones are removed, we find the sides neatly constructed of long flat
stones vertically implanted and adapted to each other, edge to edge,
so as to form a continuous wall. The graves are usually three or four
feet, though sometimes six feet in length.’’

The city has long since been extended over these mounds, and
although the marks of the sites of some of the larger are still seen,
all vestiges of the greater number have been obliterated.

* The relative position of this mound could not be correctly given on the map without
increasing the length to an inconvenient extent. Its true relative place would be consid-
erably beyond the northern margin of the map.

392 ARCHEOLOGY. -

INSTRUCTIONS

FOR

ARCHAOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN THE U. STATES.

PREPARED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY GEORGE GIBBS.

THE Smithsonian Institution being desirous of adding to its collec-
tions in archeology all such material as bears upon the physical type,
the arts and manufactures of the original inhabitants of America,
solicits the co-operation of officers of the army and navy, mission-
aries, superintendents, and agents of the Indian department, resi-
dents in the Indian country, and travellers to that end.

CRANIA.

Among the first of these desiderata is a full series of the skulls of
American Indians.

The jealousy with which they guard the remains of their friends
renders such a collection in most cases a difficult task, but there are
others in which these objects can be procured without impropriety.
Numerous tribes have become extinct, or have removed from their
former seats; the victims of war are often left where they fall; and
the bonestof the friendless and of slaves are neglected. Where,
without offence to the living, acquisitions of this kind can be
made, they will be gladly received as an important contribution to
our knowledge of the race.

Various methods of disposing of the dead have obtained amofig
different tribes, as burning, burial, deposit in caves, in lodges, beneath
piles of stone, and in wooden sepulchres erected above ground, pla-
cing on scaffolds or in canoes, and attaching to the trunks, of trees.
In many instances the bones, after a season, are collected together
and brought into common cemeteries. Where the first mentioned
form, that of burning, is followed, we must, of course, look to chance
for the preservation of the remains. This method is, however, more
rare than the others.

It is requisite, for the purpose of arriving at particular results,
that the most positive determination be made of the nation or tribe
to which a skull belongs. In extensive prairie countries, hunted over
or traversed by various tribes, or where, as on the Pacific coast,
several tribes and even stocks inhabit a district of limited extent,
this is often difficult, or even impossible. Unless, therefore, infor-
mation of a direct nature is obtained, the collector should be guarded
in assigning absolute nationalty to his specimens. It will be better
to state accurately the locality whence they are derived, and the
owners or frequenters of the neighborhood, to one of which it is

ARCH ZOLOGY. 393

likely to belong. Where several specimens are collected they should
be numbered to correspond with a catalogue in which the above
points are mentioned, as also whether they were found in a grave or
other place of deposit, with its description, the character of the
ornaments and utensils placed with it, and whether it was in its orig-
inal place or had been assembled with others. Finally, it should be
ascertained if the tomb be one of existing or recent inhabitants of
the country, or of one more ancient and preceding, such, for exam-
ple, as the mound builders of the Ohio, and, in this latter case, if the
remains are those of the original inhabitant, or have been since
deposited. In this the character of the articles buried with the body
will often furnish a clue. The same precaution should be adopted
where tribes have been removed to reservations not on their original
ground. In short, where any doubt exists in the mind of the col-
lector, all those circumstances should be examined into which, in
the absence of direct testimony, will facilitate a conclusion as to
origin.

Among some nations, it may be mentioned in this connexion, it is
the custom to marry out of the tribe as a matter of policy. Skulls
of women found in the cemeteries of one of these would therefore
very probably belong to an adjoining tribe, and it may happen of an
entirely different stock. In such cases, too, there can be no certainty
that the men themselves are of the pure blood of one race, and it is
important to ascertain if this custom exists among those tribes where
flattening or altering the head is common to both sexes; particular
suspicion should attach to any having the skull unaltered. This pro-
cess is usually a mark of rank, or at least of freedom, and the skull,
if found in a burial place or well-marked receptacle, may almost be
assumed to be that of a stranger; if neglected it is probably that of
aslave. But as slaves were often buried with their owners, even
this is not a positive conclusion. Among some of the Pacific tribes,
however, compression of the head is confined to females, or is, at any
rate, only carried to extent by them. Slaves are sometimes of the
same tribe with their owners, but they are more frequently purchased
from others, and it should be notéd that on the Pacific the course of
the trade has been from south to north.

In order to ascertain whether differences of form exist among dif-
ferent stocks, the accumulation of 4s many specimens as possible of
each tribe is desirable, and duplicates moreover afford the means of
further collections by exchange.

Those skulls which have been altered in shape possess a cer-
tain interest in themselves, though they are in other a#espects disad-

vantageous for comparison. The process, in different forms, has once
obtained more widely than at present, several tribes in the southern
States, as the Natchez, &c., having been addicted to it. Two methods
are still employed in North America: that of flattening the head by
pressure on the forehead, as practiced among the Chinooks and other
tribes in Oregon and Washington Territory, and that of elongating
it, peculiar to a few on the northern end of Vancouver island.

394 ARCHEOLOGY.

SPECIMENS OF ART, ETC.

Another department to which the Institution wishes to direct the
attention of collectors is that of the weapons, implements, and uten-
sils, the various manufactures, ornaments, dresses, &c., of the Indian
tribes.

Such a collection may naturally be arranged under three periods.
The first, that of the races which had already passed away before the
discovery of the continent by Europeans, or whose extinction may
be considered as coeval with that event; next, of the tribes who have
disappeared with the settlement of the Atlantic States and the coun-
try between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi; and finally, the
present time, or that of the yet existing nations confined to the
northern and western portions of the continent and to Mexico.

It is among the last that the greatest variety exists, and of which
it is especially important to make immediate collections, as many ar-
ticles are of a perishable nature, and as the tribes themselves are
passing away or exchanging their own manufactures for those of the
white race. It is hardly necessary to specify any as of particular
interest, for almost everything has its value in giving completeness
to a collection. Among the most noticeable, however, are dresses
and ornaments, bows and arrows, lances, war clubs, knives, and wea-
pons of all kinds, saddles with their furniture, models of lodges, par-
flesh packing covers and bags, cradles, mats, baskets of all sorts, gam-
bling implements, models of canoes, (as nearly as possible in their
true proportions, ) paddles, fish-hooks and nets, fish spears and gigs,
pottery, pipes, the carvings in wood and stone of the Pacific coast
Indians, and the wax and clay models of those of Mexico, tools used
in dressing skins and in other manufactures, metates or stone mor-
tars, &c., &e.

In making these collections care should be taken to specify the
tribes from whom they are obtained, and where any doubt may exist,
the particular use to which each is applied. Thus, for instance, among
the Californians one form of baskets used for holding water; another
for sweeping the seeds from various plants and grasses; a third, as
their receptacle during the process of collection; a fourth, for storage;
still another, in which to pound them; again, one to boil the porridge
made from the flour; and finally, others as dishes from whith the
preparation is eaten. It will also be desirable to ascertain the Indian
names given to each article.

Of the second class the remains are also numerous, and are scat-
tered through 4ll the States east of the Mississippi in the form of
axes, arrowheads, sinkers for nets, fleshing chissels, and other imple-
ments of stone, and in some cases fragments of rude pottery.

To the first class belong the only antiquities of America, and these
are of various descriptions. They include the tools found in the
northern copper mines; the articles enclosed in the mounds of Ohio
and elsewhere; the images common in Kentucky and Tennessee, in-
dicating, among other things, the worship of the Phallus; pottery,

ARCHEOLOGY. 395

the fragments of which are abundant in Florida, the Gulf States, and
on the Gila, connecting an extinct with an existing art; and espe-
cially those specimens frequently disinterred in the Mexican States
belonging to the era of Aztec or Toltecan civilization. It is espe-
cially important to ascertain the antiquity of these by careful obser-
vation of the circumstances under which they are discovered, in order
not to confound ancient with modern utensils.

To this class also belong those articles found under conditions
which connect archeology with geology, and which may be classed
as follows:

1. The contents of shell beds of ancient date found on the sea-
coasts and bays, often deeply covered with soil and overgrown with
trees, among which, besides the shells themselves, are frequently im-
plements of stone, bones of fish, animals, and birds used for food.
The examination of these collections in Denmark and other countries
of northern Europe has led to the discovery of remains belonging to
a period when a people having no other implements than those of
stone occupied the coast prior to the settlement there of the present
race. It is possible that a similar investigation in America may take
us back to a very remote period in aboriginal history.

2. Human remains, or implements of human manufacture, bones of
animals bearing the marks of tools or of subjection to fire, found in
caves beneath deposits of earth and more especially of stalagmites or
stony material formed by droppings from the roof.

3. Spear and arrowheads, or other weapons and evidences of fire
discovered in connexion with bones of extinct animals, such as the
mammoth, fossil elephant, &c., among superficial deposits, such as
salt licks, &c.

4. Implements of the same description found in deposits of sand
and gravel or other like material exposed in bluffs or steep banks,
such as have recently attracted the attention of European geologists.

In all these cases the utmost care should be taken to ascertain with
absolute certainty the true relations of these objects. In the case of
the shell banks, the largest trees, where any exist, should, if practi-
cable, be cut down and the annual rings counted. Next the depth
of the superincumbent deposit of earth should be measured and its
character noted, whether of gravel, sand, or decomposed vegetable
matter, as also whether it has been stratified by the action of water.
Next the thickness of the shell bed should be ascertained and the
height of its base above present high water mark, as also whether it
exhibits any marks of stratification. Finally, the face of the bed
having been uncovered, a thorough examination should be made,
commencing at the top and carefully preserving everything which
exhibits signs of human art, and noting the depth in the deposit at
which they were discovered. Specimens of each species of shell
should be collected, and all bones or fragments of them saved. Evi-
dences of fire having been used should be watched for and recorded.

In the search of caverns the same system should be followed. First,
the floor should be inspected for any recent remains either of men or
animals; next, the superficial earth should be carefully removed over

396 ARCH ZOLOGY.

a considerable space and thoroughly examined at various depths, the
results, if any, being kept separate and marked accordingly. Where
a stalagmitic deposit, such as is common in limestone caverns, forms
the floor, it must be broken up and its thickness measured. The un-
derlying materials should then be cautiously removed and sorted over,
each layer being kept by itself, and where any remains are discovered
the utmost precaution should be taken to determine their actual cir-
cumstances. If, for instance, they are bones of men, it should be
ascertained whether the skeleton is entire and in a natural position,
indicative of having been buried there, or scattered, as also its posi-
tion relative to any other remains, whether under or over them; if of
animals, whether they exhibit the marks of tools, and above all, evi-
dences of the employment of fire. Every fragment of bone or other
evidence of animal life should thus be preserved and marked with
the order of its succession in depth.

The same precautions should be taken in the other cases mentioned,
the conditions under which the objects are found, and the depth and
character of covering of each being noted, and full sets of specimens
sent for examination.

CIRCULAR.

_ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, April 25, 1862.

The Smithsonian Institution is about to publish a communication on
the ancient mining operations of the Lake Superior copper region,
and is desirous of obtaining all the facts which have been discovered
in later times in regard to this subject.

To attain this object, it is respectfully requested that all persons
who have made original observations in regard to this matter will
send an account of them to this Institution, and also specimens of
implements, &c., of wood, stone, or copper which have been found
in the vicinity of the ancient mines. These specimens will be care-
fully photographed and the originals, if requested, be returned to the
owners.

Specimens and photographs of this kind, when collected together,
afford the means by comparison of inferences of much interest in re-
gard to the early history of man, particularly in connexion with the
investigations of a similar kind now being prosecuted in Europe.

Mr. Jacob Houghton, mining engineer, Houghton county, Michi-
gan, has kindly offered to take charge of any articles which may be
presented or lent to the Institution, and they may be forwarded
through him, or directly by Adams’s Express, at the expense of this
establishment.

JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Snvithsonian Institution.

ARCH.ZOLOGY. 397
<

SUGGESTIONS

RELATIVE TO AN

ETHNOLOGICAL MAP OF NORTH AMERICA,
36 by 44 INCHES.

BY LEWIS H. MORGAN, OF ROCHESTER, N. Y.

Tt should show—

I. Ocean boundaries: with the straits of Behring, the Aleutian *
islands, and the direction of the North Atlantic ocean currents.

Il. River system, with the small tributaries complete.

Ill. Mountain ranges: to be indicated strongly. 1. Great ranges:
these to be named; whether wooded or sterile, to be shown. 2. Cross
or transverse ranges ; the same.

IV. Profiles showing the elevations of the continent on every fifth
parallel: to be drawn on the parallels, as now shown on the Smith-
sonian map.

V. Prairie and forest areas: 1. Arable prairie; to be shown as on
Smithsonian map in Patent Office report, but with a further discrimi-
nation as follows: where there is a mixture of forest and prairie, as is
the case particularly east of the Mississippi, if the forest predomi-
nates use one indication; if the prairie predominates use another.
2. Dry prairie; to be shown as on the Smithsonian map.

VI. Show the limits of the Colorado desert or basin, as far as they
are known. * ;

VII. Show the barren grounds west of Hudson bay.

VIII. Isothermal lines.

TX. Amount of annual precipitation in figures, for the purpose of
showing the comparative wetness or dryness of different areas—no
shading.

X. Boundary lines of States and Territories, with the initials of
each. ’

XI. Location and distribution of the embankments and eathworks
of the mound builders.

When the map is thus far completed by a draughtsman, there may
be added as follows:

XII. Boundaries of the territories of the several stock Indian fam-
ilies, each one to be shaded with a different color: 1. Stock families.
2. Nations constituting each family, and their location. 3. Location
of principal villages or settlements. 4. Geographical Indian names
of rivers, lakes, and localities, &c.

XII. Date of map: 1. Hast of the Mississippi and the Red River

398 ARCHLEOLOGY.

of the North, the: map to show the position of Indian nations A. D.
1600—1700. 2. Interior of the continent; the map to show the po-
sition of Indian nations A. D. 1700—1800. 3. West coast and
Hudson’s bay territory, A. D. 1800—1862. 4. Mexico and Central
America, A. D. 1520—1600.

For ordinary geographical features, besides standard maps, consult—

For British America: Richardson’s map, volume I; Sir John Rich-
ardson’s Journal of a Boat Voyage, &c. Also, maps accompanying
‘*Report on the Explorations of the Country between Lake Superior
and the Red River Settlement,’’ made to the Canadian Parliament;
printed at Toronto, 1858.

West of the Mississippi, and the Pacific coast: United States mil-
itary map.

For New Mexico, Texas, and northern States of Mexico: Bartlett’s
map; J. R. Bartlett’s Personal Narrative, volume I; and for the course
of the Colorado, Ives’s Colorado Report.

For Central America: Squeir’s map, in his work on Central Amer-
ica; also, United States map of same in House of Representatives
“Report on Central American Affairs and Enlistment Question,’’ 1856.

For Mexico, 1520—1600: consult Clavigero’s map; Clingen’s His-
tory of the Conquest of Mexico, volume VI; also, De Solis’s map; De
Solis’s Conquest of Mexico, volume If.

NATURAL HISTORY.

LIST OF BIRDS ASCERTAINED TO INHABIT THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, WITH
THE TIMES OF ARRIVAL AND DEPARTURE OF SUCH AS ARE NON-RESIDEN'ES,
AND BRIEF NOTICES OF HABITS, ETC.

BY ELLIOTT COUES AND D. WEBSTER PRENTISS.

From the central situation of the District of Columbia, with regard
to the northern and southern sections of the country, together with
the varied character of surface which it presents, it might be ex-
pected to possess a rich and interesting avi-fauna. Such has been
found to be the case. It seems to be on the natural dividing line be-
tween the true northern and southern faunas, it being impossible to
decide which takes precedence. Therefore, if we except a few pe-
culiarly favored regions, we are enabled to present a more extensive
list of species inhabiting the district than has been given for almost
any other locality in eastern North America.

Though the number of birds which are resident throughout the
year and those which breed here is considerable, they are few in
comparison with those which pass through during their spring and
autumn migrations, and remain for a longer or shorter time each sea-
son. The number of species, indeed, is not greater, but the individu-
als of each are very numerous. It is on this account that for a month
or so during the spring and autumn—from about the 20th of April
to the 20th of May, and from the 1st of September to the middle of
October—the collector is so amply repaid for his pains, while at other
times ornithologizing, except for some particular birds, is hardly
worth the time and trouble. So numerous, indeed, are individuals of
most of the migratory species that at the height of the season in
spring we have collected, in a walk before breakfast, from forty to
fifty specimens of various species of warblers, thrushes, flycatchers,
finches, &c. As an instance of the number of birds which pass
through the District on their way north to breed, compared with
those which remain with us during the summer, may be cited the
wood-warblers, or Dendroice. Of the twelve or thirteen wood-warb-
lers found more or less abundantly in the spring and fall, only three
are known to breed here. The same might be aftirmed of other birds,
as the thrushes, flycatchers, sandpipers, &c.

Though there is included in the list only those species which have
been positively detected, there are some of which specimens have
been obtained, and yet are not entitled to be considered as inhabitants
of the District. These may be divided into three classes: First,
those which visit us in severe winters, being driven south, out of

400- NATURAL HISTORY.

their usual range, by scarcity of food or other causes ; such are the
Nyctea nivea, Astur atricapillus, Collyrio borealis, Pinicola canadensis,
and others. Second, those which visit us in July and August, which
are mostly the young of species breeding further south. Examples
of these are to be seen in the Rhynchops mgra, some species of Ardet-
de, &c. In the third class are to be ranged those whose appearance
is totally accidental, dependent upon no fixed habit of the bird.
Thus, species of Z'hallassidroma and Puffinus have been seen upon the
Potomac, and a Milvulus (M. forficatus, probably) and the Chameepelia
passerina have been detected.

The great mass of the birds which pass through the district in their
spring migrations do not stop to breed before reaching, at least, the
New England States, and probably the majority go still further north,
spreading through the Canadas and into British America to the region |
around Hudson’s bay. Our regular winter visitants, as the Junco
hyemalis, Spizella monticola, and the Anatide generally, do not usually
stop much short of Labrador and the regions of that latitude. Other
species, however, breed with equal readiness in almost any latitude.
Thus the Dendroica aestiva is very common through the summer in the
district, and doubtless even further south; while it breeds also in very
high latitudes in British America. During the winter these migra-
tory species mostly retire to the Antilles, or into Central America,
though many linger in the Gulf States along our southern border.
The manner in which these extensive migrations are performed varieg,
doubtless, with different groups of birds, but it is very difficult to
conceive how some weak and short-winged species can perform the
immense journey. Some accomplish the distance by continually flying
from forest to forest, and from hedge to hedge; while others mount
directly high into the air, and uninterruptedly continue their flight
until hunger or weariness compels them to desist for awhile. This
kind of migration is performed by some species wholly in the night
time. Some of the small insectivorous birds have been noticed just
at daybreak to descend from a great height, and after remaining
motionless for sometime, as if to recuperate their energies, search
diligently for food, and again resume their flight towards evening.
The distance at which the notes of birds flying overhead can be
heard is truly surprising. We have heard distinctly the mellow
notes of the Bob-o’ link while the bird itself was entirely beyond our
range of vision. The loud ‘‘ honking’’ of wild geese while migrating
is well known.

‘A circumstance which has considerable influence on the appearance
of birds in the immediate vicinity is the presence of a large city.
This is most strikingly shown in the case of the ducks and other wa-
ter fowl, to which the attention of the sportsman is especially di-
rected. The peculiar character of Chesapeake bay and its tributa-
ries render them the favorite winter resort of nearly all the species
of Anatide ; but the incessant persecutions to which these birds are
subjected have effected a material diminution of their numbers, and
caused a great part of them to retire to the bogs and inlets of more
southern shores. The same is true, though less markedly, of various

NATURAL HISTORY. A(Qt

shy and solitary birds, (as, for example, the Hylatomus pileatus,) which
are gradually retiring with the clearing up of the forests to more
mountainous and inaccessible regions. Nevertheless, the pertinacity
with which some birds hold their ground is surprising. Thus the
common partridge, though so continually persecuted by sportsmen,
is still very numerous, even in the immediate vicinity of the city. <A
total change of habit by civilization, sometimes to be observed, is ex-
tremely interesting. There can be no doubt that before the settle-
ment of the country the Chaetura pelasgia bred in hollow trees. This
habit is now totally lost, the bird finding chimneys better suited to its
wants. In like manner, the Hirundo horreorum now breeds altogether
on the rafters and beams of barns and outhouses, while the A, luni-
frons is gradually abandoning the sides of cliffs for the convenient
situations afforded by the projecting eaves of buildings. The Progne
purpurea always gives preference to the boxes now everywhere placed
for its accommodation.

With these brief and very cursory remarks, which might be greatly
extended did space permit, we proceed to the list of the species ascer-
tained to inhabit the District. Our observations, from which the
paper has been prepared, have extended over a period of nearly five
years, during which all the time that could be spared from other oc-
cupations has been devoted to the study of birds. No species has
been admitted which has not been actually detected in the District
or its immediate vicinity. A few of whose existence there can be
little or no doubt, are included in brackets, but still are not counted
in the list. The date given for the arrival and departure of any bird
is the mean of those observed during each successive year, since the
appearance and disappearance of birds depend somewhat on the
early or late advance of the season. It is regretted that the account
of some of the water birds is so scanty and incomplete; but it is hoped
that the very full details of most of the land birds will in a measure
atone for the deficiency in this respect.

1. Cathartes aura, (Linn.,) Ul.—Turkey Buzzard. Permanent res-
ident. Abundant. Not ordinarily gregarious, but collects in great
numbers where offal of any description is exposed.

2. Falco columbarius, Linn. Pigeon Hawk. Rather rare, but few
having been observed. Very shy. Sometimes exposed for sale in
the market.

3. Falco (Tinnunculus) sparverius, Linn. Sparrow Hawk. Resi-
dent. Abundant. Generally found in open fields, about hedges,
stumps, dead trees, &c.

4. Astur atricapillus, (Wils.,) Bon.—Goshawk. Very rare; only
occasionally observed during the winter months.

5. Accipiter cooperi, Bon.—Cooper’s Hawk. Resident. One of the
most common hawks. Frequents chiefly open fields, searching for
mice, small birds, &c.

6. Accipiter fuscus, (Gm.,) Bon.—Sharp-shinned Hawk. Resident.
Very abundant, and the least shy of the hawks. Frequents hedges,
ditches, brier patches, &c.

26

402 NATURAL HISTORY.

T. Buteo borealis, (Gm.,) Vieill.—Red-tailed Hawk. ‘‘ Hen Hawk.’’
Resident. Abundant, especially in winter. Very shy and wary.
Generally seen upon the largest trees in open fields.

8. Buteo lineatus, (Gm.,) Jard.—Red-shouldered Hawk. ‘‘ Chicken
Hawk.’’ Resident. Common. Habits much like those of the pre-
ceding, with which it is generally confounded by farmers.

9. Buteo pennsylvanicus, (Wils.,) Bon.—Broad-winged Hawk. Very
rare; only occasionally observed. Specimens have been obtained in
the market.

[Nauclerus furcatus, Vig.—Swallow-tailed Kite. As this bird goes
considerably further north, it doubtless is to be found in the District,
though we have never detected it. |

10. Circus hudsonicus, (Linn.,) Vieill.—Marsh Hawk. Resident.
Very abundant. Generally seen over the marshes of the rivers, and
the wet meadows north of the city.

11. Aquila canadensis, (Linn.,) Cass.:—Golden Eagle. Apparently
not rare; individuals being observed or taken almost every winter.
Two specimens from this locality are now in the museum of the
Smithsonian Institution.

12. Halictus leucocephalus, (Linn.,) Savig.—Bald-headed Eagle.
Not rare. Frequently seen sailing along over the river and perched
upon stumps and snags upon the ‘‘flats.’’ Resident.

13. Pandion carolinensis, (Gm.,) Jard.—Fish Hawk. Osprey.
Common. Seen over the Potomac and Anacostia rivers, and upon
the branches of dead trees overhanging their banks.

14. Scops asio, (Linn.,) Bon.—Screech Owl. The most abundant
as well as the smallest of the owls. This as well as the other owls
are comparatively seldom seen on account of their nocturnal habits.

15. Bubo virginianus, (Gm.,) Bon.—Great Horned Owl. ‘‘ Cat
Owl.’’ Not common. Sometimes offered for sale in the market. Sel-
dom seen, but its note often heard in woods, *‘making night hid-
eous.”

16. Otus wilsonianus, Lesson.—Long-eared Owl. More abundant
than the preceding. Seldom seen. Passes the day in hollow trees,
thick clumps of pines, &c.

17. Brechyotus cassinii, Brew.—Short-eared Owl. Very abundant.
Less shy than preceding, and apparently more confused by the light
of day. Has been caught in the streets of the city.

18. Syrniwm nebulosum, (Forst.,) Gray.—Barred Owl. Rare. But
a few specimens observed. Found chiefly in day time in close cedar
thickets, near farm houses.

19. Nyctea nivea, (Daud.,) Gray.—Snowy Owl. Very rare; only
occasionally observed during the severest weather in winter.

[Nyctale acadica may very probably be hereafter detected. |

20. Coccygus. americanus, (Linn.,) Bon.—Yellow-billed Cuckoo.
‘‘Rain Crow.’’ Very abundant, especially in spring and fall. Found
chiefly in open woods. Breed plentifully. Fresh eggs are often
found ina nest with young birds. Arrives May 1; departs late in
September.

21. Coccygus erythrophthalmus, (Wils.,) Bon.—Black-billed Cuckoo.
‘‘Rain Crow.’’ Less abundant than the preceding, but not at all

NATURAL HISTORY. 403

rare. Habits similar to those of the Yellow-billed Cuckoo. Note not
so harsh and prolonged. Summer resident. Arrives May 1; departs
late in September.

22. Picus (Trichopicus) villosus, Linn.-—Hairy Woodpecker. Per-
manent resident. Apparently rare. General habits in common with
the woodpeckers. Not at all shy.

23. Picus (Trichopicus) pubescens, Linn. — Downy Woodpecker.
‘‘Sapsucker.’’ Resident all the year. Abundant. Breeds plenti-
fully. Frequents chiefly orchards, the dead undergrowth of boggy
marshes, and the more open cleared woods.

24. Sphyropicus varius, (Linn.,) Baird.—Yellow-bellied Wood-
pecker. Resident all the year. Abundant, particularly in the fall.
Frequents chiefly high open woods, but often seen in thickets and
tangled copses. Very fond of the berries of the sour gum.

25. Hylatomus pileatus, (Linn.,) Bd.—Pileated Woodpecker. ‘‘ Cock
of the Woods.’’ ‘‘ Black Log-Cock.’’ Probably permanent resident.
Rare, having retired from the immediate vicinity with the clearing
off of the forests. Excessively shy and wary when seen.

26. Centurus carolinus, (Linn.,) Bon.—Red-bellied Woodpecker.
Resident all the year; rather rare, and apparently more so than for-
merly.

2T. Melanerpes erythrocephalus, (Linn.,) Sw.—Red-headed Wood-
pecker. ‘‘Red-head.’’ Summer resident; high open woods and
orchards. The most abundant of the woodpeckers. Arrives in spring
usually the last week in April; leaves about the middle of September.

28. Colaptes auratus, (Linn.,) Sw. — Yellow-shafted Woodpecker.
‘*Plicker.’’ Resident all the year. Very abundant, particularly in
spring and fall, when usually seen in straggling flocks. Breeds plen-
tifully.

29. Trochilus colubris, Linn. —Ruby-throated Humming Bird.
Summer resident. The only Humming Bird found here. Abundant,
especially in the fall. Frequent exclusively the gardens in the city,
patches of wild flowers, (golden rod, &c.,) along the sides of branches.
Breed plentifully in the high woods. Arrive in spring about May 1,
and remain till the first approach of cool weather.

30. Chetura pelasgia, (Linn.,) Steph.—Chimney Swift. Very
abundant. Mostly seen in the city. Arrives second week in April;
leaves towards the end of September.

31. Antrostomus vociferus, (Wils.,) Bon.—Whip-poor-will. Rare.
Summer resident. Arrives first week in May; leaves third week in
September. When suddenly startled flies off in a confused zigzag
manner, unless during the breeding season.

32. Chordeiles popetue, (Vieill.,) Bd.—Night Hawk. ‘‘ Bull Bat.’’
Spring and autumn visitant. A few breed. Arrives May 1; leaves
about October 6. Very abundant in the fall, especially just before
its departure.

33. Ceryle alcyon, (Linn.,) Boie.—Kingfisher. Summer resident.
Quite common along the banks of the rivers and Rock creek. Rather
shy. Arrives the third week in March; leaves early in October.

34, Milvulus ?—A Milvulus was seen, but, unfortunately,

404 NATURAL HISTORY.

not obtained, May 6, 1861, by Mr. C. Drexler. It was probably I.
Sorficatus.

35. Tyrannus carolinensis, (Linn.,) Bd.—King Bird. ‘‘Bee Mar-
tin.’ Summer resident; breeds plentifully, but the greater number
go further north. Arrives second week in April; leaves late in Sep-
tember.

36. Myiarchus crinitus, (Linn.,) Cab.—Great-crested Flycatcher.
Common summer resident, but most numerous in spring and autumn.
Arrives third week in April; leaves third week in September.

37. Sayornis fuscus, (Gm.,) Bd.—Pewee. ‘‘Tom-tit.’? Common sum-
mer resident, but more plentiful in spring and fall, since the greater
number go further north to breed. Arrives the jirst of the spring
visitants, about the first of March, and is very abundant for a month
or more; in autumn becomes numerous about September 25, and
does not leave till near the middle of October. Breeds in caves,
about rocks, creeks, bridges, &c.

38. Contopus virens, (Linn.,) Cab.—Wood Pewee. Excessively
abundant summer resident. Arrives last week in April; becomes
very abundant in two weeks; leaves third week in September.

39. Empidonax traillii, (Aud.,) Bd.—Traill’s Flycatcher, Rare;
spring and fall visitant; perhaps a few breed. Times of arrival and
departure much those of the succeeding.

40. Empidonax minimus, Baird.—Least Flycatcher. Spring and
autumn visitant; none breed; rather common, most so in the spring.
Frequents exclusively the margins of small streams and brooks, briar
patches, &c. Arrives last week in April, remains about two weeks;
arrives in autumn, third week in August, and remains till third week
in September.

41. Empidonax acadicus, Gm., Bd.—Acadian Flycatcher. Common
summer resident; the most abundant of the Hmpidonaces, and the
only one that breeds here in any numbers. Arrives last week in
April; leaves about September 25.

42. EHmpidonax flaviventris, Bd. — Yellow-bellied Flycatcher.
Spring and autumn visitant; rather rare; perhaps some breed, spe-
cimens having been taken July 28. Arrives the first week in May;
in autumn remains until third week in September. Found in same
situations as LZ. minimus.

43. Turdus mustelinus, Gm.—Wood Thrush. ‘‘ Wood Robin.’’
Summer resident. Many breed, but the greater number go further
north. Arrives last week in April; leaves last week in October.
Frequents thick and tangled woods, especially laurel brakes, &c.,
along the banks of Rock creek.

44, Turdus pallasi, Cab.—Hermit Thrush. Spring and autumn
visitant; none breed. Arrives much the earliest of all the thrushes,
and immediately becomes very abundant. Frequents chiefly open
woods. Arrives third week in March, and remains until May;
arrives in the fall the first week in October, and leaves about the
third.

45. Turdus fuscescens, Steph.—Tawny Thrush. Spring and autumn
visitant. Rather uncommon, being the rarest of the thrushes. Does
not usually arrive until the first week in May; remains but a short

NATURAL HISTORY. 405

time; returns early in the fall. Frequents high open woods, but keeps
near the ground. Shy and solitary.

46. Turdus swainsoni, Cab.—Olive-backed Thrush. Spring and
autumn visitant; none breed. The most abundant of the thrushes,
except perhaps 7’. pallasi. Have seen them in considerable flocks in
the fall. Arrives the second week in April; remains but a short
time. Returns in the fall, second week in September; remains till
second week in October.

47. Turdus aliciae, Bd.—Gray-cheeked Thrush. Spring and
autumn visitant; none breed. Apparently as abundant as 7” swain-
soni, more so than 7. fuscescens. Found in similar situations with
the former, with which its times of arrival‘and departure are nearly
identical; perhaps fonder of swampy localities. (First shown to
belong to the eastern Avi-fauna by ourselves. See Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci., Philada., Aug., 1861.)

48. Turdus (Planesticus) migratorius, Linn.—Robin. Permanent
resident. A few breed, and a few remain during the winter; the
greater part, however, proceed north in summer and south in winter.
Most abundant in November and March. Sour gui and poke-berries
(Phytolacca decandra) are their favorite food. Found in all localities.
Many nest in the parks about the Capitol and President’s House.

49. Stalia sialis, (Linn.,) Bd.—Blue Bird. Very abundant. Per-
manent resident. Disappears in severe weather in winter, but is
found on warm, sunny days throughout that season, and becomes ex-
ceedingly numerous on the first opening of spring. Breeds plentifully
in holes of trees and in boxes throughout the city.

50. Regulus calendulus, (Linn.,) Licht.—Ruby-crowned Kinglet.
Spring and autumn visitant. Very abundant. None breed. In spring,
from April 1 to May 10; in fall, through the month of October and
first few days in November. Frequents orchards, thickets, copses,
cedar patches, &c.; less frequently found in high woods. Is most
numerous in the fall. Is in full song before it leaves. Spring migra-
tions always embrace a number of both sexes, with the head perfectly
plain.

51. Regulus satrapa, Licht.—Golden-crested Kinglet. Winter resi-
dent. Abundant from October 1 to latter part of April. None breed.
Habits much the same as the preceding. Thick pine woods a favorite
resort. Familiar and unsuspicious.

52. Anthus ludovicianus, (Gm.,) Licht. —Titlark. ‘‘Skylark.’’ Win-
ter resident. Abundant. Makes its appearance towards the end of
October, and remains until April. Always found in restless straggling
flocks, usually of considerable extent. Frequents open commons,
bare meadows, ploughed fields, &c. Has a remarkable habit of fre-
quently alighting on the roofs of houses and sheds. [Breeds in great
numbers in Labrador. |

53. Mniotilta varia, (Linn.,) Vieill.—Black and White Creeper.
‘‘Sapsucker.’’ Very common summer resident, but more abundant
in spring and fall, as the greater number go further north to breed.
Arrives first week in April, and is exceedingly humerous until May.
Breeds in holes in trees. Generally found in high, open woods.

54. Parula americana, (Linn.,) Bon.—Blue Yellow: back Warbler.

’

406 NATURAL HISTORY.

Spring and autumn visitant. Exceedingly abundant from April 25 till
May 15. Perhaps a few breed, as we have found them the first week
in August. In fall abundant from August 25 to second week in Oc-
tober. Inhabits exclusively high, open woods, and usually seen in
the tops of the trees, or at the extremities of the branches, in the
tufts of leaves and blossoms. (Albino obtained.)

55. Protonotaria citrea, (Bodd.,) Bd.—Prothonotary Warbler. Ex-
ceedingly rare; perhaps only an accidental visitor. An individual
seen in a swampy briar patch May 2, 1861. Probably its most north-
ern range, if reguiarly found here.

56. Geothlypis trichas, (Linn.,) Cab.—Maryland Yellow-throated
Warbler. Very abundant summer resident, breeding in great num-
bers. Arrives April 25, becoming exceedingly numerous on its first
appearance. Remains until October. Inhabits the densest briar
patches, generally in swampy situations. Never seen in high woods,
seldom in orchards or hedgerows. Associates with Cistothorus palus-
tris, in the Zizania aquatica marshes. Nest on ground.

[G. philadelphia is undoubtedly an inhabitant of the District. ]

57. Oporornis agilis, (Wils.,) Bd.—Connecticut Warbler. Rather
uncommon in the fall, during the month of October. Excessively
rare in spring; we never have seen it in that season. Frequents old
buckwheat and corn fields, searching for food among the dry, rank
weeds; also low thickets in swampy places.

58. Oporornis formosus, (Wils.,) Bd. —Kentucky Warbler. Rare.
Found chiefly in low woods with thick undergrowth, ravines, &c.
Very silent, but not shy. A few breed here.

59. Icteria viridis, (Gm.,) Bon.—Yellow-breasted Chat. Summer
resident, breeding very abundantly. Arrives the last week in April,
leaves about the middle of September. Frequents exclusively most
dense and impenetrable briar patches. Males exceedingly shy and
difficult to procure until the females commence incubation, when they
are quite the reverse.

60. Helmitherus vermivorus, (Gm.,) Bon.—Worm-eating Warbler.
Rathen uncommon summer resident, breeding sparingly. Arrives
first week in May, remains till third week in September. Slow and
sedate in its movements.

61. Helminthophaga chrysoptera, (Linn.,) Cab.—Golden-winged War-
bler. Spring and autumn visitant. Very rare.

62. Helminthophaga pinus, (Linn.,) Baird.—Blue-winged Yellow
Worm-eating Warbler. Spring and autumn visitant. Very rare.

63. Helminthophaga ruficapilla, (Wils.,) Bd.—Nashville Warbler.
Spring and autumn visitant. Rare.

64. Helminthophaga peregrina, (Wils.,) Cab.—Tennessee Warbler.
Spring and autumn visitant. Very rare.

[Our observations warrant the belief that all the Helminthophagece
are exceedingly rare. Though the four species given have been de-
tected, the data with regard to their arrival and departure have not
been ascertained. |

65. Seiwurus aurocapillus, (Linn.,) Sw.—Golden-crowned Wagtail.
Exceedingly abundant summer resident. Arrives April 12; for
about two weeks keeps perfectly silent, hiding in the thickets and

NATURAL HISTORY. 407

laurel brakes, (Kalmia latifolia,) so that its loud, harsh notes are not
heard until the first of May, when they fill the woods, greatly to the
annoyance of the collector searching for rarer and more retiring
species. Found in high woods, especially where there is an under-
growth. Is not aquatic in any sense, but keeps on the ground rust-
ling among the dry leaves for insects, and when disturbed flies to the
nearest tree.

66. Seiurus noveboracensis, (Gm.,) Nutt.—Water Wagtail. Quite
common in spring and fall ; also breeds sparingly, having been found
in July. Arrives in spring about May 1. Is eminently aquatic ;
swampy thickets, thick gloomy woods interspersed with puddles,
where it associates with Rhyacophilus solitarius, are favorite resorts.

67. Seiurus ludovicianus, (Vieill.,) Bon.—Large-billed Water Wag-
tail. This bird, gener ally considered so rare, we have found to be not
at all uncommon at certain seasons in par ticular localities. From the
20th of April to the 10th of May it may always be obtained, by an
acute collector, in the dense laurel brakes which border the banks of
and fill the ravines leading into Rock creek and Piney branch. We
think we have seen it in June, which would prove it to breed here, as
is, indeed, very probable. We have not detected it in the fall. It is
usually very shy, darting at once into the most impenetrable brakes;
but we have sometimes seen it quite the reverse, and have shot a pair,
one after the other, as they sat in full view before me unconcernedly
wagging their tails. We have nearly always found it in pazrs, even as
early as April 20. Its note is a sparrow-like chirp, like that made
by striking two pebbles together; but it has also a loud and most
beautiful and melodious song, the singularity of which first drew our
attention to it.

68. Dendroica virens, (Gm.,) Bd.—Black-throated Green Wood-
warbler. Spring and autumn visitant. Nonebreed. In spring, from
May 1 to 20; in fall, from September 7 to October 1. High open
woods. Abundant.

69. Dendroica canadensis, (Linn.,) Bd.—Black-throated Blue Wood-
warbler. Like the preceding, but rather less numerous.

70. Dendroica coronata, (Linn.,) Gray.—Yellow-rumped Wood-
warbler. Winter resident. Exceedingly abundant. Arrive sec-
ond week in October and remain until second week in May. Moult
during the whole month of April, but before they leave are in full
spring dress, though they have no song here. Most abundant in
April and October, less so in depth of winter. Fond of hedges,
orchards, copses, &c., but found everywhere. (Albino obtained.)

T1. Dendroica blackburniae, (Gm.,) Bd.—Blackburnian Wood-war-
bler. Spring and autumn visitant. None breed. In spring, from May
1 to 20; in fall, from September 1 to 25. High open woods. Com-
mon.

12. Dendroica castanea, (Wils.,) Bd.—Bay-breasted Wood-warbler.
Spring and autumn visitant. None breed. May 1 to 20; September
1 to 30. More abundant in fall than in spring. High open woods ;
sometimes laurel brakes, &c. |

73. Dendroica pinus, (Wils.,) Bd.— Pine-creeping Wood-warbler.
Summer resident. Arrives early in March, and stays until October.

408 NATURAL HISTORY.

Not very abundant at any time, and breeds but sparingly. High
open woods. Pine and spruce forests.

74. Dendroica pennsylvanica, (Linn.,) Bd.—Chestnut-sided Wood-
warbler. Spring and autumn visitant. None breed. In spring, from
May 1 to 25; in fall, from September 1 to 20. High open woods.
Abundant.

7d. Dendroica striata, (Forst.,) Bd.—Black-poll Wood-warbler.
Spring and autumn visitant. None breed. In spring, from May T
to June 1; in fall, September 7 to second week in October. Arrive
latest in both spring and fall, and stay latest of all the migratory
warblers. Are the most numerous at both seasons, but especially
abundant in the fall. High open woods.

16. Dendroica aestiva, (Gm.,) Bd.—Summer Yellow Wood-warbler.
Summer resident. Very abundant. Breeds in numbers throughout
the city, placing the nest in the forks of garden and fruit trees.
Arrives April 25; leaves early in September. Never found in high
open woods with the other Dendroice, but frequents orchards, gar-
dens, &c.; also swampy copses.

TT. Dendroica maculosa, (Gm.,) Bd.—Black and Yellow Wood-
warbler. Spring and autumn visitant. None breed. Arrives first
week in May; remains till the third. In fall, from September 1 to
October 7. High open woods. Abundant.

18. Dendroica tigrina, (Gm.,) Bd.—Cape May Wood-warbler.
Exceedingly rare. A single specimen obtained September 12, 1859.
Times of arrival and departure probably identical with those of D.
virens, canadensis, &c.

79. Dendroica superciliosa, (Bodd,) Bd.—Yellgw-throated Wood-
warbler. Entirely accidental visitor. One specimen obtained in
1842, and now in Smithsonian collection.

80. Dendroica discolor, (Vieill.,) Bd.—Prairie Wood-warbler. Mostly
spring and autumn visitant, being quite abundant during those sea-
sons. A few, however, breed. Arrives earlier than most of the
Dendroice, about April 20. Frequents almost exclusively cedar
patches and pine trees, and has very peculiar manners and notes.

81. Dendroica palmarum, (Gm.,) Baird.—Yellow Red-poll Wood-
warbler. Spring and autumn visitant. Rather rare. None breed.
Arrives about May 1; in fall, late in September, and does not leave till
middle of October, after all the other warblers but Dend. coronata
have taken their departure. Frequents old corn and buckwheat
fields, associating with various species of sparrows; differing in this
respect from all others of its genus, and resembling Oporornis agilis.

[There are twenty-two species of Dendroica found in North America;
of these, fourteen have been observed here. Not one is a permanent
resident; three only (D. pinus, aestiva, discolor) breed; one (D. coro-
nata) is a winter resident. Nine others are spring and fall visitants;
of these, seven (D. virens, canadensis, blackburniae, castanea, penn-
sylvanica, striata, maculosa) do not differ materially in numbers,
habits, or times of arrival and departure; one (D. palmarum) differs
in times of arrival and departure, and very remarkably in habits; one
(D. superciliosa) is an accidental visitor; one (D. tigrina) is exceed-

NATURAL HISTORY. 409

ingly rare. In addition, Dendroica cerulea is undoubtedly to be
found here. |

82. Myiodioctes mitratus, (Gm.,) Aud.—Hooded Warbler. Rare
spring and autumn visitant: Perhaps some breed.

83. Myiodioctes pusillus, (Wils.,) Bon.—Green Black-capped Fly-
catcher. Rare spring and autumn visitant. A few may breed.

84. Myiodioctes canadensis, (Linn.,) Aud.—Canada Flycatcher.
Spring and autumn visitant. Abundant. Frequents high, open woods,
keeping mostly in the lower branches of the trees, and also the more
open undergrowth of marshy places. Arrives the last week in April,
and remains about two weeks; arrives in fall the first week in Sep-
tember, and stays until the fourth.

85. Setophaga ruticilla, (Linn.,) Sw.—Redstart. Chiefly spring and
autumn visitant. But very few breed. Exceedingly abundant in
spring from April 25 to May 20, and in fall from September 1 to
20; in all woody or swampy situations. Has a habit of running
along little twigs sideways. Note very similar to that of Dendroica
estiva.

86. Pyranga rubra, (Linn.,) Vieill—Scarlet Tanager. Spring and
autumn visitant. A few breed. In spring, from first to last week in
May; in fall, from September 1 to 20. Common, but only found in
. high, open woods.

87. Pyranga estiva, (Linn.,) Vieill—Summer Red Bird. Summer
resident. Not abundant. Arrives May 1; leaves towards the latter
part of September. Frequents entirely high woods, especially those
that have much undergrowth.

88. Hirundo horreorum, Barton.—Barn Swallow. Exceedingly
abundant summer resident. Arrives March 25, and remains until
September 12. Breeds in barns, out-houses, &c.

89. Hirundo lunifrons, Say.—Cliff Swallow. Summer resident, but
not so abundant as preceding, from scarcity of good breeding places.
Arrives last week in April, and remains until September 12.

90. Hirundo bicolor, Vieill—White-bellied Swallow. Summer resi-
dent. Common, but not nearly so much so as H. horreorum. Arrives
first week in April, and remains until third week in September.

91. Cotyle (Cotyle) riparia, (Linn.,) Boie.—Bank Swallow. Sum-
mer resident; the most abundant of the swallows; more so in fall
than in spring. Arrives second week in May; departs about the
middle of September. Eminently gregarious at all seasons. (Albino
obtained.)

92. Cotyle ( Stelgidopteryx ) serripennis, (Aud.,) Bon.—Rough-winged
Swallow. Summer resident. Rather rare. Arrives third week in
April; leaves about the middle of September.

93. Progne purpurea, (Linn.,) Boie.—Purple Martin. Summer resi-
dent. Common. Arrives May 1; leaves first week in September.
Many breed in the city and about the public buildings.

94. Ampelis cedrorum, (Vieill.,) Bd.—Cedar Waxwing. ‘‘ Cedar
Lark.’”’ Resident all the year. Abundant, particularly in the fall.
Gregarious; almost always seen in flocks. Breeds latest of the sum-
mer residents, being in flocks as late as first week in June.

95. Collyrio borealis, (Bon.,) Bd.—Great Northern Shrike. Very

410 NATURAL HISTORY. '

rare. Perhaps its southern limit. Seen only in severe winter
weather.

96. Vireo (Vireosylvia) olivaceus, (Linn.,) Vieill.—Red-eyed Vireo
Summer resident. Found in all the high, open woods, from April
20 to September 25. The most abundant summer resident.

97. Vireo gilvus, (Vieill.,) Bon.—Warbling Vireo. Summer resi-
dent. Common. Arrives April 20, and remains until September 20.
Frequents orchards, gardens, &c.; also, sometimes, low, thick swamps,
and is especially abundant in the city, breeding in the high sycamore
and poplar trees. Very seldom seen in woods with other vireos.

98. Vireo (Lanivireo) solitarius, (Wils.) Vieill.-—Blue-headed
Vireo. Spring and autumn visitant. (Some breed?) Arrives in
spring April 25; leaves in fall October 20. Rarest of the vireos.
Inhabits high, open woods, associating with V. olivaceus and V. fla-
vf Tons. .

99. Vireo (Lanivireo) flavifrons, Vieill.—Yellow-throated Vireo.
Summer resident. Abundant. Arrives April 25; remains until Sep-
tember 25. High, open woods. [Vireo philadelphicus, Cass., has never
been actually detected, but is undoubtedly a very rare inhabitant of
the District. |

100. Mimus polyglottus, (Linn.,) Boie.—Mocking Bird. Summer
resident; but rare. Arrives April 25; departs about the middle of
September.

101. Mimus carolinensis, (Linn.,) Gray.—Cat Bird. Summer resi-
dent. Exceedingly abundant. Found in all briar patches, along fences,
and in thickets. Arrives in spring, the 3d week in April. Seems
rather careless in concealing its nest, but very solicitous in protect-
ing it. Departs about October 15.

_ 102. Harporhynchus rufus, (Linn.,) Cab.—Thrasher. ‘‘ French
Mocking Bird;’’ ‘‘Sandy Mocking Bird.’’ Summer resident. Abun-
dant. Arrives April 20, departs first week in October.

103. Thriothorus ludovicianus, (Linn.,) Bon.—Great Carolina Wren.
Permanent resident. Not abundant, but most so in the summer;
breeds in thick shrubbery, &c., about gardens; at other seasons is
very shy and unfamiliar.

104. Cistothorus (Telmatodytes) palustris, (Wils.) Bd.—Long Billed
Marsh Wren. Summer resident. Arrives 3d week in April, leaves
early in October. Very abundant, but only in certain localities;
chiefly in the tracts of Zizania aquatica, which border the Potomac
and Anacostia rivers [Cistothorus stellaris, though we have not been
able to detect it, is doubtless found sparingly here. |

105. Troglodytes edon, Vieill——House Wren. Summer resident.
Very abundant. Arrives April 15, leaves October 20. Breeds in boxeg,
out-houses, sheds, &c., and in orchards.

106. Anorthura hyemalis, (Wils.)—Winter Wren. Winter resident;
rather uncommon. Arrives Ist week in October; remains until latter
part of April. Frequents thick briar patches in dark woods, and the
rocks and gullies about ravines and the sides of creeks.

107. Certhia americana, Bon.—Brown Creeper. Resident all the
year. High, open woods. Abundant.

NATURAL HISTORY. All

108. Sitta carolinensis, Gm.—White-bellied Nuthatch. Resident
all the year. Very abundant, especially in fall. High, open woods.

109. Sitta canadensis, Linn.—Red-bellied Nuthatch. Winter resi-
dent. Arrives early in October, and remains until May. Rather
rare. High, open woods, pine forests.

110. Polioptila ccer ulea, (Linn.,) Sclat.—Blue-Gray Gnatcatcher.
Summer resident. Arrives early, the first week in April; remains until
latter part of September. Very abundant. Breeds in high, open’
woods; on its first arrival frequents tall trees on the sides of streams,
orchards, «ce.

111. Lophophanes bicolor, (Linn.,) Bon.—Permanent resident, but
the greater number breed further north. Exceedingly abundant,
especially in fall. Found in all situations.

112. Parus atricapillus, Linn.—Black-capped Chick-a-dee. Win-
ter resident.

113. Parus carolinensis, Aud.—Carolina Chick-a-dee. Summer
resident. (Owing to the close resemblance of these two species, we
have not been able to detect their times of arrival and departure. )

114. Eremophila cornuta, (Wils.,) Boie.—Sky-lark. Winter resi-
dent. Arrives November 1; remains until April. Abundant. In-
habits, exclusively, bare level meadows and open commons. Emi-
nently gregarious while here.

115. Pinicola canadensis, (Briss.,) Cab.—Pine Grosbeak. An ex-
ceedingly rare and probably only accidental visitant in severe win-
ters.

116. Carpodacus purpureus, (Gm.,) Gray.—Purple Finch. Winter
resident; very abundant; eminently gregarious. Arrives early in
October, and remains until May. Stragglers are seen through the
greater part of that month, but the majority depart as soon as the
leaves are fully expanded. High, open woods; feeding chiefly
(entirely in spring) on tender young buds. Are in full song before
they take their departure.

117. Chrysomitris tristis, (Linn.,) Bon. Sepia Finch. ‘‘ Briar Bird.”
Permanent resident. Exceedingly abundant. Breeds in numbers
throughout the city, building in the crotches of poplars and maples.
In winter gregarious, collecting in very large flocks about the 25th
of September, and continuing so until May. Is in dull plumage as
long as it remains in flocks.

118. Chrysomitris pinus, (Wils.,) Bon.—Pine Finch. Winter resi-
dent; rather uncommon; - always found i in flocks, frequently associating
with C. tristis. Remains until May.

119. Ayiothus linaria, (Lin.,) Cab.—Common Red-poll Linnet.
Rare, perhaps only accidental visitant in severe winters, when it ap-
pears in restless flocks of greater or less extent.

[The two species of Cross-bills— Curvirostra americana and
leucoptera—undoubtedly sometimes make their appearance in severe
winters, though we have not been able to ascertain the fact with
certainty. |

120. Plectrophanes nivalis, Meyer.—Snow Bunting. Rare visitant
in the depth of winter.

[P. lapponicus may very possibly visit us occasionally. ]

412 NATURAL HISTORY.

121. Passerculus savanna, (Wils.,) Bon.—Savanna Sparrow. Chiefly
spring and autumn visitant; a few doubtless winter in secluded
situations; none breed. Very numerous on low, moist meadows and
watery savannas from March 15 to first week in May, and from Oc-
* tober 10 to November 10. Shy and retiring; associate in companies;
keep always on the ground. Are in full song before they depart.

. 122. Pooecetes gramineus, (Gm.,) Bd. —Bay-winged Bunting. Grass

Finch. Resident all the year; very numerous in spring and autumn,
less so in summer and winter. Frequent high dry fields, road
sides, &e.

123. Coturniculus passerinus, (Wils.,) Bon.—Yellow-winged Spar-
row. Summer resident; abundant. Arrives April 25; remains until
October 15. Inhabits exclusively meadows and fields, keeping closely
concealed in the grass. Usually solitary.

124. Coturniculus henslowi, (Aud.,) Bon. —Henslow’s Bunting.
Summer resident; exceedingly rare. (But one specimen known to
have been obtained. )

125. Zonotrichia leucophrys, (Forst.,) Sw.—White-crowned Spar-
row. Winter resident. Usually rare, but more plenty at irregular
intervals; (e. g., in spring of 1861.) Remains until second week in
May.)

126. Zonotrichia albicollis, (Gm.,) Bon.—White-throated Sparrow.
Chiefly spring and autumn visitants, but numbers spend the winter
in sheltered localities. Arrives early in October, and is exceedingly
abundant during that month; becomes very numerous again the Ist
of April and continues so until May 12. Mostly gregarious; frequent
chiefly briar patches, hedges, roadsides, &c., in fall and winter, but
in spring found on the ground in open woods. Sings both in fall and
spring.

127. Junco hyemalis, (Linn.,) Sclat.—Snow Bird. Winter resident.
Arrive in fall, October 10 or 12; soon become very numerous, and
continue so until 15th of April. Stragelers seen till May. Found
everywhere; in pleasant weather keep close in thickets, ravines, &c.,
. but in severe weather approach farm-houses and scatter through the
city. Gregarious; in full song before they leave.

128. Spizella monticola, (Gm.,) Bd.—Tree Sparrow. The most
abundant winter sparrow except Melospiza melodia. Arrives Ist of
November and leaves Ist of April; shy and retiring; chiefly grega-
rious. Found in thickets, briar patches, &c. Sings all through the
winter.

129. Spizella socialis, (Wils.,) Bon.—Chipping Sparrow. Summer
resident. Semi-domesticated, like T'roglodytes aedon; breeds in or-
chards, gardens, shrubbery, about porches, &c. Especially fond of
building the nest in small cedar bushes. March 10 to October 10.

130. Spizella pusilla, (Wils.,) Bon.—Field Sparrow. Resident all
the year; especially abundant in spring; less so in summer and
autumn; only found in secluded situations in winter. In full song in
spring and occasionally sings in fall. Gregarious, except during the
breeding season. Breeds in small, isolated bushes i in fields, near the
ground. (Albino obtained.)

131. Melospiza melodia, (Wils.,) Bd.—Song Sparrow. Permanent

NATURAL HISTORY. 413

resident. Excessively abundant, especially in winter, when it asso-
ciates in large companies in briar patches and along tangled borders
of streams.

132. Melospiza palustris, (Wils.,) Bd.—Swamp Sparrow.—Chiefly
spring and autumn visitant; arrive in spring last week in April; be-
come abundant in the fall, second week in October; very secluded
and retiring in habits. Gregarious in fall.

[Melospiza lincolni is, in all probability, an inhabitant of the Dis- ©
trict, though we have never succeeded in detecting it. |

133. Passerella iliaca, (Merrem,) Sw.—Fox-colored Sparrow. Chiefly
spring and autumn visitant, though some spend the winter in shel-
tered situations. Abundant from November 1 to 30, and from March
1 to 30. Eminently gregarious; inhabits thickets and the densest briar
patches and laurel brakes. Sing just before departing; none breed.

134. Huspiza americana, (Gm.,) Bon.—Black-throated Bunting.
Summer resident. Arrives May 1; leaves towards the end of Sep-
tember. Inhabits open fields and meadows. Abundant, especially
in the spring.

135. Guiraca ludoviciana, (Linn.,) Sw.—Rose-breasted Grosbeak.
Rare. Summer visitant; seen only at intervals. Found in high,
open woods; generally in small companies. Shy and difficult to pro-
cure.

136. Guiraca cerulea, (Linn.,) Sw.—Blue Grosbeak. Summer
resident. Rather rare. Breeds in much the same places as does
Cardinalis virginianus ; at other times found in more open situations,
orchards, sparse woods, &c. Arrives first week in May; departs
about middle of September.

137. Cyanospiza cyanea, (Linn.,) Bd.—Indigo Bird. ‘‘ Little Blue
Bird.’’? Summer resident. Common. Arrives 1st of May; remains
until second week in September. About orchards, edges of woods,
meadows, &c.

138. Cardinalis virginianus, Bon.—Cardinal Grosbeak. ‘‘Red
Bird.’ Resident all the year. Abundant, but always shy and diffi-
- cult to procure. Frequents only the thickest briar patches. Moults
from middle of July till October.

139. Pipilo erythrophthalmus, (Linn.,) Vieill.—Towhe Bunting.
‘*Marsh Robin.’’ Chiefly spring and autumn visitant; a few breed.
Very abundant from April 25 to May 10, and from first to third week
in October. Thickets, laurel brakes, &c.; partially gregarious.

140. Dolichonyx oryzivorous, (Linn.,) Sw.—Bob-o’-link. ‘‘ Reed
Bird.’’ Spring and autumn visitant. In spring distributed abun-
dantly about orchards and meadows, even at that season generally
in flocks, from May 1 to 15; in autumn frequent in immense flocks
the tracts of Zizania aquatica, along the river; also cornfields, &c.,
from August 20 to October.

141. Molothrus pecoris, (Gm.,) Sw.—Cowpen Bird. ‘‘Cow Bird.’’
Summer resident. Not very common. Arrives second week in
March; remains till October.

142. Agelaius pheniceus, (Linn.,) Vieill—Red-winged Black Bird.
Resident nearly all the year; more abundant in spring and fall, espe-
cially the latter. Breed. Commence to flock over the tracts of

414 NATURAL HISTORY.

Azania aquatica and the neighboring cornfields the first week in Au-
gust. Arrive in small flocks early in March.

143. Sturnella magna, (Linn.,) Sw.—Meadow Lark. Field Lark.
Resident all the year. Abundant. Collect in flocks, sometimes of
great extent, and then are very shy. Old fields, meadows, &c.

144. Icterus baltimore, (Linn.,) Daudin.—Baltimore Oriole. Chiefly
spring and autumn visitant, though many breed. Arrives the first
week in May, and remains until latter part of September. Orchards;
high, open woods.

145. Icterus spurius, (Linn.,) Bon.—Orchard Oriole. Summer resi-
dent. Not uncommon. Arrives first week in May; remains till
latter part of September. Orchards, meadows, and high, open woods.

146. Scolecophagus ferrugineus, (Gm.,) Sw.—Rusty Grackle. ‘‘ Black
Bird.’? Winter resident. Abundant. Strictly gregarious. Arrives
third week in October; remains until April. Swampy localities;
also ploughed fields, &c.

147. Quiscalus versicolor, (Linn.,) Vieill.—Purple Grackle. ‘‘Crow
Black Bird.’? Summer resident. Abundant, but more particularly
so in spring and fall. Arrives about March 15; departs late in Oc-
tober.

148. Corvus americanus, Aud. —Common Crow. Resident all the
year. Very abundant. Found everywhere. Gregarious in winter.
Less abundant during the breeding season.

149. Corvus ossifragus, Wils.—Fish Crow. Resident all the year.
Abundant. Less wary and suspicious than the preceding, and more
confined to the borders of the rivers. Confounded with the preced-
ing generally.

150. Cyanura cristata, (Linn.,) Sw.—Blue Jay. ‘‘Jay Bird.”’
Resident all the year. Abundant, especially in fall and winter, when
it is partially gregarious. Found everywhere.

151. Lctopistes migratoria, (Linn.,) Sw.—Wild Pigeon. Make
their appearance in flocks at irregular intervals throughout the fall,
winter, and early spring months.

152. Zenaidura carolinensis, (Linn.,) Bon.—Carolina Turtle Dove.
‘‘Dove.’? Permanent resident. Not very abundant. Sometimes
collect in large flocks in the fall, when they frequent cornfields, &c.

153. Chamepelia passerina, (Linn.,) Sw.—Ground Dove. An en-
tirely accidental visitor from the south.—(One specimen obtained,
now in museum §. I.)

154. Meleagris gallopavo, Linn.—Wild Turkey. Regularly seen in
the markets all through the winter, though not often found in the
immediate vicinity of the city. Remains all the year in the neigh-
boring districts.

155. Bonasa umbellus, (Linn.,) Stephens. Ruffed Grouse. ‘‘Pheas-
ant.’’ Resident all the year. Apparently not uncommon, but fre-
quent mostly impenetrable laurel brakes, &c., and are difficult to
procure.

156. Ortyx virginianus, (Linn.,) Bon.—American Partridge. ‘‘Par-
tridge.”’ Resident all the year. Still abundant in the immediate
vicinity of the city during the late fall and winter months.

NATURAL HISTORY. 415

15T. Grus canadensis, (Linn.,)*Temm.—Sand-hill Crane. Exceed-
ingly rare; perhaps only accidental. (Specimen obtained.)

158. Garzetta candidissima, (Jacq.,) Bon.—Snowy Heron. Not un-
common about the marshes of the Potomac in early fall.

159. Herodias egretta, (Gm.,) Gray.—White Egret. Occasionally
seen along the river in the late summer and early fall months.

160. Ardea herodias, Linn.—Great Blue Heron. ‘‘ Blue Crane.’
Found at intervals during the summer and early autumn along the
marshes bordering the river.

161. Florida ceerulea, (Linn.,) Bd.—Little Blue Heron. Rare, per-
haps only accidental, towards the end of summer. (Specimen ob-
tained. ) .

162. <Ardetia exilis, (Gm.,) Gray.—Least Bittern. Summer resi-
dent; rather uncommon. Arrives early in May; departs late in Sep-
tember. Found chiefly in the Zizania aquatica marshes.

163. Botaurus lentiginosus, Steph.—Bittern. ‘‘Indian Hen.’’
‘*Sage Hen.’? Resident all the year. Common. Only heron that
winters here.

164. Butorides virescens, (Linn.,) Bon.—Green Heron. ‘‘Fly-up-
the-creek.’’ Summer resident. Most abundant of the herons. Ar-
rives Ist of May; remains until middle of September. Numerous
about Rock creek and the marshes and creeks of the Potomac.

165. Nyctiardea garden, (Gm.,) Bd.—Night Heron." Rare; seen
occasionally during the latter part of summer.

166. Charadrius virginicus, Borck.—Golden Piover. ‘‘ Bull-head
Plover.” Spring and autumn visitant. Passes quickly through in
early spring; is more numerous in autumn, during latter part of Octo-
ber and whole of November, about fields, ploughed land, &c.

167. Agialitis ( Oxyechus ) vociferus, (Linn. ,) Cass.—Killdeer Plover.
‘‘Killdee.’’ Resident all the year, or nearly so. Most numerous
early in spring and late in autumn; generally seen in flocks, on
meadows, commons, ploughed lands, &c.

[ Agialitis semipalmatus is undoubtedly an inhabitant of the Dis-
trict. |

168. Philohela minor, (Gm.,) Gray.—Woodcock. Resident all the
year. Common. Frequent chiefly ‘‘ Woodcock brakes’’ and moist
cornfields; and in early spring low woods and thickets.

169. Gallinago wilsonit, (Temm.,) Bon.—Wilson’s Snipe. ‘‘ Eng-
lish’’ or ‘‘Jack’’ Snipe. Spring and autumn visitants. Abundant.
Pass through early in the spring and return in the fall the first week
in September, and remain about two weeks. In flocks in the fall.

[ Macrorhamphus griseus, though we have not detected it, is doubtless
an inhabitant of the District. |

| Micropalama himantopus may very possibly be hereafter detected. |

170. <Actodromas maculata, (Vieill.,) Cass.—Pectoral Sandpiper.
‘‘ Grass Snipe.’’ Spring and autumn visitant. Rarely seen in spring.
Not uncommon in autumn from September 25 to November. Low,
moist, grassy meadows, boggy commons, &c. Seen singly as often
as in flocks.

171. Actodromas minutilla, (Vieill.,) Coues.

Least Sandpiper.

416 NATURAL HISTORY.

Spring and autumn visitant. In spring from May 1 to 15; in fall
from August 25 to October. In habits very similar to preceding.

172. Hreunetes pusilus, (Linn.,) Cass.—Semipalmated Sandpiper.
Rare; perhaps accidental; occasionally met with in spring and fall
along the banks of the river. [Possibly a second species, (Eveunetes
minor, Gundl.)]

173. Symphemia semipalmata, (Gm.,) Hartl.—Willet. Rare; spring
and autumn visitant.

174. Gambetta melanoleuca, (Gm.,) Bon.—Greater Tell-tale Tatler.
‘‘Yellow-shanks Plover.’’ Spring and autumn visitant. Common.
In spring, from May 1 to 15; in autumn, middle of September to
November. Generally seen singly or two or three together. Banks
of the rivers, boggy meadows, commons intersected with pools, &c.

175. Gambetta flavipes, (Gm.,) Bon.—Lesser Tell-tale Tatler. ‘‘Yel-
low-shanks Plover.’’ Identical in times of appearance and in habits
with preceding.

176. Lhyacophilus solitarius, Wils.—Solitary Tatler. Spring and
autumn visitant; very abundant, especially in spring. May 1 to
15, and August 25 to October 15. Very familiar and unsuspicious;
decidedly gregarious, both in spring and fall. Frequents ditches
and puddles, in low, boggy commons, &c.

177. Tringoides macularius, (Linn.,) Gray.—Spotted Sandpiper.
‘(Sand Snipe.?? Summer resident; very abundant in spring. The
only sandpiper that breeds. Arrives April 20 and remains through
greater part of September. Found chiefly on Rock creek and banks
of the river.

178. Actiturus bartramius, (Wils.,) Bon.—Bartram’s Tatler. Grass
Plover. Field Plover. Summer resident; rare. Found altogether
on high, open fields and ploughed lands.

179. Numenius longirostris, Wils.—Long-billed Curlew.’ Not un-
common. Spring and autumn visitant; remaining a very short time
at each season. In fall, about the middle of September. Found in
places similar to those which the Yellow-legs frequent.

180. Rallus elegans, Aud.—Fresh-water Marsh-hen. ‘‘ King Orto-
lan.’? Found sparingly in early autumn in the marshes along the
rivers, with the P. carolina.

181. allus virginianus, (Linn.)—Virginia Rail. Spring and autumn
visitant. Very rare in the spring, and not abundant in the fall. Ar-
rives in fall the last week in August; departs about the same time
with the P. carolina.

182. Porzana carolina, Vieill—Common Rail. Sora. Ortolan.
Spring and autumn visitant. Rare in spring, but very abundant in
fall from the last week in August until the first frost. Found ex-
clusively in the marshes bordering the Potomac and Eastern Branch.

[Porzana noveboracensis, though not detected, is undoubtedly an
inhabitant of the District. ]

183. Porzana jamaicensis.—Black Rail. Very rare, perhaps only
accidental, during the early fall. (Specimen seen by ourselves Sep-
tember, 1861.)

184. Fulica americana, Gm.—Coot. ‘‘Crow Duck.” Spring and

NATURAL HISTORY. 417

autumn visitant; passing through early in the spring, and returning in
the fall about the 1st of October. Very common in the fall.

185. Cygnus americanus, Sharpless.—American Swan. Winter
resident. Not common. Seen sometimes on the river, and frequently
exposed for sale in the market.

186. Bernicla canadensis, (Linn.,) Boie.—Canada Goose. Wild Goose.
Winter resident. Common, but seen most frequently in the air,
flying over. Arrive in fall just before the first approach of severe
weather. Found in market through the winter.

187. Anas boschas, (Linn.)—Mallard. Very abundant winter resi-
dent. Found upon the Potomac and Anacostia rivers, and (more
rarely) upon creeks and ponds.

Mallard. Black Mallard. Not
rare. Habits same as those of preceding.

189. Dajila acuta, (Linn.,) Jenyns.—Pintail Duck. Sprig-tail.
Winter resident. Common. Found mostly along the margins of the
‘rivers, and sometimes inland. Arrive about the first of October.

190. Nettion carolinensis, (Gm.,) Baird.—Green-winged Teal. Win-
ter resident. Abundant. Found chiefly along the marshes of the
Potomac and Anacostia. Arrives sooner than most of the ducks,
about the middle of September.

191. Querquedula discors, (Linn.,) Steph.—Blue-winged Teal, Win-
ter resident. The most abundant of the ducks. Habits much as
those of preceding.

192. Chaulelasmus streperus, (Linn.,) Gray.—Gadwall. Winter
resident. Habits similar to those of the Mallard, with which it is
often found associated, but it is less numerous.

193. Mareca americana, (Gm.,) Stephens.—Widgeon. Winter
resident. Arrives in the fall about the first of October, and departs
in spring during the month of April. Very abundant and not so
difficult of approach as are most of the ducks.

194. Aix sponsa, (Linn.,) Boie.—Wood-duck. Summer Duck.
Permanent resident; but more abundant in winter, being seldom seen
in summer. Not very abundant at any time.

195. Fulix marila, (Linn.,) Bd.—Greater Black-head Duck. Winter
resident. Not very abundant. Often exposed for sale in market,
but not much esteemed for food.

196. Fulix affinis, (Forst.,) Bd.—Lesser Black-head Duck. Winter
resident. Same as preceding.

197. Fulix collaris, (Donovan,) Baird.—Ring-neck Duck. Winter
resident. Rare. Arrives in fall about the last week in September.

198. Aythya americana, (Eyton,) Bon.—Red-head duck. Winter
resident. Very abundant. A common market duck, and frequently
offered for sale as the canvas back. Found upon the ‘flats of the
rivers, and occasionally on inland marshes.

199. Aythya vallisneria, (Wils.,) Bon.—Canvas-back duck. Winter
resident. At times exceedingly abundant. Highly prized by sports-
men and epicures. Habits much those of the preceding.

200. Bucephala americana, (Bon.,) Baird.—Golden-eye duck. Win-
ter resident. Rather abundant. Frequently seen in the market.

27

418 NATURAL HISTORY.

201. Bucephala albeola, (Linn.,) Baird.—Buffel-headed duck; ‘‘ But-
ter-ball.’’ Winter resident. More common than preceding. Ar-
rive in fall, about the middle of September; leave in spring, the
second week in April.

202. Harelda glacialis, (Linn.,) Leach.—Long-tailed duck.

203. Melanetta velvetina, (Cass.,) Baird.—Velvet duck.

204. Pelionetta perspicillata, (Linn.,) Kaup.—Surf duck.

205. Oitdemia americana, Swainson.—Scoter duck.

(The four preceding birds do not properly belong to the fauna of
the District, being strictly marine birds. They are found at the
mouth of the Potomac, and ascend it as far as the salt water reaches.
Their appearance in this immediate locality must, however, be con-
sidered accidental. They are all to be seen in the market during the
winter. )

206. Erismatura rubida, (Wils.,) Bon.—Ruddy duck. Winter res-
ident. Abundant. Frequently exposed for sale in the market, but
not esteemed for food.

207. Mergus americanus, Cassin.—Goosander. ‘‘ Fishing duck.’’
Winter resident. Not common. More frequently seen on creeks and
millponds than on the rivers.

208. Mergus serrator, Linn.—Red-breasted merganser. ‘‘ Fishing
duck.’’, Winter resident. Rather more common than the preceding.
Found in much the same situations.

209. Lophodytes cucullatus, (Linn.,) Reich.—Hooded merganser.
Winter resident. Rather rare.

210. Thalassidroma leachii, Bon.—lLeach’s Petrel. Accidental
visitor. (Numbers were seen during a storm some years ago.)

211. Puffinus, ? A shearwater, probably P. obscurus, has
been detected in the District.

212. Larus smithsonianus,* Coues.—Herring gull. “Sea gull.’’
Seen over the river through the winter. Not numerous. Exceed-
ingly shy and wary.

213. Larus delawarensis, Ord.—Ring-billed gull. Seen about the
river during the winter months. More numerous than the preceding.

214. Chroicocephalus atricilla, (Linn.,) Lawr.—Laughing gull. Oc-
casionally seen during the late summer and early autumn months.

215. Chroicocephalus philadelphia, (Ord. ,)Lawr.—Bonaparte’s hooded
gull. More abundant than the preceding, being quite common. Re-
mains here through the winter. (?)

216. Sterna aranea, Wils.—Marsh Tern. Rare; only occasionally
seen during the late summer and early fall months, over the marshes
bordering the river.

217. Sterna wilsonti, Bon. —Wilson’s Tern. An occasional visitor
during the late summer and early fall months. [Sterna forsteri is
undoubtedly to be found in the District. ]

218. Sterna frenata, Gambel.—Least Tern. Not uncommon. Fre-
quently seen over the marshes bordering the Potomac and Hastern
Branch in August and September, and more rarely in spring.

219. Hydrochelidon plumbea, Wils.—Short-tailed Tern. ‘‘ Little

* See Proc Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, June, 1862, p. 296.

NATURAL HISTORY. 419

Sea Gull.’ Less numerous than preceding, but found in similar
localities and at much the same times.

220. Rhynchops mgra, Linn.—Black Skimmer. <A rare, perhaps
accidental, visitor during the summer. (Specimens seen by ourselves
September 8, 1858, on the Potomac river.)

221. Graculus dilophus, Gray.—Double-crested Cormorant. A
eas has been detected.

Colymbus torquatus, Brunn.—-Great Northern Diver. ‘‘ Loon.’’
fee seen during the winter.

223. Podiceps (Pedetaithya) holbolli, Reinhardt.— Red-necked
Grebe. Not uncommon on the Potomac during the winter months.

224. Podiceps cristatus, Lath.—Crested Grebe. ‘ Water Witch.”
Found on the Potomac during the winter months.

225. Podiceps (Dytes) cornutus, Lath.—Horned Grebe. Common
on Potomac in winter.

226. Podilymbus podiceps, (Linn.) Lawr.—‘‘ Dipper.’ ‘‘ Water
Witch.’’ Abundant on the Potomac in winter. (We have not been
able to ascertain the precise times of arrival and departure of the
five preceding birds.)

The birds included in the preceding catalogue are now presented
in sections to show at a glance those which are permanent, or summer,
or winter residents, and those which are regular or accidental visitants.
It is somewhat difficult to make out such an analytical table, from the
fact that of some species undoubtedly to be classed as spring and
autumn visitants a few individuals breed or pass the winter in secluded
situations, and vice versa of those which regularly pass the summer or
winter with us, many are more abundant in the spring and fall. We
have endeavored to place each species in the class under which it most
naturally falls, indicating irregularities of this sort in foot notes.

Ay

PERMANENT RESIDENTS,

Cathartes aura. Picus pubescens. Cardinalis virginianus.
Falco sparverius. Sphyropicus varius. Agelaius phceniceus.
Accipiter cooperi. Hylatomus pileatus. Sturnella magna.
Accipiter fuscus. Centurus carolinus. Corvus americanus.
Buteo borealis. Colaptes auratus. Corvus ossifragus.
Buteo lineatus. Turdus migratorius. Cyanura cristata.
Buteo pennsylvanicus. Sialia sialis. Zenaidura carolinensis.
Circus hudsonius. Ampelis cedrorum. Bonasa umbellus.
Halizetus leucocephalus. Thriothorus ludovicianus. Meleagris gallopavo.
Scops asio. Certhia americana. Ortyx virginianus.
Bubo virginianus. Sitta carolinensis. Botaurus lentiginosus.
Otus wilsonianus. Lophophanes bicolor. /Egialitis sheitieds.
Brachyotus cassini. Chrysomitris tristis. Philohela minor.
Syrnium nebulosum. Spizella pusilla. Aix sponsa.
Picus villosus. Melospiza melodia.
B.

* WINTER RESIDENTS.

Falco columbarius. Ectopistes migratoria. Erismatura rubida.

Aquila canadensis. Chaulelasmus streperus. Bucephala americana.

420

Anthus ludovicianus.
Regulus satrapa.
Dendroica coronata.
Collyrio borealis.
Anorthura hyemalis.
Sitta canadensis.
Parus atricapillus.
Eremophila cornuta.
Carpodacus purpureus.
Chrysomitris pinus.
Zonotrichia leucophrys.
Junco hyemalis.
Spizella monticola.
Scolecophagus ferrugi-
neus.

Pandion carolinensis.
Coccygus americanus.
Coccygus erythrophthal-
mus.
Melanerpes erythroce-
phalus.
Trochilus colubris.
Cheetura pelasgia.
Antrostomus vociferus.
Ceryle alcyon.
Tyrannus carolinensis.*
Myiarchus crinitus.
Sayornis fuscus.*
Contopus virens.
Empidonax acadicus.
Turdus mustelinus.
Mniotilta varia.*
Geothlypis trichas.
Icteria viridis.
Seiurus aurocapillus.
Seiurus noveboracensis.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Mareca americana.
Fulix marila.

Fulix affinis.

Fulix collaris.
Aythya americana.
Aythya vallisneria.
Cygnus americanus.
Bernicla canadensis.
Anas boschas.
Anas obscura.
Dafila acuta.
Nettion carolinensis.
Querquedula discors.

C.

SUMMER RESIDENTS.

Helmitherus vermivorus.
Dendroica aestiva.
Dendroica pinus.
Dendroica discolor.
Pyranga estiva.
Hirundo horreorum.
Hirundo lunifrons.*
Hirundo bicolor.*
Cotyle riparia.

Cotyle serripennis.
Progne purpurea.
Vireo olivaceus.
Seiurus ludovicianus.
Vireo flavifrons.
Vireo gilvus.

Mimus polyglottus.
Mimus carolinensis.
Harporhynchus rufus.
Troglodytes «don.
Cistothorus palustris.

Bucephala albeola.
Mergus americanus.
Mergus serrator.
Lophodytes cucullatus.
Larus smithsonianus.
Larus delawarensis.
Chroicocephalus philadel-
phia.
Podiceps holbélli.
Podiceps cristatus.
Podiceps cornutus.

Podilymbus podiceps.

Polioptila czerulea.
Parus carolinensis.
Pooecetes gramineus.
Coturniculus passerinus.
Coturniculus henslowi.
Spizella socialis.
Euspiza americana.
Guiraca ludoviciana.
Guiraea ceerulea.
Cyanospiza cyanea.
Molothrus pecoris.
Icterus baltimore.*
Icterus spurius.

Ardea herodias.
Garzetta candissima.
Herodias egretta.
Butorides virescens.
Nyctiardea gardeni.*
Tringoides macularius.*
Actiturus bartramius.

&The greater number go further north.

Dp;

SPRING AND AUTUMN VISITANTS—MIGRATORY SPECIES.

Chordeiles popetue.
Empidonax traillii.*
Empidonax flaviventris.*
Empidonax minimus.
Turdus pallasii.

Turdus fuscesens.
Turdus swainsonii.
Turdus alicie.

Regulus calendula.t

Dendroica virens.
Dendroica canadensis.
Dendroica blackburniz.
Dendroica castanea.

Pipilo erythrophthalmus.*
Dolichonyx oryzivorus.
Quiscalus versicolor.*
Ardetta exilis.*

Dendroica pennsylvanica. Charadrius virginicus.

Dendroica striata.
Dendroica maculosa.
Dendroica tigrina.
Dendroica palmarum.

Gallinago wilsonii.
Actodromas maculata.
Actodromas minutilla.

Symphemia semipalmata.

Parula americana.
Oporornis agilis.*
Oporornis formosus.*
Helminthophaga pinus.
Helminthophaga
soptera.
Helminthophaga
pilla.
Helminthophaga
grina.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Myiodioctes mitratus.*
Myiodioctes pusillus.*
Myiodioctes canadensis.
Setophaga ruticilla.*

chry- Pyranga rubra.*

Vireo solitarius.*

rufica- Passerculus savanna,

Melospiza palustris.

pere- Passerella iliaca.t

Zonotrichia albicollis.t

421

Gambetta melanoleuea.
Gambetta flavipes.
Rhyacophilus solitarius.
Numenius longirostris.
Rallus elegans.

Rallus virginianus.
Porzana carolina.
Fulica americana.
Sterna frenata.

Hydrochelidon plumbea.

* A few may, in some cases certainly do, breed here.
t A few probably remain through the winter.

E.

ACCIDENTAL OR VERY RARE VISITORS.

. Astur atricapillus.*
Nyctea nivea.*
Milvulus ————?
Protonotaria citrea.
Dendroica superciliosa.
Pinicola canadensis.*
Hgiothus linarius.*
Plectrophanes nivalis.*
Chamaepelia passerina.t

Porzana jamaicensis.
Grus canadensis.
Florida czerulea.7
Kreunetes pusillus.
Harelda glacialis.
Melanetta velvetina.
Pelionetta perspicillata.
Oidemia americana.

* From the north in severe winters.
t+ From the south towards the end of’ summer.

F.

Thalassidroma Leachii.
Pufinus ————?
Chroicocephalus atricilla.t
Sterna aranea.

Sterna wilsoni.
Rhynchops nigra.t
Graculus dilophus.
Colymbus torquatus.*

SOME SPECIES NOT INCLUDED IN THE LIST, WHICH ARE PROBABLY YET TO BE

Nauclerus furcatus.
Nyctale acadica.
Dendroica czerulea.
Vireo philadelphicus.
Cistothorus stellaris.

Curvirostra americana.
Curvirostra leucopterus.

DETECTED IN THE DISTRICT.

Macrorhamphus griseus.
Micropalama himantopus.

Plectrophanes lapponicus. Porzana noveboracensis.

Melospiza lincolni.
Aegialitis semipalmatus.

Sterna forsteri.

Geothly pis philadelphia.

SUMMARY.
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PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

In accordance with a request from Utrecht, we give the following
translation of the proceedings of several of the Holland societies,
relative to prize questions proposed by these establishments for free
competition to the citizens of all nations. We regret that we have
not received a full set of these proceedings, but hope to present in a
future report the remainder of the series. —Sec. Sm. Inst.

EXTRACT FROM THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE HOLLAND SOCIETY OF SCIENCE
AT HARLEM, FOR THE YEAR 1856.

The society held its 104th annual session on the 17th of May, 1856.
Since its last session it has received: 1st. A memoir, written in Ger-
man, and having the epigraph, ‘‘ Nec aspera terrent.’’? This memoir
was written as a reply to the following question:

‘‘ A history is requested of the development of the Petromyzon fluvi-
atilis, illustrated by the necessary figures, and compared with that of
other fishes, according to the researches of Von Baer, Rathke, and
©. Vopin'4

This memoir does not, in fact, contain the history of the Petro-
myzon fluviatilis, but that of P. Planert. However, this latter species
is so near akin to the other, that the memoir substantially answers the
purpose proposed for it by the society, and the gold medal is therefore
awarded to the author, Dr. Max Sigmund Schultze, doctor of medi-
cine and philosophy, and professor extraordinary of anatomy in the
University of Halle.

The society has received: 2dly. A memoir, written in German,
bearing the epigraph, ‘‘Amicus Plato, amicus Socrates, sed magis
anuca veritas,’’ and relative to the following question published by
the society:

‘‘The illustrious director of the University of Pulkowa, the As-
tronomer F, G. W. Struve, published in 1847 his well-known book,
entitled ‘‘Srupms in Stertar Asrronomy.’’ In that work he com-
municates, as the result of his observations, some very remarkable
details concerning the structure of the universe and the transparency
of space. The London Astronomical Society, in its report of the
twenty-eighth general meeting, gave the support of its authority to
Struve’s results, while, on the other hand, the celebrated astronomer
J. F. Encke, in No. 622 of the <Astrvonomische Naehrichten, considers
them hypothetical and without foundation. The society, conse-
quently, desires that a profound and scrupulous examination may

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 493

decide what the present state of astronomy permits us to consider
well established or very probable, as to the structure of the universe.’

The society awarded its gold medal and the additional prize of
150 florins to the learned author of this work, Dr. Johann Heinrich
Madler, professor of astronomy and director of the observatory at
Dorpat.

The society has seen fit to repeat the following questions, and re-
quires them to be answered before the first of January, 1858:

1. Is there a well-authenticated connexion between the hypertro-
phies of the spleen and a morbid state of the blood, characterized by
an abundance of white globules?

The society desires that this question should be cleared up by
anatomico-pathologic researches and by clinical observations.

2. The society calls for a comparative description of the system
of the lymphatic and chyliferous vessels in fishes. It requires:
Ist, that there be especially an examination of these vessels and
of those of the sanguineous system; and, 2dly, that the observa-
tions of Fohman and Treviranus be repeated and discussed.

The society requires that at least three very different families be
compared, and that the entire system of these two vessels be described
as completely as possible, as regards one species of fish; the whole
to be accompanied by requisite figures.

3. The society requests that, by a physiological, experimental,
and comparative examination, an endeavor be made to establish the
nature of the function of the peculiar substance secreted in the great
intestine of many of the mammalia. It desires that this examination
include, at least, the carnivora, the ongules, and the rongeurs.

4, Some savans maintain that a portion of an electric current,
passing through an electrolyte, traverses it without exercising any
chemical action. The society desires that this opinion be subjected
to a rigorous experimental examination. If it be verified, the society
requests that then there shall be ascertained, for at least six ditferent
electrolytes, what the numerical relation is which exists between the
part of the current which decomposes the electrolyte and the part
for which the electrolyte appears to be endowed with a conducting
power similar to that of the metals.

5. The recent experiments of Faraday, made with long wire of
metal covered with gutta-percha and immersed in water, have de-
monstrated that the velocity of electricity in metallic or other con-
ductors is not always the same. The society desires that this ve-
locity, in connexion with the cifcumstances which modify it, be deter-
mined anew by exact experiments.

6. The existence of what is called the catalytic force, by which
heretofore we have sought to explain many phenomena becoming
more and more doubtful, the society desires a rigorous examination
of the phenomena which some savans still attribute to that force.

7. In what part of the human body is sugar produced, and when
and in what manner does the production take place ?

424 PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

8. There still remains some uncertainty as to the manner in which
the algz (popularly known as sea-weeds) reproduce their species.
The society desires that new researches be made upon this subject,
aud that the development from the embryo to the perfect plant, of
three species at least, belonging to widely differing families of these
plants, be observed, described, and, if necessary, illustrated by
firures.

9. What are the characteristics, deducible from fossils or other
circumstances, which enable us to decide with certainty whether allu-
vial strata have been deposited in fresh water, in water more or less
brackish, or in the sea?

The. society desires that the truth of these characteristics should
be confirmed by the examination of different beds of alluvial deposit
of the origin of which there is no doubt.

10. What conclusion can be drawn, from the geological constitution
of the land, as to the extent, &c., of the old embouchure of the Rhine,
near Katwijk, such as it existed before it was closed; whether by a vio-
lent cataclysm or by progressive encroachments of the land? What
are the evident vestiges that this embouchure has left?

11. All that is known about the fossils of the Dutch East Indian
archipelago is limited to a few plants of the island of Java, which
have been examined and described by Professor Goppert, of Breslau;
and to the tertiary molluscs of that island, which have been deposited
in the Dutch Royal Museum at Leyden. The island of Java is the
only one of that archipelago of which the geological formation is some-
what known.

The society desires that similar researches be extended to another
of the populated islands of that archipelago, and that the organic
remains, especially those of the oldest strata that are to be found
there, be examined and described, so that the geological period of the
formation of that island may be determined.

The society would be well pleased to receive the fossils of the strata
of that island, not merely for the sake of the augmentation of its col-
lection, but also for the sake of comparing them with the accompa-
nying descriptions and figures. It will award to the author such
a sum as will be in proportion to the importance of his memoir and its
accompaniments, a sum which, indeed, it would not hesitate to pay
for a collection of those fossils, unaccompanied by either descrip-
tion or figures.

The society has this year proposed the following questions, and
requests the answers to them before the 1st of January, 1857:

1. According to the researches published in 1848 by the Ameri-
can astronomer, Professor Peirce, the movement observed in the planet
Uranus would be perfectly explained by the intervention of the planet
Neptune, if we suppose the latter to have a mass of >5}g,th that of
the sun, while the perturbation observed in the movement of Uranus,
which led to the discovery of Neptune, could not be completely
attributed to the sole action of the latter, unless it have ;=4,;th of
the mass of the sun, as appears to result from the labors of O. Struve.

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 425

It seems that except Professor Peirce no astronomer has attended to
this important inquiry, while the correctness of the result obtained
by O. Struve is strongly corroborated by his subsequent researches,
contributed to the ‘‘ Physico-Mathematical Bulletin of the Academy of
St. Petersburg,’’ vol. 9, p. 125.

The society, consequently, desires the calculations of Professor
Peirce to be repeated, and also that the existing observations upon
Uranus and Neptune should be subjected to a strict examination,
with a view to determining whether the existence of Neptune can
be the cause of that perturbation in the motion of Uranus which
hitherto has not been accounted for.

2. The comet which was discovered on the 24th of July, 1852,
by Westphal, at Gottingen, is calculated by Sonntag and Marth to
describe its orbit around the sun in a period of about 60 years; a fact
which renders that celestial body worthy of a rigorous examination.

The society will award its gold medal to the astronomer who, from
existing observations and by the most perfect method, shall deduce
the elements of the orbit of this comet.

3. In order to calculate the action of the wind upon the sails of
vessels and windmills, and to judge of its meteorological effect, there
should be a thorough comprehension of the connexion between the
pressure exerted by the wind upon a given area and the velocity of
that agent. We therefore call for well-conducted experiments from
which there shall result an exact determination of the relation be-
tween the velocity of the wind and the pressure which it exerts in
the right line of its direction. The society requires that the experi-
ments extend to a velocity of at least 20 metres per second.

4. Experiments which were made in England by order of the.
British government upon the resisting power of the iron employed in
bridges and other railroad works showed that the bars bend more
perceptibly under a moving than under a stationary load. The
society requests an analytic theory of the increase of that deflection,
such theory including a consideration of the weight of the load upon
the bars as well as the weight of the bars themselves; and that the
deflection thus theoretically ascertained be compared with the re-
sults of actual experiment.

5. For some time past, and especially since so many geologists have
adopted the upheaval system of Elie de Beaumont, frequent attempts
have been made to classify the Plutonic rocks according to their
age. Charles d’Orbigny has recently bestowed attention upon this
subject, and has published a sketch, or outline, of a classification.
Still more recent observations have thrown so much light upon the
subject, that it is now possible, as regards a great number of those
Plutonic rocks, to determine the relative epoch of their appearance on
the surface of the globe. The society therefore requests a geog-
nostic classification of Plutonic rocks, according to the epochs of their
appearance as integral portions of the crust of our globe.

6. The society requests a description and a geological chart of
Dutch Guiana. It is desired that especial attention be bestowed
upon the organic fossils to be found in that country; that the

496 PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

most interesting objects be described and figured, and that, as far as
possible, the most characteristic specimens be sent home to the
society. Geologists who devote themselves to this investigation should
not neglect the rounded stones which are the detritus of rocks fre-
quently inaccessible. Their composition, and the fossils which they
contain, should form a principal object of the researches.

7. The society, being persuaded that researches as to the origin,
the nature, and the increase of the deltas of great rivers are calcu-
lated to lead to interesting results, requests that a delta at the mouth
of some one of the great European rivers be exactly described; that
both its horizontal and vertical extent be measured; and that the
materials of which it consists, as well as the manner in which these
materials are arranged, be described and their origin determined.
The society desires that the description shall contain all the details
necessary to giving a clear idea of the form, the dimensions, the com-
position, and the arrangement of the materials of the delta, and an
accurate account of its origin.

8. The society desires a monograph with figures of fossil birds.

9. What are the changes which compression makes in crystals, as
to their qualities as conductors of heat and electricity and their re-
fracting power? New researches are required upon these points.

10. When the magneto-electric apparatus is in action, heat is de-
veloped not only in the soft iron which alternately receives and loses
the magnetic state, but also, through the medium of the electric cur-
rent, in the helix of the conductor, and, perhaps, in other parts of the
apparatus. The society requests an examination, both theoretical
and experimental, into the relation which exists between the heat
developed and the motion of the various parts of the apparatus from
which this heat results. .

11. It is known that in Carniola and other countries animals are
found in grottoes where the light never enters, and where sight is a
useless sense. The society requests a rigid examination of at least
two species of these blind animals, and a clear exposition, by both
anatomical description and figures, of what effect is produced by
this blindness, especially upon the cerebral and other parts closely
connected with the organ of sight.

12. Is it possible to obtain by a chemical process from certain kinds
of peat substances which it is impossible, or. exceedingly difficult, to
obtain from other vegetable materials? If this is the case, what are
the substances, what their chemical qualities, and what is the process?

13. The formation of hail is by no means fully understood; we
require the true theory of that phenomenon founded both upon new
observations and upon the results of observations already known.

14. When a compound body is traversed by an electric current it
frequently occurs that particles from one of the electrodes are trans-
ferred to the other. Endeavors have recently been made to utilize
this phenomenon, for the purpose of removing from the human body
to an exterior electrode certain deleterious matters, such as lead,
mercury, &c. The society requests further researches upon this sub-

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 427

ject; they must be exact and decisive; and may relate to man, to the
inferior animals, or to both.

EXTRACT FROM THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE HOLLAND SOCIETY OF SCIENCE,
AT HARLEM, FOR THE YEAR 1858.

The society held its 106th annual session on the 22d of May, 1858.
Since its last session it had received—

1. A memoir, written in Dutch, bearing the epigraph from Cicero
de Divin, Observatio diuturna notandis rebus fecit artem, Daily observa-
tion creates the art of comprehending and describing things, and having
for its subject the following question:

‘*Tt is known that the best Peruvian barks, namely, those which
yield the greatest amount of quinine, are so rapidly diminishing as
to give reason to fear that they will be altogether exhausted. It is
of urgent necessity, therefore, to examine other barks considered
febrifuges, containing little or no quinine, but much cinchonine, and
to ascertain to what extent the latter base is fitted to replace the
former. The society, therefore, requests therapeutic studies to be
made of cinchonine and its compounds.’’

In 1857 the society determined that this memoir could not be
crowned, but should be passed over to the competition of 1858, in
order that the secretary might have an opportunity to make the
author aware of what was wanting in his work, and thus enable him
to perfect it and present it anew.

The society decided that the memoir, thus revised and completed
by the author, deserved to be crowned. The author of the memoir
thus accepted is P. J. Hollman, M. D., surgeon, &c., of Edam, North
Holland.

The society received—

2. A written memoir, having for its epigraph the following sen-
tence from Berzelius’ Treatise on Chemistry, vol. v: ‘‘The mysteri-
ous action which we attribute to a peculiar force, but probably of an
electric nature, and what we call catalytic force.”’

The society awarded the gold medal to the author of this memoir,
Dr. T. L. Phipson, of Paris.

The society received—

3. A memoir, written in French, and sent from Toula, in Rus-
sia, and entitled ‘‘An attempt to investigate the cause of luminous
and calorific phenomena, exhibited by the electric current in a
vacuum containing alcoholic vapor.’’

4, A memoir, written in French, and sent from Montpelier, ‘‘ On
the former existence of perforating molluscs, especially the tubicolate-
conchifera molluscs of Lamarck.’’

5. A memoir, received from Paris, written in French, and enti-
tled ‘‘A memoir on experiments tending to show the resistance of
compressed air moving within pipes.’’ The society decided that me-
moirs 3, 4, and 5 include many important observations, but do not

428 PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

seem to be sufficiently complete to be placed in the number of those
which it accepts for publication.

The society thinks fit to repeat the following twelve questions,
and it requires answers to them before the Ist of January, 1860:

1. For some years past the Siphonifers have been objects of the
learned researches of L. Leuckart, Gegenbaur, Vogt, and Kolliker,
and the opinion has prevailed that they should be regarded as colonies
of animals. The society requests a critical examination of all that
has reference to this class of animals, such examination to be founded
upon new researches; and, as an appendix to it, the society requires
a plan of classification of the Siphonifers indicative of the relations
existing between these animals and other invertebrates.

2. What general results are to be deduced from observations on
the development of articulated animals and molluscs in the egg when
compared with what is known of the embryology of vertebrated
animals ?

3. The society requests—Ist, an exact description, founded upon
microscopic observation, of the compound stomach of ruminating
animals, and of the various compartments found in them, illustrated
by requisite figures; 2dly, a chemical examination of the fluids con-
tained in the different compartments of these organs at different
periods of the process of digestion, and of their action upon aliments
by experiments on artificial digestion; and, 3dly, a physiological ex-
plication, founded upon these examinations and experiments, of the
functions of the various compartments, and of the peculiar’ structure
which enable them to digest, and, perhaps, partially to absorb, a
portion of the constituent principles of nourishment.

4. The researches of Slarber, Boddaert, and others, have proved
that the shores of Lower Zealand abound in molluscs and rayed ani-
mals of species which exist rarely or not at all on shores bounded
by sandy beaches. The society desires these shores to be further
explored with reference to the fact in question, that the researches
be made by the aid of dredges, and that any new or imperfectly
known animals thus found may be described and figured.

5. The salts which result from the combination of an electro-
positive metallic chloride with an electro-negative chloride are not as
yet well known. The society desires new researches upon these in-
teresting compounds.

6. The society requires new researches upon the development of
electricity by the friction of liquids upon solids. It especially desires
a repetition of the experiments of Faraday with steam at considerable
pressures, with a view to ascertaining if there are not some excep-
tions to the rules laid down by that illustrious savant. The society
also desires a decision of the question whether the electricity which
is frequently developed at the moment when the spheroidal state
ceases is due solely to the friction, and whether the greater portion
of the electricity obtained when experimenting with solutions should
be attributed to the frictions of the liquid molecules against the solid
portions deposited by the solution.

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 429

7. The electric light which is developed in a vacuum by means,
under certain conditions, of Ruhmkorff’s apparatus, exhibits alter-
nately, bright and dark bands, which are not yet sufficiently accounted
tor. The society requires a precise explanation of the causes of this
phenomenon.

8. Not only by the direct action of light upon the organs of sight,
but also by various action upon the nerves connected with those or-
gans, luminous appearances are produced, even when no light enters
the eye itself. The society requires a minute examination of every
thing connected with these phenomena, with a view to determining,
among other things, whether the appearances can produce second-
ary images, and if so, what relation do those images bear to the pri-
mary phenomenon.

9. The researches of Géppert have shown that all or almost all
beds of coal have been formed on the spot or near the spot where
they are found. Nevertheless, it is not well known how this has oc-
curred; it still remains to be determined whether they were formed
in the sea, in fresh water, or upon dry land, or whether some have
been formed under one of these circumstances and some under
another. Nor is it more precisely known to what extent we may
compare the formation of pit coal with that of peat.

The society requires researches, founded upon a personal exami-
nation of different coal beds and peat pits of different kinds, which
shall conduce to the most complete possible solution of these ques-
tions.

10. The society asks exact researches relative to the means by which
the mammifere and the molluscs are protected from the effects of the
great difference of pressure to which they are subject as they descend
from the surface of the sea to its successive depths.

11. The most recent researches have proved that the spermato-
zoides penetrate into the egg. The society requires that observa-
tions with reference to this be made upon various mammiferzx, and
that the account of these observations be accompanied by the neces-
sary figures.

12. Messrs. Chapuis and Candéze have performed a useful work in
publishing, in volume 8 of the Liege Memoirs, a catalogue of the
larve of the Coleoptera. The society would be glad to receive a
memoir containing a similar catalogue of the larvae of the Neuroptera.

The society has this year proposed the following questions, and
requires replies to them before the first of January, 1860:

1. The society requests new researches as to the development and
the first phases of life of the Nematoides, and especially of those
which inhabit the human body.

2. The greater correctness of range obtained by balls and bombs,
the centre of gravity of which does not coincide with that of the pro-
jectiles, proves the very great importance of a precise understanding
of the influence of that eccentricity. The society requests the equa-
tion of the trajectory described by the centre of gravity of a sphere

430 PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

to which a velocity has been communicated in a given direction and
which moves in the atmosphere, allowing that its resistance is pro-
portioned to the square of the velocity, and considering the sphere
as an inert mass without weight.

3. As chemical affinities undergo remarkable modifications by a
change of temperature, and as there is now no difficulty in obtaining
heat of great intensity, the society requests a series of researches on
affinity at very high temperatures.

4. The conducting power of a metallic wire when traversed for
some time by a galvanic current becomes diminished; this effect, if
not constant, at least disappears but slowly. The society desires in-
quiry into the laws which regulate this phenomenon.

5. We require an anatomical description of the bony labyrinth of
the organ of hearing, founded on new researches, and applied to. the
physiology of the ear.

6. We require new experimental researches upon the phenomenon
known under the name of fluorescence, making it an especial object
to determine what relation exists between this phenomenon and the
light produced by substances luminous of themselves, or which be-
come so by friction or by exposure to the sun.

7. The active state of oxygen (ozone) has already engaged the
attention of very many scientific men; an analogous state has been sup-
posed to be observed in many other gaseous fluids, but the observa-
tions are neither sufficiently numerous nor sufficiently exact. The
society desires new researches, with the view to throwing new light
upon this phenomenon.

8. The researches of Spence Bate have made known the fact that
some of the small crustacea construct a nest for themselves. The
society invites an exact examination of the nidification in the case of
the species already known to practice it, and, if possible, in the case
of other crustacea also. The material of which the nests are con-
structed, as well as the means employed by the crustacea in the con-
struction, should engage the attention of the examiner.

9. Many trees have their stems twisted spirally. We would ask
a general physiological explanation of this phenomenon.

10. We want an exact examination of the volcano in the island of
Amboyna, (Dutch Hast Indies,) to determine with precision whether
that volcano owes its origin to an upheaving of the ancient strata of
the true non-volcanic soil of the island, or whether it is the product
of non-coherent matters thrown out by the volcano and accumulated
around a crater.

The society recalls the fact that in preceding years it proposed the
following questions to be replied to before the first of January, 1859:

1. On passing an electric current through the helix of the electro
magnet, the iron does not immediately take the whole magnetic force
that the current is capable of giving, and, in like manner, the mag-
netism of the iron does not suddenly disappear on the breaking of
the circuit. The society desires exact experiments for the determi-

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 431

nation of the laws of these phenomena; and it also desires a decision
of the question whether they are to be attributed to a certain mag-
netic inertia of the iron, or to the action of currents of induction, or,
perchance, to both of these causes at once.

2. We require experimental researches upon the physical and
chemical properties of at least two species of vapor, subjected at
once to a pressure of at least a hundred atmospheres, and to a very
high temperature.

3. Since the establishment of railroads, the construction of oblique
arches has very much incfeased. Nevertheless, the rules for fixing
the dimensions of these arches, and of their straight or sloping parts,
have not yet reached the degree of perfection arrived at in relation
to straight arches. The society, consequently, calls for a mathemat-
ical theory of oblique arches whence rules may be deduced for the
form and dimensions of these arches for their slopes, and especially
for the limit of the inclination allowable to such works.

4. The origin of the sands which extend from the north of Bel-
gium into the Netherlands is not yet well ascertained. The society
requests a monograph of those sands; and it especially desires that
the rocks of which they are the detritus be indicated with exactitude,
if they exist upon the surface of the soil.

5. Some geologists have expressed doubts as to the correctness of
the theory of the upheaval of mountains, which they are inclined to
attribute to the irregular sinking down of the surface, and the conse-
quent lateral pressure upon the contiguous strata. The society de-
sires an examination of some chain of mountains hitherto regarded
as having arisen solely as claimed by the long-received theory and
from no other cause, with a view to determine whether its form and
elevation must be explained by that cause, or whether they can be
sufficiently accounted for by a sinking and its effects in lateral pressure
and overlapping.

6. Of what nature is the earth laid bare by the drying up of the
lake of Harlem, what is its chemical constitution, and what are we
to expect, as regards its fertility, from its chemical constitution and
physical properties ?

7. The cause of the scratches and furrows to be seen in hard rocks
is commonly referred to the existence of vast glaciers in earlier geolo-
gical periods; the stones carried along by these glaciers having
grooved and channelled these rocks. Although as to many places
this explanation can scarcely be gainsayed, yet it must be confessed
that there are very many other places in which it may be safely af-
firmed that these effects have had other causes. We want an exam-
ination of the characteristics by which such causes may be marked
and accurately distinguished from the cause previously mentioned.

8. The North sea has undergone changes from causes common to
all seas, as well as from local causes; as, for instance, like that of
the change in breadth of the Strait of Dover. The society desires
a knowledge of these phenomena, with their effects upon the con-
formation of the coasts, and especially upon the adjoining downs.
The society consequently inquires, what changes have been ob-

432 PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

served in the height of the sea on the coasts of Holland, Belgium, and
France? What changes have the currents on those coasts under-
gone as to their course and their velocity? And what has been
the effect of such changes upon the downs in Holland from the mouth
of the Meuse to the Helder, and upon those of the islands which lie
along the coasts of Friesland and Groningen, especially as to their
enlargement in some places and diminution in others.

9. The character of some parts of the organs of hearing are but
very imperfectly known. The society calls for exact researches on this
subject, so that positive data may be dedtced as to the functions of
these parts.

10. The society calls for a monograph of the diatomes, both liv-
ing and fossil, of the island of Java.

11. The application of photography might produce invaluable
consequences to the sublime science of astronomy if in a small
fraction of a second we could obtain photographic images of celes-
tial as we do of terrestrial bodies. Attempts have been made, but
with no satisfactory results, to obtain photographic images of the sun
and moon, the failure being especially attributable to the too great
length of time required for the production of these images. It seems
that no one hitherto has succeeded in photographing the images of
planets or of groups of stars. The society, with a view to making
photography auxiliary to astronomy, requests an exact and detailed
description of a photographic process by which to obtain, in a small
fraction of a second, good images of the celestial bodies. The author
of the memoir must accompany it with proofs of the process.

12. What, hitherto, have been the results to astronomy of the
numerous discoveries of small planets which revolve about the sun
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter? What is their importance,
and what their promise as to the future?

13. Although rheostats of different construction have rendered
great services to science, these instruments are still far from being
equal in precision of results to other scientific instruments. The so-
ciety, therefore, calls for the description of a rheostat free from the
defects of the present construction, with a succinct account of a series
of experiments demonstrating the superiority of the new instrument.

14. The maximum of tension at different temperatures has, for
some vapors, been determined with great exactness. The Society
desires the same to be done for the other vapors, of which that max-
imum is not as yet well known.

15. Bernouilli’s law as to the flow of gas does not agree with re-
corded experiments. The society requires new experimental re-
searches on this subject.

16. Botany possesses a great many monographs which are justly
considered masterpieces; we need only mention those of Richard
Brown, Von Martius, Adr. de Jussieu, Grisebach, and others.

The society desiring to promote the progress of botany in that
direction, will award its gold medal to the author of a good syste-
matic and organographic monograph of any group of plants as yet
but little known.

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 433

17. It is of the utmost importance to theoretical chemistry to know
the relative intensity of the forces which unite one or two or more
equivalents of a substance to one equivalent of another. Admit-
ting that the heat which is disengaged when a combination is effected
may serve.as the measure of these forces, we yet need experimental
research on the quantity of the heat so disengaged when one equiva-
lent of an element combines with one or two or more equivalents of
another.

18. What influence has the progress of organic chemistry exer-
cised upon the theory of the composition of inorganic substances?
With what degree of certainty can we admit the existence of radical
compounds in inorganic combinations ?

19. What means of transport to the Indies, whether by the old
route of the Cape of Good Hope or by the proposed canal across the
Isthmus of Suez, may be considered the most economical for com-
merce—that by sailing vessels, by steamers, or by sailing vessels
aided by steam?

20. The velocity with which magnetism, in whatsoever manner
developed in one part of a mass of iron, diffuses itself throughout
the mass is not yet ascertained. The society requests that this ve-
locity be determined by rigorous experiments.

21. The difference of numerical results obtained by different
savans as to the conducting power of different metals for electricity
renders it necessary that on this point there should be a new research.
The society, therefore, requests that there shall be a new determina-
tion in a rigorous manner of the relative conducting power of
the metals and the alloys most in use—the former in a state of chem-
ical purity, and the latter in exact proportions. The society desires
that endeavors should at the same time be made to find the law ac-
cording to which the conducting power’of an alloy depends upon that
of the metals of which the alloy consists,

22. The society requests a description of the fossil fauna of the
Netherland provinces, Gueldre and Overijssel, compared with that
of analogous formations in the adjacent countries. Should the author
have satisfactory reasons for so doing, he may confine himself either
to the vertebrate or to invertebrate animals of these fauna.

The ordinary prize of a satisfactory reply to either of these ques-
tions is a gold medal of the value of 150 florins, and a further gra-
tuity of 150 Dutch florins if the reply is deemed worthy of it.

The replies, legibly written, must be made in Dutch, French,
English, Italian, or Latin; or in the German language in Roman
characters; and must be sent, post free, accompanied by sealed notes,
in the usual manner, to M. J. G. 8. Van Breda, perpetual secretary
of the Holland society at Harlem.

28

434 PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

EXTRACT FROM THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE HOLLAND SOCIETY OF SCIENCE
AT HARLEM FOR THE YEAR 1861.

The society held its 109th annual session on the 18th of May,
1861.

Since its last meeting it had received—

1. A memoir, written in French, on the sponges of the seas of the
Antilles.

The directors did not deem fit to come to an immediate conclusion
as to the insertion of this work in the society’s memoirs.

2. A memoir, written in French, by Mr. T. C. Winkler, of Washes
containing the description of fossil fishes from the quarries at Sohl-
enhofen, in Bavaria.

3. A memoir presented by Dr. Bierens De Haan, upon a, method of
discussing definite integrals.

On the unanimous recommendation of the members who were con-
sulted, the directors resolved that this memoir should be inserted in
the society’s transactions.

4, A memoir in reply to the following question: “ Many paleontolo-
gists, and among them Von Meijer, Heer, Agassiz, and Kaup, have
described and figured various animals of ‘which remains have been
found in the quarries of Oeniugen, situated on the frontiers of Swit-
zerland and of the Grand Duchy of Baden. During their researches,
and subsequently, the quarriés have constantly furnished new species
which the society desires to see described. The society will award
its gold medal to the naturalist who will present a good description,
accompanied by the necessary figures, of the newly-found species,
whether of mammifers, fish, or insects.’

This memoir, written in German, contains the description, with a
number of firures, of newly- -found fossil insects from Oeningen. The
society Saeed resolved to crown this memoir, and to request
the author to communicate to the society whatever further informa-
tion he may obtain on the subject of the fossil insects of Oeningen.

On the opening of the sealed note accompanying the memoir it
was found that the author was Professor O. Heer, of Zurich.

5. A memoir, written in German, and bearing the epigraph, Multa
pertransibunt et augebitur scientia, in reply to the following ques-
tion:

‘¢ What have been the results to astronomy of the numerous dis-
- coveries of small planets revolving around the sun between the orbits
of Mars and Jupiter. What is their importance, and what their
promise for the future?’

This memoir is obviously from the pen of a learned and expe-
rienced astronomer. The question, however, is only answered in
part, and there are serious errors in the calculations. For these
reasons the society was unable to crown this memoir.

6. A memoir, written in German, and bearing the epigraph ‘‘ Die
ewigen Gesetze in der Natur sind far uns die Sprache der Geisterwelt,’’
in reply to the following question:

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, 435

‘‘ According to most geologists, one of the latest geological periods
was characterized by enormous masses of ice covering vast breadths
of gifferent countries, and forming enormous glaciers. The society
inquires: ‘What was the influence of these glaciers, if they really
existed, upon the flora and fauna of these countries, and upon the
temperature of the atmosphere? ’’.

The society unanimously awarded the gold medal to the author of
this memoir, Professor W. Sartorius de Waltershausen, of Gottingen.

The society thinks fit to repeat the following questions, and to re-
quest replies to them previous to the first of January, 1863:

1. Throughout Europe the diluvial formation contains bones of the
‘ mammifers; the society asks a comparative examination of the de-
posits of those bones in different places leading, if not with cer-
tainty, at least with a high degree of probability, to a knowledge of
the causes of their interment, and the manner in which it happened.

2. In some districts of the island of Java there are very remarka-
ble polythalama; the society desires a description, accompanied by
figures, of some species of this genus hitherto undescribed.

3. It is very probable that the chain of mountains which borders
Dutch Guiana contains auriferous veins, and that the detritus at the
foot of that chain contains gold. The society requires a geological
description of that chain of mountains, with the result of a minera-
logical examination of its detritus.

4. The society requires as complete a list as can be made of the
reptiles that exist in the countries near the Dutch possession of St.
George del Mina, on the coast of Guinea, with the description of new
species.

5. The society requires an anatomical description of the sea-calf,
(Trichecus manatus, £.,) which is found in the Dutch colonies in
America, with an account of the habits of the animal, based on the
author’s observations.

» 6. A chemical examination is required of the phosphorescent ma-
terial of Lampyris noctiluca and of Lampyris splendidula, L.

7. The celebrated astronomer G. B. Airy has expressed (vol. xix,
No. 5, of Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society) some
doubts regarding the manner in which it has hitherto been attempted
to deduce from the apparent movements of the fixed stars the move-
ment of the sun with the planetary system through space. Airy
proposes an entirely new method of attaining the same end, a method
which he has applied to only a very few stars. In view of these facts,
the society requests new and exact researches upon the movement of
the sun with the planetary system; these researches to be founded
upon all the fixed stars whose own motion has been settled with
sufficient exactness for that end.

8. Bodies in motion, when lighted by the electric spark, appear as
though they were perfectly at rest; new researches are requested to
be made by means of the application of this principle.

9. The society requests new researches upon the arrangement
assumed by particles of iron floating upon or suspended in a liquid

436 PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

under the influence of a surrounding electrical current, and an appli-
cation of the phenomenon to what takes place in a bar of iron under-
going magnetization. .

10. Exact experimental researches are required in order to ascer-
tain to what extent the dispersion in transversal radii of the particles
of a thread of metal by an electric discharge, described and figured
by Van Marum in the Memoirs of the Teylerian Society, is analogous
to the stratification of the light in rarefied gases, and ought to be
attributed to the same cause.

11. Notwithstanding the experiments of Arago, uncertainty still
exists as to the state of polarization of diffused light. The society
requires new experimental researches, as complete as possible, as to
the nature of the polarization both of diffused light and of light ra- *
diated from incandescent bodies.

12. What is the nature of the foreign bodies observable in some
diamonds? Do they belong to the mineral or vegetable kingdom ?
Researches upon this question, even though they apply only to a sin-
gle diamond, will be crowned should they lead to any interesting
result.

13. As the development and first habitat of the Bothriocephalus
latus (Tenia lata, L.) are as yet unknown, the society suggests re-
searches which shall elucidate the natural history of this entozéon
from the egg to the perfect state.

14. The researches of Kramer have made it known that visual
adjustment depends upon a change of form in the lenses of the eye,
but the mechanism by which this change is effected is not yet well
known. ‘The society requires new researches upon this subject, to be
founded on the comparative anatomy of the apparatus which serves
to produce the accommodation.

15. The society requests researches into the nature of the sub-
stances contained in the watery vapor produced by the respiration
of man in a state of health and of the lower animals. It is desira-
ble that these researches should, if possible, be extended to the
substances exhaled in some diseases, especially contagious ones; that
they should not only be chemically analyzed, but examined as to
their noxious effects upon animals.

The society has this year propounded the following questions, and
requests replies before the Ist of January, 1863:

1. The fishes of the Indian archipelago have been the objects of
the researches of a learned Dutch author. The society desires that
the other vertebrates of these islands, and especially those of Borneo,
Celebes, the Moluccas, and, above all, those of New Guinea, should be
subjected to a similar examination. The gold medal will be awarded
to the naturalist who shall send to the society either the description
of any new species of mammifers, of birds, or of reptiles of these
islands, or a memoir containing new and remarkable facts concerning
the structure and habits of some of these animals.

2. The society requires a determination, as exact as possible, of
the errors of Hansen’s Lunar Tables, by the occultations of the

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 437

Pleiades observed during the last revolution of the node of the
lunar orbit.

3. The celebrated mechanist Ruhmkorff has obtained electric
sparks of extraordinary length by the induction apparatus which bear
his name. The society desires a determination, by both theoretical
and experimental researches, of the laws which govern the length
and the intensity of the sparks from instruments of different sizes and
construction. 4

4, What difference is there in the perception of sounds with both
ears or with only one? The society desires precise researches upon
this difference, and generally upon the influence of duality on the

organ of hearing.

' 5. According to Pasteur, and other savans, fermentation is owing
to the development of cryptogamia and infusoria. The society re-
quests new and positive researches on this subject, with the addition,
if practicable, of an exact description of these plants and animals,
and of their mode of action.

6. What is the best construction, and what the best mode of using
steamboats intending to clear rivers of the masses of ice which
obstruct their water-course? The society desires that those who
reply to this question will carefully consider all that practice has
already determined both in this country and elsewhere.

7. The electric perturbations of the atmosphere give rise to elec-
tric currents in the telegraph wires. Notwithstanding all that recent
researches have made known, these phenomena are not yet completely
understood, and the society desires communications of the results of
numerous observations, with an account of the most remarkable con-
sequences which may be deduced concerning these currents and their
modifications according to the different causes producing them.

8. With the exception of some sites on the eastern frontier of the
kinedom of Holland, the geological formations which are covered by
alluvial and diluvial deposits in this country are but very little known.
The society wishes to receive an account of all that excavations in
various places, and other observations, have ascertained with cer-
tainty of the nature of these formations.

9. It is known, especially from the work of Professor Roemer, of
Breslau, that many of the fossils which are found near Groningen
belong to the same species as those which are found in the silurian
formations in the island of Gothland. This fact has led M. Roemer
to conclude that the diluvium of Groningen has been transported
from the island of Gothland; but that origin does not seem to be
reconcilable with the direction in which the diluvium is deposited,
which direction rather indicates transportation from the southern part
of Norway. The society suggests a decision of this question by an
exact comparison of the fossils of Groningen with the minerals and
the fossils of the silurian and other formations in that part of Norway,
regard being had to the modifications these minerals and fossils
must necessarily have experienced from distant transportation and its
consequences.

10. The combustion of steel, iron, and other metals in oxygen, is

438 PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

accompanied by the appearance of a multitude of incandescent par-
ticles which leap from the surface of the body in combustien, and
which, after the experiment, are found in the vessel in which the
combustion is operated. The same fact is witnessed in the luminous
electric arc of a strong pile between two metallic rheophores, especi-
ally if they, or even one of them, is of steel or iron. The society
desires to receive an explanation founded upon new and decisive
researches as to the cause of this phenomenon.

The society recalls the fact that last year it propounded the follow-
ing questions, that they might be answered before the first of Janu-
ary, 1862:

1. The society requests new researches upon the development and
the first phases of the life of the nematoides, especially of those
which live in the human body.

2. As chemical affinities suffer remarkable modifications by change
of temperature, and as we can now easily produce very high tem-
peratures, the society requests a series of researches upon affinity
at very high temperatures.

3. The conducting power of a metallic wire which has for some
time been traversed by a galvanic current becomes diminished; this
effect, if it is not constant, at least disappears but slowly. The
society wishes for researches into the laws which regulate this phe-
nomenon.

4, A description is wanted of the bony labyrinth of the organ of
hearing founded on new researches, and applied to the physiology of
the ear.

5. We want new experimental researches relative to the phenome-
non known as fluorescence; the author will especially endeavor to
ascertain what relation exists between this phenomenon and the light
produced by substances which are luminous in themselves, or which
become so by friction or exposure to the sun.

6. The active state of oxygen (ozone) has already been the object
of the researches of many men of science; an analogous state has
been believed to have been observed in many other gaseous fluids,
but the observations are neither sufficiently numerous nor sufficiently
exact. The society wishes to have further light thrown upon this
phenomenon by new researches.

T. The researches of Spence Bate have made known the fact that
some crustacea construct nests. The society requires an exact ex-
amination of that nidification among the species already known in
that connexion, and, if possible, among other species. The material
of which the nests are constructed, as well as the means of construc-
tion employed by the crustacea, should engage the attention of the
author.

8. Many trees have their stem twisted into a spiral; a general
physiological explanation is requested of this phenomenon.

9. We desire an exact examination of the volcano of the island of
Amboyna, (Dutch East Indian archipelago,) which shall perfectly
ascertain whether that volcano owes its origin to an upheaving of the

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 439

old strata which form the true non-volcanic formation of the island, or
whether it is the production of non coherent matters cast out by the
volcano and accumulated around a crater.

10. The society requests the history of the development and life
of the morphological elements of the blood of vertebrated animals.

11. The tribes who people the interior of some of the great islands
of the Indian archipelago are not yet sufficiently known; they are
called by the name of Alfours or Horaforas. The society requests
a critical review of all that travellers have reported on the subject,
and a, descriptive parallel alike between those tribes, in different
localities, and between the Alfours and the Papuans. The value of
the work would be greatly increased in the estimation of the society
if it were accompanied by new observations upon the skull and other
parts of the bodies of individuals belonging to these tribes.

12. The society solicits anatomico-physiological researches upon
the organs of sight in the Echinoderms, with especial reference to the
recent discoveries on the subject of these organs in the asteries.

13. The society requests exact microscopic researches upon the
phenomena which accompany the disappearance of some organs, as
the gills, the tail, and the crest, during the metamorphosis of
the batracians. All the phenomena, especially the modification in
the vessels which accompany them, should be observed, described,
and carefully figured.

14. The society requests a description of the organs which have
been termed the rudimentary organs in animals, and a discussion alike
of the consequences deducible therefrom with respect to the natural
affmities of the animals, and of what those organs allow us to pre-
sume as to the mode of the development of animal life upon the
earth.

15. M. Person believes that he has found a law which connects the
latent heat of the fusion of a substance with its point of fusion and
with its calorific capacity in both the liquid and solid states. The
society, deeming that this law is not supported by a sufficient number
of facts thoroughly proved, desires that it be again subjected to a
strict examination.

16. The researches of Dale and Gladstone have particularly fixed
the attention of men of science upon the changes that the indices of
refraction of liquids undergo by changes of temperature. The society
attaches great importance to the knowledge of the relation between
the indices of refraction and the temperature, from its conviction
that this knowledge may tend to elucidate many other very interest-
ing points in the theory of light. The society therefore demands a
series of very exact researches upon these changes in pure liquids
and solutions.

17. Physicists are not agreed upon the cause of the motion of the
ball in Mr. Gore’s electrical experiment. It is urged that that cause
should be put beyond doubt by new and decisive experiments.

18. The researches of M. Du Moncel show that the electric light de-
veloped under certain circumstances by Ruhmkorff’s apparatus con-

440 PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES,

sists of two distinct parts—the spark, properly so called, and a lu-
minous aureola.. New researches are required upon the causes of
this division, and the phenomena which accompany it, and upon the
different qualities of the two parts of the same luminous discharge.

19. The experiments of M. Quincke have demonstrated that the
forced passage of a liquid across a porous diaphragm developes an
electric current. New researches are demanded which may make
known the cause of this remarkable phenomenon.

20. The society desires ‘soundings to be ‘taken in various seas for
the purpose of procuring specimens of the beds. The spee¢imens
thus procured are to be carefully examined with a view to discovering
whatever there is that is interesting in these submarine deposits.

21. Hxact researches are requested upon the transparency of the
atmosphere of Java as compared with that of some European country.

22. In the mountainous country of the left bank of the Rhine,
known by the name of Hijjffel, there are several conical mountains
which evidently owe their existence to volcanic action. The society
requests it to be determined, by exact observations made upon the
spot, whether there exists traces of upheaval of the older strata, or
whether those mountains are not cones of eruption.

The question relating to the fossils of Oeningen, from which the
society has been so fortunate as to induce the production of crowned
memoirs upon the fishes and the insects, still remains open to com-
petitors as regards the mammifers and the reptiles.

The usual prize for a satisfactory reply to each of the questions is a_
gold medal of the value of 150 florins, and, when the reply is deemed
worthy, an additional premium of 150 Dutch florins in money. Re-
plies very legibly written in Dutch, French, English, Italian, or Ger-
man, (in the Roman character,) and post paid, with sealed notes in the
usual way, must be addressed to M. J. G. 8. Breda, perpetual secre-
tary of the society, Harlem..

EXTRACT FROM THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE HOLLAND SOCIETY OF SCIENCES,
AT HARLEM, FOR THE YEAR 1862.

The society held its 110th annual session May 17, 1862. Since its
last general session no satisfactory response has been received to the
questions which it had offered for competition.

Dr. P. Bleeker, a member of the society, has sent a Memoir intended
as a contribution to the natural history of the fish of the coast of Guinea;
and Drs. F. J. 8S. Schmidt, G. S. Godhart, and J. Van der Hoeven
have transmitted a Memoir on the anatomy of the Cryptobranchus ja-
ponicus. By the unanimous recommendation of the members con-
sulted these two works will form a part of the memoirs of the society.

The society has thought proper to repeat the following questions,

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 441

sand to request that reponses may be made before the jirst of January,
1864 :*

1. The society requests the history of the development and life of
the morphological elements of the blood of vertebrate animals.

2. The tribes which people the interior of certain large islands of
the Indian archipelago, and which have been designated by the name
of Alfours or Horaforas, are not yet adequately known. The society
invites a critical review of all that travellers have reported on this
subject, and an analytical parallel as well between the tribes belong-
ing to different localities as between the Alfours and Papuans. The
value of this work would, in the view of the society, be greatly en-
hanced if accompanied by new researches on the skull and other parts
of the bodies of individuals pertaining to the races in: question.

3. The society solicits anatomico-physiological researches on the
organs of sight in the echinoderms, with especial reference to recent
discoveries on the subject of these organs in the asteria.

4. Microscopical researches are required on the phenomena which
accompany the disappearance of certain organs, such as the gills, the
tail, and the crest, during the metamorphosis of batrachia. The so-
ciety desires that all these phenomena, especially all the modifications
in the vessels which accompany them, should be observed, described,
and figured with care.

5. A description of the organs which have been denominated
rudimentary organs in animals, and a discussion, as well of the con-
sequences to be deduced from those organs in regard to the natural
affinities of animals, as of the presumptions to which they lead, re-
specting the mode of the development of animal life on the earth.

6. M. Person believes that he has discovered a law which con-
nects the latent heat of fusion of a substance with its point of fusion
and its calorific capacity in a solid and a liquid state. The society,
thinking that this law is not supported by a sufficient number of well-
verified facts, desires that it should be submitted anew to a rigorous
examination.

7. The researches of Dale and of Gladstone have particularly
fixed the attention of physicists on the changes which the indices of
the refraction of liquids undergo from changes of temperature. The
society attaches great value to the knowledge of the relation between
the index of refraction and the temperature, convinced as it is that
this knowledge would clear up other very interesting points of the
theory of light. It desires, consequently, a series of very exact re-
searches on these changes in pure liquids and in solutions.

8. Physicists are not agreed with respect to the cause of the
movement of the ball in the electrical experiment of M. Gore. It is
to be wished that this cause should be placed beyond doubt by new
and decisive experiments.

9. The researches of M. Du Moncel have proved that the electric
light developed in certain circumstances by the apparatus of Ruhm-

= It will be seen that the following questions are given on preceding pages, but it has
been thought advisable to let them stand as in the original.

442 PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

korff consists of two distinct parts—the spark, properly so called, and
a luminous aureole. New researches are requested as to the causes
of this division, and the phenomena which accompany it, and on the
different qualities of these two parts of the same luminous discharge.

10. The society desires that in the different seas specimens of the
bottom should be procured by sounding; and that after examination
everything of interest which these specimens disclose on the nature
of the submarine deposits should be communicated.

11. We solicit exact researches in regard to the tr ansparence of
the atmosphere of the island of Java, as compared with that of some
European country.

12. In the mountainous country of the left bank of the Rhine,
known by the name of the Hijffel, there are several conic mountains
to be seen, which evidently owe their existence to volcanic action.
The society would be pleased to have it decided by exact researches
made on the spot whether there exist traces of the upheaval of the
older strata, or whether these mountains are only cones of eruption.

The society has this year proposed the following questions, and
solicits a response to them before the 1st of January, 1864:

1. It desires a complete embryology of the Squalus spinax and of
the Squalus acanthias, from the egg in the ovary to the complete for-
mation of the young fish.

2. It calls for a critical nomenclature, based on the author’s own
researches, of the annulata and turbellaria, which are found in the
interior and on the coasts of the Netherlands.

3. It desires a comparative myology of the anterior members of
reptiles and birds, with reference to the denomination of the corre-
sponding or homologous muscles in mammifers, and especially in the
human anatomy.

4, The form of the so-called Lichtenberg figures differs accord-
ing as they have been produced by positive or negative electricity.
The society requests a new and satisfactory explanation of this dif-
ference.

5. Researches are desired on the molecular change produced in
the filaments of different metals by the sustained action of an electric
current as strong as it is possible to be without producing fusion.

6. A complete embryology of the Lepas anatifera is requested.

7. A comparative anatomical description is desired of the re-
mains of birds found in different geological deposits.

8. In regard to many rocks geologists are left in doabt whether
they have been deposited from a solution in water or have become
solid after fusion by heat. The society desires that one of these
rocks, at the choice of the inquirer, should be submitted to researches
which shall lead to a decisive judgment respecting its origin, and at
the same time, if possible, cast some light on the origin of other
rocks more or less analogous.

9. Since at present carbonic acid may be easily solidified and with-
out danger, it is desired that complete researches be made respecting
the physical properties of the solid acid.

10. A microscopic and chemical examination is requested of the

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 443

matter secreted by glands situated near the jaws of crocodiles, which
yields a strong odor of musk.

11. It is desirable to have an exact anatomical description of the
sturgeon, (Accipenser sturio,) with a monograph of its development
from the egg to the adult animal.

12. The society wishes that the remains of castors and emydes
found in bogs at places where these animals do not now live should
be compared with living species of these same animals.

13. Are there earthquakes which should be attributed only to
the giving way of strata situated at a greater or less depth; and if so,
by what signs may they be recognized ?

14. It has been observed that oxygen conducts the currents of
induction of Ruhmkorff’s apparatus only when its tension has been
reduced to the pressure of six millimetres of mercury, and that start-
ing from this point its conducting power increases when its tension
is diminished until this is but 0.5 millimetres, at which this power
seems to attain its maximum. The society desires that this phenom-
enon should be confirmed by new experiments, and that in comparing
it with whatever of an analogous kind is presented by other gases
its cause should be made apparent.

The society would call to mind that it last year proposed the fol-
lowing questions, with a view to their being answered before the 1st
of January, 1863:

1. Throughout Europe the diluvial contains bones of mammifers.
The society asks a comparative examination of the deposit of these
bones in different places, conducting, if not with certainty, at least
with a high degree of probability, to a ‘knowledge of the causes of
their interment, and of the manner in which it was effected.

2. In certain formations of the island of Java are to be found highly
remarkable polythalames. The society desires a description, accom-
panied by figures, of some species of this kind not heretofore de-
scribed.

3. It is highly probable that the chain of mountains which bounds
Dutch Guiana, contains auriferous veins, and that the detritus at the
foot of that chain contains gold. The society desires a geological
description of that chain of mountains with the result of a mineralo-
gical examination of its detritus.

4. The society desires as complete a list as possible of the rep-
tiles which inhabit the countries in the neighborhood of the Dutch
possession of St. George del Mina, on the coast of Guinea, with a de-
scription of the new species.

5. An anatomical description is desired of the sea-calf (T'richecus
manatus, L.,) which is found in the Dutch colonies of America, with
an account of the habits of the animal from observations made by the
author.

6. There is desired a chemical examination of the phosphorescent
matter of the Lampyris noctiluca and of the Lampyris splendidula.

7. The celebrated astronomer, G. B. Airy, has lately expressed
(Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xix, No. 5,)
some doubts regarding the manner in which it has hitherto been at-

444 _ PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

tempted to deduce from the apparent movement of the fixed stars the
movement of the sun with its planetary system through space. Airy
has proposed an entirely new method for attaining the same end, a
method which he has applied to only a very few stars. In view of
these facts, the society invites new and exact researches on the move-
ment of the sun with the planetary system, based upon all the fixed
stars whose proper movement has been determined with sufficient
exactness for that purpose.

8. Bodies in motion, illuminated by the electric spark, appear
as if they were in a state of perfect repose; new researches are re-
quested to be made by means of the application of this principle.

9. The society calls for new researches on the arrangement as-
sumed by particles of iron floating upon or suspended in a liquid,.
under the influence of a surrounded electrical current, and an appli-
cation of this phenomenon to that which occurs in a bar of iron
which is undergoing magnetization.

10. It is required to be decided by exact experimental researches
up to what point the dispersion in transverse lines of a filament of
metal by an electric discharge, as it has been described and figured
by Van Marum in the Memoirs of the Teylerian Society, is analogous
to the stratification of light in rarefied gases and ought to be attri-
buted to the same cause.

11. Notwithstanding the experiments of Arago, there is still a pre- °
vailing uncertainty respecting the state of polarization of diffused
light. The society invites new experimental researches, as complete
as possible, on the nature and the state of polarization as well of dif-
fused light as of the light radiated by incandescent bodies.

12. What is the nature of*the solid bodies observed in some dia-
monds? Do they pertain to the mineral or to the vegetable king-
dom? Researches on the subject, even if relating but to a single
diamond, will be distinguished, provided they lead to any interesting
result.

13. As the development and original seat of the Bothriocephalus
latus (Tenia lata, L.) are still unknown, the society suggests re-
searches for elucidating the natural history of this entozéon from the
egg to the perfect state.

' 14. We know by the researches of Cramer that the adjustment
of the eye depends on a change in the form of the lenses, but the
mechanism which produces this change is not yet well understood.
The society invites new researches on this subject, based upon the
comparative anatomy of the apparatus which serves to produce the
adjustment.

15. The society requests researches on the nature of the sub-
stances contained in the aqueous vapor produced by the respiration
as well of man in a state of health as of animals. It is desirable that
these researches should, if possible, extend to the substances exhaled
in certain maladies, especially contagious ones, and that not only the
chemical analysis of them should be made, but that their injurious
effect on animals should be examined.

16. The fishes of the Indian archipelago have furnished an object
of research to one of our learned countrymen. The society is desirous

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 445

that the other vertebrata of these islands, especially those of Borneo,
of Celebes, and of the Moluccas, and, above all, those of New Guinea,
should be submitted to%a similar examination. It will award its gold
medal to the naturalist who shall send it, either the description of any
new species of mammifers, of birds, or of reptiles of those islands, or
a memoir containing new and remarkable facts on the structure and
habits of some of those animals.

17. It is desirable to have as exact a determination as possible
of the errors of the tables of the moon, which we owe to M. Hansen,
by the occultations of the Pleiades, observed during the last revolu-
tion of the node of the Junar orbit.

18. The celebrated mechanist, Ruhmkorff, has obtained sparks
of an extraordinary length by the apparatus of induction which bears
his name. The society desires to have the laws which govern the
length and intensity of these sparks in instruments of different size and
construction determined by theoretical and experimental researches.

19. What difference is there between the perception of sounds
with one and with two ears? The society invites precise researches
on this difference, and in general on the influence of duality in the
organ of hearing.

20. According to the researches of Pasteur, and other savans,
fermentation 1s due to the development of cryptogams and of in-
fusoria. The society desires on this subject new and positive re-
searches, and, to such an extent as may be practicable, an exact
description of these plants and animals, and of their mode of action.
* 21. What is the best construction and the best method ‘of em-
ploying steamboats intended to clear rivers of the accumulations of
ice which obstruct their flow of water? ‘It is desired that in answer-
ing this question a particular account should be given of all that has
been practically determined on the subject, as well in our own country
as elsewhere.

22. Electric perturbations in the atmosphere give rise to electric
currents in the wires of telegraphs. Notwithstanding all that modern
researches have made known, these phenomenaare not yet completely
understood; the society desires that the results of multiplied obser-
vations should be communicated to it with an exposition of the most
remarkable consequences deducible therefrom on the currents in
question, and their modifications agreeably to the different causes
which give rise to them.

25. With the exception of some deposits on ses eastern frontier
of the kingdom of the Netherlands, the geological formations covered
by the deposits of alluvium and diluvium in that country are as yet
but very little known. We would be gratified at receiving a state-
ment of all which has become known with certainty, whether from
the excavations executed in different places or from other means of
observation, on the nature of those deposits.

24. It is known, chiefly by the labors of Professor Roemer, at
Breslau, that many of the fossils found near Groningen belong to the
same species with those found in the silurian deposits of the island of
Gothland. This fact has led M. Roemer to the conclusion that the
diluvium of Groningen has been transported from this island of

446 PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Gothland, but such origin appears little reconcileable with the direc-
tion in which this diluvium is disposed, a direction which would rather
indicate a translation from the southern part of Norway. The society
suggests a decision of this question by an exact comparison of the
fossils of Groningen with the minerals and fossils of the silurian and
other formations of that part of Norway, regard being at the same -
time had to the modifications to which the translation from a remote
country and its consequences have subjected these minerals and
fossils.

25. The combustion of steel, iron, and other metals, in oxygen,
is accompanied by the appearance of a multitude of incandescent
particles, which are thrown off from the surface of the body in
combustion, and may be found after the phenomenon in the bottom
of the vessel in which the combustion is effected. The same fact
is observed in the luminous electric arch of a strong battery between
two metallic rheophores, especially if these, or even one of them, is.
of iron or steel. The society requests an explanation founded on
new and decisive researches of the cause of this phenomenon.

The usual prize for a satisfactory answer to each of these questions
is a gold medal of the value of 150 florins, and a further donation of
150.Dutch florins, if the answer is thought to merit it. The answers,
legibly written in Dutch, French, English, Italian, Latin, or German,
(in Italic letters,) must be addressed free, ‘with tickets after the man-
ner in use, to M. J. G. S. Van Breda, perpetual secretary of the
society, at Harlem.

PROGRAMME OF THE BATAVIAN SOCIETY OF EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY AT
ROTTERDAM.

1. Question 105. It is desirable to obtain accurate statistical data
in reference to our drained marsh districts, and this society having
determined to continue its efforts, which have already been so suc-
cessful in reference to South Holland, has resolved to propose the
following question:

‘‘What are the statistical characteristics of one of the drained
marsh districts of our country.’’

The reply to this question should give an account of the situation,
the figure, and the extent of this dyke district ; the elevation of the
surface compared with the plane of the level passing through the
zero of the scale of the plane of Amsterdam; the separation of
the district into dykes, dams, or other hydraulic divisions, having
different summer levels; a succinct description of the windmills or
‘other apparatus in use for pumping up and discharging the super-
abundant waters; such description also giving the volume of the
water raised and the measure of its elevation; the indication
of the changes successively made in these machines to increase their
discharging power, and the effect obtained, both as to the volume of
the water and as to the measure of its elevation; the description of

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 447

the canals, or water-courses, showing their lengths, their transverse
section, and the obstructions which may influence the discharge of
the waters. To these particulars there should be added a historical
notice of the various projects for the improvement of draining ; such
notice to indicate the results of such projects in the cases in which
they have been carried into execution. Finally, there should be
a description of the means of defence against the exterior waters
and the results obtained from the means employed.

2. Question 106. This society, judging that the examination of the
temperature of the water of the high seas taken at considerable
depths may be of much importance in conducing to a knowledge of
the physical state of our globe, and knowing that on board of many
vessels, under favorable circumstances, this temperature can be ascer-
tained, solicits careful research upon this point; such research, with
proper apparatus and appliances, to be mdde in latitudes and longi-
tudes in which it has hitherto not been undertaken; and this society
further solicits succinct and formal yet fully detailed reports of such
researches.

3. Question 111. It is undeniable that the crystalline form is one
of the essential properties of matter, but in the present state of our
knowledge we possess only an imperfect idea of the relation which
truly exists between the crystalline form of a body and its chemical
composition.

Crystallographic examination, properly so-called, has hitherto been
for the most part limited to objects presented to us by nature in the
form of minerals, while we have only a superficial acquaintance with
what we may know about crystals artificially obtained from chemical
compositions or simple bodies.

The results obtained from the crystallographic examination of min-
erals cannot develop generally admissible natural laws, because we
are very imperfectly acquainted with the conditions under which
they are formed and the medium from which they are produced.

As in the artificial formation of crystals we are in every respect
better able to ascertain the conditions and the medium, it is pro-
posed that—

‘* A crystallographic and rigorously conducted examination be made
of such inorganic substances as assume the crystalline form suffi-
ciently to allow of cleavage:

‘‘An inquiry be made into the circumstances under which the
crystalline form of the selected substances has been modified; and
this not only as to the secondary, but also as to the primary or ‘type
form.’

_ “A eritical review be made of the crystallographic description of
different authors of inorganic substances, with respect to both the
primary and the secondary forms.’’

‘That the progress be stated which has been made towards obtain-
ing a knowledge of the connexion between the crystalline form of a
substance and its chemical composition. What obstacle exists to
our obtaining this knowledge by the way of experiment ?”’

448 PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

4. Question 112. A difference of opinion still existing as to what
machine now in use is the best adapted for raising water, we in-
quire—

a. Is any one of those machines to be preferred under all cir-
cumstances and without reference to the description of the motive
power?

b. In the negative case, what are the conditions which should
entitle any one of those machines to the preference?

c. What, in order to obtain the best results, should be the dimen-
sions of the Pin a machines adapted to use in our ordinary large
draining works?

The reply should be based upon exact observations and experi-
ments, and must in every case be corroborated in the most con-
vincing manner.

5. Question 114. During many years the learned and scientific have
discussed the question of the possibility of building enclosed seaports,
similar to those of northern and southern Holland, and intended
for the safe sheltering of vessels of considerable draught of water.
Some of those who have discussed the question maintain that in the
present state of practical science there is no difficulty in the formation
of such harbors. We therefore ask for a complete plan of a coast
harbor, similar, for instance, to that of Scheveningue, which at low
water shall admit vessels drawing twenty-one feet, and with an en-
trance of sufficient breadth to allow such vessels an easy entrance
with wind blowing hard from the northwest. To such plan there
should be added an estimate of the cost of the construction as well
as of the annual repairs.

6. Question 116. The ehbinameters of Bi ihnGH: Woltman, Pitot, and
others, have this disadvantage: that while they indicate the relative
value of velocities they do not indicate their absolute value; and the
rheumameter of Kraijenhoff is adapted to the examination of only
some portions of rivers. We therefore require an instrument calcu-
lated for ascertaining the mean velocity in any part of a river, and
free from all the known defects of existing inventions, or having
such defects remedied as faras possible.

7. Question 117. The history of the changes which have taken
place in the course of rivers and in their mouths, as well as of the
events which have been the causes or the results of these changes, is
of the utmost consequence to obtaining a knowledge of the exist-
ing state of our rivers. Many things worthy to be known on this
subject are scattered .through individual dissertations, and in the
debates, reports, resolutions, and memoirs of various learned and scien-
tific societies. It would be useful to collect these things and make
them known to the persons interested. Therefore, we suggest: ‘' A
judicious historical memoir on the rivers of Holland from the inunda-
— of the Zindhollandsche Waard to the present time.’’

Question 118. Other countries already possess locks of extraor-
deme dimensions, and the necessity may arise for building similar locks
in this country. We therefore solicit: ‘‘A critical description of the

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, 449

manner in which other countries construct locks of extraordinary di-
mension; and which of those modes of construction deserves prefer-
ence? Or, are there other modes of construction imaginable and
practicable for the construction of similar locks in this country ?”’

9. Question 120. As the most recent observations of Dr. H. Schacht
upon the origin of the lacteal vessels of the Carica papaya* con-
firmed his previous experiments, published in the Botanic Journal
of Von Mohl and Schlechtendal in 1851, as well as in his treatise on
the Anatomy and Physiology of Vegetables, and, as they contradict
the well-known observations of an anonymous writer in the same Bo-
tanic Journal in 1846, this society desires new observations with a
view to putting an end, if possible, to all doubts that still exist as to
the origin of the organs in question. The society, therefore, pro-
poses the following question : ‘‘ How do the lacteal vessels originate
in the vegetable kingdom? In the intercellular canals of the cells,
or in what other manner? And are those organs, as Dr. Schacht
maintains, identical with ramified cortical fibres ?’’

The society requires the observations to be extended over different
natural families of the vegetable kingdom; that they be illustrated by
drawings, and, if possible, by microscopic preparations.

10. Question 121. During the last few years many plants have been
attacked by various diseases to such an extent that the crops have
been deficient, or a total failure, and that the plants themselves have
languished and died.

This phenomenon deserves the attention of naturalists and of rural
economists, alike with reference to science and to practice.

It is not to be wondered at,-therefore, that this subject has occu-
pied the attention of many naturalists. But as hitherto their essays
have not produced any satisfactory results, as their views and expla-
nations are constantly contradictory, and finally, as the number of
the species and varieties of plants which suffer from disease seems to
increase, the necessity for such researches is the more obvious and
urgent.

This society, therefore, asks the following question :

‘Will scientific men make an anatomico-physiological examination
of the diseases of one of the most important of the cultivated plants,
accompanied by a critical review of the principal theories concerning
the diseases, and also by an indication of the means of preventing
or counteracting them ?’’

The society desires at the same time that, as far as possible, mi-
croscopic preparations and drawings be made to illustrate the results
of the examination.

11. Question 122. Have some portions of the sun’s surface a higher
degree of temperature than others; and if so, do the same portions
always possess that higher temperature ?

12. Question 123. ‘‘ Light, heat, electricity, and magnetism, those
manifestations of force which formerly were attributed to imponder-

* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 4th series, vol. 8, page 164.
29

450 PRIZE. QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

able fluids, have in later times been referred to the movements of
a perfectly elastic ether, penetrating all things. According to some
savans, we must abandon this latter opinion also, and attribute these
manifestations of force to movements of matter itself. How is this?’’

The solution of this question, or at least evidence conducing to that
solution, is required.

13. Question 124. ‘‘Can heat directly produce magnetic pheno-
mena?’’

This question is to be decided by experiment.

14. Question 125. The society desires to have, as applying to dif-
ferent primary chemical compounds, an experimental determination
of the temperature at which each of them becomes decomposed, and
how this temperature is modified by the presence of other substances,
and under other circumstances.

15. Question 126. The influence which pressure exerts upon fluids
through which a galvanic current is passing is still but little known.
It has not yet been sufficiently determined whether the decomposi-
tion may be entirely stopped by pressure upon the electrolyte; for
instance, by completely confining the latter in a strong vessel in
which the electrolysis would, in ordinary circumstances, produce gases.
It seems that an examination to this effect would be of some import-
ance, both as to voltametric operations and as to the valuation of the
work done by the galvanic current. The question, then, is: ‘‘ What in-
fluence has pressure upon decomposition, and how far in this is there
a confirmation of the conservation of force ?’’

This examination should extend to at least three liquids, to be
selected at the pleasure of the examiner himself. ‘

16. Question 127. A mathematical theory is required of the ane-
roid barometer of Vidi, as well as of Bourdon’s metallic barometer;
such theory not overlooking’ the influence of temperature.—(See
Lamé’s Theory of Elasticity.)

17. Question 128. A geological description of the Island of Banda.

18. Question 129. We require a decision of this question: ‘‘ When
steam boilers burst (other causes being left out of view) are we to ,
to suspect a development of hydrogen gas, or a transition of the
water into the spheroidal state ?”’

This examination must be confirmed by a collection of exact and
authentic reports of cases of bursting of boilers, and, if possible, by
experiments expressly made to this end.

19. Question 130. An exposition is requested of the anatomical
and microchemical composition, and also of the biography, of one or
more species of a family of plants indigenous to the Netherlands, or
to some one of their colonies, and previously not satisfactorily ex-
amined.

The reply to this question must be accompanied by the necessary
figures upon a scale calculated to give a clear idea of the object.

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 451

CONDITIONS OF THE COMPETITION.

The gold medal of the society, of the weight of thirty ducats,
or its money value, at the option of the author, will be awarded to
him whose answer to any one of the above questions shall be ad-
judged to be the best; while an extra premium of at least fifty, and
at most one hundred and fifty florins, will be given to the author of
the paper receiving the golden prize, if it be pronounced eminently
meritorious.

For the reply next in merit to that which takes the golden prize a
silver medal will be given if such reply have peculiar merit.

The replies to the ‘questions must be made in German, Dutch,
Latin, French, or English, and must be distinctly and legibly writ-
ten, inclusive of all alterations and additions, in some other hand
than that of the author; they must not be signed with the name of
the author, but marked with some sentence or motto which, together
with the name and address of the author, shall be repeated in a
sealed note accompanying the manuscript, which must be sent, post
free, on or before the Ist of February, 1863, to the director and
chief secretary, Dr. D. F. Van der Pant.

The notes accompanying the replies which obtain the gold medals
will be immediately opened in the general assembly, and those ac-
companying the replies which do not obtain prizes will be in the same
assembly burned unopened; the notes accompanying the replies
which obtain the silver medal will not be opened until after the au-
thors make themselves known, and those, the authors of which shall
not make themselves known in the interval of time fixed in the pro-
gramme, will be burned unopened in the first general assembly.

The society reserves the right of inserting in its transactions the
crowned replies, either in whole or in part, or altogether to abstain
from such insertion; and previous to the publication of the society’s
transactions the authors of the prize answers will not be at liberty
to have them printed or otherwise to make public use of them with-
out permission of the directors.

We may here repeat our former announcement that the society will,
with pleasure, receive and examine all treatises and memoirs concern-
ing experimental philosophy and its applications, with a view to pub-
lishing them in its transactions, if suitable for that purpose, provided
that every such paper bear the signature of the author, or be accom-
panied by a sealed note containing such signature. And further, the
society will award the gold or silver medal to the most important of
such papers as shall be delivered on or before the 1st of February,
1863.

45% PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

QUESTIONS SUBMITTED TO COMPETITION BY THE SOCIETY OF ARTS AND
SCIENCES ESTABLISHED AT UTRECHT.

The questions proposed by the society, in reference to subjects purely
local, are not comprised in this programme.

1. A series of researches into the warmth generated by plants.

2. What is the state of our knowledge as regards the manner and
degree in which the air is vitiated by the respiration and perspiration
of men; and what are the means to be adopted for purifying the atmos-
phere in dwelling-houses and in buildings destined for large assemblies.

3. The society requires investigations into the course of the filaments
of the nerves in the spinal cord, commencing at the roots of the
nerves in one or more animals. The competitors must not only make
use of the microscope, in combination with the mode of investigation ©
adopted by Waller, but also of physiological experiments.

4, A dissertation on the life and merits of Christiaan Huyghens is
requested.

5. Required an essay upon the affinity of the Greek and Sanscrit
languages, containing a critical and systematic exposition of the re-
sults of the linguistic investigations on this subject, and stating clearly
how far a comparative study of these two languages has promoted or
may yet promote the profound knowledge of the first of them.

6. A dissertation on Justinian and his age.

7. An historical and critical investigation of the various modes in
which the system of Hegel has been developed since his death, in 1831,
and what has been its influence upon other branches of knowledge,
in particular on the doctrine regarding God and the world. The re-
lation of that development and influence to other theories and systems
of later times should also be indicated.

8. An _ historico-critical review of the Malayan literature. Not
only an examination of the published, but as much as possible also of
unpublished Malayan works is required.

9. A history of the settlement of the Dutch in Guinea, or on the
west coast of Africa, from the beginning of that settlement to our
own day.

10. Historia critica tribunatus Plebis, que interiorem civitatis
Romane conditionem per varia deinceps tempora spectandam prebeat.

11. Exploretur et diiudicetur Asinii Pollionis de C. Julii Cxsaris
commentariis sententia, que exstat in Suetonii Cesare c. 56: ‘‘eos
Pollio Asinius parum diligenter parumque integra veritate compositos
putat: quum Cesar pleraque, et que per alios erant gesta, temere
crediderit; et que per se, vel consulto, vel etiam memoria lapsus, —
perperam ediderit.’’

12. Disquisitio de loco difficiliore vel controverso ad disciplinam
antiquitatis sive greece seu latine pertinente.

13. Eruantur ex Inscriptionibus Latinis, quee in varlis Romani im-
perii regionibus sunt reperte, et e Grammaticorum veterum indiciis
ee voces et forme, in quibus proprii regionis cuiusque sermonis ves-
tigia agnoscantur, ezque accurate collectz ita disponantur, ut que et

PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 453

qualia fuerint Latini sermonis idiomata in variis imperii Romani par-
tibus usurpata, quantum fieri possit, efficere inde liceat.

14. Disquisitio de T. Livi dictione, qua proprietas eius in verborum
usu et constructione, exemplis diligenter collectis ordineque dispositis
et illustratis, exponatur, et quatenus in ea cdzwzeopvov, quem Patavin-
itatis nomine ei obiecit Asinius Pollio, vestigia exstare videantur,
ostendatur.

A gold medal of the value of 30 ducats (13 pounds sterling,) or an
equivalent in silver, will be accorded to the successful competitor.
This prize will be doubled for questions Nos. 2 and 13. The answers
must be sent in (post free) previous to the 30th of November 1861—
those to the 13th only, before the 30th of November, 1863, addressed
to Dr. J. W. Gunning, the secretary of the society, at Utrecht. The
author is at liberty to write in the English, Dutch, German (in Italic
characters,) French, or Latin language; but in answering to ques-
tions 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14, the Latin language is required. The
answers must not be in the author’s own handwriting; they are to
be accompanied by a sealed envelope, enclosing his name, and if a
member of the society, having the letter ‘‘L’’ on the address. The
successful answers will be published in the society’s works. *

Further information may be obtained on application to the secretary
of the society.

EXTRACT FROM THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF THE
NETHERLANDS.

The senate of the Royal Academy for the Promotion of Letters,
Philosophy, and History, received, pursuant to the bequest and testa-
ment of Hoeeufitian, during the past year eight poems from five poets.
The first is entitled ‘‘On the Divine Excellency of Learning;’’ the
second, ‘‘ Ode addressed to Bartholomew Burghesium on the Death
of John Marchetti;’’ the third, ‘‘On the Decay of the Gallic Lan-
guage;’’ the fourth, fifth, and sixth, bear the title in common, ‘‘On
Italian Affairs during the years 1848 and 1849; Three Unpublished
Odes;’’ the separate titles of which are: a. ‘‘The Assault of
Peschiera and the Victoria Goidensis, addressed to King Charles
Albert;’’ 0. ‘‘Griefs*of Mourning Italy;’’ c. ‘‘Fortunes and Death of
King Charles Albert in Exile;’’ the seventh is, ‘‘ The Tauric Peace,
a Mythological Poem, addressed to Poets;’’ and the eighth, ‘‘ The
Hero Garibaldi.’’

Upon these poems the academy, in its session on the 8th day of
April, pronounced the following judgment:

The first is weak and dubious in its argument, wanting in poetical
coloring and spirit, and expressed in language very far from being
either pure or perspicuous. The second is unacceptable, for two
reasons: first, it consists of fewer than the fifty verses which are
expressly demanded; and secondly, because it has already appeared
in print. The third, besides having all the faults of the first, some-

454 PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

times violates the fundamental laws of metre. The three odes,
which answer to the fourth, fifth, and sixth poems, so progressively
descend in the scale of elegant Latinity, perspicuity, and true poetic
fervor, that the second ode is more faulty than the first, and the third
than either. The seventh poem is throughout couched in language
less fitted to poetry than to prose, and even that not terse or good
Latin, and, in brief, has scarcely one redeeming merit. Finally, the
eighth poem is in the form, by no means commendable, of an acrostic;
and moreover, the author is so thoroughly unskilled in the elements
of metre, so completely a novice in the Latin language, that he
cannot even be fairly called a versifier.

The academy, therefore, has decided that the prize can be
awarded to none of these poems, and that all the sealed notes con-
taining the names of the authors be burnt.

The academy again invites competition on the part of foreigners as
well as residents for the Heeufftian prize for the best Latin poem.

The prize to be contended for is a gold medal of the value of 120
florins, and will be awarded to.the author of that Latin poem, if not
fewer than fifty verses, not translated from any other language, and
never published, which the judges appointed by the academy shall
pronounce to be worthy of the honor.

Poems intended for this competition must be sent in prior to the
first of January, 1862, to H. J. Koenen, unsigned by the authors,
but accompanied by sealed notes containing their names.

The result of the competition will be pronounced in public session
of the academy, to be held before the month of April, 1862.

The poem to which the judges award the prize will be printed at
the charge of the Heenfftian bequest. The sealed notes of the unsuc-
cessful competitors will be burned, and the poems returned to the
authors who claim them. é'

I. DEWAL,
President of the Academical Senate.

CONTENTS.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Page
Resolution to print extra copies of the Report....-. 2-22-25. oe b ea eon aen ee ; 2
enter som tie secretary tO COUgTessen se. s 2. 2-5 2 aes ccee ewes mnals eeeleasaceeae 3
ewer iron bane Ohancellor and Secretary 2 ---0- = see nes cones sen see eee 4
GHivenvano Hepents Of Ge LStILOWON ence on tees we anic ei a= sone eae seene ene ee 5
Members ex officio and honorary members of the Institution -...-..-..----------- 6
broematarne Of ONeAniZa VON. tae scm vo Sac aw ates beset a ace eee ecme tsa s iG
HepouoLy EroOtessor Henry, Secretary. ¢(PorylS6).) on ke ee 13
Report of Professor Baird, Assistant Secretary. (For 1861.).----.-.-------.-..-- 49
ieonHonations to the: Museum’ |. << a2 ccjee win nite cee weitere re pane aap 64
List of Smithsonian Publications during 1861_-...---------- eat. eee 68
Winimoromithsonian Lecturesarsu. =42.sos55--4-- 45. 2b se Pa eke sed. os Seen 68
List of Meteorological Stations and Observers.-------.---------------------<0- 69
histiof Meteorolopical: Contributions «3. . Los ssc 6 sus cee. ek bo. tLe eon aes 80
List of Engravings presented to the Institution..........---.-.---. .--2----..-. 86
anor OLwne lxecitive Committed’ 2t 2 2 tie ot one et eee eo oes oe 88
Journal of the Board of Regents, from January 15 to May 1, 1862-.--.-.....-.-.- 92
BRNO PV OUMOTNe GO, LelOn. oon. cke case oncs cccccounsuceeh sccu scons scalema meee 109
Hiloeyeon Hones. AY Doumlds ts Seculin wean cece asa de bass Seccjearanwaneeee 117
GENERAL APPENDIX.
LECTURES. On THE Construction oF Brincss, by Pror. F. RoGERS..-------.---- 125
© On vue Retations or Tram AND Space, by Pror. §. ALEXANDER ....-. 140
On Arcric ExpLorations, by Dr. I. I. Havres....----------------- 149
MEMOIR OF GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE. By M. FLourens .....------------ 161
THE SUN : Irs Cuemican ANAzLysis. By AuGusre LAUGEL .-..----..---..-----.- 175
PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. By Dr. Lre......--------- 191
SMALL PLANETS BETWEEN MARS AND JUPITER. By Pror. Lespravutt..-.-- 199
BOING CATION OH DH SCARS: . By Ca. Durour.----..--<-ncceccsscacmee=e 220
SYNTHETICAL STUDIES AND EXPERIMENTS ON METAMORPHISM AND ON
THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. By M. Dausre&e.---- 228
HHLORION NETRIEICATION. By De. Bo) CRAIG oo. Wo eee men oon c naa nen 305
NOTES ON THE HISTORY OF PETROLEUM OR ROCK OIL. By J. Srerry Hunt. 319
PMEOOSTBILEDY, OF COALIOLLS. By Z. AMEN. .2.5.52--.0----<ceesccmcune== 330

DES RVCOMV rw th OH TRON RUS Ls Scsacmesdsen) wacannamccemencenacee ems 343

456 CONTENTS.

Page.
ARCH AOLOG Y —

ILAGUSTRIAN CITIES OK SwWItZsRLAND.~ sooo sea see eee eee 345
Fauna OF Mippi& EvRoPE DURING THE STONE AGE..-.-....--..-------- 361

Report upon the ANTIQUARIAN AND ETHNOLOGIGAL COLLECTIONS OF THE
Canronan'Musnum Am DAUSANNE s2o 245 2ob Fo 22s ee Se 367

Report to the Commissioners of the Museums of the Canton of Vaud on
the RESRARCHES MADE, AT CONGISD so se0c ais woe bee sncete tee ee 376
Ancient Mounps ar Sr. Lovurs, Massoper 235s 0e aan oke sce se ee eee 386

INSTRUCTIONS FOR ARCHZOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UnitTep Stares.. 392
Circular on the Ancrent MrninG OPERATIONS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR COPPER
REGIONE oe cite apni ie nee Gait no abn aaa Ee Ce eae eee 396
Suggestions relative to an ErunonocicaL Mar or Nortu AMERICA..----. 397
NATURAL HISTORY—
List of Brrps or tHE Disrricr or Cotumpia. By E. Covss and D. W.

RENTING = fete a 2). a ewin obie eee ae se eies ers ete meee ete nn els ete eee ees 399
PRIZE QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES—
Hotianp Society or Scrence at HARLEM--...-....---.----.- 422,427,434, 440
Bavavian Soctery or EXPERIMENTAL PurtosopHy aT RorrerDAM..--.--- 446
SOCIETY OF ARTS AND'SCIENCES AT UTRECHT... —- 22050-5505 eo=meeee 452

ROYAL ACADEMY OF THE NETHERLANDS...-~..<--<<0ccccannc soaceceee 453

INDEX,

Page

meorts of exchanrertor the Lastitubion is. os see ee eee nce nin 50
Alexander, C. A. Translation of Dufour on Scintillation of the Stars..........-. 220
Translation of Memoir of Geoffroy Saint Hilaire .... .....-..-.------ 161
Translation of Small Planets between Mars and Jupiter -...---------- 199

Alexander, Stephen. Lectures on Time and Space -......-22.-U-c2s-c--s-s0-<- 140
Alans A. JON) theiexplosibilityof coalioils.. 22.4020. ouieeocieke accemoceteeteees 330
Ancient mining on the shores of Lake Superior. Paper on, by Charles Whittlesey -- 24
Annoanarian collections at Lausanne..<..-...2.s.ce-scecen Hseds ~- seamen ceates 367
ANpennEX£O wheHheponti: G22 sco cee uWeeet oeeeoucetctlenteosteeeceeteeeee alee
Archeological investigations in the United States, instructions for-.....-.------- 392
BRIAN OLOGY cscs aoa. aa ete Salnea ne ais wc tie Simree Ss Stars aioe SPANOS ie Sle nee eee 345—398
Avene explorations: +.ectures .on,. by.Dr.:Hayes wi 2225-2 2eleo sei Solo sale Seles 149
mrenciexplorations of, Sir WL McClintock? 24.252 22k 2 seks eso Seoe esos ceLe 16
Art collections in Smithsonian Institution ...:-..:..--------------------.- sae 46
Asirouomical photography spropress Of 22522525252 asec ane ecco ser cese sees 191
Aurora borealis, important observations of, by McClintock......-...------------ 24
EMCO MESpOnCer Len heporiOl tom loons os Sea) cen mse e fers Screpiete re melanie ale iene 49
Balloons, experiments with, for military purposes --..-..--.------------------- 38
Batavian Society of Experimental Philosophy at Rotterdam. Prize questions of... 446
BEMUOston SMiphson. ps CONGIION Glo t= oases eens sata ne <nee eae eens 14
Bethune, Charles J. Letter of thanks for Smithsonian publications.....-.......- 104
Eaten eG.) VOLES On) CONCHOIOZY WD Yaseen tea = see aia ee een ee ee ee 26
ExtaerOlnbe DIGUICHOL COLUMPIALy Samm inaltate can Sel sce eee eclaemac meee samaneeS 399
Bunsen, M. Chemical analysis of sun, according to recent discoveries of ....----- 175
Bridges.” Lecture on the construction of, by F. Rogers ---.--.-.--.-----..-.-.. 125
GmapnellvArchibald-; Mxpeditionols.{s20 seal ees oe res ae cee eee 61
Carpenter, P. P. Works on Conchology, by-.--------------------------c----- 26,27
Catalogue of engravings presented by C. B. King :.-----.---.--.-......---.--- 86
CircHlarot tie inetituteof Ruperts" band*"<22 22-2 sso een csc eco neces a 105
Circular on ancient mining operations of the Lake Superior copper region. -------- 392
(ixekem|rr lawrelices, «Collections DY o2u.se<le-Ge sees lene cset es ceieeeeneeeo's 40, 60
OR emaDL a werera ean mene a= Sorceress ees Rhee es oe TN Se eee cae 330
Codd, J. Arthur. Letter of thanks for Smithsonian publications......-.-------- 102
Colegpteraan SOULASOMAnnwOrke On + 5sase2 e222 24s corse eneccdeecescaase = 29
Gollcenonstoh matural-nstory,- “Account (of: Sossssssa sce ceases ccee see oe ees 40
Mision toMoten ss - ose ae ee eee oe ee ce een Seces eee 42,43

Study, description, and arrangement of ....-.--.-----.:..-------- 43

Appropriation by Congress for preservation of._.-...-..--- eee 90

458

Colleges, &c., sending meteorological observations
Conchology. Publications on, undertaken by the Institution

Concise. Report on researches made at --..-.-.-----------------0-
Copper region of Lake Superior. Ancient mining in -... ....--...-..
Antionities Jopne Ns fee Secs cee anes e arene See

Corcoran, W. W. Gallery of Art to be established by
Correspondence. Letters to illustrate character of -------.------.-.--
Coues, Elliott, on the birds of the District of Columbia
Cox, Hon. Samuel S. Eulogy of Hon. S. A. Douglas, by
Craig, Dr. B. F. Experiments on gunpowder
Reporbion nitrification, by. 2 aaa che ane eens > eon ae
Alex. Letter from, relative to Liberia College.-..-.------

Crummell,
Crystalline

Daubrée, M. Article on metamorphism and crystalline rocks, by
Deaths of meteorological observers
De Ja Batut, Madame. Death of

INDEX.

ee rrr

wena ewe eee

rocks. Synthetical studies and experiments on the formation of -..---

ee ee ee

De la Rue, Warren, gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society presented to...

De Saussure, H. Work on Hymenoptera
Diptera. Smithsonian works on
Directions for observing the scintillation of the stars

District of Columbia. Birds of
Donations to the museum during 1861

For Archzological investigations in the United States

Douglas, Hon. Stephen A. Resolutions of the Board of Regents relative to -.-...-

Eulogy of, by Hon. 8. 8. Cox

Dove, Prof.

Dufour, Ch

Engravings

Ethnology.

Exchanges,

Remarkable recurrence of cold in May, noted by --------
Dowden, H. J. Letter from, relative to Royal Horticultural Society
. On observing the scintillation of the stars---..-.-.-----
Egleston, Thomas. Examination and classification of minerals, by ----
Metamorphism and crystalline rocks, translated by.-..----
presented to the Institution, by C. B. King ....----------
Entomology. Importance and interest of the study of ---.-----------
Publications on, by the Institution ...-.--.-----.--------
Requisites|forithe study of --. 222-5. - -- -. 4 eee
Establishment. Meetings of
Estimates of expenditures for 1862

Promotion of, by the Institution -...-...--------------
Collections at Lausanne -..-.-.------- Be a
Map of North America. Suggestions relative to -.--.-- --
Eulogy of C. C. Felton, by Dr. Woolsey

Operations of; for 186). 22... 5s en epee eesld--see=
Receipts of books. Sic), ny q-tecdecs- h- aes ake ep eee
Statistics of foreign ..-.---. ae ee ee ee

Letter from Hamburg American Packet Company relative to

dd

S. A. Douglas, by, Hon: 8.8. Cox 224. oon eee nw
Account of system =... 22-2. owid obese ae ae ope

me ewer eee

Page.
79
26

376
24
24
47
98

399

117
38

305

106

228

228
79
95

191
31
30

220

392

399
64
94

117
20

104

220
38

228
86
28
27
28
97
$1
33

367

397

109

117

44
49
50
50
97

INDEX. 459

Page

Executive Committee. Report of, for 1861 ...-.22-2- 220. 20552225 eee eee 88,93
Expansion. of iron. Experiments relative to .......-.2-----5-2--.00022---. 25-5 38
ieependituresauring..1861,.c. wn catcccn wwe seu bent s2douswis ue see Loe 88, 89
Experiments at the Institution during 1861 -.....--.----------------------2 ee 38
Pe plorations:... Account: of o.cscsonstveessedk ieee Sel LeU ee 58
Assistance rendered by the Institution to....-.------.2------------- 39

Accountio&, J. Kantus’sucuo Jose aE ee a SES Cee 39,58

Ri. AJSennicotnis, . ncn Sede Ue ee See te BES LE eis Soessee 39,59

Ly Clam aa See elites fot edhe eu Bryce) Shick aaa tele SS 40, 60

Hudson's. Bay,Company;s\......-cumesasea sss sabes sees. 2 Lee 40, 60

Bei AROSE S ee Seek cniekemn cn Se IU EE EL ee Cha oe 40, 60

Exploring Expedition. Set of volumes of, presented by Congress -...----------- 97
Paplosibility Of Coal'oilss Ci. BO Ng i a SE so ee 330
Fauna of middle Europe during the stone age _.........---.--.--.---------.-- 361
Felton, C. C. Resolutions of the Board of Regents relative to --.--------------- 94
Hulogy- of,-by-Dr. Woolseyccice2 ett nee JDP PR ae 109

Pinancial: arrangements of the’ Institution®2: 2222222 SF. psa a ae eee 93
Fladgate, Clarke & Finch. Letters relative to Madame la Batut .....----------- 95
Flourens. - Memoir of- Geoffroy Saint~ Hilaire; by....-.-..-.2-U----2----------- 161
Horce; Wm; Q.-> Meteorological system in charge’ of 2 22222_ eee oe eee 37
Hox: “Account of the-voyage of; to-Arctic Americas. o2. Secs e nee eee eee eee = 16
Franklin, Lady. Expedition fitted out by, under Captain McClintock ........-..- Ni
WiISED OfF tO the NS tLieu OM Se Sa aee oes cee beatae tae eee 24

Franklin, Sir John. Relics of, deposited by B. R. Ross --..-...-...------------ 60
inends or the mnstitution. "Pale condition Of 992-2 ace cne cece as eee fee ecee a 14
Gallery Or Ants vACCOUNLOL nea eit tan oles Se ae cae aa cee alan oo eelemacms 46
AAiitonstvOMGUrin gy TOON ee cae Seon camer eee See Saket mae tnce ee ae etatee 46

Garcia, Manuel. Letter from, on exchange of publications.-..----------------- 100
Gibbs, George. Paper on languages of western coast of America, by---.--------- 34
Archeological instructions, OLE PATE DY span aisle tal esata ate ea eee 392
Guadalupe, D. V. Letter relative to exchanges....-. .--- -------------------- 100
aeens Or. Hee nWOrk OD) NEULOPtCT as. 2 = sone ase 2 ome lel= cian mle mar ee wl 29
Letter from, relative’ to Neuroptera..-. -----. -..-----<------------ 101
Haldeman,S.S. ‘Wo1k on Coleoptera ...-...----------------2--- sec o--2---- 29
Hamburg American Packet Company grants free freights --...------------------ 97
Thanks of Board of Regents to....---------.---------------------- 98

Hamilton College. Letter of thanks for shells ....----------------------+----- 101
Harlem. Prize questions of the Holland Society of Science at -.------- 422,427,434, 440
Hayes, Dr. Isaac I. Manuscript maps and collections of ----.. ----------------- 97
Lectures on arctic explorations -..-..-----------------------+----- 149

Helme, W. H. ronautic experiments of ....------------------------------- 38
Hemiptera. Work proposed on, by Ubler -.----..-------------------------+- 31
Henry, Prof. Joseph. Experiments on burning gunpowder in a vacuum, &c ..--.- 38
Hill, Alfred J. Letter from, on map of ancient mounds ..-.------------------- 99
Holland Society of Science. Prize questions of .-........------------ 422,427, 434, 440

Honorary members of the Institution. List of....-.-------------------++------ 6

460 INDEX.

Page

Hubbert, James. Letter relative to Canadian collections, &c...........--------- 108
Hudson’s Bay Company. Explorations by and aid rendered --...-....--..-.---. 40, 60
Hunt, T. Sterry.. History of petroleumpby suru. bowie bo le dele ee Ay 819
Hymenoptera. Work proposed on, by. De Saussures..-..-.2-2.--22 dhe eee eke 31
Instructions for observing the scintillation of the stars ......-....-..----_-.-.---- 220
For archeological investigations in the United States....-..20.-....- 392

Tron\nust., » Destructive effect of | oo: oe Se aa: Sa alpegusee pa ol 343
Journal of proceedings of the Board of Regents -.....-.--.-----2--e00+-------- 92
Kamtz, G.F.. -On the scintillation of jthe. stars.ooc2.82-beu-cdéeeus SeSo bee es 227
Kane,\Dr. H.K., . Observations of, published.:.- nu. sie go eo ie é 16
Discussion of the records of ..._..<-----sebesp sean secede eee 18

Konnerly, Dr..C...B.. Death il igisact taka dinep rece wei a tell. aa akt sees tie 3 61
Kennicott; Robert. . Explorations of. .= 2.2 -..- 23. -ieesecks - ete eeecente 39,59
King, Charles B. Valuable engravings presented by -.......----.--------- ase 46,86
Kirchoff, M. Chemical analysis of sun, according to recent discoveries of -....... 46
Knox College. Letter from, relative to Canadian collections.........--..--2---- 103
Kunhardt & Co. Letter from, relative to Hamburg Packet Company --.--..-.--- 98
lia Batu, Madame... Deathvofze-c eso. 322-2 o eee eee Ses eae UE eee 15
Laboratory. <Operations in, during 186)... <--0.205-. shew oe tase eee 38
Lacustrian cities of Switzerland... 2+ chaos Joon ee Ot EE U2 te ee oe 345
Tanguages, Indian, ‘works)relative. to! --.v2ccs-2)ectcecs eee teledes depeeeemee idan 33
Laugel, Auguste, on chemical analysis of the sun 2... 224. .---20 se e ee Lone weeceee 175
Lausanne. Antiquarian and ethnological collections at .......2-. -222 sseeee nee 367
Le Conte, Dr. John. Works on. Coleoptera: 2vi.: p25 emayesnwien Seeaabevntebanees 29
Lecture-toom. |) Rules forthe use Of: 2.55226. sd 2cesseeaesewce Ss aoeeeetaned Bess AT
Receipts for gas used in...........--. 5 Sa eiete wa Siento me clae a tate boas 90

Lectures. Views relative to use of Institution for ..--.. jolt See a epea SSE Ss w 47
MARE, OL, "CEMIVETCMi is ae Oe ord SS chs a eiale e meie.o, Rekee ernie ee ere 68

On the construction of bridges, by F. Rogers....-.. ...-<- ---= ---- ---- 125

On the relations of time and space, by S. Alexander..........-------- 140

On Arcticlixplorations, -by Dr. Hayesizcns <-0<<tecne coesia= d= Scmaesbe = ped

Lee, Dr., on the progress of astronomical photography .....--...----- ------ -.<--- 191
ihegacy of ‘Thomas Wynns. Hacts respecting. ~</<<njnie oon omen ee nee h se «5\o pee aee 95
dkepidoptera.. | Smithsonian Works ON joes nsec. pow aeaen’ & ase an ae eae anes 29
Lespiault, Prof. On the small planets between Mars and Jupiter.........-..----- 199
Letter from the Secretary to Congress, submitting report for 1861...---..-----.--. 3
From the Chancellor and Secretary to Congress. .-.--. .-..---- e202 ---- --0- 4
Taberia.Collece. | + Letter relative toccS-h. tse cack Grechiase wee ceeueieheb eles ae ots 106
MADTaATYyok ACCOUNG, Of oo on ta amon ecm 2 Cie ck ches aire! Le aoc rean een c/a a ee ie rea 45
Principal additions to, during 1861... <2-).to 0 see ee seer << -naw eee wee 45

Loew, Dr...) Work on. Diptera. 22-22. .c.h22- te JAE ee hee elem pmin oo wm eral 30
Lowe, T. H. Aronautic experiments Of ....--. 2200 cece coon cnce ncce sane wocn sacs 38
Magnetic Observatory established at Key West 2.2.20. 2200 cn0e wo ee wenn conn eee 37
Map, ethnological, of North America, suggestions for.......---+- .-+--+ ee-2s-ee-- 397
McClintock, Sir F. L.. Observations of, published. .... 22. 22 ceee eee ene conn none 16

_ Melsheimer, Dr. F. E. Work on Coleoptera ....... SQOLGMCSMLE Nobles Seeeeeeise ae 29

INDEX. 461

Memoir of Geoffroy St. Hilaire, by Hlourenssjcisciscee wh coeRUG LS ee ce cee ee! 161
Members ex-officio of the Institution. List of ...... Se Selecta eee ateen oe 6
Metamorphism. Synthetical studies and experiments on 1... ...2.. 222002 se eens ee 228
Metereological system, of the Institution weive et oe een dee te en code 35
Reductions from 1854—1859. Account of ...... 2.222. 222 ee eee 36
Stations and: ohservers.e List, of sy Uae. ea ee 69
Obsenverss . Deaths Ofanccsrsetrrrreeteet er see sees ccc ce eens 79
Contiibutions,.List.ofsasrsss eS as oe erro eee 80

Mexican Society of Geography and Statistics. Letter from, relative to exchanges... 100

Minerals... Classified. by Thos. Egleston. 223s. eee eee eee. tccce 38
Minesiin.Lake|Superior copper.-regionsascorrrsssee es oe eee eee rae eet secs ene 24
Mining, ancient, in the Lake Superior copper region. Circular...............---- 392
Miscellaneous collections. Account of..........-.- SMdesee saute seins saleeeealacs 26
Moon: _Cornexion of, with low temperatures 0.222.022 otk te ceee oe cede ween 19
Morgan, Lewis H. On an ethnological map of North America ................--- 397
Morlot A. New interest in Archeology awakened by work of ...........-..---- 34
Letter from onmArcheolory ses ye ae Ses eee eit seaes eee 99
Moris; Dr.id..G.«- Works on: Lepidopterars.c. 22 2 aes ate ese Ca eee 29
Mounds, ancient, near St.houls.sssor okt eea tes cate ates - cha dectcace toes eeeee 386
Letter from-As J.-Hill; relative to map OflJi cl. ol ce cece ctes cous conn 99
Miiseum... .General views relative-to S22%22 sss2ts Vv coed soccer Bel wtva 41
Condition-of -in/186),-and! visifors: to. 77. ctece. ccttce sotees Cate cone 44
MAddttidns te aisss2 3202: POPLIN EO Saas va dow Babes one 58
Identification of specimens in ...-- ane sie stead actcad See aera eee 61
Distrbuvionvof specintens |< > 3266 Sisss. Giese seis edehsune Sout bewsonis 63
Workidonerm.dorine 186s t3525 25520 ns oasdioedo ces see keee eek sees 63
Table showing total number of specimens in ...--.---.......--2------ 64
List of donations to, during 1861...-........... w Sane sateulos seme areas 64
MiasouMm cantonal mo ancanNeyeooea. gee seclanicioaalds ou nic ciee 6 ee aaela-ninte eee ee ae 367
Museums of the canton of Vaud. Report of commissioners of........---.....---- 376
NniBUH A nInNE es ACCONNt UL eas cscso- ceeaae tests etasaaee oo et acenee aee eee 34
Language. Grammar of, published by the Institution -...........-.. 34
priest tS HOD Yet a ots lal ae aden neta alain winm mtn oiatntetelee el Caen aan alla ete 399
Netherlands. Prize questions of the Royal Academy of ..........-.-.----------- 453
Neuroptera. Smithsonian works on.....----------. ---- -----+ -2- 222 sone ee eeee 29
Nitrification, Report on, by Dr. Craig ...-.. .----. ee) cee ne eee ene cee ene eee 305
Northwest Boundary Survey, under Mr. Archibald Campbell..........---...-. Lt 61
Officers of the Institution. List of ...... .2-. ---- 2-2. ween ee ee cence en ene eee ee 5
Orthoptera. Work on, to be prepared for the Institution .......---.---.-------- 31
Osten Sacken, Baron. Remarks relative to entomology....-. .----+ s+. ---- +--+: 27
Work on Diptera ..... os nia ear eTe Been ap oeeee cates = one cee~) wane) sign 30
Peale, Franklin. Proposed photographs of archzological specimens. ...--. ae atte 35
Peale, T. R, on the ancient mounds near St. Louis ...--- .-2--- ---- +--+ e200 e+ 2+ 386
Pease, W.H. Letter relative to collections from the Sandwich Tslgnids ont ase nees 104

Photography, astronomical, progress Of ...--. -.----+ cen ene wee nen cee ens sence eres 191

462 INDEX,

Page.

Petroleunt:, History of. ..ccvvientennpnkic wunicee es Wem Jota teu wacleuiec sn uate 319

Planets, small, between Mars and Jupiter w.0ce. sone ee cece csceee duenes cece ceuces 199

Prentiss, D. Webster, on the birds of the District of Columbia............ 22.2... 399

Printing. Amount of, for the Institution during 1861 .2.. 1.2. 22. cone eee eee ee 49

Prize questions of scientific societies seat Cesasei sees uees se so bsc cast aa omeeee s 422

Brogramme,.of organization, : aces (owes Sau ase sav awes Se etree Hees 7

Pablications.«Account, of c.-~.s- Woe sees Jeske wenae be een ae eee ween te 16

Smithsonian,.in 186). . distioficJS9cousil Pave eee eae See ee 68

Receipts. and.expenditures.during. 186 Tien t Seceteniew eee lose eseue setae eae 88

Recommendation of Shea’s Indian Linguistics -...............--.-.--.-------- 107

Regents of.the Institution. . . List. Of ~.—.<nceemeymeeennecuieers 2 OU DUS AL, 5

Journal of : proceedings. Of jepiewciowemeremarieice SUL ak Sue ee be ae ote 92

Caanges.in the-Board. of cas pwejeeenie beware eee phe eee 92

Report of the Executive Committee for 1861........-. 22-22-5222 -cc0ee sees ones 88,93

IREHOrt Of the Pecrewery aur bevnscsee sec ce Sean atecesess oo scans ees nom enae i

ApprovedsbyiuherpoRrt tosses sce. see eae coer eet asec ee ae eee 93

Reports. Account of and number of copies printed.......-....------------.-.- 32

Rules for dishnibution Ol al acon eee eats. sean c eee seme 32

Resolutions of the Board of Regents—

Omreportiar Executive Committe i722 sata ese cece esos ees eanoee aes 93

On reporter tne Secreiaty mse eee cat eae carmen tee 93

Onvdenth on. C: Meltonyscuse scot te netons sacs cease cate ate eee ss Oe Oe

Gnvdenthh ore At Douslse tos aass seo me te ace cae mee meee ee 94,117

Relative to money from Madame La Batut ......._...........------ 97

Referring Dr. Hayes’s manuscript and collections to Dr. Bache --.-.--- 97

Thanks to Hamburg American Packet Company for free freight ........ 98

Resolution of the Senate to print extra copies of the Report............---.----- 2

RGEKOM. - EUISKOLY Ol notsaccjsase Se ewar te cack oe ee noe Cae ones 2 eon ae ee 319

Rogers, Fairman. Lectures on the construction of bridges.....-.......--.------ 125

inGot; 0%" "Letter of thankstionsnellszastee se eee ee sce os cele ee eee 101

Ross, Bernard R. Explorations and collections by .........--------...-..----- 40, 60
Royal Academy of Moral and Political Science of Madrid. Letter from, proposing

GRCNANTES = 2 oa cea cas cscs aecnoeiwi ae bale aue beetle as cta ieee een Lee ne 100

Royal Academy of the Netherlands. Prize questions of-.......-.--.....-.----- 453
Royal Horticultural Society of London. Letter from, granting journals of, to

AMIeTICAD INRGEGWONS 5 aso ble enne cee a eee ok oe eee. Cee 104

Rules for distribution of annuabl-teports .2. bus. lcd is eee beeese celal ade 32

Relative to collections of natural history.........----..-----.---.0- 41

Rupert’s Land, circular of the Institute of..---..-22.2222-22-5--2.------ ~ aac 105

Rutimeyer, Dr. L. On the fauna of middle Europe during the stone age.......-- 361

Saint Hilaire, Geoffroy. Memoir of, by Flourens .........0.2.-.2-2----------- 161

et. Louis, Ancient mounds near ace liedsee ds sen veme eo 386

Schott, Charles A. Discussion of McClintock’s observations, by -.-.......--..-. 18

Scientific societies. Prize questions of ....----o--------e--ecee--neeoeeneeenee 422
Scintillation of the stars. Directions for observing........--eecee-+---e---ec-- 220

; INDEX. 463

Page.

Shes; JG. Publication of Indian Lingnuistics..........2.--n0e anecssubecccs ea
Recommendation of publications.of.., «iss i-ke. well deewebur-laece 107

Aecgunt of publicatinng wes so acids wtih So ig ecil wen czotmlote as. 107

Pistol publications ...-£6a% shed. Sodiagiec) eds so) tn dapegs A. 108

Shepard, C. A. Letter relative to arrangement of minerals -..............-...- 102
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Account of papers in --..........---- 16
Society of Arts and Sciences at Utrecht. Prize questions of..-................-- 452
Stars. Directions for observing scintillation of............---......-.---.---.-- 220
Stecks. — <State,inyestment, in 2.6 a St eo bepehs ceoapubt ben eg tite 5 15
Stone age. Fauna of middle Europe during the ..........--....-..-.....----- 361
ping hemical analiysin: Of ns ap nmnien ern emcee n se tek!» eee test eo te 175
Bevery, Nortbwestem Boundary... - 1 -.~-<--<=--09-eenleneors ks lesuent... 61
Swiseriand.)Lacustrian cities of. 325-8 eno ke See ee od eae Le 345
Taylor, Alex. S. Manuscript of Indian languages sent by -.-.---.---.-----....- 33
Telegraphic notices of the weather in United States and Europe .......------..-- 35
Tide-gauge lent to W. H. Pease, Honolulu, by Dr. Bache..........----------... 105
Mine ane space.) Lecture on, by Prof..§.Alexanders. + 2. 225. 20 ce oeees 140
Transportation facilities afforded the Institution. ...........---.....----------- 44
Hreely afforded by various companies.- <<< <a 5 aoe a3 oa oe ene 49,97

NUAHISHICS Of oo Sot ss Sas oe ae eo ee ee ea 49

evens. Letter from: on:Archeolory. =. 5--csce=5 ane eanteas daemon ase ees 98
On the lacustrian habitations of ancient and modern times.--......... 345

Reportiof onthe, Museum at) Lausanne <2 255-4022. 5. 2epe wee ccs 367

Report on the researches made at Concise ~-...<---<-<--sencenecn--< 376

Utrecht. Prize questions of the Society of Arts and Sciences at -------..-..-.--- 452
hitler br. -Phs.. Proposed ‘work on! Hemiptera, 2.2. 2s502--<-c-cs~assscmaae= 31
Worlkon Neuroptera ni easoc ecco sat ce toee oleae ec tenes eee 30

Waud-.© Report of Commissioners of Museum. of... 25... 22 ---.s0c00s5- sess -= 376
Way, Prof. Experiments of, and present from---.-.........--------.ce<es---- 38
Whittlesey, Charles. On ancient mining on shores of Lake Superior-..-....-.--- 24
Regingw rts Esl) a Mulory of OC: Cy Heltonr 220 ase. oo ee ee te 109
Wynns, Thomas. Facts respecting legacy of -.---------.--------------------- 95

Rainn olin. 2 Hxplorations Of 2220. ices stue scktewcee ep aecns aoe eee 39, 58

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