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ANNUAL REPORT

OF

THE BOARD OF REGENTS

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION
FOR THE YEAR 1867.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
T8722.

IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES,
May 30, 1868.

Resolved, That five thousand additional copies of the report of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution for the year eighteen hundred and sixty-seven be printed—three thousand for the use
of the Senate, and two thousand for the Institution; and that said report be stereotyped:
Provided, That the aggregate number of pages of said report shall not exceed four hundred
and fifty, without illustrations except those furnished by the Institution.

IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES,

JUNE 5, 1868.

Resolved, That there be printed five thousand extra copies of the report of the Smithsonian
Institution—three thousand for the use of the House, and two thousand for the Institution—
and that the same be stereotyped at the expense heretofore provided for.

CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES, IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES,
FORTY-SECOND CONGRESS, SECOND SESSION, May 29, 1872.

The following resolution, originating in the House of Representatives on the 23d
instant, has this day been concurred in by the Senate:

Resolved, (the Senate concurring,) That two thousand extra copies each of the reports
of the Smithsonian Institution, of which the stereotype-plates are now in the Con-
gressional Printing-Office, be printed for distribution by the Smithsonian Institution
to libraries, colleges, and public establishments.

Attest: EDW.-McPHERSON,

- : Clerk.

LETTER

OF THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

COMMUNICATING

THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CON-
DITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR 1867.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, May 29, 1868.
Sir: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to sub-
mit to the Congress of the United States the annual report of the
operations, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution
for the year 1867.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Hon. B. F. Wabs,
President of the Senate.
Hon. S. CoLrax,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

SHOWING

THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION
FOR THE YEAR 1867.

To the Senate and House of Representatives :

In obedience to the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, establish-
ing the Smithsonian Institution, the undersigned, in behalf of the
Regents, submit to Congress, as a report of the operations, expendi-
tures and condition of the Institution, the following documents:

1, The Annual Report of the Secretary, giving an account of the
operations of the Institution during the year 1867.

2. Reports of the Executive and Building Committees.

3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents.

4. Appendix.

Respectfully submitted.
S. P. CHASE, Chancellor.
JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary.

OFFICERS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

MAY, 1868.

ANDREW JOHNSON, President of the United States, ex officio presiding officer of
the Institution.

SALMON P. CHASE, Chancellor.

JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary.

SPENCER F. BAIRD, Assistant Secretary.

WILLIAM J. RHEES, Chief Clerk.

RICHARD WALLACH,

RICHARD DELAFIELD, } Executive Committee.
i]

PETER PARKER. i)

REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.

B. F. WADE, Vice-President of the United States.

Ss. P. CHASE, Chief Justice of the United States.

R. WALLACH, Mayor of the city of Washington.

L. TRUMBULL, member of the Senate of the United States.
G. DAVIS, member ot the Senate of the United States.

W. P. FESSENDEN, member of the Senate of the United States.
J. A. GARFIELD, member of the House of Representatives.
L. P. POLAND, member of the House of Representatives.
J. V. L. PRUYN, member of the House of Representatives.
WILLIAM B. ASTOR, citizen of New York.

THEODORE D. WOOLSEY, citizen of Connecticut.
LOUIS AGASSIZ, citizen of Massachusetts.

JOHN MACLEAN, citizen of New Jersey.

RICHARD DELAFIELD, citizen of Washington.

PETER PARKER, citizen of Washington.

MEMBERS EX-OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.

ANDREW JOHNSON, President of the United States.

B. F. WADE, Vice-President of the United States.

W. H. SEWARD, Secretary of State.

H. McCULLOCH, Secretary of the Treasury.
Secretary of War.

G. WELLES, Secretary of the Navy.

A. W. RANDALL, Postmaster General.
Attorney General.

S. P. CHASE, Chief Justice of the United States.
Commissioner of Patents.

R. WALLACH, Mayor of Washington.

O. H. BROWNING, * Secretary of the Interior.

* Honorary member.

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

[PRESENTED IN THE FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, AND
ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF REGENTS, DECEMBER 13, 1847. ]

INTRODUCIEION.

General considerations which should serve as a guide in adopting a Plan
of Organization.

1. Witt or SmitHson. The property is bequeathed to the United
States of America, ‘‘to found at Washington, under the name of the
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, an establishment for the increase and diffu-
sion of knowledge among men.’’

2. The bequest is for the benefit of mankind. The government
of the United States is merely a trustee to carry out the design of
the testator. ;

3. The Institution is not a national establishment, as is frequently
supposed, but the establishment of an individual, and is to bear and
perpetuate his name.

4. The objects of the Institution are, Ist, to increase, and, 2d, to
diffuse knowledge among men.

5. These two objects should not be confounded with one another.
The first is to enlarge the existing stock of knowledge by the addition
of new truths; and the second, to disseminate knowledge, thus in-
creased, among men.

6. The will makes no restriction in favor of any particular kind of
knowledge; hence all branches are entitled to a share of attention.

7. Knowledge can be increased by different methods of facilitating
and promoting the discovery of new truths; and can be most exten-
sively diffused among men by means of the press.

8. To effect the greatest amount of good, the organization should
be such as to enable the Institution to produce results, in the way of
increasing and diffusing knowledge, which cannot be produced either
at all or so efficiently by the existing institutions in our country. ,

9. The organization should also be such as can be adopted provi-
sionally; can be easily reduced to practice; receive modifications, or
be abandoned, in whole or in part, without a sacrifice of the funds.

8 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

10. In order to compensate, in some measure, for the loss of time
occasioned by the delay of eight years in establishing the Institution,
a considerable portion of the interest which has ESTED should be
added to the principal. .

11. In proportion to the wide field of knowledge to bi cultivated,
the funds are small. Economy should, therefore, be consulted in the
construction of the building; and not only the first cost of the edifice
should be considered, but also the continual expense of keeping it in
repair, and of the support of the establishment necessarily connected
with it. There should also be but few individuals permanently sup-
ported by the Institution.

12. The plan and dimensions of the building should be determined
by the plan of the organization, and not the converse.

13. It should be recollected that mankind in general are to be
benefited by the bequest, and that, therefore, all unnecessary expend-.
iture on local objects would be a perversion of the trust.

14. Besides the foregoing considerations, deduced immediately from
the will of Smithson, regard must be had to certain requirements of
the act of Congress establishing the Institution. These are, a library,
a museum, and a gallery of art, with a building on a liberal scale to
contain them.

SECTION LI.

Plan of organization of the Institution in accordance with the foregoing
deductions from the will of Smithson.

To INCREASE KNOWLEDGE. It is proposed—

1. To stimulate men of talent to make original researches, by offer-
ing suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths; and,

2. To appropriate annually a portion of the income for particular
researches, under the direction of suitable persons.

-To DIFFUSE KNOWLEDGE. It is proposed—

1. To publish a series of periodical reports on the progress of the
different branches of knowledge; and,

2. To publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general
interest.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE.
I. By stimulating researches.

1. Facilities afforded for the production of original memoirs on all
branches of knowledge.

2. The memoirs thus obtained to be published in a series of vol-
umes, in a quarto form, and entitled Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge.

3. No memoir on subjects of physical science to be accepted for
publication which does not furnish a positive addition to human

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION, gi

knowledge, resting on original research; and all unverified specula-
tions to be rejected.

4. Hach memoir presented to the Institution to be submitted for
examination to a commission of persons of reputation for learning in
the branch to which the memoir pertains ; and to be accepted for
publication only in case the report of this commission is favorable.

5. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the Institution,
nd the name of the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless
a favorable decision is made.

6. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the trans-
actions of literary and scientific societies, and copies to be given to
all the colleges and principal libraries in this country. One part of
the remaining copies may be offered fcr sale, and the other carefully
preserved, to form complete sets of the work, to supply the demand
from new institutions.

7. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of these memoirs
to be given to the public through the annual report of the Regents to
Congress.

Il. By appropriating a part of the income, annually, to special objects
of research, under the direction of suitable persons.

1. The objects and the amount appropriated, to be recommended
by counsellors of the Institution.

2. Appropriations in different years to different objects; so that in
course of time each branch of knowledge may receive a share.

3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published,
with the memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge.

4. Examples of objects for which appropriations may be made.

(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving
the problem of American storms.

(2.) Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geological,
magnetical, and topographical surveys, to collect materials for the
formation of a Physical Atlas of the United States.

(3.) Solution of experimental problems, such as a new determina-
tion of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and of
light; chemical analyses of soils and plants; collection and publica-
tion of scientific facts accumulated in the offices of government.

(4.) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical,
moral, and political subjects.

(5.) Historical researches, and accurate surveys of places cele-
brated in American history.

(6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the
different races of men in North America ; also, explorations and ac-
curate surveys of the mounds and other remains of the ancient people
of our country.

10 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN FOR DIFFUSING KNOWLEDGE.

I. By the publication of a series of reports, giving an account of the new
discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year in
all branches of knowledge not strictly professional.

1. These reports will diffuse a kind of knowledge generally in-
teresting, but which, at present, is inaccessible to the public. Some
of the reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals,
as the income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of
knowledge may indicate. ,

2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators eminent in the
different branches of knowledge.

3. Hach collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publi-
cations, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his
report ; to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on
the title-page of the report.

4. The reports to be published in separate parts, so that persons
interested in a particular branch can procure the parts relating to it
without purchasing the whole.

5. These reports may be presented to Congress, for partial distri-
bution, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific in-
stitutions, and sold to individuals for a moderate price.

The following are some of the subjects which may be embraced in
the reports :*

I, PHYSICAL CLASS.

1. Physics, including astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry,
and meteorology.

2. Natural history, including botany, zoology, geology, &c.

3. Agriculture.

4. Application of science to arts.

Il. MORAL AND POLITICAL CLASS.

5. Ethnology, including particular history, comparative philology,
antiquities, &c.

6. Statistics and political economy.

7. Mental and moral philosophy.

8. A survey of the political events of the world; penal reform, &c.

Ill. LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS.

9. Modern literature.
10. The fine arts, and their application to the useful arts.°
11. Bibliography.
12. Obituary notices of distinguished individuals.

Il. By the publication of separate treatises on subjects of general interest.

1. These treatises may occasionally consist of valuable memoirs
translated from foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the

* This part of the plan has been but partially carried out.

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 1]

direction of the Institution, or procured by offering premiums for the
best exposition of a given subject.

2. The treatises should, in all cases, be submitted to a commission
of competent judges, previous to their publication.

3. As examples of these treatises, expositions may be obtained of
the present state of the several branches of knowledge mentioned in
the table of reports.

SECTION II.

Plan of organization, in accordance with the terms of the resolutions of
the Board of Regents providing for the two modes of increasing and
diffusing knowledge.

1. The act of Congress establishing the Institution contemplated
the formation of a iibrary and a museum ; and the Board of Regents,
including these objects in the plan of organization, resolved to divide
the income* into two equal parts.

2. One part to be appropriated to increase and diffuse knowledge
by means of publications and researches, agreeably to the scheme
before given. The other part to be appropriated to the formation
of a library and a collection of objects of nature and of art.

3. These two plans are not incompatible with one another.

4. To carry out the plan before described, a Itbrary will be re-
quired, consisting, Ist, of a complete collection of the transactions
and proceedings of all the learned societies in the world; 2d, of. the
more important current pericdical publications, and other works
necessary in preparing the periodical reports.

5. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of
objects to illustrate and verify its own publications.

6. Also, a collection of instruments of research in all branches of
experimental science.

7. With reference to the collection of books, other than those
mentioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in the
United States should be procured, in order that the valuable books
first purchased may be such as are not to be found in the United
States.

8. Also, catalogues of memoirs, and of books and other materials,
should be collected for rendering the Institution a centre of biblio-
graphical knowledge, whence the student may be directed to any
work which he may require.

9. It is believed that the collections in natural history will increase
by donation as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make pro-
vision for their reception, and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary
to purchase articles of this kind.

10. Attempts should be made to procure for the gallery of art
casts of the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.
* The amount of the Smithsonian bequest received into the Treasury of the

United States is- poe erage : 69 00

See Rol owL
Interest on the same to July tt 1846, (devoted to the erection of the building) "242, 129 00
Annual income from the bequest... 2c MRE BeNOR 6 CORE EC ae BC Ee Sines a emeemmmm | Upsee Ke

12 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

11. The arts may be encouraged by providing a room, free of ex-
pense, for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union and other
similar societies.

12. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of
antiquities, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &c.

15. For the present, or until the building is fully completed, be-
sides the Secretary, no permanent assistant will be required, except
one, to act as librarian. i

14. The Secr etary, by the law of Congress, is alone responsible to
the Regents. He shall take charge of the building and property,
keep a record of proceedings, discharge the duties of librarian and
keeper of the museum, and may, with the consent of the Regents,
employ assistants.

15. The Secretary and his assistants, during thé session of Con-
gress, will be required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and
to exhibit new objects of art. Distinguished individuals should also
be invited to give lectures on subjects of general interest.

This programme, which was at first adopted provisionally, has be-
come the settled policy of the Institution The only material change
is that expressed by the following resolutions, adopted January 15,
1855, viz:

Resolved, That the Tth resolution passed by the Board of Regents,
on the 26th of January, 1847, requiring an equal division of the
income between the active operations and the museum and library,
when the buildings are completed, be, and it is hereby, repealed.

fiesolved, That hereafter the annual appropriations shall be appor-
tioned specifically among the different objects and operations of the
Institution, in such manner as may, in the judgment of the Regents,
be necessary and proper for each, according to its intrinsic import:
ance and a compliance in good faith with the law.

REPORT

OF

THE SECRETARY, PROFESSOR HENRY,

FOR

30:

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution :

GENTLEMEN: The close of the year 1866 completed the second de-
cade of the actual operations of the Smithsonian Institution. It was
chartered in August, 1846; though but little more was accomplished
during that year than a discussion of plans, and the appointment of
the Secretary, the principal executive officer.

On thus commencing a new decade in the history of the Institu-
tion, we may pause a few moments to recall some facts relative to
the character, the acceptance, and the administration of the endow-
ment of Smithson, which it isimportant always to keep in view. This
will be evident when we reflect on the changeable character of the
bodies constituting the guardians of the trust. Nota single Regent
on the list of those originally appointed is now amember of the board,
and indeed, with perhaps one single exception, all the members of
Congress and the principal officers of the general government have been
changed, and in some cases many times in succession. Under these
circumstances it becomes desirable that frequent reference should be
had to the original principles on which the Institution was founded,
as well as to those on which its affairs are now conducted.

The endowment was one of no ordinary character; it was confided
to our government not by one of its own citizens, but by a distin-
guished foreigner, the scion of an ancient house renowned for its
achievements in English history. It was not given in trust to our
government to be disposed of for the exclusive benefit of a portion
of our own people, or even for that of the whole nation, but in behalf
of the general family of mankind, for the benefit of men of all coun-

14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

tries and of all times. It was not restricted in effect to the diffusion
of a knowledge of old truths, but primarily designed for the exten-
sion of the boundaries of thought by the promotion of the discovery
of new powers of nature, of new principles and new laws of the uni-
verse. Nor was the acceptance of the trust an ordinary occurrence.
It became a constitutional question whether the Congress of the
United States was legally authorized to assume the responsibility and
discharge the duty of a trustee for such a purpose; nor was it until
after the expression of many doubts as to the result, that the accept-
ance was finally resolved on. Again, one of our most distinguished
citizens, Hon. Richard Rush, who had previously represented our
government at the court of St. James, was chosen as the agent to
effect a transfer of the funds to this country, and this he was enabled
to do without the delay of protracted legal proceedings, through the
courtesy of the court of chancery in granting a decree to that effect,
after a mere formal suit to satisfy the requirements of law.

A trust of so novel a character, confided by a prominent citizen of
England, not to his own government, but to that of the United States,
could not fail to attract general attention and place in a conspicuous —
light before the world, the integrity, intelligence and executive
ability of the party accepting an office of so much responsibility and
difficulty as that or the trustee of this endowment.

The obligation became more impressive in consideration of the
fact that the trust was accepted after the decease of him by whom it
was confided, and who could, therefore, give no further indications of
his intentions than those expressed in the terms of his will. It was,
consequently, of the firstimportance that these terms should be critically
studied, logically interpreted, and the intentions deduced from them
be strictly followed. Unfortunately, however, at the time the be-
quest was accepted, the public at large were so little acquainted with
the distinctions of science, or so little regardful of the precise ideas
to be attached to the terms which it employs, that it is scarcely a
matter of surprise that the intention of Smithson, as expressed by the
words ‘‘for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among mew’’
should have been misinterpreted, and that the act of Congress organ-
izing the Institution should include provisions which have since been
generally recognized as incompatible with the leading objects of the
bequest. |

It is, however, a sacred duty on the part of the government,
which it owes to its own character for candor and equity, to cor-
rect, as far as possible, any errors which misapprehension or inad-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

¢

vertence may have engrafted on its legislation, and to remove any
burdens which may have been injuriously imposed on the endow-
ment; and we doubt not from what has been done in the last few
years, that Congress will in due time fully vindicate the integrity of
its purposes, and enable the legacy of Smithson to perform all the
good which his most ardent desire could have anticipated.

It has been evident from the first that it was the intention of Con-
gress to deal not only justly but liberally with the Institution. It
restored the fund with interest when temporarily lost by a loan to
one of the western States, and provided for its subsequent security
by declaring it forever a deposit in the treasury of the United States,
on which six per cent. interest, payable semi-annually, should be
allowed. It furnished from the public domain grounds for a spacious
park, as well as a site for a large building; and to increase, as it was
thought, its popularity, the new Institution was made the custodian of
the national museum. These acts, though prompted by a liberal
spirit, proceeded on the erroneous idea then prevalent, that the inten-
tions of Smithson could be properly carried out by an institution con-
sisting of objects of a material and local character. Fortunately, how-
ever, Congress did not restrict the expenditure of the income of the
fund to these, but allowed the Regents at their discretion to devote a
portion of it in such other manner as in their opinion might be best
fitted to carry out the intentions of the donor.

After much deliberation, with a view to reconcile conflicting opia-
ions, an arrangement was effected by which two distinct systems
were provisionally adopted. The first of these which was included
in the law of organization, contemplated the expenditure of the in-
come in the formation and embellishment of an extensive park, or
pleasure ground, in which rare and ornamental trees and shrubs of
different species should be cultivated; in the erection and mainte-
nance of a castellated building, which, from its dimensions and im-
posing architectural design, should be an ornament to the city and a
monument to the founder; in the formation of a gallery of art in which
should be exhibited choice specimens of painting, sculpture and en-
graving; in the establishment of a library consisting of works on all
subjects; and, finally, in the support of a national museum containing
the collections of the United States Exploring Expedition, and all the
specimens that might be accumulated from other sources for the illus-
tration of all branches of natural history, geology, ethnology, ete.

The objects included in this system are all in themselves highly
interesting and very desirable for the embellishment and intellectual
improvement of the capital of the United States, but they are notin

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,

accordance with the will of Smithson, and fail entirely to realize his
higher and more comprehensive conceptions. They do not serve to
‘‘increase knowledge,’’ or, in other words, to add new truths to the >
existing stock; nor do they ‘‘ diffuse knowledge among men,’’ since
they are local in character, and fail to promote the general welfare
of mankind. Neither could they all be properly supported from the
limited income of the Smithson bequest. A library, and more
especially a museum, worthy of the nation, would, either of them,
in time, absorb the whole of the annual income. .

The other system, above referred to, or that which has been
denominated the system of active operations, was suggested by the
desire to strictly realize the intentions of Smithson, both as regards
the increase and the diffusion of knowledge; and this it was proposed
to effect by instituting experiments or researches in all departments
of science; by making explorations relative to geology, natural his-
tory, ethnology, and meteorology, and by diffusing an account of the
results of all these, through the press, to every.quarter of the globe.
It further includes in its design the collection and labelling of large
numbers of duplicate specimens, to illustrate the branches above
mentioned, not merely to be deposited in a national museum, but,
also, to be distributed to colleges, academies, and other establish-
ments, for educational purposes; and, lastly, embraces in its plan an
extended arrangement for international exchanges, through which
the discoveries of science and the products of literature of the old
and new worlds, become the common elements of intellectual pro-
gress. This system, which is immediately suggested to those familiar
with scientific language, by the terms of the bequest, is a living,
active organization, calculated to produce, unceasingly, results of
which the value will everywhere be known and be properly appre-
ciated. It was not, however, adopted, even provisionally, as a
prominent feature of the organization without strenuous opposition,
particularly on the part of the advocates of the proposition to apply
the Smithson endowment to found a national library. Indeed the
ideas which it involved were in advance of the times. That an
institution could be established which might have an important bear-
ing on the welfare of the world without the adventitious aid of pal-
pable objects, was not generally comprehended.

But though restricted in its operations by limited resources and
subjected to popular opposition, the system has proved in its opera-
tion to be eminently practical, and has established for the Institution
a reputation as wide as civilization itself. It has connected the name
of Smithson with the progress of almost every branch of science, and

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. D7)

has thus furnished the means of perpetuating his memory far more
effectually than could be done by architectural or other local monu-
ments, however ample in dimensions or comprehensive in destgn.

Instead of being, as lias been supposed, adverse or neutral as
regards the interests of the city of Washington, it has given it a
reputation as a centre of scientific operations, and has led to a series
cf improvements which, in time, cannot do otherwise than promote
its renown and add to its prosperity. It does not oppose an antago-
nism to the local objects before mentioned, but seeks to establish
them on a more liberal scale by other instrumentalities. While it has
distribated its publications and specimens with unprecedented liber-
ality, it has been fully repaid with articles of a similar character.
Through its exchanges it has collected a library of scientific refer-
ence superior to any in this country, and equal to any which can be
found abroad. As soonas Congress shail furnish the means of support-
ing a national museum, it will supply this with all the foreign aud
domestic specimens necessary for comparison and illustration

The two systems, at first carried on harmoniously, though in a
limited way and not without mutual embarrassment, were soon
found in practice to be radically incompatible with each other. As
it was impossible suitably to control the expenditure on the local
objects, it has been the constant policy of the Directory of the Insti-
tution to obtain relief from these burdens. It was in accordance with
this that the government was solicited to resume the care of the
grounds, on which had been expended annually a considerable por-
tion of the income, and to make these grounds part of a general
park extending from the Capitol to the Potomac. It was for this
purpose that the Institution was instrumental in procuring the ser-
vices of Mr. Downing, whose plan of the grounds in question would
have been completed had not the work been interrupted by his un-
timely death. This work, we trust, will soon be resumed under
more favorable auspices.

It was also in accordance with the policy under consideration that
the valuable library which, from its rapid increase by exchanges, had
already exceeded the means at the disposal of the Institution for its
support, was incorporated with that of Congress.

Happily the necessity for supporting a gallery of art has been ob-
viated by the enlightened munificence of a citizen of Washington, W.
W. Corcoran, esq., who has erected a building and made _ provision
for the support of such an establishment to which the collections in
this department already formed by the Institution may be trans-

ferred.
2s 67

18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The next important desideratum is the relief of the fund of Smith-
son from the greatest of all the burdens which have been imposed
upon it, that, namely, of the expense involved in the care and exhibition
of the national museum. for carrying on the active operations a
building not to exceed a cost of seventy-five thousand dollars would
have been amply sufficient, both in regard to the accommodations neces-
sarily required and the architectural embellishments which might be
thought requisite for such a structure; while the present building, the
erection of which was especially urged on the ground of the necessity of
providing accommodations on a liberal scale for a national museum
and library, has cost to the present time $450,000, or, in other words,
besides the $240,000 of accrued interest originally appropriated to
the building, an outlay of not less than ten thousand dollars annually
for twenty years has been devoted to the same purpose, and this ex-
penditure must, without the relief desired, be not only continued
but increased for years to come.

Though great advances have been made in the favor with which
the Institution is regarded by the public, and the increased facilities
which have been afforded by the transfer of the objects we have
mentioned to the care of government, yet the absorption of the income
by the museum and the building is so great and accelerative that
unless Congress, in justice to the trust, takes upon itself the charge
of these objects or provides for their maintenance the active opera-
tions must be greatly diminished in efficiency, if not ultimately
abandoned. The reputation of the Institution and of the country is
however too much involved in the continuance of the active operations
to allow them to be abolisked or even restricted. Every academy, every
cullege, every lyceum in the United States, as well as all the literary
aud scientific institutions of Europe, Asia, and even those of Africa
and Australia, are interested in the continued success of the system.
Furthermore, it be truly said that to devolve the care of a national
museum on the Smithson fund is not only an act of injustice to the
bequest, but is at once injurious to the reputation of the institution
and that of the government, since the means which the former can
devote to this purpose after defraying other expenses are entirely inade-
quate to the support of a museum entitled to the name of ‘‘national.’’
A public museum, properly organized as a means of popular educa-
tion, or as an aid tothe advancement of science, should not only be
furnished with extensive apartments for the proper accommodation
and exhibition of the articles, to be increased from time to time, but
it should also be provided with several professors, each learned ina
special branch of general natural history. So extended have these

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

departments of science become that no one individual can be profoundly
acquainted with more than one or two of them; hence, in order that
a director should properly perform the duties of a curator of an
establishment of this kind, he should have a corps of learned assistants.
For example, for the preservation and practical use of an herbarium, the
constant attendance and supervision of a botanist is requisite, whose
duty it will be to classify the specimens, to render them unassailable
by insects, to arrange them for study or exhibition, and to be always
present to assist those who may desire to examine them, either for ele-
mentary study or original research. Without a number of assistants in
the line of natural history, a museum must principally consist of mere
articles of curiosity, of comparatively little use in the way of valuable
instruction. It is evident, however, that a corps of such assistants,
supported on permanent salaries, in addition to the other expenses of
the museum, would soon absorb the whole of the Smithson income.

What has been said has reference merely to the impropriety of
attempting to maintain a museum worthy of the nation at the expense
of the Smithson fund, and is not intended to disparage the value
of a complete representation of the natural products of America, with
such foreign specimens as may be required for comparison and gene-
ralization. This we think of great importance, particularly as a
means of developing and illustrating our industrial resources, as well
as of facilitating the study of the relations of our geology, mineralogy,
flora and fauna to those of the old world: and, indeed, the wants of the
government appear to demand a collection of this kind, since the Med-
ical Department, the Agricultural Department, and the General Land
Office are each rapidly accumulating articles of illustration, and find
the necessity for the permanent employment of persons well skilled in
the branches to which their specimens pertain. With these the
national museum, of a general character, would maintain relations of
co-operation and mutual assistance.

It will be seen in previous reports, that from the first, in order to
compensate in some degree for the great outlay on local objects,
measures were adopted for the increase of the capital of the endow-
ment. These principally consisted in deferring the completion o°
the building for a series of years, and in the meanwhile investing
the money appropriated for its construction, as well asa portion of
the annual income, saved by judicious and economical management,
in government and State stocks. These stocks, however, were not
permanently secured, and were in danger of being disposed of inju-
diciously, upon casual or inadequate considerations. It has, there-

20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

fore, been a matter of solicitude to obtain for them a permanent
investment.

- In view of this, a petition was presented to Congress by the board
of regents, asking permission to make additions to the principal of the
Smithson fund. This petition was granted by theact of February 8,
1867, allowing the regents to increase the principal in the treasury
of the United States, by savings, donations, and otherwise, to any
sum not exceeding a million dollars, the additions to be subject to
the same conditions as the original bequest. In accordance with this
law the regents authorized the sale of all the stocks owned by the
Institution, excepting those of Virginia, and the application of the
proceeds to the increase of the principal to $650,000, which amount
is now the permanent fund of the Institution. In addition to this the
Institution has $72,500 in Virginia State bonds, the marketable value
of which is about $30,000.

The fund first paid into the treasury from the Smithson bequest
was $515,169; the remainder of the legacy, which had been left in
Eng!and as the principal of an annuity to the mother of the nephew of
Smithson, was $26,210 63, making in all, from the bequest of Smith-
son, $541,379 63. The capital has, therefore, been increased
more than a hundred thousand dollars, notwithstanding the expendi-
ture of $450,000 on the building.

Tt will be seen by the reports of the building committee and archi-
tect, that the main building of the Institution, which consists of a
large central edifice, 200 feet long, 50 feet wide, with two projecting
towers and a middle space in front, and a single large tower in the
rear, to which portions the damage by fire was principally confined, will
be entirely restored in the course of a few months, with the excep-
tion of the large hall in the second story. These parts of the building,
in which it is proposed to deposit the more valuable coliections, are
entirely of fire-proof materials. The cost of this reconstruction will
amount to $125,000, exclusive of that of the fitting up of the large
room just mentioned. The accommodations which will be afforded are
amply sufficient for the active operations of the Institution for all
coming time, and also for the museum, provided but few additions be
made to the number of specimens exhibited; but if the increase be
continued—and it is almost impossible to prevent, even if desired,
the growth of an establishment of this kind—the completion of the
main hall and the fitting it up with cases will become necessary, at
an expense of at least $50,000. The other parts of the building,
namely, the two wings and connecting ranges, with six towers, will

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Dat

also require, in time, for rendering them fire-proof, a further cost of
not less than $50,000.

The question then occurs, from what sources are the funds neces-
sary for this purpose to be derived? Fortunately the permanent
capital of the Institution is now secure and cannot be expended. The
income, however, which, in justice and good faith, ought to be applied
to the ‘‘increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,’ should not
be mortgaged, as it were, for years to come, in providing accommoda-
tions for the government collections. Surely the intelligence of the
general public and the moral sense of the community will justify
Congress in making seperate provision, on a proper scale, for the
support and extension of a government museum.

The large drafts upon the income since the fire and the high prices
of labor and materials have interfered with as vigorous a prosecu-
tion of the active operationsas was exemplified in previous years, and
have induced us to discontinue some enterprises in which we were
engaged, and to postpone others until a more favorable opportunity.
It will be seen, however, by the following report of the operations
of the Institution for the past year that much has been accomplished
in the way of sustaining and advancing the reputation of the estab-
lishment:

Publications. —The greater part of the expenditures on publica-
tions during the past year has been for the printing and paper of
an edition from the stereotype plates of volume XIV of the Contribu-
tions to Knowledge, and volumes VI and VII of the Miscellaneous
Collections. These volumes had been published in previous years in
a sufficient number of copies to supply foreign exchanges, but owing
to the large demands on the income of the funds on account of the
repair of the building, we were unable at the time to distribute
copies to American libraries. The edition which has now been
printed will, however, serve to make up all our deficiencies in this
respect.

The articles contained in volume XIV of the Contributions are:

1. Discussion of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations
made at the Girard College, Philadelphia, by Prof. A. D. Bacie.
Parts T-12.

2. On the Construction of a Silvered-glass Telescope, fifteen and
a half inches in aperture, and its use in Celestial Photography, by
Prof. Henry Draper.

3. Palzoutology of the Upper Missouri, by F. B. Meek and F. V.
Hayden. Part 1.

22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

4, Uretaceous Reptiles of the United States, by Dr. Joseph Leidy.

The contents of volume VI of the Miscellaneous Collections are:

1. Monograph of the Diptera of North America, by H. Loew.
Edited by Baron R. Ostensacken. Parts 1 and 2.

2. List of the Coleoptera of North America, by Dr. Jno. L. Le
Conte. Part 1.

3. New Species of North American Coleoptera, by Dr. Jno. L.
Le Conte.

Volume VII, Miscellaneous Collections, contains:

1. Monograph of the Bats of North America, by H. Allen, M. D.

2. Land and Fresh-water Shells of North America. Part 2. Pul-
monata, Limnophila, and Thalassophila, by W. G. Binney.

3. Land and Fresh-water Shells of North America. Part 3. Am-
pullariide, Valvatide, Viviparide, Fresh-water Rissoide, Cyclo-
phoride, Truncatellide, Fresh-water Neritide, Helicinida. By W.
G. Binney.

4. Researches upon the Hydrobiine and allied forms. By Dr.
Wm. Stimpson.

5. Monograph of American Corbiculadew, recent and fossil. By
Temple Prime. :

6. Check-list of the Invertebrate Fossils of North America, Eocene
and Oligocene. By T. A. Conrad.

7. Check-list of Fossils, Miocene. By F. B. Meek.

8. Check-list of Fossils, Cretaceous and Jurassic. By F.B. Meek.

9. Catalogue of Minerals, with their formulas, etc, By T. Egle-
ston.

10. Dictionary of the Chinook Jargon or Trade Language of Or-
egon. By Geo. Gibbs.

11. Instructions for Research relative to the Ethnology and Phi-
lology of America. By Geo. Gibbs.

12. List of Works published by the Smithsonian Institution.

Of the two works mentioned in the last report as being in the
press, the first, entitled ‘‘ Astronomical, Magnetic, Tidal, and Me-
teorological Observations within the Arctic Circle, by Isaac I. Hayes,
M. D.,’’ has been completed and a small edition printed. A full
description of this paper was given in the report for 1865. It
forms a quarto volume of 283 pages, illustrated with six charts
and fifteen wood-cuts. The principal chart shows the discoveries,
tracks and surveys of the Arctic expedition of 1860 and 1861, pro-
jected onascale of 1 to 1,200,000. Another chart shows the vi-
cinity of Port Foulke, the winter-quarters in 1860 and 1861 of the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23

expedition, projected ona scale of 1 to 170,000; a third gives the
Iso-magnetic lines in the vicinity of Smith’s strait, and three other
plates illustrate the series of tides at Port Foulke.

The second work published during the year is ‘* Results of Me-
teorological Observations made at Brunswick, Maine, between 1807
and 1859, by Parker Cleaveland, L.L.D., Professor in Bowdoin
College.’’ Another quarto work in press, and nearly ready for dis-
tribution, is entitled: ‘‘ Results of Meteorological Observations made
at Marietta, Ohio, between 1826 and 1859, inclusive, by S. P. Hil-
dreth, M. D.; to which are added, results of observations at Ma-
rietta, by Mr. Joseph Wood, between 1817 and 1823,’’ which have
been reduced and discussed at the expense of the Institution, by
Charles A. Schott. For an account of these works see the part of
this report relative to meteorology.

Additional copies of the following works have been printed during
the year from the stereotype plates: Draper’s Telescope ; Whittle-
sey’s Drift; Meek’s Check list of Fossils; Catalogue of Birds; Chi-
nook Jargon ; List of Coleoptera ; Review of American Birds; List of
Publications ; List of Foreign Correspondents.

The following are the rules of distribution of the Smithsonian pub-
“ications:

1. They are presented to all learned societies of the first class
which publish transactions, and give copies of these, in exchange, to
the Institution.

2. To all foreign libraries, of the first class, provided they give in
exchange their catalogues and other publications, or an equivalent,
from their duplicate volumes.

3. To permanently endowed colleges in actual operation in this
country, provided they furnish in return meteorological observations,
catalogues of their libraries and of their students, and all other pub-
lications issued by them relative to their organization and history.

4. To all States and Territories, provided they give in return
copies of all documents published under their authority.

5. To all incorporated public libraries in this country, not included
in any of the foregoing classes, now containing 10,000 volumes, and
to smaller libraries where a whole State or large district would be
otherwise unsupplied.

Institutions devoted exclusively to the promotion of particular
branches of knowledge receive such articles published by the Insti-
tution as relate to their objects. Portions of the series are also given
to institutions of lower grade not entitled under the above rules to

24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,

the full series, and also to the meteorological correspondents of the
Institution.

For the purpose of collecting materials for the preparation of a
report on the present condition of school architecture, a letter was
addressed to the officers of public instruction in our principal cities,
requesting the use of the architectura illustrations of their most
approved school-houses. This request was readily complied with,
and a considerable number of wood cuts had been received, when
Congress organized the Department of Education, to which it was
thought proper to transfer them, with the understanding that they
should be used in the report to be published under the direction
of the Commissioner. The thanks of the Institution are due to
Messrs. Philbrick, of Boston; Shippen, of Philadelphia; Van Bok-
kelen, of Baltimore; Swett, of San Francisco; Pickard, of Chicago;
Randall, of New York; Brooks, of Springfield, Illinois; and Hart, of
Trenton, New Jersey, for the promptness of their compliance with
our request, as well as for the illustrations actually furnished.

The report for the year 1866, with the appendix, was printed by
order of Congress, and the usual number of ten thousand extra
copies struck off for distribution, 4,000 by the Institution and
6,000 by the members of the Senate and House of Representatives.
It is believed that few, if any, of the government documents are
more in demand by the public than this report, and it has become
impossible to supply all who make application for it. Unless a
larger number be ordered by Congress, the distribution must in
future be more strictly conformable to the rules which have been
adopted, viz:

Ist. To colleges, libraries and societies’ publishing transactions.

2d. To contributors to the library, museum or meteorological de-
partment of the Institution.

3d. To persons engaged in teaching or in special research, and
to collaborators of the Institution.

The changes in the population of the country are so rapid that we
ecanuot be guided by a permanent list. As a general rule, the dis-
tribution can only be made to those who make special application
for each volume, excepting donors to the museum and meteorological
observers.

The volume for 1866 contains, in addition to the report of the
Secretary, giving an account of the operations, expenditures and
condition of the Institution for the year, and the proceedings of the
Board.of Regents to February 22, 1867, the following articles:

A. sketch of the services of the late Hon. W. W. Seaton, in con-

REPORT CF THE SECRETARY. 25

nection with the Smithsonian Institution, and some notices of his life
and personal character. A memoir of Magendie, by M. Flourens,
secretary of the French Academy of Sciences. A translation from
the German, on the senses of taste, hearing, and sight. A lecture
on the results of spectrum analysis applied to the heavenly bodies,
by W. Huggins, of England. A translation from the German of an
article on the external appearance of the sun’s disk, and one from
the French on accidental or subjective colors, by Abbé Moigno. A
continuation of the series of articles, by Plateau, on the figures of
equilibrium of a liquid mass withdrawn from the action of gravity,
The annual report of transactions of the Society of Physics and Natu-
ral History, of Geneva. Original communications relative to the Tin-
neh or Chepewyan Indians, of British and Russian America, by Messrs.
B. R. Ross, W. L. Hardisty, and 8. Jones, of the Hudson’s Bay
Company, by Geo. Gibbs esq. An article on the aboriginal Ameri-
can migration, by F. Von Hellwald, An original paper on Indian
pottery, by Chas. Rau, esq. An original article on artificial shell
deposits of the United States, by Dr. D. G. Brinton. A sketch of
ancient earthworks, by I. Dille, of Ohio. The pile-work antiquities
of Olmutz, translated from a Vienna periodical. An account of anti-
quities on the banks of the Mississippi river and Lake Pepin, by Dr.
L. C. Estes. Communications on a physical atlas of North America,
by Geo. Gibbs, esq., and on ethnological research, by Dr. HE. H.
Davis, with tables of measurements, by Scherzer and Schwarz.
Translation of the prize questions of the International Archeeologi-
cal Congress. An article on vitality, by Rev. H. H. Higgins. In-
structions for collecting land and fresh-water shells, by James Lewis,
esq. Instructions for collecting myriapods, phalangidex, ete., by Dr.
H. C. Wood. Notes on a plan of a research upon the atmosphere,
by Professor C. M. Wetherill. An account of the cryolite of Green-
land, by Messrs. Lewis and sons. Extracts from the meteorological
correspondence of the Institution, with remarks by the secretary,
Professor Henry. On horary variations of the barometer, by Mar-
shal Vaillant, with note by the secretary. On the formation of ice
at the bottom of rivers, by Mr. Engelhardt. An account of the
earthquake in eastern Mexico on 2d January, 1866, by Dr. C. Sar-
torius. Statistics relative to Norwegian mountains, lakes, and the
snow-line, by O. E. Dreutzer.

These articles embrace a wide range of subjects, and, with a single
exception, were either prepared expressly for the Institution or
translated from foreign journals not readily accessible to the Ameri-
canreader. The illustrations, seventy in number, were prepared at

26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the expense of the Institution. The translations continue to be made

with spirit and fidelity by C. A. Alexander, A. M., of Washington,
whose services in this connection for many years have been frequently
referred to in previous reports.

Meteorology.—In order to advance those branches of science
which depend especially upon instrumental observations, two kinds
of labor are necessary; that which is devoted to the making and
recording observations, and that which is expended in reducing and
discussing them. The first, which frequently requiresa large num-
ber of observers, as in the case of simultaneous meteorology, fortu-
nately can be performed by persons having a limited amount of scien-
tific training, although the precision and value of their observations
are much enhanced by a critical knowledge of the principles upon
which the observations depend; while the discussion and reduction
require a knowledge of mathematical analysis, possessed by compara-
tively few; and hence it is not surprising that the accumulation of
crude observations should be far in advance of their philosophic dis-
cussion, or that at the present time the great desideratum in meteo-
rology is afull discussion, on a general plan, of all the series of obser-
vations which have been recorded. If this were properly executed, we
should be prepared to commence a new era in this branch of science,
and to direct attention to new points of investigation, from indica-
tions furnished by the discussions.

In consideration of this state of meteorological data we have con-
cluded, in view of the improvement of the funds, to resume the gen-
eral discussion of the material which the Institution has already ac-
cumulated. We have accordingly commenced this work by the
reduction and discussion of all the observations on the rain-/all of the
North American continent, the results of which are much called for
on account of their agricultural, manufacturing, commercial, and san-
itary applications. Observations from upwards of twelve hundred
localities are now in the hands of the computers, and it is expected
that the results will be ready for publication towards the close of
1868. After having discussed all the observations which have been
previously recorded, we shall then be prepared to commence a new
and more extended series relative to precipitation, and for this pur-
pose we have had prepared a large number of measuring scales, con-
sisting of slips of box wood graduated to the tenth of an inch, to
be distributed very generally over the country, with instructions for
the observation and record of rain-fall. After carefully considering the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27

several forms of rain gauges, we have decided to recommend the
general adoption of a simple cylindrical vessel of three or four inches
in diameter and nine inches high, the depth to be measured by
plunging to the bottom a small slip of soft wood on which the water
mark can be distinctly observed, and measuring this by the scale
before mentioned, the depth being recorded to the quarter of a tenth
of aninch. Special instructions will be given that the rain be meas-
ured immediately after the fall or before any sensible evaporation
has taken place. We have adopted the simple cylinder of uniform
diameter as being less liable to errors of observation than any other
form.

Although the separate observations are not read with the same
minuteness as in the case of gauges in which the depth of rain is mag-
nified by areceiver of less diameter than the orifice of the gauge, yet
the average we find from experience in the case of a long series gives
equally reliable results with those in which instruments of apparently
greater precision are employed.

After the completion of the rain tables, our computers will com-
mence the discussion of the temperature of the North American con-
tinent. Were our funds sufficient, we should be glad to include in
the investigation all the observations made on this continent during
the various expeditions to the arctic regions, undertaken by the Brit-
ish government, few of which have, as yet, received that thorough
examination necessary to obtain from them the general truths which
constitute real contributions to science.

We have mentioned in previous reports that the meteorological sys-
tem of the U. S. army was about to be reorganized under the Surgeon
General. This work has been carried on during the year, and a series
of standard instruments has been constructed by James Green, of
New York, under the direction of Dr. Craig, for distribution to the
various posts. Fifty barometers and one hundred and fifty thermom-
eters and rain gauges will be substituted for those now in use.

The number of Smithsonian observers during the year 1867 was
385, and this will probably be increased during the year 1868,
so that a more rapid and accurate accumulation of data relative to
the meteorology of this country will be obtained than at any time
heretofore.

The Department of Agriculture has continued during the past year
to publish the monthly bulletin of meteorological observations, which
is still received with much interest by farmers, as well as by meteo-
rological observers. The preparation of the meteorological notes for

28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the present, as for previous years, has been in charge of Mr. Wm. Q.
Force.

The importance of meteorological observations in their connection
with agriculture is becoming better appreciated by the public, and
we think it probable that in due time our government will follow the
example of foreign countries in maintaining a more perfect series of
observations than has as yet been established. The average temper-
ature of the year and of the different seasons, the amount and fre-
quency uf rain, the time of early and late frosts, the length of the
‘“‘orowing summers’ and the recurrence of years of abnormal drought
or of low temperature, are all elements of great value in comparing
the relative capacity of different parts of the country for special
productions.

We have repeatedly stated in previous reports that our eastern sea-
board is far more favorably situated in regard to the prediction of
the occurrence of storms than the western coast of Europe, since it
has been conclusively shown that the principal disturbances of the
atmosphere in the temperate zone move from west to east. During
the past year the attempt has been made by the Institution to
resume with the co-operation of the telegraph lines the system of
telegraphic indications of the weather which was interrupted by
the war. We have, however, been unsuccessful, and indeed it can
scarcely be expected that without some remuneration to the companies,
the use of the telegraphic wires and the time of the operators should
be given for the purpose.

The discussion and reduction of long series of observations of the
weather at particular places have been continued. The contributions
of this kind completed during the past year are deductions from the
meteorological observations made at Brunswick, Maine, and Marietta,
Ohio. The discussions and reductions were made at the expense of
the Institution by Mr. Charles A. Schott, on the same plan as that
adopted in the discussion of the observations in the Arctic Regions
by Kane, McClintock and Hayes.

Between the years 1807 and 1859 inclusive, meteorological records
were made with great regularity by the late Professor Parker Cleave-
Jand, of Bowdoin college, at Brunswick, Maine, and after his death
were consigned to this Institution for reduction and publication. The
observations, though not intended by their author to be of a strictly
scientific character, were yet found sufficiently valuable to warrant
the expenditure of considerable labor in preparing them for the press.

Brunswick is on the Androscoggin river, about 25 miles N. 40° EH.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

from Portland, Maine, in latitude 43° 54’ 5, longitude 69° 57’ 4, and
74 feet above high water. The observations were made at 7 a. m.,
1 p.m. and 6 p. m., and relate to indications of the thermometer and
barometer, direction of the wind, state of the weather, amount of
rain and snow, character of clouds, occurrence of thunder-storms,
fogs, frost and hail, earthquakes, auroras, etc.

From these observations the mean temperature of each day of each
month is deduced and arranged in tables. The mean temperatures,
however, require a small correction in order to reduce them to the
mean temperature of the day which would be given from twenty-four
or hourly observations instead of only three observations. In the dis-
cussion of the temperature the correction applied on account of the

irregular hours was deduced from a series of observations taken at
every hour of the twenty-four at Toronto and Montreal, which are
found to have been subjected to the same fluctuation of temperature
as Brunswick. To understand this, perhaps the following expla-
nation is necessary: By adding all the temperatures observed at
each hour of the day, for example all at 6 o’clock, into one sum, and
dividing these by the whole number of observations at this hour, we
obtain the average or mean temperature of that hour, and by repeat-
ing the process for every other hour we obtain a series for each hour
of the twenty-four; also, by adding together all the average tempera-
tures of each hour of the day and dividing by twenty-four, we obtain
the mean temperature of the day. If the mean temperature of the
day be compared with the mean temperature of each hour, some of
the latter will be a little above and others a little below the former;
and as these differences are found to be the same over a large extent
of country, we may apply them to observations made at one, two, or
three hours, so as to get the same result which would be obtained had
the observations been made at every hour during the twenty-four.
Thus it has been found, from several series of hourly observations in
different parts of the United States, that those made at Ta. m., 2
and 9 p. m., give a nearer approximation to the mean temperature of
the day than those made at any other hours. We dwell some-
what on this point because the idea has been prevalent that the best
times for determining the mean temperature are at sunrise, noon and
sunset. But since sunrise and sunset are variable hours, it is obvious
that corrections similar to those we have mentioned above cannot be
readily applied to them.

The observations at Brunswick, having been duly corrected in the
way we have mentioned, present, during a period of /i/ty-two years,

30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

a mean temperature of 44° 4’ Fahrenheit, which reduced to the level
of the sea becomes 44° 6’.

The lowest mean temperature for any year occurred in 1859, and
was 40°.31, and the highest was in 1840, 51°.60, giving a range of
11°.29, which is considerably larger than at places farther south in
the United States. A table is given of the fluctuations of the annual
mean temperatures, which, with others of a similar character, is
directly available for the study of the secular changes of the tempera-
ture; or, in other words, for ascertaining whether within the period
of instrumental observations the annual temperature has undergone
any sensible variation. No indications of this, however, have been
found. On the contrary, it appears from the observations made
between 1807 and 1832, inclusive, that the annual temperature
was 44°.10, and between 1833 and 1859, inclusive, it was 44°.70,
a difference readily accounted for from errors of observation and
change of instruments, and too insignificant to substantiate a change
in climate. It has been observed in other parts of the earth that
the annual temperature undergoes a periodical change at certain
seasons of the year, and in this country it has been supposed that a
similar change occurs, viz., a cold period about the end of May, and
a warm one in October. The discussion of the observations for 52
years does not indicate any such periodical fluctuation at these times.

According to the average of 52 years, the warmest day falls on the
22d of July, or 31 days after the summer solstice, and has a mean
temperature of 67°.7.

The coldest day on an average is the 18th of January, or 28 days
after the winter solstice, having a temperature of 19°.9 Fahrenheit.
On an average, the 20th of April and the 24th October have the same
tersperature as the mean of the entire year. The lowest record for
the whole time is 30° below zero, and the highest 102° above.

The northwest wind on an average reduces the temperature 4°.6.
The north lowers it 3°.1, and the northeast 3°.8. The southwest
wind, on the contrary, elevates the temperature above its normal
value 2°.6. In summer the effect of rain and fog is to lower the
temperature 6°.5. In winter, snow, sleet or rain increases the tem-
perature 49.3. From 54,097 observations, the following is the pro-
portional number of winds in 1,000:

South. North. West. East. | S.W. N.E. N.W. | S.E.
311

29 40 51 29 | 143 320

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31

From this it results that the most frequent are the northwest and
southwest, the former in winter and the latter in summer. The
least number of days in which rain fell was in February, the greatest
in May. The greatest number of days in which snow fell was in Jan-
uary. The earliest snow occurred on the 26th September, 1808, and
the latest on the 8th of June, 1816. On an average, snow falls in
Brunswick on some day in May once in five years, and in October once
every other year. The average number of rainy days is 64. The average
number of snowy days is 30. The average amount of rain and snow is
44.68 inches. The greatest amount of rain during any one day was 84
inches, November 4, 1845. ‘The greatest fall of snow was on the 10th
of March, 1819, and measured 30 inches. The greatest number of
rainfalls occur while the wind is from the northeast, and the least
number while it is from the west. The northeast wind in winter is
almost constantly accompanied by rain or snow, while in summer the
southeast surpasses it as a vehicle of rain, a result evidently due to
the position of the place of observation with respect to the ocean.
The number of storms of thunder and lightning recorded during 51
years is 472, or about 9a year. The greatest number occurred in
July and August, the least in January and February. The total num-
ber of fogs is 1,135, or 22in a year, the most dense of which occur in
ummer, the least dense in winter.

July is the only month in which no frost is recorded. The earliest
frost observed was August 3d, and the latest June 19th. Onan
average, the spring frost ceases after the first week in June, and the
autumn frost commences after the first week in September. There
were 34 hail storms—the greatest number in January, the least in
August. The records notice the occurrence of seven earthquakes
and 86 auroras, the greatest number of the latter in September and
October.

The aurora also exhibits a maximum anda minimum. The maxi-
mum occurred in 1808, 1818, 1830, 1838, 1848, 1857, giving differ-
ences of 10, 12, 8, 10, and 9 years. This indicates an average
period of about 10 years. Unfortunately the temperature of the
barometer is not given, and therefore a reduction on account of
the expansion of the mercury is not possible, and consequently the
only use which has been made of the record has been to exhibit the
monthly extreme values, together with their annual variations.

The barometric maxima reach their greatest value in December
and their least value in June. The minima occur in August. The
monthly range is the greatest at the period of greatest cold, in Jan-
uary, and the least range at the period of greatest heat, in July.

32 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The observations at Marietta, Ohio, extend from 1817 to 1823,
by Mr. Joseph Wood, and from 1826 to 1859, inclusive, by Dr. S. P.
Hildreth, the whole presenting an almost unbroken series of 40
years. Marietta, the oldest town in the State of Ohio, is situated at
the junction of the Muskingum and Qhio rivers, in latitude 39° 25’,
longitude 81° 29’ west, about 580 feet above tide-water.

The registers embrace records of temperature, wind, pressure of
the atmosphere, face of the sky, cloudiness, and precipitation in snow
and rain. The observations of Mr. Wood were made at sunrise, 2
p.m. and sunset, and by Dr. Hildreth generally at 6 a. m., 2 and 9
p- m., in summer, and 7 a. m., 2 and 9 p. m., in winter. Deviations
in both series from these hours are noted and corrections applied
in the reductions.

Unfortunately a small portion of the manascripts was lost by the
fire which destroyed a part of the Smithsonian building in January,
1865. This loss was partly supplied by the monthly means which
had been published by Dr. Hildreth in Silliman’s Journal.

During the 40 Marietta years a mean temperature is shown of 52°.46.
The mean temperature of 1828. the warmest year during the whole
period, was 55°.38, and that of the coldest, 1856, was49°. 71, show-
ing a range or variation of temperature of 5°.67, which is about
the usual range of annual temperature, as indicated by shorter periods
in our latitude. The discussion indicates no change of annual tem-
perature during the whole period of 40 years, the mean temperature
of the first 20 years being the same as of the last 20 years. Neither
do these observations indicate any change in the temperature of
summer or winter by comparing the first 20 with the second 20
years. We think it probable, however, that a full discussion of all
the records collected by the Institution would show some slight change
in the average temperature of summer and winter due to the exposure
of the surface by the clearing away of trees, although no indications
of a similar kind may be given in the mean temperature of the year.

The greatest fluctuation of temperature is in February, and the
least in July and August. The lowest temperature during the whole
period was 23 degrees below zero, Fahrenheit, at 7 o’clock a. m.,
January 20, 1852; the extreme highest 102 degrees at 3 p. m., July
14,1859. These observations give an extreme range of temperature
of 125 degrees, which, when compared with that of Europe, may be
considered excessive; but, compared with that of other parts of
America and Asia, is not unusual. From all the observations it appears
that, on an average, the warmest day of the year is the 23d of July,
and the coldest the 15th of January, while the days which have the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. aa

same temperature as the mean of the whole year are the 14th of
April and the 15th of October.
The average temperatures of the seasons are as follows:

@)
Spring rece ceecee ceceee cece sence 52.88

SUMMECE ee stele cs: v'clssie Melee sie sees TL. Ot
ROUSE TANI ete Mier olelcicrels)s\ eta e's) ah A aureta cele h OLS
WOR ete a etal oe, a ae 33.01

There have been observed by the meteorologists of Europe varia-
tions in the ordinary march of the change of temperature. Of these
there is one about the beginning of December, and another about the
middle of May, which are most conspicuous. The cause of such
abnormal change of temperature must be either local or general; if
the latter, its influence must be felt, perhaps, with some modification
in all parts of the globe. The observations were examined in regard
to these abnormal changes; but though they indicate a normal
temperature about the beginning of December, they show a remarka- .
ble depression of temperature between the 25th and 28th of Novem-
ber, which is preceded by an elevation on the 22d. A similar de-
pression, however, is not observed in the series for Brunswick.

The direction of the wind is recorded for 27 years to eight points
of the compass, and the result as to the relative frequency of each
in proportion to 1,000 is shown in the following table:

—_——_———— | |§ || | | | | | EEE es

From this it appears that the majority of the winds are from the
north and southwest, while the northeast and east winds are the least
frequent. The south wind is more frequent in summer, and the west
and northwest in winter. This differs slightly from the winds in
Brunswick, Maine, where the wind of the greatest frequency is that
from the northwest, and next from the southwest. The difference is
probably due principally to the configuration of the surface.

The result of another investigation indicates an apparent secular
change in the direction of the wind, similar to the one noted at Bruns-
wick; but as the epochs are different, the subject requires the discus-
sion of more extended observations at different places.

The discussion of the connection of the direction of the wind with

3 8 67

34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the temperature, from observations of 2,340 days, exhibits the fact
that the warmest winds are from the southeast, south and southwest,
all others being cold; the extreme difference being 15 degrees in win-
ter,and 8} in summer. The comparison of the direction of the wind
and rain shows that the southwest wind in summer and the southeast in
winter are accompanied by the greatest amount of precipitation, and
that fair weather generally attends northerly winds throughout the
entire year. In summer the easterly and in winter the westerly
winds are also attended with fair weather. The average annual
quantity of rain and melted snow is 423 inches; the least amount
observed in any one year is 32°.46, and the greatest 61°.84, varying
much less than is recorded of Brunswick. The greatest amount of rain
in any one month isin June, and the least in January. The average
number of rainy days in a year is 86. The quantity of rain is more
equally distributed throughout the year than at Brunswick. The
greatest fall of rain recorded on any one day was 4.25 inches, on the
3d July, 1844. The largest fall of snow, 15 inches, was on the 4th
of December, 1835.

The indications of the barometer show a regular progression in the
weight of the atmosphere, which attains its greatest value in January
and its least between July and August.

Ethnology.—The subject of ethnology has, during tne past year,
continued to occupy aconsiderable share of the attention of the Institu-
tion. Renewed efforts have been made, by means of circulars and
correspondence, to increase the collection of specimens illustrative
of the different races of men inhabiting or who have inhabited this
continent.

The very extensive collections of ethnological articles from almost
every part of the world, made by the United States exploring ex-
pedition under Captain (now Admiral) Wilkes, having been placed in
charge of the Institution, not only afford a basis for a comparison of
the different modes of life and stages of advancement among exist-
ing tribes, but an important means of determining the ethnological
relations of the natives of the present day to those whose ancient
remains lie thickly strewn over our whole continent. For example,
implements of stone and of bone are almost everywhere found, the
workmanship of races that have long since disappeared, and of which
the use would be difficult of determination, were not similar imple-
ments as to form and material found in actual use at the present day
among savages, particularly those inhabiting the various islands of the
Picific ocean. Our object is to collect well-characterized specimens,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35

illustrative of the remains of ancient industry; first, for the formation
of a collection as perfect as possible to be preserved in the national
museum; and second, for duplicates to present to other institutions,
with which we maintain relations of reciprocity. It may be observed
that, in making exchanges of specimens, the object is not alone to
enrich our museum, but to furnish the means throughout the world
of a more comprehensive comparison, and consequently to facilitate
the study of the various stages of the development of human inven-
tion.

During the past year large and valuable collections have been
received from the northwest coast and from within the Arctic Circle,
illustrative of the Indians and Esquimaux of these regions. We
have been particularly desirous to awaken an interest in the explo-
ration of the shell-heaps which have been found at various points
along our coast. These are now known to be of an artificial character,
and are frequently rich in specimens of the industry of the earlier
inhabitants of this country. As to the archeological value of these
shell-mounds, considerable difference of opinion prevails. They are
even regarded by some as the work of known tribes of Indians, con-
cerning whom we possess other and better sources of information;
but, even if this be so, they would serve to illustrate peculiarities of |
customs, and should, in all cases, be explored and the materials
found in them carefully preserved. From the specimens derived
from the shell-deposits on the coast of Norway, the Scandinavian
archeologists were enabled to divide the stages of civilization into
three principal periods, namely: the stone age, the bronze or transi-
tion age, and the ironage. These divisions have been generally
admitted as characteristic of the principal stages of human develop-
ment, though they are not regarded as successive periods in the
_ general advancement of the world, since the inhabitants of one country
may be in the condition of the stone age, while those of others are in
the full enjoyment of all the advantages of the iron epoch.

This division furnishes a ready means of classifying the various
archeological objects, so as to exhibit the comparative civiliza-
tion in different places at the same or at different epochs, and,
though it may be superseded by a more philosophic classification, it
forms an important step in the gradual advancement of a new sci-
ence. Indeed, it has lately been proposed to divide the stone age
into two—the paleolithic, or first stone age, and the neolithic, or
second stone age; and from the discoveries which have been made
of late, and which have been so cumulative, we can scarcely

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

question the conclusions to which they all seem to point, namely:
that though the remains of man are found in a very recent geologi-
cal period, yet, in a historical point of view, the antiquity of these
remains is much greater than was formerly supposed. Those which
belong to the paleolithic age are usually found in beds of gravel
and loam, extending along river valleys and reaching a height some-
times of 200 feet above the present water level. That these beds
were not deposited by the sea is proved by the fact that the
remains which occur in them are those of fresh water, and not of
marine animals. These deposits contain fragments of such rocks only
as occur in the area drained by the river itself, and consequently
at the time the deposit was formed the topography of western
Europe could not have been very different from what it is at present.
That the climate, however, was much more severe than it is now
is shown by the character of the animals of which the bones are
found in abundance, namely: the musk-ox, the woolly-haired rhi-
noceros, the lemming, and the reindeer—all arctic animals. The
great antiquity of the period is inferred from several indications.
The extinction of the large animals must have been a work of time,
and neither in the earlier writings, nor in popular traditions, do
we find any indication of their presence. Again the beds of gravel
and loam, which in most cases are deposited in regular strata, would
require a long succession of seasons, since we see how little effect
is produced at the present time in the course of a number of years.

In these deposits mingled with the regular strata are found stone
implements indicating the presence of reasoning beings previous to
the time at which the strata were deposited. According to Sir John
Lubbock, about 3,000 flint impiements have been found in what he
denominates the palolithic age, in northern France and southern
England, but no traces of pottery, nor evidence of the use of metals,
nor even of polished stone implements, have yet been met with.

The neolithic age commences with a knowledge of a higher degree
of art, at a period when polished axes, chisels, gouges, and other
implements of stone, as well as hand-made pottery, were extensively used
in western Europe. The objects peculiar to this period do not occur
in the river drift gravel as in the previous period, except some of the
simpler ones. The implements are remarkably numerous in Den-
mark and Sweden, while the paleolithic types are absolutely
unknown there. It has hence been inferred that these northern
countries were not inhabited by man during the earlier periods. The
Danish shell-mounds belong to this period, as well as those of our own

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37

country, and hence it becomes an important object of inquiry to
determine whether any real types of the palzeolithic age exist in North
America. The two stone ages, however, are characterized by the
use of stone or bone, to the exclusion of metal.

It is evident, from the specimens which have been collected, that
there was a period when bronze was extensively used for arms and
implements. This is particularly manifest in the examination of
tumuli, in which stone and bronze implements are found existing
together. Some of the bronze axes, in many cases, appear to be
mere copies of those of stone, as indeed is the iron axe used by the
pioneers in clearing the American forest.

The bronze age is also distinguished from the stone age by the bones
of animals which are found mingled with the implements. Those
of wild beasts prevail in the former, while those of tame beasts are
most numerous in the iatter. No articles of bronze have been found in
this country, though those of copper, showing a less advance in art,
are frequently found in ancient mounds.

The iron age appeared when the metal was first used for weapons
and cutting instruments, and gradually extends into the twilight of his-
tory. From all the remains which have been found, it is evident that
neither bronze nor stone implements were used in northern Europe
at the commencement of the Christian era, and that the inhabitants
of these regions were not as low in the scale of civilization as the
accounts of their conquerors would seem to place them.

Exchanges.—The system of international scientific and literary
exchanges, to facilitate the correspondence between learned institu-
tions and individuals of the Old and New World, has been fully main-
tained during the past year, 1,083 boxes and packages having been
sent out, and 782 received since the date of the last report, most of
them with a large number of sub-parcels enclosed.

These packages, as in former years, contain the publications of
institutions, public documents, transactions of societies, scientific
works presented by individuals, specimens of natural history, eth-
nology, &c. This part of the operations of the establishment has
found much favor with the public. ‘‘ We have nothing of the kind,”’
says a recent English publication, ‘‘in this country, and the difficulty
in exchanging books and specimens is much felt. The comparative
cheapness of freight is more than made up by the complicated
agencies and other extra charges, which can scarcely be avoided even
by those initiated in the secrets of the business. The sending one

38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

or two volumes or a small packet of specimens into Germany is often
prevented by the difficulties and expense attending it.”’

At stated periods the following circular is distributed to institu-
tions and individuals in America :

‘‘The Smithsonian Institution is now making preparations to send
copies of its publications to the different libraries and societies in
Lurope and other parts of the world with which it is in correspond-
ence. As in previous years, it will undertake the transmission and
safe delivery of the publications of other American institutions on
the following conditions :

“Ist. The volumes or publications to be put up in compact packages,
enveloped separately for each particular address. They must not be
sealed, although they can be pasted up or tied. Unsealed letters
relating to the contents of the package may be placed inside or sent
separately. Jn no case will sealed letters or packages be forwarded by
the Institution.

‘2d. The packages must be addressed legibly, in full, (if German,
they must be in Roman character,) and the name of the donor must
be indorsed on each.

‘*3d. The parcels must be delivered in Washington free of expense to
the Smithsonian Institution.

‘‘4th. A detailed and full invoice of all the addresses on the par-
cels must be sent separately, in advance, by mail.

‘¢5th. The parcels should conform as nearly as possible in length
and breadth to the corresponding dimensions of the Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge, if in quarto, or to half this size, if octavo.
Octavo pamphlets should not be folded. No single package should
exceed six inches in thickness.

‘*6th. No charge will be made for the expenses of sending from
Washington, if the parcels be of moderate bulk. In any case the
proportion of actual expenses will only be called for.

‘‘Tf desired, the Smithsonian Institution will make the selection
of the most suitable recipients of any publications. In this case
nothing but the name of the donor need be marked on the parcels.

‘‘The next transmission of packages from the Smithsonian Institu-
tion will take place about the Ist June.

‘Parcels should be in hand a month earlier, and the lists sent by
mail at the earliest possible moment. These will be wanted con-
siderably in advance of the parcels, in order to make out the com-
plete invoices for each different address before commencing to pack
the boxes.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

‘¢ Unless the above conditions are severally and strictly observed
the parcels cannot be forwarded.

The cost of this system would far exceed the means of the Institu-
tion, were it not for important aid received from various parties
interested in facilitating international intercourse and the promotion
of friendly relations between distant parts of the civilized world.
The liberal aid extended by the steamship and other lines, men-
tioned in previous reports, in carrying the boxes of the Smithson
exchanges free of charge, has been continued, and several other
lines have been added to the number in the course of the year. The
names of this class of patrons of the Institution are given in the fol-
lowing list :

Pacific Mail Steamship Company, North German Lloyd Steamship
Company, Hamburg American Steamship Company, General Trans-
Atlantic Steamship Company, Inman Steamship Company, Cunard
Steamship Company, Pacific Steam Navigation Company, Panama
railroad, California and Mexico Steamship Company.

Important favors have also been conferred during the year by the
Adams, the Harnden, and the Wells & Fargo Express Companies;
Mr. S. Hubbard, of San Francisco, and Mr. George Hillier, of the
New York custom-house.

As in previous years, the agents of the Institution are: Dr. Felix
Flugel, in Leipsic; Mr. Gustave Bossange, in Paris; Mr. Wm. Wesley,
in London; Mr. Fred Miller, in Amsterdam.

In view of the delays incident to the transmission of packages to
Italy, the Institution has embraced a proposal from the Royal Insti-
tute of Milan, conveyed through the friendly intervention of the
American minister, Hon. G. P. Marsh, to take charge of the ex-
changes with that country, and a number of boxes have accordingly
been shipped to Milan, via Genoa, during the year.

Besides these agents, our countryman, Mr. James Swaim, now resid-
ing in Paris, has kindly consented to act as a special agent in super-
intending the construction of such articles of philosophical apparatus
ag the Institution may require.

During the session of 1866-’67 an act was passed by Congress pro-
viding for the reservation of fifty complete sets of all the works pub-
lished at the expense of the United States, to be placed provisionally
in the hands of the Joint Library Committee of Congress, in order to
be exchanged, through the Smithsonian agency, for corresponding
publications of other nations. The object in this was to secure regu-
larly and systematically, at the least possible expense, all reports and

40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

other documents relative to the legislation, jurisprudence, statistics,
internal economy, technology, &c., of all nations, so as to place the
material at the command of the committees and members of Con-

gress, heads of bureaus, &c. No appropriation was made for meet-
| ing the necessary expenses, which, of course, could not be borne by
the Smithsonian fund, since all the returns were to belong to the
Library of Congress; but as a year would necessarily elapse before
any documents would be ready for distribution, it was thought proper
to defer further action until the present season. In the mean time,
however, a circular was issued by the Institution with the view of
ascertaining what governments would enter into the proposed arrange-
ment, and already replies have been received from a large number,
all embracing the opportunity offered of procuring the national pub-
lications of the United States, and proffering complete series of their
own in return. Some of these, indeed, have already sent large pack-
ages of their works without awaiting further action on the part of
our government. Among them, one large box of books from the
government of Victoria, Australia, has been received and the contents
deposited in the Congressional Library.

In view of the great importance of securing the foreign works
in question, we regret to learn that a difficulty has arisen in
reference to the fifty sets referred to. The Public Printer does not
consider himself authorized to furnish them without further legisla-
tion, since the distribution of the regular edition is already directed
by law, and he cannot supply the fifty sets in question unless the
regular edition be increased by that number. The attention of the
Library Committee has been called to this subject, and it is probable
that they will give it due consideration, as well as that of an appro-
priation to meet the necessary expenses.

The following is a list of governments which have responded
favorably to the proposed international exchanges of documents, &c.:

France, Belgium, Great Britain and Ireland, Switzerland, Spain,
Costa Rica, Netherlands, Chile, Denmark, Argentine Confederation,
United States of Colombia, Wurtemburg, Finland, Hamburg, Baden,
Sweden.

At the suggestion of Hon. John Bigelow, late American minister
to France, a request was made by the Institution that some of the prin-
cipal publishers of school-books in this country would furnish copies of
their elementary text-books, in order that these might be presented
to Professor E. Laboulaye, of the College of France, for examination,
with a view to the application of some of their peculiar features to

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al

the purposes of instruction in his own country. The character of
this distinguished professor, and his known admiration of American
institutions, secured for this request the prompt and liberal response
of several publishers, a list of whom, with the number of works con-
tributed, is as follows:

Harper & Brothers, New York ++++++++++see+see+++ 62 volumes.

A. S. Barnes & Co., es Bly sel a Oe. I Ob 28 eees- 26 volumes.
Oakley & Mason, = atte cece ee eeee oeeee- 10 volumes.
C. Scribner, oi wsecccccseoess) 3S VOlUMES.
H. Cowperthwait & Co., Philadelphia seeeeecseecees 10 volumes.
U. Hunt & Son, bi eee e eee en eens 12 volumes.
H.C. & J. Biddle, rs eocces,,eseees 12 volumes.
ASS. Davis & Coy, Boston ++: + sss seie cassie ciee's wees 6 volumes.
Sargent, Wilson & Hinkle, Cincinnati-++-++++-+++ +++ 33 volumes.

Professor Laboulaye, in acknowledging the receipt of these 174
volumes, says: ‘‘These books form the admiration of all who take an

interest in education, and I hope that France will profit by this
example. We have excellent things at home by which you in turn
might profit, but we have seen nothing comparable to your readers,
your object-lessons, your graphics, and your geographical series.’’

Explorations and Collections. —The system of explorations mentioned
in the preceding reports has been continued as in previous years, with
the co-operation, in some cases, of other institutions and of persons
interested in special branches of natural history. The objects of
these explorations are to collect information and illustrations of the
natural history, the ethnology, meteorology, and physical geography
of the various parts of the continent of North America. The organ-
ization of these expeditions has been specially in charge of Professor
Baird, who has devoted, with his wonted zeal, a large amount of
labor to the preparation of outfits and to the care and arrangement
of the specimens obtained. We shall give an account of these sev-
eral explorations under the names of the districts within which they
have been prosecuted.

British and Russian America.—In previous reports a statement has
been given relative tothe scientific department of the expedition organ-
ized by the Western Union Telegraph Company, for the purpose of
effecting an electric communication between the United States and
Europe, across Behring’s Straits, and we have now to express our
regret that the enterprise has been abandoned. We have, too, to
deplore the sudden death of Mr. Kennicott, the director of the natu-

42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ral history department of the expedition, which took place in May,
1866, at Nulato, on the lower Yukon. In this dispensation of Provi-
dence, science has lost an ardent and successful votary, and the Insti-
tution one of its most valued collaborators. It is to him that we owe
our introduction to the most important sources of information relative
to the fur countries, and it is principally through his exertions that
the museum of the city of Chicago, of which he was the director,
received its endowment and organization.

After the death of Mr. Kennicott, Mr. W. H. Dall succeeded him
as chief of the scientific corps, and has since been occupied in ex-
ploring the Yukon river from Fort Yukon to its mouth. He is still
engaged in this work, but will probably return in the autumn of 1868.

To the co-operation of Col. Bulkley, the chief of the survey, and
of Messrs. Scammon, K’etchum, Fisher, Smith, and others mentioned
in the list of donors to the collections, much of the success of the oper-
ations relative to natural history is due. The collections themselves
were made principally by Messrs. Kennicott, Dall, Bischoff, Bannister,
and Elliott. Since the return of the surveying parties all the maps
and reports relating to the geographical part of the work have been
placed in possession of this Institution, with a view to their being
elaborated in the form of a memoir for publication.

The explorations under the auspices of the telegraph company
were made partly in Nicaragua during the transit of the scientific
corps across the Isthmus, partly in the vicinity of San Francisco while
the expedition was in process of being organized, partly in Kam-
tschatka and in British Columbia, but chiefly in the island of Sitka
and on Norton Sound and the Yukon river.

The collections from the Yukon and Norton Sound region, as well
as those from both sides of Behring’s Straits, are very extensive and
valuable. Among the results most interesting to the naturalist is
the discovery at Norton Sound and at Nulato of three genera of birds*
previously supposed peculiar to the Old World.

The collections of the telegraph expedition at Sitka were made
by Mr. Ferdinand Bischoff, during a stay of about fourteen months,
and are of great extent and value. Desirous of having a collection of
specimens from Kamtschatka for comparison with those from the
shores of Russian America, the Institution, conjointly with the Chicago
Academy of Sciences, engaged the services of Mr. Bischoff for that
purpose, and furnished him with a complete outfit, while the Pacific
Mail Steamship Company, in its usual spirit of liberality as regards

* Species of Budytes, Phyllopneuste, and Pyrrhula.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43.

the interests of science, gave hima free passage to San Francisco.
Thence he sailed, still free of expense, in one of the vessels of the
Russian Telegraph Company, but no stop being made at Kamtschatka,
he was obliged to proceed to Plover Bay, the telegraphic depot on
the Asiatic side of the straits, where he failed not to make some inter-
esting collections. Returning with the vessel to San Francisco in Octo-
ber, he was directed to proceed to Mazatlan, and there, under the direc-
tion of the valued correspondent of the Institution, Colonel Grayson,
he is now engaged in prosecuting his researches, but intends to return
in the spring and proceed to Kodiak, where he will probably remain
for a year, collecting specimens and exploring the country. It is
proper to mention that he was also provided with a free passage to
Mazatlan, through the kindness of Mr. Halliday, on the vessels of the
Mexican, Oregon, and California line.

It was known that the Institution had for several years been dili-
gently engaged in gathering specimens and collecting information to
illustrate the character of the northwest portion of the American conti-
nent, and consequently, when the question of the acquisition of Alaska
by the United States came under discussion, it was to the Institution
that reference was chiefly made by the State Department and the Sen-
ate for information in regard to the country. Two of our collaborators,
then on a visit to the Institution, Mr. Henry Bannister, who had spent
a year in Norton Sound, and Mr. Bischoff, who had passed the same
length of time at Sitka, were called upon to give evidence before the
Committee on Foreign Relations, and were, in effect, the only persons
examined who were acquainted with the region from personal observa-
tion. Professor Baird also gave valuable information as to the zoology
of the country, from the materials which had previously been collected
by the Institution.

For the purpose of obtaining additional information relative to the
new Territory of Alaska, an expedition was organized by the Treas-
ury Department, under the charge of Captain W. A. Howard of the
revenue service, and, at the request of the Secretary of the Treasury,
instructions for research into the physical and natural history of the
country were furnished by the Smithsonian Institution. The expedi-
tion left San Francisco on the revenue steamer Lincoln, under command
of Captain T. W. White, during the summer of 1867, and spent several
monthsin its explorations. It was accompanied by a special party
from the Coast Survey under charge of Mr. George B. Davidson, who
has since communicated a valuable memoir on the country to the
Superintendent of the Coast Survey, which has been printed by Con-
gress. Important collections in natural history and efhnology have

44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

been supplied to the Institution by Captains Howard and White,
and Mr. Davidson.

The officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company, especially at posts in
the Mackenzie river district, have continued during the past year to
make contributions in the way of information and specimens. Prom-
inent among these may be mentioned, as in previous years, Mr. R.
McFarlane of Fort Anderson, to whom we are indebted for an almost
exhaustive collection of materials from the Arctic coast; Messrs. James
Lockhart, Strachan Jones, C. P. Gaudet, W. Brass, J. and A. Flett,
R. McDonald, J. McDougall, and James Sibbiston. To Mr. B. R.
Ross the Institution owes a valuable contribution from Hudson's bay,
embracing the first specimens of a large bird, the bernicla leucopsis,
known to have been found in North America. It is intended to
embody the result of the observations of our correspondents in Arctic
America in a memoir, which will form an interesting addition to the
ethnology, natural history and physical geography of the country.

It may be said to the honor of the officers of the Hudson’s Bay and
Northwest Companies, that though secluded for years from civilized
society, they manifest in general no want of interest in subjects which
pertain to a wide range of human culture; and it may be claimed on
the other hand for the Smithsonian Institution, that it has been not
slightly efficient in enlivening their isolated and monotonous life by
the incitements and facilities it has afforded them for the study and
observation of the phenomena and objects of nature.

Mr. Donald Gunn, our veteran correspondent in the Red River set-
tlement, has made, at our request, an expedition to the lakes west of
Lake Winnipeg, and obtained some rare and valuable specimens not
previously in our collection. An account of his journey is given in
the appendix to this report, and will, we doubt not, be read with inter-
est, if only as the production of a man who has spent his life far
removed from the centres of refined civilization.

Among the collections received through the telegraph expedi-
tion was a valuable series of specimens gathered on the northern
end of Vancouver’s island by Mr. A. W. Heisen, an American resi-
dent, these being the first ever received from that region.

Western America.—Mr. J. G. Swan, of Neaah Bay, Washington
Territory, whom we have mentioned as favoring the Institution with
an interesting memoir on the Makah Indians, has continued his valua-
ble contribution of marine animals and ethnological specimens. Ex-
tensive series of marine invertebrates and eggs of birds have been
received from Dr. P. A. Canfield, of Monterey, and Dr. Cooper has
furnished some rare eggs and nests. The remainder of a large col-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45

lection made by Dr. Coues in the vicinity of Prescott, Arizona, has
also come to hand. Reports forming valuable contributions to the
general natural history of the Territory have been published by Dr.
Coues in the proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural
Sciences, and in the American Naturalist, based on the specimens in
the Smithsonian collection. Dr. HE. Palmer, formerly associated with
Dr. Coues in collecting in the vicinity of Prescott, and devoting
himself while there especially to the plants and insects, has since
spent some time in southern Arizona at Camp Grant, and procured
copious collections in all branches of natural history, as well as full
series of objects made or used by the Apache Indians, which he
has presented to the Institution.

Interior mountain regions.—-Dr. C. Wernigk has made explorations
in Colorado and Montana, and presented specimens to the Institution
for determination and addition to the collections.

During the summer of 1867, Dr. F. V. Hayden was engaged in a
geological survey of Nebraska, under the direction of the Commis-
sioner of the Lanéd Office, and made extensive collections of fossils and
other specimens, which Mr. Meek, of the Institution, is now engaged
in determining. Dr. Minor, of the Winnebago reserve, has supplied
many specimens of ethnology and zoology. To Mr. Allan Mudge and
Dr. Crocker, of Kansas, we are also indebted for important contri-
butions from the last-named State, During the past year an explo-
ration of the geology of the region along the 40th parallel of latitude,
and eastward from California, was authorized by Congress at the
request of the War Department, and the expedition was placed by
the Secretary of War under the charge of Mr. Clarence King, who,
for several years, had been the assistant of Professor Whitney in the
geological survey of California. On application by Mr. King, the
Institution took charge of the preparation of the natural history outfit
of the expedition, made arrangements to receive all its collections, and
to give such necessary facilities for working up the results as are
usually afforded to the scientific parties of the government. Besides
the regular assistants, Mr. King is accompanied by Mr. Robert Ridg-
way as zoologist, and Mr. Bailey as botanist. The collections already
received are of much interest. The labors of the survey have so far
been devoted to the examination of the celebrated Comstock lode
of Nevada.

astern and Southern States.—Collections of more or less extent
have been received from various contributors east of the Mississippi
river, which will be found detailed in the list of donations. Dr. H.
B. Butcher has completed his explorations in the vicinity of Laredo,

46 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Texas, and has furnished a series of specimens, of which the collec-
tion of birds is especially valuable as throwing light on the distribu-
tion of species.

West Indies.—In connection with explorations in the West Indies,
the Smithsonian Institution has to deplore the loss of Dr. Henry
Bryant, of Boston, one of its most highly prized coadjutors in the
work of American explorations. Not alone did he freely contribute
of his abundant means, but he gave his personal services indefat-
igably to the extension of knowledge in the field of natural history.
In both these respects the Institution had enjoyed his uniform
co-operation as it shared the fruits of his successful labors. These
labors had been principally conducted in Labrador, and on the Gulf
of St. Lawrence, in Florida, in the Bahamas, in Cuba, and in Jamaica;
and it was while pursuing his researches in Porto Rico that he met
with an untimely death, occasioned probably by excessive exertion
in an insalubrious climate. He died 2d January, 1867, at the lit-
tle village of Arecibo, in the last-named island. Dr. Bryant contem-
plated a memoir on the birds of the West Indies, and was, at the
time of his death, engaged in the. prosecution of this object. His
entire collection of the birds of the West Indies has been intrusted
to Prof. Baird for determination, and after this has been effected itis
the design of Mrs. Bryant to present a series of each species to the
principal museums at home and abroad, in conformity with the in-
tention of her lamented husband.

From Jamaica collections have been sent by Mr. W. T. March, in
continuation of many previous contributions, and from Cuba by Mr.
Bishop. Mr. A. EH. Younglove spent several months in Hayti, and
obtained a valuable series of birds and reptiles, embracing several
new species. Mr. EH. M. Allen, United States consul at Bermuda,
has also given attention to the birds and marine animals of the islands,
and has sent specimens.

Towards the close of the year an appropriation was made fora
special exploration relative to the geology of the island of Petite
Anse, in the Gulf of Mexico, near Vermillion bay, and the adjoining
region, by Professor E. W. Hilgard, of the University of Mississippi.
The immediate inducement for this exploration was the discovery of
a stratum of rock salt on this island, together with the remains of
extinct animals associated with specimens of human industry. The
exploration was commenced too late in the season to be fully prosecuted.
The weather, however, proved unusually favorable, the sugar-cane
having bloomed on the Louisiana coast for the first time in 27 years.
The exploration suggested many new questions, which can only be

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AT

answered by further investigation. The following is an abstract of
the results already obtained :

“ The Port Hudson deposit described by Carpenter, Lyell, and others,
is the cypress swamp equivalent of the ‘ bluff formation,’ just as the
existing cypress swamps correspond to the Mississippi alluvium. The
three islands, (out of the chain of five,) which were examined, con-
sist of outliers of ‘orange sand,’ which has resisted denudation;
on and around which, strata precisely similar to those of Port Hud-
son have subsequently been deposited. The rock-salt of Petite
Anse island underlies the orange sand, and is, therefore, anterior to
the drift, and it may probably be reached at points much higher
above tide level than has been supposed, obviating the chief diffi-
culty (that of drainage) heretofore experienced in working the
deposit, the lowest part of which only has thus far been explored.
While the precise position of the deposit, as regards the inferior
formations, cannot now be determined, the results of the boring of the
New Orleans artesian well render the conclusion almost unavoidable,
in view of the absence of all signs of disturbance on the coast, that
the salt deposit is of an age corresponding to that of the strata pen-
etrated in this boring, which there is reason to believe are post-ter-
tiary. Apart from all these comparatively ancient deposits, the entire
delta is underlaid at or near tide levels by a cypress swamp deposit,
as it would seem, of later date ; and beneath these, as well as the
more ancient deposits of a similar nature, there are beds of gravel of
a composition similar to that of the main or Mississippi branch of the
great stream of the orange sand epoch, which here appears to have
divided into two branches, one reaching the gulf in the region of
Vermillion bay, the other on or near the Sabine. Important
information was obtained concerning the formations of northern Lou-
isiana, which, while of course corresponding in general to those of
Mississippi, differ so far as to promise a ready determination of
the age of the grand gulf groups, which thus far remains in doubt,
notwithstanding that those groups cover nearly half of the State of
Mississippi, filling the space between the eocene and postpleiocene
deposits. All that is known of it, is, that during its formation, palms
flourished on the borders of an immense lake or everglade, which
either bordered, or itself represented, the present gulf of Mexico.
After what has been observed in Louisiana, there is less difficulty
in accounting for the total absence of animal fossils from this forma-
tion in Mississippi.’’ But the problem to be solved regarding its age,
extent, and relations to the eocene and quaternary shores of the gulf
is one of so much interest that while in Louisiana Mr. Hilgard was

A8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

impressed with the importance of a more extended exploration than
was at first contemplated, which, starting from the northern border
of the marine eocene, above Vicksburg, should proceed diagonally
across to the locality where petroleum has been found on the bor-
ders of Texas. So great was the interest manifested in regard to
these matters wherever he went in Louisiana, that, were the affairs
of the country at all settled, he has no doubt it would be easy to pro-
cure an appropriation or even subscription for the purpose.

Mexico.—The regular correspondents of the Institution in this
country have continued their co-operation. Colonel Grayson, of
Mazatlan, has furnished specimens from the vicinity of that city,
and from other points in Western Mexico. At the joint expense of
the Smithsonian Institution and the Boston Society of Natural History,
he visited, last spring, the island of Socorro, one of the Revilligideo
group, some hundreds of miles southwest of Cape San Lucas, and
made an exploration of its natural history, obtaining several new
species of birds. Returning via San Blas, he met with a severe loss
in that city by the death of his son, the companion of his scientific
labors, who was murdered by some unknown persons. The result of
Colonel Grayson’s investigations will shortly be published in the pro-
ceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History.

Professor Sumichrast and Mr. Botteri, of Orizaba, and Dr. Sarto-
rious, of Mirador, have continued their valuable contributions, the
Jatter gentleman in addition furnishing meteorological records.

Central America.—The collaborators in this part of the continent
still continue active. From Guatemala Mr. Henry Hague has sent
large collections of birds and mammals, and Dr. Van Patten, of ver-
tebrata generally. From Costa Rica, the contributions of Dr. A. Von
Frantzius, Mr. Endres, José Zeledon, and Mr. Juan Cooper embrace
ample series in certain branches of zoology, while Mr. F. Lehmann
has furnished an interesting collection of fossils and minerals.

The last of the collections made in Yucatan by Dr. Arthur Schott,
during the exploration of that country instituted by Governor Salazar,
have reached the Institution, and with the first portions received,
furnish an excellent idea of the natural history of the northern part
of the peninsula, the southern part of which will be illustrated by
Dr. Berendt’s researches.

As mentioned in a preceding report, Dr. H. Berendt, who has
been many years one of our collaborators, undertook an exploration of
the little-known interior of the Peninsula of Yucatan, under the
auspices of the Institution, and at the expense partly of subscrip-
tions by various societies and individuals. He first passed up the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49

. Balize river, and thence to the region about Lake Peten, where he
remained until the summer of 1867, making collections in natural
history, and prosecuting researches in anthropology and geography.
He visited the United States towards the end of the year, but will
return shortly to Guatemala to complete his labors and to bring back
his extensive collections.

An important collection of antiquities has been presented by the
Hon. C. N. Riotte, late United States minister to Costa Rica. Mr.
Geo. N. Lawrence, of New York, a collaborator of the Institution, is
at present occupied in preparing a catalogue of the birds of Costa
Rica, based chiefly upon the Smithson collection, which will prob-
ably include 500 species. To Dr. Von Frantzius the acknowledgments
of the Institution are especially due for his valuable scientific cor-
respondence and intelligent aid and supervision in conducting the
explorations of the Institution in his adopted country.

Mr. Hardiman, of San Salvador, has contributed the first collection
of birds received from that country. Mr. Osbert Salvin has presented
aseries of the birds of Veragua, collected by his correspondent,
Mr. Arcé. Dr. Kluge, of Aspinwall, and Captain J. M. Dow, of
Panama, have also continued their aid. The services of the latter in
attending to the interests of the Smithsonian Institution on the Isth-
mus of Panama and the west coast of Central America, in issuing
supplies, receiving and forwarding collections, &c., are of great value,
and deserve the special acknowledgments of the Board of Regents.

South America.—The principal exploration inSouth America under
the auspices of the Institution has been that of Prof. James Orton,
of Rochester University, undertaken especially in the interest of the
Lyceum of Natural History of Williams College, Massachusetts.
The Institution lent the scientific instruments, supplied a considerable
portion of the outfit, and took charge of the transportation and recep-
tion of the collections. Two parties were organized. The one under
the immediate direction of Prof. Orton proceeded to Guayaquil via
Panama, the other under Mr. W. B. Gilbert went to Venezuela. The
party under Prof. Orton, after remaining some time at Guayaquil,
where most of them were taken sick with yellow fever, finally arrived
at Quito. Here they had the misfortune to lose one of their mem-
bers, Colonel Phineas Stanton, a gentleman of many accomplish-
ments, who volunteered to accompany the expedition as an amateur
artist. After exploring in Pechincha and other localities on the
plateau of Ecuador, they crossed to the head-waters of the Amazon,
descending by Marafion to Para, and thence returned home. The

48 67

50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Venezuela division prosecuted their researches for a time in the
district of Caraccas, and then returned via the Orinoco river. All
the collections of both parties have been sent to the Institution
for identification, and have been distributed for that purpose among
the naturalists of the country.

A collection principally of birds and butterflies, made in the neigh-
borhood of Bogota, was conveyed to the Institution through the
attentive care of Hon. A. A. Burton, late United States minister.
Many of the species are new as regards that locality. From Chile there
has been received a collection, nearly complete, of birds prepared and
determined by Prof. A. R. Phillippi, Director of the National Museum
at Santiago. The series is of special value as containing types of
many of the new species described by Prof. Phillippi and his asso-
ciate, Dr. Landbeck.

-An important Smithsonian exploration has been made during the
last year in the Province of Buenos Ayres by Mr. W. H. Hudson,
who has transmitted large collections of birds, which have been
referred to Mr. P. L. Sclater and Mr. Osbert Salvin. of London, for
examination, these gentlemen having been especially occupied in
the stndy of South American birds. Mr. A. de Lacerda, of Bahia,
has continued his valued contributions from that portion of Brazil.

With the exception of the Russian telegraph expedition at Plover
bay, and on the Asiatic side of Behring’s straits, the explorations we
have enumerated have been confined to the American continent and
its islands. This is in accordance with a settled policy of the Insti-
tution, to the effect that the natural and physical history of the Old
World shall be relinquished to the explorers of Europe.

The following remarks by George Bentham, esq., president of the
Linnean Society of London, present the scientific importance of
explorations in this country in so clear a light that I may be
excused for quoting them at letigth: ‘‘The peculiar condition
of the North American continent requires imperatively that its
physical and biological statistics should be accurately collected
and authentically recorded, and that this should be speedily done.
Vast tracts of land are still in what may be called almost a
primitive state, unmodified by the effects of civilization, uninhab-
ited, or tenanted only by the remnants of ancient tribes, whose
unsettled life never exercised much influence over the natural pro-
ductions of the country. But this state of things is rapidly passing
away: the invasion and steady progress of a civilized population,
while changing generally the face of nature, is obliterating many of
the evidences of a former state of things. The larger races of wild

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51

animals are dwindling down, like the aboriginal inhabitants, under
the deadly influence of civilized man. Myriads of the lower orders
of animal life, as well as of plants, disappear with the destruction of
forests, the drainage of swamps, and the gradual spread of cultiva-
tion, and their places are occupied by foreign invaders. Other races,
no doubt, without actually disappearing, undergo a gradual change
under the new order of things, which, if perceptible only in the
course of successive generations, require so much the more for future
proof an accurate record of their state in the still unsettled condition
of the country. In the Old World almost every attempt to compare
the present state of vegetation or animal life with that which existed
in uncivilized times is in a great measure frustrated by the absolute
want of evidence as to that former state ; but in North America the
change is going forward, as it were, close under the eye of the observer.
This consideration may one day give great value to the reports of the
naturalists sent by the government, as we have seen, at the instance
of the Smithsonian Institution and other promoters of science, to
accompany the surveys of new territories.”’

The total number of contributors to the collections of the Institution
in 1867 was 163. The total number of primary boxes or packages
received was 320. The general character of these additions will be
learned from the table at the end of the report; they vary from
single specimens to boxes filled witha variety of objects, the latter
being far the most numerous. Among the most important may be
mentioned the collections of the Russian telegraph expedition, those
of Dr. Butcher, of Mr. Carmiol, of Colonel Grayson, of Professor
Sumichrast, of Dr. Hayden, of Mr. Hudson, and of Dr. Palmer.

To the Zoological Garden of Hamburg, Dr. W. H. Sigel, director,
the Institution is indebted for the present of a number of European
house sparrows, which had been asked for with the view of natural-
izing them in Washington and vicinity, in order to secure the aid of
these nimble and voracious birds in ridding the fruit and shade trees
of this region from noxious insects. Although 300 were embarked,
only five reached the Institution (in August last) alive. These were
immediately liberated and have remained in the proximity of the
building during the winter. For further notice of these sparrows see
general correspondence.

The Institution is indebted to Mr. T. A. Randall, of Warren, Pa.,
for a large number of living menopoma allegheniensis from the Allegheny
river. Such of these as survived were sent to several of the Zoologi-
cal Gardens of Europe, and others will probably be transmitted in the
ensuing spring.

52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Investigations. —As in previous years, the natural history material
collected by the Smithsonian Institution has been freely distributed
to special investigators for examination and description, among whom
are the following:

Thomas Bland, New York ; univalve shells from Mexico ard Bogota.
D. E. R. Beadle, Philadelphia ; shells of various portions of the globe.
Dr. T. M. Brewer, Boston ; nests and eggs of North American birds,
to be included in Part 2, North American Oology. Dr. P. P. Carpen-
ter, Montreal ; mounted chitons and British shells, shells of Puget
Sound, Santa Barbara, California, and Nicaragua. John Cassin,
Philadelphia; all the Icteride, Rhamphastide, and Trogonide of the
Smithsonian collection, for monographing; birds collected in Ecuador,
and on the Upper Amazon. Professor E. D. Cope, Philadelphia ; rep-
tiles from Mexico, New Grenada, Navassa, Vancouver island, Sitka,
&c.; entire Smithsonian collection of salamanders for a monograph ;
recent and fossil bones of cetaceans and saurians. Dr. Elliot Coues,
U. 8. A., Columbia, 8S. C.; entire Smithsonian collection of alcide
for a monograph. Thomas Davidson, London ; types of fossils for
comparison. W. H. Edwards, Newburgh, N. Y.; lepidoptera of
Mexico, Colombia, and western North America. D. G. Elhot, New
York ; North American birds to be figured in his work on Birds of
America. Professor T. Egleston, New York; specimens of minerals
from various parts of the world. John Gould, London ; types of new
and rare species of humming birds, described by Mr. Lawrence, from
the collection of the Smithsonian Institution. George N. Lawrence,
New York; various collections of humming birds, and geueral col-
lections of birds of Costa Rica, Bogota, and western Mexico. Isaac
Lea, Philadelphia; unionidee from various portions of North America.
Dr. Joseph Leidy, Philadelphia ; fossil remains of vertebrata from
Colorado, &c. F. B. Meek, Washington ; invertebrate fossils, from
Nebraska, &c. Lewis H. Morgan, New York; skulls of American
and European beaver. Baron R. Ostensacken; diptera of Mexico,
&c., insect galls from Plover bay, Northeast Siberia. Tryon Reak-
irt, Philadelphia; lepidoptera of Colombia. Dr. I. T. Rothrock;
plants collected in Russian America. §.H. Scudder, Boston ; orthop-
tera of Mexico and other parts of North America. Dr. W. Stimpson,
Chicago; marine invertebrata collected by Ferd. Bischoff, W. H.
Dall and others, on the northwest coast of North America. Dr. P.
L. Sclater, London ; collection of birds made about Conelutas, Buenos
Ayres, by W. H. Hudson. Dr. John Torrey, New York ; collections
of plants of various parts of the world. P. R. Uhler, Baltimore ;
hemiptera of Mexico and America generally. Dr. H. C. Wood, jr.,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53

Philadelphia ; general collections of myriapoda. Professor Jeffries
Wyman, Cambridge ; skulls of Pacific coast Indians. The insects have
been sent to the Entomological Society of Philadelphia to be iden-
tified and preserved.

Professor Baird has continued, as other duties would permit, his
investigations in regard to the birds of America, of which 450 pages
have already been printed, under the title of ‘‘ Review of American
Birds in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution.’’ The object of
this work is to define the absolute and comparative characters of the
birds of America, and especially to trace with minute detail their
distribution during the breeding season, and the extent and character
of their migrations. He has also been engaged in digesting and col-
lating for publication by the Institution the mass of original notes
contributed by Mr. Kennicott, Mr. MacFarlane, Mr. Ross, and others,
relative to the natural history of the regions north of the United
States, which are believed to embody much original information.

The records of the Institution have also been largely drawn upon
for materials required by part 2 of the North American Oology of
Dr. Brewer. As explained in previous reports, the object of this work
also is to present, in addition to the description of the nests and eggs
of the species, a complete account of their habits and geographical
distribution during the breeding season.

For the promotion of these objects, circulars and pamphlets con-
taining the necessary instruction to collectors have been issued for
several years past, and large returns obtained, which will greatly
extend our present knowledge. The notes containing information
attached to the specimens received by the Institution have been
carefully transcribed, and systematically arranged, so as to supply
conveniently any information required on the subjects referred to.

In all cases in which specimens have been presented or lent to
investigators for facilitating their researches, or enabling them to
pursue certain lines of investigation, it is required that full credit for
the favor conferred, as far as the facts may justify it, shall be given
to the Institution by the authors in their resulting publications. In
most cases this recognition has been fully complied with, but in a
few we are sorry to say the acknowledgments have not been of the
character or extent to which the Institution was entitled.

The distribution of the duplicate specimens of the collections has
been carried on as rapidly as practicable during the year. The most
important series sent off have consisted of skins and eggs of arctic birds,
skins of mammals, shells, minerals, and ethnological specimens. The

04 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

minerals were arranged and labelled for the purpose by Professor
Egleston, the shells by Dr. P. P. Carpenter, the ethnological objects
by Dr. E. Foreman. As the collections generally become reduced to
order, identified, and duplicates eliminated, further distributions will
will take place. According to the account of Professor Baird, nearly
\@ quarter of a million of different specimens have thus been sent
away to places where they are likely to be of use. It should be
borne in mind that in nearly every instance these specimens had pre-
viously been identified and labelled by the highest authorities, and
in fact served as types or standards of special reference.

The foregoing account of the disposition of the specimens collected
by the Institution will serve to illustrate the spirit and policy of the
establishment, as well as the working of the system of active opera-
tions in its relation to the advancement of natural history. The
same policy, but with more efficiency, would be continued, were Con-
gress to take charge of the museum, or make separate provision for
its maintenance.

Besides the investigations in the line of natural history, several
others have been commenced, at the charge and under the direction
of the Institution and are still in progress. George Gibbs, esq., has
been engaged in collating and arranging for publication all the Indian
vocabularies which have been collected by the Institution. An
appropriation has been made for a systematic exploration of mounds
and ancient remains in certain localities, of which an account will be
given in the next report. As is seen under the head of meteorology,
the labors of Mr. Schott have been continued in the reduction and
discussion of observations. An appropriation has been made to assist
Prof. Wm. Ferrel in a series of investigations relative to the tides;
and another to Prof. Newcomb, of the National Observatory, to defray
the expense of numerical calculations for his discussion of the obser-
vations of the planet Neptune. The Secretary, in connection with
General Poe, of the Light-house Board, devoted a part of his summer
vacation to investigations in regard to the penetration of sound, in
its relation to fog-signals. The remainder of the same vacation, as
well asa considerable amount of other time, was devoted to the
examination of subjects referred to him by the government, as pre-
siding officer of the National Academy of Sciences.

In addition to the collaborators in natural history already mentioned,
the Institution during the past year has been favored with the gratui-
tous services of a number of other gentlemen in reporting upon ques-
tions proposed for solution,in examining memoirs, and in the prepara-
tion of articles for the report. Among these may be mentioned Prof.

REPORT CF THE SECRETARY. 55

G.J. Brush, of Yale College; Dr. Gray, of Harvard; Profs. Newcomb
and Harkness, of the Naval Observatory: Drs. Woodward and Craig,
of the Surgeon General’s Office; Prof. Schaeffer and Mr. Taylor, of
the Patent Office; Mr. Gibbs, of Washington; Mr. C. Rau, of New
York; Prof. Chace, of Brown University.

National Museum.—Much time has necessarily been consumed dur-
ing the past year in repairing the damage sustained by the specimens
and the gallery of exhibition in consequence of the conflagration of
the upper part of the building in 1865. The defective state of the
temporary roof permitted a large amount of moisture to enter the
walls, which kept the hall in a constant state of dampness, covering
the specimens with mould. The entire collection has, however, been
examined, dried, and cleaned; the shelves and the interior of the
cases, with the stands of the specimens, whitened; the ceilings and
walls frescoed, and new paint applied to most of the woodwork.

The most important work connected with the museum has been the
labelling and preliminary arrangement of the extensive collection of
ethnological objects, and the separation of the duplicates. All the
collections of vertebrata as received have been catalogued and put in
place; many osteological specimens cleaned; bottles of alcoholic speci-
mens washed, &c. The labelling and registering of the collection has
been continued as rapidly as possible, 13,221 entries having been
made during the year.

This museum is principally made up of the type specimens of the
collections made by the various expeditions organized by the govern-
ment, as well as those projected and supported by the Smithsonian
Institution itself, and owes but little to donations, and still less to
purchases. There is, however, a large debt due the Institution from
foreign museums, in the way of exchange, which we have no doubt will
be cheerfully discharged as soon as they are informed that Congress
has made provision for the support of a museum on a more extended
scale than that which the Smithsonian is able to maintain. Besides
the increase of the museum from the addition of type specimens
derived from the various collections examined and described during
the year, a number of foreign donations have been received, among
which are specimens of the products of the iron mines and man-
ufactures of Sweden, presented by Hon. G. V. Fox, late Assistant
Secretary of the Navy, and from the same donor large and beautiful
specimens of graphite from eastern Siberia, both rough and wrought,
as well as exemplifications of the rocks associated with it.

It may be recollected that when the government museum was
transferred to the Institution, it was stipulated that an appropriation

56 ’' REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

should be annually made for it in this new depository, equivalent to
the cost of its support while in the Patent Office; and the appropria-
tion for this purpose had been limited until the last session of Congress
to the sum of $4,000. But this sum, on account of the rapid increase
of the collections and the great advance in prices, is not now nearly
sufficient even for the preservation of the specimens, to say nothing
of the equitable claim which the Institution might rightfully advance
for interest on the money which it has expended in providing the
accommodations for this museum. It is but just to say that, in view
of the peculiar condition of our affairs, the appropriation was, last
year, temporarily increased to $10,000; but even were this con-
tinued, it would be still quite inadequate to the suitable maintenance
of a national museum.

National Library.—The transfer of the library of the Institution to
the care of Congress, authorized in 1866, was completed during the
last year. The reasons for making this transfer were given in full
in the last report, but it may be proper briefly to recapitulate some
of the leading points.

First. The collection and support of a large library is not in strict
conformity with the will of Smithson, as now generally interpreted.

Second. The whole of the income would in time not be more than
sufficient to meet the wants of a rapidly growing library, the tendency
being to absorb more and more of the funds with the increase of the
number of the books, and hence even a library adequate to the wants
of the various departments of government can only be properly
supported by the appropriations of Congress. The government has
already commenced such a library, and even if there were no objec-
tions to expending the income of the bequest of Smithson in the pur-
chase of books and the maintenance of a library, it would be unneces-
sary to establish two libraries in such close proximity.

Third. By combining the two libraries in one, the expense of
accommodation, of care and of management will be much diminished,
and a greater facility as to consulting the works afforded.

Fourth. The portion of the Smithsonian building in which the library
was deposited is not fire-proof, and was filled to overflowing, while fur-
ther accommodations and protection could not be afforded without
encroachment on the funds which had been set apart as the perma-
nent capital.

Fifth. By the terms of the transfer, the cataloguing, binding, and
entire care and management of the books are at the expense of the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 57

government, and consequently an important portion of the income is
made available for active operations.

Sixth. The transfer has furthermore tended to awaken an interest
in the library of Congress, which cannot fail to render it, under
the energetic superintendence of the librarian, Mr. Spofford, worthy
of the nation. At the last session of Congress an appropriation of
$100,000 was made for the purchase of the library of Mr. Peter Force,
consisting of books relating to America, and: with these additions the
library of Congress is the largest in the United States,* and may even
now with propriety be denominated, as we have ventured to call it,
the National Library.

By the law authorizing the transfer, the Institution is at liberty to
draw any books it may require for its use either from its own collec-
tion or from those of Congress. It is proposed, as soon as the
regents’ room is properly provided with cases, to keep in the Institu-
tion such books as are most frequently required for consultation in its
operations, and fortunately a considerable number of these are dupli-
cates in the two libraries.

Seventh. The books transferred to the National Library are in
many cases such as could not be obtained by purchase, and are pres-
ents to the-Institution from the old libraries of Europe, consisting of
transactions and other publications of learned societies, forming a
special collection not only ranking first in this country, but one of the
best in the world.

Neither is it the value of the books already transferred which is to
be considered, but also the perpetual increase of the several series of
scientific transactions in their continuations from year to year which
are regularly supplied in exchange for the publications of the Insti-
tution.

The collections of transactions of societies contain the record of
the actual progress of the world in all that essentially pertains to the
mental and physical development of the human family, and as it has
been the aim of the Smithsonian Institution from the first to establish
exchanges with all societies of this character, the list of those now
in the national library includes, with scarcely any important excep-
tion, the whole series of the world, and affords tne means therefore of
tracing the history of at least every branch of positive science since
the days of the revival of letters until the present time.

The use of this library for the purpose of research will soon be
much facilitated and its treasures brought more generally into requi-

*In January, 1868, it contained 165,467 volumes.

58 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

sition by the publication of the classified index of all the physical
papers in the transactions of learned societies and in scientific peri-
odicals which has been in course of preparation for the last ten years
by the Royal Society of London, and of which the printing of the first
volume has just been completed. It may be recollected that the
preparation of this index resulted from a letter addressed to the Brit-
ish Association in 1855, by the Secretary of this Institution, setting
forth the advantages to science of such a work, that the matter was
referred to a committee of the Association, reported favorably upon,
and recommended for execution to the Royal Society. As soon as
this work is published copies will be procured by the principal libra-
ries and institutions in this country. Any person, then, desiring to
investigate a special point in any branch of science, will be able to
find a reference to the transactions, journals or proceedings in which
it is contained ; and as the most perfect set of these is to be found in
the National Library, it will become a centre of information on scien-
tific subjects. It may also be remarked that the National Library is
now accessible to all persons during every week-day in the year, with
the exception of one month devoted to cleaning and arranging.

In the arrangement of the compound library the principal part of
the Smithson collection, that is, the scientific transactions, will forma
department by itself in which works of asimilar character previously
belonging to the library of Congress will be incorporated, while the
miscellaneous books of the Institution will be arranged with the works
of a similar class already in that library. A complete catalogue of
all the transactions belonging to the Smithson library up to 1866 was
prepared and published by the Institution, and a general catalogue
of the whole National Library is now in the press, in which the books
of the Institution are designated by the letter—S.

Some idea may be formed of the value of the annual contributions
from the exchanges of the Institution, when it is mentioned that it
includes the publications of 1,081 sccieties, besides large donations
from governments, libraries, and individuals, and that these publica-
tions are principally of a very expensive character, illustrated by
costly engravings and in many cases by colored plates. The following
is a statement of the number of establishments in different parts of
the world which have contributed to the Smithson library, and which
it is expected will continue their contributions from year to year for
an indefinite period.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59

Number of societies sending their publications in exchange to the Smithsonian

Institution.

Germany Sra aiets otarore) ace are Sisk) oA Mevcinel feheyswomiaioww. pace 4006 4
Great Britainand Ireland-- 194 Chile----- +--+ ee. eeeeee 4
HTanGe pcre wecioce saws ae 113 Portugal ---+..-+- .s.. ae. . 3
United States.-».-.. Ave onevore 100 Turkey eMetaiete eraiscts « solvates 3
Italy Mee one) «sole! lor sls) of eis) ohe TO? SWiaWENGlIG - cero s.s eres cel cies cre 9
Holland .-.--.. Giese) eialat ely «= AS ALEIGd ere a ssc es Seis e ele e's ¢ 2
Russia +++ + sesso cece cece Hh nia anon kate AE Re ee 2
SWIOZOEIAHG « cce ccc tcaen ee et EST AZ I teretchal fe e) eh ercletavederate'ere 9
Canada; ies owes so eeeee 20 Greece eereee secre eevcee 1
Belgium Mer etetenerhe sie erat eer ste: 6 19 Egypt Nearateteretalc scree ereteres 1
WATISEFAIIA. ce cess vavs sees 15 Bogota -..+ «++... eceeee 1
Wentariscscice ce ce c= cece 13 Buenos Ayres+--+++- .-0e- i.
SWC ac cs > ciodat ravetsiar ets AIM Gat ere site) ernie lel si aterarore 1
WIMCGST AM os|velele 1 cls'e 6 6.0 «4 [ee WesciGo ses are'scters oetstalisre i
Norway -+++++ sees eaiele GO) MP riNTGaGl + sist -otele eve o wiale. « aie a
Spall sss. seecwccceons i

Cuba eeceeee ceeeee coeees 6 Making in all ceee aeee 1,081

To the list of correspondents during the past year we may add the
Institute of Egypt, founded at Alexandria, in 1859, from which we
have received the first volume of its transactions and several numbers
of its proceedings. These works form, as it were, an epoch in the
history of modern civilization, which, originally cradled in the valley
of the Nile, now returns, after having changed the condition of
western Europe, to the place of its birth, destined, we trust. to rouse
from its long apathy ‘‘the country in which Pythagoras courted
wisdom and Herodotus unveiled the sources of history.’’ <A library
and collections have been formed, which are rapidly increasing, and
which even now it is stated are capable of rendering essential service
to the explorers of the valley of the Nile. Although the French lan-
guage has been adopted for the reports and also for correspondence
between the members of the society and the learned institutions of
the west and east, yet the contributions of authors are presented in
their original form and style, and hence the present volume includes
memoirs in French, Italian, Greek, and Arabic, with illustrations in
the hieroglyphic, Coptic, and Hebrew. To some of these memoirs,
explanations, rather than strict translations, are appended.

60 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The following is a statement of the books, maps and charts received
by exchange, in 1867, and deposited in the National Library:
Volumes:

Mctanio meetin SE COOGEE SAOGOs Sho oob0 D466 1,088
Quarto ---+ seeks Anan oe sicleisiciche sieleletetebercisisre 383
IMO coo6 GGd086 Bicictassienelolei<Melelatedelelalsiefsieleit<Talets 86
1,55%
Parts of volumes and pamphlets:
(CBW) G60 Dobos ones da00dn ccccee coaceecee- 2,689
Quarto --- + cose coecee cece cone ccceee eocces 1,057
TANG) aisreia. we iece exes oueleie n/a) sjele'sjel isle = ekelotalelimininvelace 200
3,946
Maps and charts «-+e«e-. slarsteraveiitelela ele sini ieisnslaieieyeleici Siateta etetets 328
Total receipts ----+> Set ais oc ats ARH EER AA nS ood: 5,831

Among the more interesting additions to the library during the
year is the work of Dr. Hochstetter, on New Zealand. This gentle-
man was one of the scientific corps of the celebrated Austrian explor-
ing expedition on board the Novara, and when the vessel arrived in
New Zealand, he was left, at the request of the governor of the colony,
to make a geological exploration of the islands. The results of his
labors are embodied in a special work, which conveys a great amount
of information relative to the geography and natural history of the
country. Originally published in the German language, an English
translation has appeared in Stuttgardt, made by Mr. Edward Sauter,
of Little Rock, Arkansas, to whom we are indebted for a copy of the
work.

But perhaps the most valuable donation received during the past
year is that from Hon. G. V. Fox, late Assistant Secretary of the
Navy, through the Department of State. It consists of articles pre-
sented to him on the occasion of his recent visit to Russia as the bearer
to the Emperor of a resolution of Congress congratulating his Majesty
on his escape from assassination. They embrace 179 volumes, finely
bound, many in quarto and large octavo ; 15 atlases and albums,
some ‘‘eagle,’’ others ‘‘elephant’’ folio size, all bound in cloth or
morocco ; 72 maps, some in covers and cases ; 4 city plans, in cases,
and 12 pamphlets—making in all 283 pieces, illustrating the physi-
cal geography, ethnology, and resources of the Russian empire.
The character of this gift will be properly appreciated when it is
stated that, by a joint resolution of Congress, Mr. Fox was author-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61

ized to accept these books as additions to his own library, but, with
commendable liberality, he has presented them to the Smithsonian
Institution, to form part of the collections deposited in the National
Library. They are principally in the French and Russian languages,
and we have availed ourselves of the services of Mr. H. H. Kalusow-
ski, of the Treasury Department, for the means of access to a knowl-
edge of their rich contents.

The following are also some of the larger donations received in
1867:

Riksbiblioteket, Stockholm, 44 volumes.

Bergeurk Museum, Bergen, Norway, 8 volumes and 7 pamphlets.

Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, 11 volumes and 16
pamphlets, completing some of the early series of their publications.

Hydrographical Department of the Ministry of Marine, St. Peters-
burg, 38 volumes, 7 pamphlets, and 174 charts.

Imperial Free Economical Society, St. Petersburg, 12 volumes
‘Transactions. ”’

Finland Society of Sciences, Helsingfors, 13 volumes.

Imperial Geographical Society, St. Petersburg, 16 volumes and 33
pamphlets.

Verein zur Beférderung des Gewerbfleisses in Preussen, Berlin, 40
volumes and 2 pamphlets, nearly completing the ‘‘ Verhandlungen.”’

Kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna, 13 volumes and 33
pamphlets.

K. Statistisch-Central-Commission, Vienna, 37 volumes and 60
pamphlets.

R. Istituto Lombardo di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, Milan, 15 volumes
and 27 pamphlets.

Ministero di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio, Florence, 10 vol-
umes and 2 pamphlets.

R. Istituto d’ Incorragiamento alle Scienze Naturale, Economiche
e Technologiche, Naples, 17 volumes and 23 pamphlets.

British Archeological Association, 16 volumes and 9 pamphlets,
nearly completing the ‘‘Journal.’’

British Museum, 9 volumes.

Museum of Practical Geology and Geological Survey, London, 10
volumes and 19 pamphlets.

Institut Egyptien, Alexandria, the first volume of transactions and
9 numbers of bulletin.

Mining Department, Melbourne, 12 volumes and 17 pamphlets.

Real Sociedad Economico de Amijos del Pais, Habana, 256 volumes,
chiefly theological.

62 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Affairs, Boston, 36
volumes and 53 pamphlets.

Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, 13 volumes and 7 pam-
phlets. :
J. G. Cotta, Augsburg, 15 volumes.
Dr. Karl Koch, Berlin, 205 pamphlets.
Justus Perthes, Gotha, 12 volumes and 16 pamphlets.
F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig, 13 volumes and 6 pamphlets.

Before concluding the history of the Institution for 1867, it be-
comes my duty to recall a painful event, which was announced to the
Board at its meeting in February last. I allude to the death of Alex-
ander Dallas Bache, the head of the United States Coast Survey, and
one of the original members of the Board of Regents. On the occa-
sion of the announcement of this bereavement, which was received
with emotions of profound sorrow, the following resolutions, pre-
sented by Hon. J. W. Patterson, of New Hampshire, were unanimously
adopted :

‘¢ Resolved, That the highest honor is due to the memory of our
respected and beloved associate, Professor ALEXANDER DaLLas BacueE,
who, through so many years of active life, has devoted, unselfishly
and with untiring energy, great talents, profound acquirements and
undeviatine integrity to the advance of art, science, education and
philanthropy.

‘¢ Resolved, That in the death of our lamented associate this Institu-
tion, of which he was a regent, and one of the executive committee
from its first organization to the time of his death, has lost an efficient
collaborator, a sagacious counsellor and zealous supporter.

‘« Resolved, That the members of the Board, in common with the
Secretary, lament in his departure the loss of a warm and tried per-
sonal friend, and that they will always cherish the memory of his
genial and sympathetic disposition, his gentle and prepossessing man-
ners, his refined taste, high moral perceptions and unswerving advo-
cacy of the right.

‘* Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to
the widow of the deceased, and that the Secretary prepare a suitable
eulogy for insertion in the next annual report.’’

In compliance with the resolution of the board, I have collected
materials for a memoir of my lamented friend, Dr. Bache, and pre-
pared as full an account of his life and labors as my time and ability
would permit. The duty thus devolved upon me would have been
accepted with alacrity as a means of gratifying my feelings of regard

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63

and veneration had it not been associated in my mind, from the first,
with a sense of its difficulty and responsibility. I was aware that it
was not enough to narrate the events of his life, and to give a -
recital of his numerous and diversified labors; but that 1t would also
be necessary to analyze his mental and moral constitution, as well as
to trace the influence which his career has had, and will continue to
have, on the advancement of science and education in this country.
To fulfil this satisfactorily, though a duty not to be declined, is a
labor requiring much care, and involving much solicitude. The
sketch which 1 have prepared has been sent to Gen. Sabine for
insertion in the proceedings of the Royal Society of London, and in
view of my other pressing duties, it will be difficult for me to present
the complete eulogy to the board at its present session. I therefore
crave the indulgence of being allowed to defer the publication until
the appearance of the report for 1868.
Respectfully submitted:
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
WasuIncton, January, 1868.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

FROM THE REPORT OF PROF. 8S. F. BAIRD.

A.— Table showing the statistics of the Smithsonian exchanges in 1867.

ol el el
or. : °
® o ;
wn tal m
Agent and country. SoS 5 oe
25 as 25
as 3 ER
Be Sm 3
a A a
Dr. FELIX FLUGEL, Leipsic—
IMOETIE AB nasa ind cea SAD OOOROSEOB Gone 49 COM econ mass
(GemMTAY? sacoc0 canco9 BESSES oaso6ods 336 B0bu! ssenjebee
Simian Chi ly Se eg She eso sabodece coas 30 AQ |t scaseee
Petal tele At acee Saccones 420 | 507 46 |

FREDERICK MULLER, Amsterdam—

So roe
42 =
ot ey
2.2 |
5 Lea
o's aR
aol 3s
aol ee

ee ee

CWwiedeniene sects wiee eeiciee ieee mer cte 13 2s ois ae Sa eae Seca tc see
INOLWAY) os soccer nee aie wane mien 6 Cgjene secon | ee emeeeed ete emia
WMenmarkoccoescnee sce sce asec e 14 DOs seeeme sale eae ee eee
Neelandtsseessceceeaceey= ales Searels 1 1 | geen 52] tee acoce | Seen
iolandkaae coeeee eee oe eeeie cose 51 G8" |e sa eal {ate ees eee
Belgium..---.-.----------+-------- i) 21 WV ces ces cilessesces|eolcceess
1 rt Rea ae a cee reg gees 104 140 15 146 | 2,780

G. BOSSANGE, Paris— |
PITANnCG ecescersaceek ore Cleeisaserkicaee 113 199 |S eS aeleccn cee eee
Spain..--- ------------- S565R500m00 7 A Noo om Sees | some wees tee
Portugal ....---- -----+ ------------ 3 A coe eeeclotee ee an |e
Total secs: OS eu 123} 133 8 90| 2,188
I. R. Istituto, Milan— ae eas
Italy .----- --e-ne eee e ne eee ee eee ee 70 79 5 35 1, 020
W. WESLEY, London— Pes eee ase
Great Britain and Ireland -.-.-.----- 197 230 24 186 4, 200
RP oF world -ck WS eee ae peer; Ladond| Wh seis Meni esl oat s500
1 Gace emceaeete tee en oh Re 113} 975 | 22,523

B.—Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from parties in America for

Soreign distribution in 1867.
Albany, N. Y.—

No. of pkgs.

Albany Institute... 22.2 52.0s -2 eee <= ene 16
Dagley Observatory... 222-2. eee ee eee eee Z
New York State Agricultural Society.......---.------------ 55
New York State Homeopathic Society......-..-----.--.--.- 6

Secretary of state... 0.0. - 2 eee see ee tne er ee oe Sein iL

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

65

No. of pkgs.

Boston, Mass.—
American Academy of Arts and Sciences............ pees
BGardwomeuiter@ MaAniies ones wo. sf so ee
Bostounsoulery on Natural Pistory). ° 2.02.5. 4... 2d waaee
Nima Apna O he O SLM: 055). 4,-\< FS cvafane oc! <isi2) a0 nig. eee ee
Deine oe ne ee Aiea too ky Se ieee aT os ee

Wisse swe UTM ee eho Wea Sez ae, Modu Aa
WO Ree LENE TA HUGS POREE <7 2 a spay A ate cles gn itr Sahiintell cen (i VE

Brooklyn, N. Y.—
ome islands Historical Society. <,.14-\— siecle 21-2) ee eet ee was

Cambridge, Mass.—
American Association for Advancement of Science........----
Camibrid Sen OMSeIvacObYa.<emmpees tic) ce.c, Sv, eee ae nena eee
JelernvenRil LO on steds eeveetelee se See eRe cn eee ue
Musemmor Comparative 000g ye. .~ oe. cer mids ae ee ti ae
JEARSTEd ako (OSU ig aes eaten, Ones AAR pms -orrie e GP ms Arne NRE

Columbus, Ohio—
Oltio.State- Board: ef Apriculture 205255520205 8eacee ea oe

Easton, Pa.—
inven pelea citn Ce Ol eniams i= see gk Pi cntrs: (ays orc leyc, aide teh sralere oe Sea

: 2 Wane,
Hartford, Conn.—

American, Asylum for Deaf and: Dumb 22:1. 52). 282 3 oes aes 8

Janesville, Wis.—
Henratd iit OMe LOREM O Enamels aes ehh o-ccs or oot coral yee A a > a

Little Rock, Ark.—
PSBALCGG We Am AM SAS a= et Panes Sieh Pees so x Soh 20) Shopens ye, Be Py eka ed oe

Martindale, N. Y.—
IKE vem fox eet oun aystest cejeno Sig ate Ss ss, Nos -dalotel a ue eee

Montreal, Can.—
Pei hes clean y Vis wae) AUD Rincon a's Ser cmeee eagle icc xt c-ay Socal ten cynics ai Ree PUNE

New Bedford, Mass.—
Bree anism ar aa. ole, ee 8 or wh of Gs em AY)

New Haven, Conn.—
Connecticut Academy of Sciences. . 2:5. .0deeec. ve oewciecee
igus Ocean kuGhsiire = Saya ae Wee is Yd phage baer

New York, N. Y.—
PCAN GN Gy CAST NB TICs i ee SET ae RN ar PO
New York Myeemmoof Natural History. - < ~~ 2) mss 5 <2 «
American (Chiisnane @ommission. 2.92.00) ook nlc ce
United States DAMiewe Commissioners ys ssl) Aouad See 352
Mrs. Samuel Colt
Meh wardss 2 eee See te eT
Dy datos sy New berate emer er OO ta ied
58 67 ;

10

16

12

20

20

33

hi

66 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

No of pkgs,

Northampton, Mass.—

State Lunatic: Aswiam= to rate pe ce ete. see 36
Philadelphia, Pa.—

Academy of Natural Sciences: <s. ..<2 ce. eee eee ee oo ye 184

American Pharmaceutical Association. .:....c5e..6---.:03--%- 7

American Philosophical Society. ....2. 2. ee22 Jo 8e ot ee ees 460

Conchological Section, Academy Natural Sciences.........--- 72

Historical Society of -Pentisylvantac. oc. soe se one eens ae ee 25

Numismatic and Antiquarian Society: .-.-. 222-2 ee ee = 21

Pennsylvania ‘Louse of Retire: 0 2235 oe eee ee ae 100

Pennsylvania Institution for Deaf and Dumb..-.............. 100

Poson Discipline Society. +)... 2a. o ye Oe ee ae eee 100

‘Public Schoole:iseke ik. Gekweee ek ae eee eee 96

dames (Barclay. 2 4's 'o,cces <0 1 oe, a1 = ROIs eee ee en 3

Rey... Beadle: 5 ke ee ee eee eee 9

Benny ©, eae” a5 3 <'s se les ote eee ae: 4
Princeton, N. J.—

Beles! Be 89 x) 1p Ob pe gaara, ore oe ene Nd, Nee bed wy SING RAMA ann NS 4
Providence, R. I—

J BY Sid I Beto 010 yey ane DT a Sar a ARNE Ly TIE GES I 65

Fawr M: Stones 1223 2236s 3 5MAS eS eee Eee ee eee 15
Quebec, Can.—

Jaterary and>Ehstorieal*Society- =). --- 26-4 o0 eee acto tee 34
Salem, Mass.

Mase bnstitme dss take ae ae ato oat le cee oe eee 116

DrstAGUS « IPae kandi A sxtccye meh eee che OO a be ee ee eae 6
San Francisco, Cal.—

California Academy of Natural Sciences. ..--...-.--.4..--2- 54
St. Louis, Mo.—

ACademiysOl SClONCOS: -.:2.. -}2- - J Soe er eis os babies ole ites ff
St. Paul, Min.—

Minnesota tistorical Society. <. nice see oe oe 18
South Bethlehem, Pa—

Dri AME iViethenill 2 een tek oc Ue cicee mo te te came ee rte 26
Toronto, Can.—

Canadian Instifutes.:..222ene ee eee een ae ee Cee eee eee 5
Washington, D. C_—

Columbia Institute for, Deaf and Dumib 444 Jo ei cw ete 50

Hydrographic Office, Navy Department.......--.-.-.------- 61

Medical Department United States Army......---.-.---.--- 51

Pablic. Schools2 fo 7 0 oso oe eet vl) ee ee eee 200

wecretaiy. of) War xs-.44.5 5220p ee ee ee 500

Wnited: States Coast Survey 24seee. -.- >.< pee ee Sere 141

United States Engineer Department)... . 22.251. eee 2

United, States Hospital for Insanes--..22.2)) 722 eee ee eee 28

United States, Naval Observatory... 32 eee eee 188

United States: Patent-Ofiee ss 2724.40 eee eee eee 216

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,

Washington, D. C—Continued.

67

No. of pkgs.

Gilet Aus eee erties eda Pt eae os et UF US aa, ee le 1
Archibpatde® aimbellsnn. as ss. sta. cis. 55 +505 2 ae ees 9
ee ich tera ee Pema ek fo. tee it
Naaman, ID BRI ek eS oe eat AS eae en I Br be | 60
Dire llirOme OueSeee war ew ate eee ra ea eesa ce tel OC eee 50
JS oh hd EGVeS CCL s) Saat eee i me a RR Ma Lace hea Mare 3
Vin LE NGA COT Tee eR Bet Gk TA END ES Bel TR 6
devin dilup ob RY ORSISVIST GR Eat aR ao Os DA LE A le ce Ta 1
LESSIG ONT cle ah, Ene Bee ene we eS Aes eee te a 300
use ee eta eee See SH ele Nace ane. Leena Ble 8 i 20

6, 016

C.—Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe in 1867, for
distribution im America.

ALBANY, NEW YORK.

Albany Institute
Bureau of Military Statistics...-..-.-
Dudley Observatory
Homceopathic Medical Society
New York State Agricultural Society -.
New York State Library
New York State Medical Society
New York State University
State Cabinet of Natural History

AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS.
emmerst Callegecice sac ct ccss see ean
ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN.
Observatory saa aecs she cecesccesuee
AUGUSTA, MAINE.
Maine Insane Hospital..-......--.--
AUSTIN, TEXAS.
Texas State Lunatic Hospital .----..-
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND.
Maryland Academy..--..--2-......-
Maryland Historical Society. ...--..-
Medical Hospital for Insane.-..-...-
peabody institutes. s=<) so -eeeae
BLACKWEl% 5 1aSLAND, NEW YORK.

New York City Lunatic Asylum ....-

No. of
packages.

cw)
PG Ol ep)

wo—
WS GH

eT

a
5
© &
5
or
As
2,
BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS.
| American Academy of Arts and Sci-
Sisseas CAs Suu Doles Beau Tate 107
| American Statistical Association .... 10
| American Unitarian Association... . - 3
| Boston Christian Register -..-....-. 3
| Boston Journal of Medicine.....---. 1
| Boston Society of Natural History..-| 209
lS oveditehy albany see eee eee 3
Christiane Examiner assesses eee 3
| Massachusetts Historical Society .--. 2
| Mercantile Library Association...-.-. 1
North American Review.-.---...----. 3
| Perkins Institution for the Blind..-- 2
Prison Discipline Society...--...... I
Publics Wibraryecee--ceseese eee cee 10
State Library ose eee eeeeres 7
BUFFALO, NEW YORK.
| Historical Society ~. s.:<5¢l2e22/4-5- 1
BRATTLEBORO’, VERMONT.
Vermont Asylum for Insane -...-..- 1
BROOKLYN, NEW YORK.
Long Island Historical Society .... - 1
BRUNSWICK, MAINE.
Bowdoin Collemey..< -saiossse cas. - 1
BURLINGTON, VERMONT.
University of Vermont..-...+0.22- 1

68

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Packages received by Smithsonian Institution, &e.—Continued.

CHARLOTTESVILLE, VIRGINIA.
University of Virginia .......-.-
CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA,
Elliott Baecry of Natural History --..

Society Library
South Carolina Historical Society ..--

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS.

American Association for Advance-
ment of Science

Harvard Collecepiriere ee kb. Si 2.
Museum of Comparative Zoology ....
Observatory of Harvard College -...-
CANANDAIGUA, NEW YORK.
Bugham Hall Asylum .!.s2.52222..25
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.
Chicago Academy of Science..... seid
Historical Societyises-o-eeesee eee
Wbservator years cereenass eee
CINCINNATI, OHIO.
Historical and Philosophical Society -.

Mercantile Library...........
Observatory

CLINTON, NEW YORK.
Observatory of Hamilton College... -
COLUMBIA, SOUTH CAROLINA.
South Carolina College ....-....-..-

COLUMBUS, OHIO.

Central Lunatic Asylum............-
Ohio State Board of Agriculture...--.

CONCORD, NEW HAMPSHIRE.

New Hampshire Asylum .--.. :
New Hampshire Historical Society ....

DANVILLE, KENTUCKY.
Institution for Deaf and Dumb..-...-
DES MOINES, IOWA.

Governor of the State of Iowa....-. --
State Library

fot et OU

te 09

DAYTON, OHIO.
Southern Lunatic Asylum.........-
DETROIT, MICHIGAN.

HistorienlsSaciety/esose es 2c - yee 8 a.
Michigan State Agricultural Society -

FLATBUSH, NEW YORK.
King’s County Lunatie Asylum.. .. -
FRANKFORD, PENNSYLVANIA.

AS yilamMfordinsane sae seen eeeeee eee
FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY.
Geological Survey of Kentucky--..-
FULTON, MISSOURI.

State Lunatic Asylum..........-.-.-
GAMBIER, OHIO.

Kenyon College..... E

GEORGETOWN, D. C.
Georgetown College
HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

Nova Scotian Institute of Natural
Hclencestasss san oes ee eee

HANOVER, NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Dartmouth College

HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA,

ete te ee ee eee wee ee:

State Library
State Lunatic Hospital....-...----.

HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT.

American Institution for Deaf and
ID mb sce SAIS eae

Mistorcaltsocietycis ses dese eee ee
Retreat for Insane.... --22 3. ---- -- 4
Trinity Colleresssseaeecsecsceose
Young Men’s Institute.-.--.....--.-

HOPKINSVILLE, KENTUCKY.

Western Lunatic Asylum..-.-.....-

No. of
packages.

10

ee

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF TIIE SECRETARY.

69

Packages received by Smithsonian Institution, &:c¢.—Continued.

w 8
sss
IOWA CITY, IOWA.
Staten Umiversthiyas=s se a aeieeeae eco 35
JACKSON, LOUISIANA.
Ingane/ Asli. <i-ssig5 scsiayaseyeee 1
JACKSONVILLE, ILLINOIS.
Institution for the Blind.....-...--.- 1
JANESVILLE, WISCONSIN.
instintiondomblmd tenes. sssces sae 5
JEFFERSON CITY, MISSOURI.
Governor of the State of Missouri..-. - 1
KINGSTON, JAMAICA.
Jamaica Society of Arts-.-.2...222-. 1
LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY.
Eastern Lunatic Asylum.----....--. 1
LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS,
Statepbbran yeas eels croc ote bene 4]
HiateWWNiveIsity cm ss c2 <5 sense wen 4
MADISON, WISCONSIN.
imi o Ts ON BUNA ee sekea ie las 1
State Historical Society of Wisconsin- 8
Statowaibranyetesvasscsc cc cecie ae 6
StaterUiniversitives- 5 2s ses 1
Wisconsin Natural History Society- - . ]
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. 17
MILL CREEK, OHIO.
Hamilton County Lunatic Asylum -.- 1
MONTPELIER, VERMONT.
Historical Society of Vermont ..---.- il
Wate MEI Drange te ee tare sl See cieiss 2
MONTREAL, CANADA.
Natural History Society--2---. .2---- 8
MOUNT PLEASANT, IOWA.
Wesleyan University --.--. 22. os. - 1

NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE.

Hospital for Insane

{ ; of
S &
_3
ors
ae
| —
NEWARK, NEW JERSEY.
Historical Society of New Jersey -... 1
NEWBURG, OHIO.
Northern Lunatic Asylum --.- .--.-. 1
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
American Journal of Science and Art 54
| American Oriental Society ....--..... 25
Connecticut Academy of Sciences. -. 1
Wale(Collesemescanceses-= = sas eeee 14
NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA.
New Orleans Academy of Sciences... - 30
NEW YORK, NEW YORK.
American Christian Commission .-.. 12
American Ethnological Society ..-.-- 14
American Geographical and Statisti-
CaliSocietyeseae oeae oe ceete eee 54
Amencanpinstitute se =eee see eee 9
Astor uibtary,s- sconces sss oe eee 5
Bloomingdale Asylum for Insane...- 1
Courier des Etats Unis --22--------- 1
Historical Societys.-=-e eo see 2
Mercantile Library Association ....- 2
New York Academy of Medicine .... 5
New York Christian Enquirer--.--. - 5
New York Institution for Blind ..-.- 1
New York Institution for Deaf and
Dumb; 5 seeey She cee 1
New York Lyceum of Natural History 96
school of. Mines 2 eracaasinseaet toc 3
United States Sanitary Commission-. 14
Wniversityaas= sche er eae see 3
PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA.
Academy of Natural Sciences-...-.-; 201
American Journal of Conchology-..-.- 2
American Entomological Society --.. 5
American Pharmaceutical Associat’n. 27
American Philosophical Society .-.. - a
Central ich Schooles=-2ses--eae- —
Central High School Observatory -. - 1
Branklin) Institute = -.ceeeeeee = seas = a3)
Girard, College, « jc.= ceo. ecinstatar 13 1
Historical Society of Pennsylvania. - 5
Library, Comipanynascesccse see} 2
Medical and Chirurgical Review .--- I
Naval) Review: seeds soc iot = sac <'c 1
Pennsylvania Horticultural Society - 2
Pennsylvania Hospital for Insane-.- - Ii
Pennsylvania Institute for Blind---- 2
Pennsylvania Institute for Deaf and
Dummlbeen ssesee eciscts sis osehauee 1
Wagner Free Instituie...-....----- 7

70

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Packages received by Smithsonian Institution, &c.—Continued

PITTSBURG, PENNSYLVANIA.
Western Pennsylvania Hospital... ---
PORTLAND, MAINE.

Portland Society of Natural History - -

| PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY.
College of New Jersey...-------.---
PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND.
Brown University
Butler Hospital for Insane.--..-..-----

Rhode Island Historical Society .-----
SECLOLAT Ol SIALe mae erae ae aoe cteions

ee ee es

QUEBEC, CANADA,

Literary and Historical Society
Observatory

RALEIGH, NORTH CAROLINA,
ifnsanevAsiyalinae ecteiol afemnieliata eine

RICHMOND, VIRGINIA,
SMe LIOENA Zoo seosobesos poss Hso0Se

SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA.

State Agricultural Society..---.-...-

ST. JOHN’S, NEW BRUNSWICK.

Natural History Society of New
IBrUMSs WICK ean Aniseie ates ase see

ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI.

St. Louis Academy of Sciences-------
Slavni Redakei Pozom.......--.----
University: <2... <4. s<-[-=5 5 noeose

ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA.
Historical Society =----2s--.+6 .-----

SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS.

IBESexelnstibute «=i oacs ae oe eae

SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA.

California Academy of Natural Sci-
GNCES eee ele = aoe ie eee
Observatory ..---. - apo Speece bene se

SOMERVILLE, MASSACHUSETTS.

McLean Insane Asylum-.....------.

No. of
packages,

24

—

10

— —

STAUNTON, VIRGINIA.
Western Lunatic Asylum....-....-.
TRENTON, NEW JERSEY.

State Lunatic Hospital...-.......--
TORONTO, CANADA,

Canadian Institute. ----. Gaeaeeeeee
Observatory 2s. see soon ese

UTICA, NEW YORK.

American Journal of Insanity .--- ---
New York State Lunatic Asylum... .-

WASHINGTON, D. C.

| American Nautical Almamac..---- --

Bureau of Navigation....--.-.-..--
Bureaor Statisticse == deisel
@ansus| Oiicess= = sence aes ae eee
Commissioner for Indian Affairs ---- -
Library of Congress
Medical Department
Nationa! Academy of Sciences...--. -
Ordnance Burcatees eer eee eer
Secretary of the Navy---------.----

Secretary, of Waters —= eee eee

Siate Departmentzss=-.-cene os -t-ee
Treasury Department.-...---------
United States Coast Survey --...--.-
United States Department of Agricul-

(WAKE Sea aae

| United States Naval Observatory .--.

United States Patent Office........-
WiareDepantment)s 2. ene eee are

| Washington Public Schools. ----- aoe

WEST POINT, NEW YORK.
United States Military Academy --.-
WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA.
Eastern Lunatic Asylum..---..-.-...-

WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS.

American Antiquarian Society ---- --
State Lunatic Hospital

Total addresses of institutions. 197
Total addresses of individuals. 150
Total number of parcels to
institutions s—--—- = e eer 2, 356
Total number of parcels to indi-
WPOWRIEY Sa Sane) saede6 oosoed 615 |

of

packages.

No.

at

ar)

347

| 2,971

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. fie

D.—Copy of circular relative to exchanges of government documents.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, U. S. A., May 16, 1867.

A law has just been passed by the Congress of the Tnied States authoriz-
ing the exchange, under direction of the ‘Smithsonian Institution, of a certain
number of all United States official documents for the corresponding publica-
tions of other governments throughout the world; the returns to be placed in
the national library at Washington. The works to be distributed under this
law will consist of reports and ‘proceedings of Congress, messages of the Presi-
dent, annual reports and occasional publications of departments and bureaus,
&c., the whole relating to the legislation, jurisprudence, foreign relations, com-
merce, statistics, arts , manufactures 8, agriculture, geography, hydrography, &c.,
of the United States, and including everything, of whatever nature, published,
either by direct order of Congress or by any of the departments of the govern-
ment. ‘The series will embrace a lar ge number of volumes each year, the most
of which are bound.

The object of the law above mentioned is to procure for the use of the Con-
egress of the United States a complete series of the publications of other gov-
ernments, to include the documents of special bureaus or departments, as well
as the ceneral publications, of whatever nature, printed at the public expense,
and also embracing all such works as are published by booksellers with the aid
of grants or subscriptions from governments. The law is not retrospective,
although it may cover some of the publications of the last session of Congress.

Some time will necessarily elapse before the first transmissions can be made: ;
but in order to organize a plan of exchange, to be presented for consideration
to the Library Committee and the hibrarian of Congress, I beg leave to ask
your advice as to the best method of accomplishing “the objects above stated.
It is important to ascertain what governments are willing to enter into the pro-
posed exchange, and whether any one bureau or branch “of government or pub-
lic library in each country will undertake to collect all the national publica-
tions, as above mentioned, and transmit them to Washington, or whether sepa-
rate arrangements must be made with more than one office. The former plan
is considered preferable, as diminishing the labor involved, and may possibly
be adopted by enactment, as has been done by the United States. Whatever
method be most feasible, you will confer a favor by giving us such information
on these and other points as may serve for our guidance in further action.

Information is also desired as to the titles and character of the regular offi-
cial publications of each country, and their average number and extent in each
year, as well as the names of the different bureaus or offices from which they
emanate.

The Smithsonian Institution, in behalf of the Library of Congress, is pre-
pared to promise, if necessary, the delivery of the above-mentioned publica-
tions free of charge for freight. It will also name an agent in each country
who will receive the parcels or boxes containing the exchanges returned, and
transmit them to Washington.

Besides the exchange of complete series of national publications, the law of
Congress above stated authorizes the distribution of works on special subjects
to the different bureaus having them in charge, as finance, statistics, patents,
agriculture, &c., provided that copies of their publications be given in return.

Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.

72 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

E.—Table showina the entries in the record books of the Smithsonian Institution
in 1865, 1866, and 1867.

Class. ] 865. 1866. 1867.

Skeletons:and(skulles--- sasces- 2a 0-08 esses soe secre se 6, 609 7,100 7,500
Mammals. 2) Sao piace ciociscee cee che seinem ca eeeieeiac sien 8, 416 8, 685 8, 900
IBIRdS 252 eae sas on cinco seis Sane sete epiaene rieetemeee 40, 554 45, 000 50, 060
Ie ptilesMeeepese t-ssee fees cane ce cas cence Cement eer 6, 544 6, 582 7,150
isin srcpmeeett fee Seite Ie SSS 2 oR se ec eee 5, 588 5, 591 5, 625
Sere) GW [WRG Bis doses oc oy COS See ooBa ee SE Sacs6S ashe scne 9,939 | 10,400 | 13,300
Ciistaceans oe. <2)2,2:\5.2.< jos Selceeleisn cio e gens eeseee seers 1, 287 1, 287 1, 287
in iy sya ns ce I i ee earn ac ea 18,103 | 18,500 | 18,500
RACH Ate See sel ie, Cem Ber a emcee tue che cesium mre siemice 2,729 2,420 2, 729
Me ests. #255 He Asse Sach, - sa eee neseeboee seem ete 110 110 110
IOSSI Se so eiks Sack See BE ee OEE ee ee ee: eee 5, 907 5, 920 6, 600
Mineralsyeo sash. oes hte ec Sa tee aie seraye cee oe mieereieps 4, 940 4,941 5, 150
Einolopicalaspecimenssmer = —mrn a lever tee ao) a cle a tninloiete 1,125 2, 260 5, 400
Plantsesee cones = scee Mets socio acca eesrthe est enone ew cecal sen meee eee eer 175

Total, Se ceeeteeae tas oka ee tise etebie pile heels cise lage 111847 | WO Ah S 1325322

if

F.— Approximate table of distribution of duplicate specimens by the Smithsonian
Institution to the end of 1867.

Distribution to end | Distribution to end Total
of 1866. of 1867. .

Class. z z 2

wo 2 Ss e a 3)

2 & 2 3 3 3

. Oo =) o i~] oe =)

o o o a Qo vo

a 2, a a e¥

nD wm mn nD i) n
OM Oley. 5 se Socenc ono antuoo conse ccdo5 104 104 1 1 105 105
Mammals - mee 794 1, 574 14 14 808 1, 588
Bigdaiec-- 8, 079 12, 286 1, 358 2, 293 9, 437 14, 579
Reptiles . 1, 641 2, 609 PAS 106 1, 662 2, 715
Fishes ...- 2, 394 hy 30 50 2,424 5, 200
Eres of birds.--- tite 3, 699 9,379 1€8 722 3, 887 10, 101
NGI Berea tc seicee sete cieae cee ce 67,412 | 162,214 4, 352 7, 652 71, 764 169, 866
LEVI eee Be SAR See Se ecm arb Stes SAE 551 W2T AN evec\seissiaists | 5=(ae2 20% 551 727
@iistaceansst pee - scenes neces aeaseee 1,013 RIBUG. |iceoss ee 2| «sencee ase _ 1, 013 2, O16
Marine invertebrates generally....-.---.. 1, 838 OPO i Sieieisteisia ocd laure ele 1, 838 5, 152
Rlapitigiecsccsacce stssccae veicceseecue neces 13, 058 18, 303 300 400 13, 358 18, 703
MG gsil sii yee ase P eee eke Swe bi See oo, 2,971 7, 557 390 1, 370 3, 361 | 8, 927
Ly Ghterey pry Gb role See poe eenostesnenaoee 1, 346 5, 579 372 480 1,718 6, 089
THN OLO Ry. Aste eee see aoe oases teee es 150 150 298 898 1, 048 1, 048
LERCH Peo 8 SS5 6504 soap aeaSsb aoe ob oda laddconsscs boone sedde 1, 190 1, 937 1, 190 1, 937
AU NE ee Os omc ecocoScedacasbens 105, 059 | 233, 300 9,114 15, 923 | 114, 164 249, 223

G.—ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITU-
TION IN 1867.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia —Ten mounted birds, various locali-
ties.

Alibert, J. P., (per Hon. G. V. Fox, Assistant Secretary United States Navy.)—
Mass of graphite mounted, with associated rocks and manufactured pencils,
Eastern Siberia.

Ashcom, G. W.—Insect molluses, reindeer horns, Plover bay.

Austin, E. P.—Three bottles of insects, near Mount Vernon, Virginia; 4 boxes
of insects from Massachusetts.

Bannister, Henry Ji.—General collection natural history, St. Michael’s, Norton
sound.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13

Bartsch, Franz.—Collection of mosses and alge, Austria.

Becker, Alexander and views.

Bell, Hannah.—Indian stone relics, Allegany county, New York.

Bernay, Dr. F. T.—Collection of vegetable fibres, &c., Missouri.

Berthoud, Dr. E. L.—F¥ossils, Indian relics, &c., Colorado.

Brigham &: Mann.—Series of corals, Sandwich Islands.

Bishop, N. H.—Skins and eggs of birds of Cuba.

Blackburn, Charles and George. —Collection of birds’ eggs, Iowa.

Blake, Ww P.—Specimens of wool of mountain goat, Russian America.

Bland, Thomas.—Collection of reptiles, spiders, &o., Inagua; 90 species of
land shells, America.

Boardman, G. A.—Helminthophaga peregrina ; sterna of birds, skins, eggs, &c.,
Maine.

Bolander, Dr. H. N.—Collection of plants, California ; eggs of Grus canadensis,
Sierra Nevada, California.

Bond, Dr. Thomas J—Crotaphytus in alcohol, Choctaw nation.

Brewer, Dr. T. M.—Types of eggs figured in "North American oology, various.

Bryan, O. N.—Box bird skins, fossil bones, &c.; miocene fossils, } Maryland.

Bulkeley, Colonel Charles S., (Robert H. Kennicott, William H. Dall, directors
of scientific corps.)—28 boxes of collections of the Russian Overland Tele-
graph Expedition, in all branches of natural history, collected in part by
Bischoff, at Sitka.

Burton, Hon. A. A.—General zoological collections, minerals, &c., Bogota;
sulphate of barytes, Kentucky.

Butcher, Dr. H. B.—General collection of birds, fossils, mammals, Texas.

Caldwell, R.—Box shells, Chappell island and Plover bay.

Canfield, Dr. C. A.—T hee boxes zoological specimens, California.

Carmiol, Julian.—Birds, 233. species, seeds of palms, &c.; mammals, shells,
Costa Rica.

Christ, Richard.—Box of birds’ eggs, Pennsylvania.

Clary Brothe ‘s.—Collection of birds! egos, Illinois.

to) )

Cotter, B. A-—Birds’ eges, St. Michael's.

Cook, J. W.—Petrifaction.

Cooper, Dr. J. G.—Nests, eves, birds, reptiles, shells, California.

Crocker, Allan.—Numerous birds’ ege's, &c., Kansas.

Csapkay, L. J., U. S. consul.—Carved wooden box, tobacco pouch, child’s coat,
drinking cup, cane, Hungary.

Dall, W. H. — General collections, North Pacific ocean.

Davis, Henry.—Indian relies and river shells, Lowa.

Dayton, EK. A.—Vertebre of fossil saurian, opposite Aquia creek, Virginia.

» Diehl, Israel S.—W ool of Angora goat raised in Ohio; casts of Assyrian seals.

Dow, Captain J. M.—Skin of tern, Veragua.

Edmonds, Hon. J. W.—Stone axe, ancient mines of Lake Superior.

Edwards, Daniel.—Indian stone relics, Genesee county, New York.

Endres, J. &.—Humming birds in skins and in alcohol, Costa Rica.

Fletcher, N.—Reindeer horns, Plover bay, Siberia.

Foreman, Dr. E.—Scops asio, (young,) Maryland.

Freeman, Professor Beg cilection of reptiles, insects, vampire bat, living achatina,
fibres of blood- root, &c., Liberia, Africa.

Fox, Hon. J. V., U. SN.—Three boxes minerals and metallur eic specimens,
Sweden.

Gibbs, Greorge.—Specimens of limestone, Kansas.

Giraud, J. P—Types of “16 new species of Texas birds,” Texas.

Oiaeca: J. M.—Grasshoppers, Texas.

Glover, Professor T.—Seeds of Boehmeria nivea.

Goulding, B. P.—Specimens of nickel and cobalt, Scotland.

74 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Gray, Dr. C. C., U. S. A.—Six bottles insects, three boxes shells.

Gray, R. J—Collection of birds from Mexico.

Grayson, Colonel A. J—One box of birds, Mazatlan.

Green, Jasper —Cast of fossil plant, Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania.

Green, T. H.—Indian stone relies, New York.

Gruber, F'.—Box of birds, California.

Hague, Henry.—Bird skins, two skins of Panyptila stihieronymi and nest, small
box river shells, Guatemala.

ee W. J.—Stone lamp, Plover bay.

Hall, C. F.—Eges of snowy owl and pair of far mittens, (Esquimaux,) Hudson’s
Bay.

Hardeman, George.—Box bird skins, San Salvador.

Harvey & Holder n.—Specimens of vawieties of Ostrea virginca.

Hayes, I, I—Skeleton and skulls of walrus, North Greenland.

Hayden, Dr. F. V.—Fossils, rocks, &c., Nebraska.

Helper, H. R.—Boues of mastodon, fossil shells, Buenos Ayres.

Hepburn, J.— Brachyramphus marmoratus and four svecies of birds’ eggs,
Vancouver island.

Hitz, Dr. R. B.—One box of fossils, Iowa.

Hudson, W. H.—123 bird skins, Buenos Ayres.

Huson, Alden W.—Various zoological specimens presented through Colonel
Bulkeley, mollusks and fishes, north end of Vancouver island.

Intertropical Company, New York.—Specimens of fibres and nuts.

Irwin, Dr. B. J. D.—16 bottles reptiles, &c., New Mexico.

Jones, Strachan.—Birds’ eggs and skins, Indian satchel, Fort Rae.

Kelsey, Captain W. H.—Wooden plate of natives, Plover bay.

Kennedy, J. C..G.—Snake and dried plant, Maryland.

Ketchum, Frank.—Skulls of Indians, &c., Yukon.

King, Clarence.—Two boxes zoological and geological specimens, Nevada.

Kircheval, A. W.—lock specimens, &c., Virg orinia.

Kjerulf, Pro ‘ofessor H.—Minerals, fossils, rocks , Norway.

Kluge, Dr. J. P.—Collection of fishes and Didelphys quica and young, in alco-
hol, Aspinwall.

Kr ider, J.—25 mounted birds, various.

De Lacerda, A.—Collection of birds, Brazil.

Lahmann, F'—Box of minerals and fossils, Costa Rica.

Latimer, George.—FYour jars crabs, crows, snake, Porto Rico.

Leacock, B. B.—Two bird skins, Trinidad.

Lemon, W. C._—Skull of mountain sheep, Kamtschatka.

Lewers, Lydia.—Arrow-heads, Lowa.

Lewis, Dr. James.—Box small land and fresh-water shells, New York.

Lincecum, Dr. Gideon.—Box of cretaceous fossils, shells, &c.; insects and alco-
holic preparations, from western Texas.

Lincecum, Lysander R.—Skulls of mammals, Texas.

Long, James H.—Living owl, District of Columbia.

Longsdorf, Henry A.—Black sand underlying Prairie Bluff, Missouri.

Lytle, W.—Productus costatus, Indiana.

McDonald, Prof. Marshall.—Box fossils, chert limestone; Helicina occulta, Say,
Virginia.

Mapes, H. H.—Insects in alcohol, Michigan.

Merritt, John C.—Indian arrow-heads, iron ore, &c.

Minor, Dr. T. T.—One box Indian relies; skull of buffalo; Nebraska.

Morch, D.—Cyprina islandica, varieties, and other European shells; type
specimens of a memoir on fresh-water and land shells of Greenland.

Moore, C. R.—Birds’ eggs, Indian relies, Virginia.

Morgan, L. H.—Six skulls of beaver, Lake Superior.

pd Ea)

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 75

Mudge, Prof. B. F-—Box of fossils, Kansas.

Naturhistorischer Verein, of 1854.—Specimens lepidoptera.

O’ Donoghue, John O.—Dredgings of silt, St. Mary’s river, Michigan.

Palmer, Dr. E.—Six boxes collections of natural history, Indian relics, &c.,
Arizona.

Parleman, Dr. W.—Stone axes, Iowa.

Parker, Dr—Two boxes of specimens gray Medina sandstone, New York.

Parrish, John H.—Egegs of Antrostomus Carolinensis, Alabama.

Parsons, W. B.—Bat, in flesh, Kansas.

Patterson, F'. A.—Stutfed skin of rattlesnake.

Peale, Franklin.—Photograph of Indian arrow-heads, Philadelphia.

Pease, Charles.—Zoological collections, Russian America.

Phillip, Dr. R. A.—338 specimens birds, Chile.

Poey, Prof. F’.—Keeg of fishes, Cuba.

Posten, Col. Charles D.—Playing cards of raw hide, made and used by the
Coyotero Apaches in the game of monte, Arizona.

Potis, Dr. John G.—Box of shells and Mergulus alle, in flesh, Virginia.

Provancher M. Abbe-—Coleoptera, Canada.

Randal, F. O.—Many living specimens of Menopoma Alleghaniensis, Pennsyl-
vania.

Rasin, R. W. L.—Three bottles reptiles, &c., Navassa island.

fteed, M. C.—Indian remains from a mound near Chattanooga.

Riecksecker, L. .—Birds’ eggs, Pennsylvania.

Ttidgway, R.—Bird skins, skulls, eggs, skinvof albino Twrdus migratorius, Ili-
nois.

Richardson, Mr.—Slag, from the conflagration of New York Crystal Palace,
New York.

Stiotte, Hon. C. N.—F ive acorns evergreen oak, Costa Rica.

Rodifer, J—Specimens of iron ore, Virginia.

Roessler, A. #.—Indian arrow-heads, New Mexico.

Rothrock, J. F.—Box of plants, Russian America; Indian relics, British
Columbia.

Royal College of Surgeons, London.—Box of sterna of birds, Australia.

Ruyter, White De-—Mineral concretions and nodules, Indiana.

tussell, B. S.—Impressions of ferns in sandstone, Pennsylvania.

Salvin, Osbert—Collection of birds, from Veragua.

Samuels, H. A.—Eges of Contopus borealis, Scops asio, &c., Massachusetts.

Sawkins, J. G.—Yoraminifera, in yellow limestone, Jamaica, West Indies.

Scammon, Captain.—Skeleton of seal, also plants, soundings, fishes, shells,
Plover bay and Emma harbor.

Schuyler, T. J—Lot of shells, Plover bay.

Schonborn, A.—F our bottles of reptiles, fish, insects, from Fort Laramie.

Schott, Dr. A—Cotton from Bombyx pentandra, Yucatan ; also, Yucatan lepi-
doptera.

Scott, Ansel—Specimens of the wood of white-pine tree, long buried in
swamps; also Indian arrow-head, Pennsylvania.

Shute, J. G.—Six sets birds’ nests and eggs, Massachusetts.

Shimer, Prof. Henry.—Box bird-skins, Illinois.

Sigel, W. H., Director of Hamburg Zoological Garden—Two cages, containing
300 Passer domesticus, (house sparrow ;) 10 arrived living.

Smith, 4. #.—Shells and plants, Puget sound and Plover bay.

Stearns, h. H. C_—Collection of shells, skull of panther, Pacific coast.

Sumichrast, Prof. F'—Collection of reptiles, fishes, and insects, in alcohol,
Orizaba.

Swan, J. G—Two boxes ethnological and zoological specimens, Puget sound.

Lhompson, J. W.—Montacuta Gouldii, Thompson, Massachusetts.

76 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Tolman, J. W.—Collection of birds’ eggs, Ilinois.

Townsend, W. A.—Star fishes, Plover bay. ;

Tripp, T. Martin.—Nest of Empidonax minimus and other eggs, New Jersey.

Tyler, Robert—Box of minerals, shells, and marine invertebrates, Great Britain.

Van Tassel, 1—Skull of rabbit, &c., Behring straits.

Von Frantzius.—Skin of Catharus, Costa Rica.

Van Orman, J.—Indian pottery, Lowa.

Van Patten, Dr. C. H.—Birds and other collections, Guatemala.

Wakefield, Dr.—Polioptila plumbea, Sonora.

Walker, Dr. R. L.—Living Menopamas and Trionix, Pennsylvania.

Vi “alton, Henry. —Vin ore, “Missouri.

Wari on, General G. K.—Box of ethnological collections and heads of antelope,
upper ’ Missouri.

Wheatley, Charles 1.—Land and fresh-water univalves, America.

White, F.—See A. Becker.

VW "hyper, F’.—Plants, Petropaulowski.

Williams, Dr. J. A——Two boxes named fossils and shells, Missouri.

Wilson, D. S.—97 borings of artesian wells, Ohio.

Wood, Dr. W.—Birds’ eggs, Connecticut.

Wr ight, Charles. —Birds al nests, Cuba.

Wright, Major G. 1.—Tschuchtschi skulls, Plover bay.

Zoological Museum, Berlin.—Collection of Ovis and reptiles, Europe and Asia.

H.—List of the Expeditions and other sources from which the specimens in the
Government Museum have been mainly derived.

1. United States Exploring Expedition, under Captain Wilkes, United States
navy, 1838-42. he collections made by this naval expedition are supposed
ereatly to exceed those of any other of similar character ever fitted out by any
eovernment ; no published series of results comparing in magnitude with that
issued under the direction of the Joint Library Committee of Congress. ‘The
collections made embrace full series of the animals, plants, minerals and ethno-
logical materials of the regions visited, such as the coast of South America, the
islands of the South seas , &e. The naturalists of the expedition were Titian R.
Peale, J. D. Dana, Charles Pickering, W. Rich, J. P. Couthony, and W. D.
Brackinridge.

rae Exploration of the Amazon and its tributaries in 1851-52, by Lieutenant
W. E. Herndon, United States navy. ‘The collections made consist chiefly of
vertebrate animals and ethnological material.

3. Exploration of the valley of Great Salt Lake, by Captain Stansbury,
United States army, in 1851. Collections in character much like the last.

4. Explorations of the Zuni and Colorado rivers, by Captain Sitgreaves,
United States army, in 1851 and 1852, and the survey of the Creek boundary
and Canadian Fork of the Arkansas, in 1856, by Captains J. C. Woodruff and
Sitereaves, Dr. S. W. Woodhouse, naturalist.

5. Presents aie to the United States by the King of Siam and other for-
eign governments, deposited by the State Department.

6. Exploration of Commodore M. C. Perry, United States navy, made while

negotiating a treaty with Japan, and the presents to the United States govern-
ment through him from the J: apanese authorities,

7. From Dr. D. D. Owen in his United States geological explorations in the
west. °

8. Indian paintings from the War and Indian Departments.

9. United States geological survey made in lowa, Illinois, and Minnesota,
under Dr. D. D. Owen.

10. United States geological survey, made on Lake Superior by Messrs. Fos-
ter and Whitney.

—_

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Cu

11. Geological exploration made by Dr. Charles T. Jackson on Lake Superior.
12. Geological survey made in Oregon and Washington Territory by Dr. J.
Evans.

13. The expedition to Chile under Lieutenant J. M. Gilliss, United States
navy. Vertebrates and minerals.

14. North Pacific surveying and exploring expedition under Captains Ring-
gold and Rodgers, United States navy, chiefly in the China seas, Belring’s straits,
coast of California, &c., in 1853 to 1856; W. Stimpson and Charles Wright,
principal naturalists.

15. The survey of the line between the United States and Mexico, first
organized under Hon. J. B. Weller, as commissioner, and Major W. H. Emory,
as chief of the scientific department; then under J. R. Bartlett, as commissioner,
and Colonel J. D. Graham, chief of the scientific corps, succeeded subsequently
by Major W. H. Emory; then under General R. B. Campbell, commissioner,
and Major W. H. Emory, ' chief of the scientific corps ; together with the survey
of the boundary line of the Gadsden purchase, under Major W. H. Emory, com-
missioner, 1850 and 1856 ; collectors John H. Clark, Arthur Schott, C. C. Parry,
Charles W night, and Dr. 'T’. H. Webb:

16. Pacifie railroad survey, of the 38th, 39th, and 47th parallels, under Gov-
ernor Stevens, in 1853-54; Dr. George Suckley and J. G. Cooper, collectors.

17. Pacific railroad survey on the 38th, 39th and 41st parallels, under Cap-
tains J. W. Gunnison and E. S. Beckwith, in 1853 and 1854; Mr. F. Kreutz-
feldt, principal collector.

18. Pacific railroad survey on the 35th parallel, under Captain Whipple, in
1853 and 1854; Drs. C. B. Kennerly, J. M. Bigelow, Jules Marcou, and H. B.
Mollhausen, collectors.

19. Pacific railroad survey on the partial route in California, under Lieuten-
ant Williamson, in 1853 and 1854; Dr. A. 8S. Heerman and W. P. Blake, col-
lectors.

20. Pacific railroad survey on the western end of the 32d parallel, under Lieu-
tenant Parke; in 1853~ 54, Dr. A. S. Heerman and Dr. Antisell, collectors.

21. Pacific railroad survey, on the eastern end of the same parallel, under Cap-
tain Pope, in 1853.

22. Pacific railroad survey in California and°Oregon, under Lieutenant Wil-
Tae in 1855; Dr. J. S. Newberry, collector.

. Expedition of Captain Pope to sink artesian wells on the Llano Estacado,
in 1854, &e.; Dr. G. P. Shumard, geologist.

24, Northwestern boundar v survey in 185761, under A. Campbell, esq.; Dr.
C. ee Kennerly and Geo. Gibbs, collectors.

5. Expedition of Captain Page, United States navy, in 1853 and 1856 to
ee ee and its tributaries ; Ed. "Palmer, collector.

26. Expedition to the Isthmus of Darien, by Lieut. Michler, United States
army, in 1857; Arthur Schott, aided by W. 8. and Charles W ood, collectors.

OF: Expedition of Lieutenant Bryan “during two seasons spent in constructing
a wagon road from Fort Riley to Bridger’s pass, in 1856 and 1857; W.S. Wood,
collector.

28. Expedition to upper Missouri and Yellowstone in 1856, under Lieutenant
Warren; Dr. F. V. Hayden, collector.

29. Expedition to the Black Hills, Loup Fork of the Platte, in 185758, by
Lieutenant Warren; Dr. F. V. Hayden, collector.

30. Expedition to the Red river in 1852, by Captain Marcy; Captain G. B.
McClellan, principal collector.

31. South Pass wagon road expedition, under W. M. Magraw, in 1857; Dr.
J. G. Cooper and C. Drexler, collectors.

32. Exploration of the Colorado river, under Lieutenant Ives, in 1857; Dr.
J. S. Newberry and H. B. Mollhausen, collectors.

78 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY

33. Explorations in Kansas, Nebraska, and Utah, by Captain J. H. Simpson,
United States army, in 185859; Dr. G. Engelmann, geologist; C.S. McCarty,
collector.

34. South Pass wagon road expedition in 1859, under F. W. Lander, esq., by
Mr. Snyder.

35. El Paso and Fort Yuma wagon road expedition, under J. B. Leech, esq.,
in 185758, by Dr, 8. Hayes.

36. Wagon road expedition from Walla-Walla to Fort Benton, under Lieu-
tenant John Mullan, United States army, in 1859; Johu Pearsall and Mr. Hil-
dreth, collectors.

37. Expleration of the upper Missouri and Yellowstone, by Captain J. W.
Raynolds, United States army, in 1859-60; Dr. F. V. Hayden and Geo. H.
Trook, collectors.

38. Exploration of the San Juan and upper Colorado, by Captain J. N. Ma-
comb, United States army, in 1859; Dr. J. S. Newberry, collector.

39. Commodore Perry’s Japan expedition, in 1854.

4). Exploration during the march of troops to Oregon, via Fort Benton, under
Major J. H. Blake, in 1860, by Dr. J. G. Cooper.

41. Survey of the northern boundary of Texas in 1860, by Mx. J. H. Clarke;
C. 8. McCarthy, collector.

42. Exploration of the Dead sea, by Lieutenant W. F. Lynch:

43. Geological survey of Oregon in 1852, by Dr. J. Evans and B. F. Shu-
mard.

44. Survey from the Missouri river te Los Angelos, via the Huerfano pass, in
1854, by Lieutenant E. F. Beale.

45. General Sully’s expedition to the upper Missouri, &c., by S. M. Rotham-
mer.

46. Artesian well expedition to the Llano Estacado of Texas, in 1857, by
Captain John Pope.

47. Explorations of the Brazos and Wichita rivers, in 1854, by Captain R.
B. Marcy; Dr. G. C. Shumard, naturalist.

45. Journey from Chile to Buenos Ayres, by Lieutenant A. McRae, United
States navy, in connection with Captain Gilliss’s expedition, in 1853 and 1864.

49. Survey of the southern boundary of Kansas, under Lieutenant Colonel
J. S. Johnston, in 1857; collections made by J. H. Clark.

50. Exploration of the La Plata river and its tributaries in 1857 and 1860, by
Captain T. J. Page, United States navy; Chris. Wood, collector.

51. Exploration of Russian America, under the direction of Captain W. A.
Howard, United States revenue service, in 1867, in the steamer Lincoln.

52. Exploration of Russian America, under the direction of Geo. B. David.
son, of the United States coast survey, in 1867.

53. Exploration by the War Department of the region along the 40th parallel,
under Clarence King.

LS.

OF

METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR 1867.

B signifies Barometer, P, Psychometer; T, Thermometer; R, Rain gauge; A, All four instruments; N, No

instrument.

BRITISH AMERICA.

g|/ 8 ae
I 5 & mies
= "eo a oe
Name of observer. Station. & a Vs | Be
ES] a a =] roe)
h a Ee) Bs} -2
3 g S a Che
a = 22) he a
Chins yd Feet.
Acadia College .......-.. Wolfville, Nova Scotia ............. 45 06 | 64 25 80))| “Al se cces 1]
Jones, W. Martin........ Clifton Canada Wieste--seece acer adn ssceaelecseee ese eceeee yf Weeeosrc 6
Murdock iG: =o: issce= sci St. John, New Brunswick.....-..-.-. 45 16 | 66 03 SB AS eeueis 12
O’Donoghue, John....... St. Anne, Canada East ...........-.. 47 24 | 70 05 AV G5) 1812450 4
MEXICO.
Sartorius, Dr. Charles | Mirador) Vera Cruz cance scene ae=t | 19 15 | 96 25 | 3, 600 | A | 12
CENTRAL AMERICA.
Mrantzius, Dr A: occ... San: Jos6, Costa Rica). <<< ..csece= os 9 54.) 84:06) | 3,772 | T.P 2... 1
Klugé, J. P., M.D-.-.. . K
7 Sse ra INSEE PALE ER CO a .| 923] 7953 Gages, u
BERMUDA.
Royal Engineers, (in the | Centre Signal Station, St. George’s..|........|........|---.---. Areacmsr. 12
Royal Gazette.)
ALABAMA.
é | i
s z 2B 3
2] % En es
Name of observer. Station. County, & a e | ig &
ree ae ae ae
° o Oo mR °
A = co 5 4
2
oY @ 4 Feet,
Alison; Hots. M. D)ccse-- Carlowville...... Dallasi-. -5c-- 3210} 8715 300 0 Rien. 12
Henderson, William ..... Prairie Bluff..... Wilcox: <2. -: S2 Ot Siedsh|ssae cee ee 10
Peters, Thomas M ....... Moulton ........ Lawrence ....... 34 36 | 87 25 643 | B.T.R-.- 12
Reynolds, R. M.......--. Prairie Bluff..... NVilcoxaeeeen se S21088 NBT 18S) |scenes = it sees 1
Shielded easiness QOpelikaese--e- Mee oes aceeeeene oP By |) 58 WEP sea ae Beemer 10
PRT WilerEh .ccsceks snc Havana eeeasse Greene saeu Jose. 32 50 87 46 HOON TM Resse 12
Vankirks We di=ceecemn == 4 Bon Secour...... sald Wilko iete sol aca ectae aoe erce lls alae ote. s WE ecinocc 8

80 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS

Lust of meteorological stations and observers, §¢.—Conutinued.
*~
ARKANSAS.
- oO mn
oa Lo} ao
= = g Ee
2 | ® FR hee
Name of observer. Station. County. & 8 Ls q 5
a a a 5} So
i = 2 $ 3 ea
(o)
a ce se Sega
oY 4 Feet.
Liste, (C) 1S ooesesoe Helena ses2=ssem- Phillipps'---2---- 343354 GOO | oa cee. A Basic 3
Spmpeer sev, Hrancis =.) (Fort: Smith =2-5-|o- --ccsseceessees - 35 23} 94 29 460\i| seer 3 :
CALIFORNIA.
MVCOS VV Or oI Deis San Francisco ...| San Francisco.--.| 37 48 | 122 27 30 | Aviacsa 6
®antield, Colb’t A., M. D..| Monterey.-.-..-.- Monterey.....--- 36 36 | 121 52 440) eis oape se 12
Logan, ‘hos. M., M. D....| Sacramento -.... Sacramento...... 38 32 | 121 30 (yl) AVA Sebobe 3
Rogers, Franc’s M-.----- Mazshis Ranch. ContraCostam-cr|easroccs loser e cee secenece Eee 6
Mrivety, Wolter M..--2--: Stockton)-22-55-- San Joaquin..... Spot ALO TO 4S | Pee oer. 13) AO Sce 2
COLORADO.

Berthoud, Bale. .---.: Golden\ Cityne-maleecminees-sese eres 39644 2S 052088] ra, fed2 || iter eae 4
Merriam, Arthur M....-. Fountaine -....-.- EPasO sss sedi leacis ott ae eeee else anes Ninsesece 1
CONNECTICUT.

Dewhurst, eVesrie eae sete GmOtOMen ees scare New London.... } 41 21] 7212 20 | Belo Ree 10
Hunt, Rev. Daniel....... Pomiretaesniecest Windham -:..... 41 52 72 10 O80 Als cde 12
Johnston, Prof. John..... Middletown. ..-. Middlesex ....-.. 41 33 72 39 a Aeee ese 12
Rockwell, Charlotte...... Colebrook. ...... Litehfield)= s.r 42700 W103 eneaeee Mics te 12
Williams, Rev. R.G....-. Waterbury ...... New Haven ..... AVE S3 MiMi SLOe Ilene exemte Boeke. 9
Yeomans, William H Fal Columbia..-..... Tolland = xjeens- | ANTAOG 214s emer e Dioeaces 12
DELAWARE.

Wankekles dae omsacsee ea Delaware City -.-| New Castle.....- | 39 35 | 75 34 | Sea | Disiecces 3
FLORIDA.

ANGUS; WMI Cle cieinle-=i-l0 Cedar Keys: ---4| Wevyi--cceccsece 29 06 | 83 03 | 18 | Diemer 1
Baldwin, A.§.,M.D..-... Jackwoaville. .... Duvalsccceseee oe 20 15 | 82 00 20 | AV eee 1L
Corey, Henry, Mi. -.-- Fernandina... ... INASNAR Wont cs cee 30 31 81 30 957) SE Rese a
Fisher, Galen M-.-..,..-. Lake City -... -..| Columbia........ 30 12) 82 40 Te by || Mad seo - 1
Hawks, J.M., M.)-...--- Port Orange. -.-. WS aso oagusrol boodadse|laaocesce|acdssax Nee S5556 — 12
DCOtt, pH. Beas ee sscs seer Gordons eaeee= Alachua. ..<¢-2/=- PAC yl 270 Baeicoose 18S Saoct 8

GEORGIA. ‘
Deckner, Fredrick.......| Atlanta ........- Ewitoniceeccecee 33 45 | 84 31 1000) ites | 4
ILLINOIS.
PATA WV itEL swede cimiiea aie Bilmore:cacte act Peorid)seeere eee. 40 56 90 04 6128 ARSeeeese. 10
Allarich; VieIry:--\-cas\-<.- ‘Diskilwa ts. o.0 2 Bureauseeeee- es 4115] 89 16 Bp VaE ss 4 12
Pea DCC MEicetseleacislelsicca = Riley. teleost McHenry----.... 42 11 88 33 YAU ENR an Boe 2
Bowman, E.H., M.D....} Andalusia....... Rock Island..... 4L305 2 eS tA ce ee Bishaeeee 1L %
Ballou, N. E., M.D....-. Sandwich ......- De Kalbztes.-... 41 31 88 30 | GOD eeu 12
3rendel, Frederick, M.D.| Peoria ........-.| Peoria.......--.| 40 43 89 39 460))|) Ave: 12
BlanchardOvs ¢- 2... =. Bimiray cs. ees.s6 Starkyeccoceos.| «| SESS OOPS deere Daron 12
Brinkerhoff, Geo. M....-.. Springfield ......| Sangamon. .-...-- 30) 481 BO Fs || eetattatate WEF Rese as 12
Brookes, Samuel........-. Chicago .- 5. ..:>.! Conkeseere cs c=] 42700 1 Sneie30iT 600} eee eas iL
Carey; Daniel ~~ 5. 5..-.. Altors sais 2 8 | Ape eeeesnc y. cs cclietedD S900 iets eee TR sec cies 12

Dudley, Timothy......-.| Waveriy ........} Murger ...... .-1 39 40| 9000 680) wR. 10

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

81

List of meteorological stations and observers, &c.—Continued

ILLINOIS—Continued.

| eee tines
= | & a | 8%
Name of observer. | Station. County. g 8 i Ss i oi
= R fe) E o3
q ES) on s Sit
° aS oO s °
A [= 22) fa A
OE oe Feet.
Dunean, Rev. Alexander-.} Mount Sterling -.| Brown .......--- OO) easy Rees oserd a oiscere 12
Eldredge, Wm. V.--.---- Golconda.-....--- IPONG rs escereeel iP CAs tele cy(elee SeSEe aN oe 12
Hreemanm Hs Cie. 2. see South Pass.....- MMO Sas sea sie eel vase eee | me mena | mercies ee eS 5
Gram OM seers
Grant, Charles W.--.--- } Manchester ..-.--. SQONoseSebsoseas 39 31 90 34 GSS AE ee ete 12
Huse ke red Ji stemen-s-- 2 Evanston.....--. Cookie eam =m o=- 42 03 | 87 38 (LEAT eK Bae 1
JERI Cree 8 ene ae eee ee Waterloo: ..----- IW GANS He ceacosa||ooéeance| asoseerlaesanses MY sc ercierete 12
Langguth, John G., jr..-.| Chicago -.....--. Cooks =e scn.s2<isee 42 00 | 87 30 600 | B. T.R.. 12
Little, Joseph T -..---.-- Dixon seyemesees | ES casesbosssace AV 45) 189) 3627-2 sce if ae ea 4
Livingston, Prof. Wm.--.-.| Galesburg ..----- MGTGSR So echtesee 40 55 | 90 25 T8BY | ASS scat 12
Mead Sidsuascer act ce ox Augusta.....-..- Hancock.-<-:.-.. AOI MOH OL O04 eee eee Oi 12
Merwin, Mrs. Emily H...| Ottawa.......-... La Salle-........ 41 20 | 88 47 OUOR WE Sra 12
ehelpsselie Sacsnasee-- ix
Phelps, Miss Lelia B... Whyenete cee ns—- 130K} eases AIT300 | 189-45) |Peceease Ree 12
Smithy Henry Ke -.c----° Magnolia.-..--.. JEpeneEbOe SoAncoann Gl G5 |) tS GY eaGoaaes He Ue coe 6
Spencer, Wm.C.....--.. IDUbOnesesee ee Washington ..... 38 14 Pog [emer cose DRA 11
Spaulding, Abiram ..-.-.. AULOTS seca == - UGhiideceepbeceae 41 48))\ 88) 23 oo. ae Aste cae 12
Thompson, A. H.......-.. DEK OEE SpeSeee ac AIST Been ocollSaescaanacceceellseancose AI tysvces 2
Tolman, James W..---.- Winnebago.....- Winnebago.....- 42 17 | 89 12 S100) || AN Seatac 12
INDIANA.
Boerner, Charles G .-.--- Vevay =-5----5:-| Swi‘zerland ..... Blois tev lea ae eee Ses il 11
Butterfield, W.W. & Mrs.) Indianapolis -.-.. DEI OT itr ac 39 45 | &6 20 | 698in| Mies sac 10
Chappellsmith, John.-.-. New Harmony .-| Posey. .......--- 38 08 | &7 50 | DOOM Ate ane 11
Crosien wD Bas) cen ele sie NOW At ayes an \|) UO Seger terra ee 38 02 | 85 32 | BOS | AE weer 3
Dawson, Wi -a-sce-ie | Spiceland ....... | Tele G=Sosmesde 39) 48) 85 285) - 15025) BT Re 12
IoRUmEY \Worlloceneoeescoae Indianapolis ..... Mianronesstsee == 39 47 | 87 06 698s | RACae ee 4
Holmes, Thomas ..-...... Mer omy) tae seat Siullnvanies ye ness 5) (Obyil, Stel oa eb aeoe PCat 12
Kemper,iG.o.W-_H., M.D). -|) Muncies.././.2.... | Delaware ...-.-. ADR Aion Ow rant nsees iad j1
Loughridge, Dr. J. H.--.| Rensselaer ...... I JIASD Ol cracia aia ce 40 56 | 87 13 CES) || UR Gn 5
McCoy Wribie anes Nex aN: : Si
Meee Musics. 2) Columbia City...! Whitney .....-.. Talat Se) aes Gus eeeal baal
Sutton) George, M.D =. -.| Aurora... -.--<- Dearbornecc.s--. 39 04 | 84 54 | S800 Ba Ee ee 12
Valentine, John..-2-2-... Richmond ...--... Waly nese ateraets)ta 39 52} 84 39 50M ASE aatctas 12
IOWA.
Atkinson, Wm. O.....--. Dakota-cizec)-<t<. Humboldt......-. 42) 400 94000) | aenaaros De eScond 9
BAD COCK Erste miclcicrainte Boonsboro’ .-.... Booneeees-ee se AQ OON OS mUaT sacs 4 eae 2
Bryant At Bess she as. cja8 Fontanelle ...--- Adair egestas oe 41 2% 94 3i Hj o00) |) DR see 12
Bush; Rey..Alva, s-----.. Oshpesicciseeaseas Mitchell ie jose: = ASvAOM RESON Fo leeaee es ee 2
Carpenter) Bi. sc <5-- <8 AG alISSaS Seneca alc Muscatine ..-.--- AES Oh OlO) \oeseccse Blau ere 5
Collin, Prof. Alonzo...... Mount) Vernon =. =| Linni--2e...c. =< ADs000)" 499 00" eeteecioere TS erasisis 12
Deering DNS. o-s5 4 scei Independence .--.| Buchanan ..-.---. 42 30 | 92 16 eae RN Beesoas 4
Dickinson, J ames P....-.. Guttenburg...... Clayton. aciea6 43 00 | 90 50 EO) || ee esoce 12
Dorweiler, Philip..-..... Algona. sasescsas ACOSSUP es inarsie aes rieiemiceieiters ial lapse stale ere 12
iBarnsyworth; 2.3, Mi. Os) Clinton...) 222.) Chintoneesssceee 40 40 | 90 10 6305s 11
Hagensick, John Mathias.| Ceres -........-. Clayton 2222 <3 42.45) 91 11 S250 | telersaeeree 12
orn rAisa, MoD ss has. Dubuguers--=- es Dubuque..-.----- 42 30 | 90 40 GEGNIPAeasees 12
ena Son VAN son etme yOngs 2 3 Selo Clintoneess eae 40 42) 90 10 6303) SRR 5
Jorgenson, ©) Ni: .5.<22-- Fort Dodge...... Humboldt ....-.- 42730)| 194/00) 5522-7 WY Boece 12
Love, Mrs. Louisa P-..-. Burlington -..... Des Moines...... 40 53} 91 LO Sa0i|) We2y eas ]
McCready, Daniel........ Hort, Madison. 3.4) ee. Joss a. cek 40 37 91S 285) ese RAR oe 12
Moulton; MoM... ..-5-..: Monticello-...... WONES Sees ocseicee 4215) 91! 1 BOON Reet 12
INET el SGN cb gs eee ecesoe Des Moines...... Polke seataecsceee AN Soe |) SS! sOs l= saree TR eee 3
Parvin, Prof. Theodore S-| Iowa City....... Johnson......-.. co SYf ie cusen SINE ae see 12
Sheldon, D.S-......-..-.. Davenport .....- Scotties se -eeee 41 30} 90 40 TB|| Na sceobs 12
Steed WE ese eo eeeea cee Waterloo....-... Black Hawk...-. 42 30} 92 30 (A a ee ee 12
Mtern; Jaco Messe sermee Harris Grove....| Harrison ........ 41 00 95 00 SOO) ees te = 12
Townsend, Nathan .....- Iowa Falls ...... Mardin eeeeeeos BOT SOn es OST2OU ae aes es 22 9
Wiadey: Heews8 eis see Marble Rock ....| Ployd...-..----- 4300) || 93800) |: 555.58) ibe eee 8
Walton, Josiah P........ Muscatine -....-- Muscatine -..-.-. 41 25} 92 02 Deo h Alor aes os 12
Warne, George, M.D -.-..| Independence....| Buchanan -....-. 42 25 92 06 850 ; B.T.R 8
Warren, James H....-... Alponas--cescees Kossuth sseee == FOOD MPN OATS ea cralatere 5 WAR oe 9
Wheaton, Mrs. Daniel D.| Independence....| Buchanan ..-...- AO OE ROO aie ste ees OEM aye 11
Witter, David Roses... a. Whitesboro’ -.__. Harrigongss-p- ss: AL Sts) List On eoooeead ce ate il
*Above low water in the Ohio river.
Gr st 6%

82 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers, §c.—Continued.

KANSAS.
= mm fs
oS ude a | ge
Name of observer. Station. County. = & a q fa
° oO om, So
A = ss & A
(ope rs Oo Wf Feet.
Agricultural College..---- Manhattan ....-- MU Face nesses 392 SG AO 300) | ST ore cee 12
Beckywithy Wi ss-.ces-- =~ Olatherscameereee JONNSON Ssejen/= nie 36 00) 6 94830)i| feces one shen pee Se 12
Hollingworth, Geo. W.---| Lawrence. .----- Wouglaseea-se ser 38 37 | 95 10 QSOS (0: Rete ae 2
Horn, Dr. H. B.....-.- } Atchison Atchison 39 42 | 9500] 1,000/ T 12
EFOUTIMINLINS CLODILGG "= 72%2 1°59) eateanptet a pike ig aa] lor eae ata wih ames ae i De aaa | We ata oie
Ingraham & Hyland..- --. Baxter Spnnes)--|) Cherokee =o = seen! seeac/a || eine nininat eisyaiea et Cel eaten 6
Shoemaker, J. G----.---- Wie ROVicee seer Woiteyeenee- eens eis) 1) |) = SB) WBS S555 35 - Bea a. 5
Stayman, Dr. J.--------. Leavenworth ....| Leavenworth....| 3915 | 94 52 |........ A goes 12
Walters, Dr. James -..-.. HMoMtoO nese eee Jackson -.....--- SOPZC A 9D LO) ali) ee 8
Woodworth, Abner, M. D-} Council Grove.-.| Morris....------- 38 427) 96132). == MUS Sae 12
KENTUCKY.
Beatty Oe soscre-ceeenice Danville .......- BOG Ssengscaaee 37 40 | 8&4 30 900} B. LT. R-- 7
Martin, Dr. Samuel D..-..| Chilesburg ...... Bayete ooees- 38 04} 84 20 O83) Bade 12
Young, Mrs. Lawrence---| Louisville -...--- Jeiferson.----- =. 38 07 | 85 24 Of On| pAleemames 12
LOUISIANA.
Garters J. (Ela cece cicnincse Bentony se easace Bassin Bee: Lee ee sigoeeeeealees Sie Ms See tisiniate es cere 8
Foster, Robert W.------- New Orleans .--.| Orleans-..---.--- yf | SIO UO Ween Byles 8
Teele, Rey. Albert K ....| Vidalia Plantat’n.}| Concordia -..--.-. SPN at) oseenass WB easo 3
MAINE.
IDBy oy Waddle Se Sseneaee | North Prospect ..}| Waldo ........-. 44 28 | 68 58 QO 7 Me ee 2
Gardiner, Robert H...--- | Gardiner ........ Kennebetss-----= 44 11 69 46 GN (Accsercciers 12
GupalliGs Wieesseeeeree Womishtepeeeeees Wonkenerraeert = 43 40 | 70 44 SOON MER eee 12
Moore Asal Peoria t= Rnsbonieee essence Androsecoggin.... 44 00} 70 04 S10) | 4 Daa BS 12
Moulton, John P..-...--- DLANGIS Hemel Cumberland ...-. 43 45 | 70 30 Paci || MSI ioc 8
IBAnKr i) D> seseiciesneo ns Steuben--- -.---- Washington -.... 44 31 67 57 O00 eee 12
Pettingill, Waldo .......- Rumford Point 3.) (Oxford == ------- 44 30! 70 40 6005 SRR 8
Pitman, Edwin.......... Williamsburg....| Piscataquis -..-... A512 Seca Alnasise see WBS IRE oA0 7
Robinson, Almon.....--. Websters s--2---- Androscoggin.... 44 04] 70 04 |....---. AU Basce 4
Towle, Benjamin H...-.-.. IWS snssotosssnos 1D ao a) (COh Soema so GoneHEas|loooa 175s Jbsoseess MBL ose 10
Wiest) Silas: Ssseece as Commish eredece. Mion 2ociciceteata es 43 49 70 44 OA ol PANE eee 12
Wilbur, Benjamin F ..... | West Waterville.) Kennebec........ 44 30 | 69 45 PrN |) Mes les See 12
MARYLAND.
Goodman, Wm. R.-...---. Annapolis ...---.| Anne Arundel..-} 38 58 | 76 29 20) cle Sao ae 12
Grape, George S-....---- Catonsville .-.... Baltimore. -...-.- 39 17 | 76 42 yey Ais 555 a8
Jourdan, Prof. C. H..---. Emmittsburg ..-.] Frederick.-.-....- OMA diane aiectotetsime eee 4
McCormick, James O ..-.} Woodlawn ...-.-- Cecilaseeeeess.c,- 39 39 MOKOSM meee ac Toye! Dd ee 12
‘Sitenynowel O}b boa Seen nee Rromittsburpys- =| eredenicletmemre ca blew eeteme!| eater aime mets US ne5s65 12
Stevenson, Rey. James --} St. Inigoes ...-.. St. Mary’s-...-.- 38 10 | 7630 ay ee ea oe 8
MASSACHUSETTS.
Astronomicai Observatory| Williamstown -..| Berkshire -.-.-.-- 42 43 | 73 13 686) PAC eee 12
Bacon, William.......... Richinond .....-- Berkshire ....... 42 13 2220uhe JF O00) AR ae. il
Bixby SOND Ee aceenn a= West Newton ...| Middlesex -.-.--- 4221) WL iz AD DSS sent 10
Caldwell, John H ........ Newbury...---.- IYER Gs. -acd086e 42 45} 70 55 Pay i Mes e SSS 12
Cunningham, George A ..| Lunenburg....-.. Worcester -...--. CNG isl Wy ALE ef, 15 hor By aaee 12
Draper, Joseph ...---..-. Worcester......- Worcester ......- 4216] 71 48 O28 i|| Ameena 12
Wallon. Johneee is sae-= el Lawrence ..----- WESEX¢e pees ee - 5 42 42] 7111 IBEW) YS 555656 12
Merriam, Sidney A ...... Topsteld)..252-.4| Hussexeemm ome cle. 42 38 WOUDT Wawa sceiee Aree isms 12
Metcalf, John George....| Mendon......... Worcester ....-.. A2nOGae aoa eeee ates B.T.R-. 12

a

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. S83

List of meteorological stations and observers, §c.—Continued.

MASSACHUSETTS—Continued.

Name of observer. Station. County. a} 6 2 =| a
a »~ a f= 3S 9
= e AS te Hae
S 2 ms S)
A = cs a A
° / oO / Feet
Nason, Rev. Elias.....--- North Billerica ..| Middlesex -......| 42 3 Ate G Se RRR rae BSL ae 12
Nelson, Henry M...---.-- Georgetown -.--. MOEEGSS Peeienoooaor 42 42) 71 00 pol a ea ees 3
Nelson, S. Augustus.....- Georgetown ..--- PIBROX Slee set ete sets | 42 42) 71 00 24a lid Deere 8
Newcomb, Guilford § .-..| Kingston ..-....- Plymouth ......- 425005)" iOV4o" soem ee ee Reyes 12
Rodman, Samuel......--- New Bedford....| Bristol --..-..--- 41 39 | 70 56 Oy |) Agena sa 12
Snell Profi. S---o..--.- Amherst...------ Hampshire ...... 42 22)) 72 34 267 || Ass -o< = 12
Teele, Rev. Albert K..--- MilbOn ees = Sac) Nortolis2saaca || Ease eeealiecescoclesweee ce YO es oa 8
Tucker, Edward T-......- New Bedford.-..) Bristol ..-......- 41 39 | 70 55 Gi) | ed Bale hoe 8
MICHIGAN.
Bullard, Ransom......---. litehfield<<222=- Hillsdale ........ 42 OL 84 46 D040; Ui eee 11
Chase, Milton, M.D ...... Kalamazoo ...... Kralamazoo'sae scalars ose.2'= lls ele sere see cies Tepes ete ba
Ellis, Edwin, M.D ..-.--- Ontonagon ...-.-- Ontonagon ...... 46 40 | 90 00 GLON ere saryete 12
TOMES Bui Stesss<-)as GurandiRapids: =<} Kente tose 43 00} 85 40 UB Ae eae q Tt
Kedzie; Protea C- <5 == Wan Sin Peseta ee Tne hates eta 42 42) 84°34) |". (895 || Assess: i
Mapes, Henry H......-.. Oshtemolseenese- TIENTE ARO) cSoneallesoconcollsacbocrcllocoscese IN| BeSecee 12
Paxton, John W..------- Alpenasececs 2s) Alpena. .....-.-- 45 02} 83 05 Of2 | BT eee 5
Smith, Rev. George N.-.-.| Northport -...-..- Leelanaw ...---- 45 08 | 85 41 292 | Wi asss2 fe R
Smith, Harmon M.......- Kalamazoo ...--- Kalamazoo ..---- AQ. Qo |) = BON Aa |e ar Nice Ss 2 5
Steele, George EB ........ Homestead. ....| Benzie -......... 44 30 86; 09; hs soe | A ee ee 3
Strong! Ties 3 oe aycace Hollandisasensace Ottawa. - 5-5-2 -< 442) SOMO, fee Ata ese 9
Whelpley,MissFlorence BH.) Monroe..--...... Wonnoe saeaataciae 41 58 | 83 23 O90 ME Res =e = il
Whittlesey, S. H......-.- Central Mine -...| Keweenaw .----- 47 00} 87 54) 1,177 | Djosssa- 8
MINNESOTA.
Babcock, Dr. B. F.-.------ ALTON ass cerse aces Washington ..... 44 50 | 93 00 9505) eso aes 5
Bardon, Richard -.......- Grand! Portage! -.| Wakes: -------- 47 50} 89 50 OA Nee ae 5
Cheney, William.......-- Minneapolis ..-... Hennepin -....-.-.. 45 00 | 93 10 Bobi PAC cea 12
Heimstreet, John W..-..-.- Binwbean leer see aa Ramsey == s= e o=% 44 57 93 05 S00 Aya aes i!
Paterson, Rev. A.B.,D. D-.| St. Paul ......... Staeanlaeee. see 44 57 | 93 05 S000 eee 12
Roos, Charleg..-_.-------- New Ulm ......- BLOW seca ee 44 14 | 94 26 ete | MN Rs eo 12
Stephens, Prof. A.M ..--. Red Wing. 2. =--- xoodhue ....-.-- 44 35 | 92 30 (S10{0) | RGIS See, 8
Niieland iCie 520 -es 2 Beaver Bay ----- Wak Gmacs yess aie 4712) 91 18 650 | T.R - 12
Woodbury, C. W .------- Sibleyjeee pene ene Sibley=seos2 ccc: 44 31 | 9426) 1,600) T.R...- 12
MISSISSIPPI.
Cleland) Rev. 'T. H-.-.... Hayette:..2sso-- HUGO. ee cc ene Stereos Saneoeiog CseEeaee We eee 12
McCary, William .......- Natchez -.....-.. ANGE) = BAB soc SIGH || RIL Pina eceee- Bo kva,< 12
Moore;Albert.....5...-.- Grenadasesesec = Yallobusha.....- dau4o. | 90) 00M |22a5 525 | ea taoeare = 11
Smith, J. Edwards ...-..- Kingston .-...--. Adampisessnsee SUE Q4S OU Gi} aoe See eid ee 4
MISSOURI.
Christian, John ..-...-.-.. Harrisonville .< --| Cass) s.-s--55- 2 38 40) 94 30'j}---...-.. | PRU) ntate 12
Englemann, George, M. D.| St. Louis -.--.---- St, BOwisioee mesos 38 37 | 90:15 480 i fAu seo a 2
Fendler, Augustus ....-.. Allentony =o.) 6 <= St Woaisiesseeace 38 29} 90 45 482 | B. T.P 12
Kaucher, William ....-..- Oregonasss)-.!25.2: lain eee ase cso 39 99)| 95.10 | 1,100 | TR =. ue
. ‘Union¥ ese c= Pranklineseees-2 38 25 | 91 09 GIG. (RUSE sae 5
Moore, Miss Belle -..... ; Hermitage....... Hickory .....-.-- 3756 93016 | 2-5-5 MRS 4
Ray, George P.-----..---- Canton! ssesceoe We wis ssseseee ae END RIO") SCUINGY Al Bee ree ec (eee 3 7
Ruggles, Homer -..---.-.-- Rolla. lasaeesaee Phelps assesses =e ba Sue berlin Oe Salsas aces Pees 8
Stuntebeck, Rev.F.H.,S.J.| St. Louis ......--| St. Louis -.....--. | 38 37] 9015 AROR WAS tee ofant= 12
Vertrees, John H.-...--.- Edinburg. ....--- Gmund yj 222 eee 40 00} 93) 30 |---...-- Bite Euererr 1

* Above Minnesota river.

84

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers, §:c.—Continued.

MONTANA.
g 2 Tia Nee
5 Be} Bw :
= “& a eS
Name of observer. Station. County. S 8 is | Re
E=] a 2} oa)
= B 2 $ 3 z
a 5
Zi = ss a A
ery Oy Feet.
Lehman, Dr. H. M ...-.-- Camp Capker sac |ceaseseeeaeeee sae 48)100)3/li00')|- == =. = TIRES 1
Wheaton, Alex, Camp.--.-} Helena City-.---. Edgerton...-...-.- 46°45) 50") 45150. | as. 4
|
NEBRASKA.
Bowen; John § .....-.... Elkhorn City --- | Washington -.... AL 22 | One|) 1800) 0 Wh certs 12
BLOWN Eee a sara eae Dakota City-..-. Dakota......--.. CPO) | Cla) Bemeosacl res ocausoe 3
ChildvA Le iDes. aeee Glendale ........ (OPEV aogasecssccs AQMD Dale ObnOo! ||) O10} Mier 12
; Bellevue <-->... - REN Myesgee se sess 41 08 | 95 50 }.---.--. Tire 5
Hamilton, Rev. Wm --- ; Blackbird Hills..| Burt ....-.-.---. A310) 96'00'| 220.00: TR... 4
McKenzie, J. M.---....-- LEY gi RRR SAbe, Nemeha-scnss-% 40 29 She biiiaeseese i} sar af
Seltz, Charles...........- DexySoto= ss. -<--= Washington -..--. ALVS0 04:96, O0Meeecea ac U eee 12
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Brewster, Alfred......--- Mamworthl=s aos Carrollie eens ASr50 Nh el Obl wees Whee aces 2
Brown, Branch ...-....-. Stratford! => -a-- CWooseas-seeer amr 44 40| 7107] 1,000) T.R..-. 12
@hase,; Arthur) 2.5=---)--- Claremont-.-...-.. Dillivanees series 43°22) 72 21! 539 | B. T. R-.- 12
Leu ONDE etna tea Portsmouth. -.--- Rockingham...-. 43°05 | 70 41 127 sate eee ine
Hurlin, Rev. William...-. Amitiiiin epee c ss ENS DOOM = ance Se nosee linen cise laciceaieme ING Resco util
Mead, Stephen O .....--. Claremont. .....- SHER hea Se calls Sos ial Eset Saalleccsea as if eee 1
Odell, Fletcher-......-...- Shelburne..-...- Woasteeeesesesene 44 23 | 71 06 200K Base 8
Pitman, Charles H .....-- North Barnstead.| Belknap...-...-.- a Wisteye ffl fil SES is ABS 35 - 12
Wheeler, John T ...--.-.- Goncordaes-eeeee Merrimack ....-- 43 12.) #29 400) "Bs Lok. 6
NEW JERSEY.
Beans, Thomas J Burlington ...... BETO 72 oy A ee aseere i eaten 10
Brooks, William ..---.--- Passaiossscst=!a< 40 55 | 74 10 GO AR eee 12
Cole; Barker -eo-men--- <= Cape May..-.---- 39 20 | 74 40 Ther EMRE gee 10
Cook, Ephraim R IMC CCL ae aerial 40 14] 74 46 60 | Bot. R-- 12
Cook, Prof. George H ....| New Brunswick -| Middlesex .--.--- 40 30} 74 27 0) Aaa eeee 12
Couch ED es epece css Newfield ........ Gloucester ...--- 39 30 | 74 50 180))),"eatease 3
Deacon, John C..-..------ Burlington -..-.-- Burlington .....-. 40 05 |} 75 10 60) |) RAE 12
Fleming, John = 5------<-° Readington....-- Hunterdon ..-.--- 403 iwi AOU oe ann ine Y ee 8
GTS; Ie etn sini Eiwood -...---.- INIEHNT Oe ncocced |cosacenc|looessecd|soaneaos Te eeeees 2
Ingram, John, M.D .-.---- Vineland 225 ome Cumberland ..... 39 38 aOR Nice ce ieee Peete ae 5
Rhees, Morgan J.,M.D ..| Mount Holly ....| Burlington -...... 40 G3) 74 47 30) |B ee i
Sheppard, Clarkson.... F = é
See Se aacen Got } Greenwich .----- Cumberland ..... 39 20} 75 25 =f), | Awe 2
Shriver, Howard.......-. Moversseossccece IMOLribss <page tes 40 54) 74 35 692) BRO <2 12
iWihitehead Wie Asye certains Newark ....-.--- IDEGx€ S55 sbGcoc 40 45 | 74 10 30 | B. TR. 12
Wood, Samuel-........--- Huddonfield ..--. Canidéeni et eee aac teeeeeealbeeeeeee W4) AL aoe 12
NEW YORK.
Arden, Thomas B.-.....-. Garrison’s -.-.--- Putnam ~-.-..--- 41 22'| 74 02 LBON|s Meee 12
Aubier, Rey. Jno. M., 8. J.| New York.-----.- New York......- 40 44 | 73 59 DOE) es Soe 9
Barrows, Storrs..-..----: South Trenton -.| Oneida......---- 43 10 | 74 56 Bape 12
Bartlett, Erastus B....... Vermillion...---- QOSwetomarsen-t-i- 43 26 | 77 26 poi Mit les oo 11
Beauchamp, William M ..! Skaneateles -..-. Onondaga -.----- 43 00 | 76 30 O30) Be eset 5
Bowman, John .....--.-. | Baldwinsville. -..| Onondaga .------ 43504) | 76/41 oo eee eae 5
LBs OS) hee Ree Seer Minaville...-.... Montgomery..--. 42 54 7415 Nese soe Ue oo 5
Bussing, John W .----.-- Minaville........ Montgomery.-.--- 42/04) TH VO eo ooo w= MPSS sone 1
Dewey, Prof. Chester. --.- Rochester --1--.- Monropereee.--\-- 43 07 | 77 dL 516 | B. T. R-- 11
Edwards, Daniel..-.-..-- Little Genesee...) Allegany .-----.-- 42 00 | 7836 | 1,500) B.T.R-. 12
Fries, George W.-------- Friendship .-..-- Allegany -....-.. 42.15) 78°10) 2.036 |) Teena - 9
Gardiner, James H...--.- Newburg: --.--:. Oranges-........ 41 31 | 74 01 85) ||| Baie 12
Gryefaeiiie si OS 5ns655s054- Wheresas-.)35- Jefferson -....... 4412) 75 48 369) || Zk === 12
Haas Hennyeeses eer enee' Depauville ....-- JOHETSOM ones <= 10 AAS eee oe 300 | T.R .-- 12
Heimstreet, John W ..-.. Giron eee latter Rensselaer .-..-. 42 44 | 73 40 Se) || dN Sonciogc 9

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers, §c—Continued.

NEW YORK—Continued.

85

o aw 2
5 £ a a
2 | & Bueele 2
Name of observer. Station. County. acs 8 ts a a8
= th " E ° 2
S 2 ‘3 2 S
wi = ts f=| A
QO 4 OMe! Feet.
Hillier, Spencer L..-.---- Stapleton. ...... “Richmond ....-.- 40 39 | 74 04 DO) Aver: Beets 3
Howell, Robert .--------- INiChols Sasceeacs NU fe peso sod eco AOON MAG) (Seem sient HPT, 254, are 12
Ingalsbe, Grenville M ...-| South Hartford..| Washington ..... 43.15) 73 21 400 PRRs ere 11
Ives, William ....-.-....-- Buffalo.......... DHS eSoesenonccod 42 50] 78 56 6005) Ba RaRe- 12
Joy, Prof. Charles A.-.--. New York......- New York....-.. AEA SY ait ae OO) Pejetatatetat= AS aniee 12
Mackie. Bob. sees = EatioUsiir se Gia mocaoceone 40 37 | 74 02 cae (el oy Be be il
Malcolm, Wm. Schuyler ..| Oswego --.----.-- Oswego ....-.--- 43 28 | 76 30 200)| B. TR: - 12
Mathews, M. M., M. D ..-| Rochester ---..-- Monroe .--... --- 43 08 | 77 51 Seon |e Ave wee ase ‘10
Morris, Miss Elizabeth -..| Throg’s Neck....| Westchester -.-.- 40 49 | 73 49 CGA Ne Schone 12
Morris, Prof. Oran W..... New York ....-. New York...=-.. 40 43 | 74 05 Gone Ale: wereteras 12
Roe, Sanford W..---.---- Germantown: |) COMMPIa. wa. .5-| wales lo emia SON eee estore 10
Russell, Cyrus H......--- Gouverneur ..... St. Lawrence-.-..) 4419} 75 29 |........ 1 Bouts Ree 12
Smith, E. A., & daughters} Moriches .....-.. Sutttolicesemecrais= 40 49 | 72 36 aS Wa hed Dd ksi tee 12
Soule, Prof. William -.... Cazenovia. ...--- Madison << ==): AON Ou aloe 40 || lee SOO seems 12
Spooner, Stillman, M.D-.-| Oneida .-.....--- Wadisone-serer 43 04 | 75 50 SOOR Meas 11
Trowbridge, David ....-. ELECTION alt= Scbuvlerse a5 42 30 | 77 00 eP0) i) INPoasonoe 10
Willis; Oliver R.----.-... White Plains .-..| Westchester..-... 41 05 | 73 40 PYG Mesa oe 12
Wilson, Rev. W. D., D. D.| Geneva .------.- Ontanion ease. 42 53] T7 02 OMe || ebetlie eter 12
Wooster, Charles A.-..-. North Hammond.| St. Lawrence....| 44 30] 75 40 |....-.-.-- Bp = 12
Male; Walter 2-205... Houseville....... IU Re eeceeneece 43 40 | 7 32 |---.--.- Her VUE esas 12
NORTH CAROLINA.
Adame nia Wiens <istesin(=/ar Goldsboro’ ...-.-- Wiaynessccnns--" 30) 20i|- eo OZ Nee 12
Allison, Thomas A.--.--- Statesville-...... ise ooecoreor CB Gh) || 1810) 610). Se eeorssic Modeoce 12
NStOnS Bi dl cease ase Asheville........ Buncombe: sess -|saee= 2 es |eneecees OOO Relates ates 8
' Brewer, Rev. Fisk P....- Raleigh ssjeniee Wiese emessade rarer All) aay toine: to] Lea UT asl Sees 12
jHicks, Winn: RMD sos. Oxfordeae ie Granville.-...... 36 23 HOM LAS | Soee eee Aeron 8
HIKOON, ED scisew geese - Attaway Hill.---.| Stanley -..-..--. 35 25 | 80 00 sid) | Bee ae 12
Whe oars Wee emeoosse Oxtord)-23 sce -25 Granville: o--= 2: 361230) 718) an eae LY eS | 4
Wate WN G6 Sa Seeseoocee Guilford Mine -..-| Guilford......--. 36)/009)) 280500) eee == IWlocéased | 2
OHIO.
Bambach, Dr. G -.-..---- RIpleyA-scicise= cos BLOWIN see esse 38 47 | 83 31 21065 PAg=e nese 1
Benner, Josiah F ........ New Lisbon -.-... Columbiana .-..- 40 45 | 80 45 96L | BOT il
ESTONIA OO rm ore imtsl mo ohn) tayatot North Fairfield-.| Huron..---...-.. 41 08 | 82 40 (3]5}0)9}) Wb) Ree 10
Clarke; Johns o 2-2... <== Bowling Green -.| Wood .-......-..- 41 22 83 40 TOON MEER 12
Crane, George W....---- Betheliz ssc eccs-' Clermont ........ 39 00} 84 00 S| ANE Som 11
Doyle; Joseph) B.--....-- Steubenville. -... Jefferson .....--. 40545) 80) 477} ) onl 1d ee oe 4
BerRIssy Bed ves as SS Little Mountain..| Geauga ....-.-.-. 41538) Sie LGy |" TetGON aR. 12
Hammitt, John W.-....-- College Hill ..... Hamilton. -.-=-.- 39 19} 84 26 800M) 0. Rie. ity)
Harper, George W--..--- Cincinnati --..... Hamilton.....--. 39 06 | 84 27 2305) PAWerae ae 12
Haywood, Prof. John -...| Kingston ........ IOUS Gecépocasecc 39 29 | 83 00 GE) AM oven een 6
Huntington, George C..-..| Kelley’s Island.-.| Erie..-.....----- 41 36} 82 42 587 | B. TR. 11
POE Bc re piClevalattd enna Cuyahoga ....... 4130] 8138] 683/BT.R..| 12
Knoble, Samuel.......... afayette........ AMG sh 5heo nace Wena aqadloemenescleoeceoce pepe es 2
MeMillin, Smith B .....-- East FPairfield....) Columbiana -.... 40 41 | 80 44) 1,152) A....... 5
Marsh, Mrs. M.M ..--.-.- Rapley, Sse a4cee EHO ee eee ares 41 00 | 8&2 30 9650 |eBaea wy = 7
Mathews, Joseph McD..-} Hillsborough ....| Highland..-...... Bemis Wee so loseeecer 1 US See 11
Newton, Rev. Alfred -.... INOrwallke ees 21s iunon ss eeeeces CUS 3 eets}2)-2:' iol emcees pity ay il
IRbilpsHRaC Mees secs eee Cincinnati -.-.... Mamiltonesesees = 39 06 | 84 27 588 | B.D. R.- 12
Rodgers, Alexander P....| Gallipolis.-..--.- Galliagseeenaace = 39 00 | 82 00 (00), Abel oe 4
Shreve, Charles R......-- Martin's Ferry-.--| Belmont........-. ZORLON | 80) 490 oeene a= deesscee 6
Smith, C.H., M.D . Kenton << jase Hardin eeaeeeeeee AOPUOY eSrosn| ll yoGee el steers - 12
SmUpr A) Ar Me Ieee Cleveland). 5----- Cuyahoga ..--... AIS!) (SLVAGh esa. = LU Ae 8
Thompson, Rev. David.--.| Milnersville...... Guernsey-.---.- ARON Cleon Weecae re a Saree 11
Thompson, Prof. H. A....| Westerville...... BPranklinisesseer: 40045) S8300) | csases se ENveE mca 5
(iremb ley elas vl. De. Oled orem sea ame = Tucas ceo cee COs) eee eer 604 | B.T.R 12
Prue Hs) AMEND ers aces Marion! fs-ee-ee- Marioneeeeree ces 40 35 83 08 Use | eats Bs 11
Tuckerman, UB 225 -- <5 College Hill .-..}| Hamilton......-- 39 19 | 84 26 800 | T.R .-. uf
Williams, Prof. M.G -.--.- Urbans.) 25ssn. Champaign......| 4006) 8343] 1,015) B.T.R 11
Wilkinson, John R....... Williamsport ....| Pickaway .--.-- 39 37 (oo) U7 (el eset Tr Rysee 3
Winger; Martin ...22..-.. WiOOster Ns hearer Waynes ie 40 49 | 81 57 Si) MN Season i

* Above low water in the Ohio river.

86

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers, &c.—Continued.

OREGON.
Sly We Be Nee
Name of observer. Station. County. = 8 i 5 = 3
= & Eo E ao)
5 g s w a
A = fH c Z
Ores Oe, Feet.

Barnard vA AD ieee esas Coryallise 22.2 <a- Benton 22-252... Ad 30 MPSTOO Foss see. Tis See 11
Hindman, S. M. W ..----- Albany; -2s-c-co: inn eee eee see 44 22 | 123 00 COLO) (el eS SS Se 9
PENNSYLVANIA.

Baker, William E..-...--. Ickesburg .-..-.. Perry. eosin clans 40°27) NW 12o)| earns ASU eis 6
Beritley, Heinen oe ionas scores Tova cy tone 42 00] 7700] 1,000| T.R... 11
Brackart dc, Gyacosciso sae Silver Spring..-.] Lancaster -...-.- 40°05, 76 45)).- 222. iW sses5e 3
Brugger, Samuel. ..--...-. Bleming = seess— (WeNtre eee etc 40 55 77 53 Ufo ed Wh ee 6
Darlington, Fenelon..-.... Pocopsones-e ee CHESTe rere acer 39:40) 7 37 21s oe 12
Day, Theodore ....-.-.... Dy berry =------- Wiciymle oem ASS OM) OW UO beeen Wes oasadt 12
Dutton, J. Russell......-.- Stevensville ....- iIBradiordie..-ee4- 41 45 | 76 35 3007) Rea 2
Fenton, Blisha..-..------ Grampian Hills..| Clearfield ....-..- 41 00} 7840) 1,400; BTR 12
Grathwohl, John.....---. Blooming Groye.| Pike ...-..------ 410305) “7a 00 |easacee Up te et 12
Hance, Ebenezer...-..--- Fallsington...... IBWCKSE ce eisisaa 40 12| 74 48 SOM meas oscars 12
Heikely, Dr: John: -.---.. Harrisburg -.---- Dauphiniseeeeee A0MGN| Oot tae een ee Ae eee 12
Hoffer, Dr. Jacob R.-.--.. Mount Joy .-.--- Lancaster ..---.- AQKOBS| Per Oie2 i eeeeee ee oH ba ee 10
DAMesyProfaG i Sieee == = Lewisburg -.-... Winonereeeeacric 40585 76 pS |enaase ASS oe ee! 12
Kirkpatrick, Prof. Jas. A .| Philadelphia. .-.- Philadelphia... --. B97) wo) LL GO| PATE ae ree: 12
Kohler, Edward ......--. North Whitehall.| Lehigh ....-...--. 40 44 | 75 28 450 5)! eames 12
McConnell, E. M..-.------ New Castle.....- Lawrence ...--- Al 008)" SO D2 cece Serer 12
Martindale, Isaac C ...... IB ViDeni yaeetemielslee Philadelphia -. --. 40 05 | 75 00 TAD | OSP cenecce ot
Mayer, Prof. Alfred M.--.| Bethlehem....... Northampton....| 4038] 75 23 |...---.- BaP 6
Meehan, Thomas.-.-...-.- Germantown. =|) a2hiladelphid-~ 2.) secre mcs | secs] e = = eens 11
Milliken, John. ccc-=- North East ....-.. TIC Sus eee cee talline cies sets cee see eieieieieiae Nie ccm 4
Raser, John Heyl --.-..- Rieadin seeps Berks eee alent 40 20| 75 57 209) Sheeran 12
Smith, William, D. D..-..| Canonsburg -.... Washington -..-.- 40 16 |. 80 10 850 | B. T. R-- 12
Spencer, Miss Anna..-.-. Hlorshams eee Montgomery..... 40 00 | 75 il 200 | B. T.R. 12
Spera Woks ceecocc sens Ephrata 22... == WMancasterieecesas| sees see See | wae Mi Ia 12
Stewart we lies cemeaesee Murrysville ...-. Westmoreland..-| 40 28 79 35 960) || Aqjeeces. 1
MaylorsJONN) -jemeee ce = == Connellsville ....| Fayette ........- ADDON YOO eosscsas fb ss5ece 12
Maylor TROV ceive aaien =i Beavers .<65 = Beavero ce. 4043 |" 80"23) | feo AR eror 3
Tolman, Rev. Mareus A.-| Franklin -----.-- Wenangornce. =. 20k Be re) a eSaasocr Mem Sandis 3
Tooker, Nathan C......-- Bethlehem -.....- Northampton....| 40 38 | 75 23 |..---..- 15} 1244 b 1
RHODE ISLAND.

Caswell, Prof. Alexis.....| Providence .....- Providence ...-.. 41 49} 7125 120 GACsee aa 4
Crandall, William H....-. Newport ----...- Newport .--..--. 41} .28 | 71 21 BY || MIRA aoe 12
SOUTH CAROLINA.

Cornish, Rev. John H. -...} Aiken..-.-...... Barmywellleeeeer = oole2 | 81384 500s | eset 12
Petty, Charles -.2-2..---- Walkensvalle’ ©: 5-|, Union@en2ee- <2 - PEG) ile tel aliy | aRe sen Netaaeo- 12
TENNESSEE.

Bancrott, Rev. C. F. P....| Lookout Mount’n.| Hamilton...-...-. Soy Sy [ante | APA) sted Wes 9
Doak iS. S.ce Wiis) osoc. Greenville......- Gieenvescees see OA tse pes ese eae 12
Brenchy Ered: Hi 22.532 .. Nashville........ Davidsons.2s-c-a| Gee. 2s] sistas elbssasoas 1 Boni 2
Goldsmith, Edward -...... Memphises ss seas Shelby ---=------ 35 08 | 90 08 262 | B. T.R 4
Parker, Joseph M., M.D..| Franklin ........ Williamson..---. Bo se MOOV eon one DSR ra uf
Stewart, Prof. Wm. M.-...| Clarksville ...... Montgomery-..-.. 36 29) 87 13 ASG Aves ete i
Williams, Edward F ..... Lookout Mount’n.} Hamilton.....--- Bostod|. Oo. Lo! 2, 200K sBe ee se 3
TEXAS.

Baxter, Miss E........-.. Elonston--e snes Harris. ...--.---- 29 (50)! 0951a0) eee qisss ie 3
Ganti Wit, M.D -----. Chappell Hill....| Washington -.-... 30 15 | 96 21 Ose (Llores 2
Glascopale one atin scree ole | Gilmer)..2.2. 5.2. Upshur se-e-- = - 32 46 | 94 51 950) 20 ae Saece 3
Merrill, Edward, M. D.--.| Waco ........... McLernan....--- 31 307) #96 ON seeaeene Sepa 8
DUUtheE Rona Miles areca. aston Long Point...... Washington ..... 30°16 jan Sceee = A007) aie 3
Stevens, Hennell ........ Ced’r GrovePlan.| Brazoria ...----. 29 10} 96 56 60) BR. 12
Van Nostrand, J .-.------ AUIBTID) Kise Shs ote PRravisweee oe = c- 30 29 | 97 46 650 | T.POR-- 12

List of meteorological stations and observers, &c.—Continued.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

87

UTAH.
3 3 3
3 i a Se
Ss ee:
Name of observer. Station. County. = Ss ae 8 ig =
o om °
A = es i A
py Ores Feet.
Bullock, Thomas..-.....-- Wanship)..-.2.-- Sumumit 9222 sce AO 42 | 111 20 63200) eis eee ijl
Lewis; damesis-.--------- Harrisburg .----.- PWWrashine fone aenibt acne leer aes |cetiecee- A ie aes 7
IPhelpRAWeiWe -----==- = Salt Lake ...... Salt Lake ......-. 40 45 | 111 26 |. 4,320 | T.R--- 7
i
VERMONT.
Buckland, Harmon...--.. Brandon: >+--<--- Rutland)s-.—.<- = - 43 45 | 73 00 460i) eRe 6
Cutting; Hiram “A-....2-. Lunenburg ...... |) 1OSEER soSseoceend 44 23) 71 41 ae Wc at ee 12
Eaton, Benjamin F.,M.D-| Barnet -......--- | Caledonia -....-. 4418} 72 05 952°) B. TR 5
Paddock, James A-.-...--- Craftsbury ..--.- Orleans semawnc 4440) 7230); 1,100) T.R. 4
Paine Charleswues 5-2 Randolph -..---. (Oranges... --=—- 43 35 | 72 36 OOS eb ed keer 11
Perry, Rev. John B ...--- Wilmington .--.- Windham <3---.- A2eoa lt ie 4h | Le Q50N Ba. 5 7
Sheldon, Harmon A.-...-. Middlebury....-- Addison zee se- 43 59 | 73 10 OHI) INWAUee eice 12
Wild, Edward P.......-.- North Craftsbury.) Orleans .-..-.-.. 4440) 7230) 1,100} T.R- 8
VIRGINIA
Adamsy J. BY oom consicte am = Hewlett’s ..-...- Hanover <<. 5.-- S02) |) te 4o) | emistsmietere ie sedace 6
Clark, James T., M. D.-..| Mount Solon ....| Augusta......... SO tO OS) |tees see de escécce 7
Jones, Benjamin W..-.--- Surcy7@s Hes. SUH enaesobocsd Sie LOR ihGe SO) eere ere DY chara aclere 8
Meriwether, Charles J-...| Near Lynchburg.| Bedford ..--....- ot Lo) 79) 10h (see poses 10
Potts, Jean Ge------22--- Cape Charles....| Northampton -.--.| 37 08 | 75 53 20) |e era 9
Stalnaker,:J. W/------- ==: Snowville .....-- IP as Kies rae 3 OOl) SOLO) | haaae= ss TS Riees 4
WASHINGTON.

Bulkeley Sss—-ess <= Port Townsend..| Jefferson .-.....- 48 07 | 122 44 h4| Min IY seoo 4
Sampson, Alexander -.... GEM SEA GARE oboe conocoenewoous 48 22 | 124 37 DOW) Abd oe 2
WEST VIRGINIA.

Bliven, Robert: Hf -.....-: Burning Springs -| Wirt .------..--- S856") SST ses ere eee 1
McDowell; Wi. Hi- =~. 5: Romney.....---- Ham pPShire)/ cece |= sam ee emia ees tee eartree dB tection 9
Roffe, Charles L -....---- ASIAN Gee alae Cabelas 38 30 | 82 16 600 | T.R-- 12
Sharp; Dy Woe = =.-2---- Grafton -........ ALE NAO? Saas oconaellccosnoss||[Sasosemd|scckocee WO ieacesee 12

|
WISCONSIN.
Breed, E. Everett -.-...-- Embarass .------ Waupaca -....--. AAT ON Sena t. leaceces. AW eae 12
Curtis; WoW) s.sc-02- 252 Rocky Run..--.-. Columbia. -.-....-. 43 26) || 89 19's. cs25-- seers 12
Dungan, John L.....-.-.. New Lisbon..... diiaiChseseeeeers 43 45'| 90 00 |....--..- ae eee 8
Hddy, Levens ..--.....-. Delavan. ...----- Walworth. ...... 42 39 | 88 37 99%.) BaD Ro 12
MOYONde Clee aces aaee Appleton/s---=--- Outagamie -..... 4410] 88 35 800) Ate. z
Gale, William “452522 -22: Galesville -...... Trempaleau ....| 4406] 9116 L(G) ASAE Soe 5
ieks) JOWne tase = Appleton........ Outagamie ...--- 4410} 8&8 35 SOO MD eres aise 3
Hurlburt, Dr. M. J. B....- Appleton......-. Outagamie .....- 4410} 88 35 800) |) Av= 2:2... 2
Lapham, Iner’se A.,LL.D-| Milwaukee .--..-.- Milwaukee .....- 43 03 | 87 56 6040 Aree 5.2 12
EMps, SacoD aes ee Manitowoc ...--- Manitowoc ...... 44 07 | 87 45 658 | B.T. R-. 12
Mead Ss. C322 -)22= ones Waupaca ......-. Wraupacal fee. 44 2 89 11 (010) 0)7)) i tees 11
Nioellery Gaemereeee amas Plymouth -.....- Sheboygan ...-.-. 43 44 | 88 07 S100 | eBs = 12
Porter, Henny, D)222-c---|) Belolne eee” Rock-4eeeaeeens 42 30 | 89 04 Tey wAt see. =. 7
Shintz), Hennysisg-sseeee Edgerton........ Rock. sesceuaaee. ADP See SO) ON) ede 200)) [UT oe = 3: 6
ate, Andrew -....---.-- Bayfield. -..-.... Bay field see as |acspiees (peek soci Saleen Lis eee 4
Waite iM. Chess seniesscne Baraboot=--sss-- Sauk: sosesescen. 43 27 | 89 45 S20 Ry ee 12
Wiebster: Cleese. + ace: Waupaca -...... Wiaupscaessese.- 44 21 SORES? |Saeess- Ress 5
Whiting, William H..-..- Geneva -ssssoee Walworth ...... 42 30 | 89 4L 6000 | hs aaa 8
Winkler, Carl, M. D..-.--- Milwaukee ...-.. Milwaukee .-...- 43 03 | 87 57 630) |) Bo Ree 12

88 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

DEATHS OF OBSERVERS.

Stephen O. Mead, Claremont, New Hampshire, March 18, 1867.
James A. Paddock, Craftsbury, Vermont, April, 1867.

Professor Chester Dewey, Rochester, New York, December 15, 1867.
M. M. Matthews, M. D., Rochester, New York, November, 1867.
Henry M. Corey, Fernandina, Florida, August 19, 1867.

Colleges and other institutions from which meteorological registers were received
during the year 1867, included in the preceding list.

NovaiscOblais---cssc--1----| Acadia Collerereass-2. 3-0 osaaceeeieere Wolfville.
JN yey SSSe Sa SGao Sas aaoe Greenessprnesischoolie sc senseneseeees Havana.
Arkansas--2422 f2ccss)oo05 Normalaschoole ooo se soe nsices) nce Helena.
Calnonmares sere sae er aee State Insane Asylum!--2-5 2-52. 02. - =. Stockton.
Connecticut! asen see eee Wesleyan University -------2-2-- 22-0. Middletown.
Young Ladies’ Collegiate Institute --.-- New Haven.
lim Ose nese bo setae eet Hombard Universitives se -easesee sess = Galesburg.
Northwestern University -.....---..--- Evanston.
OW ilcooticbeseooonaess chad Cornell College... .-- Yepoeon doceetGcce Mount Vernon.
Griswoldi@ollesenae pane. teen acemare ee Davenport.
lowa State University -------22--.--~- - Towa City.
ISG@REER) cossee coseccoscase Aoriculturall Collepes-e--cemceesseae-=- Manhattan.
iMemylandieneeenias see iee =e stip (in@iih7 S18 Ge so5 seose0 cascos cece Catonsville.
Mount St. Mary’s College.-----..-.---- Emmittsburg.
Massachusetts -<---.).-.-.- AmherstaC ollerOnseessese == sieee eee a =: Amherst.
State Lunatic Hospital --22- ess. 2s55- =- Worcester.
WalhamsCollese => a.c- soe e or ease Williamstown.
Michigans messes scsl se se State Agricultural College-.-----.------ Lansing.
IMGSSISSIp lem .y-eeee basse Fayette Female Academy.----.-...-..- Fayette.
Missouri geste cc sacieseceete Si, Hous University 215: 222-222 2. St. Louis.
GrandviniveriCollese:osemoseessi== see Edinburg.
New Hampshire..-..-..... Slip JERUIMS See), Cosas Seed sopasen ose Concord.
IN@iP UO aAaacoacn Sood sa56 uigers)| COMeC eres seeeee ae eiee eee eee New Brunswick.
ING Way Ot essen lemcia we ser = ColumibiaiCollesessen= = eeea==ta- eae New York.
Institution for Deaf and Dumb..-.....- New York.
Erasmus Hall Academy ..---,.--.-----] Flatbush.
Oneida Conference Seminary..--.---.--- Cazenovia.
St. Francis Xavier College ...-..-..---- New York.
University of Rochester -.-.-...-..-..- Rochester.
OM sBha0 Suppose eaeeeees Hermenrcwe ollemereeeccme series eee College Hill.
OjiterbemUmiversitiyecee times cece ee ae Westerville.
WrbanaWniversityess-t- ~~. => ese s= Urbana.
Woodward High School.---.......--.- Cincinnati.
Pennsylvania ..---. sdadaou Jetterson) Colleme cues. -o+ so. sea ses Canonsburg.
Lehigh-University sco. cj-ue ose See Bethlehem.
hewisbure: University. -co-- -.--ssce= Lewisburg.
POENnesseesaiseins occseceess Stewart:Collere-2 5° e--\oeiecee scree: Clarksvilie.
Lookout Mountain Educational Institu-
CLOW roe eeileln ease) cites See eee He Lookout Mountain,
Pusculum/ Colleperse2.- cece ee ee ae Greenville.
MOXAS sce ol sss eases Institution for Deaf and Dumb. -.-...---- Austin.
MASCONSIN eo aac oe bnienoe Beloit (Colles eee name eee ee ene Beloit.
Galesville University<!--20-sseecees=s- Galesville.
Lawrence University-.-.-...---....... Appleton.

a a

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 89

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL CONTRIBUTED IN ADDITION TO THE REG-
ULAR OBSERVATIONS.

Académie Royale de Belgique-—Observations des Etoiles filantes périodiques
de Novembre, 1866. (Extr. des Bulletins, 2me sér., t. xxii, No. 12, 1866.)
Svo., 24 pages.

Sur VHeure des Chutes @ Aérolithes, par M. Ad. Quetelet, seerétaire perpétuel
de ?Académie Royale de Belgique. (Extr. des Bulletins, 2me ser., t. xxiii, No.
3, 1867.) 8vo., 8 pages.

Etoiles filantes—Publication des Annales Météorologiqnes de ’Observatoire
BO Sur ?'Héliographie et la Sélénographie. —Orages observes a Bruxelles

a Louvain du 7 Fevrier jusqu’a la fin de Mai. Communications de M. Ad.
eae Directeur de Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles. (Extrait des Bulle-
tins, 2me série, tome xxiii, Nos. 5 et 6, 1867.) Svo., 20 pages.

Administration des Mines de Russie. ‘Correspondance Météorologique, pub-
lication annuelle de Administration des Mines de Russie, redigée par A. T.
Kupffer, Directeur de ’Observatoire Physique Central de Russie et membre de
YAcadémie des Sciences de St. Petersbourg. Année 1864. St. Petersbourg,
1865. 4to., 102 pages.

Asiatic Society of Bengal.—Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, edited
by the Natural History Secretary. Calcutta, 1866; 8vo. [Contains monthly
abstracts of the results of the hourly meteorological observations taken at the
surveyor general’s office, Calcutta. ]

Ballou, Nahum £., M. D.—Suamary of observations made during the year
1867, at Sandwich, De Kalb county, Illinois.

Bannister, Henr y M.—Observs peioas made at Fort St. Michael, Norton sound,
Russian America, from October 1, 1865, to August 31, 1866. ’(‘The observa-
tions from December 10, 1865, to ’ January 16, 1866, were made by Mr. J. M.
Bean.)

Bartlett, Erastus B.—Summary of observations for the year 1867, at Palermo,
New York ; newspaper slip.

Board of Trade, London.—Reports of the meteorological departmext of the
Board of Trade, 1862 2, 1863, 1864; octavo.

Eleventh number of the meteorological papers published by authority of the
Board of Trade; appendix to report; 8vo. Twelfth number, miscellaneous ;
Svo. Thirteenth number, anemometry, at Halifax, Nova Scotia; 4to. Four-
teenth number, barometers; north and south latitudes ; 4to.

Barometer Manual, eighth edition; Svo. Coast or Fishery Barometer Man-
ual; fifth edition ; 8vo. Arrangements for Meteorologic ay elegraphy ; third
edition.

Wind Charts of the Ocean; .16 large charts. Instructions and blank forms
for meteorological observations.

Bruhns, Prof. Dr. C.—Meteorologische Beobachtungen, angestellt auf der
Leipziger Universitats-Sternwarte in den Jahren 1864 und 1865. Herans-
gegeben von Prof. Dr. C. Bruhns, Director de Sternwarte. Mit zwei graphi-
schen Darstellungen der Beobachtungen, von G. Schreiber. 8vo., 192 pages.

Resultate aus den meteorologischen Beobachtungen, angestellt an mehreren
Orten im KGnigreich Sachsen in den Jahren 1760 bis 1865, und an den
zweiundzwanzig K6nigl. Sachsischen Stationen im Jahre 1865, nach den
monatlichen Zusammenstellungen i im statistischen Bureau des kéniglichen Mini-
steriums des Innern. Bearbeitet von Dr. €. Bruhns, Director der Sternwarte
und Professor der Astronomie in Leipzig. Zweiter Jahrgang. Leipzig, 1867.
4to., 147 pages.

Chicag go Academy of Sciences.—Transactions of the Academy, volume 1,
part 1, Chicago, 1867. [Article II is “On the climate of the country border.

90 METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

ing upon the great North American lakes. By I. A. Lapham, LL.D., of Mil-
wi aukee, Wisconsin.’

Cockburn, S.—Rain-fall at Belize, British Honduras, during each month from
August, 1862, to April, 1868, inclusive —Meteorological phenomena at Belize,
1863.

Commission Hydrometrique et des Orages de Lyon.—Volume for 1866, 23d
year. It contains: Resumé des observations recueillies dans les bassins de la
Sadne, du Rhone, et de quelques autres régions, accompagné de notices diverses.—
Apercus généraux sur les caractéres de Pannée 1866, et détails au sujet des orages,
par M. J: Fournet, President des Commissions Hy drometrique et des Orages. —
Observations Metéorologiques faites 2.9 heures du matin a Vobservatoire de
Lyon, du ler Décembre, 1865, au ler Décembre, 1866, par M. Aimé Drian,
sous la direction de M. Lafon, Professeur a la Faculté des Sciences et Directeur
de VObservatoire—Résultats de la nouvelle série @observations ozonometri-
ques, faites par MM. le Docteur Lembert et F. Rassinier durant année 1866.—
Observations Meétéorologiques faites par MM. Midre et Aristide Charicére a
Ahun, (Creuse.) 36 années d’observations, dont 33 complétes—Pluies et Neiges
tombées sur les diverses stations du département du Rhone et autres annexes
én 1866. Rae cue sur la Régle Bugeand relativement au temps, par M. H.
Lorenti; lunes a la Société Inpériale v Agriculture, (Histoire Naturelle et des
Arts Utiles de Lyon, dans sa séance du 20 Juillet, 1866.—Détails sur la distri-
bution des orages normaux dans le département du Rhone, par] M.J. Fournet.—
Classification des Phénoménes produits par l’électricité météorique dans le
bassin du Rhone et aux alentours, par M. J. Fournet; Ine a Académie des
Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts de Lyon, dans la séance du 6 Mars, 1867.

Couch, £. D.—Observations on temperature and face of the sky, made irreg-
ularly, from November, 1861, to April, 1862, and during the years 1863 and
1864, at Salisbury, New Hampshire.

Coumbary, Aristide —Observations météorologiques faites & Constantinople,
sur la colline de Péra, par Aristide Coumbray. November, 1867, to March,
1868. ‘Tables and diagrams.

Crisson, J. C._—See State Department.

Crow ther, Benjamin.—Observations at Tuspan, Mexico, during September,
October, November, and December, 1867.

Daguin, P. A—Traité élémentaire de physique théorique et expérimentale,
avec les applications a la météorologie et aux arts industriels, a Vusage des
facultés, des établissements d’ enseignment secondaire, et des écoles spéciales du
gouvernement. Par P. A. Daguin, ancien éléve de l’école normale, Professeur
de Physique a la Faculté des Sciences de Toulouse, Directeur de V’Observa-
toire, &e. Troisiéme édition, avec plus de 1760 figures interealées dans le
texte, et une planche en couleur. ‘Toulouse, 1867. 8vo., 4 vols.

De Lyser, John.—Daily register of the weather at Hingham, Sheboygan
county, Wisconsin; made morning, noon, and evening, during the year 1867.

Eddy, Levens—Summary of observations for the year 1866, at Delavan,
Wisconsin ; printed slip.

Ellis, J. M. —Monthly review of the weather for 1867, compiled by J. M.
Ellis for the North American and United States Gazette, giving temperature,
rain, and mortality statistics at Philadelphia; also occasional notices of the
weather elsewhere.

Ernst, A.—Meteorological data for Caracas, Venezuela, South America,
communicated by G. A. Ernst, Caracas. 10 pages letter paper.

Fournet, M. J—Note sur le caractére périodique de Vétablissement des
journées orageuses, par M. J. Fournet, correspondant de Vinstitut. (xtrait du
Bulletin de PAcadémie Impéziale des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts de Lyon.)
8vo., 4 pages.

Geological Survey of India.—Catalogue of the specimens ot meteoric stones

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 91

and meteoric irons in the Museum of the Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Calcutta, 1866. 8vo., 12 pages.

Haidinger, W. Ritter von—Der Meteorsteinfall am 9. Juni, 1866, bei Knya-
hinya. (Zweiter Bericht.) Von W. Ritter v. Haidinger, wirklichem Mitgliede
der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Mit 3. Tafeln. Vorgelegt in
der Sitzung am 11. October, 1866. Vienna, 8vo., 48 pages.

Haidinger, W.—Die Meteoriten des k. k. Hof-Mineralien-Cabinetes am 1.
Juli, 1867; 4 pages.

Hann, Julius.—Der Einfluss der Winde auf die mittleren Werthe der wich-
tigeren meteorologischen Elemente zu Wien. Von Julius Hann. (Aus dem
LVI. Bande d. Sitzb. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. II. Abth. Oct.-Heft. Jahrg.
1867.) 8vo., 25 pages.

Heimstreet, John W.—Record of the amount of rain during May, from 1826
to 1846, at Lansingburg, three miles north of Troy, New York, and during May,
from 1848 to 1867, at Troy.

Heine, W.—Revue des Cours Scientifiques de la France et de Vétranger, 4
Mai, 1867. Paris, 4to. [It contains: “ Les Etoiles filantes. Essai de théorie
générale @aprés les travaux de M. Newton, des Etats-Unis.”] By M. W. de
Fonvielle, Pp. 356—365.

Heineken, Dr.—See Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.

Hyde, G. A—Summary of observations for the year 1867, at Cleveland,
Ohio. (Newspaper slip.)

Institut Egyptien.—Bulletin de l'Institut Egyptien. Alexandrie d’Egypte.
No. 1 to 9; 1859 to 1865. [Contain observations at Port Said in June, 1859 ;
No. 1, page 50. Observations at Port Said from June 1 to October 31, 1859 ;
No. 2, page 80. Remarks by M. Colucci-Bey on the observations thus far
made in Heypt; No. 4, page 55. Remarks on the observations made in
185960, at Alexandria; No. 5, page 70.|

Ives, William.—Climatology of Buffalo, New York, from observations made
by William Ives, from 1858 to 1867 inclusive ; four pages octavo; published
in Thomas’ Buffalo City Directory for 1868.

Jelinek, Dr. Carl.—Zeitschrift der dsterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteoro-
logie. Redigirt von Dr. Carl Jelinek. Verlag von Wilhelm Braumiller in
Wien; Svo. [Published on the 1st and 15th of every month. |

Uber die Taglichen Anderungen der Temperatur nach den Beobachtungen
der Meteorologischen Stationen in Osterreich. Yon Dr. K. Jelinek, wirklichem
Mitgliede der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Vorgelegt in der
Sitzung am 12. Juli, 1866. Wien, 1867. 4to., 40 pages.

Uber die mittlere Temperatur zu Wien, nach 90-jahrigen Beobachtungen, und
iiber die Riickfalle der Kalte im Mai. Von Dr. C. Jelinek. (Vorgelegt in
der Sitzung vom 2. November, 1866.) 8vo., 83 pages.

Ueber die Stiirme des November und December, 1866. Von Dr. C. Jelinek.
(Vorgelegt in der Sitzung vom 14. Miz, 1867.) Mit4 Tafeln. 8vo., 32 pages.

Kais. Geographische Gesellschaft zu St. Petersburg.—Repertorium fiir Meteo-
rologie, herausgegeben von der Kais. Geographischen Gesellschaft zu_ St.
Petersburg, redigirt yon Dr. Ludwig Friedrich Kamtz, Kaiserl. Russischem
Staatsrath und Professor zu Dorpat. III. Band. 1,2, 3 Heft. Dorpat, 1863.
Ato., 286 pages.

K. K. Centralanstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus.—Summary of
observations issued monthly. Vienna, 8vo.

Keenan, J.T. R.—Daily notes of the weather, without instraments, during
the year 1867, near Brookhaven, Lawrence county, Mississippi. Table of the
dates of planting, germinating, and ripening of vegetables in 1867. Table
showing the last and first frost and date of first cotton blooms and when killed
by frost ; also, dates of appearance and disappearance of birds.

Kingston Observatory.—See Williamson, James.

92 METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Kongelige danske Videnskabernes Selskabs, (Royal Danish Society of Science.)—
Oversigt over det kongelige danske Videuskaberies Selskabs Forhandlinger, og
dets Medlemmers Arbeider i Aaret 1866. Af J. Japetus Sm. Steenstrup, Pro.
fessor ord. ved Kjébenhavns Universitet, Selskabets Secreter. [Each number
contains meteorological observations at Copenhagen. |

Kongelige Landhausholdnings Selskab.—(Royal Society of Rural Eeconomy.)—
Aarsberetning fra det Kongelige Landhuusholdnings Selskabs meteorologiske
Comitee for 1864. Kjobenhavn, 1865. 8vo., 46 pages. Same for 1865 and
1866.

Femaarsberetning fra det Kongelige Landhuusholdnings Selkabs meteorolo-
giske Comitee for 1861-1865. Kjébenhavn. 1867. Svo., 132 pages.

Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Instituut. —Nederlandsch Meteoro-
logisch Jaarboek voor 1866. Uitgegeven door het Koninklijk Nederlandsch
Meteorologisch Instituut. Eerste Deel. Waarnemingen in Nederland. Utrecht,
1866. Oblong Ato., 159 pages.

Nederlandsch Meteorolosisch Jaarboek voor 1866. Uitgegeven door het
Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Instituut. Tweede Deel. Afwijkingen
van Temperatuur en Barometerstand op vele Plaatsen in Europa, met Waarn-
emingen van Regen en Wind. Utrecht, 1867. Oblong 4to., 234 pages.

Latimer, Georg ge.—Some observations on what is usually called the Great
Hurricane of 29th October, 1867, at Tortola, (or Peter’s island,) Saint Thomas,
and Porto Rico, in the West Indies.

Some observations regarding the earthquakes in Saint Thomas and the neigh-
boring islands, commencing November 18, 1867.

Leeds Philosophical and Literar y Societ .—Forty-sixth report of the council
of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, at the close of the session
1865—66; read at the annual meeting, May 1, 1866. [Contains an abstract of
the mean temperature and height of. barometer, and amount of rain, for each
month during the year 1866, from the meteorological register kept at the hall
of the society al
. Lewis, James, M. D.—Hourly record kept at Mohawk, New York, during
the year 1867, by his self-recording thermometer and barometer. [Records were
also received in 1865 and 1866, but omitted to be noticed in the list published
in the annual report for those years. |

Logan, Dr. Thomas M. —Table showi ing the amount of rain at Sacramento,
California, during every month for 18 years, (1849 to 1867,) with remarks on the
wet and dry seasons, and the effect of trees on the quantity of ram. (Newspa-
per slip.)

Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary Royal Asiatic Society. —Madrag Jour-
nal of Literature and Science; edited by the committee of the Madras Literary
Society and Auxiliary Royal Asiatic Society. April, 1858, to March, 1860.
New series. Vols. 4 and 5. S8vo. [Contain monthly tables of meteorological
observations kept at the Madras magnetic observatory. |

The Madras Journal of Literature and Science; edited by the honorable secretary
to the Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society. Third
series. Part 2. October, 1866. [Contains “daily and half-monthly results of
meteorological oleereationd made at the Madras observatory in the year 1863.”]

Marguct, Professor J—See Societé Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles.

Maynard, Edward.—See State Department.

Meteorological Committee, Calcutta—Report on the Calcutta cyclone of the
5th October, 1864, by Lieutenant Colonel J. E. Gastrell and Henry F. Blan-
ford, A. R.S.M., with maps and diagrams illustrating the origin and progress of
the storm and the track of the storm wave. Printed and published for the gov-
ernment of Bengal, by order of the heutenant governor. Calcutta, 1866. 8 vo.,
184 pages.

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 93

Meteorological Society, (British.)—Proceedings of the Meteorological Society,
edited by James Glaisher, esq., F.R.S., secretary. London, 1867.

Meteorologische Centralanstalt der Schweizerischen Geselischaft—Sclhweizerische
Meteorologische Bevbachtungen, herausgegeben von der Meteorologischen Cen-
tralanstalt der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, unter Direktion
von Prof. Dr. Rudolf Wolf. Zurich. 4to. (Published monthly. )

Michigan State Agricultural College —Fifth annual report of the seeretary of
the State board of agriculture of the State of Michigan, for the year 1866. It
contains a copy in detail of the meteorological observations for the year 1866,
taken at the State Agricultural College, by R. C. Kedzie, professor of ‘chemistry.
Also, an article on the effect of forest trees on climate.

Miihr, y, A.—Zur_orographischen Meteorologie. Von A. Miihry. I. Ueber
den Fohnwind. (Nach den in den Tabellen “des schweizer meteorologischen
Beobachtungs-System enthaltenen Thatsachen.) II. Ueber das Verw eilen einer
wiarmeren Luftschichte in den oberen Regionen der Alpen. S8vo., 16 pages.

Murphy, William W.—See State Department.

Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.—Natural History Transactions of Northumberland and Durham. Vol. us
part 3. [Contains meteorological report for 1866. Edited by the Rev. R. E.
Wheeler, M. A., page 284-309. |

Natur wissenschaftlicher Verein zu Bremen.—Zweiter Jahresbericht des Natur-
wissenschaftlichen Vereines zu Bremen. Fir das Gessellschaftsjahr vom 1. April
1866 bis Ende Marz 1867. Bremen. 1867. Svo., 222 pages. [It contains:
“Witterungsbeobachtungen zu Bremen in den 30 Jahren von 1829 bis 1858.
Angestellt “durch Dr. med. Ph. Heineken.” 74 pages. |

Nav y Department.—Observations during the year 1867 at the naval hospitals
at New York, Philadelphia, and Norfolk.

Neill, Thomas.—Table showing the amount of rain at Sandusky, Ohio, in

each month, from 1859 to 1867, inclusive.

Newton, H. A.—On certain recent contributions to astro- meteorology, by H.
A. Newton. Svo., 16 pages. (Extracted from the American Journal of Sci-
ence, May, 1867. "

Norske Meteorologiske Institut.—Meteorologiske paa Christiania Observato-
rium, 1866. Christiania, 1866. Oblong folio, 52 pages.

Meteorologiske Lacttagelser paa fem Telegrafstationer ved Norges kyst.
Reducerede og sammenstillede af J. J. Astrand, Bestyrer af Bergens “Observa-
torium. Forste og Anden Aargang. Udgivne af det kongelige Norske Fre-
deriks Universitet ved C. Fear nley, Bestyr er af Christiania Observatorium. Chris-
tiania, 1866. Oblong folio, 158 pages.

Meteorologiske Tacttagelser i det Sydlige Norge, 1863, 1564, 1865, 1866.
Udgivne af det Kongelige Norske Frederiks Universitet ved det Norske Meteo-
rologiske Institut, Christiania, 1867. Oblong folio, 280 pages.

Observatoire d’ Athenes.—Publications de Vobservatoire d’Athénes, deuxiéme
série, tome II. Beitrage zur physicalischen Geographie von Griechenland, von
J. F. Julius Schmidt, Director der Sternwarte zu Athen. Zweiter Band. Athen,
1864. Quarto. [Contains Meteorological observations at Athens for 1860 and
1861. Pages 1 to 113, and 163 to 206. |

Observatoire Phy ysique Central, St. Petersbourg.— Compte-Rendu Annuel
adressé a 8. Exec. M. de Reutern, Ministre des Finances, par le Directeur de l’Ob-
servatoire Physique Central ALT. Kupffer. Année 1864. Supplement aux
Annales de Observatoire Physique Central, pour l’année 1862. St. Petersbourg.
1865. Ato.,63 pages. [It contains meteorological observations for the year 1862
at St. Petersburg, Catherinburg, Barnaoul, ~Nertchinsk, Sitka, Tiflis, Boge-
slovsk, Zlatoouste, and Lougan. Also, a table giving the temper ature of the
winter, spring, summer, and autumn from December it 1862, to December 1, 1863,
at 25 stations. |

94 METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Observatorio Magnético y Meteorolégico del Real Colegio de Belen de la Compa-
nia de Jesus en la Habana.—Monthly bulletin of observations. 8vo., 8 pages.

Osservatorio Astronomico dell Universita di Torino.—Bolletino Meteorologico
dell’ Universita di Torino. Anno 1866. Torino, 1867. Oblong 4to., 56 pages.

Ocesterreichische Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie. Zeitschrift der Gocenneiche-
schen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie. Redigirt von Dr. Carl Jelinek. I1 Band.
Vienna, 1867. Svo., 584 pages.

Parvin, Professor T heodore S.—Summary of observations at the State Univer-
sity, Towa City, Iowa, during the year 1866, and comparisons with the means of
tw enty- five years. ‘Two pages, Svo.

Pike, Nicolas —See State Department.

Plantamour, E.—Des Anomalies de la Temperature observées a Geneve
pendant les quarante années 1826-1865, par E. Plantamour, Professeur a
YAcadémie de Genéve. Genéve, 1867. Ato., 63 pages. (Extrait des Mémoires
de la Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de Genéve, tome xix.)

Prestel, Dr. M. A. F’.—Die periodischen und nicht-periodischen Veranderun-
gen des Barometerstandes, so wie die Sttirme und das Wetter iber der hanno-
verschen Nordseekiiste, als Grundlage der Sturm- und Wetter-Prognose, darge-
stellt von Dr. M. A. F. Prestel, Oberlehrer der Mathematik und Naturwissen-
schaften am Gymnasium zu Emden, Direktor der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft
daselbst. Mit zwei Tafeln in Steindruck. Emden, 1866. 4to., 150 pages.

Prettner, J—Wiima und Witterung von Klagenfurt. Von J.Prettner. (Aus
dem Jahrbuch des Nat.-hist. Museums, VII, Seite I.) Klagenfurt, 1865.
Svo., 80 pages.

Quetelet, Ernest—Mémoire sur la temper ae de Yair 4 Bruxelles, par
Ernest Quetelet. Membre de ’Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et
des Beaux-Arts de Belgique. Bruxelles, 1867. 4to., 103 pages.

Rawson, Governor C. B.—Report on the Bahamas hurricane of October, 1866,
with a description te the city of Nassau, New Providence. By Governor Raw-
son W. Rawson, C. B. 8vo., 52 pages, with two charts.

Report of the Bahamas for the year 1864, by Governor Rawson. London,
1866. S8vo., 122 pages. [It contains three pages on the climate and meteo-
rology of the ee

Real Academia de Ciencias Medicas, Fisicas y Naturales de la Habana.—
Anales de la Real Academia de Ciencias Medicas, Fisicas y Naturales de la
Habana. Revista cientifica. Directores, Dr. D. Antonio Mestre y D. Marcos
de J. Melero, Habana. [Published monthly, and each number contains a sum-
mary of observations for the month, at Havana. |

Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino.—Memoirs, second series, volume 23.
4to., Turin, 1866. [Contains: Mémoire sur la loi du refroidissement des corps
sphériques et sur l’expression de la chaleur solaire dans les latitudes circumpolaires
de la terre, par Jean Plana. Lu dans la séance du 21 Juin, 1863. Also: Di un
barometro ad aria od aeripsometro, per la misura delle piccole altezze, di Gilberto
Govi. Memoria letta ed approvata nell’ adunanza del 29 Marzo, 1863.]

Atti della R. Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, publicati dagli Accademici
Seeretari delle due Classi. [Published monthly, and each number contains
meteorological observations made at the Astronomical Observatory at Turin. |

Reale Instituto Lombardo di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti.— Atti del Reale Instituto
Lombardo di Scienze, Lettere ed Atti, vol. 2, 3, Milano, 1860—1864. Quarto.
[Contain: “ Osservazioni meteorologiche fatte nella nuova torre del Reale
Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, dail’ ab. Giovanni Capelli.” October,
1859, to December, 1863, inclusive.

Reale Instituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere-~Rendiconti. Classe di Scienze
Matematiche e Naturali. Vol. 1, 2, 3. Milano, 1864, 1865, 1866. 8vo.
[Published monthly, and contain: “ Osserve vaioni meteorologiche della specola
di Brera, eseguite dal? abate Giovani Capelli ;” beginning with J anuary, 1864. |
This is a continuation of the preceding article,

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 95

Reale Museo di Fisica e Storia Naturale di Firenze—Annali del R. Museo
di Fisica e Storia Naturale di Firenze, per il anno 1865. Nuova serie, vol. 1,
Firenze, 1866; 4to. [Contains meteorological observations at Florence, from
January, 1853, to February, 1854; 28 pages. |

Reale Osservatorio di Palermo.—Bulletino Meteorologico del Reale Osserva-
torio di Palermo. (Estratto dal Giornale di Scienze Naturali ed Economiche.)
Published monthly ; 8 pages, folio.

Osservazioni Meteorologiche eseguite nel Reale Osservatorio di Palermo nell’
anno 1864. 4to., 28 pages.

Regio Osservatorio del? Universita di Torino.—Bollettino Meteorologico ed
Astronomico del Regio Osservatorio dell’ Universita di Torino. Anno II.
1867. Oblong 4to., 82 pages.

Reuter, F.—Observations Météorologiques, (1854-1863,) faites a Luxembourg
par EF. Reuter, professeur de chimie a l’ Athénée royal grand-ducal de Luxem-
bourg. Luxembourg, 1867. 8vo., 124 pages. —

Rosset, Professor C—See Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles.

Royal Society of Tasmania.—Results of twenty-five years’ (1841 to 1864)
meteorological observations for Hobart Town ; together with a two years’ regis-
ter of the principal atmospheric meteors and aurora australis. By Francis
Abbott, F. R. A. 8., &c., to which is added a meteorological summary for Ade-
laide, Melbourne, Sydney, Auckland, &c., &c., as compiled from their respective
records. Hobart Town, printed for the Royal Society of Tasmania. 1866.
Ato., 46 pages.

Monthly notices of papers and proceedings of the Royal Society of Tas-
mania, for 1863, 1864, 1865. 3 vols., Svo., containing the meteorology for
each month.

Schiaparelli, G. V.—Intorno al corso ed all’ origine probabile delle Stelle
Meteoriche. Lettere di G. V. Schiaparelli al P. A. Secchi. (Estratto dal bulle-
tino meteorologico dell’ osservatorio del Collegio Romano. Vol. 5, Ni. 8, 10, 11,
12.) Roma, 1866. 8vo., 34 pages.

Dell Influenza della Luna sulle vicende atmosferiche. Memoria di G. V.
Schiaparelli, Membro effetivo del R. Istituto Lombardo, letta alla Classe di
Scienze matematiche e naturali nella tornata del 24 Maggio, 1866. Estratto
dalle Memorie del R. Istituto Lombardo, vol. x. I della serie III. Milano,
1866. 4to., 26 pages. hs

Schmidt, J. F’. Julius —Uber Feuermeteore, 1842 bis 1867. (Schreiben an
Herr k. Hofrath Ritter v. Haidinger.) Von J. F. Julius Schmidt, Director
der Sternwarte zu Athen. Vorgelegt in der Sitzung am 10 October, 1867.
Aus dem LVI Bde. d. Sitzb. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. II. Abth., Oct.-Heft.
Jahrg. 1867. Svo., 34 pages.

Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft—Schweizerische Meteorolo-
gische Beobactungen, herausgegeben von der Meteorologischen Centralanstalt
der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, unter Direktion von Pro-
fessor Dr. Rudolf Wolf. Dritter Jahrgang, 1866. Zurich. 4to.

Scottish Meteorological Society—Journal of the Scottish Meteorological
Society. Published quarterly. Edinburg, 1867. 8vo.

Shepherd, Rev. J. Avery—tlrregular observations at Pass Christian, Missis-
sippi, May to July, 1860; and at Montgomery, Alabama, September, 1860, to
April, 1861.

Sisson, Rodman.—Summary of thermometer record kept at Abington,
Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, during the years 1864, 1865, 1866, 1867, giv-
ing the means of each month, also range and extremes, from observations made
daily at sunrise, noon, and sunset.

Smith, Haden Patrick—W eekly abstract of observations kept at the Central
Park, New York, with a full set of instruments, from July, 1867, to the end
of the year.

96 METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Smith, MW. D.— Amount of rain in each month from November, 1863, to
November, 1867, at Meadow Valley, Plumas county, California.

Societe d’ Agriculture, Sciences, Arts et Belles-Letters du departement d’ Indre-
et-Loire.—Annales de la Société. Publiées sous la direction de M. Abbé C.
Chevalier, secretaire-perpétuel, Rédacteur. 8vo. [Published monthly at Tours.
Each number contains meteorological observations made at the botanical garden
of Tours, by M. Barnsby.]

Société d’ Agriculture, Sciences et Arts de la Sarthe.-—Bulletin, published
quarterly. [The last part for 1866 contains: “ Tableau résumé des observations
météorologiques faites au Mans en 1866, par M. D. Bonhomet.” |

Société Imperiale des Naturalistes de Moscou.—Bulletin de la Société Impériale
des Naturalistes de Moscou, publié sous la rédaction du Docteur Renard, 1866.
[Contains: “Observations météorologiques, faites a l Institut des Arpenteurs (dit
Constantin) de Moscou, et communiquées par J. Weinberg.”

Societe Metéorologique de France.—Nouvelles Météorologiques, publiées sous
les auspices de la Société Météorologique de France. Commission de rédaction,
MM. Charles Sainte-Claire Deville, président de la Société; Marié Davy, secre-
taire de la Société; Renou, Lemoine, Sonrel. [Began January, 1868; published
the 1st of each month; Svo. 32 pages.]

Annuaire 1864, 1865, 1866.

Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles, Lausanne.—Bulletin, volume rx,
No. 55, July, 1866. [Contains: Résumé des Années Météorologiques 1863 et
1864, pour Lausanne, par J. Marguet, professeur; pp. 139-151. Also, for the
year 1865, four diagrams without text.|—Bulletin, volume rx, No. 56, Decem:
ber 1866. [Contains: Note sur l’Influence de la Lune sur la Terre, par J. Mar-
guet, professeur; pp. 225-236. —Quelques observations anormales faites sur
Jes Psychrometres a la station météorologique de Bex, par C. Rosset, professeur ;
pp: 243-249. |

State Department.—An account of a cyclone encountered in the Indian ocean,
January 6 and 7, 1867, by the United States steamer Monocacy, while on her
passage from Simon’s bay, South Africa, to Mauritius. By Nicholas Pike,
United States consul, Port Louis.

Observations made at Turk’s Island, West Indies, in September and October,
1867, by J. C. Crisson; forwarded by Edward Maynard, United States consul.

‘An account of the weather in Europe during the month of March, 1867. By
William W. Murphy, United States consul at Frankfort.

Layloe, Edward T.—Table giving the amount of rain during each month
from 1850 to 1866, inclusive, at Powhatan Hill, King George county, Virginia;
also monthly averages for the whole period.

Rains of the year 1867, at Powhatan Hill, King George county, Virginia.

Thoms, William Faulds, M. D. —Diagram showi ing the effects of the meteoro-
logical influences on mortality in the city of New York, 1866.

United States Naval Observatory—Amount of rain measured at the United
States Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C., during each month from 1852
to 1867, inclusive, except the years 1861, 1862, 1863.

Universitits- Bibliothek, Basel_—Die Exfindung des Thermometers und seine
Gestaltung im XVIII. Jahrhundert. Von Dr. Fritz Burckhardt. Mit einer
lithogr. Tafel. Basel, 1867. 4to., 56 pages.

Wild, D. H.—Die selbstregistrirenden meteorologischen Instrumente der
Sternwarte in Bern. Von Dr. H. Wild, Professor der Physik an der Universitat
Bern und Director der Sternwarte daselbst. Extraabdruck aus dem I. Bande
von Carl’s Repertorium. Mit 9 Tafeln, (No. XXII bis XXX.) Munchen,
1866. 8vo., 44 pages.

Willet, Joseph .—Indian Summer, by Joseph E. Willet, professor of natural
philosophy and chemistry in Mercer University, Georgia. From the American
Journal of Science and Arts, November, 1867. Svo., 8 pages.

Will ame srmometer kept s+ Saugerties, Ulster county,

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 97

New York, at 7 a. m., from January 14, 1863, to June 30, 1865, with daily
notices of weather during the same period.

Record of thermometer and barometer at Waterbury, Connecticut, for the
year 1866.

Williams, S. R.—Abstract of observations fot each month of the year 1867,
at Lexington, Kentucky.

Williamson, James, Director of the Kingston Observatory.— Abstracts of meteo-
rological register, University of Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada West, for
1859 and 1860, giving the means, range, and extremes of each month. On
printed slips. The slip for 1860 also contains the annual rocans for 1856 to
1861, inclusive.

Heis, Professor Dr.—W ochenschrift fiir Astronomie, Meteorologie und Geo-
graphie. Neue Folge. Zehnter Jahrgang. Redigirt von Professor Dr. Heis in
Minster. Druck und Verlag von H. W. Schmidt in Halle. [Year 1867; pub-
lished weekly. |

Wright, J. W. A.—Summary of observations for the year 1867, at Greene
Springs, Alabama.—Six articles on the climate of central Alabama and Missis-
sippi, published in the “Alabama Beacon,” containing facts and inferences
deduced from the observations made at Greene Springs, and their comparison
with other years and localities.

(Unknown.)—Newspaper slips giving daily temperature and rain at Paramaribo
from June 6 to December 15, 1867, with a few omissions.

Meteorological registers received for the year 1867, or some part of tt.

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New Hampshire .......-- 1 Z|) IL |i) WaR ORT ssocco esceee 4 UG), |lee
NGI COR Ae a een eae 2 (Sllsceasll| Mbt SoS eosacseos 2D Of Niece
Massachusetts .....-....- 6 LOR Rees | Mlowsasoosaassees see eee 4 OI We see
Rihodewslandssssss se... - 1 a | ene ean Saisie see cesses eters les 9
Conneciicut)s>-2e-62 222 Q Ab eae I Nebrasisaree = shes eee ee ee Ones
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New, JieIseyncianeitecpaeise cic 4 1G See WOE eA Be ececoocemoae 6 secese eee
Reunsylvaiiae-sssqccee.- = 4 OOF ce le Montanaeceseecess sealer otal eee
Welawarereoces- as osee 2. \neece: ip lss--|) Washing tons ce lee a a eee
Maryland essen. 2ssen a. 2 Ay erase OLOROMb arrester sees a)eaeetes alpen
Wale) Se eeescre meeer seen eee Gees |e Callittormigye oases aoe 3 nee
WiestaVinoiniaesees sees: (sees - AN erste
INotihe@arolinaa=-sseess lessee n. 7 1 ee
South Carolina......... ae ern | i ie | Mined oreseseeeecse eee. Pease ane
eee HSS rea SEE alee f : ----|| CENTRAL AMERICA.
PANO ce eres et sy eel ter % lose | eanedose. Costa hicaasetcesese 1 (Sy | aes
Louisiana Osteen alteseee 3 |.---|| Aspinwall, Panama.... | Beeeae soos
ea a aia : ces WEST INDIES.
ADK ANIEASES soc. 2 ose eae | een ere On Etanikashlis| yn desea eee eens nag eeor
Mennesseesnaceeeoe eee j alle
Kentucky s2ces-5 oeees 1 2 Wenbio PERMUDAS
ONG ass... Jee tacos 6 patie ss. ||) Sts Geerre's: +22 S22's. P \ooeees) ee
Michigans eesee ease es 1 Oo 2 ae
ndranaws aoe Sa 4 Sees 2 Rotalesss sac Aen 69 | 305 11

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The Executive Committee respectfully submit the following report ta relation
to the funds of the Institution, the receipts and expenditures for the year 1867,
and the estimates for the year 1868:

STATEMENT OF THE FUND.

The original amount received a3 the bequest of James Sinithson,

of England, deposited in the treasury of the United States, in

accordance with the act of Congress of August 10, 1846...... $515, 169 00
The residuary legacy of Smithson, received in 1865, deposited in

the treasury of the United States in accordance with the act of

Conerers of Mebraary’ 6, T8672- Oe Soke ook Cis oe 26, 210 63

otal bequest ompmithsonse 72 tN Ae) ie ae ee 541, 379 63
Amount deposited in the treasury of the United States, as author-
ized by the act of Congress of February 8, 1867, and directed
by the Board of Regents, derived from part of savings of income

and imcrease of value of investments... -ic5--5- -es-6-2 => 108, 620 37
Total permanent Smithson fund in the treasury of the United

"SL SILC Ghs Wiehe a ae mM eee cer Meter mane oe et Ie ati) 20 os PP rs $650, 000 00
In addition to the above there remains of the extra

fund derived from savings of income, &c., Virginia

Saree per cent: bonds tore oi. 2). Ss Rese te ae $53, 500 00
Also, additional Virginia bonds issued for unpaid in-

perest tordanuaty. Ly 1867-2. eemtay ic aera ee 19, 260 00

TRENTO gl (eyo ee Pee ees i ke Sek ay a 2 een ee PA $72,760 00

Present value, about $30,000.
Receipts and expenditures for 1867.
RECEIPTS.

Interest on the original bequest of Smithson, viz:

O: per Cont. On Polo 6O SO eee a een $30,910 14
Interest on the amount added to the original prin-

cipal in the United States treasury, authorized

by act of Congress February 8, 1867, viz: Feb-

ruary 19, 1867, $34,831; February 27, $30,544;

Mori). SEBI0G 25.) pons. oe ae ROE 6, 420 68
Interest on United States 7-30 bonds, from February
15, 1865, to February 19, 1867, on $54,150... 7,907 00

Interest on Virginia bonds, viz: 4 per cent. on

$53,500, to December 31, 1867, (less brokerage). 2, 033 00
Interest on Washington city bond, viz: 6 per cent.

on $100 to July 1, 1867, (44 years)..5........ 27 00

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 99

Sales of bonds and stocks, viz:

$54,150 United States 7-30s..... $57,468 00
15,000 ‘Tennessee 6s.......---- 9,586 78
movOOO Tndtena OSe..2 0.25 5. 68,906 25
200 sGeormian 68s J22 222) 7)...:5 - 358 71
LOO. Washineton'6s s225.52..- 100 00
= 136.419) 74
Sale, onteommemnterestes 2S RP ORI Lo. SST eas 14,255 41
Sale of publications and old and useless material. - 527 74
AQGURED, TOG GYPSY 5d RI os oi wae ne et ne oe $198,500 71
Balaseeoushand, January eUS6(s. . s/S 2 see os oo 2 ole 3 22,001 23
Pol amoung, available ti 1867. 0... 2. cee eee ee 3 221,391 94
EXPENDITURES.

Amount added to the original bequest of Smithson,
in the treasury of the United States, authorized
by the act af Congress of February 8, 1867, and
directed by the Regents, to increase the princi-
pal to $650,000, viz: residuary legacy of Smith-

GENIE 2 Bene eee eee meee $26,210 63
AAditional deposits..4—. 2. 4. 108,620 37

$134,831 00
Expenses for the year 1867—

Building and furniture.........-.-- 38, 650 74

Genetal expenses. ots 3c esta 12,488 84

Publications and researches. .....-.- 10,030 25

Library, museum, and exchanges..-. 13,905 55

SR ey Re meOM COR «Ste 1G ed clbe ol eis oot Sache 75,075 38
Total expenditure and investment during 1867.....--.----- $209,906 38
Balanceoon hand danuary, 1868... 0.5.08 <2. ac s252 11,485 56

Statement in detail of expenditures for current operations of the year 1867.

BUILDING.
Reconstruction of parts injured by fire..........-- $35,102 35
Remairs to Oldynaeige. i de): 4 oe c/o ee steigioa s elie fine |
Banmipares ane AxtUres. £5 4.2 < 3,45 9.4, aced is Glan awitare 1,410 48

$38,650 74

Mectinestof teen trast wis. else Ge ele dee 256 50
Wii Didier es eras ae es he a iota 204 55
LB AEEy Tht Meet ere eee eS On eRReTY e ee ECan 808 65
I OSbATO a(t 5 oe als Se ehohe ae MMcn es 0 3) Sg gh pts Sie rk ig 714 45
Station ery is pees 305) ea eens, 120) Ve aN oy, $892 79
General. printing ...5. 4) 4 aebee 4S 4. s ee ee Lis Je 194 06

Incidentals, viz: hardware, tools, materials for clean-
WG) BEG oi hshajarsta’s 4 es aa Ut ain Set Shh Et Cont of _ 241 19

100 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Payment for loss of tools by the fire, authorized by
resolution of the Board, February 1, 1867....... $500 00
Salaries secretary, clerks, and laborers......------ 8,676 65

$12,488 84

PUBLICATIONS AND RESEARCHES.

Smithsonian contributions, (quarto)..........-..-- $4,621 76
Smithsonian miscellaneous collections, (octavo)... .. 2,045 20
Smithsonian report, illustrations, stereotyping, &c.. . 920 18
Moeteprolor ys Pian. ccts Si fe Bee eee Ce eee 1,044 39
OPOMEES 2 oo Liepets ne cle CREE Ree eee eR Ree 457 82
JES COTS AOS AE mean I a RAs he consist AR ty 17, Al
We plORAnlOUs «cc. + Satince is DEORE Re eee eee 923 49

= )110,030 25

LIBRARY, MUSEUM, AND LITERARY EXCHANGES.

Purchase of books and bmdime:- [S22 ~..- 222.222 $719 10
inerary and \scieniine exchanres. (21... 25 see. 3,507 87
ASSIStADUS IN THVSCUM se 2 ee saree oe 5,890 39
Incidentals for museum, alcohol, benzine, &c..-.-- L7i5est
PURE TONS caus ics wise te esis se ee ete Re ames 2,072 38
ree i siete
otal expenditure im U8672- sore. teria eee ees 75,075 38

The Board of Regents having directed the sale of the United States 7.30
bonds, as also the Indiana, Georgia, and Washington bonds, the proceeds to be
applied to the increase of the permanent capital, this was accordingly done
through the agency of the bankers of the Institution. The act of Congress of
February 8, 1867, passed in accordance with the memorial of the Board of
Regents, (see report for 1866, page 74,) authorized the Institution to deposit
with the Secretary of the Treasury, on the same terms as the original bequest,
the residuary legacy of Smithson, together with other sums not exceeding, with
the original, $1,000,000. From part of the proceeds of the sale of the United
States and State stocks referred to, the sum of $108,620 37, with the residuary
legacy, $26,210 63, making $134,831, was deposited in the treasury of the
United States; thus making the total amount of the Smithson fund perpetually
in the United States treasury, bearing 6 per cent. interest, payable semi-annu-
ally, $650,000.

‘The Commissioner of Agriculture continues to pay one-half of the salary of
the clerk employed to take charge of the meteorological statistics.

The appropriation annually made by Congress “for the care and preservation
of the collections of the exploring and surveying expeditions of the govern-
ment” has been expended, as heretofore, under the direction of the Secretary of
the Interior, and as the amount was increased for the year ending July 1, 1868,
from $4,000 to $10,000, a part of this has been applied to the preservation of
that part of the building devoted to the collections, and other purposes.

The State of Virginia has paid four per cent. interest on its stock, reserving
two per cent. in Richmond, to be paid whenever the conflicting claims between
the old State and the new State of West Virginia should be settled. All the
interest due on the stock of the State up to the lst of January, 1867, amount-
ing to $19,260, has been funded by the issue of new bonds bearing six per cent.
interest, none of which has, however, yet been paid. The total amount of Vir-

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. LOT

ginia stock now held by the Institution is $72,760, which it is considered advis-
able to retain for the present.

The current income of the Institution is now deposited in the First National
Bank of Washington, the payment of bills being by checks drawn by the Sec-
retary, in accordance with the regulations prescribed by the Board at its last
annual session.

The following may be considered an approximate estimate for the year 1868.

ESTIMATED RECEIPTS.

Interest on the Smithson fund in the treasury of the United States,
viz: six per cent. on $650,000, payable July 1, 1868, and
UE POON ada. waara ite a s'4 a alalels ain i= a tears = =i 3 = 9 9 $39,000 00

Probable premium on coin, say at 33 per cent.-.---..-------- 13,000 00
Interest on Virginia bonds, viz.: 4 per cent. on $53,500....-.-.-- 2,140 00
Balance on-hand January 17, 1868 ....2-.-2--.5-- = -2- 11,485 56

’

65,625 56

APPROPRIATIONS.
For current operations of the Institution. ........------------ $34,000 00
For building, (including outstanding debts,)---.-.-.----------- 20,000 00
Estimated balance. January 1, 1869... 522. 22 -<-2% 52. 2/2 2): = 11,625 56

65,625 56

Tn couclusion, the committee have the satisfaction of again calling attention
to the fact that all the expenditures from the organization of the establishment
to the present time, including $450,000 on the building, the publication and
Cistribution of 200,000 quarto and octavo volumes; the collection of a library
of 60,000 works; a museum containing 1,000,000 specimens; and the distribu-
tion to other institutions of 250,000 specimens, have been made exclusively
from the income and its investments, and that the bequest has been increased
by an addition this year of $108,620 37, making the total capital invested in
United States and other securities $722,760.

Attention is called to the expense of the National Museum, consisting of the
collections of various government exploring expeditions. In addition to the
appropriation by Congress for this object, from the income of the Institution
the sum of $7,606 20 has been expended during 1867.

The committee have examined 680 vouchers, embracing several thousand
items, for payments during the year for legitimate purposes of the Institution,
and find them correct and conformed to the rules adopted by the Regents on
the 22d of February, 1867.

RICHARD DELAFIELD.

RICHARD WALLACH.

PETER PARKER.
Wasuincton, April 14, 1868.

REPORT OF THE BUILDING COMMITTEE FOR 1867.

It was stated in the report presented to the Board at its last session that it
was proposed, during the year 1867, to roof the main building and towers and
finish the interior of all the rooms, halls, staircases and main entrance, leaving
the large room of the upper story, over the museum, unfinished until funds
could be provided for the purpose and its future use be determined.

In accordance with this proposition the iron work of the roof over the museum
was erected early in the spring, and covered with slate, fastened to the iron
purlines with wire, and plastered inside with wall plaster. The iron gutters, as
well as the roof, were found perfectly secure from leakage during the hardest
summer rains. The severe test of ice and snow during the present winter has
shown the necessity for additions in the arrangements for conducting the water
from the roof. Plans for this purpose are now under discussion with the archi-
tect for persevering in the original plan, or adopting scme additional security
that the late severe season has indicated to be advisable.

The adaptation of new to old work, in restoring the building from the
destructive effects of the fire, by substituting incombustible materials for wooden
partitions, floors and roofs, has been attended, as was foreseen, with much labor
and expense, as well as making additional means indispensable for rendering
the roof-surfaces, valleys, and gutters water-tight in winter, when covered with
snow, and occasionally ice, as well as the summer rains. Like the public build-
ings generally in this city, (and we may say elsewhere,) where battlements
extend above the eaves with gutters behind them upon the roof, or resting upon
the walls, much inconvenience, and at times damage, arises from leaks, the
result of such a system. It is experienced in the Smithsonian building in con-
sequence of the stone battlements capping all its exterior walls. The present
architect’s original design, approved by the committee, is set forth in his report
of the operations of the yeat, annexed hereto. Neither time nor the funds of the
Institution would permit his carrying this part of his plan into operation ; and
until it is done, together with some additions that the late inclement season has
pointed out as advisable and necessary, the building is not secure, nor the pro-
perty within it, from dampness and moisture.

The introduction of the proposed warming apparatus for all the apartments
is the next most essential particular to be undertaken, to be commenced when-
ever the funds of the Institution will justify.

The security of the several apartments and contents are in a great measure
dependent upon such an apparatus as a substitute for the stoves temporarily in
use, and for which no permanent smoke-flues or other arrangements were pro-
vided.

All the rooms in the north tower, forming three suites of three in each, with
two rooms on the entrance floor, one for the janitor and the other for a recep-
tion room for visitors, have been completed and are now used and occupied as
offices for conducting the operations of the Institution. The several apart-
ments in this north tower, above these offices, have also been completed. ‘The
rooms and apartments in the south tower have also been finished and are now
occupied. ‘The lower one, or that on the first floor, forms a part of the general
museum and is now devoted to the reception of the larger and most weighty

REPORT OF THE BUILDING COMMITTEE. 103

articles of ethnology, such as the stone images from Central America and the
stone sarcophagus from Syria.

The apartments on the next story have been fitted up with shelves, bins, and
other fixtures for the transaction of the business of the literary and _ scientific
exchanges, packing and distributing the same.

The apartments next above have been finished for the meetings and conven-
ience of the Board of Regents; and those on the three remaining floors have
also been finished and appropriated to storage and such other purposes as may
become necessary. In this tower are also provided an elevator, with conven-
ient mechanical power for removing books, specimens, etc., to and from the
basement and four stories above it; water-closets and other necessary con-
veniences, with arrangements for the use of the Potomac water for general pur-
poses and in large quantities in case of fire.

To increase the accommodation, two additional floors have been added to the
original subdivision of the stories of the north and south towers. To furnish
light to the new rooms in the south tower, circular windows have been opened
through the walls, without interfering with the original architectural effect of
the exterior, thus furnishing sufficient light for the purpose for which these
apartments are intended. ;

The result of the year’s labor has been to provide ample space and con-
venient accommodation to subserve all the wants of the Secretary of the Insti-
tution, to enable him to carry the views of Smithson into effect for the present
and several years to come.

The floor-surface in 57 apartments of the building, not including the Secre-
tary’s quarters, is 66,252 square feet, or one and fifty-two hundredths of an acre,
a space, so far as now can be foreseen, abundantly sufficient for the wants of
the Institution, only requiring to be adapted therefor, from time to time, in
details, furniture and special finish.

The following is a detailed statement of the expenditures on the building
ditring the year 1867:

FOR RECONSTRUCTION OF PARTS DESTROYED BY THE FIRE.

ion wore Wenn OOOTS (CEG 2a. amt nelle s aaa site fatale = $2,791 67
III NI De = See econ pene one eee eee ee ceosoupapdees 8,591 50
SSHICLT EST Teese 0X0 (SCG MUO ele et ee Pure eS e 3,304 05
sree le pera ne eee ae ASE! Se Shai tes is re bys a SU eco : 116 87
ISTIDRON MiGs ot bee cece dee cope ces ubeneeroer ae cocdtaccoger 4,277 53
OUTTA ly Creme Meet e te eae ey oh at ices ote Cara ah AUS nopeharcietevotay o ercare 1,000 00
\COIN@INNY os Sebo c pec ege Ge owee cca se oes cee eee d eeu cogac 7,398 50
DIR OIE. oS Ger ciate s Ge cee cE ee eee oreear ae erererets SAAR Reet chs ele 450 00
Ea Gne Rs eer ne oes re, et. ES ais ay ravetane cic ok ao cher an aieiate ae Specie 844 00
SEM TCAI'C lex 2) cos Sc Re ME en ao em ae Bef cnepe eat chica MA Ase a also
TEBE SISTTNTI PI SS eal A AE eS A rete nes ie Mee ener Barat eee A 7 50
Te BR WROD: 2) Un ey a aa ced eee tee ne ern ne Ne RE NE he 174 90
INDING coobe dancer Sp eoop essere oper coca: ceusecege secre : 8 25
PSST Oe pore eaters aia!s s.2 Sins A oc 0) alee clas a= alela cele sia 1,927 00
MOYES CONOCY Bole OS AS Cres, OES RE eee ene CI Peele PSeee mee ree 730 00
Divot eraval HIKER EARHOVOSS 6 eho es Meee Re eRERea eee ees Cis eit Ee Let Sake ues a lao 26
SLAG Me an O Memes Aterey: 4/50. aint eee pao Pee a asi 2s 3,534 89
elem ne 6 es ye eee ess 2a a be ean oe BEB sie = de. Sea 2s 1,000 00
GCs OUR UpE loi Mierke, cei cit eee so eer eee oe 296 55
LI EN EER Ar dio Bis fac. Coes > Sent ee Sree eee suede = $2,000000
ATEMME CU sre (=~ exer Sa erere MOCO OE IIE De UE Reese eae es oe. = 2,315 75

43,986 O4

104 REPORT OF THE BUILDING COMMITTEE.

Tn addition to this sum the following expenditures were made on
the parts of the building not injured by the fire, or for general
repairs :

Sarpenters.<)..-14 eee ce ete eee bbe: 2- vom: leiolete $969 00
Plambers and cacfitters-)- 0 creer tems tis See 2 Pee 8) 13299
Paints; oulpelise wn elaine As ee BSP aee ee 510 68
Ember 2. Be BR BYE Le slk ete Ee ce 335 73
Miscelllamedasine Exc 5 viel tie Seek te See ee eee E 198 55

2,137 91
Whole expenditure on building in 1867 ---..----.------------ 46,123 95

Of this expenditure, $8,883 69 were paid out of the appropriation by Con-
gress for the preservation of the government collections.
RICHARD DELAFIELD,
RICHARD WALLACH,
Building Committee.

Wasuineton, April 14, 1868.

REPORT OF THE ARCHITECT.

WASHINGTON, January 6, 1868.

Srrs: I have the honor to report the progress made in the reconstruction of
the buildings during the calendar year 1867.

The absolutely fire-proof roof of the main building, consisting of a slate cover-
ing, plastered inside and fastened by wire to a well-braced wrought-iron frame,
has been firmly putin place. Many difficulties had to be overcome, since the out-
lines of the building, more especially the shape of gable walls and topping out of
side walls, on which that most important feature of the medizeval roof, the sys-
tem of outtering, depends, were prearranged upon the more pliable plan of a com-
bustible frame and wooden sheathings. However, no pains were spared to
accommodate the new conditions to the original architecture of the building.
The different hips and valleys were made secure and water-tight by wide strips
of sheet-copper and sheet-lead laid upon a solid foundation of sheet-iron of proper
width, fastened by wire to the rafters. The gutters consist of wrought-iron,
rolled into proper ‘shape, and of a section vouched for by the Phenix Tron Com-
pany. The connections of the sections of gutters, lengthwise, have been made
so as to allow for expansion, and the connections of the gutters, sidewise, with
the slate roof are effected by galvanized sheet-iron plates riveted to vertical
flanges on the inner side of the gutter, and bent so as to follow up the pitch of the
roof, sustained by the lowest courses of iron purlines for the slating. ‘The mode
adopted has effectively carried off the water of the heaviest rain storms of the sum-
mer, but, being of a novel design, has not fully stood the test of an extraordinary
Sine evan followed by a tall which was freezing as fast as it came down.
This action of the elements caused a thorough freezing up of the northern gutters
encased inside the battlements of the side w vall, and with the consequent effect of
the sun upon the upper part of the roof, the melted snow in its downward course
forced its way underneath the frozen fice and, for want of an outlet, backed up
underneath the galvanized sheet-iron described above. Plans have been laid
before the building committee with a view to remedy this defect as developed by
severe tests.

The ridge of the roof, another important feature, has been effectively secured
by a layer of sheet- lead, capped by rolled iron, shaped to the angle formed by
the ridge of roof and batted down to the roof frame.

In connection with the frame of the roof, for considerations of solidity as well
as of economy, all the necessary and somewhat complicated iron stays, links and
purlines have been inserted, forming the outlines of an appropriate and well-
shaped ceiling in keeping with the features of a fire- -proot hall, 200 feet in
length by 50 ‘feet in width. Whilst the details of this ceiling are left an open
question ‘for the decision of the committee, its main features consist of a boldly
coved and bracketed cornice, surmounted by broad panelled friezes, the inner
members of which are formed so as to subdivide the whole ceiling ‘into three
panels, each extending through the whole width of the building and worked out
again into more minute details.

” After the roof was well secur ed, the tracery of the double windows in the side
walls was carefully taken out, the numerous weakened parts of the cut stone
work supplied by new material and workmanship, and the whole work reset,

106 REPORT OF THE ARCHITECT.

anchored and leaded, in the most substantial manner. Immediately following
this work the frames Aas sash of these windows were made and inserted, strictly
in keeping with the general style of the building.

The ceiling of the museum in lower story being now beyond accident, it was
repaired, and received, with the side walls and intermediate archings, a plain
frescoing. ‘The towers and buildings, north and south of the main building, were
being roofed in at the close of last year’s report. In the early part of the season
the brick arches for the fire-proof floors were turned, concreted, and the floors
laid. During the summer they have all been finished ready for occupancy.
The carriageway leading to the northern main entrance has been paved, mainly
with flacging on hand, the unsightly ceiling repaired and appropriately decorated,
the roof has been put. in order and the unstable battlements securely fastened.

The northern main entrance door leads to the vestibule, which has an orna-
mental tiled floor of alternate colors; is finished octagonally, four sides being
occupied by niches designed for receiving statuary; it has a marble case, and is
finished in oak and frescoed in complementar y colors,

The vestibule is flanked to the east by the janitor’s room, which is floored with
German tile, and to the west by the reception room, which is finished in imita-
tion of walnut and has a floor of encaustic tiles. The three stories above the
vestibule and adjoining rooms are fitted up for tiers of three communicating offi-
ces, each tier forming a compartment, secured by fire-proof iron doors, consisting
of two layers of sheet-iron, with intermediate frame and air-space. Wooden
flooring on top of the fire-proof arches has been preferred for office purposes.
The higher stories of the towers form rooms of a miscellaneous character, are
approached by iron stairs and floored with pressed bricks on the concrete. The
main stairs and stairway have been finished with tiled floors and landings,
plastered and frescoed.

South of the main building a hoist has been introduced, extending from the
basement up to the fourth story. Private stairs cut to shape from old. stone on
hand reach up to the same height, and iron stairs, similar to those in north
towers, lead up to the higher stories. The first story contains vestibule and
general accommodations. The second story contains a properly fitted-up pack-
ing room and bath room. ‘The third story contains the regents’ room. The
fourth, fifth and sixth stories are finished for storerooms and miscellaneous pur-
poses.

All modern and useful improvements have been introduced in the restored and
newly fitted rooms. In the introduction of Potomac water provisions have been
made for fireplugs of sufficient size in the different stories, north and south of
the main building, and the water can be shut off from any one section without

5S
incommoding the rest of the buildings. The same provision is made for the

gaslight arrangements. Speaking tubes lead in all directions, tending to facili-
tate the transaction of business.

No funds being at disposal to introduce a contemplated modern and improved
heating apparatus for the whole of the buildings, one of the functions of which
would have been to perfect the satisfactory working of the new gutters by means
of exhaust pipes at and around the inlets to the down-spouts, stoves were set in
the fall of the year which will heat the offices and other newly created rooms
for any length of time that may be found necessary.

The roof and gutters of the east wing were found to be totally out of repair
and so arranged as to be difficult of remodelling. The slate roof had to be

taken up and “relaid, the gutters were overhauled, renewed and soldered. Other
necessary repairs and alterations of a minor nature, demanded by the exigency
of the case, were attended to.

The areas of casemate doors and windows around the main buildings were all
out of repair. Their cappings were broken and laid so low that the surface water
of the surrounding grounds backed into the basement. They were put in order

REPORT OF THE ARCHITECT. 107

and sufficiently heightened. Brick pavements were laid in different parts of the
basement of the main building.

The work has been faithfully done by the following mechanics and artisans:
Brick work, Wise & Callahan; stone work, N. Acker; carpenter’s work, Bird
& Baker; iron work, Phoenix Iron Company and Gray & Noyes; tin and cop-
per_ work, W. H. Harrover, H. Richey; plumbing, Thos. Evans; gas-fitting,
A. E. Ridgway ; plastering, Fenwick & Stewart; painting and glazing, M. T.
Parker & MacNichol; frescoing, E. Carstens.

I have the honor to be, sirs, your most obedient servant,
ADOLPH CLUSS,
Superintending Architect.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

WASHINGTON, January 15, 1868.

In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution, fixing the time of beginning of the annual session on the third Wed-
nesday of January in each year, a meeting was called for this day. Present,
Hon. J. V. L. Pruyn, General Richard Delafield, Professor L. Agassiz, Hon.
Peter Parker, and Professor Henry, the Secretary.

The Secretary presented the following joint resolution of the Senate and
House of Representatives of the United States:

[PuBLIc RESOLUTION No. 5.]

A RESOLUTION for the appointment of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Con-
gress assembled, That the vacancies in the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution
of the class ‘‘ other than members of Congress’’ be filled by the appointment of Theodore
D. Woolsey, of Connecticut, William B. Astor, of New York, John Maclean, of New Jersey,
and Peter Parker, of the city of Washington.

Approved, January 11, 1868.

The Secretary stated that on the 7th of January the Speaker of the House
of Representatives had appointed the following Regents: Hon. J. A. Garfield
of Ohio, Hon. L. P. Poland of Vermont, and Hon. J. V. L. Pruyn of New York.

No quorum being present, the Board, after examining the building and col-
lections, adjourned to meet on Wednesday evening, January 22, 1868, at 74
o'clock.

WASHINGTON, January 22, 1868.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held at 7% o’clock p. m. in the Regents’
room of the Smithsonian Institution. Present, Hon. B. F. Wade, Hon. R.
Wallach, Hon. L. Trumbull, Hon. G. Davis, Hon. J. A. Garfield, Hon. L. P.
Poland, Hon. J. V. L. Pruyn, Prof. L. Agassiz, Rev. Dr. John Maclean, General
Richard Delafield, Hon. Peter Parker, and Professor Henry, the Secretary.

Mr. Wade was called to the chair. The minutes of the last meeting were
read and approved.

The Secretary stated that a vacancy existed in the Executive Committee, on
account of the death of Professor Bache.

On motion it was

Resolved, That Hon. Peter Parker be elected to fill the vacancy in the Execu-
tive Committee.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 109

The Secretary made a statement relative to the finances of the Institution, the
sale of the State stocks, ete.

Gen. Delafield, on the part of the Executive Committee, presented the annual
account of receipts and expenditures for 1867, and stated that a detailed report
would be submitted at a future meeting.

The Secretary presented a statement in regard to international exchanges of
literary, scientific and government publications. ‘The act of Congress, passed
at the last session, directing that 50 copies of every government publication
should be given to the Smithsonian Institution to be exchanged for the publica-
tions of foreign governments, had not been carried out, as the public printer did
not consider that the act referred to authorized the printing of extra copies of
the works, and all the regular edition was already disposed of according to exist-
ing laws. Further legislation was therefore required.

Mr. Pruyn stated that the subject had been referred to the Library Committee
of Congress, of which he was a member, and that he would do all in his power
to promote the object desired.

Professor Agassiz, from the committee appointed at the meeting of February 1,
1867, presented a report, which, on motion of Mr. Wallach, was accepted.

After remarks by several Regents, on motion of Mr. Poland, the report was
laid on the table and made the special order for the next meeting.

On motion of General Garfield the report was ordered to be printed.

The Board then adjourned to meet on Monday evening, January 27, 1868.

WASHINGTON, January 27, 1868.

A meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution was held
at 74 o’clock p. m., in the Regents’ room. Present, Chief Justice Chase, (the
Chancellor,) Hon. B. F. Wade, Hon. Richard Wallach, Hon. J. A. Garfield,
Hon. L. P. Poland, Hon. J. V. L. Pruyn, Professor Agassiz, Hon. Peter Parker,
and Professor Henry, the Secretary.

The Chancellor took the chair, and the minutes of the last meeting were read
and approved.

The Secretary presented the report for the year 1867.

Professor Agassiz presented a printed and revised copy of the report of the
special committee on the use of the new room, made at the last meeting, which
was read as follows:

Report of the committee appointed to consider what will be the best use for the large
room in the second story of the main building of the Smithsonian Institution.

The influence the Smithsonian Institution has exercised from its origin upon
the progress of science in the United States has been so marked and so deep,
that in considering any step connected with the organization of the Institution,
it is of the utmost importance to keep in view its bearing upon the advancement
of knowledge generally. To those not familiar with the active operations of
the Institution, the growing recognition of the difference between the increase
and diffusion of knowledge, and the consequent establishment by Congress of a
National Academy, mainly organized for the purpose of enlarging the boundaries

110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

of science among us, are in themselves sufficient evidence of its beneficent power.
The large and unique library lately transferred from the Institution to the library

of Congress, and the extended intercourse between the Institution and all the

learned bodies scattered over the globe, bear equally impressive testimony to the
wide-spread action of the Institution.

In attempting to determine the most appropriate use to which the large build-
ing of the Smithsonian, and especially the large unappropriated hall in the second
story, may be put, your committee has been led to consider the probable course
the Institution may follow whenever its resources become consolidated and its
means, gradually freed from their temporary application to subordinate purposes,
are exclusively devoted to the special object pointed out in the will of Smithson,
viz: “the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” The policy which
has led to the transfer of the Smithsonian library to that of Congress suggests
the propriety of severing also the museum from the Smithsonian Institution,
inasmuch as a museum is no more contemplated by the will of Smithson than a
library. ‘The accumulation of books and specimens has been a natural conse-
quence of the organization of an institution exclusively devoted to the fostering
of intellectual pursuits. But in proportion as their number increased they claimed
a larger and larger part of the attention and means of the Institution until it
became a matter of serious consideration how far the possession of such objects
should be embraced in its general plan and scope.

As far as the library is concerned the question has been settled. It has become
evident that, in consequence of the judicious distributing of its published contri-
butions and miscellaneous works, the Smithsonian has acquired the most com-
plete collection of learned transactions in existence; so extensive, indeed, that
its preservation and natural extension would have encroached upon the specified
obligations of the Institution. The disposition made of it leaves the students of
science in the fullest enjoyment of this invaluable store of information, while it
relieves the Smithsonian of a serious burden. Now your committee is satisfied
that the museum of natural history, and the other collections preserved in the
Smithsonian, stand in precisely the same relation to the Institution as the library
did, and that it may be equally desirable to give them up, and with them the
largest part if not the whole of the building, could this be done without injury
to the collections and to the cause of natural history. However, it does not appear
advisable to adopt such a course immediately; but it seems wise to keep it in
view as a probability, doing meanwhile whatever is most likely to contribute to
the advancement of science.

A few facts concerning the operations of the Institution should be borne in
mind in this connection. In the same manner as the Smithsonian has distributed
its various publications broadcast among learned institutions and individual sci-
entific men, and obtained in return the magnificent library above alluded to, it
has also distributed an immense number of specimens, and fostered in this way
scientific research both at home and abroad. But for these latter contributions
scattered over the whole civilized world it has neither claimed nor received ade-
quate returns. All the duplicates of these treasures obtained at home from the
various government exploring expeditions and surveys have been given away with

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 111

the understanding that the time may come when the progress of science among
us would make it desirable that returns in kind should be expected.

The Smithsonian Institution has now been in operation for twenty years. In
acknowledgment of its published Contributions to Knowledge it has received the
splendid library which now adorns the Congressional library. Is it not time that
the rights accrued in consequence of the distribution of specimens by the Insti
tution should be called in; that this great outstanding debt, as it may well be
called, should be collected before the recipients of these manifold gifts have passed
away, and the benefits thus conferred by the Smithsonian are altogether forgot-
ten; when the Institution might find it difficult to obtain, without new offerings,
that which at this moment it may claim as its due?

Should this Board approve the recommendation of this committee, no time
ought to be lost in giving notice to all the various institutions with which the
Smithsonian is in regular correspondence, that this is henceforth to be the regu-
lar policy of the Institution. On the other hand it is indispensable that we
should make the necessary preparations for receiving these objects, and also
determine beforehand the ultimate destination of the extensive collections which
no doubt will flow in as soon as we are prepared to take care of them. Your
committee is of opinion that the great hall in the second story of the building
should be used for the reception of these collections, and the smaller rooms in
the towers, as far as not needed for other purposes, as laboratories to identify,
arrange, classify, and distribute these collections for the greatest advantage of
science among us, until suitable arrangements can be made for the organization
of a great national museum, to which the whole should in the end be transferred.

It is self-evident that the collections likely to come in will soon outgrow the
capacity of the Smithsonian Institution and its ability to take care of them, with-
out applying its income to objects for which it was not intended. But the difh-
culty of disposing of these scientific treasures is no sufficient ground why the
Smithsonian should surrender its large claims on other scientific institutions ; for,
in so doing, it would simply deprive the country of scientific objects, which other
museums would be glad to receive should the Smithsonian be obliged to give
them up before the country demands and organizes a great national museum in
Washington.

To sum up these remarks, your committee recommends—

1st. That the distribution of specimens carried on by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution be continued and extended, but that at the same time proper returns be
required whenever the specimens are not given out in aid of original researches
or for educational purposes.

2d. That the expenses for such operations be liraited to the resources especi-
ally appropriated for the purpose, and not allowed to encroach upon the regular
active operations of the Institution.

3d. That the great hall of the second story of the building, and such other
rooms as are not required for the regular operations of the institution, be devoted
to the preservation of the scientific collections.

All of which is respectfully submitted in behalf of the committee.

L. AGASSIZ.

112 PROCEEDINGS O# THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

On motion of Mr. Garfield, after remarks by Messrs. Pruyn, Agassiz, Chase,
Wade, Parker, Wallach, Garfield, and the Secretary, the recommendations of
the committee, after modification, were adopted unanimously, as follows :

1st. That the distribution of specimens carried on by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution be continued and extended, but that at the same time proper returns for
the past as well as for the future be required, whenever the specimens are not

given out in aid of original researches or for educational purposes.

2d. That the expenses for such operations be limited to the resources spe-
cially appropriated by Congress for the purpose, and not allowed to encroach
upon the regular active operations of the Institution.

Bide ry S ry of the building, and such other

3d. That the great hall of the second story of the building, and such other
rooms as are not required for the regular operations of the Institution, be
devoted to the preservation of the scientific collections.

On motion of Mr. Garfield, the following resolution was adopted :
Resolved, That a committee be appointed to report to the Regents, at their

next meeting, what amount of appropriation should be asked of Congress for

the care of the museum and for fitting up the great hall for the safe-keeping
and exhibition of specimens.

Messrs. Wade, Garfield, Pruyn, Poland, and the Secretary were appointed as
the committee.
The Board adjourned to meet at the call of the Secretary.

WEDNESDAY, April 15, 1868.
Present, Chief Justice Chase, (the Chancellor,) Hon. R. Wallach, General R.
Delafield, Hon. Peter Parker, and Professor Henry, the Secretary.
No quorum being present the Board adjourned to mect on the 22d instant at
ipa.

WEDNESDAY, April 22, 1868.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day in the Regents’ room,
at 7 o'clock p.m. Present, Chief Justice Chase, (the Chancellor,) Hon.
B. F. Wade, Hon. Lyman Trumbull, Hon. Garret Davis, Hon. J. A. Garfield,
Hon. J. V. L. Pruyn, General R. Delafield, Hon. Peter Parker, and Professor
Henry, the Secretary.

The Chancellor took the chair, and the minutes of the last meeting were
read and approved.

General Delafield presented the report of the Executive Committee for the
year 1867, which was read and approved.

General Delafield presented the report of the Building Committee for the
year 1867, which was read and approved.

The Secretary made a statement relative to the facilities afforded by various
steamship and railroad companies in conveying the packages of the Institution
free of freight.

On motion of Mr. Trumbull, the following resolutioas were adopted :

Whereas the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, North German Lloyd, Ham-
burg American Steamship Company, General T'rans-Atlantic Steamship Com-
pany, Inman line of steamers, Cunard line of steamers, Pacific Steam Naviga-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 113

tion Company, Panama Railroad Company, and California and Mexico Steam-
ship Company have generously aided in advancing the objects of the Smithso-
nian Institution and the promotion of science by the facilities they have
afforded in the transportation of books, specimens, etc., free of charge: There-
fore,

Resolv ed, That the thanks of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution are hereby given to the directors and officers of the above-named compa-
nies for this liberal and enlightened action.

Resolved, ‘That a copy of these resolutions be transmitted by the Secretary
to each of the companies.

Professor Henry submitted a statement as to the proposed researches and
publications durmeg the present year.

Hon. Mr. Parker stated that the city councils had under consideration the
ceding of the canal, which bounds the Smithsonian grounds to the north, to a
private company, and as this might affect the interests of the Institution he
thought some action should be taken in regard to it.

On motion of General Garfield, it was

Resolved, That the Executive Committee be instructed to ascertain what

measures are proposed to be taken by the city authorities of Washington in
regard to the canal, so far as concerns the Smithsonian Institution.

The Chancellor called attention to the fact that a committee was appointed
at the last meeting to prepare estimates for the completion of the large hall
and for obtaining an adequate appropriation from Congress for the care of the
government collections, and expressed the desire that this committee should
act immediately in regard to the matter.

The Secretary, on behalf of the committee, stated that on consultation with the
architect it was thought that $50,000 would be required for finishing the large
room and supplying it with cases, and that at least $10,000 annually ought to be
appropriated for the care cf the museum. Whereupon it was

Resolved, 'That a memorial be presented to Congress asking appropriations in
accordance with ihe report of the committee.

The Secretary gave au account of the establishment of a scientific society in
Egypt publishing valuable transactions which had been received by the Insti-
tution.

The Board then adjourned to meet on Friday, May 1, at 7 o’clock p. m.

Fripay, May 1, 1868.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day at 7 o’clock p. m.
Present, Chief Justice Chase, (the Chancellor,) Hon. B. F. Wade, Hon. Lyman
Trumbull, Hon. L. P. Poland, Hon. J. V. L. Pruyn, Hon. Richard Wallach,
General R. Delafield, Hon. Peter Parker, Rey. Dr. John Maclean, and Profes-
sor Henry, the Secretary.

The Chancellor took the chair, and the minutes of the last meeting were
read and approved.

General Delafield, from the Executive Committee, reported that he had col-
lected a large amount of information in relation to the canal, (bounding the
Smithsonian grounds,) but was not yet ready to make a report.

Ss 67

114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

The Secretary read a copy of the memorial which had been prepared in
accordance with the directions of the Board, signed by the Chancellor and See-
retary, and presented to Congress,* as ace : ;

To the honorable the Senate and House of Representatives in Congress assembled :

In behalf of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, the
undersigned beg leave respectfully to submit to your honorable body the fol-
lowing statement, and to solicit such action in regard to it as may be deemed
just and proper :

The act of Congress organizing the Institution ordered the erection of a
building which should accommodate, on a liberal scale, besides a library and a
gallery” of art, a museum, consisting of all the specimens of natural history,
geology, and art, which then belonged to the government, or which might there-
after come into its possession by exchange or otherwise. ‘Although the m: ajority
of the Regents did not consider the maintenance of these objects to be in accord-
ance with the intention of Smithson, as inferred from a strict interpretation of
the terms of his will, yet in obedience to the commands of Congress they pro-
ceeded to erect a building of the necessary dimensions, and to take charge of
the government collections.

The erection and maintenance of so large and expensive an edifice, involving
an outlay of $450,000, and the charge of the government museum, have proved
a grievous burden on the Institution, increasing from year to year, which, had
not its effects been counteracted by a judicious management of the funds, would
have paralyzed the legitimate operations of the establishment, and frustrated
the evident intention of Smithson.

It is true that Congress, at the time the specimens were transferred to the
Institution, granted an appropriation of $4,000 for their care and preservation,
that being the equivalent of the estimated cost of the maintenance of these
collections in the Patent Office, where they had previously been exhibited.
But this sum, from the rise in prices and the expansion of the museum by the
specimens obtained from about fifty exploring expeditions ordered by Congress,
scarcely more than defrays, at the present time, one-third of the annual expense.
In this estimate no account is taken of the rent of the part of the building
devoted to the museum of the government, which, at a moderate estimate,
would be $20,000 per annum.

Besides the large expenditure which has already been made on the building,
at least $50,000 more will be required to finish the large hall in the second
story, necessary for the full display of the specimens of the government. But
the Regents do not think it judicious further to embarrass the active operations
for several years to come, by devoting a large part of the income to this object,
and have, therefore, concluded to allow this room to remain unfinished until
other means are provided for completing it.

It is not by its castellated building nor the exhibition of the museum of the
government that the Institution has achieved its present reputation, nor by the
collection and display of material objects of any kind that it has vindicated the
intelligence and good faith of the government in the administration of the
trust; it is by its explorations, its researches, its publications, its distribution of
specimens and its exchanges, constituting it an active, living organization, that
it has rendered itself favorably known in every part of the civilized world, has

made contributions to almost every branch of science, and brought more than
ever before into intimate and friendly relations the Old and the New Worlds.

A central museum for a complete representation of the natural products of
America, with such foreign specimens as may be required for comparison and
generalization, is of oreat importance, particularly as a means of developing

* May 1.—In the House of Representatives.—Referred to the Committee on Appropriations
and ordered to be printed.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 115

and illustrating our industrial resources, as well as of facilitating the study of
the relations of our geology, mineralogy, flora and fauna, to those of the Old
World. But the benefit of such an establishment is principally confined to this
country, and does not partake of the cosmopolitan character of an institution
such as Smithson intended to found, and therefore ought not to be supported
from his bequest.

The Board of Regents are confident that upon a full consideration of the case,
your honorable body will grant an adequate support for the collections of the
government, and also an appropriation for finishing the repairs of the building,
and eventually, when the financial condition of the country will permit, for the
independent maintenance of a national museum.

It may not be improper, in addition to what has been said, to recall the fact
that the Smithsonian Institution has transferred, without cost, to the library of
Congress, one of the most valuable and complete collections of the.transactions
of scientific and learned societies and serial publications in existence, consisting
of at least 50,000 works, which, with the annual continuations of the same
series, must render Washington a centre of scientific knowledge, and the library
itself worthy of the nation; and that it has also presented to the government its

valuable collection of specimens of art, illustrating the history of engraving
from the earliest periods. It is prepared to render a similar service to a national
museum, by the exchanges from foreign museums to which it has been a liberal
contributor, and which may be obtained as soon as means are provided for their
transportation and accommodation.

It may also be mentioned that the Institution has rendered important service
to the government through the scientific investigations it has made im connection
with the operations of the different departments, and it is not too much to say
that, through the labors of its officers, it has been the means of saying millions
of dollars to the national treasury.

In conclusion, your memorialists beg leave to represent, on behalf of the
Board of Regents, that the usual annual appropriation of $4,000 is wholly
inadequate to the cost of preparing, preserving, and exhibiting ‘the specimens,
the actual expenditure for that purpose in 1867 having been over $12,000; and
they take the liberty of respectfully urging on your honorable body the expe-
diency of increasing it to $10,000, and ‘that a further sum of $25,000 be appro-
priated at this session of Congress towards the completion of the hall required
for the government collections.

And your memorialists will ever pray, &c.

bp. E. CHASE,
Chancellor Smithsonian Institution.

JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.

On motion, the action of the Chancellor and Secretary in relation to the
memorial was approved.

The Secretary gave an account of the correspondence of the Institution, and
as an illustration of its diversified character read the letters which had been
received that day.

On motion of Mr. Maclean, the annual report of the Secretary was accepted,
and the officers of the Institution authorized to transmit it to Congress.

A motion of Mr. Wallach, in behalf of the Executive Committee, to increase
the salary of the Secretary, was referred back to the same Committee, with
instructions to make a report on the whole subject of the compensation of the
officers of the Institution at the next meeting.

Adjourned, to meet at the call of the Secretary.

116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

EXTRACTS FROM THE GENERAL CORRESPONDENCE SUBMIT-
TED TO THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

From the Records of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Boston, MAssacuvsetts, May 29, 1866.

Remarks were made by the president and by the librarian on the aid ren-
dered by the Smithsonian ‘Institution in effec ting the exchanges of the academy;
and, on motion of the librarian, it was voted : That the thanks of the academy
be presented to the Smithsonian Institution for the generous and efficient aid
which it has rendered through its system of foreign exchanges and distribution
of publications, by which the academy has eveatly profited.

CHAUNCEY WRIGHT,
Recording Secretary American Academy.

From*George H. Knight.

CINCINNATI, Oxn10, July 10, 1866.

The system of weights and measures being on the tapis, ought we not to save
posterity a world of trouble by once for all dethroning fen as the metrical num-
ber in favor of eight—a number susceptible of indefinite bisection, itself a cube,
(2°,) and whose square is a cube, (4°?)

Two pect its multiples is the natural division in measures; witness the old dry
measure: 2 gills==one jack ; a jne ea Oue pint; 2 pints=one quart; 2 quarts=
one pottle ; ; 2 pottles=one gallon; 2 2 eallons—one peck; 4 pecks—one bushel ;
8 bushels=one-quarter ; 4 quarters=one chaldron, &c.

The system would, of course, abolish the two digits, 8 and 9. Eight would
be represented by the sign 10, and nine by 11, while 8.x8.=100. I am not
unaware of the prodigious labor involved in such a change—a labor too great
for an age which expends more on litigation than on its wheat crop; but I never-

5
theless believe it will be undertaken by some future age at a far greater sacrifice.

From E. C. Bolles, Secretary of the Portland Society of Natural History.

PortLanp, MAINE, August 24, 1866.

The Portland Society of Natural History has always felt that the Smithsonian
Institution was its best friend. Unnumbered instances of a generous regard,
rising to munificence in the time of our loss and trial; wise counsels never out
of place; wonderful facilities for scientific interchange most cheerfully granted,
all compel us to this belief; and it is in obedience to this conviction that we lay
before you, at the earliest possible moment, a statement of the present condition
of our society, which, in the terrible calamity well known throughout our land,
has been almost the greatest sufferer of all.

The destructive fire of July 4th consumed our building and collections, leav-
ing, from the peculiar construction of the former, scarcely a vestige of the interior
of the hall. We regret to say that this Tac was entirely unnecessary. ‘The
structure was eminently fire-proof, separated by 20 feet on each side from the
buildings on the right and left. A large wooden house on the right had been
entirely burned without danger to our property ; the library had been quietly and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. LEE

safely removed; in the event of possible danger there seemed time enough to
secure the cabinets, which were already so arranged as to be readily carried out,
when an illjudged explosion of pow der in the building on the left blew out the
few windows in our premises, and drove the burning mass of splinters and boards
quite over the lower floor of our lecture-room, and left this, of course, in a moment,
only a sheet of flame. ‘This unexpected blow, almost destroying several mem-
bers of the society, rendered all further efforts to save our property vain.

You will be pleased to learn that all our books and pamphlets, including our
own and the Smithsonian publications, were saved. I wish that I could say as
much for the collections, but, excepting about 100 species of shells, withdrawn
for a special purpose and not then returned, all was lost.

And now we beg to assure you that the society stil lives. Not even this
second trial by fire shall destroy our existence and work. Although since that
night of disasters every one’s heart and brain have been overtaxed, we have not
lost a single meeting. One result you will see in the enclosed appeal, which
document we have circulated among such men of science as were catalogued in
the “ Naturalist’s Directory.” We find ourselves almost penniless. Our city is
too well drained of its resources to afford more than a few scanty crumbs of aid.
What response will be made to our petition we do not as yet know; certain it is
that if this machinery fails we shall try some other. Our fortune, by its very
hardness, rouses and stimulates us. We are very anxious to have some building
of our own, however humble, rather than multiply risks by sharing with other

organizations the common shelter of one roof. We feel better to- day, because
no part of our loss is to be charged upon our own want of forethought or lmme-
diate care.

Our present location might again serve us were it not for public demands and
interference. The walls of our building are as good as when first built; but
the city, in making the street in front of us w ider, cuts off about 20 feet of our
building, reducing the dimensions of our land too ‘auch to leave the rest of use
tous. I need scarcely add that, under the most favorable terms of sale, we
cannot close our business matters wp to have more than $2,500 remain above our
mortgage debt.

But we ought not to tax your patience further. We shall be most grateful
for your sympathy, suggestions, aid. Situated as we are, there is not another
institution of science that has been forced to record two such terrible chapters of
misfortune. But we mean, if Providence blesses our labors, to make it true that
no local society of natural history shall leave in years to come a better chapter
of hard-earned prosperity and fame.

[Norr.—We are happy to state that this society is again in a flourishing con-
dition, and that permission has recently been given to it by the city government
to occupy, free of charge, rooms in the new city hall building; also, that the
Smithsonian Institution has presented it with another very complete set of its

duplicate specimens of natural history.—J. H.]

From Josiah Goodwin, secretary and editor of the Bath and West of England
Society for the Encourag gement of Agriculture, Arts, Manufactures, and Com-
merce.

Baru, September 3, 1866.
On behalf of the president and council of the Bath and West of England
society, I have the honor to acknowledge the safe arrival of the several books
enumerated in the invoice numbered 804a, 1866, which I beg to enclose receipted ;
and I have much pleasure in conveying to the honorable the officers and Regents

118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

of the Smithsonian Institution the assurance that the president and the council
of the Bath and West of England society entertain not only a very high sense
of the valuable services conferred on the scientific world Ly the labors and pub-
lications of the Smithsonian Institution, but they cannot too highly applaud the
enlightened liberality which has actuated the conductors of the Smithsonian
Institution in the establishment of such an admirable system of organization for
facilitating the inutual interchange of the publications of the learned and other
societies in various parts of the great continent of America and the United King-
dom of Great Britain and Ireland.

Acting in a reciprocal spirit, I have much pleasure in transmitting, through
your recognized agent, several volumes of the Bath and West of England society’s
journals, in order to complete the set in the library of your Institution, more espe-
cially as the earlier volumes can now be obtained only very rarely, as the society’s
stock is entirely exhausted.

From Dr. Brehm, the director of the Zoological Gardens.

Hampura, September 11, 1866.

T am in receipt of your letter dated the 2d of last month, in which you state
that a specimen of the American great horned owl is offered for the accep-
tance of the zoological society of “this city, by the Smithsonian Institution ;
and I have the satisfaction of stating that the bird has arrived in good health
and condition, and the society is very y much obliged, and will do itself the pleas-
ure of returning the compliment if you will indicate in what manner it can be
done.

If I might further intrude on the kindness of the Institution, it would be to
say that some of your common finches (Prin oe ) would be very acceptable,
as the birds usually imported are only such as, e. g : Cardinalis virginianus, Spiza
cinis, Astragalinus tristus, and Cocoborus daaeictes But we get overdone
with these birds of dealers, and which are popular with private purchasers, who
do not value the less externally attractive and common birds which J am anx-
ious to possess. Some of the small owls I should also like to have from America,
together with any of your ducks, (Anas,) excepting the “sumreer duck,” which,
for the same reason as I have above given in regard to other birds, are imported
into Europe in quantities.

It is remarkable that the “snow goose,” though abounding in the United
States in any number of thousands, is not in any ‘European zoological garden.
Will you please to think of me with special attention with regard to this bird?

From the Chicago Academy of Sciences.
Cuicaco, February 11, 1867.

The undersigned, trustees of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, desiring to
signalize in a more special manner their sense of the great obligations the academy
is under to the Smithsonian Institution, have caused a list to be made of its recent
donations to their library and museum, and take this method of expressing to
you their sincere thanks, not only for these books and specimens, but in general
for the fostering care with which the Institution has treated, from its inception,
our attempt to establish a strictly scientific museum here in the west.

Very respectfully, your obedient servants,

GEO. C. WALKER. H. G. LOOMIS.
We Es DOGGEIT: E. W. BLATCHFORD.
E. G. McCAGG. DANIEL THOMPSON.

J. YOUNG SCAMMON.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 119

Report on an improved system of numeration, by W. B. Taylor, Esq.

UNITED States PATENT OFFICE,
Washington, March 22, 1867.

I have examined the paper referred to, on the subject of an improved numera-
tion for arithmetical operations, and have, respectfully, to offer the following
remarks: he proposal is simply to interpolate six additional “digits” (if the
term may be allowed) between the nine and the ten of our common arithmetical
scale, in every order or place of figures; in other words, to substitute a senide-
nary for the received denary radix of numeration. This suggestion has been
made, I believe, more than once before. In 1859, Mr. J. W. Nystrom, of Phila-
delphia, published an essay on what he called the tonal system, (ton being
the name he assigned to the senidenary fen,) advocating the adoption of the
number 16 as the basis of a universal arithmetic and metrology.

All who have given the subject of weights and measures much consideration
will agree in the proposition that a scheme of continual bisections and doublings
would prove a great convenience in all the operations of concrete arithmetic, and
were it not for the enormous labor of a reconstruction, and the great time required
for its general introduction among civilized nations, some such reform might be
accepted as advantageous or desirable.

So early as the beginning of the last century, the illustrious Leibnitz elaborated
a scheme of binary arithmetic, (whose only characters were 1 and 0,) and pub-
lished a treatise in its exposition and support. A paper of his upon the subject
will be found in the Memoirs of the Academie Royal des Sciences for the year
1703, page 85, in which he says he had himself employed this ratio of computa-
tion for many years, and that he regarded it as “la perfection de la science des
nombres;” an opinion which, from such an authority, is entitled to very high
respect.

It may well be questioned, however, whether the senidenary scale favored by
your correspondent would fulfil the true desideratumm—a minima of arithmetical
labor. ‘There are considerations tending to show that even our present denary
ratio is too high for the most complete and general facility. In balancing the
two opposite conditions of conciseness of expression, and simplicity of construe-
tion, it must be borne in mind that while the number of places required to express
a given value is diminished, simply as the logarithm of the radix increases,
the mental labor required in using any scale is increased in a considerably higher
ratio than the arithmetical increment of the radix; probably in a geometrical
progression, or as some low power of the base. I am inclined to believe, there-
fore, that as between the binary and senidenary systems, the former is decidedly
to be preferred; that the economy of places or of expression in the latter would
prove but a trival compensation for its much larger range and variety of symbols
and the far greater complexity of all the tables and processes necessary in its
employment.

For all popular uses, either the quarternary or octonary scale would probably
be found much more convenient than either of these suggested extremes, and
certainly much more available for the distribution of weights and measures.

In 1719, Swedenborg published an Octonary Computus, and a project of an
octaval system of weights, measures, and coins. It is said that Charles XII, of
Sweden, had contemplated the experimental adoption of the scheme not long
before bis death, in 1718.

It may not be considered irrelevant to here briefly compare the four different
scales above mentioned with our established scale, in point of expressiveness.

120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

Scale of comparison.

on
& && | Expression for
Scale. d = | the present
AS = = © ear,
S &p a year.
cS So. ao)
oS _ <4
Weniarye sees toe eis ater ne eee crate to pe che eoretarehs HONE Ue 1 1. 857
Sonidenany -seenseces cet vee tonto ekelnee eae oo) LO eee z . 743
Octonanypereras sae cece se ee ee aera teoeoen so oe 8 903 a} Sols
BERG MRNNy AE Sae5 anadlseS odo odecom cane cceocooss -| 4 . 602 3 131.023
Gsiuany bes fe des 2 ake ase Seka see cle oes 2 301 40 | 141.101.001.011

Or to compare them in the expression of very large values, as for example, of
such a sum as the number of grains of sand required to constitute a globe as
large as our earth, (which, assuming 10 millions of grains to the cubic inch,
would not exceed 659 qnintillions, an expression requiring 33 places of figures,)
we should find that the senidenary scale would require 28 figures, (a reduction
quite insignificant,) the octonary would require 37 figures, (an excess equally
insignificant, with only half the number of digits, and probably not one-fourth
the difficulty,) the quarternary 55 figures, and the binary 110 figures.

In conclusion, I would express the opinion that the arithmetical scale suggested
by your correspondent does not promise a convenience which would justify the
subversion of the existing system of enumeration in its favor.

From Count de Lulk, President of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

Sr. Pererspurec, May 13, 1867.

Having received, through the kind attention of his excellency General Clay,
the letter which you did me the honor to address to me under date of the 25th
of March last, from the city of Washington, I lost no time in communicating its.
purport to the Imperial Academy of Sciences. That body has accepted, with
the most lively acknowledgments, the offer which you make, in the name of the
Smithsonian Institution, to enrich the museums of the academy with the gift of
duplicates of the objects of natural history, collected in the Russian possessions
~in America, as well as of those which M. Bischoff shall have an opportunity of
collecting in Kamtschatka and the province of the Amour.

At the same time I deemed it my duty to address to General Korsakoff, gov-
ernor general of Siberia, a request that he would have the goodness to give such
orders that M. Bischoff shall find, during the expedition which he contemplates,
assistance and protection on the part of the local authorities. By an official
despatch of the 25th of April, M. Korsakoff informs me that he has written on this
subject to the governors of the provinces which M. Bischoff has the intention of
visiting, and has, at the same time, conveyed to me an open order (in the Russian
language) which it will be proper that M. Bischoff shall carry with him and pro-
duce to the local authorities in case of need, that he may secure their protection
and assistance, be enabled to procure from the magazines of the state provisions
at the legal rates, and be received on board the vessels of the empire. ‘This docu-
ment I have the honor of transmitting with the present communication, and beg,
sir, that you will accept the assurance of my most distinguished consideration.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 121

From H. Zisgenbals.

LEIPsIc, May 17, 1867.

Enclosed I send you the prospectus of the Schlagintwait collection of ethno-
graphic heads of India and higher Asia, which, in view of the purpose now enter-
tained of forming a comprehensive museum of such representations, cannot fail
to be of interest to the Smithsonian Institution.

The price of the collection is, as has been already stated, somewhat high, and
is established at the following rates:

1. Single heads, according to the choice of the purchaser, for 11 thalers.

2. At least 25 heads taken at one time, at 9 thalers.

3. ‘The complete collection, 275 heads and 37 impressions of hands and feet,
taken at one time, 2,348 thalers.

In case of a commission for the above purpose I would hold myself in readi-
ness to superintend the transmission in the best and most expeditious manner,

From W. Alfred Lloyd.

Hampoura, May 25, 1867.

The sparrows will be sent in about two months from this date, when the
young birds born this spring will be strong enough for travelling. ‘They are not
very easy to keep in captivity, and I must try to find out by previous observa-
tion what will be the best manner of forwarding them. You shall, of course,
have due notice and proper instructions, and I will place them in the care of a
trustworthy person, to whem a premium can be offered, varying in amount
according to the number delivered alive and in good health. This is the plan I
adopt with regard to the transport of living aquarium animals, and thank you
very much for kindly trying to send me some. I mentioned sea anemones and
madrepores, they being easier to send alive than some other animals, but I should
be glad to have any American invertebrata, particularly marine, as [ try to make
the aquarium of our society a kind of museum of the lower aquatic forms of life.
I think I did send you a pamphlet containing a list of those I have already
obtained, chiefly from England and the north of Europe, and I am now desirous
to get things from places further afield. I believe many of your marine erustacea
might be forwarded with no very great amount of difficulty, but the only exam-
ples | have yet obtained are Cenobita Diogenes, trom Cuba, and Limularpoly-
phemus, from New York. I have still some of the last named, but they are too
big for my accommodations, and I am anxious to see very young specimens—
say a couple of inches long. Last week I almost got some crabs from the South
Sea islands. ‘They appear to be situated somewhere about grapsus or gonople.
These three forms of crustacea reached Europe alive because of their habit "
living much out of water, not usually tmmersed in fluid, but only kept damp, s
that the fact or nocidones of their own avoidance of being kept actually Boies
the surface of the water caused their gills to be sufliciently aerated on the voy-
age, as it is evident that thin films of water presented to the atmosphere are
more quickly oxygenated and acted upon than large masses, because of the pre-
sentation of greater surfaces to the action of the atmosphere, just the same com-
paring together dissimilar processes that a lump of sugar placed in water as a
solid lump takes a much longer time to dissolve than if the same quantity were
powdered, because when in the form of powder the water has an infinite number
of surfaces to act upon all at once. For this reason I keep all difficult marine
animals in shallow water. A cubic foot of fluid, arranged as a cube, pre-

sents to the atmosphere a surface of 144 square inches, whereas, if the same cubic
foot be spread out so the depth is but three inches, the surface presented is 576

122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

inches, and the amount of oxygen absorbed by the atmosphere in contact with it
and the health of the animals immersed in it (always supposing they have enough
space in which to move) is according to the arithmetical expression of the case.
Even deep-sea creatures obtained from the greatest depths to which dredges and
sounding lines have ever penetrated try to. get to the swzface of the aquarium
they are placed in, to seek the air which the enormous pressure gave them in the
waters they inhabited in nature, and appear to suffer no inconvenience by the
removal of that pressure, their tissues beg vascular and permeated by the water
on all sides. I trouble you with these particulars as being useful hints in the
sending of any aquatic animals, as sailors and others are so apt to keep them in
deep water, i. e., deep water relatively to the surface exposed afforded by the
vessel they are brought in. I have often thought that a large tub containing
masses of rough cleaned sponge, (such as is used for stable purposes,) would
answer well in bringing over some crustacea, and perhaps sea anemones. Some
small holes should be bored in the side of the tub about three inches from the
bottom, and then, if a quantity of sea-water were daily or oftener poured over
the sponge and animals, it would find its way out at the holes and leave the
sponge saturated with moisture. Each mass of sponge would be a kind of lung
perforated with openings in all directions, and the fluid contained in the sponge
would thus have a very large surface exposure to the surrounding air, and the
erabs would climb upon and absorb it, while the three inches of water below
would effectually prevent desiccation. Twenty or thirty small crabs so brought
to Europe in a tub of about four feet diameter, covered over the top with a net,
would be very nearly in the condition, chemically speaking of, as many birds or
other lung-breathing creatures. The sponge too would, I think, prevent injury
to the animals by the motion of the ship. We know far too little of the habits
of invertebrate aquatic forms of life from-parts of the world distant from us, as
we have not given suflicient consideration to the proper means of transporting
them. What is wanted is not only water but air in the water, and if on board
ship the appliances are somewhat rude, so that the fluid cannot be kept as pure
as it might be kept on land, then shallowness and the presentation of great sur-
faces of fluid to the purifying influences of the atmosphere are the best means of

getting over the difficulty. We shall be very thankful for the promised meno-
poma.

From W. Alfred Lloyd.

Hampure, July 13, 1867.

By the steamer Borussia, leaving here this evening, the “ Zoologische Gessell-
chaft,” of Hamburg, sends for the acceptance of the Smithsonian Institution at
W ashington a collection of upwards of 300 living sparrows, in accordance with
a wish expressed by you, as you desire these birds to multiply in your country
that they may consume the insects that devour corn, vegetables, and fruit grow-
ing in the ground. Will you please report on their arrival and say how many,
if any, reached you alive; then this society will pay the man in charge a propor-
tionate premium for himself. The freight is free between our two “Institutions
by all the vessels of the Hamburg New York company. Please return the cages,
and, if you wish, we will send more in them, and continue to forward you sup-
plies till we succeed, if success be possible. Sparrows from England have been
sent, after some trials, to Australia, and they are there thriving, I believe. If
any ill-luck should happen to the present consignment, please tr y to find out the
cause of it, in order that in renewing our attempt we may learn from experience
of the past. T have heard something of the value of transporting such birds
to long distances confined in small cages, with two or three in each, but no
reason was given for it, and therefore I cannot see why such a system should be

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 123

right or wrong; but if you find a good cause for it, let me know and I will
adopt the plan, or any other.

You were, in your letter of April 24th last, so kind as to say you would
endeavor to forward my wish in procuring from America some living marine
animals for our aquarium here, and I should be glad to know what suecess you .
have yet met with. Some weeks ago I sent you a letter setting forth at full
length my views on the transport of non-lung-breathing animals, and I trust
that the explanations I ventured to trouble you with may be of some service in
gctting over difficulties. We know very little of non-European zoophytes in a
living state, and, as I may have told you, American sea anemones have been
brought over only once, though such animals from Britain have several times
been sent to your country and to Australia.

Tam exceedingly anxious to obtain some of your Helian thoid polypes, your
sea anemones and madrepores; and no matter how common they may be with
you, they are sure to be interesting and valuable to me, unless it is positively
known beyond all doubt that they are identical with European species, and
even then the very fact of the identity would be of interest. So please send me
any. Of course you have got Gosse’s ‘“Actinotoba Britannica,’ Svo, 1860.
It is the text-book for British Actineas and Madrepores; and I am iold that
Rhodactinea is exactly the same as our Act. mesembry anthemone. I should
like to prove this. I have also heard that our Actinotoba dianthus is “very near
your M. marginatum,” and this, too, I should like to clear up.

Arachnactis, the only swimming anemone known, is reported to be very abund-
ant with you; it finds a place in the lists of our British fauna, but I do not know
any one who has ever seen it, and I fear it is too small and delicate, and too near
in texture and habit to the Acalaphz to be brought here alive. Bisidiam and
Halecaimpa, too, are two of your minute forms I should like to get.

Our two commonest British corals, Caryophyllea and Balamphyllea, are exceed-
ingly hardy in transport, and if your stony corals are anything like ours the send-
ing them over is a matter of no great difliculty.

We have but one really denotoid coral in Britain, Laphohelia prolifera, and
its corrallam even is very rare indeed, and no British naturalist has ever seen it
alive. ‘Tropical (American and other) branching corals are constantly being
brought to Europe by tons weight, but never once has a single living specimen
been imported in good health. Lately I went to much expense in trying to get
some from the Navigators’ islands, but they all arrived without a particle of
fleshy matter on them. You may judge from this what a great prize I should
deem an Astrangia colony here in Hamburg, and this is found in abundance,
I believe, in Massachusetts bay. It is right to name the name of the man who
for the first and only time brought sea anemones from your country—Captain
H. W. Wendt. In my blazing zeal I have had his photographic portrait framed ;
and, common sailor though he looks, he is in my eyes a greater man than all the
political fellows who go raving up and down various countries. The species
were Phymactis florida and Phymactis pluvia, from Teuazee,in Peru, and described
in Dana’s great work in quarto and folio on Captain Wilkes’s United States
exploring expedition.

The Echinodermata of any kinds, hard or soft, would, I fear, not travel, but
I need not say how much I should value a living Echinarachinus, of which only

t=)
one example of one species (. Placenta) has ever been found in Britain. With

you it is very common.

Fishes from America are not to be hoped for, I am afraid, though I have got
two alive, (Pimelodus catus and Leneiscus pygmaeus.) But some of the crustacea
might, I imagine, be got over alive; for example, Homarus Americanus. And
judging from it, I should imagine your edible crabs and your soldier crabs to be
different specifically from ours,

But pray assist me in preventing the importation of Limulus polyphemus

124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

(horseshoe crab,) which come over here in such numbers that lately I have with
them stocked all the marine aquaria of England and the continent of Europe,
and I do not know what to do with those I now have over. I do not like to
see the poor things dying by inches, and my mind revolts at plunging animals
full of life and health into spirits. It would be well if Limulas were less hardy.

From the Museum of Natural History of the National University of Greece.

ATHENS, August 12, 1867.

We have learned, through M. Rangabé, our envoy extraordinary and minister
plenipotentiary near the eovernment “of the Union, that the directorship of the
Institution of Smithson is desirous of entering into relations of exchange with
our museum of natural history, with a view to “obtaining the natural productions
of Greece. We lose no time in expressing the pleasure which this information
has given us, and the gratification we shall experience in forming and inaintain-
ing such relations which cannot fail to be of great advantage to our own museum,
inasmuch as our collections are at present but scantily “provided with objects
pertaining to the natural history of North America. As regards duplicates of
the objects of our own country, we have in readiness for offering to the Institu-
tion: a series of fossil bones of different mammifers (Hippotherium grande ;
Rhinoceros partygnathus; Sus erymanthius; several species of antelope, &e.,
&c.,) of the pleocene formation of Pikermi, in Attica; a collection of impres-
sions of fossil plants of the eocene formation of Koumi, in Enbir; preparations
of several kinds of birds of Greece; eggs of different Greek birds; marine
shells, fresh-water and terrestrial.

We beg to be instructed as to what the Institution would desire, or rather
what it would prefer to receive in the first instance, in order that we may be
able at once to make a first remittance. We should be glad, at the same time,
to know by what channel, by what means, and to what address our remittances
must be forwarded. It would be esteemed a favor if the authorities of the Insti-
tution would inform us in a compendious note what objects it possesses in dupli-
cate and at its disposal for exchange, so that we might indicate in turn our own
desiderata.

We have the honor of subscribing ourselves, with assurances of the most dis-
tinguished consideration,

TH. Dr HELDREICH,
Conservator of the Museum of Natural History.
HEHITZOPOULOS,
Ephor of the Zoological, Mineralogical, and Geological Collections
of the Museum of Natural History of the University.

From Professor Laboulaye, of the Institute of France.

Parts, September 4, 1867.

T have received, through M. Bossange, the case containing 174 aliehes of
educational books, which you had the croodness to send me. ‘These books form
the admiration of ‘all who take an interest in education, and I hope that France
will profit by this example. We have excellent things at home by which you
in turn might profit; but we have seen nothing comparable to your “Reader,”
your Object Lessons, ” your “Graphics,” and your “Geographical Series.”

I send you a letter for each of the editors who has been kind enough to make

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 125

‘me a present; and I avail myself of this opportunity to say to you how much I
am touched by the proof you have given me, on this occasion, of good will.
You have treated me as a compatriot, and, sooth to say, there is no Frenchman
who is more American than myself.

[The works referred to were presented by American publisher of school books
at the request of the Institution —J. H.]

From D. G. Lindhagen, perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences of
Stockholn.

SrockHoLm, November 4, 1867.

T have had the pleasure of receiving, in behalf of the Academy of Sciences at
Stockholm, your letter of the 29th of ’ May last, accompanying your remittance,
through M. Fliigel of Leipzic, of a collection of very rare birds of the Arctic
regions of your ‘continent—a collection which your distinguished Institution has
had the goodness to present to our academy.

The package arrived in the month of August, during my absence on certain
commissions of the academy, and was transmitted to M. Sandev all, intendant of
the national museum of natural history, who presented it to the academy at its
first meeting in autumn, pronouncing its contents to possess great value for the
museum.

Permit me to convey to you the thanks of the academy for this acceptable
donation.

From John Gould, esq.

Lonpon, November 25, 1867.

I beg to thank you most sincerely for your kindness and liberality in sending
from time to time for my inspection, through Mr. Lawrence, of New York, speci-
mens of humming-birds belonging to the Smithsonian Institution, which he has
designated as oe species. By these acts of condescension you ie greatly aid-
ing the cause of science, since it is only by the actual comparison of ‘such exam-
ples with the older known species of this extensive family in the collections of

this country that the fact of their being new can be satisfactorily determined.

From S. P. Mayberry.

CAPE EizaBetu, MAINE, January 4, 1868.

T am very much pleased with the selections in your reports, and hope that
some means may be taken for their more extended circulation. While at asummer
resort, Rye Beach, New Hampshire, of some celebrity, attention was called to
the gradual approach of the sea upon the land. Some 20 rods below high-water
mark, at an exceeding low tide, may be seen the stumps of quite large trees
embedded in the sand, and from the general appearance one would suppose that
the trees had been felled from those stumps. I made inquiry of the oldest
inhabitants if they had any information relative to them; they had none; that,
in their time and that of their fathers’, these had been noticed, seeming not much
further out to sea than at the present time. There is no growth within 800 yards.
The country around has been settled since 1623. About two miles from this
used to be a fine sand beach, which has disappeared. The inhabitants thought

126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

the constant play of the sea had worn it, but from what I saw I rather inferred
that the gradual approach had not been noticed, and I believe at some other
pourts there is unmistakable evidence. If these facts are of any use to science,
they are at your disposal.

[The facts presented in the above communication are very interesting, in con-
nection with similar observations at other points along our coast. They indicate
a movement in the strata of the earth—J. H.|

From Lucien Pratt, professor of pies we chemistry, University of San José,
sta Rica.

San Joss pe Costa Rica, February 8, 1868

We have received throngh M. the minister of public instruction a magnificent
collection of the scientific memoirs of the Smithsonian Institution, which will
form the most precious part of the library of our university. I am authorized to
keep it in the laboratory, and I can assure you that, as far as we are’ concerned,
the object of the publication will be fully attained. It will essentially serve to
augment our stores of knowledge, especially in meteorology and geology. The
minister has, I believe, already written to the Smithsonian Institution in the name
of the Costa Rican government. Permit me, sir, specially to offer you my own
acknowledgments and to say how greatly I felicitate myself at seeing our ‘labor-
atory placed in the relationship of exchange with one of the first scientific bodies
of the world. Regarding neither the paucity of the present population of the
country, nor the necessarily embryonic state of the University of San José, you
have looked only at our disposition to labor, to take part in the scientific move-
ment of the great nations, and you have treated us with a liberality for which I
know not how to express my gratitude.

I was about to solicit an order to send you a collection of the ores of the
country and of the most characteristic rocks among those which I have thus far
been able to collect, when this very order was issued to me. I have, therefore,
prepared two small cases, enclosing 39 select specimens of the ores of gold and
silver of Costa Rica, as well as of some eruptive rocks and principal limestones
known in the country.* These two cases I propose to despatch by the mail of
day after to-morrow.

The specimens of ores of gold and silver are accompanied only by a designation
of the locality; by the next post I shall have the honor of addressing’ you a
copy of an official table drawn up by one of the judges of mines, in w hich you
will find all the indications relative to the value of the ores. I send no table of
analysis, because this analysis would apply only to isolated specimens or at most
to an average of specimens, and would never have the practical signification of
the results obtained by the exploitation. Neither have I sent any specimen of
the enveloping stratum, because the specimens which I have at the university
have been taken rather too near the surface, and it is impossible to recognize in
the decomposed rock any mineralogical character which would authorize a deter-
mination respecting the formation itself. It should be added that I have not yet
been able to proceed to a study of the conditions of the bearings on the spot.
As soon as I shall have found time to make a geological reconnaissance of the
principal Costa Rican mines, I will send you a statement of my observations,
and will submit to you at the same time specimens of the rocks in support of my
determinations. It would be very interesting to see whether the law of Hun-
boldt applies to Central America, and whether it be really necessary always to

* These specimens have been received at the Institution.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 127

seek the precious metals at the point of contact of the porphyry and trachyta.
I do not doubt this law as far as the great formation of South America is con-
cerned, but it appears to me that here and in all South America the upheavals
have taken place at several intervals and relatively on a small scale, so that all
is confounded.

You will excuse, I trust, sir, the meagreness of our remittance, in considera-
tion that it is barely two years since the university has possessed a laboratory.
The work of organization, indeed, is not yet fully completed. I have no pre-
parator, and the most aanced ee my pupils have had less than two years’
tuition. I have a number of schemes in view which can only be realized by,
degrees. In all that relates to a serious study of the country, it was impossible |
to commence anything before providing assistants, without whom an isolated!
explorer, however earnest his purpose, would find himself reduced to two hands
and 12 hours’ labor per diem. ‘The government, by which the laboratory has
been established, has always protected us with a liberality sufficiently indicative
of its enlightened views, and I hope that ere long myself and my disciples will
be enabled to give far other proofs of our existence than a scanty remittance
of some 59 specimens.

It is possible that we shall remain for some time among the poorer correspond-
ents of the Smithsonian Institution, but have the goodness to believe that we
shall be among the most zealous, and of the number of those always most ready
to contribute, according to our resources, to the noble objects which the Institu-
tion holds up to view.

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE OF CHARLES COFFIN JEWETT,

(FORMERLY ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, IN CHARGE OF THE LIBRARY.)

By REUBEN A. GUILD, OF BROWN UNIVERSITY.*

Again we are called upon to mourn the loss of a distinguished man, whom
death has suddenly removed from earth in the prime of life and in the midst of
his accustomed duties. We refer to Professor Charles ©. Jewett, superinten-
dent of the Public Library in Boston, who died at his residence, in Braintree,
yesterday morning, at half. -past 1 o ‘clock, after a brief illness of ten hours. On
Wednesday, we are informed, he was at his post in the library, attending to his
work as usual, until 3 o'clock in the afternoon, when he was seized with a sensa-
tion of numbness in one hand, which proved to be paralysis. He remained con-
scious for a time, and after having had medical attendance, requested to be carried
to his home. On the way he became insensible, and thus he continued until his
death.

Mr. Jewett was born in Lebanon,”Maine, on the 12th of August, 1816. His
father, the Rev. Paul Jewett, was a Congregationalist clergyman of Salem,
Massachusetts, who graduated at Brown University in 1802, in the same class
with the late Hon. Henry Wheaton, LL. D., author of* “E leiments of eo
tional Law.” He was a tutor in this institution from 1806 to 1809, and wa
afterwards offered a professorship, which he declined, preferring the labors aa
responsibilities of the Christian ministry to those of any other calling or profes-
sion. He was a man of talents, of accurate learning, of cultivated taste, and of
very retiring habits. In the education of his children he took unwearied pains.
His eldest son was, until recently, a well-known and enterprising publisher and
bookseller in Boston; the second is the one whose loss we to-day deplore, and a
third was for several years a professor in Amherst College.

Mr. Jewett passed his early life in Salem, graduating at the Latin School in
that place. He entered Dartmouth College in 1831, but transferred his connec-
tion, in his sophomore year, to Brown University, where he graduated in the
famous class of 1835. He spent two years or more in teaching at the Uxbridge
Academy, and subsequently studied at the Theological Seminary in Aidesee
Here he devoted himself chiefly to Philology, and especially to the oriental lan-
guages and eastern antiquities, in which departments of knowledge he attained
great proficiency. Indeed, according to the testimonies of the late Professors
Stuart and Edwards, few students, if any, had in these departments excelled him.
His commencement address at Andover attracted universal attention, and was
greatly admired on account of the elegant style in which it was written, and the
thorough acquaintance with oriental subjects which it evinced on the part of the
author.

During his residence at Andover, Mr. Jewett was for a year and upwards the
librarian of the seminary, and he assisted Mr. Taylor in the preparation of a
catalogue of the books. At this time he was intending to spend several years
and perhaps his life, in the East as a missionary, and he had, accordingly, at the
close of his theological course, marked out for himself an extensive course of
study and research. He had been offered facilities for the accomplishment of his
wishes such as few scholars, in this country at least, had ever enjoyed. When
ready to embark, so slight a ‘circumstance as the misdirecting of a letter to inform

c=)
him when the vessel in which he had taken passage was to sail, changed his

* From the Providence Evening Press, Friday, January 10, 1868.

CHARLES COFTVIN JEWETT. 129

whole course of life. The vessel sailed without him, and he took charge for a
year of “Day’s Academy,” so-called, in Wrentham, Massachusetts. Here we
first made his acquaintance as a pupil, and we shall never forget his genial man-
ners towards all, and his cordial affection for those especially w *hom he instructed.
In 1841 he was appointed librarian of Brown University, and he entered upon
his duties in the month of October. He at once set himself to the task of rear-
ranging the books, then numbering about ten thousand volumes, and of preparing
a catalogue of the same. For this kind of work he had an uncommon aptitude.
The catalogue was published in 1843, and attracted much attention, being favora-
bly noticed in the North American Review, and in other periodicals. Especial
care was now given to this department of the University, and a new era in its
history was inaugurated.

Soon after the publication of the catalogue, Mr. Jewett was elected professor
of modern languages and literature in the university. He immediately embarked
for Europe, where he spent two years and a half, principally in France, Germany,
and Italy, devoting himself to the acquisition of the languages of these countries,
and making himself familiar with all the principal libraries. During his resi-
dence abroad, Professor Jewett made valuable purchases of English and classical
books, under the direction of the library committee. He was also intrusted with
large commissions by a gentleman of the corporation, for the purchase of stand-
ard books in the three principal modern languages of Europe. These purchases,
amounting to seven thousand volumes and upwards, were made with singular
skill and fidelity; and the accessions thus secured now constitute the choicest
treasures of the hbrary.

Upon his return from Europe, Professor Jewett devoted himself to his college
duties as teacher and librarian, until March, 1848, when he resigned his position
at Brown to accept the place of assistant secretary and librarian of the Smith-
sonian Institution at Washington. He entered upon his new duties with enthu-
siastic ardor, and with all the fondness and capacity for hard and persevering
labor for which he had been pre-eminently distinguished. He was doomed, how-
ever, to disappointment in his efforts to build upa ereat national library, and thus
to carry out what he understood to be the ed wishes of Congress in regard
to the expenditure of the Smithsonian funds.* The controversy between science
and literature, as represented by Professors Henry and Jewett, attracted great
attention at the time, and subjected the latter to trials which fully entitled him
to the sympathy that literary men so cordially gave him. But of the merits of
this controversy we do not intend here to speak. Although unable, as already
stated, to carry out his plans, Professor Jewett did much to. promote bibliographi-
cal ‘studies and the success of American libraries. His “Notices of Public
Libraries in the United States,” which was printed in 1850, was widely circu-
lated and met with very general favor. He also perfected a system of cata-
loguing, by stereotyping separately the title of each work in a library, thus com-
bining economy with accuracy. This system, indorsed by Edw: a Everett,
J oseph G. Cogswell, Charles Folsom, Samuel F. Haven, Edward E. Hale, and
George Livermore, was published under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, together with rules and examples for the proper cataloguing of books.

When it was decided to establish a great public library 1 in Boston, Professor
Jewett, by common consent the ablest bibliographer and most accomplished
librarian in the countr y, was selected as the one of all others to superintend its
affairs. Although offered an honorable position in our oldest university, and the
presidency of a western college, he cheertully accepted the place urged upon him
by the trustees of the public library. The library building was dedicated with
‘appropriate ceremonies on the Ist of January, 1858, and in October following the

* The wishes of Mr. Jewett in regard to a library at the seat of government worthy of the
nation, are now being realized by the action of Congress, through the influence of the Smith-
sonian Institution, though not at the expense of its funds.—J. H.

9 S67

130 CHARLES COFFIN JEWETT.

first catalogue of books was published. For more than 10 years Mr. Jewett has
thus been identified with the best interests of learning in the metropolis of New
England. The catalogues which he has prepared, and the rules for the govern-
ment of the library which he has suggested, have served as models for similar
libraries in all parts of the country. To his thorough and systematic knowledge,
and to the faithful performance of his duties, the citizens of Boston are largely
indebted for the rapid growth and complete success of what seems destined to
be the library of the land.

The early death of such a man must be regarded asa public loss. What
shall we say, alas! for the loved wife and children who survive him, and for
those who enjoyed his friendship, and who knew him in the most intimate rela-
tions of private life? For such, it is a consolation to know that his daily walk
and conversation was a beautiful illustration of the Christian’s faith; and that
the heavenly smile which rested upon his features in the calm repose of death
was but an index to the soul that had ceased to animate them forever. The loss
of such a man, viewed in its religious aspects, is indeed “ gain.”

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE OF WM. HENRY HARVEY, OF DUBLIN.

By Proressor ASA GRAY, OF HARVARD COLLEGE,

[This biography is republished from the American Journal of Science and
Arts as a tribute to the memory of a most valued collaborator of the Smithsonian
Institution —J. H.]

William Henry Harvey, whose lamented death was announced in the last
number of this journal, (p. 129,) was born at Summerville, near Limerick, Ive-
land, on the 5th of February, 1811. His father, Joseph M. Harvey, was a highly
respected merchant in that city, and a member of ‘the Society of F “riends. William
Henry was, we believe, the youngest of several children. He received a good
education at Ballitore school, an institution of the Friends, and on leaving it was
engaged for a time in his father’s counting-room, devoting, however, all his spare
time to natural history, his favorite pursuit even from boyhood. He made con-
siderable attainments in entomology and conchology, and in botany he early
turned his attention to mosses and alge. 'To the study of the latter, in which
he became pre-eminent, he was attracted from the first by the opportunities which
he enjoyed on the productive western coast of Ireland, the family usually spend-
ing a good part of the summer at the seaside, mostly on the bold and picturesque
shore of Clare. As the late Sir William Hooker’ s bent for botany was fixed by
his accidental discovery of a rare moss, which he took to Sir J. E. Smith, so in
turn was Harvey’s, by his discovery of two new habitats of another rare moss,
the Hookeria lctevirens, which led to a correspondence with Hooker, and to a
life-long mutual attachment of these most excellent men. Encouraged by his
illustrious friend and patron, Harvey sought some position in which he might
devote himself to science ; and it would appear was selected by Mr. Spring Rice
(the late Lord Monteagle) for the post of colonial treasurer at the Cape of Good
Hope; that by some accident the appointment was made out in the name of an
elder brother, aud an inopportune change of ministry frustrated all attempts at
rectification. ‘There was no other way but for the brother to accept the under-
signed appointment, and take the young botanist with him to the Cape as his
assistant. This was done, and the brothers sailed for that colony in the year
1835. But the health of the elder brother suddenly and hopelessly failed within
a year, and he died in 1836 on the passage home. William Harvey’s appoint-
ment to succeed his brother had been sent to the Cape while he was on his home-
_ ward voyage; he immediately returned to his post and fulfilled its duties for
three years, devoting his mornings to collecting and his nights to botanical inves-
tigation, with such assiduity that his health also gave way, and he was compelled
to return home in 1839. 'The summer of the next year found him re-established
and on his way to the Cape for the third time. But he could not long endure
the sultry climate and the intense application; with broken health he came back
in 1841 and gave up the appointment.

After two years‘of prostration and seclusion he was well again; and in 1844,
on the death of Dr. Coulter, he was appointed keeper of the herbarium of Trinity
College, Dublin. The most important portion of the herbarium then consisted
of the collections, yet unassorted, made by Coulter in northwestern Mexico and
California. Harvey generously added his own large collections, for which he
was allowed fifty pounds a year in addition to a slender salar y; and he proceeded
to build up the herbarium into a first-class establishment. ‘The professorship of

132 WILLIAM HENRY HARVEY.

botany in the college, which was pretty well endowed, fell vacant about this
time, and the college authorities, wishing to elect Harvey to the chair and so to
combine the two offices, conferred upon him the necessary degree of M.D. But
it was contended that an honorary degree did not meet the requirements, and so
Dr. Allman, the present distinguished professor of natural history at Edinburg,
carried the election.

Except for the slenderness of his salary, Dr. Harvey was now well placed for

scientific work, the object to which he wished to devote his life, and he entered
upon and pursued his distinguished career henceforth with an entire and well-
directed energy that never flagced until he was prostrated by mortal disease.

He had already published, at the Cape in 1838, his Genera of South African
Plants, hastily prepared, solely for local use, but no unworthy beginning of his
work in Phenogamous Botany; and in his favorite department of the science he
had brought out in 1841 his Manual of British Alge, which he re-edited in 1849.
He now commenced the first of the series of his greater works, illustrated by his
facile pencil—for he drew admirably. The first (monthly) part of his excellent
and beautiful Phycologia Britannica, a History of British Seaweeds, containing
colored figures of all the species inhabiting the shores of the British islands,
appeared in January, 1846, and the undertaking was completed in 1851, in three
(or four) volumes, with 360 plates, all drawn on stone by his own hand. A simi-
lar but less extended work, the Nereis Australis, or Alg@ of the Southern Ocean,
which was begun in 1847, was carried only to 50 plates of selected and beauti-
ful species.

In 1848, Dr. Harvey succeeded Dr. Litton as professor of botany in the Royal
Dublin Society, to which belonged the botanic garden of Glasnevin ; thisreqnired
him to deliver short courses of lectures annually in Dublin or in some other Irish
town, and provided a welcome addition to his income.

In 1848, at the request of his friend Van Voorst, the publisher, he wrote his
charming little volume, The Sea-Side Book, the unsurpassed model of that class
of popular scientific books; it was published in 1849, and has passed through
several editions. In July of that year, having arranged a visit to this country,
and having been invited to deliver a course of lectures before the Lowell Insti-
tute, he took steamer for Halifax and Boston, passed the summer and autumn in
exploring the shores of the northern States, and in the society of his friends and
relatives; for the late Mr. Jacob Harvey, still well and pleasantly remembered
in New York, who married the daughter of Dr. Hosack, was his elder brother.
Tn the autumn he gave an admirable course of lectures upon Cryptogamic botany
before the Lowell Institute in Boston, and afterwards a shorter course at the
Smithsonian Institution at Washington. He then travelled in the southern
Atlantic States, continuing the exploration of our Alg@ down to Florida and the
Keys; and in May, 1850, “he returned to Iveland.* Under the wise and liberal
arrangements made by Professor Henry in behalf of the Smithsonian Institution,
and with his own large collections augmented by the contributions which every
student or lover of Alg@ was glad to place in such worthy hands, Professor
Harvey now prepared his Nereis Boreali-Americana, or Contributions to a His-
tory of the Marine Alg ge of North America. 'The work is a systematic account
of all the known marine Alge of North America, but with figures only of the
leading species. It was issued in three parts ; the first part, the Melanospermee,
in 1852 2, in the third volume of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge ;
the second, the Rhodospermee, in the fifth volume; and the third, or Chloro-
spermee, in the tenth volume of the series published in 1858; and the three parts,
collected for separate issue, compose a thick imperial quarto volume, of 550 pages
of letter-press and fifty plates. The work remains the principal if not the only

+s

*A notice of Dr. Harvey in the Athenseum states, quite erroneously, that “he also at this
time made a tour around the shores of the Pacific, visiting Oregon and California.’’

WILLIAM HENRY HARVEY. 133

guide to the American student of Alg@, and one of the most popular as well as
useful of the very various contributions to knowledge which the well-managed
bequest of Smithson has given to the world.

Before the last part of the Nereis Boreali-Americana was published, Professor
Harvey had sought a wider field of scientific labor and observation. Obtaining
a long leave of absence, and some assistance from the university in addition to
the continuance of his salary, he left England in August, 1853, by the overland
route for Australia, stopping at Aden and Ceylon to collect: he visited the east,
south, and west coasts of Australia, as well as Tasmania. ‘Taking advantage of
a missionary ship which was to cruise among the South Sea islands, and which
offered him unexpected facilities, he visited the Fiji, Navigators’, and Friendly
islands, touching also at New Zealand. Returning to Sydney he sailed to Val-
paraiso, which he reached much prostrated through over-exertion in a warm cli-
mate; and when recuperated he returned home by way of the Isthmus, arriving
in October, 1856. 'The algological collections of these three laborious years, or
the Australian portion of them, formed the subject of Professor Harvey’s third
great illustrated work, and one of the most exquisite of the kind, the Phycologia
‘Australica, the serial publication of which began in 1858, and was concluded
in 1863, in five imperial octavo volumes, each of 60 colored plates. All but the
last century of plates were put upon stone by the author.

Upon Dr. Harvey’s return, in 1856, from his long expedition, he found the
chair of botany in the University of Dublin vacated “by the appointment of Dr.
Allman to that of natural history in the University of Edinburg, and he was at
once preferred to the position which he had sought when younger and freer, and
which he now occupied till his death. The exhausting duties of this chair, and
of that which he still held in the Royal Dublin Society, undiminished by the
transference to the Government Museum of [ish Industry, did not prevent Pro-
fessor Harvey from entering with unabated ardor upon an undertaking of greater
magnitude than any preceding one. This was the Flora Capensis, a full sys-
tematic account of all the plants of the Cape Colony and the adjacent provinces
of Caffraria and Natal, in which he was associated with Dr. Sonder, of Ham-
burg. ‘Three thick octavo volumes of this work have appeared, the last in
1865, including the Composite. Along with this Dr. Harvey—learning for the
purpose another form of lithographic draw ing—brought out, “between the years
1859 and 1864, two volumes of his Thesawrus Capensis, or Illustrations of the
South African Flora, comprising 200 plates of interesting phenogamous plants.
A complete list of his ‘publications would include several contributions to scientific
periodicals, mainly to Hooker’s Journal of Botany, and a few miscellaneous
writings.

In April, 1861, Dr. Harvey married Miss Phelps of Limerick. If not robust,
he was apparently in good health, in the full maturity of his powers, and, it was
hoped, only at the noonday of his allotted course of usefulness. But ere the lec-
ture season of that summer was over, an attack of hemorrhage from the lungs
gave notice of a serious pulmonary disease. Yet he seemed to recover from this
almost completely; he resumed his stated work and gave his lectures as usual in
1863, and also in the spring of the following year, but with some difficulty. The
winter and spring of 1864-5 were spent in the south of France, with only tran-
sient benefit. Returning to his home and his herbarium he worked on still at
the Cape Flora, with cheerful spirit and feeble hands, until he could work no
longer. Last spring he sought in Devonshire a milder air, and found a peaceful
rest. ‘On Tuesday, the 15th of May, 1866, at the age of 55 years, he quietly
breathed his last at the residence of Lady Hooker, the widow of his long attached
friend Sir William J. Hooker, surrounded by kind and anxious relatives and
friends, and was buried in the cemetery at Torquay, on Saturday the 19th of
May.”

134 WILLIAM HENRY HARVEY.

Dr. Harvey was one of the few botanists of our day who excelled both in
phenogamic and cryptogamic botany. In algology, his favorite branch, proba-
bly he has left no superior; in systematic botany generally, he had now an emi-
nent position. Tle was a keen observer and a capital describer. He investi-
gated accurately, worked readily and easily with microscope, pencil and pen,
wrote perspicuously, and, where the subject permitted, with captivating grace;
affording, in his lighter productions, mere glimpses of the warm and _ poetical
imagination, delicate humor, refined feeling, and sincere goodness which were
charmingly revealed in intimate intercourse and correspondence, and which won
the admiration and the love of all who knew him well. Handsome in person,
gentle and fascinating in manners, genial and warm-hearted, but of very retir-
ing disposition, simple in his tastes and unaffectedly devout, it is not surprising
that he attracted friends wherever he went, so that his death will be sensibly felt
on every continent and in the islands of the sea.

GENERAL APPENDIX

TO THE

REPORT FOR 1867.

The object of this appendix is to illustrate the operations of the Institution
by reports of lectures and extracts from correspondence, as well as to furnish
information of a character suited especially to the meteorological observers and

other persons interested ia the promotion of knowledge.

MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE.

By M. ELir pe BEAUMONT,
Perpetual Secretary of the French Academy of Sciences.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY C. A. ALEXANDER.

Ir has been said that the distinctive stamp of our age is the aspiration after
material well-being. Science is accused of having fostered this instinct by the
numerous useful applications with which it has endowed humanity; and it is
true that in our day chemistry, steam, electricity, have remodelled the face of
the world. It is quite certain, also, that a scientific education better understood
and more generally distributed has multiplied the number of those who, without
having received from nature faculties of the first order, have yet proved capable
of deriving from science great advantages as well for others as themselves. We
may well suppose that even minds still more developed, seduced by the allure-
ments of fortune or yielding to stern necessity, have sometimes deviated from
the arduous paths of pure science into the more inviting paths of applied science.
But we have seen also, and see daily, men of a more robust temperament who,
listening only to the inspirations of genius, devote their whole existence to stren-
uous labors which, for the moment, will contribute merely to the increase of
science; of which future generations alone can make useful applications; which
will not be appreciated even in a manner somewhat general until long after the
death of their authors; and from which those authors will themselves have
derived no other enjoyment than the majestic and exciting spectacle of great
truths covered as yet with an impenetrable veil to all eyes but their own,
together with the consciousness of a duty fulfilled towards Providence, who has
intrusted to them the instruments of the future progress of the human race.

Among those who seem to have been born to vindicate our age from an
unjust reproach, and to exalt humanity in its own esteem, a high rank must be
accorded to a geometer who occupied a place in this academy for nearly 50
years, who has enriched our publications with some of their most valuable con-
tents, and bequeathed to future ages works of paramount importance; whose
merit is every day more generally recognized, and whose memory awaits by
just title an official testimonial of the sympathetic admiration which has sur-
vived him in the affectionate remembrance of all his colleagues.

Adrien Marie Legendre was born, September 18, 1752, in a condition of life
which left to him the credit of being indebted to his own merit for all that he
might eventually become. He finished in good season, at the college Mazarin,
those solid classical studies from which he derived a lasting taste for the litera-
ture of the ancients, the happy fruits of which are to be recognized in the ele-
gance, the purity, and the lucid conciseness of his writings. ‘There also he
commenced the study of mathematics under a highly distinguished master, the
Abbé Marie, who failed not to remark his ardor and was struck with the per-
spicuity of his exercises. But a little time had elapsed after his retirement from
college when the judicious professor publishing, in 1774, a treatise on mechan-

, thought proper to embody in it several remarkable fragments derived from
his disciple. 'The modesty of the scholar inclined him to shrink from designa-

138 MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE.

tion, but the abbé felt it to be a duty to indicate to men of science the passages
which had proceeded from the pen of the young Legendre, aged at that time
22 years. Among these passages is the definition of acéelerative forces, dis-
tinguished by a precision and clearness of expression which seem sometimes to
be among the happy privileges of youth. This definition is so natural, and
now so familiar to scientific minds, that, when recalled, it is with difficulty con-
ceived how it could ever have presented anything of originality and novelty.
Tt is but just to say that it forms no exceptional feature in the work of the Abbé
Marie, who, in many respects, was in advance of his age, and whose merit was
not limited to that of having divined the talents of Legendre.

D’Alembert had said, with just foresight, that the fate of the new calculus
(differential and integral) would depend on the reception it met with from the
younger geometers; these therefore he sought to allure to the method in ques-
tion, and which was as yet imperfectly comprehended, by the degree of esteem
and consideration which he accorded to such among them as evinced a capacity
for following it. He was not likely long to overlook the penetrating and pre-
cocious talent which disclosed itself in the young Legendre; and scarcely had
the first Smpses of genius given presage of what might be expected from the
disciple of the Abbé Marie, when he was named professor of mathematics at the
military school of Paris. Here, from 1775 to 1780, he continued to give les-
sons on the scientific grounds of the military art to that ardent and intelligent
body of youths from which have sprung not a few of our warlike celebrities, and
whose number would have been more considerable, had not circumstances
forced a part of them into emigration. It may be inferred that the instruction
given by the young professor embraced the first elements of balistics, the art,
namely, of throwing projectiles, and that he studied the learned treatises which
Bezout, Borda, and other eminent men had published on these difficult problems ;
for when the Royal Academy of Sciences and Belles-lettres of Prussia proposed,
for the prize of 1782, the question of determining the curve described by balls and
shells, regard being had to the resistance of the air, and giving the rules for ascer-
taining the range which corresponds to different initial velocities and to different
angles of projection, M. Legendre was quite in readiness to enter into the compe-
tition. His memoir, prepared on this occasion, was crowned with success in the
public meeting of June 6, 1782, and was published at Berlin under the title
of Recherches sur la trajectoire des projectiles dans les milieux résistants.*

Newton, it is stated in this memoir, was the first who made researches respect-
ing trajectories in resisting mediums. He particularly considers that which takes
place on the hypothesis of a resistance proportional to the simple velocity; but
he gives merely approximations, and those but rough ones, for the trajectory
which results when the resistance is proportional to the square of the velocity.
The honor of the discovery is due to Jean Bernoulli, who published a general
solution of the problem, supposing the resistance to be as any power whatever
of the velocity. Long after, Euler discussed the same question in the Memoirs
of the Academy of Berlin for the year 1753. His object was to apply the
theory to balistics, and for that he proposes very ingenious means. In the
memoirs of the same Academy for the year 1765, and elsewhere, we find very
extended researches by Lambert with the same object. Borda, in the Memoirs
of the Academy of Sciences of Paris for the year 1769, has treated this ques-
tion with his usual elegance and ingenuity. Conformably with the idea of
Newton, he substitutes for the true trajectory that which would be described in
virtue of a density but slightly variable, and he obtains by this means an
approximation much superior to that of Newton. Lastly, Berout, in his Course
of Artillery, published in 1772, made a more particular application of methods
of his own to the trajectory of shells and bullets.

* This memoir bore for its motto: Tolluntur in altum ut casu graviure ruant.

MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE 139

M. Legendre propounds the equation of the movement of the projectile on the
supposition that the resistance of the air is proportional to the square of the velocity.
He integrates this equation with elegance, and the reduction into series forms more
especially the remarkable part of the memoir. Although the hypotheses which
he advances on the variation of the density of the air have been modified, his
calculations have remained the type of those that have been made more in
detail on the supposition of a resistance proportional to the square of the velocity.
M. Frangais, professor at the schools of artillery, and General Didion have only
supplied improvements to his method.* But this solution of the balistic ques-
tion is simply a monument, so to speak, in the history of the science, since the
necessity has been recognized of introducing, in the expression of the resistance
of the air, a term proportional to the cube of the velocity. It is not the less cer-
tain, however, that by his memoir Legendre, young as he yet was, has earned
for himself a distinguished place in the series of mathematicians to whom is due
the superiority of the European artillery ; a series which commences with New-
ton, in which M. Poisson occupies an eminent rank, and which is continued
with so much éclat by the learned officers to whom we owe the actual precision
of our artillery and the employment of rifled cannon.

But, however seductive this first success might appear, M. Legendre did not
continue to occupy himself with the application of science to military art, and we
read at this early stage on the title page of the Dissertation on Balistics, printed
in 1782, the announcement that it is “by A. M. Legendre, late professor of
egeont ies in the military school at Paris.” The youthful veteran, to whom
perhaps the military discipline had never been particularly congenial, had decided
to reserve his whole time for the study of departments of mathematics which,
while not more difficult, pertain to an order of ideas generally considered as more
elevated.

He had been occupied for some time with researches on the mutual attractions
and forms of the planetary spheroids, and read at the Academy of Sciences of
Paris, January 22, 1783, a memoir on the attraction of spheroids, for the exami-
nation of which, MM. d@’Alembert and de Laplace were named commissioners.
It was at this same sitting, as we learn from the invaluable journals of the
Academy, that MM. Danbenton and Bezout made a favorable report on a
memoir of the Abbé Haiiy, relative to the structure of fluor spars ; for it was the
epoch when M. Haiiy was submitting to the Academy, in a series of memoirs, the
ideas which have become the basis of crystallography.

M. Legendre finished the reading of his memoir in the sitting of the 19th of
February, and in that of the 15th of March, MM. d’Alembert, Bezout and de
Laplace read the following report:

The Academy having diieoed us with the examination of two memoirs of M. Legendre on
the attraction of spheroids, we proceed to render an account of them. Geometers w vell know
the admirable synthetic theory of M. Maclaurin on the attractions of spheroids, of which all the
sections are elliptical, &c., &c. M. de Lagrange subsequently arrived at the same results
by analogy alone in the Memoirs of Berlin for 1771, but all these researches suppose the
point attracted at the surface, or in the interior of the spheroids. *

I regret the impossibility of reading the whole of this report, written with
a masterly hand and inimitable clearness by M. de Laplace, who had him-
self the year before communicated to the Academy a learned theory of the
attractions of spheroids and of the figure of planets,t a circumstance which
renders still more honorable, both for himself and M. Legendre, the justice which
he so cheerfully and explicitly accords to his competitor, as yet almost unknown.
I will content myself with saying that after having analyzed the two memoirs of
M. Legendre, who arrives at the conclusion that, in order to determine the

*See Traité de balistique, by General Didion, second edition, revised and enlarged, 1860;
pp. 246-251.
t Mémoires de l’ Académie royale des Sciences for the year 1'‘82.

140 MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE.

attraction of a spheroid on any exterior point, it suffices to cause the surface of
another spheroid described from the same foci as the first to pass by that point,
the illustrious reporter closed his remarks as follows:

The theorem which forms the principal object of these two memoirs is highly interesting.
It is a new step taken in the theory of attractions of spheroids: the analysis is very able, is
presented moreover with much elegance and clearness, and announces in its author distin-
guished talent. We think, therefore, that these memoirs merit the approbation of the Academy,
and should be printed in the Collection of foreign savants.

After the conclusions drawn in their report, which were adopted by the Academy,
the commissioners further added :

Besides the two memoirs of which we have just rendered an account, M. Legendre has
presented to the Academy at different times memoirs on the resolution of intermediate equa-
tions of the second degree, and on the properties of continual fractions ; on several problems
of probabilities ; on the summation of continual fractions, and on the rotation of bodies,
which are not quickened by any accelerative force. All these memoirs have been esteemed
worthy of being printed among those of foreign savants. Finally, M. Legendre has borne
off the prize last proposed by the Academy of Berlin on balistics, or the movement of pro-
jectiles.

Thus the reporters made incidentally a complete statement of the academic
titles of M. Legendre, nor was this done without intention, for there was an
election at hand in the class of mechanics. The journals inform us in effect
that, at the following session of the 19th March, (the Academy then met twice
a week,) MM. Coulomb, Bossut, Le Roy, and Cousin also made a report on two
memoirs of M. Périer; the first containing a description of a steam-pumnp, which
the latter had just constructed at Chaillot to raise the waters of the Seine, upon
the principles of MM. Watt and Bolton; and the second in relation to another
pump, which the same engineer had erected at that place, after ideas of his own.
These works, with which every one is now familiar, appeared to the Parisian
- population of that day a marvel of a wholly novel kind. 'The learned reporters
concluded by saying:

We think that the two memoirs of which we render an account, in which the author
describes in a simple and lucid manner a steam mechanism of his own invention, as well as
that of MM. Watt and Boiton, deserve the approbation of the Academy, and should be
included in the Collection of foreign savants.

At this sitting the Academy likewise received a favorable report from MM.
Desmarest, Tillet, Coulomb, and Monge on a memoir of M. Duhamel, corre-
spondent of the Academy and inspector general of mines, relative to a new instru-
ment for determining the intersection of lodes. 'The journal goes on to inform
us that at this same sitting the members of the class of mechanics presented
MM. Legendre, Meunier, Périer, Duhamel, and Defer; that the first voices were
for M. Legendre, and the second for M. Perier. It was the manner of expressing
at that time the votes of the Academy, which was composed of four kinds of
members: honoraries, of whom few were present at the sittings; pensionaries,
associates, and adjuncts, to whom were sometimes added supernumerary adjuncts.
Among the names of academicians who took part in the scrutiny of the 19th of
March, 1783, we remark those of MM. Cassinide Thury, d’Alembert, Lavoisier,
Lalande, Daubénton, Borda, Bezout, the Marquis Condorcet, Bailly, Rochon,
Monge, Berthollet, de Jussieu, Tessier, and several other celebrated savants, a
part of whom will be remembered by some who hear me, as having, at a later period,
occupied with themselves the benches of the Institute.

In the sitting of the 2d April, the perpetual secretary (Condorcet) read the
following letter of M. Amelot, dated from Versailles, 30th March, 1783:

I have the honor of informing you that the King has nominated M. Legendre to the place
of adjunct of the Academy of Sciences, vacant in the class of mechanics by the nomination

of M. de Laplace to a place of associate, and that his Majesty has also thought proper to
name M. Périer to a place of supernumerary adjunct in the same class.

I have supposed that, in reverting to the first brilliant successes of M. Legendre,

it would perhaps be agreeable to my auditors to carry back their thoughts fora

MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE. 141

moment to the constitution and usages of the ancient Academy of Sciences of
Paris, from which our own differ in some respects, though on many points they
have remained identically the same.

I hasten to return to the labors of M. Legendre, which followed one another
at short intervals. He read to the Academy, July 4, 1784, Researches on the
figure of planets, in which he again discussed in a felicitous manner a subject
treated by M. de Laplace. It had been ascertained by illustrious geometers
that when a planet, supposed to be fluid and homogeneous, revolves upon itself,
it arrives definitively at an ellipsoidal figure, slightly flattened at the two poles
of rotation, and that among the figures which may be attributed to the meridian
curve, the ellipsis is one of those which satisfy the condition of equilibrium; but
no one had yet discovered that the ellipsis 1 is the only curve which can satisfy the
condition.. M. de Laplace, in his memoir of 1772, had said positively that he
would not venture to assert that this figure was the only one which could do so;
that it would be first necessary to know in finite terms the complete integral of
the differential equation of the problem, and that he had not yet been able to
obtain it. This M. Legendre accomplished by availing himself of the ingenious
analysis of his memoir on the attraction of the spheroids, and he concludes that
if a planet in equilibrium be supposed to have the figure of a solid of revolution
little different from a sphere, and divided into two equal parts by its equator, the
meridian of that planet will necessarily be elliptical.

“The proposition which forms the object of this memoir,” he observes in a
note, “haying been demonstrated in a much more skilful and general manner in
a memoir which M. de Laplace has already published in the volume of 1782,
(printed later than its date,) I should draw attention to the fact that the date of
my Own memoir is earlier, ‘and that the proposition which appears here, as it was
read in June and July, 1784, gave occasion to M. de Laplace to investigate the
subject thoroughly, and to present to geometers a complete theory thereof.”

Other great geometers ‘also have “added their discoveries to those of M.
Legendre,* but nothing has effaced the merit of his two memoirs drawn up in
1782. Hence, M. Poisson, in the learned and eloquent discourse which he pro-
nounced January 10, 1833, at the grave of Legendre, took occasion to say:

The reduction into series of which he made use in the first memoir, gave rise to theorems
which have been since extended, but which are still the basis of the theory at which we have
subsequently arrived. In the second, he gave the only direct solution yet known of the
problem of the figure of a homogeneous planet, supposed to be fluid, and soon afterwards he
extended his researches to the general case of a planet, composed of heterogeneous strata.t

In the course of his memoir, M. Legendre finds that the terrestrial spheroid,
which is in equilibrium when the axes are in the ratio of 230 to 231, may still be
so if the axes be supposed in the ratio of 1 to 681, which affords quite a strange
figure, but one which recalls the ring of Saturn. He adds that d’Alembert was
the first to remark that there might be several elliptical spheroids which would com-
port with equilibrium. Wesee by these different examples what emulation existed
between those fine intellects, d’Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace, Legendre ; with
what rapidity their labors succeeded, while they mutually completed one another.
It may further be remarked that M. Legendre supposes only in an implicit man-
ner that the spheroid is one of revolution. The equation found by him is that
of the meridian curve, and his analysis is in no respect contradicted by the dis-
covery, as curious as it was unexpected, made in our time almost simultaneously
by M. Liouville and M. Jacobi, that the planetary ellipsoid may have its three
axes unequal, and that the equator may itself be an ellipsis.

* Since the death of M. Legendre, the question of the attraction of an ellipsoid on an exter-
nal point has been completely resolved in an analytic manner by M. Poisson, (Mémoires de
U Acad, des Sciences de UInstitute, t. xiii, p. 497, 1835 ;) ard in a synthetic manner by M.
Chasles, (Mémoires des savants étrangers aU’ Academie des Sciences, t. ix, p. G29, 1846.)

t Discourse pronounced at the funeral of M. Legendre, January 10, 1833, by M. Poisson.

142 MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE.

M. Legendre subsequently resumed the questions treated in these first and
memorable memoirs, parti¢ularly in 1790, in the sequel of his researches on the
figure of the planets; in 1789, in a memoir on double integrals, in which he
completes the analysis of his memoir on the attraction of spheroids; and still
later, in a memoir read to the Academy in 1812. After having pointed out, in
this last, the improvements contributed to his preceding labors on this subject by
M. Biot, who had conceived the happy idea of applying thereto an integral given
by M. de Lagrange for another object, M. Legendre avails himself of the sub-
stitution discovered by M. Ivory to present the entire theory of the attraction
of homogeneous ellipsoids with all the simplicity of which it is susceptible.

But these important labors were far from entirely absorbing M. Legendre’s
attention, and the varied nature of the memoirs which he presented in great fre-
quency to the Academy, to a mere enumeration of which I must here confine
myself, evinced the extent of his knowledge and the surprising fecundity of his
genius.

In 1785, he read to the Academy a masterly memoir entitled Researches on
indeterminate analysis, which includes numerous propositions on the theory of
numbers, and especially the celebrated theorem of reciprocity known under the
name of the law of Legendre.* In 1786, a memoir on the manner of distin-
guishing maxima from minima in the calculation of variations.t Also, two
memoirs on integrations by ares of the ellipsis, and on the comparison of these
arcs, { memoirs which contain the first rudiments of his theory of elliptical func-
tions. In 1787, a memoir on the integration of certain equations with partial
differences. By a simple change of variables, he arrives rigorously at the inte-
gral of an equation which Monge had only integrated by a process depending on
certain metaphysical principles about which there still existed some doubts. By
proving that the integral was exact, M. Legendre contributed to corroborate the
reputation of the illustrious author of the application of analysis to geometry,
whose name also is one of the characteristic glories of the French mathematical
school. In this same memoir he gives by his method the integrals of several
classes of equations with partial differences of superior orders; then, very hap-
pily extending an idea of Lagrange for the integration of non-linear equations
of the first order, he distinguishes therein six cases of integrability which they
may present. Again, in 1790 he read a memoir on the particular integrals of
differential equations, of which he modestly says that the principle and demon-
stration are only consequences very easily to be deduced from the theory which
M. de Lagrange had given in the Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin for 1774.
He establishes that particular integrals are always comprised in a finite expres-
sion in which the number of arbitrary constants is less than in the complete inte-
gral, thus preparing the way for the definitive labors which M. Poisson has since
made public on this subject.

But at this epoch M. Legendre was already engaged in another series of
researches which oceupied him at intervals for a great number of years, and in
which his labors were fertile in important results.

In 1787, some doubts having been raised upon the respective position of the
observatories of Paris and Greenwich, it was decided to connect the meridians
by a chain of triangles which should extend from one point to the other. The
Academy of Sciences confided to three of its members, MM. Cassini, Mechain,
and Legendre, the execution of this operation, in concert with Major General Roy
and several other English savants. These important labors were accordingly
performed with all the exactness which the state of science then permitted—by
the help of an excellent quadrant prepared by the celebrated English artist
Ramsden, and the repeating circle constructed by Lenoir upon the principles of

*Mém. del Academie des Sciences, vol. for 1785.
tMém. de V Academie des Sciences, vol. for 1786, Dine
}Mém. de V Academie des Sciences, for 1786, pp. 646-644.

MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE. 143

Borda. M. Legendre calculated all the triangles situated in France, and after-
wards those also which extended in England as far as Greenwich. On this occa-
sion he went to London, where he was received with the distinction due to him,
and was named member of the Royal Society of London. He published at this
time in the Memoirs of the Academy for the year 1787 (printed in 1789) an
important paper entitled, Memoir on the trigonometrical operations of which the
results depend on the figure of the earth ;* of this he has himself explained the
object in terms which I take the liberty of abridging:

The only question here is that which regards operations exacting extreme pre-
cision, suéh as the measurement of the degrees of the meridian or of a parallel,
and the geographical determination of the principal points of a large area from
the triangles which connect them. Operations of this kind may be carried
henceforward to a great degree of precision by means of the repeating circle.
In effect, the use which we have made of this instrument, in 1787, has convinced
us that it can give each angle of a triangle to about two seconds, or even more
exactly, if all circumstances are favorable. It is further necessary that the cal-
culations established on such data should not be inferior to the latter in exact-
ness; especially is it requisite to take account of the reduction to the horizon,
which amounts quite often to several seconds; and thence arise triangles of infi-
nitely small curvature, the calculation of which demands special rules; for, by
considering them as rectilinear, we should neglect the small excess of the sum
of the three angles over 180°, and by considering them as spherical, the sides
would be changed into very small ares, the calculation of which by the common
tables would be neither exact nor commodious.

I have assembled in this memoir, continues M. Legendre, the necessary formu-
las, as well for the reduction and calculation of these sorts of triangles, as for
what relates to the position of the different points of a chain of triangles on the
surface of the spheroid. In these calculations, he adds, there are some elements
susceptible of a sheht uncertainty. a * - = In order that
the calculation need be made but once, and to judge by a glance of the influence
of errors, I have supposed the value of each principal element to be augmented
by an indeterminate quantity which denotes the correction of it. ‘These literal
quantities, which are to be regarded as very small, do not prevent the calculation
from being proceeded with by logarithms in the usual manner.

This was an important addition to the methods of calculation employed till
then, and still later he further added the method of least squares. He gives in
this memoir formulas for the reduction of an angle to the horizon, as also for
other determinations, and especially the important theorem known under the
name of the theorem of Legendre, through which the calculation of a spherical
triangle of small extent is reduced to that of a rectilinear triangle, by subtract-
ing from each of the three angles the third of the spherical excess of their sum,
that is to say the inconsiderable quantity by which this exceeds 180°. M. Legen-
dre has subsequently demonstrated that this fundamental theorem is applicable
also to spheroidal triangles, whether traced on an ellipsoid of revolution or even
on a spheroid slightly irregular.

He also occupies himself, in the same memoir, with the value of the degrees
of the meridian in the elliptical spheroid, and with the determination of the
respective position of different places deduced from the nature of the shortest
line which can be traced on the surface of this spheroid from one extremity to
the other of the chain of triangles and from the intersections of that line with
the different sides of the triangles or with their prolongations. This line, which
M. Legendre, at different times and always with success, made the object of his
researches, bears the name of the geodesic line ; on the regular ellipsoid it is of

5 .
double curvature, unless it coincides with a meridian. Finally, he occupies him-

*Mém. de V Academie des Sciences, for 1787, (printed in 1789,) p. 352.

144. MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE.

self w'th the operations which have for their object the measurement of the
degrees of the meridian, and concludes with some theoretical and practical reflec-
tions on the use of the repeating circle of Borda in the delicate operations which
relate to that object.

These reflections were judicious; but at the moment of recording them, M.
Legendre, struck with the progress which the construction of instruments had
recently made, did not foresee those improvements which it was even then on
the point of receiving. They were such that at the end of 30 years the opera-
tions of 1787 were found to be inferior in the measurement of angles and bases,
the observation of uight-signals, &c., to those generally brcentcd in this way.
Hence it resulted that the geodesic connection of Dunkirk and Greenwich
required to be recommenced in 1817. This new undertaking was confided to
MM. Arago and Mathieu, associated with Captain Kater and other English
savants. What remained and will always remain of the operations of 1787 are
the formulas and theorems which it furnished M. Legendre the occasion of estab-
lishing, and which in the sequel he still further developed and improved.

His memoir was written in the anticipation of new and more extended appli-
cations; for the project already existed of resuming the measurement of the
meridian which traverses France from north to south, and which had been once
measured, in 1739 and 1740, in the great and admirable geodesic operation which
had supplied the basis of the chart of Cassini. The National Assembly, in
effect, having adopted the plan of establishing a new system of weights and
measures for all France, a report was made to the Academy of Sciences, March
19, 1791, by MM. Borda, Lagrange, Laplace, Monge, and Condorcet, on the
choice of a unit of measure. ‘The report, after a profound discussion of the sub-
ject, proposed to take as the unit of measure the metre, representing the ten-
millionth part of a quarter of the meridian, calculated from the measured length
of the arc comprised between Dunkirk and Barcelona. It proposed at the same
time the execution of different preliminary operations, one of the most important
of which was the verification, by new observations, of the series of triangles
employed for the measurement of the meridian of Cassini and its prolongation
to Barcelona.

It was afterwards agreed that MM. Cassini, Mechain, and Legendre, the same
who had connected the meridian of Paris with that of Greenwich, should be
charged with this new operation. Yet M. Legendre is not comprised in the num-
ber of the 12 commissioners nominated (April 17, 1795) to conduct all the
labors necessary for fixing the bases of the metrical system. These commis-
sioners designated from their own number MM. Mechain and Delambre to exe-
cute the “jae caarTeTnens of the angles, the astronomical observations, and the meas-
urement of the dependent bases of the meridian, and it was they in effect who,
in very difficult times, had the merit of executing this vast operation with means
often greatly restricted; yet,a few years afterwards, we find M. Legendre among
the members of the mixed commission, formed of a union of French and foreign
savants, to which the duty of examining and verifying the whole work was
entrusted. All the triangles were separately calculated by four persons, MM.
Trallés, Van Swinden, Legendre, and Delambre, each employing the method he
preferred, and the results were only admitted when there was a satisfactory agree-
ment between the four calenlations. M. Legendre signed with the other com-
missioners the report made to the National Institute, June 17, 1799, on the basis
of the metrical system, and he continued to take part in all the ulterior calcula-
tions and the different verifications rendered necessary by certain discordances
which had been remarked, and by some doubts which had arisen on the exact-
ness of several parts of the operation. The method he followed was that of
which he had established the basis in his memoir of 1787. In applying it on so
extensive a scale, he improved and developed it, and gave a large number of new
theorems leading to more rapid reductions, to more convenient formulas. Heread

MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE, 145

to the first class of the Institute, March 3, 1806, a new memoir entitled, Analy-
sis of triangles traced on the surface of a spheroid, in which he considers the tri-
angles as no longer described on the sphere, but on a spheroid. He inquires
and demonstrates the properties of the shortest lines traced on its surface ; extends
and thus generalizes the numerous applications of the theorem which bears his
name, and reviewing the principal operations offered by geodesy, gives the most
complete analysis of them.

He concludes that there can remain no doubt of the exactness of the caleu-
lation of the triangles from which the distance of the parallels between Dunkirk
and Montjouy, near Barcelona, has been computed, as well as the length of the
metre; but he considers it beyond question that the results deduced from differ-
ent chains of triangles do not always exactly accord among themselves, on
account of certain anomalies in the latitudes and azimuths which may be due
to local attractions.

At this epoch, in 1805, M. Legendre had just published, in the sequel of his
new methods for the determination of the orbits of comets, an appendix on the
method of least squares. Here he proposed that method which has generally
been adopted for deriving from the measures yielded by observation the most
exact results which they are susceptible of furnishing. M. de Laplace has since
demonstrated that it is the most advantageous of which we can make use in prac-
tice. M. Legendre, after having developed it, made an immediate application
of it to the measurement of the degrees of the meridian of France, and he con-
cluded, as in the geodesic memoir, that the anomalies in the latitudes ought not
to be attributed to the observations, and that they pertain probably to local
attractions which act irregularly on the plumb-line. M. Gauss, in 1809, seems
to have thought, for the moment, that he had rights of priority to the invention
of the method of least squares ;* but, if it cannot be contested that so eminent
a savant may have had the same idea with M. Legendre, and may even have
applied it in his labors, it is certain that M. Legendre had, on his part, discoy-
ered the method and was the first who published it.

M. Legendre continued henceforth to make part of the commission of weights
and measures; but, though his labors of 1787 had rendered his co-operation
indispensable in the great enterprise which that commission was charged with
conducting to a successful issue, there was a period during which, as we have
said, he ceased to be officially attached to it: this was under the reign of terror.
Like most of the savants of his epoch, he was favorable to the ideas which
have become the basis of modern society; but he remained a stranger to the
excesses which imbrued the Revolution in blood. Perhaps, indeed, his caustic
turn had not wholly spared its authors; certain it is, that, during the violence of
the storm, he was forced to hide himself. It was one of the most happy inci-
dents of his life; for, in the retreat which he found in Paris itself, he formed the
acquaintance of a young and engaging female, Marguerite-Claudine Couhin,
whom he espoused shortly afterwards, and who constituted his happiness during
40 years. Much younger than her husband, she bore no inefficient part in his
great labors by the tranquillity, the assiduous attentions, the watchful solicitude,
with which she environed him, proving herself, in all circumstances, a model of
discretion, grace, and amiability.

The revolutionary turbulence, however, had itself never interrupted the
labors of M. Legendre. In the year II of the republic, towards the end of
1793, he published a new memoir on elliptical transcendents, forming a quarto

*In his work, entitled Theoria motus corporum cedestium, M. Gauss expresses himselt
with respect to this in tbe following manner: ‘This principle, which we have employed
since the year 1795, has been lately given by M. Legendre in his Nouvelles Méthodes pour la
determination des orbites des cométes: Paris, 1806. There will be found in that work several
consequences which the desire of being brief induces us to omit.’’? (See the work enti-
tled Méthodes des moindres carrés, Mémoires sur la combination des observations, by M. Ch.
F. Gauss, translated into French and published with authority of the author by M. J.
Bertrand, 1855, p. 133.)

10 s67

146 MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE.

volume of more than 100 pages; but in the quietude of his happy retreat he
had turned his thoughts to other subjects. ‘The former professor of mathematics
in the military school began anew to occupy himself with the Elements of
Geometry. ‘The first edition of his work under this title, a work written with
elegant simplicity, and in which all the propositions are disposed in a natural
and methodical order, appeared in 1794. The author, modelling himself upon
Kuclid, remands the science to the severity of the Greek school. In this,
without perhaps designing it, he accommodated himself to the spirit of his epoch.
Architecture, abandoning the distorted forms of the reion of Louis XV, was
returning, more and more, to the elegant simplicity of the Greek style. A few
years previous our great painter, David, had inaugurated, by his picture of the
Horatii, 2 complete revolution in painting, which, after his example, reverted
likewise to the imitation of the ancients.

The work attained at once the first rank among classical books. In less
than 30 years fourteen editions were published, of which the last has under-
gone a large number of impressions: more than 100,000 copies of it have been
sold in France alone. Legendre’s Klements of Geometry have been reproduced
in the principal languages “of Europe, and have been even translated into Arabic
for the schools established i in Egypt by the viceroy, Mehémet-Ali.

The author, prepossessed with the method of Euclid, has perhaps somewhat
unduly availed himself of the reductio ad absurdum, which might often be
replaced by more facile demonstrations; but his work has served to excite a
sort of vigorous intellectual gymnastics by which mathematical studies have
been invigorated, and its influence has been undoubtedly salutary. Among other
things, M. Leg eadee here demonstrates, in a novel manner, the equality 6f vol-
ume of two symmetrical polyhedrons formed of equal plane faces, adjusted
under the same angles, but with an inverse arrangement which does not admit
of their being superposed. The first editions did not contain the excellent. trea-
tise on trigonometry which the author has added to subsequent ones. He has
also enriched these with notes, in which he treats analytically certain parts of
geometry on a new system, as where he demonstrates that the ratios of the
cireumference to the diameter and to its square are irrational numbers.

The ratio of the circumference to the diameter, being an irrational number, is
not susceptible of being exactly expressed by any fraction, however great the
whole numbers which form the numerator and denominator. Hence results the
impossibility of ever finding the quadrature of the circle, and it was in conse-
quence of a proposition of “M. Legendre, based on this demonstrated impossi-
bility, that the Academy renounced all farther attention to a problem, the
importance of which is in some sort axiomatic among persons little versed in
mathematics.

But whatever might be the success of his Hlements, M. Legendre did not
question the feasibility of using other methods with success, and himself con-
tributed, in 1802, to the publication of a new edition of Clairaut’s Elements of
Geometry, to which he added notes derived probably from his memoranda of the
military school. Geometry is further indebted to him for a method, directly
demonstrated by himself, of inscribing in the circle a regular polygon of 17
sides. Algebra, properly so called, owes to him, among other things, two
different methods for the solution of numerical equations, methods which make
known with much rapidity all the roots, whether real or imaginary, of those
equations.

So highly was M. Legendre appreciated as a skillful calculator, that rarely was
any great series of numerical operations undertaken in France without recourse
being had to his services. In 1787 he had been called to take part in the com-
inission charged with connecting trigonometrically Dunkirk and Greenwich.
For the same reason M. de Prony, placed in the year IT (1794) at the head of the
cadastre, (registry of the survey of lands,) did not deem it expedient to dispense
with his services. ‘The decimal division of the circle, then regarded as a neces-

MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE. 147

sary complement of the metrical system, required new trigonometrical tables.
M. de Prony caused them to be constructed, with incredible celerity, by means
of the division of labor and by processes wholly new, which admitted of the
employment of arithmeticians of even the most indifferent qualifications. ‘The
work was prepared by a section of analysts, over which presided M. Legendre,
who contributed greatly to facilitate the operation by devising new and i ingen-
ions formulas for. determining the successive differences of the sinus. For the
other sections it only remained to make the additions. The labors of this
board of calculation produced two copies of tables entirely independent one of
the other, and affording, by their identity, a mutual verification. This mona-
ment of labor and skill, the most vast of its kind which has ever been executed
or even conceived, has no other defect, said M. Delambre, but its very immen-
sity, which has so long delayed its publication.

When the revolutionar y tempest had begun to subside, one of the first cares
of government was to reorganize public instruction ; ; but M. Legendre, whether
he was not in favor with the men in power or for whatever other reason, was not
invited to co-operate. His name does not either figure at the close of 17 94
among those of the first professors of the Polytechnic school, nor in January,
1795, in the list of the professors of the Normal schools; nor vet was he com-
prised among the 48 savants whom the government selected to form the nucleus
of the Institute ; but, at the earliest opportunity, his colleagues hastened to
redress this injustice by summoning him to their ranks. It will not be amiss to
recall here the succession of events, as facts not destitute of historical interest.

The Academy of Sciences having been suppressed by a decree of the conven-
tion of the 8th of August, 1793, the National Institute, of which the first class
represented that academy, was established by a law of the 5 fructidor, year III,
(22d August, 1795,) and was organized by a second law of the 3 oan year
LV, (2 25th October, 1795.) By ‘the ninth article of this law it was enacted that,
“for the formation of the National Institute, the Executive Directory shall
nominate 48 members, who shall elect 96 others.” ‘To form the nucleus of the
first class of the Institute, 20 members were accordingly nominated by the
directory, December 6, 1795, being two for each section ; those for the section
of mathematics were MM. Lagrange and Laplace. ‘Two other members, MM.
Borda and Bossut, were elected in ‘the meeting of the 9th of December, and the
section, which was to be composed of six members, was completed on the 13th
of the same month by the election of MM. Legendre and Delambre. In this
list M. Bossut appeared by just title for his labors in hydraulics; MM. Borda
and Delambre were included with not less right for their important services in
relation to geodesy, to measures of precision and astronomical calculations ;
MM. Lagrange, Laplace and Legendre were essentially the representatives of
the higher analysis, and occupied “during life the foremost place among the geom-
eters of the Institute. All three continued till death to justify this proud posi-
tion by labors worthy of themselves and of the illustrious body to which it was
their pleasure as well as duty to communicate them.

In 1805 M. Legendre published new metheds for the determination of the
orbits of comets, to which he added, in 1806 and 1820, two supplements ; in
the latter stages of life he had collected the most recent observations on comets
of short periods, in the design of still further applying and improving his pro-
cesses of calculation. Previous to the publication of his two first memoirs in
1805 and 1806, the question had, in his opinion, been always treated in an
imperfect manner and merely by approximations. He considered himself as
having first indicated two certain modes of arriving at a solution, at once the
most ‘simple and exact, namely, the method of indeterminate corrections, pro-
posed by him as early as 1787, but the applications of which had been few in
number, and the method of least squares, which then appeared for the first time.
Nevertheless, this analytic perfection, to which the author sought to add as often
as he retouched his formulas, has seemed to astronomers to be more than coun-

148 MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE.

terbalanced by the length of the calculations and by other inconveniences.
They prefer employing ie methods of Olbers and Gauss, which, while giving

yerhaps a less certain approximation, furnish it in all cases more rapidly. In
1806 M. Legendre further published, in the memoirs of the Institute, a new
formula for reducing to true distances the apparent distances from the moon to
the sun or to a star* Its object was to simplify and accelerate the labors of
practical astronomers.

‘These last publications were in some sort excursions made by the indefatiga-
ble author beyond the habitual sphere of his researches, and, seeing with w hat
promptness and facility M. Legendre thus passed from one subject to another, it
might be thought that he was completely at liberty in the employment of his
time. He found means, however, in the midst of his purely scientific labors, to
reconcile with the duties of the academician those of several important functions.

Some time after the creation of the Polytechnic School, the former laureate of
the balistic competition was appointed examiner in mathematics for the graduat-
ing students destined for the artillery, and he continued to fulfil these honorable
and delicate functions till 1815, when he voluntarily withdrew and was replaced
by M. de Prony. From the creation of the university, in 1808, M. Legendre
was of its council. At the death of Lagrange, in 1812, he was chosen to suc-
ceed him at the bureau of longitudes, in quality of geometer. He thus took
his place by the side of M. de Laplace, whom he had replaced i in 1783, as adjunct
member of the Academy of Sciences, when the illustrious author of the Méchan-
tque Céleste became an associate member. ‘Thus, at an interval of 29 years, and
under circumstances assuredly very different, no one was found in France who,
by his scientific merit, conld more naturally be called than M. Legendre to
replace M. de Laplace or M. de Lagrange. That he owed to his merit alone a
choice so honorable for himself and those who made it, may be gathered from
a shght ‘anecdote which is related of him. Having, from the creation of the
legion of honor, been inscribed in the number of its chevaliers , though he failed
not to record this testimony to. his merit in the title-page of his works, his
natural. modesty, we are told, long prevented him from attaching the red riband
to his button-hole. M. Legendre continued, moreover, as has been already said,
to form part of the commission of weights and measures as long as it existed,
and more than once was a member of other commissions charged with objects of
importance,

Yet independently of these numerous occupations and varied labors, all
impressed with a peculiar character of vigor and precision, by which he bore a
large part in the scientific movement of his epoch, M. Legendre had besides eer-
tain household gods, to which he sacrificed with ever renewed pleasure in the
silence of his closet. I mean the theory of numbers and the elliptical functions.
To these he consecrated, during the latter 50 years of his life, all the leisure left
him by his daily Helena and more conspicuous labors. He has thus reared
two monuments which, by their extent, represent, no doubt, the better part of
his time, and which, though having had few readers and capable of having but
very few judges, will prove, perhaps, i in the eye of posterity, two of his princi-
pal titles to renown.

The Theory of numbers appeared in 1830, in two quarto volumes, after being
preceded at divers intervals by preliminary publications. M. Legendre says, in
the advertisement :

The work having received all the improvements which the author has been able to bestow
upon it, as well through bis own labors as those of other geometers of which he could avail

himself, it has been thought proper to give it definitively the title of Theory of numbers, in

place of that of an Essay ou the subject which it has heretofore borne.
The Essay on the theory of numbers had passed through two editions, one in

1798, the other in 1805; this last had been followed by two supplements. The

“Mémoires, de l' Institute, t. VI, (printed ‘January, 1808, ) p. 30.

MEMOIR OF LEGENNRE. 149

Essay had itself been preceded by a considerable work published in the Memoirs
of the Academy for 1785, and entitled Recherches d’analyse indéterminée ; which
relates principally to the study of the properties of numbers. In fine, we learn
from the manuscript proceedings of the Academy, before cited, that, among the
memoirs which M. de Laplace, in the session of March 15, 1783, indicated as
having been presented by M. Legendre, occur two memoirs on the resolution of
indeterminate equations of the second degree and on the properties of continual
fractions, and a memoir on the summation of these fractions. Now, from the
objects of which they treat, and indeed from the titles alone, these memoirs bear
a very natural relation to certain paragra; vhs of the erent memoir of 1785.
They were probably the first rudiments of it. Hence we see that M. Legendre
had been occupied with the theory of numbers from his youth. He had labored
upon it for more than 50 years. Yet he concludes the advertisement of the
Theory of numbers, dated ‘April 1, 1830, with the following words, which are
certainly modest enough :

We shall not pretend that certain matters treated of in this work do not need to be improved
or even rectified by new researches. Nevertheless, the author has thought that it would be
better to leave them in this state of imperfection than to suppress them altogether ; ; they will
offer a subject of investigation to those who may be disposed in the future to occupy them-
celves with the advancement of the science.

This part of the science has received in effect, since the publication of the
Theory of numbers, important accessions ; but if we compare the contents of this
learned work with what had been discovered during the 2,000 years which
preceded 1785, we shall see that no savant has marked his passage in this
branch of mathematics by traces in any degree comparable to these efforts of
M. Legendre. It cannot surprise us that a science which had advanced with but
slow and progressive steps under the hands of men as eminent as Euclid and
Diophantes among the ancients, as Viete, Bachet, Fermat, Euler, and Lagrange
among the moderns, should not ‘all at once have been carried to a point which
comported with no further progress. It behooves us, on the contrary, candidly
to avow that M. Legendre, in speaking of new developments which still awaited
it, gave proof of perspicuity almost as much as of modesty.

The science of numbers is difficult, and it is above all difficult to convey an
idea of it to persons whose attention has never been occupied with it. Every
one knows that numbers are distinguished into two great classes: even and odd
numbers, which alternately succeed one another. ‘The even numbers are divisible
by 2 , while the odd numbers are not, though they have often other divisors.
Whole numbers differ much from one another in the possibility of being divided
by other and smaller integers. It has been long ago remarked that the number
10, the basis of our decimal system, has but two divisors, 2 and 5, the last of
which is not subdivisible, while the number 8 has two divisors, 2 2 and 4, of which
the last is further subdivisible by 2, and the number 12 has three divisors, 2,

3, and 4, the last of which is again subdivisible by 2; whence it follows that
the number 8 and especially the number 12 have, as the basis of a system of
measures susceptible of being successively subdivided, an incontestable supe-
riority over the number 10. This inferiority of the latter number is one of the
obstacles to the general adoption of the deciinal system of weights and measures,
which presents in other respects such great advantages

But the number 10 is more favored in this regard | than the number 9 , divisible
only by 3, of which it is the square. It is still more so than the numbers 3 BOs
7, 11, 13, 17, which have no divisors, or, to speak the language of science, have
no other divisors but themselves and unity. Number 7, which enumer rates the
seven days of the week, the seven wonders of the world, the seven sages of
Greece, passes for possessing a certain degree of excellence ; but number 13, as
well as 17, is looked upon as inauspicious, by reason, it may be, of this absence
of divisors which renders both numbers refractory. All those numbers which
have no other divisors but themselves and unity, are called prime numbers.

150 MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE.

There are prime numbers of all magnitudes; but when the numbers are some-
what great it is not easy to discover’ immediately whether they are prime or not.
The prime numbers are distributed among the odd numbers with an apparent
irregularity which is yet subject to certain laws. ‘The search for them, the deter-
mination of the quantities of them which exist in a given interval of the numeric
scale, form one of the objects of the theory of numbers.

Numbers may be ranged by series in each of which may be remarked the con-
stant existence of certain properties ; such are the triangular numbers 1, 3, 6, 10,

15, &c., each expressing a number of units which may be arranged trianeularly ;
the quadratic numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, which in the same way correspond to the
square; polygonal numbers, py? ramidal, &c.; and these series give rise to com-
binations more or less curious. C ertain numbers are the squares of other smaller
ones, as 4 the square of 2, 9 of 3, &c.; others, as 8, 13, 18, are the sum of two
squares; others again, like 17 tor example, are the sum of three squares. Lagrange
and Euler have proved that there is no number which is not the sum of jour or
of a less number of squares.*

These properties and many others are at once remarked in ex amples taken
among numbers of little amount, and it becomes a matter of curiosity to follow
them among the larger numbers in order to learn whether they are general or
not. Hence proceed researches which are often very difficult and provoke a
lively interest. The final conclusion evades detection so much the longer from
the circumstance that frequently there exists, as yet, in science no rule for seck-
ing it; it is a prey which for a long time eludes the pursuit of the hunter. Again,
there are certain properties of numbers which come to hight unexpectedly in their
combinations, and which, presenting something enigmatical and surprising, have
been often held to pertain to the mysterious. Hence the virtues which necro-
mancers have pretended that they detected in cabalistic numbers ; virtues which
are to the theory of numbers not unlike what astrology is to astronomy.

“Tt would seem (remarks M. Legendre) that Euler had a peculiar taste for
the science of numbers, and that he gave himself up to this kind of research
with a sort of passion, as happens (he adds) to almost all those who are occupied
with it ;” and it is clear that M. Legendre himself formed no exception to this
remark.

The first researches of M. Legendre on numbers, contained in his distinguisned
memoir of 1785, constituted a direct sequel to those of Euler and Lagrange which
they extended and dev eloped in several important particulars; but M. Legendre
embodied also in this work many discoveries entirely new, and particular ly the
theorem of reciprocity, known likewise under the name of the law of Legendre,
one of the most fertile laws of the theory of numbers.

This theorem, more readily expressed in algebraic than ordinary language,t

“Legendre, Theorie des Numbres, t. I, p. 211.

t The following are the terms in which M, Legendre enunciates, in the Theorte des Nom-
bres, I, 230, the theorem in question: § VI. Theorem containing a law of See att which
exists between any two prime numbers whatever. (166.) We have seen (No. 135) that if m

. e m nu
and nm be any two prime numbers, odd and unequal, the abridged expressions (? ) (“)
?

: Sat - DS gc
represent, one the remainder m “— the other the remainder n ~— divided by m. At

?

the same time it has been proved that one and the other remainder can never be other than
+1 and-—-1. This being so, there exists such a relation between the two remainders
(= ‘) and (= ) that one being known, the other is immediately determined. The following
is the general theorem which contains this relation :

Whatever be the prime numbers m and n, if they are not both of the form 42-43, we

n “¢ ~

shall always have (=) = ) and if they are both of the form 4z-++3, we shall have

n ™ : °
(*) =— (7 ) These two cases are comprised in the formula

Cees ieee

MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE. 151

consists in this: two prime numbers i and 7 being given, if m be raised to the
power 7 minus 1 divided by 2 and the result be divided by 2, then 2 to the
power m minus 1 divided by 2, and the result be divided by m, the remainders
of the two divisions, which are always capable of being expressed by plus 1 or
minus 1, will both be of the same sign, or else of the “contrar y sign, in certain
determinate cases ; a result which has found and continues to find numerous
applications in researches relating to the properties of numbers.

M. Legendre, in reproducing, in successive editions of the ‘Theory of Numbers,
the demonstration of this theorem as he had given it in 1785, discovered that in a
determinate case it presents a lacuna, without the theorem itself havi ing been ever
found in default. M. Gauss, who, by his Disquisitiones Arithmetice, published
in 1801, had placed himself in the first rank of the savants who have dealt
with the theory of numbers, gave a demonstration of the theorem of reciprocity
which left nothing further to be desired. M. Legendre reproduced this demon-
stration in his Theory of Numbers in 1830, observing that it is the more remark-
able as resting on the most elementary principles, and at the same time gave
another yet more simple, proposed by M. Jacobi. Still later, M. Lionville and
other eminent geometers have given other demonstrations of the same law. The
exactness of the law of Legendre is therefore more than sufficiently demonstrated ;
but here the inventor has left to those who have followed him the privilege of
contpleting his discovery.

This circumstance recalls, somewhat remotely, the fate of the remarkable
theorems on numbers which Fermat left without demonstration; all, with the
exception of a single one, have been demonstrated within a century and a half
after the death of their author, by Euler, Lagrange, and Legendre ; ‘this one, the
last theorem of I’ermat, without having ever been found in def; ult, still awaits
a demonstration, though the Academy has, in late years, several times proposed
it as the subject of a prize to the emulation of geometers.

But if M. Legendre took delight, like Euler, in the combinations, so arduous
in appearance, of the theory of numbers, like Kuler, he excelled ‘also in the
research of the integrals of differential quantities, a research which is itself not
directed by any certain rule, and in which the inquirer is conducted to the result
only by a certain intuitive prevision of the combinations and reductions which
will be available in the formulas and figures. The finest integrals appear often
to have been found by hazard: but these are hazards, as M. Legendre said in
speaking of Euler, which never occur to any but those who know how to create
them. ‘This remark, insufficient doubtless to make us comprehend how a differ-
ential expression is integrated, will enable us perhaps to conceive how the mind
may be stimulated to this pursuit, as to that of the properties of numbers, and
how these two kinds of research, which seem to call into play analogous facul-
ties, were the two dominant passions of Euler and Legendre.

A differential quantity given by a problem of geometr 'y, mechanics, or physics,
does not always correspond to an analytic expression existing in the science, and,
in order not to leave certain problems without solution, it becomes an object to
enrich analysis with new functions. After having exhausted expressions purely
algebraic, we succeed in integrating a great number of differentials by means of
arcs of the circle and of logarithms which are the most simple of transcendent
quantities; but, in order to extend still further the applications of the integral

calculus, it was necessary to have recourse to transcendents of a more composite
order.

Euler thought that instead of being limited to the circle, other curves of the
second degree, especially the ellipsis and hyperbola, might be considered, and that
tables analogous to the tables of logarithms and to those of circular functions
might be drawn up in reference to them. By one of those happy combinations,
which seem almost for tuitous, he found under a purely algebraic form the com-
plete integral of a differential equation composed of two separate but similar

152 MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE.

terms, each of which is only integrable by ares of conic sections. This important
discover y led the illustrious ceometer to compare, in a manner more general than
had been done before, not only the ares of the same ellipsis or the same hyper-
bola, but in general all the transcendents of which the differential approximates
to those of these two curves, in presenting, like them, a rational algebraic func-
tion of the variable divided by the square root of an algebraic poly nome of the
fourth degree.* One of the results of this comparison was, that the integration
by ares of the hyperbola may always be reduced to integration by ares of the
ellipsis.

Irom this time Euler foresaw that by means of a suitable notation the cal-
culation of ares of the ellipsis and other analogous transcendents might become
of almost as general use as that of arcs of the circle and of logarithms; but, with
the exception of the English geometer Landen, who demonstrated, in a memoir
of 1775, that every are of the hyperbola is immediately rectified by means of two
ares of the ellipsis,t no one but M. Legendre recognized the importance of real-
izing the prevision of Euler; and it may be said that our learned colleague alone ~
occupied himself with this subject from the year 1786, when he published his
first researches on integrations by ares of the ellipsis, until the year 1825, when
his Treatise of Ellip ‘ic “Functions appeared.

Arcs of the ellipsis, being after arcs of the circle and logarithms one of the
most simple transcendents, Tnight become in some sort a new instrument of cal-
culation, if we were once familiarized with their properties and possessed ready
means of calculating them with precision. M. Legendre applied himself to this
important subject in two memoirs inserted in the volume of the Academy of
Sciences for 1786. In both of them the author demonstrates, by means pecu-
liar to himself, that the rectification of the hyberbola depends on that of the
ellipsis and presents no special transcendent, and in the second he shows that in
an infinite series of ellipses formed after the same law we can reduce the rectifica-
tion of one of these ellipses to that of two others taken at choice in the same
series. This, he says with characteristic modesty, is one step more in a difficult
path.

In the first memoir M. lee endre gives convergent series adapted for the easy

calculation of the length of an are of an ellipsis, whether in the case in which
the elipsis but slightly eccentric approximates to a circle, or in that when,
greatly elongated, it recedes but little from its greater axis; and in the second
he adds:

If the zeal of calculators could furnish us with tables of arcs of the ellipsis{ for different
degrees of amplitude and eccentricity, and each are were accompanied by the coefficient of
its ~ partial difference, we should have the means of integrating by these tables a very large
number of differentials, and especially all those which MM. d’Alembert and Euler have
referred to the ares of conic sections.

M. Legendre had then attained the age of 34 years; he knew not that it
would be permitted him to labor till that of 80 years, and that unassisted he
would himself accomplish the task of which he here traces the programme.

In the course of these two memoirs, and particularly towards the end of the
second, he indulges himself in a just tribute of praise to the learned geometers
(Euler, Landen, and Fagnani) who, before himself, had demonstrated, in a differ-

*Q being a radical of the form in question and P a rational algebraic function, all these

: 5 Pdz f
transcendents are comprised in the formate R .—Legendre, Mémoire sur les Transcend-

antes elliptiques, p. 4.

t Landen published his researches in the Philosophical Transactions, and still later in a
special work entitled, Mathematical Memoirs Respecting a Variety of Subjects, by John Lan-
den, F. R. S.: London, 1780.

t See the volume of the Academy of Sciences for 1786, pp. 618 and 644.

MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE. 153

ent manner, a part of the theorems with which they are filled to profusion.*
But, in the publications of 1786, remarkable as they were, these rich materials
hardly vet formed a completed edifice, and M. Legendre was not long in per-
ceiving that this subject, and in general the theory of transcendents whose differ-
ential enters into the form above indicated, required to be treated in a manner
more methodical and thorough. ‘This he undertook to do in a Memoitre sur les
transcendentes elliptiques, read by him to the Academy of Sciences in April,
1792, and published towards the end of 1793, in which he proposed to compare
among themselves all the transcendents in question, to class them according to
their different kinds, to reduce each of them to the most simple form of which
it is susceptible, to estimate their value by approximations the most prompt and
facile; and, in fine, to form from the collective theory a sort of algorithm which
should serve to extend the domain of analysis.t

Taking, in its most general algebraic form, the differential already indicated
as a point ‘of departure. for this kind of researches, he analyzes it with extraor-
dinary address, lays aside all the parts which are integrable, whether by ares of
the circle or logarithms, and thus reduces it to its quintessence ; that is to say,
to the parts whose integrals are transcendents of a superior order. 'T hen, trans-
forming this remainder by means of circular functions, he reduces it to a form
of wonderful simplicity, containing but five quantities >t an are of the circle
designated by the name of amplitucle, null at the point where the integral com-
mences, and developing itself in proportion as that is extended; a ~ modulus
always real and smaller than the unit, which, in the case when an ellipsis is in
question, represents its eccentricity ; a. parameter of any magnitude, positive or
negative, capable of being reduced to zero, but to which it would be useless to
attribute imaginary values; lastly, two coefficients whose values, independent
of all the rest, may be anything, provided they be not null simultaneously.
‘The amplitude is the variable in relation to which the integration is made; it
is null only at the point of departure from the integral. ‘The modulus cannot
be null without the expression being completely altered in its nature, but the
three other quantities may be null independently of one another, or fulfil in
their relations of magnitude certain conditions according to which elliptic tran-
scendents are divided into three classes.

The second class is the only one which represents ares of the ellipsis. The
first class is a transcendent more simple than ares of the ellipsis; it may itself
be expressed by means of such ares, but an are of the ellipsis cannot be
expressed by transcendents of this first class. ‘The third class, on the contrary,
the only one in which the parameter is not null, is more composite than ares of
the ellipsis.

The gradation which exists in the complexity of these three classes of tran-
scendents is manifested especially by this circumstance, that transcendents of
the first species may be joined with one another, by addition and subtraction,
so as to form a sum constantly null. Transcendents of the second species may
unite in like manner, so as to form a sum whose value is expressed in terms

* “T shall not conclude this article,” (XVI of the memoir, ) says M. Legendre, ‘‘ without
giving notice that the greater part of the propositions contained therein have been discovered
by M. Euler, and published in the 7th volume of the Nouveaux Mémoires de Petersbourg
and in some other works, a fact of which I was ignorant when I was engaged in these
researches. But the difference of the methods may ‘throw new light on this subject, and
moreover the comparison of the ares of different ellipses, which is discussed in article XIII,
has not, as far as [ am aware, been before treated of by any one.”’-—Mem. l’ Acad. des Scien-
ces, 1786, p. 676.

t Legendre, Theorie des fonctions elliptiques, Introduction, p. 3.

t For this he employs the following expression :

re "A +B sin 26 do
a I-+nsin*d V/J—c*sin 9
—Meémoires sur les transcendantes elliptiques, p. 17.

1 2

154 MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE.

purely algebraic, like the celebrated integral of Euler, before referred to.
Lastly, transcendents of the third species may also be united to form a sum of
which the value, without being null or even algebraic, is notwithstanding of a
more simple nature than each of the former in itself; for it may be expressed
by ares of the circle and logarithms, which are the most simple of transcendents.

These differences, and several others which exist between the three species of
elliptical transcendents, suffice to vindicate the division established by M. Legen-
dre; but, at the same ‘time, they do not prevent our perceiving a profound anal-
ogy between all these transcendents which justifies their union under the same
denomination. The first and second species may be expressed by ares of the
ellipsis; the third is the most compounded, but it has so much analogy with the
two others that all three may be regarded as forming but one and the same
order ‘of transcendents, the first after ares of the circle and logarithms. As M.
Legendre elsewhere says, “the denomination of elliptic function is improper in
some respects; but we nevertheless adopt it on account of the great analogy
which exists between the properties of this function and those of ares of the
ellipsis.”

M. Legendre resumed these questions with several others in a great work in
three quarto volumes, which he published in 1811, 1816, and 1817, under the
title of Mxercises de calcul intégral sur divers or ders de transcendantes et sur
les quadratures. In this work, part of which was devoted to two classes of
definite integrals, to which the author has given the name of intégrales eule-
riennes, he ocenpied himself also with a great number of questions about the inte-
eral calculus, into the details of which it would be difficult here to enter; but the
most extensive and in his eyes the most important part was that which treats of
elliptic functions, of their application to different problems of geometry and
mechanics, and the tables necessary for the use of those functions. Finally, in
1825 and 1826, he combined anew all his results, with the developments and
improvements which incessant labor had enabled him to supply, in a work
entitled Theorie des fonctions elliptiques. 'This first appeared in two volumes,
followed at a later period by three supplements, which constitute the third and
last volume.

Among the improvements which M. Legendre bestowed on his previous labors
when he “published them anew in 1825, one of the principal was the discovery
of a second scale of modules, different from that which alone was known at the
time of the publication of the exercises on the integral calculus. ‘ This second
scale,” as he remarks in the 31st chapter of the first volume, “completed in
many respects the labors of the author upon this theory; it afforded an easy
method of arriving at many striking results of analysis which till then it had
been impracticable to demonstrate except by very laborions integrations. By
the combination of the two scales the transformations of functions of the first
species could be prodigiously multiplied; this the author has made evident by
constructing a sort of tessellated table (damier) infinite in its two dimensions,
all the divisions of which might be filled by the different transformations of
which one and the same function is susceptible.”

The development of the properties and uses of elliptical functions, consid-
ered with this generality, composed the whole first volume of the publication of
1825. ‘The second was devoted, in part, to tables intended to facilitate the
conversion of the integrals obianed into numerals. Calculated by the author
himself with the oreatest precision, these tables constituted in themselves an
immense labor. “ “By means of them,” said M. Legendre, “the theory of elliptical
functions, enlarged and nearly completed by many successive labors, might be
applied with almost as much facility as those of cireular and logarithmic fune-
tions, answerably to the wishes and hopes of Euler.”

After the developments which the theory of elliptical functions had received
by the discovery of the second scale of modules, further progress seemed scarcely

MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE. 155

probable; but the fecundity of the methods created by M. Legendre was such
that results which he had hardly ventured to anticipate were very soon realized,
and I abridge, in transcribing, the terms in which he speaks of this event in the
advertisement of the third volume:

A young geometer, M. Jacobi, of Koenigsberg, who could have had no knowledge of
the treatise of elliptical functions, had succeeded, by his own efforts, in discovering not only the
second scale of which we have been speaking, which is relevant to the number 3, but a third
which is relevant to the number 5, and he had already acquired the certainty that there must
exist a similar one for every odd number proposed. * * * This theorem being established
for every odd number, it was easy thence to conclude that for every integer or sinfply rational
number may be formed a particular scale of modules, which will give rise to an infinitude
of transformations of any one function of the first species, which transformations will be all
determinable algebraically. * * * The hopes inspired by the first successes of M. Jacobi
have been since justified by new publications. * * * It remains for me (says M.
Legendre in continuation) to speak of the admirable researches on the same subject which
M. Abel, a rival worthy of M. Jacobi, has published nearly at the same time. The first
memoir of M. Abel forms in itself an almost complete theory of elliptical functions considered
under the most general point of view. * * * A second memoir of his presents very
remarkable results: First, on the division of the particular function of which the modulus is
sin. 45°, and which represents ares of the lemniscate; secondly, on the general transformation
of functions of the first species, by which, says the author, we are enabled to demonstrate,
in a very simple and direct manner, the two general theorems previously published or
announced by M. Jacobi.

We shall not enter into other details (says M. Legendre in conclusion) respecting the
labors of these two young geometers, whose talents have dawned upon the learned world
with so much brilliancy. It will readily be conceived that the author of the present treatise
would be prompted to hail with cordial applause discoveries so greatly promoting that
branch of analysis of which he may claim to be in some sort the founder. Hence has originated
the design of enriching his own work with a part of these new discoveries, while presenting
them under a point of view at once the most simple and most conformed to his own ideas.
Such is the object of the two supplements which follow, and of those which, in the sequel,
he may unite with them in order to form the third volume of his treatise.

Rarely has such sincere and emphatic recognition been extended to disciples
worthy from the outset of being counted as rivals; but M. Legendre still further
enhanced this recognition by the unaffected and spontaneous warmth with which
the paternal tenderness naturally felt for a theory created by himself, and developed
during more than 40 years by his single efforts, was reflected on his young competitors.
Persons who, at that epoch, attended the sessions of the Academy will not have
forgotten the artless effusion of feeling with which M. Legendre hastened to
communicate to his colleagues the first letters received on a subject so interesting
for science and for himself. It might be said that the elliptic functions did no
less honor to the nobility of his sentiments than the profundity of his genius.

These first impressions were not modified by subsequent reflection, and M.
Legendre concludes with the following paragraph the third supplement to the
Théorie des fonctions elliptiques, by which that vast labor is closed :

We shail here terminate the additions which we have proposed to make to our work by
taking advantage of the recent discoveries of MM. Abel and Jacobi in the theory of elliptical
functions. It will be remarked that the most important of these additions consists in the
new branch of analysis which we have deduced from the theorem of M. Abel, and which
had remained until now wholly unknown to geometezs. This branch of analysis to which
we have given the name of theory of ultra-elliptic functions is infinitely more extended than
that of elliptical functions, with which it has very intimate relations; it is composed of an
indefinite number of classes, each of which is divided into three species like the elliptical
functions, and which have besides a great number of properties. We have been able to
enter but partially into this subject ; but that it will be progressively enriched by the labors
of geometers can hardly be doubted, and as little that it will eventually prove one of the
most efficient parts of the analysis of transcendents.

These lines, dated March 4, 1832, may be regarded as in some sort the scien-
tific testament of M. Legendre, who died within a year thereafter. M. Abel, in
whom he reposed such high hopes, had descended to the tomb several years
before him; M. Jacobi followed in 1849; but the anticipations of M. Legendre
have not the less been realized, as well by the labors of M. Jacobi himself as
by those of our learned colleagues, MM. Liouville and Hermite, and other distin-
guished geometers.

156 MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE.

I might still further speak of important labors published by M. Legendre on
the integrals, s styled by him eulerian, from the name of Euler, who “had first
occupied himself with them, labors w hich occupy a large space in his exercises
on the integral calculus, and which he partially introduced, while he improved
on them, in 1 the second volume of his theory of elliptical functions. I might also
show how, parallel with the employment of elliptic transcendents, he opened the
way to the numerical realization of a vast class of integrals by the tables which
he has given for calculating the new transcendent, designated by him under the
name of the function gr and gamma ; but although M. Bee has shown that the
labors accessory to those which M. Legendre has given to the public on these
subjects alone, would constitute no inconsiderable title for a distinguished
geometer, I ahora fear to weary the attention of my auditors by dwelling at
oreater length on topics of this nature.

Like Euler, his model, and like many other great geometers who preceded
him, M. Leg endre prosecuted his labors to the last without having to regret any
enfeeblement of his faculties; the volume of our memoirs , which immediately
preceded his death, contains one of his studies upon a dificult question of the
theory of numbers. He was then 80 years of age.

So vigorous an organization could scarcely be broken up without great suffer-
ing. The malady which terminated the life of our colleague was long and
painful, but he endured it with firmness, without indulging any illusion as to its
fatal issue, and with a resignation which, as was said by M. Poisson at his grave,
must have been rendered difficult by the happiness of his home, the tenderness
and fond solicitude which there surrounded him. Always characterized by a
spirit of self-renunciation, he had often expressed the wish that in speaking of him no
mention should be made except of his labors; but the same silence is not imposed
on us as regards the noble actions which the faithful companion of his life, the
depositary of his thoughts and purposes, continued to perform in his name after
his death.

M. Legendre had not forgotten what, in his youth, he had owed to the learned
and estimable men who had divined and fostered his talents. Madame Legendre

continued to testify the interest which her husband had exhibited towards pupils
of the Polytechnic school, who happened to be scantily endowed with the gifts
of fortune, and paid in succession the charges of several of them. Having
become possessor of the last editions of those works which M. Legendre had
printed at his own expense, she distributed them liberally, in order that they
might more promptly subserve the advancement of science; and the year before
her decease she presented, through the Bureau of public instruction, 40 copies
of the Theory of elliptical functions to the principal libraries of France, a
donation for which thanks were addressed to her by the worthy minister M.
Fortoul, in the name of the state. At her own death, in 1856, she devised to
the commune of Auteuil, for a vicarage and school, the country house in which
she had ‘last lived with M. Legendre.

Full of devotion and admiration for the memory of one whose name it had
been her happiness and pride to bear for 64 years, ‘she preserved to her last day
an unaffected and religious Hesse! for all’ that had pertained to him. The
survivor of M. Legendre for 25 years, she died at a somewhat more advanced
age than he, from the effects of a long and eruel malady, against which she
exerted the force and resignation of which he had given her the noble ex sample.
She had lost all her family, allied to that of our celebrated painter Robert Lefévre,
and having never had children, she expired at the age of 82, surrounded by the
pious care “of persons whom the graces of her mind ‘and her constant pe
habitually assembled around her , and who have preserved for her memory ¢
filial attachment. With her, completely disappeared a name in which Bniee
will never cease to pride itself.

Lagreange was the reformer of analysis. By rendering more evident some of

MEMOIR OF LEGENDRE. 157

the bases of that science, he has conferred upon it greater force, at the same time
that by his immortal discoveries he has extended its domain. One of our greatest
geometers has dwelt with admiration on the perfection of his analytical style.*
Clear and smooth as the verses of Racine, the formulas of Lagrange have aug-
mented the number of the adepis of science, while they have facilitated their
dabors. Laplace, in applying to the laws of the universe the faculties of a
geometer of the first order, advances a claim to be considered as the lawgiver
of the celestial movements. By his vast acquisitions in the empire of nature, he
has earned a title to be styled the Newton of France.t Legendre, more pro
found than popular, was our Enler; like Euler and after his example, he has
bequeathed to the future a multitude of those analytical results which genius
alone knows how to obtain, and which enrich in perpetuity the domain of the
human intellect.

Clairault, d’ Alembert, Euler were the continuers of Newton and Leibnitz.
After them, Lagrange, Laplace, Legendre have held with a grasp not less firm
the sceptre of mathematics. The Academy may be congratulated that it has

counted in its ranks and ean still count at the present day more than one sue-
cessor of these great men.

*In his Eloge of Laplace, pronounced June 15, 1829, before the Academy, where M.
Legendre still oceupied a seat, M. Fourier took occasion to make some interesting remarks
on the discoveries of Lagrange and the character of his works. The following w ords occur:
‘CAll his mathematical compositions are remarkable for a singular elegance, for the sym-
metry of forms and the generality of methods, and, if we may so say, for the perfection of
the analytic style.” (Mém. de l’ Acad. des Sciences, t. x, p. 6, 1830.)

t It was M. Cuvier who, in one of his academic discourses, conferred on him this proud
qualification.

MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

BY nis Son, F. A. PELTIER.

[TRANSLATED FOR ‘IHE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY M. L. Woop.]

[The following sketch of the life and labors of Peltier by his son, though
perhaps warmly colored by filial partiality, scarcely does justice to his character.
He possessed in an eminent degree the mental characteristics necessary for a suc-

cessful scientific discoverer; an imagination always active in suggesting hypo-
theses for the explanation of the phenomena under investig ation, ‘and a logical
faculty never at fault in deducing consequences from the suggestions best caleu-
lated to bring them to the test of experience; an invention ever fertile in devis-
ing apparatus and other means by which the test could be applied; and, finally,
a moral constitution which sought only the discovery of truth, and could alone
be satisfied with its attainment. Deprived in early life of the means of mental
culture, and not commencing the study of physic: al science until after the age of
40, it is not surprising that he should have in some cases presented to the world
the results of his investigations in a form little favorable to their proper appre-
ciation; or that, considering his antecedents, the savants of France should not
have conceded to him at first the honors to which he was justly entitled. Accord-
ing to Bacon, foreign countries like future times are the dispensers of justice:
and this is verified in the case of Peltier, whose labors were more highly prized
in Brassels than in Paris, and whose more important contributions to science are
found not among the memoirs of the Imperial Academy of France, but among
those of the Royal Academy of Belgium.—J. H.|

Jean Charles Athanase Peltier was born at Ham, in the department of
Somme, the 22d of February, 1785. His parents were poor, his father follow-
ing the trade of shoemaker in the town of Ham; but if they were but poorly
favored by fortune, they were well endowed by. nature; the father of Peltier
being a man of firmness and capacity, and his mother an active and industrious
woman.

Peltier inherited the qualities of his parents, evincing at an early age a quick
intelligence, great perseverance of character, a remarkable spirit of order, and,
above all, a Inve of labor which unfortunately led him to overtask his powers
and consigned him, at a later period, to a premature g erave.

He was first sent to school to the schoolmaster of the place, who most proba-
bly only tanght him to read and write, he himself not Knowing much beyond
that. He was afterwards placed under the care of a vicar, who took him for a
chorist, taught him French, a little arithmetic, and even a commencement of

satin,

From this time Peltier evinced a very decided taste for mechanics. At the
age of ten years he took a clock to pieces, cleaned it, and put it together again.
At this period also, he gave evidence of that-spinit of observation Y which uever
left him. One evening ine was on the promenade of the town, earnestly regard-
ing the heavens ; several shooting stars appearing, he followed them with his
eyes with intense interest, not doubting even then that some day he should
have occasion to occupy himself with them more s seriously.

Ivom the predilections his son had shown, the father of Peltier decided to
have him taught the trade of clockmaking ;’ to which end he placed him in

MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 159

apprenticeship to a German named Brown, who had been taken prisoner at the
time of the first campaigns of the republic, and had subsequently established
himself at Saint Quentin. In character he was brutal and passionate, and the
young apprentice had much to suffer from his cruel treatment. This natural
violence of character too was much increased by the condition of the political
world at that time; for Brown, loving his own country to fanaticism, most
keenly desired the success of the Austrian arms. ‘This was in 1800; the
moment of the glorious campaign of Moreau into Germany, and the second con-
quest of Italy ; san the year of Marengo and Hohenlinden. Tivery day that
the paper brought news of a victory and at that time this was of frequent occur-
rence—there was redoubled bad treatment and vexation for Peltier. Nor was
this all: Brown, who himself had no fondness for study, refused to his appren-
tice this privilege, and this was an additional means of tormenting him. For
some little time Peltier, the day’s work being done, would read in his chamber
by the light of the candle furnished him ; but Brow n, discovering this, forbade
the use of one. By the strictest economy he now procured the cov eted lieht
from his own scanty means, and continued to read at night; but this also was
prohibited. Forced to yield, Peltier at length watched for the nights when the
moon shone clear, and opening his window ‘softly, would thus read a few pages
by stealth. This, too, Brown managed to prevent. Apprised of these facts,
Peltier’s father w ithdrew his son from this uncongenial domicile and succeeded
shortly afterwards in dissolving the connection.

Peltier had been two years in Saint Quentin. On leaving this place he went
to Paris, where he became apprentice te) a clockmaker by name of noon who
himself worked for the celebrated Bréquet. This was at the close of 186:

The father of Peltier, who had never been to Paris and had no idea of the
expense of living there, only allowed his son one franc a day for his support.
With this pitiful sum the poor boy was to provide himself with board and lodging.
Compelled to suffer many privations, Peltier appealed several times to his father ;
but he, judging Paris by his own little town, imagined the increase of allow ance
demanded by his son to be meant solely for ‘indulgence i in pleasure, and refused.
Peltier very soon became seriously ill; and, hurt at the want of confidence
manifested by his father, forbade his friends to write to him, resolving to aban-
don himself to his illness and to die without infor ming his parents of his condi-
tion. Fortunately his friends took no notice of his “prohibition, and wrote to
his father, who came in tears to find his son and carry him back to his native
country, where he soon recovered.

On his return to Paris, Peltier set himself to work at clockmaking with more
ardor than ever. At the close of 1803, however, he was for a while diverted
from his peaceful occupations by other and entirely new ideas.

The peace of Amiens had lasted but a short while, and war with England
had been speedily rekindled ; a universal enthusiasm reigned throughout France ;
departments, cities, corporations, all vied with each other in offering ships,
frigates, and even boats for the publie service.

Peltier could offer nothing, being without means, but he could give his life,
and he resolved to enter the navy. Not wishing, how ever, to engage as a com-
mon sailor, he worked incessantly i in the hope of ‘being eee into the naval
school at Brest. Nor was this all; for, not content with his own intentions
towards his country, he recruited three of his comrades and bound them to join
the army with himself. For a while all went smoothly ; but as the fatal hour
approached, the courage of the three comrades waned; and when the decisive
moment arrived, Peltier found himself successively abandoned by his proposed
companions, and left to execute his designs alone ; this he would certainly have
done but for a circumstance which he had not foreseen. In order to enter the
naval school at Brest, it was necessary to obtain the consent of his parents ;
and he had already written them on this subject. His mother, learning his

160 MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

design with the deepest grief, made many efforts to dissuade him from his pur-
pose; but in vain. When, however, at last, she received the news that all was
in readiness for his departure, and that he only awaited their consent, she was
seized with a despair that rendered her seriously ill; and the father of Peltier,
communicating to the son his mother’s condition, terminated his letter thus :
“Tf you persist, I will send you my consent, but it will kill your mother; and
remember that you will have but yourself to reproach for ‘her death.” "The
alternative, thus put, admitted ey idently but of one solution, and Peltier
renounced his design.

Released from the ideas which had for a while so entirely occupied him, Pel-
tier set himself again to work, and it was not long before Bréquet, discerning
his talent, attached him directly to himself as a . workman, and shortly after
intrusted him with the most difficult part of horology—the construction of chro-
nometers.

After remaining about two years with Bréquet, Peltier left him with the inten-
tion of establishing himself in business. For a while, however, he was on the
point of uniting himself to Berthoud, who offered him very adv antageous con-
ditions ; first, a very good salary ; ‘second, that at the end of six years he
should be associated with himself in the manufacture of marine watehes. ‘This
offer certainly merited reflection. After some hesitation Peltier finally refused ;
he would have been obliged to engage for six years, and live in Argenteuil at
a period when communication was not as prompt nor easy as it is to- day. Pel-
tier preferred lis liberty ; and, establishing himself in 1806, was shortly after
married to Mademoiselle Dufant. For nine years he Tomei honorably
engaged in trade ; retiring from business in 1815, on the death of his mother-
in-law.

Madame Dufant left him master of a very moderate fortune, the proceeds of
which were considerably restricted by the disturbed condition of affairs ; but
Peltier, having no expensive tastes to gratify, remained contented with it, that
ne might from that time give himself up entirely to his natural inclination for
study ; besides which, energy and method produced by degrees their natural
fruits ; so that towards the close of his life he was possessed of a competency,
which permitted him to occupy himself exclusively with his scientific labors.

The activity of Peltier’s mind prevented him from restricting himself to the
narrow limits of his trade ; and always while studying and wor king at horology
he was occupied first with one thing and then another, as the taste or inclination
of the moment prompted him. At the time of which we speak, literature and
literary persons were held in high regard in the empire; and Peltier’s age
inclining him to such pursuits, he devoted himself exclusively to books. He
read, wrote or dictated ‘constantly ; reading while eating or walking; and
even in the evening, when at work on his bench, listening to his wife who read
aloud. It is thus that he read Voltaire, Ronssean, Button, the Correspondence
of Grimm, and the geography of Malte- Brun; in short, everything that he
could borrow, the scantiness of his fortune not permitting him to indulge i in the
purchase of books. He not only read, but composed. While still a journey-
man, he wrote a melodrama. Later he applied himself to the study of poetry,
and has left a comedy in verse completely finished, and has even ‘published a
criticism on the comedy of the Deux Gendres of Etienne. It was generally in
putting together his clocks that he composed. Leaying his house, paper and
pencil in hand, he would, while walking, compose his verses, and when he had
them properly. arranged in his own mind, would stop and ‘write them. The
real bent of Peltier’s mind was rather tow ar ds the sciences and severer studies
than literature or poetry ; but he yielded for the time to the ardor of youth and
the fashion of the moment. Still we find in what he has left real imagination,
and a sprightliness throughout which is extraordinary. In general the versifi-
cation is somewhat neglected ; but this is by no means surprising, he very

MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 161

often not having the time to review what he had written; but here, as else-
where, his ideas are not at fault.

Retiring from trade at the age of thirty-one, Peltier resolved to educate him-
self anew. He had doubtless Tead much, worked much, and exercised his mind
on a variety of subjects ; but he had never pursued a regular course of study
He determined, therefore, as the first step to make hamecle master of Latin, and
at the same time to teach it to his little son, then aged seven years, and whom
he had, since his sixth year, taught English. Wishing at the same time that
he taneht the Latin to perfect the child’s English, he bought several English
and Latin grammars; but what was his surprise in examining them to find that
they differed essentially from the French and Latin! This difference was the
more singular inasmuch as these grammars, both teaching the same language,
should have been entirely alike.

Peltier, not content with remarking this difference, set himself to work to
ascertain the cause, which he found to be that both English and French confine
themselves to rules for translating their language into Latin. Now when the
Romans taught their children the rules of Latin grammar, it was by rules deduced
from grammar in general, and not by telling them that such and such a turn of
phrase in French or English should be rendered in such or such manner in Latin.
Thus when we teach our children French, we do so independently of all foreign
languages.

When Peltier had once seen this defect, he resolved to write for his son a
grammar in which all the rules of the Latin language should be given in
English. It was in 1816 that he undertook this work ; somewhat later he took
it up again, but in French; the change from one grammar to the other being

fo)
but a small matter, the same language being taught in both, and the same rules

given. He worked at this for some t time, and made considerable progress; but
it is far from being complete.

When this work was somewhat advanced, Peltier began to write an introduc-
tion for it. Now grammar being the art of expressing one’s thoughts according
to certain rules, he discoursed, in this introduction, of ideas, their origin and trans-
formations, thus passing from grammar to ideology. At first it was only his
intention to write an introduction, but little by little his plan enlarged, as the
constant necessity arose of mounting higher into causes in order better to explain
effects. It was first an introduction of a few pages; it very soon became an
entire work. He abandoned it several times, but always seemed irresistibly
drawn to take it up again.

It was his conviction that all the phenomena of the formation of ideas could
and should be reduced to the simple undulation of the nervous fluid. The sen-
sation composed, 1st, of the impression made on an organ, 2d, of the transmission
of this impression to the brain, 3d, of the perception effected by the brain, was
only, according to him, an Siaulation wrought in the nervous fluid, the starting
point of which is any given organ, the stopping point the encephalon; when
afterwards this undulation returns from the brain to the organ impressed, it
becomes attention; when it returns from the brain to an ensemble of muscles,
and is designed to cause motion, it becomes will. Memory he describes as a
succession of undulations, similar in nature, and acting upon each other; while
judgment is the sensation of the difference between £ (1 mot) previously impressed.
in a certain manner, and J (moi) afterwards impressed otherwise.

It is far from my intention here to enter into any detail on this subject. Suf-
fice it to say that ideology is one of the sciences on which he was most often
engaged, and in which he has advanced the newest and most original ideas.
Unfortunately his work on the subject is very far from being finished.

Prepositions are the most difficult parts of speech to define, and have very
much perplexed all grammarians. Expressing the relations of persons and
things to each other, they form one of the most abstract points of grammar.

11 s67

162 MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

We easily conceive of a noun; it is the name of a person or thing, or else the
generalization of a quality; we understand an adjective or verb; but a preposi-
tion is infinitely more difficult of conception; it is neither an object, quality, nor
act, but a relation between all these ideas; it is, in short, a something completely
intangible. Led by his ideological studies on the one hand, and his studies of
Latin grammar on the other, Peltier undertook, about the year 1820, a treatise
on Latin prepositions. 'To this he applied himself assiduously for several years,
and finally completed it. In 1826 he even had some thoughts of submitting it
to the press, but, led off by other studies, he soon renounced his intentions,

At the time that Peltier was studying the formation of ideas with such care,
Dr. Gall had opened his public courts in Paris, in which he expounded his theory
of the development of the brain, and the localization of the faculties. Peltier,
perceiving in an instant of what immense advantage such knowledge would be to
him, studied with assiduity the lessons of Dr. Gall, and became, and to the close
of life remained, his zealous partisan. Not that he thought the localization of
faculties as maintained by Dr. Gall incontrovertible; he had not implicit faith
in all his bumps, (to speak after the usual manner;) but he did believe sincerely
and with reason in the fundamental principle of Gall’s doctrine; that is, in the
relation which exists between the mental and moral nature on one hand, and the
development of certain parts of the encephalon on the other.

The confidence he had in the principle of this doctrine, however, did not pre-
vent him from pointing out a few errors of detail. He made several objections
to Gall himself on his cranioscopy; one, among others, having reference to the
organ of perfectibility, and another to comparative sagacity. On this subject he
wrote as follows: “I have never been able to understand how there could be
an organ of perfectibility unless it should be made the centre of all the intellec-
tual organs, which would be an entire subversion of your scientific principles.
Mathematics, metaphysics, music, having each its particular organ, perfectibility
cannot be a separate, universal “quality ; ; it can only bea ereater development
of a particular organ. Neither have I been able to comprehend the organ of
comparative sagacity. All judement is the result of a comparison; the mathe-
matician compares and judges; so also the painter, the mechanic. Our knowl-
edge does not come but by comparing and judging. The organ of comparative
sagacity, then, is one that encroaches upon the others, and that is directly opposed
to your theory of the localization of the faculties.” 'The repiy of Gall to these
objections was far from being satisfactory.

The study of Gall’s theory had made Peltier feel the necessity of studying the
anatomy of the brain. ‘This necessity once acknowledged, he set himself to
work ; he went into the amphitheatres and dissected like a novice, although he
was at that time about 36 years of age. He did not, it is true, pursue the “study
of anatomy so far as is necessary fOr a physician or surgeon, but he studied
enough to understand thoroughly the nervous system of man, ‘and to have suf-
ficiently correct ideas of all his other organs. The gross dissection of the brain
and nerves showing him almost nothing of their inmost structure, Peltier endeay-
ored to study them with magnifying instruments. But man stands highest in
the scale of animal beings. Instead of studying the construction, assimilation,
and life of so complex a being, it is much more rational to study them in beings
of more simple constraction. ‘Transparent insects will perhaps let the secret of
their existence be seen. ‘Thus Peltier was led to apply himself to microscopy.

Perfectly insatiable in his desire for knowledge, Peltier attended at the same
time the lectures of M. Flourens at the Collége de France, and the experiments
in vivisection of M. Magendie. Electricity was just rising into great favor with
physiologists; ail was attempted to be explained by it. M. Magendie mace
dogs and rabbits digest by electricity ; according to M. Dumas , muscular con-
traction was but electro- dynamic ; nothing seemed able to resist its power, not
even the generation of beings, the males being powerfully charged with positive
electricity, the females consequently with negative: it was a general mania.

MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 163

What is electricity? Peltier had now come to the study of this science—a
study which was to occupy him exclusively during the last twenty years of his
life, and on which he has left such a prote mind impress of his genius; but we see
what detours he had made before arriving at this point, and what read he had
travelled.

I have entered into these details because they seemed to me to offer some
interest ; we see in them the gropings to which a vigorous mind may give itself
up before arriving at what is ‘destined to constitute one day its study “from pre-
dilection. ‘The course followed by Peltier is, besides, I ‘think, rooted in the
very nature of the human mind; it is always towards the most abstract and
complex ideas that man at first ‘and from choice directs his studies; it is not

until later, and little by little, that, instructed by experience, he at the same
i simplifies and restricts his researches. History bears ample testimony to
this. In the middle ages, on the revival of letters, men were occupied but with
questions in me taphysics—the nature of the soul and its faculties—and, as if this
were not sufficiently beyond their powers, they discoursed even on the nature
of God. It was not until some time later that they consented to descend from
these heights and study the material world: first the living world, anatomy and
physiology ; and lastly the inorganic world, physics, chemistry, geology, &c.,
&c.; So tiue is it that Associated men, or the people, t take but the same course as
isolated men, or individuals.

It was about 1825 that Peltier commenced seriously to study physics; until
that time indeed it had been to him but an accessory. In 1827 he bought in a
public market-place an old electric machine and some Leyden jars; these
were the first instruments he had at his disposal. At first he amused himself by
drawing sparks; he then formed sparkling squares and tubes, and electric jump-
ing jacks, and many other amusing objects; a little after he tried more serious
experiments ; but he very soon discovered that this road could lead to nothing.
By an electric machine, in fact, he could never have obtained other than static
electricity; and static phenomena constantly reducing themselves to phenomena
of attraction or repulsion, and to sparks, are very far from offering the variety
and interest of dynamie phenomena. Weary of these experiments without result,
Peltier very naturally turned his attention towards another source of electricity,
the pile; it was, besides, of the Voltaic pile that physiologists made use in apply-
ing electricity to the phenomena of life. Peltier therefore very soon bought a
trough pile, with which he made his first investigations into currents. Later he
made for himself a ver y great number of these piles.

For several years Peltier labored without communicating to any one either his

work or his discoveries. Knowing but little of the world, ‘he had not had opper-
tunity to compare himself with cther men, and, ignoring completely the real
worth of his intellect, did not dream that he could do anything worthy of being
known. This diffidence rendered him extremely reserved, and he worked a long
time in profound silence. His first communication to the Academy of Science
was on the 19th of July, 1830, and relates to dry electric piles. The reason of
this communication was as follows: It had been generally believed for a lone
time that dry piles were not capable of giving a constant current, and could not
produce any chemical reactions. In 1830 M. Donné endeavored to throw heht
on this subject by new investigations. In his experiments he carried the number
of couples to 25,000 and 30,000, without, however, increasing the usual size of
the plates. He ‘obtained thus phenomena of enormous tension, but could not
get a current which was capable of effecting the least chemical action.

At this time Peltier had already comprehended the distinction to be main-
tained between the quantity and the intensity of a current. He therefore took
up the experiments of M. Donné, but instead of i increasing the number of couples,
he increased their surface, and thus succeeded in reddening to the color of turnsole,
and in decomposing water by means of a current of the dry pile. It suffices

164 MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

for this that we take from 25 to 30 disks, provided only that their surface be a
little expanded, say from one to two square decimeters. Such was the first: sci-
entific communication made by Peltier to the Academy of Science: this took
place on July 19, 1830; and Peltier dying October 27, 1845, it was in this
interval of 15 years that he wrote and published the labors and discoveries of
which we shall proceed to give a rapid enumeration.

At the time that Peltier began to devote himself to experiments in physics,
Nobili was in Paris, having come thither to illustrate his system of static needles
which he had just invented for galvanometers. Peltier was forcibly struck by
the sensibility which these instruments were rendered capable of acquiring by
this ingenious modification, and set himself immediately to work to construct
similar ones for himself. A short time afterwards M. De la Rive commenced his
publications on the theory of the pile. This illustrious savant wished to prove
that chemical action was the real cause of dynamic electricity, and endeavored
to demonstrate this by analyzing the different phenomena of the currents by
means of the galvanometer thus perfected by Nobili. Peltier thus found him-
self led, on one hand, to the thorough study of galvanometers, and on the other
to experiments on the pile and on currents. The first communication that Peltier
made to the Academy of Science bore marks of this double impulse. On July
19, 1830, he presented his note relative to dry piles; May 27, 1833, he laid
before this learned body another note on the quantity and intensity of currents ;
July 22, of this same year, he presented them with a memorandum on the same
subject; and finally, on March 10, 1834, he made known his galvanometer of
deviations proportioned to its force.

Peltier had naturally great dexterity of hand, which had been still increased
by his practice of horology; further, he was possessed of patience sufficient for
any ordeal, never becoming disheartened, and never recoiling before any sacrifice
of time or trouble which could lead to the desired end; and assisted besides by
the counsels of a distinguished artist, M. Gourjon, he was enabled to give to his
galvanometers a sensibility which permitted him to study the smallest forces, and
consequently to discover phenomena of which he would never have suspected the
existence had he had at his disposal only heavy and sluggish instruments. It
was thus he discovered that, under certain determinate circumstances, a weak
electric current can produce cold. He first made known this fact to the Academy
of Sciences, April 21, 1834; later he inserted in volume 56 of the Annals of
Chemistry and Physics a dissertation on the heat generated by electric currents.

Tn 1835 Peltier discovered the difference of capacity of the various metals for

each kind of electricity. During this same year he published in volume 60 of
the Annals of Chemistry and Physics a dissertation on electro-magnetic experi-
ments. Until that time it had been assumed, for simplicity and facility in theo-
retic calculations, that magnetic repulsion was a force equal and contrary to
attraction. In this dissertation Peltier proves that it is nothing, demonstrating
that repulsion is by no meansa special force like attraction, but that it is an effect
of the disagreement of opposed motions sustained in their opposition by second-
ary causes and influences.

In 1830 Peltier again turned his attention to the quantity and intensity of cur-
rents, laying before the academy, May 9th, an article on this subject ; and this
same year he submitted to that learned body the curious fact of the formation of
several individuals pr oceeding from a single animal that is subjected to lingering
inanition. He published in volume 62 of the Annals of Chemistry and Physics
a description of the electrometer which he had just invented, and which is cer-

tainly one of the most useful instruments with which he has enriched science ;
and he also presented to the Philomathic Society most interesting observations
on vorticelle, on the articulation of the claws of rhizopodes, on the influence of
electric currents in the vegetation and evolution of animaleula, on the reproduc-
tion of arcellee, &c. Finally, this same year, recurring for the last time to the

MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 165

subject of the quantity and intensity of currents, he published a resumé of his
works on this subject, in volume 63 of the Annals of Chemistry and Physics.

January 9th, 1837, Peltier presented to the Academy of Sciences a large work
containing his experimental researches into the various phenomena which concur
in producing the general result from electric piles; the 30th of the same month
he inserted a note on the dynamic electricity engendered by friction. May 15
he made known to the academy the new hygrometer he had just invented, and
his work on solutions and dissolutions; and, finally, on June 12, he laid before
this same learned body his researches on the difference in the conduction of a
circuit according to the direction of the current ; and thus explained from natural
causes a fact that M. De la Rive could not account for, except by admitting, in
electric currents, interferences analogous to those of light.

In 1838 Peltier published in volume 67 of the Annals of Chemistry and Physics
an article on the quantity of dynamic and static action produced by the oxida-
tion of a milligram of zinc, and on the relation which exists between these two
kinds of phenomena. Faraday had handled an analogous question before Pel-
tier, and M. Becquerel has treated it since. These three gentlemen have arrived
at this conclusion: that a dynamic degree represents an enormous static force; in
other words, that a galvanometer, despite its apparent sensibility, is an extremely
inert instrument compared with the electroscope. This same year Peltier made
known the cause of secondary currents in liquids; and he published in the Annals
of Natural Science two dissertations: one on a new kind of floscularia, the other
on the structure of muscles. He also laid before the Philomathic Society his
observations on the zoosperms of the frog; on magnetism by discharges along a
bar; on the displacement of the axis of a magnetic needle during a prolonged
deviation, &c., &c.

In the beginning of 1839, Peltier presented to the Philomathic Society an
article containing most interesting observations on the difference in structure of
the motor and sensitive nerves. At the same time he published in volume 71 of
the Annals of Chemistry and Physics a very comprehensive dissertation. This
dissertation is composed of two distinct parts: the first treats of the formation of
tables in regard to relations which exist between the force of an electric current
and the deviation of the needles of the multipliers—and certainly no one was
more fit than Peltier to do this work; the second treats of the causes of pertur-
bation in the thermo-electric pairs and the means of avoiding it. It is im itself
an entire and profound study of thermo-electricity. Peltier examines in this
work the effect of the bulk of the pairs and their number, of the size of the
solderings, the extent of surface immersed, &e.

During the period we have just sketched, Peltier had also occupied himself
with the study of meteorology, although in a cursory manner. In 1835 he placed
on the house he occupied apparatus for studying the temperature and electric
state of distant media. The apparatus with which he at this time studied the
electric interchange between the earth and clouds was as follows: it was formed
of a piece of copper wire surrounded with silk, and covered over with several
layers of oil varnish; the upper portion of this wire was terminated by a tuft of
platina wire, and was elevated about 25 metres above the earth; the lower end
was also terminated by a platina wire, and immersed in a deep well of 12 metres.
In the midst of the wire Peltier interposed at pleasure either a multiphier of
3,000 coils, an electrometer of his invention, or a simple electroscope of gold
leaves. By the aid of this apparatus Peltier soon ascertained that the earth ordi-
narily gave indications of negative electricity ; that, in general, there was a nega-
tive ascending current, but that in certain circumstances, and especially during
storms, there was on the contrary very often an inverse current, that is, a nega-
tive descending current.

Later, in 1836, Peltier ascertained that during storms the negative ascending

. . . 5S e .
current acquired at times a considerable force, and then ceased altogether, giving

166 MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

place to a negative descending enrrent still more powerful. August 6 of this
same year, especially, the storm that he was observing presented : at least 25 of
these inversions. He even ascertained that these sudden inversions did not take
place in all their power until the rain precipitated itself from the clouds to fall
on the ground ; and, finally, he discovered that all storms were negative, but that
the clouds surrounding them were in general of a contrary electricity, and that
this was the reason why the commencement and close of storms always produce
positive signs, while the storm itself gives but negative ones.

In 1838 Peltier noticed a fact which he afterwards often confirmed, namely :
that snow alone never produces electric currents, while on the contrary sleet and
hail invariably give them. When they come with snow it is because it is mingled
with sleet. Finally, this same year, he called the attention of the Philomathie
Society to the fact that the earth and all bodies resting upon it are naturally in a
negative state; but that when in a storm the lower clouds are strongly negative,
the earth and all appurtenant bodies, being beneath them, become positive ; that
is, they exist momentarily in a eden opposed to their ordinary state ; and he
thinks this change of electric state may be the cause of the general discomfort
suffered by nervous persons during certain storms.

We sce that Peltier was perfectly prepared by his observations and previous
researches for the study of meteorology. He understood electricity thoroughly ;
he possessed galvanometers of great sensibility, by the aid of which he could
estimate the smallest dynamic currents; he had invented an electrometer which
could measure the smallest static te nsion ; ; he had already made both curious and
interesting meteorological observations, ait he needed but some favorable oeca-
sion to deliver himself to the study of meteorology with all his characteristic
ardor. This occasion the water-spout of Chatenay was not long in furnishing.

On June 18, 1839, a water-spout laid waste the property of M. Heérelle at
Chatenay. ‘The insurance company refused to pay damages, alleging that water-
spouts were not electric phenomena. In order to satisfy himself on this point
M. Heérelle sought Peltier, whose works had now begun to be known and appre-
ciated. Solicited by M. Hérelle, Peltier repaired to the spot, and by virtue of
his perfect knowledge of electricity soon determined the real character of this
phenomenon. He first wrote a letter on this subject to the Academy of Science,
July 15; later, his ideas becoming still clearer. he presented, October 28, a
resumé of his researches , and in 1840 published his Z'reatise on Water-spouts.

From this moment Peltier found himself engaged for a long time in the study
of meteorology ; for, in consequence of his habit of never leaving unexplained
a single phenomenon, he felt himself compelled to study the whole science, and
with what zeal he did this we shall now see.

February 3, 1840, Peltier wrote to the academy explaining the fact of the
entire destruction of aman by a thunderbolt; and the same day laid before them
a sealed package on the grouping of clouds. May 4, he communicated to this
learned body observations of great interest, made by aid of an electric kite, on
atmospheric electricity during clear weather. May 25, he made known his
researches on the phenomena which take place in the interior of metallic spheres
charged with electricity, and deduced from them an explanation of the grouping
of clouds. June 1, he complimented the academy by a presentation of his Zreatise
on Water-spouts ; and, finally, November 30, he presented them with an article
in which he demonstrated that the electricity produced by evaporation was only
maintained by decrepitation. All these works, however, did not prevent him
from continuing his experiments in electricity and his microscopical researches,
so that, July 4, he presented to the Philomathie Society the interesting olbserva-
tion of a lucophre produced by eftlux; and, November 16, made known to the
academy his experiments on the origin of the zoosperms of the frog.

In 1841 Peltier continued to oceupy himself with the same ardor on all that
concerns meteorology ; he ascertained the resinous tension of the earth, and dis-

MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 167

covered the true cause of the electricity of vapors, (February 8, communication
to the Academy of Science.) This same year he procured a barometer, and six
months had not passed before he was able to comprehend the true cause of the
oscillations of this instrument, placing in fact before the academy, April 25, 1842,
a sealed package containing the resumé of his researches into the causes which
vary the barometrical pressure. At the same time that Peltier made by his obser-
vations so important a discovery, he published, in volume 4 of the third series of
the Annals, his great work on the cause of the electrical phenomena of the atmo-
sphere, which may be regarded as the fundamental basis of all meteorology; he
also ascended the Faulhorn, and there ascertained that mountains are possessed
of all the properties of forelands, and that consequently their resinous tension is
enormous. He explained the phenomenon of the coloring of mountains; studied
the electrical phenomena of cascades; caught a glimpse of the cause of the dif-
ferent colorings of clouds; made, with M. Bravais and by request of M. Régnault,
experiments on the boiling point of water in reference to different heights; and
finally returned to Paris laden with his numerous materials. Hardly arrived in
Paris, he gathered together, arranged, and made known all the facts he had
observed, and published his dissertation on the different kinds of fogs.

In 1843 Peltier continued his labors, and prepared the memoirs with which
his scientific career terminated.

November 2, 1844, he presented to the Brussels Academy of Science his great
work on the cause of barometrical variations, and his researches on cyano-polar-
imetry ; and this same year published in the Archives of Electricity, at Geneva,
his memoir of electrical meteorology. He also made known to the Philomathic
Society his observations on the electricity of vapor arising from boilers at high
pressure ; pointed out the different causes of error which might deceive students
of meteorology, and added some points of detail to the general history of water-
spouts, on occasion of the Cette water-spout.

Finally, in 1845, Peltier made known the cause of the oscillations observed by
M. Liagre in spirit levels, and presented to the Brussels Academy of Science his
dissertation on the cause of electrical phenomena, which concluded his scientific
eareer, and which he unfortunately did not live to see in print.

We have now terminated the principal discoveries made by Peltier in micro-
eraphy, physics, and meteorology. All these works, all these researches were
effected at most in 20 years; and, indeed, it can be said that his meteorological
labors only date from 1839. From having made so great a number of discoveries
in so short a time, it is easy to understand in what a state of intellectual tension
Peltier must have passed his life. For several years previous to his death his
health had suffered much; bat to all remonstrances of his friends and family he
replied: “I would rather die 10 years sooner and leave behind me discoveries
whieh will recall my name.” In the month of July, 1842, Peltier went to the
Faulhorn, there to make meteorological observations. ‘The sudden change from
a temperature of 30° above zero to one almost always below this point, mate-
rially affected his health, and, a short time after his return to Paris, resulted in a
spell of ‘sickness. His disease was not in its first stages dangerous, being but a
slight intestinal affection, to cure which would have required at this time rest and
quiet fora few months. But with his character, with that incessant activity which
distinguished him, Peltier could not accept repose; he could exclaim with Hoche:
“(Give me a remedy for fatigue, but let it not be repose.” Another cause there
was which added still to the excessive excitement of his brain: he had laid the
foundations of meteorology; he had established the basis, and he now wished
to deduce its consequences and ay ply them to the different phenomena of nature.
Nor was this all: it was long since he had had decided opinions on the nature of
electricity; but never having drawn them up into regular form, he was afraid
death might overtake him too soon for the work ; so that, redoubling his energy
and activity to accomplish his wish, his relapses became frequent, and his malady

168 MEMOIR OF PELTIER,

soon assumed a most serious character. From the year 1844 a fatal issue was
feared, although he still had strength sufficient to go into Belgium for the pur-
pose of there introducing his various apparatus and “his method of observation in
meteorology.

In 1845 the disease continued to make such progress that it was soon impos-
sible not to recognize in it a scirrhous stricture of the intestine; and to this he
soon succumbed. The day before his death, although exhausted by suffering,
he was still intent upon science—admitting several persons who came to consult
him on the water-spout of Monville, among whom was M. Preisser, professor of
chemistry at Rouen, with whom he had a long conversation on the cause of the
disasters which had just taken place. In the evening he dictated some lines
explaining the twisting which had been observed on the bark of certain trees; the
next morning he still retained his consciousness, but, gradually losing it, ‘died
calmly and painlessly at 9-o’clock a.m. on Monday, October 27, 1845, having
attained the age of sixty and a half years.

Peltier was of medium height and well proportioned ; his build was somewhat
spare, and his temperament at the same time bilious and nervous; his forehead
was broad and largely developed ; his face, something thin at the lower part,
was extremely mobile, the expression of his features being quick and intelligent,
while the contrast between his light blue eyes and heavy black brows gave to
his face a most marked appearance. His sight was excellent, although some-
what impaired towards the last by his use of the microscope ; and he had a deli-
cacy of touch which he found invaluable in his manual labors. In an intellect-
ual point of view there are few men who have been better endowed; his con-
ception was prompt and facile, and he was at the same time a man of theory and
of facts, never separating these two—a fact being to him but the round of a lad-
der by which he ascended to the cause. It was also often his lot to find in the
discoveries of others relations which they had not themselves seen. His passion
for study was incredible; it is impossible to conceive a correct idea of all that he
learned and did, bearing throughout that sound, practical mind which so pre-emi-
nently distinguished him.

In-a moral point of view there has been and can be but one voice. It is
known with what violence political passions rage, and how the least fault is held
up to public view as a handle against an adversary. But his political adversa-
ries, even the most bitter, respected and loved him profoundly, for his probity
and loyalty were known and appreciated by all. Peltier had no ambition, or,
rather, he had but one, and that was science. In 1834 the prefecture of the
Seine offered him the mayoraity of the fifth ward of Paris, and he was given to
understand that the cross of honor would be the speedy reward of his services
in this new capacity; but he refused. Himself maintaining the most decidedly
conservative opinions, he nevertheless could respect the views of his adversaries ;
and, although he was frequently engaged in oral strife, those even whom he had
combatted with the most energy could not leave him without regret. It was,
indeed, for every one a day of “grief when he died.

On the 29th day of October, ~1845, a great concourse of savants and friends
conducted him to his last hone amidst the universal grief. Among these were
MM. Régnault and Milne Edwards, members of the Academy of Sciences ; M.
Desbassayns of Richemont; Dr. Conneau, MM. Bravais and Martins, M. Boutigny
Evreux, M. L. Bréguet, M. Donné, M. Lemercier, M. Frédéric Gérard, M. Lesueur,
M. Silberman, M. Doyé ére, M. Lassaig ne, M. Bréon, M. Véc, mayor of the fifth
ward; MM. Converchel and Lourmand, who had been his colleagues i in the pri-
mary committee of instruction; the officers of his old company, and many others
too numerous to mention.

Arrived at the cemetery of Pére-la-Chaise his body was deposited in a provis-
jonal vault, and two discourses were pronounced over his tomb—one by M. Milne
Edwards, as president of the Philomathic Society, of which Peltier was a mem-

MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 169

ber; the other by M. Frédéric Gérard, who had known him but a few years, but
to whom the time, short though it was, had sufficed to give a just appreciation of
his qualities. ‘These discourses were as follows

DISCOURSE OF M. MILNE EDWARDS.

“Tt is not in the midst of the sad scenes surrounding the tomb that we can give
ourselves up to the cold estimations of science, and judge impartially the works
of a man who has long been our colleague. I shall not then endeavor to recall
here all that M. Peltier has done for the advancement of human knowledge, nor
to expound the ingenious views which led him to explain and reproduce, by
single experiments in the laboratory, the most sublime phenomena of which the
atmosphere is the seat. Historians of science will have the grateful task of regis-
tering his works, and will gladly render him the praise which is his due. But
before the earth-clods close over his remains let me be permitted to pay to his
memory this last tribute of respect, in the name of a body of men whose watch-
words are study and friendship. ‘The Philomathie Society will long honor the
memory of M. Peltier. We will not forget the frequent and interesting com-
munications in which he has given account of his curious researches, and his
name will be often cited among us when we wish to place before the eyes of our
rising generation examples of disinterested love of science and patient perseve-
rance in the pursuit of knowledge, which may excite them to emulation. The
recital of his life will be pre-eminently instructive to those who, in the beginning
of their career, feel discouraged by their isolation, and fear that they can, unsup-
ported, acquire neither fame nor fortune. They will see from the example of M.
Peltier how, with firm will and undaunted spirit, a young man alone in the world,
and without resource except such as is furnished by a powerful organization, can
triumph over the numberless obstacles by which he is surrounded, and conquer, lit-
tle by little, all that is wanting—instruction, wealth, and fame, all well acquired.

“Such, indeed, has been the life of M. Peltier; and had not death so ruthlessly
come prematurely to interrupt the course of his labors, so strongly impressed with
the seal of originality, he would have received the reward due to his merit, for
doubtless his peers would soon have chosen him to be one of the representatives
of that science he cultivated with such éclat.

“When in a few days our society resumes her labors, she will learn with grief
the loss that I now so deeply deplore; and on the list of members which she Tost
regrets and loves will be inscribed the name of Peltier beside those other illus-
trious names, Dulong, Fresnel, and Savart.”

DISCOURSE OF M. FREDERIC GERARD

“Tt is a noble thought that gathers around a grave the friends of him whose
remains are to be laid therein; it is the last homage we ean render to his mem-
ory; and the words pronounced over his coffin, resting deeply engraved in the
mind, are an instructive lesson to all who hear them.

“Tf a pompous eulogium is expected for those who have performed glorious
actions, a few simple and touching words are the fittest tribute to the memory of
that man who has applied himself to the art of living well, and has consecrated
his leisure hours and all his mind to the advancement of knowledge.

“Such was he whom death has taken from us before the time at which he usu-
ally strikes those who have passed the critical period of life.

““A few words on his earliest years will show what there was of noble in this
man’s life, and will be the highest eulogium we could pronounce over his tomb.

“ Born at Ham, in 1785, in mediocre condition, but of an honest and intelligent
father, Jean Charles Athanase Peltier was placed, at the age of fifteen years,
under the care of a German clock-maker living at Saint Quentin—a hard, unmer-
eiful man. It was at this time that France in arms battled against all Europe;

&

170 MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

and each time that the public journals announced the success of republican
arms, his wounded national pride vented itself upon his pupil, who experienced
a malicious pleasure in informing him of the reverses of the German hordes.
As he offered to the eager lad but little knowledge, Athanase, impatient of a
yoke which nettled his ‘pride, ran away and went to Paris.

“This was in 1803, when Bréeuet ‘held in this city the sceptre of elevated
horology. Peltier, having heard of his fame, presented himself before him
with that naive confidence so precious an accompaniment of youth, and asked
to be employed in his workshop. Struck with the frank and open manner of
the young Picard, the great mechanic granted his request, and placed him under
one of Hicanost Joe workmen. <A ie years later, the young horologer of
Ham was promoted to a place under Bréguet himself, and very soon intrusted
with his most important works.

“ Fortune smiling on his persevering efforts, Athanase became himself head of
an establishment of horology. Until that time he had applied his intellect to
the study only of mechanics ; but he then began to feel that this branch, cut
off from general knowledge, could not satisfy him; and so occupied himself
with literature, poetry, and philosophy ; this last science especially suiting his
grave and me aenoe cast of mind.

“Married in 1806, and becoming a father two years later, he formed the reso-
lution of himself directing his son’s education. This was ie him the beginning
of a new life. Without neglecting his business, he attended the public courses,
and devoured the lessons of the great masters with the eagerness of a spirit
impatient of all trammels. Gifted with a perspicacity equalled only by his
perseverance, overcoming with giant strides all difficulties, the modest partner
ot the labors of Brécuet could soon compete with those who had commenced
their life with study, “and could discuss with them the most abstruse points in
science.

“At the close of 1815 he quitted his establishment and succeeded his father-
in-law, who had been farrier to the Emperor; but the feebleness of his health,
and his extreme fondness for study would not permit him to accommodate him-
self to a profession which requires more of physical force than of mental; and
hence he was not long in abandoning the situation to return to his favorite
studies with renewed zeal.

“In a short time the son of M. Peltier, under the intelligent direction of his
father, began to study seriously, and designed himself for fhe profession of medi-
cine. henceforth the career of the elder Peltier was irrevocably determined ;
he occupying himself exclusively with mathematics, physics, and natural his-
tory. He brought to bear on these studies a cool, clear mind, a sound and severe
judgment and a fertility of resources which characterize the observer; quali-
ties rarely found united in one man; to which he added a skill in handicraft
and a precision which, acquired as they were in his earliest years, enabled him
to make his own instruments, and to add to others the Piineaione necessitated
by their use. He loved to repeat and explain the experiments in physics at
which he had assisted; and, novice at first, he very soon became skilful in
handling the most delicate instruments. He now also began to give his whole
attention to the study of electrical phenomena.

“He for a long time followed assiduously, but in silence, the sittings of the
Academy of Sciences ; meditating deeply on problems in electricity, repeating,
multiplyi ing his observations, varying them incessantly, and perfecting constantly
the means “of investigation.

“1830 found him laboriously occupied on these matters, without one single
line having appeared in public to reveal his severe and pr ofound studies. At this
time the question of dry batteries was much discussed ; this subject roused him,
and, seizing it, he treated it with that accuracy of judgment which announces a
man habituated to the severest labors of the mind. Fyrom 1833 to 1845 was

MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 171

occupied by a succession of works numerous and varied on the most obscure
points of electricity. These were never theories @ priori, mere playthings of
the imagination, but experiments and minute researches pregnant with new
views and marked by the most subtle penetration. The retums of the Acad-
emy of Sciences, the Bulletin of the Philomathie Society, of which he was an
honored member, the public library of Geneva, the Annals of Chemistry and
Physies, all attest his incessant activity.

“Dynamic electricity and galvanisra, that important branch of physies which
1S so nearly allied to the eveut phenomena of life, were to him the object of
numerous researches ; but he directed his special observations to meteorology, a
science which so imperiously demands an attentive observer, a skilful experi-
menter, and a philosopher who knows how to deduce results from his observa-
tions; and on this subject he indeed threw light. His works on the electricity
of clouds, on fogs, and his fine treatise on water-spouts, would suffice to assign
him a distinguished place among physical philosophers had he not other claims
to the remembrance of the friends of science: I allude to his last works on
electrical meteorology and barometrical variations.

“JT shall also call to mind his considerations on ether, in which he rises to the
greatest heights of abstraction without, however, quitting the stronghold of expe-
rience, a characteristic which is observable throughout all his w orks.

“YT must not forget, too, to cite his experiments on microscopic life, which form
a portion of his far too limited zoological observations. Studying im them the
phenomena of the production and disag eregation of infusoria, he arrived at a
belief in the heterogeneous origin of all these forms of life. It is pleasant to
follow him in these minute experiments, where we recognize at every step the
rigorous method of the philosopher, and in which he studies this infinitesimal
life with a happy daring which permits him to read its secrets as easily as the
evolutions of great bodies.

“ But a life so laboriously consecrated to study, and so productive of fruit for
science could not be without its sacrifices. The observations made by M. Pel-
tier on the Faulhorn, in 1842, in connection with M. Bravais, laid the founda-
tion of that disease which has to-day bereft us of him. Fyrom that fatal period
his strength diminished, and his body wasted away ; but his mind lost none of
its original vigor, and he ever retained his passionate love for science. It was,
indeed, during these last three years that he published in the Brussels Archiv es
of Electricity and Memoirs of the Academy of Science his most important
works.

“'Towards the close of this year his health became more and more feeble, and
the disease which preyed upon him soon gave too clear w arming of his approach-
ing end. He spoke of it without affectation, and with the quiet resignation and
calm philosophy of one who feels and understands that the goal of life is death.

‘His extreme sufferings, the prostration of his strength, his ever-increasing
debility, that precursor of dissolution, could not diminish the ardor with which
he still devoted himself to his favorite occupation, even revising and correcting
towards the last the impression of a general treatise on physics, which will
appear as a posthumous work, and is the last emanation from his great and
noble mind.

“The numerous materials he has collected will not, we hope, be lost to science ;
and only when we reap the fruit of these will we understand the full extent of
the loss we have this day sustained. Justice will then be rendered him; all
will deplore his untimely, death, but, alas! without avail.

“Tt is but two days since he ‘conversed for several hours with a scientific gen-
tleman of Rouen and the proprietors of Monville on the cause of the disasters
of that commune; pointing out to them, with his usual clearness, the part he

considered the electric fluid to have borne in this fearful event. This long and
serious conversation, while it aggravated his physical exhaustion, did not pre-

172 MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

vent him from dictating to his son his ideas on the cleavage of trees by the
electric spark.

‘Tn men whose life is in their intellect, the obstructions of the physiological
functions have but a feeble effect on the brain; this was, nevertheless, the last
time that his thoughts manifested themselves to those around him. The next
morning his friends found him sinking, but calm; a few hours and he was no
more.

“Thus terminated this life so filled with labor of which science had the best
and noblest portion. He died firmly believing in the infinite progression of
physical philosophy, and confident in the bright future of experimental science,
which he regarded as the anchor of safety and truth.

“ For him is accomplished that terrible phenomenon whose name is death;
but, like all strong men who dare to look beyond, he was prepared.”

APPENDIX TO THE BIOGRAPHIC NOTICE OF PELTIER—SCIENTIFIC
NOTICE.

[TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, BY C, A. ALEXANDER.* }
I.—MIcROSCOPIC RESEARCHES.

We owe to Peltier observations on certain new microscopic animals. We
will cite among others his observations on a vorticella which, by its form, closely
approximates to that which Muller has called citrine, and, in its interior consti-
tution, resembles the vorticella or umbel of Roésel. We will also advert to his
observations on a new species of floscularia. We shall not, however, dwell on
this class of researches. Peltier, in fact, had never devoted himself to the use
of the microscope in order to discover new individuals ; ; microscopy was for him
but a means of study for arriving at a more thorough knowledge of physiology.

Effects of inanition on the infusoria.—Microscopic animals hav e, in general,
a very simple structure ; still they are often too complex to admit of an advan-
tageous study in them of the different phenomena of organized bodies. Peltier
conceived the i ingenious idea of employing inanition in “order to rid these ani-
mals of all superfluous matter, and to reduce them to their most simple expres-
sion. ‘The following is the method which should be taken :t Ona glass plate
let a circle of tin be glued, and in the centre of this circle place the drop of
water which is proposed to be examined ; on the tin circle spread a thin coat of
oil, with the exception of a section of a few millimetres.~ This arrangement
has several advantages; in the first place the thickness of the tin does not per-
mit the drop of water to extend itself by capillarity as far as the edges, and
entirely to flow away as ordinarily happens; the liquid remains at rest at the
centre of the circle which cireumscribes without touching it ; moreover, the circle
of oil delays evaporation. If we closed it entirely, there ensues, in 24 hours,
asphyxia of a great part of the animalcules; wlile, by leaving a small space
without oil, the drop of water may be preserved from three to eight days,
according to the temperature and hygrometricity of the air. he animals thus
preserved i in a drop of water will have soon exhausted all the nutritive matter
which it contained, and a succession of very remarkable effects produced by
inanition is progressively brought to view.

In proportion as the drop of water becomes impoverished, most of the ani-
mals give more development and extension to their organs of contact ; fre-
quently new vesicles are developed on the sides of the corona of the vorticelle,
and around the cephalic projections of the rostrated cyclida the protées become

transformed ; and the more as the drop of water has been longer kept. It
seems, in a word, that aliment no longer reaching the organism in sufficient
quantity, this organism forms a sort of hernia of all its “parts in order thus
to reach it. At the same time that the appendages are developed, the body of
the animal is gradually reduced to its elements. Peltier witnessed, for instance,
in the vorticella above spoken of, the following phenomena: at the end of five
or six days of inanition, the agglomerations. attached to the exterior mem-
prane of the animal diminish in number; when the vorticella is wholly enfee-

* Notice surla vie et les travaux scientifiques de J. C. A. Peltier, par son fils. Paris, 1847.

+ Annales des Sciences Naturelles, February, 1838. Vol. 9, p. 89.

¢ The French measures used in this article correspond to the English as follows: the mil-
limetre = .03937 inch. ; milligram —.0154 grain; decimetre = 3.987 inches ; centimetre =
0.39371 inch.; metre = 1.093633 yard.

174 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

bled, it has lost them all; it is then no more than a very thin and diaphanous
membrane in which no organ is any longer perceptible. In this state, all move-
ment has ceased; the particles of the membrane itself become disintegrated
and the vorticella dissolves globule by globule ; at other times a rupture takes
place in a part of the membrane, the internal liquid escapes, and the animal
has ceased to live.

Reproduction of infusoria.—lt is known that among the infusoria, properly
so called, reproduction takes place commonly by fissiparity ; they continue sep-
arating into two parts, and thus form new beings. This mode of reproduction
is so rapid that a single paramecia observed for some days divided itself four
times in 24 or 30 hours, producing thousands of new creatures in the lapse of a
few days. This generation only proceeds with activity when an exuberant
nourishment is supplied to these animals. Peltier, however, produced by inani-
tion, in a great number of animalcules, an effect analogous to that which results
from an excess of nutrition.

There are species which possess a contractile dorsal vessel, in which we can
follow the progress of the nutritive liquid; such are the digitated naiade. If
these animals be subjected to inanition, we shall see, in proportion as the liquid
is impoverished, a contraction of the dorsal vessel, which is less stretched out,
and stops where the liquid ceases to arrive, because it has been absorbed by the
anterior parts. When this movement is thus arrested, there will be seen to be
formed, at the middle of the body, at the point where the nutritive liquid ceases
to arrive, and where the contraction of the vessel stops, two large absorbent
vesicles, which imbibe for the behoof of the posterior part. As soon as these
vesicles enter into action the second half of the dorsal vessel resumes its contractile
movements ; these contractions, be it understood, take their origin in the new
vesicles, and have no communication with the anterior part nor any synchro-
nism with its movement. In front of these vesicles, a constriction is presently
formed, which increases by degrees, and which ends by completely separating
the two portions, which then constitute two distinct individuals.

The anterior portion, better organized and better supplied with appendages
for alimentation, has more vivacity, more energy, than the other. If we suc-
ceed in preserving the drop of water seven or eight days, the nutritive matter
diminishing more and more, there occurs for the two halves that which occurred
for the entire animal: the quantity absorbed by the anterior parts is no longer
sufficient for the total alimentation, and the posterior part is left in a state of
complete inanition. It was thus that Peltier obtained in one instance a new
separation into two of each of the two former halves, and eventually a new
separation of the two quarters proceeding from the anterior half; the two sep-
arated parts of the posterior half had ceased to live before he could effect a
new separation. The result, therefore, was the formation of six individuals
proceeding from the separation of the parts which the dorsal vessel could no
longer supply with nourishment.

Peltier has verified the same fact with regard to the pustulous kerones ;_ hav-
ing subjected these animals to protracted inanition, he perceived that, in the
middle of the body, an indentment was formed which went on constantly
increasing, and finally separated the animal into two parts; the anterior half
continued to live, it appeared even to acquire new energy by the loss of the
posterior half of its substance, while this latter often died at once, though some-
times it remained alive for a certain interval. In every case, the instant of the
death of the individual restored to liberty and their own spontaneity the rest
of the globules which happened to be in its interior. Peltier observed also
similar peculiarities in the kidney-shaped cyclide.

M. Dujardin had inferred from his researches that certain animals might be
produced by means of lobes of their substance abandoned by them on the
bodies to which they attach themselves. Peltier has confirmed this idea by

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 175

numerous observations on the common and the scutelliform arcelle. The
mother-arcella begins by extending, under the form of a large disk, a portion
of her membrane. This portion of membrane is attached to the horny shell by
prolongations at regular intervals. It is at first perfectly smooth, of eveat trans-
parence, and contains no other substance ; when its formation is finished, & por-
tion of the glutinous matter of the mother flows upon it. In one instance Pel-
tier saw this elutinous substance flow too abundantly on the new ‘membrane
and leave but about a sixth of it for the mother; the current now stopped, then
retrograded, and an inverse current was established for the benefit of the primi-
tive arcella. An instant afterwards, when the original current had been re-es-
tablished and again conveyed the vivifying matter on the young disk, it once
more surpassed the bounds and left the arcella too much impoverished. It was
not until after five or six oscillations of this sort, the amplitude of the flow
diminishing each time, that a due distribution was effected and the intercommu-
nication ceased. The vascular filament which united the two arcelle gradually
became thinner, then entirely separated, and two minutes afterwards the two
distinct animaleules withdrew one from the other, both thrusting out their arms
and performing their customary digitations. This mode of generation is cer-
tainly very remarkable; we here see the half of a living creature flowing out-
wardly and forming with this excreted moiety an animal i in all respects similar
to the moiety remaining.

Peltier observed, in 1830, another example of generation by an efflux of sub-
stance still more curious than the former, for here the efflux was not sponta-
neous. He had placed between two glasses, under the microscope, a drop of
water in which there was a very large specimen of Muller’s vesicular leucophra;
in shehtly compressing the two olasses, the external membrane was broken and
perhaps a hundred of the globules w hich fill the animal were extruded. Many
of these were scattered about in being projected by the pressure, but others
clung together in a space of small extent. The former remained apart, and
nothing was remarked in them but the tremulous motion of light bodies. The
globules of the agglomerated portion, on the contrary, gradually drew closer
together, grouped “themselves, and finally, at the end of an hour, formed a
sphere W hose contour, of a brilliancy inelined to nacreous, indicated the forma-
tion of a membrane. At the end of two hours there was perceivable in the cir-
cumference the reflection of the liquid in motion, and shortly afterwards the
oscillations of very fine cilia. The leucophra was now complete and presently
revolved upon itself, then spontaneously changed its place and traversed the
drop of water. Thus this little animal was produced externally by the agglome-

ration of the substance which had been made to issue mechanically from the
mother.

Transformations of zoosper ms.—Peltier had followed with much attention the
successive transformations of zoosperms, especially those of the frog.* He
showed first that the spermatic liquor expressed from the testicles containg, in
winter, only simple spherical globules. As adolescence approaches, and the
season of copulation, these elobules become covered with black points and small
projections, which latter speedily elongate, forming each a cone, the point of
which appears filamentous and soon undergoes much enlargement; at the same
time the filaments which terminate these cones grow more and more distinct and
present the appearance of a tuft of hairs. The cones thus terminated by fila-
ments consist of small masses of zoosperms, attached by the head to the black
points of the central globule, and free in their caudal extremity.

As long as these elobules swim in their natural liquor, no ‘movement is per-
ceived; but if there be mixed with it blood from the neighboring veins and
arteries, the point of the tufted cone partially opens and some of the filaments
which terminate it commence oscillating with their terminal parts. If blood

* Journal U Institut, 1838, t. vi, p. 182. Idem., 1840, t. viii, p. 392.

176 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

taken from another organ than the testicles be added, the movement is commu
nicated to a still greater number, the expansion of the tufts increases, the oscil-
lation extends to half the length of the fibrils, and the posterior portion of the
zoosperms may then be perfectly recognized; if a still more heterogeneous liquid
be added, such as river or pond water, the movement becomes general and the
whole body of the filament oscillates. After a few instants, some of these fila-
ments are seen to detach themselves from the primitive nucleus ; presently all
successively quit it, become so many complete zoosperms, and leave the parent
globule covered with brownish points where they had been attached.

Once become free, the zoosperms undergo new transformations; their anterior
part bends in an arch more or less elongated ; this arch, by closing, constitutes
a ring in some and an oblong mesh in others. A little later their “anterior part
has assumed the shape of a cupel, fringed with vibratile cilia; but before enter-
ing into this last state, these zoosperms have passed through intermediate forms,
giving them the appearance of different animalcules, by which circumstance
observers have been often deceived. Such, according to the researches of Peltier,
are the successive transformations presented by the zoosperms of the frog.

Structure and contraction of the muscles—Peltier also occupied himself
with the structure of the muscles and the phenomenon of contraction. He even
availed himself of several different methods, that he might study them with
greater profit. Sometimes he simply examined the muscular fibres with the
microscope, sometimes he proceeded by crushing them on the porte-object glass;
again, he unravelled them by means of the finest needles. He often operated
also on muscles desiccated by heat, for this process also yields good results. He
studied likewise the structure of ‘the muscles in certain microscopic animals
which have muscles in a rudimentary state, and composed of one, two, or three
fibrils. In a word, he had employed all the means which science could furnish
him, and the followi ing are the results to which he was conducted :*

The muscles are composed of distinct cylinders, of a diameter of from 3}, to
|, of a millimetre. Seen with the microscope, these cylinders seem divided by
rather transparent longitudinal lines and by darker transverse lines. This
causes them to appear somewhat like an assemblage of small graduated scales
of a perfect regularity. The cylinders in question are formed of fibrils in juxta-
position, while the fibrils themselves are constituted by a tube 4 pee minute
grains, the diameter of which varies, in different animals, from Foo 10 yao Of a
millimetre.

In studying these fibrils it is seen that the globules are ranged in succession
one above the other in their sheaths, that they touch and press one another,
while the globules situated in the same transverse range, and pertaining each to
a different tube, are separated by a double membrane extremely transparent.
When a ray of light traverses a muscular fibre, diffraction takes place quite
around each elobule, except at the point of contact of the globules superposed
in the same sheath. It thus forms an image unequally illuminated, being less
so at the part in contact than in the rest of ‘the outline of the elobules. Hence
it results that the transverse lines which connect all these obscure points are
darker than the longitudinal lines; and from this we see in what consisted the
error of the physiologists who thought that these transverse fibres were formed
by nervous filaments, wound in a helix around the muscular fibre.

The globules of the elementary fibrils are strongly adherent to one another
and to their sheaths , for it is very rare to find portions of the latter devoid of
their globules.

When certain microscopic animals are deprived of life by long inanition, the
whole contractile membrane is seen to be formed of aligned elobules. In this
case also the different phases of the phenomenon of contraction may be followed
with facility. It will be seen that the arrangement in zigzag has here replaced

* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 2d series. Zoology, vol. ix, p. 89.

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER. Tae

the arrangement in a straight serial line. The sheath is shortened in obeying
this new arrangement; it folds slightly on itself, like the finger of a glove w ‘hose
two ends are pressed nearer together. The elasticity of the sheath, however,
renders this corrugation very difficult to be perceived.

On the structure of the nerves.—When Charles Bell had published his treatise
on the distinction of the nerves of the face into nerves of movement and nerves
of sensation, Magendie proceeded to inquire whether there were not something
analogous in the rachidian nerves, and soon thereafter proved, in effect, that the
posterior roots of these nerves presided over the sensibility, while the anterior
roots governed the power of movement. It was natural to suppose that these
two sorts of nerves had a different structure and constitution. Peltier applied
himself to this interesting question, and we will recall the principal facts which
he made public.*

The nerves of sensibility have not a texture similar to those of movement,
and moreover each of them in particular varies according to the proximity of its
insertion in the organ or of its exit from the cerebro-spinal centre.

In removing further from the cerebro-spinal centre, the cellular tissue of the
nerves increases and becomes more resistant; it circumscribes more and more the
medullary pulp, and in the end forms for it distinct sheaths. At first there are
but small portions of this pulp thus circumscribed and enclosed in the sheaths;
the rest surrounds them and fills the interstices which separate them. The
number of these sheaths continually increases, and the free pulp diminishes in
the same proportion. 'The nearer we approach the termination of the nerves, the:
more glutinous does this pulp become and the greater the cohesiveness it acquires..

The nerves which are ramified in the muscles are formed of tubes of about
ziy of a millimetre; the membrane which constitutes them is of little consist-
ency; at the least pressure it yields unequally, and the medullary substance
which it contains forms varicosities. The nearer the periphery, the fewer the
varicosities, because the sheath becomes more resistant and the pulp diminishes.
These tubes or nervous fibrils, however, always preserve a considerable part of
their globules in line, whatever the pressure exerted on them. ‘Towards their
insertion they are finer, more regular, and more numerous; the globules of the
pulp are there better aligned, their position is fixed, pressure no longer displaces
them, and these nervous fibrils might be readily confounded with the muscular
fibrils , if the transverse lines found in the latter were not wanting.

Arrived at the muscle to which it is destined, the nervous filament sends forth,
at variable distances, bundles of eet y fibrils which have become extremely
thin. They arein diameter about =1, of a millimetre, and are only formed of
a series of contiguous globules; scarcely does pressure any longer discover a
little free pulp in their interstices. ‘These bundles of nervous fibrils are dis-
persed over all the adjacent muscular fibrils, in the midst of which they success-

ively disappear, without our being able to see how they terminate. It might
almost be believed that the muscular fibril is, as regards a part of its substance,
but a continuation of the nervous fibril.

The nerves of sensibility have a different constitution from the preceding.
They contain less of the nervous pulp in a state of semi-fluidity ; on compression
no varicosities are eee their fibrils are more tenuous; they have, at first,
a diameter of from 535 to 545 of a HES but towards the organ in Ww hich
they are inserted of not more than from ,j55 to yqb5 of 2 millimetre. Their
globules are much smaller, being not larger than about 7555 of a millimetre ;
they are regularly aligned, and pressure does not displace them. These
fibrils often cross one another in their progress. A certain number of them,
united in little bandlets, form, in crossing, lozenges elongated at the point of
their intersection; these bands are strongly adherent, and cannot be detached
but by tearing them.

* Journal U Institut, 1839, t. vii, p. 113.
12 s67

178 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

Il.—STATIC ELECTRICITY.

Difference of static and dynamic electricity Electricity may present itself in
two distinct conditions; it may be in repose or in movement. In the first case
it is said to be in a static, in the second in a dynamic, state. The phenomena
which it produces in these two cases are very different.

This distinction is to be found in all treatises on physics; but no author has
insisted so much as Peltier on the difference—on the almost constant opposition,
indeed, which exists between the phenomena produced by static electricity and
those produced by dynamic electricity; by electricity in repose or in movement.*

Static electricity, says Peltier, is double; each of its forms is collected, con-
trolled, and maintained separately. They do not become manifest except in
this state of insulation and of separation. They may be preserved thus sepa-
rated by means of insulating bodies, and their action then is as enduring as their
insulation. Static electricity is accumulated at the surface; its effects reduce
themselves to the phenomena of attraction and repulsion. When two bodies
are charged with the same electricity they separate from one another; when
charged with contrary electricities they approach one another, &c.

Dynamic electricity exhibits constantly opposite properties. It is not double ;
it cannot be collected, coerced, or preserved. ‘To havea constant dynamic effect,
it is necessary that the cause itself should act in a constant manner. It seeks
not the surface; on the contrary, it is propagated through the interior of bodies
and has relations only with ponderable quantities of matter. Like currents
attract one another; unlike currents repel one another. Finally, dynamic elec-
tricity has an extreme diversity of action; it alters the temperature of bodies,
vaporizes or decomposes them, magnetizes iron and steel, causes deviation of the
magnetic needle, &c.

The two orders of phenomena, static and dynamic, are rarely coexistent ; it is
only when the current has ceased, through a forcible interruption, that a static
effect appears ; so, too, it is only when free course is given to the cause of the
static effect that the dynamic effect is reproduced ; but the two effects never are
and never can be simultaneously produced by the same portion of electricity.
When these two effects make their appearance at the same time, as happens in
the case of an insufficient conductor, the portion of electricity which passes pro-
duces only dynamic effects, and the portion of electricity arrested produces only
static effects.

Lelation of static and dynamic actions.—Peltier had measured the extent of
the electric phenomena, both static and dynamic, which may be produced by the
oxidation of a milligram of zinc. By causing the electricity produced by a
given quantity of substance to pass successively from the dynamic to the static
condition, and from the static to the dynamic, he found that the quantity of sub-
stance necessary, in order to produce the dynamic effect of one degree of a good
multiplier, may yield a static effect of 7,069 degrees of the electrometer of his
own invention, and, moreover, that the static effects which it produces are as the
square of its dynamic effects ; hence the quantity of oxidized substance which
doubles a dynamic effect, quadruples the static effect which springs from it.t

Electric capacity of the metals.—Peltier first demonstrated that the metals
have not equal capacities for receiving the same static electricity from a constant
source ; thus, zine takes and retains more positive than negative electricity, while
the contrary takes place with copper. Gold is likewise more apt than’ silver
and platina to become charged with positive electricity.t

* See Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1838, t. 67, p. 422: a memoir of Peltier on the
quautities of dynamic and static action produced by the oxidation of a milligramme of zinc.
nee also the article Galvanism of the Dictionnaire Univers. d’ Histoire Naturelle.

+ Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1833; memoir befere cited.

t Comptes-rendus de l’ Academie des Sciences, 1835, t. 1, pp. 360 and 470.

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER. t 179

After having sufficiently verified this fact, Peltier sought to find whether it was
the consequence of a special force or the result of a permanent electric state,
and he ascertained that in their natural state, or that of equilibrium, bodies pos-
sess different quantities of static electricity, and that consequently the proximity
of a metal which, like platina for instance, is negative in its natural state of
equilibrium, influences the neighboring bodies, rendering them more positive,
and, in consequence, more apt to receive and retain positive electricity. From
this it results that two condensing plates, the one of gold, the other of platina,
influence one another; the platina renders the gold more apt to receive and
retain positive electricity, and the gold renders the platina more apt to receive
from it negative electricity. If these two plates be placed in contact they take
reciprocally that electricity for which they have most aptitude.

We must not confound this peculiar property of the metals with the electro-
motive force of Volta. Contact is here of no account, for the same results are
obtained without contact, only in this case the results are somewhat lessened by
the distance.

After having verified these facts, Peltier expressed them in the most general
manner, by saying that the metals have different capacities for collecting the
same static electricity from a constant source. But it was impossible for him to
arrive at the cause of this difference. Since that time, the researches of M. de
la Rive, and especially those of M. Edmond Becquerel, would seem to have suf-
ficiently elucidated the problem. These two savants have demonstrated in effect
that the metals least liable to be tarnished are yet, in reality, oxidized in the
open air; but very slowly and very slightly, which had theretofore prevented
the physicists from perceiving it. The quantity of platina oxidized is unques-
tionably very minute, but the experiments of Faraday, of Peltier, and of Bec-
querel have proved that it needs but the oxidation of an almost imperceptible
quantity of metal to produce considerable quantities of static electricity; if,
therefore, platina is always naturally negative in relation to gold, it is because
it oxidizes to a greater degree; if it is also negative in relation to zine, this is
referable to the fact that the zinc employed is always covered with a coat of
oxide which preserves the metal from all ulterior alteration.

Modifications in the torsion balance.—For a long time there was nothing avail-
able for the purpose of indicating the tension of static electricity, except the
gold-leaf electrometer and the torsion balance. ‘The former instrument possesses
great sensibility, but unfortunately does not afford a measure; the latter, on the
contrary, gives exact measures, but has not the sensibility requisite for delicate
experiments; it has besides some serious defects. Peltier adapted to the torsion
balance modifications which eliminated these defects, and designed, besides, an
electrometer which unites the precision and measurement of the torsion balance
with the sensibility of the best gold-leaf electroscopes. We shall speak in suc-
cession of the torsion balance, as modified by Peltier, and of his electrometer.

The torsion balance, as it was employed by Coulomb, had the inconvenience
of not maintaining in electric equilibrium the two balls between which the elec-
tricity under experiment is distributed. When one of the two loses more than
the other, whether by reason of its own asperities or that of the neighboring
bodies, the humidity of the air and the imperfect insulation of the supports
which is the consequence thereof, or through whatsoever other accidental cause,
there results an inequality of action, of which the resultant is no longer the
expression of the repulsive quantities alone; for as soon as the inequality of
charge supervenes, the action becomes complicated from the repulsion of the
similar electricities, and from the attraction produced by the excess of one of
the balls over the contrary electricity of the other ball, which the former devel-
opes by influence.

With a view to avoid these causes of error, Conlomb took infinite precautions

180 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

to assure himself that during the whole time of the experiment the total loss
should be very small, and consequently the difference still smaller. When the
experiment, however, lasts a long time, and in damp weather, we cannot neglect
this difference in the electric state of the balls, since it involves a considerable
one in the results. On the other hand, there are many experiments in which it
is proposed to measure the successive addition or subtraction of the electric
forces, which cannot be done with an instrument of which the active parts are
insulated one from the other.

Peltier corrected these defects by applying to the torsion balance two import-
ant modifications. In the first place he established a permanent communication
between the movable disk and the fixed ball; secondly, he soldered this last to
a metallic rod which projects laterally, and which, after having left the ball, is
bent vertically in order to receive the condensing plates or any other apparatus.
The following is briefly a description of this instrument:

The torsion balance as modified by Peltier presents at its upper part a micro-
meter, like that of Conlomb’s balance. A cocoon thread, devoid of torsion, is
attached to the windlass of this micrometer by its upper extremity, and bears at
its lower end a metallic needle, terminated on one hand by a proof plane, and
on the other by a balance weight of gum-lac. ‘The needle has on its lower face,
and in the line of prolongation of the cocoon thread, a point of platina descending
vertically. This point is immersed in a capsule of glass, into which has been
previously introduced diluted sulphuric acid. 'The capsule is carefully surrounded
with resin, and rests on a plate of copper. ‘This plate may be raised or lower by
means of a bent lever, whose leg is situated without and passes underneath the
footstand of the instrument. The fixed ball, as has been already said, is sol-
dered to a copper rod which projects laterally through the glass case which
covers the instrument, and then rises vertically, so as to receive the condensing
plates or other apparatus. A fine wire proceeds from the rod which supports
the fixed ball, and directs itself towards the capsule filled with sulphuric acid ;
having reached this capsule the wire is bent at a right angle, and descends into
the acid. When the instrument is to be used the capsule is elevated by means
of the bent lever; when the experiment is finished it is lowered, and the point of
platina and the wire are no longer immersed in the acid.

Peltier placed, moreover, two graduated circles, one on ‘the footstand of the
instrument, and the other on the upper plane of the casing. These two circles
correspond; consequently, if the visual ray is made to pass by the same degrees
in the two circles, the deviation of the needle may be read without the possi-
bility of error.

Those who are a little conversant with electricity will readily comprehend the
object and advantages of the arrangements here indicated. By means of these
modifications, in effect, the tension remains perfectly equal between the fixed
ball and the proof plane, even when the experiments last some time, or when the
electricity which is to be measured is either augmented or diminished.

Electrometer.—We pass now to a description of the electrometer of Peltier.*
On a socle or footstand, three decimetres in diameter, is pasted a dial-plate of
pasteboard, graduated to 360 degrees; at five centimetres above the centre of
this dial is the extremity of a rod of copper having a section of seven ntillime-
tres. This rod is slightly curved, and bends back almost at a right angle when it
arrives above the zero. It then penetrates vertically into the footstand from which
it is insulated by resin; it is there again bent round so as to proceed laterally;
then, at a distance of a few centimetres, it rises vertically to receive the plates
of Volta or any other apparatus. On the inner extremity of this rod, just above
the centre of the dial, is soldered a small plate of tempered steel, polished and
slightly concave.

* Annales de Chimie et de Physique, t. 62, p. 422.

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER, 181

This concave surface is destined to receive the pivot of a needle formed of a
very fine copper wire. The needle is a decimetre in length, and is thus equal to
the radius of the dial. Its pivot is soldered to its posterior part ; consequently
it must be maintained in equilibrium by a small counterpoise of gum-lac. The
pivot is of tempered steel, and terminated by as fine a point as possible. The
copper wire which forms the needle is slightly curved, in order that its greatest
portion in length may be placed in contact’ with the rod, and receive from it a
greater influence. To give a direction to it we place at the centre, forming one
body with this rod and with the pivot, a very small wire of tempered steel, very
feebly magnetized, to which is imparted only the quantity of magnetism rigor-
ously necessary to draw the large needle near the horizontal rod.

To obtain the maximum of sensibility, it is necessary that the movable needle
should not be of steel; for however little magnetism might be given it or be
received by it, whether from its position in the magnetic meridian, or through
oxidation, it would act on the particles of iron contained in all the coppers of
commerce, and thus alter the great sensibility of this instrument.

The electrometer is covered with a glass cylinder, the upper flat surface of
which presents another graduated circle, corresponding to the lower circle. In
this way the visual ray passes by the same degrees in the two circles, and thus
no error of parallax is to be apprehended.

Peltier had further added a movable armature. ‘This was a plate of copper,
of the length of the needle, and placed at the same height. It was worked by
means of a horizontal lever, situated below the foot-stand. This armature con-
siderably augmented the sensibility of the instrument; unfortunately it some-
what embarrassed the phenomena, and the instrument lost in point of exactness;
hence Peltier seldom employed it.

The manner of using this electrometer is very simple. The apparatus is
placed in the magnetic meridian, so that the needle may touch lightly the fixed
Tod. Ube instrument being thus adjusted, we touch the exterior ball or the
; plate with the body char wed with the electricity which we wish to measure, and
‘immediately the needle deviates by a certain number of degrees, which may be
read on the dial. Thus we have results perfectly comparable; the fixed rod and
the movable needle, always in metallic contact, maintain infallibly an equilibrium
of electricity.

However light the indicating needles, their weight occasions a slight friction
on the concave plane which supports the pivot. ‘This friction gives to the instru-
ment a small resistance which prevents it from obeying at the instant, when
very weak quantities of electricity are either added or withdrawn. To overcome
this resistance, it is sufficient in general to strike lightly on the table which
supports the electrometer.

For those who have an electrometer, but no torsion balance, it is necessary
that the electrometer should be capable of being transformed at will to a torsion
balance. Peltier added, therefore, to his electrometer different pieces, with a
view of rendering this transformation possible and easy. The pieces are the
following: 1°. A gallows formed of a foot of copper or ivory, screwed in the
pedestal; of a vertical staff of glass, 25 centimetres in length, and of a hori-
zontal bridge of copper, the free extremity of which corresponds exactly to the
centre of the dial-plate. 2°. An apparatus destined to carry the wire and pos-
sessing two very ee movements—one horizontal and circular, the other ver-
tical and rectilinear. A silver wire of the utmost fineness, terminated at its
lower extremity by a eal cylinder of gum-lac, having beneath it two small
copper hooks designed to carry the needle.

In order to transform the electrometer into a torsion balance, it is enough to
lower the wire by means of the vertical and rectilinear movement above “indi-
cated, to seize the needle with the two hooks, and again sufficiently raise the
whole ; by this means, in effect, the indicating needle, instead of being sup-

182 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

ported by the point of the pivot resting in the steel cup, is suspended by the
silver wire, without being, however, in metallic contact with it, since it is sepa-
rated from it by the small cylinder ‘of gum-lac.

When these ‘changes have been made, the electrometer has become a torsion
balance; only, if we wish to use it as such, it is necessary to withdraw from
the indicating needle the small wire of magnetized steel, or still better, to have
a spare needle for exchange. There remains but one other condition to fulfil in
order that the torsion balance shonld be completely prepared ; that is, to estab-
lish the communication between the needle and the capsule, though with the
exclusion of all friction.

In the torsion balances, Peltier employs acidulated water, because the point
which descends into the liquid is of platina; but here, as the point is a pivot of
steel, even pure water cannot be used, much less acidulated water, for the pivot
would be soon oxidized. Doubtless this communication might be established
by means of mercury poured into the little cup; but this metal is too resistant,
and detracts much from the sensibility of the instrument. There is, besides, an
inconvenience in using it; its resistance prevents the needle from placing itself
perfectly at its centre of gravity; whence it results that the suspending wire,
instead of being vertical, has a slight inclination, and consequently the needle
has a tendency to fall to one side. The liquid which suits best is a solution of
potash, for this preserves unimpaired the polish of iron and steel, and suttices as
a conductor for the electricity of tension between two bodies in such close prox-
imity as the steel cup and its pivot.

At first Peltier had given to his electrometer dimensions somewhat large. It
was then, in effect, a cabinet instrament; but afterwards, when he occupied him-
self with meteorolog gy, he perceived the necessity of reducing these dimensions,
in order to render it more manageable and portable ; he therefore constructed
an electrometer of small size and very nearly conformed to the proportions of
an ordinary electroscope. This instrument has been also adjusted to the use for
which it was to serve. The fixed rod no longer communicates outside laterally
and by the foot-stand; its interior extremity, that which is above the centre of
the dial, is curved from below upwards, and issues from the casing by its upper
vel it is then prolonged vertically for two decimetres, and is surmounted by

a hollow metallic ball, eight centimetres in diameter. This is the atmospheric
Bleniatinetee of Peltier.

We must not quit this subject without mentioning that these electrometers all
require that a table giving the ratio of the forces to the are of deviation should
be constructed for each of them. It is the same, in effect, with electrometers
as with galvanometers: their angular deviation is not proportional to the forces.

III.—DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY.—VOLTAIC PILE.

Of the pile of Volta and the theory of contact—The most usual source of
dynamic electricity is the pile of Volta. This is one of the most admirable
instruments with which the genius of man has enriched science, and numerous
physicists have occupied themselves with its theory.

Volta supposed that at the contact of two heterogeneous metals, there is a
force which constantly decomposes their natural elec tricity ; that this force pro-
jects on the one side positive and on the other negative ‘electricity ; ; that the
interposed liquid serves only as a conductor to allow the recombination in the
neutral fluid of the two opposite currents. It was this decomposing power
placed at the contact of the metals that he called the electro-motive force. This
theory has received the name of the theory of contact.

According to this theory, the liquid acts but as a conductor; an experiment
of Davy’s, however, soon evinced the inexactness of this assertion. After hay-
ing constracted a battery of cups, of copper and iron, Davy first poured pure

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 183

water in the jars; the iron became positively electrified, and was oxidized; the
copper, on the contrary, was negatively electrified, and disengaged hydrogen.
In a second experiment, in place of pure water, Davy poured into the jars sul-
phur of potassium; immediately the iron became negative, and disengaged
hydrogen, while the copper became positive, and was oxidized. The poles of
the pile were therefore inverted, and the direction of the current had been
changed with the nature of the liquid body interposed.

Experiment of Peltier, proving that there is no electro-motive force on the con-
tact of the two metals—We are also indebted to Peltier for an experiment which
completely overthrows the theory of Volta, and which proves, in the most posi-
tive manner, that there is not an electro-motive force at the contact of the two
elements of zine and copper. As this experiment is of the highest importance
for the theory of the pile, we shall report it with some details.*

We plunge in two separate vases, well insulated and filled with the same
liquid, the extremities of a pair, zinc and copper. We first immerse the end of
a wire of platina din the vase A which has received the zinc, and the other end
of the wire communicates with
the ground. By means of an-
other wire of platina e, which
is kept insulated by a sleeve
of gum-lac jf, we successively
put in communication the zine,
the copper, and the liquid of
the vase B which has received
the copper, with one of the con-
densing plates g of an electro-
meterh. Agreeably to this ar-
rangement, the liquid cannot possess free electricity, since it communicates with
the ground, and the zinc can as little possess it, since the electro-motive force,
according to the theory, results from the contact of the zinc and copper. — It is not
thus that the distribution is effected : the liquid of the vase A is neutral, but the
zine, the copper, and the liquid B, are negative in the same degree. We place
now the end d of the platina wire, communicating with the ground, in the vase
B, and interrogate, in the same manner, by means of the insulated platina wire e,
the copper, the zinc, and the liquid of the vase A, which is then insulated. ‘The
liquid of B is necessarily neutral, as well as the copper which is plunged in it,
but the same is the case with the zinc, which is also neutral; the water of the
vase A alone is positive.

This experiment demonstrates that the electricity of a zine and copper pair is
not produced, as Volta thought, by the contact of the two metals; it proves,
moreover, that it is produced on the contact between the acidulated liquid A
and the portion of zine which is immersed. _ There could be, then, no longer any
doubt about the error of Volta; for, on his theory, the zinc and copper would
be in different electric states, and this experiment proves, on the contrary, that
they are both one and the other in the same state.

Since the electricity proceeds, not from the contact between the two heteroge-
neous metals, and is produced on the surface of the zine moistened by the acid-
ulated liquid—on the surface which the acidulated liquid attacks chemically—
everything tends to the conclusion that it is the chemical action itself which pro-
duces the electricity. This opinion, proposed for the first time in 1801 by Par-
rot, supported by the experiments of Febroni, Wollaston, Faraday, and Becquerel,
was again considered, in 1828, by M. de la Rive, to whom pertains the honor of hav-
ing first made known, in a clear and satisfactory manner, the true theory of the pile.

Chemical theory of the pile, by dela Rive—According to this distinguished

* Peltier, Essai sur la co-ordination des causes des phenoménas électriques Memoir of for-
eign savants of the Academy of Sciences of Brussels, vol. 19, p. 34 of the memoir, note.

184 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

physicist, the origin of the electricity of the pile of Volta is the chemical action
which takes place between the acidulated liquid and the zinc. The negative
electricity diffuses itself over the metal attacked, the positive electricity diffuses
itself in the acidulated liquid. ‘These electricities are afterwards neutralized,
each on its side, with the opposite electricities of the adjacent pairs, and the
same fact reappears as far as the two extremities of the pile, which alone are in
possession of free electricity. In a well-constructed pile, according to M. de la
Rive, there is a neutralization of all the intermediate electricities; all the nega-
tive portions are neutralized by equal positive portions, proceeding from the
pairs in juxtaposition ; there are none free but the electricities of the two extreme
elements, and these polar electricities have, in order to become neutralized, only
the are interposed between them or a return by the pile.

From this it is evident that the quantity of electricity found at the poles of a
battery is independent of the number of pairs, and that the number of pairs
must only augment the difficulty of recomposition backwards; that is to say,
must augment the tendency of the electricity to combine forwards. But in phys-
ics it is not enough to advance a theory more or less satisfactory : it is necessary to
demonstrate it ; it is necessary to prove the reality by numerous and positive experi-
ments which can leave no doubt or uncertainty ; it is necessary, in a word, to antici-
pate all objections and answer them in advance. 'Thisis what Peltier has done.*

Swnmary of Peltier’s researches on the Voltaic pile—According to Peltier, in
a current there are two very different things to be distinguished: the quantity
and the intensity. The quantity is the number of electric perturbations which
traverse a conductor in a unit of time. The intensity is the power which a cur-
rent possesses of overcoming the resistance of the conductors presented to it.

Peltier, to whom we are indebted for having clearly established this distine-
tion, has demonstrated by multiplied experiments that in a battery the quantity
of electricity produced is in a ratio with the number of molecules pertaining to
one and the same surface, and undergoing a change in their equilibrium; but
that, in the estimate of the quantity of electricity which passes by the conduct-
ors in the state of a current, it is necessary to regard the resistance of these
conductors, because these resistances almost always cause a portion of the quan-
tity of electricity produced to be in return neutralized. He has shown that
when the resistance of the conductors is null, the quantity of electricity which
passes by the closed circuit is proportional to the quantity of molecules attacked
on the same surface.

He has proved that when a battery is well constructed and the circuit without
resistance, the entire pile gives no more electricity than a single one of its pairs ;
consequently that when it is desirable to have a current of quantity, it is neces-
sary to use a battery with pairs of large dimensions.

It was generally thought that in a battery, when one pair was smaller than
the others, this small pair decided the quantity of the whole current. Peltier
proved that this opinion was not wholly exact. No doubt this small pair dimin-
ishes the quantity of the current. In consequence of its resistance, which is greater
by reason of its very littleness, it forces a portion of the electricity which reaches
it to recombine behind it, but it gives passage as a simple conductor to the rest.

By means of positive experiments, Peltier has demonstrated that the intensity
of a cwrent, that is to say, the power it possesses of overcoming obstacles, is
only due to the greater obstacles situated behind to prevent retrogradation of
the two polar electricities by the battery. Now, these obstacles may be of two
sorts: they may proceed from the reduplication in a battery of the same pairs,
or else from a more profound alteration in the state of equilibrium of the mole-
cules. In the first case, the intensity is proportional to the number of pairs; in
the second, it depends on the power of action of the disturbing substance.

*See Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1836, t. 63, p. 245: the note of Peltier entitled
‘“‘ Definition of the words electric quantity and intensity, drawn from direct experiments.”

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 185

Peltier has also proved that a current endowed with a great intensity is iden-
tical with a current which possesses but a feeble one, and that these currents of
great and feeble intensity produce the same effects on bodies when they traverse
them in equal quantities. He has established, by two series of new experiments,
the one dynamic, the other static, that in a battery well constructed there is a
neutralization of all the intermediate electricities ; that all the negative portions
are neutralized by equal positive portions proceeding from the pairs in front of
them, and that there are no free electricities but those of the extreme elements,
which, to become neutralized, have only the are interposed between them, or a
return by the battery. Finally, he proved that it was always by its quantity
that a current acted, but on the condition of being accompanied by a sufficient
intensity ; for, without this intensity, the current could not pass in suitable quan-
tity to produce action; the resistance of the conductors would oppose itself to
that action.

We proceed now to indicate the chief experiments by means of which Peltier
has demonstrated the principles above stated. ‘These experiments are almost
all derived from the memoir of Peltier, already cited, on the electric quantity
and intensity.

Experiments of Peltier relative to the quantity and intensity of a current.—
If we take a voltaic pair consisting of two fine wires, zine and copper, immerse it in
common water, and complete the circuit by a copper wire of the length of 300
metres, there is a continuous current in this closed circuit. If this wire be pre-
sented above a magnetized needle, the needle will not be deflected from its posi-
tion of equilibrium in the magnetic meridian; the action of the current will not
be powerful enongh to overcome the influence of the terrestrial magnetism.
But if this needle be surrounded with 100 or 200 coils of the long wire, there
will be at once a notable deviation ; if the number of coils be increased to 2,000,
the deviation will extend as far as 60 degrees.

In this experiment, the primitive current has not’ been changed or altered.
We have only produced a factitious quantity by conducting it 2,000 times around
a magnetized needle, so that it may act as the primitive quantity multiplied by
2,000. It is very evident in this experiment that it is by the quantity that the
power of action has been enhanced, and not by some other modification, It is,
therefore, through its quantity that a current acts on the magnetized needle.

If, now, we take a thermo-electric pair, zinc and copper of five square milime-
tres, heat one of the solderings to 40 degrees, and complete the cireuit by the
sort of multiplier which we had previously formed, the needle will be not at all
deflected; the electricity will not pass. But if we retrench 1,800 coils and
shorten the conductor to this extent, the multiplier, now reduced to 200 coils,
will begin to give notable deviations. If we reduce it to 10 coils, the deviation
will be considerably augmented. If, in fine, we reduce it to a single coil,
formed of a sirip of copper containing as much substance as the 2,000 coils, the
deviation may proceed even to 60 degrees.

The quantity of electricity produced in this experiment by the thermo-electric
pair is evidently 2,000 times greater than that of the above hydro-electric pair,
since we obtain the same deviation with a single coil as with the factitious quan-
tity given by the reduplication of the coils. Nor is this all: in the first experi-
ment the length of the conducting wire was easily traversed by the hydro-
electric current; the inertia of the matter was overcome without difficulty and
without appreciable loss of the current. In the second experiment this inertia
could not be overcome; the power cf action was insufficient, and it was neces-
sary to reduce the circuit to a very small length for the electricity to be able to
traverse it. There are two quite distinct conditions, then, which we must not
confound: to act by the quantity, or to overcome the ‘resistance of tle conduct-
ors by a power independent of the quantity, and which Peltier called dtensity,
reserving the name of tension for static electricity.

186 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

To throw better light on the nature of these phenomena, Peltier varied the
experiments. He formed a quintuple helix of 240 coils; in other words, on a
helix of 240 coils he superposed a second in all respects similar, but insulated
from the first, then a third, a fourth, and finally a fifth. This quintuple helix
was so constructed that the homologous ends might be united and then form
but one helix of 240 coils, having five times more of substance; they might
also be united in a battery, that is to say the end of the first might be jomed
to the beginning of the second, the end of the second to the beginning of the
third, &c.; forming thus a helix of 1,200 coils, being a helix five times longer,
but having five times less substance than each spire.

When a magnetized bar is placed in this apparatus to produce a current of
induction, results exactly inverse are obtained according as one or the other
of these last arrangements is employed. Suppose that we unite the helices by
their homologous ends, and that we have taken a rheometer of a single coil,
the deviation will increase as the number of helices united by their homologous
ends; that is to say, as the quantity of substance modified. Thus, assuming
that with one helix we have 5° of deviation, with two we shall have 10°, with
three 15°, and proportionally with five 25°. If we replace the galvanometer
of one coil by a multiplier of 2,000 coils, we shall have 35° of deviation with
a single helix. But we obtain no more by employing two, three, four, or five
helices, still supposed to be united by their homologous ends.

Suppose now that in place of uniting the five helices by their homologous
ends, we unite them in a battery, and that we make use of the rheometer of
one coil; we shall have 5° of deviation with a single helix, and we shall obtain
no more with two, three, four, or five helices united in battery. On the other
hand, suppose that we employ the rheometer of 2,000 coils, the deviation of the
needle will go on increasing in proportion as we augment the number of helices,
and it will attain its maximum or 90° after the fourth.

Thus we see there is complete opposition between the results, the reason of
which is simple: with a rheometer of a single coil, the resistance of the con-
ductor may be considered as null. When the helices are united by their homo-
logous ends, the quantivy of substance altered is augmented, and consequently
the quantity of electricity produced. Now, as the conductor offers no resist-
ance, this constantly increasing quantity of electricity passes without difficulty
and gradually augments the angular deviation of the needle. On the contrary,
when we take a rheometer of 2,000 coils, the resistance of the conductor is
great, the quantity of electricity produced is in vain augmented ; no more of it
passes, it returns backward and is neutralized by the electromoter itself. ‘The
sole means of making more pass, is to unite the helices im battery ; then, in
effect, we augment the difficulties to the retrogradation of the two electricities,
and force them consequently to recombine in advancing, Peltier formed still
another multiple helix, of which the wires were of different and proportioned
magnitudes. ‘The result was still that the quantity was given by the mass, and
the intensity by the reduplication of the spires. He repeated the same experj-
ments with thermo-electric and with hydro-electric pairs. ‘These gave analo-
gous results; the quantity depended on the quantity of matter altered in each
element, and the intensity on the number of interposed pairs undergoing the
same alterations. We shall content ourselves with speaking of the results
yielded by the hydro-electric pairs.

In one experiment, five square centimetres of a voltaic pair, immersed in
acidulated water, gave two proportional degrees :

10 square centimetres gave .......-..---.----- wh cae Sid ste tee <i Gon
15 square centimetres gave ...-..--- he wads oe cite ee eae eee 60°
20 square centimetres gave ...-.....---------- wie hone cased aes 80°

In this experiment the conductor was short and very large, consequently the
resistance might be considered as null; on repeating the same experiments with

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 187

a battery of six pairs of the same dimensions, the same results were obtained,
and not a degree more.

If, on the contrary, the interposed are conducts feebly, the angular deviation
is no longer proportional to the surface immersed In another series of experi-
ments, Peltier caused a current to pass into a trough full of water, in which he
could interpose, at pleasure, diaphragms of platina, and he reached the follow-

ing results :

Number of pairs in action. 0 diaphragm. 1 diaphragm. 2 diaphragms, 3 diaphragms.

Degrees. Forces. | Degrees. Forces. | Degrees. Forces. | Degrees. Forces.

Ul orisSecconeocneobte eooosecr een 5 5 3 3 2 2 1 1
2a SioaSnennbcce SSE aCOEBE 40 102 21 21.2 14 14 12 12
Bisboeescdeccoconooreeossserene 60 391 32 48.5 24 20. 20 20
Geneon dnose coeosiacecoesdeae' 65 519 42 123 32 18.5 26 28
Rb me cOne sogeetbophosaséccsdlensasuesosdeceonas 50 228 40 105 31 44
Me esto sec gunenesost obo abood| |bopagpasoasorosdes 55 302 45 160 39 64

The galvanometer employed in this experiment was an instrument of 430 coils.

The inspection of this table suffices to remove all doubts: as long as there
was no diaphragm, two pairs were suflicient to give 40 degrees of g oalvanometric
deviation, equivalent to 102 of force; when there were two diaphragms, five
pairs were needed to arrive at the same angular deviation. When there was
one diaphragm, three pairs gave 32°=48.5 of forces; with two diaphragms
there was but 24°=25 ; to regain the 32° it was necessary to employ four pairs.
With three diaphr agms there resulted for three pairs only 20°=20; for four
pairs only 26° =28. To regain or nearly regain the 320=48.5, it was neces-
sary to employ five pairs. In effect, by taking three pairs, there resulted, with
one diaphragm, 32°=48.5, with two diaphragms 24°=25, with three dia-
phragms 20°=20. Thus the quantity of the current continued diminishing in
proportion as the resistance of the conductor augmented. Further, to regain that
quantity, it sufficed to increase the number of pairs; then, indeed, the resistance
of the conductor was overcome and the same quantity of electricity passed anew,

The inspection of this table proves, therefore, that to have the same number
of degrees after a different number of alternatives, it is necessary to modify the
electric source, and that the same deviation can never be reproduced after the
addition of a diaphragm, if the number of pairs be not augmented. The table
shows, also, that the loss of the current is so much less as the current has
already traversed a greater number of diaphragms. Thus, we find in the second
line for two pairs 102 , 2.2, 14, and.12... The first diaphragm, eo has
caused the current to lose 4 4 of its quantity ; the second, 3; the third, +. It is
not, as has been said, that the electricity, better sifted, passes more easily
through the new obstacles opposed to it ; the electricity has not changed its
nature, but it is that after having traversed, say two diaphragms, if a third be
presented to it, it has, in order to retrograde, to surmount anew the resistance
of the first two diaphragms ; it is no longer simply the obstacle of the battery
which opposes itself to its equilibration in returning, there are besides the two
diaphragms which it has already passed. From this it results that the more
diaphragms the current has traversed, the more resistance it finds in its return,
and the less loss it sustains consequently by the interposition of another dia-
phragm.

From what precedes we shall readily comprehend the gravity of the error
committed by physicists, and especially by the German physicists, who, in their
experiments on currents, in general only consider the current itself, and take
little or no account of the electro-motor. A current, however, is not an ideal
existence which can be divorced from the source which vives rise to it.

Obm and Gauss have, in their formulas, recognized as a principle that metallic
threads oppose to the passage of electric currents a resistance always directly

188 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

proportional to their length, and inversely proportional to the surface of their
transverse section. It would be desirable, certainly, that this law might be
considered exact ; but unfortunately it is not so, for Peltier has demonstrated
that there are very great differences between the losses undergone by a current
which traverses different lengths of the same wire according to the kind of elec-
tro-motor employed ; according as we have to do with a hydro-electric pile, a
thermo-electric pile, or with electricity by induction. Further, for the same
electro-motor the results vary according to the greater or less power of the dis-
turbing action.* '

Reply of Peltier to an objection made to the chemical theory of the voltaic pile.—
The partisans of the theory of contact had often objected that it is not always
the bodies most strongly attacked which give most electricity. How, said they,
should chemical action be the cause of currents, when we obtain by the least
oxidation of zinc in pure water a current superior to that given by copper
plunged in nitric acid, which devours it in a few instants? Peltier has supplied
the explanation of this apparent anomaly.t

To have full (nombreux) currents, it is not only necessary that there should-
be much electricity produced, but, moreover, that the two electricities should be
collected, each separately, at the moment of their production ; this takes place
with the zinc, but does not take place with the copper. When an acid attacks
and oxidizes the zinc, that oxide remains adherent to the metallic plate; the
negative electricity can therefore easily diffuse itself over this last. On the
contrary, when the acid attacks copper, the resulting oxide does not remain
adherent to the metal; it falls into the acidulated liquid, leaving the copper still
bright and clean. Of course, in this case, there must be a vast quantity of
electricity lost ; in effect, the chemical combination is no longer accomplished,
as in the preceding case, in contact with a good conductor ;_ it ‘takes place in the
midst of an acidulated liquid ; it hence results that the negative electricity is
recombined, in part at least, with the positive electricity which is present in the acid.

What has been said above explains the utility of the amalgamation of the
positive elements in batteries ; the combination of the oxygen “of the solution
not being capable of accomplishment except in the interstices of the mercury,
the electric phenomenon is enveloped by a conducting metal, and the resinous
electricity, thus collected from all parts, is propagated through the conductor to
become again neutralized with the vitreous electricity abandoned to the liquid.

TV.—CYANO-POLARIMETRY.

Peltier had occupied himself much with that branch of the physical sciences
which treats of light. It will be readily understood that, desiring to penetrate
as far as possible into a knowledge of the intimate structure of bodies, he would
not neglect the study of optics. 'There is, indeed, no science more useful or
necessary in this point of view, for there is none in which molecular actions and
influences are more distinctly defined; there is none of which the general theory
is so complete and satisfying. Independently of many other circumstances, this
is referable to a fact which has not perhaps been sufficiently remarked. For the
study of caloric, of electricity, of magnetism, there is always need of instru-
ments, and these instruments, products of our industry and ingenuity, are always
more or less awkward; we must have recourse to the thermometer, the galvan-
ometer, the different compasses of declination, inclination, &c. For light, on
the contrary, we need them not; the instrument has been conferred on us ready
made by nature, and is of an admirable sensibility: it is the eye. Peltier had
given, therefore, much attention to the phenomena of light and had perfectly

* Peltier: Communication to the Academy of Sciences on electric conductibility. Comptes
rendus, t. 1, pp. 203, 1835.

t See Comptes rendus of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, 1837, t. 4, p. Bay and the
Dictionnaire Univers. a’ Histoire Naturelle, article Galvanism.

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 189

mastered them; but he had experimented little, and all that remains to us of
his in this branch of physics is the improvement which he applied to the cyano-
polarimeter of Arago,

Every one knows how much the azure color of the sky varies with the quan-
tity and state of the vapors diffused in the atmosphere; every one knows also,
since the discovery of M. Arago and the researches of MM. Quetelet and Dele-
zeune, that the air polarizes light and that the intensity of this polarization is
not the same at all points of the sky, nor the same for the same point at all
hours. There was nothing, for a long time, wherewith to measure the variations
of the azure of the sky but the cyanometer of Saussure; for the cyanometer of
Arago, as designed by him in 1817, had never been realized. As to the polari-
zation of the atmosphere, there existed for its study only the polariscope of
Savart and that of Arago. But the cyanometer of Saussure is a very imperfect
instrument which can yield none but very uncertain results; as regards the
polariscopes of Savart and Arago, they are both, it is true, extremely sensitive,
but as they are destitute of the means of measurement, they could not serve for
exact observations. ;

In the sitting of 25th of October, 1841, Arago communicated to the Academy
of Sciences a polarimeter of his own invention. ‘This instrument was the
polariscope proposed by the same savant in 1811, but to which a particular
apparatus had been adapted. 'The polariscope of Arago becomes a polarimeter
by the sole addition of one or more plates of glass with parallel faces, placed
in front of the old instrument. These plates are movable. A graduated circle
indicates the inclination under which the light has traversed them, before pene-
trating into the polariscope, properly so called. The proportion of polarized
light contained in the pencil observed is deduced from the angle at which it is
necessary to adjust the plates of glass in order to perceive no longer any trace
of color athwart the whole apparatus.

In the sitting just mentioned, Arago had presented to the academy the instru-
ment as constructed and arranged by himself; at a succeeding session, Novem-
ber 15, he submitted to the inspection of the academy this same polarimeter
constructed upon his model, but executed by M. Soleil; this instrument is known
as the cyano-polarimeter of Arago. Capable of serving at once as a cyanometer
and polarimetey, it was, beyond doubt, greatly superior to the instruments pre-
viously in use for studying the variations of the blue color of the sky and the
differences in the quantity of light polarized by the atmosphere; yet was it not
without defects: first, as concerns cyanometry, it wanted several important
means of measurement; then, as regards polarimetry, it could in reality render
service in only two rectangular planes: in the plane, namely, of the meridian,
and in that of the equator of the aerial sphere, of which the sun is one of the
poles, and the anti-sun the other pole; outside of these two planes, it could be
of no utility. Peltier applied himself to correct these defects, and completely
succeeded in doing so.

Optical principles of cyanometry.—If we take a crystal having a single axis
of double refraction, such as Iceland-spar, the beryl, &c., and cut from its mass
a slip of which the two faces shall be exactly perpendicular to that axis, and
if we then cause a ray of polarized white light to fall perpendicularly on this
slip, so that it shall traverse the crystal exactly in the direction of its axis, the
ray will undergo modification. If we now analyze it on its emergence with an
achromatic double-refracting prism, taking care to place the principal section of
this prism in the plane itself of the polarization of the ray, the ordinary image
contains the entire ray; that is to say, the complimentary tints are black and
white, and there is no coloration. Quartz, however, forms an exception to this
rule. When, in effect, a ray of polarized white light is made to pass through a
lamina of quartz (rock crystal) cut perpendicularly to the axis, and this ray, as
in the previous case, exactly follows the direction of the axis, if we in like man-

190 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

ner analyze it at its emergence with an achromatic double-refracting prism, we
shall see two images always colored and presenting complementary colors which
change when the bi-refracting prism ismade to revolve. 'The reason of this
difference is the following:

A ray of white light polarized is a ray of which all the constituent colored

rays have vibrations which are always executed in the same plane. Now, if
such a ray be made to pass through a crystal witha single axis, the planes ‘of
polarization of these different rays are not modified. The colored rays issue
from it as they had entered, and consequently the bi-refracting prism employed
to study the white ray at its emergence can produce no other phenomena than
those which it produces with all ordinary polarized rays.

It is not the same when quartz is employed. This mineral, in effect, has the
property of deflecting the plane of polarization of the different-colored rays
constituting the polarized white ray. The lamina of quartz turns these different
planes around its axis, so that the planes might be said to follow a spiral situated
within the crystal; the plane of polarization of the red ray is the least deflected,
being that which makes the smallest angle with the primitive plane of polariza-
tion; on the contrary, the plane of polarization of the violet ray is most deflected,
being that which makes the greatest angle with the above definitive plane. It
is thus seen that in the deflection of their planes of polarization, the rays follow
the order of their respective refrangibilities, beginning with the least refrangible.
When, therefore, the polarized white ray issues from the lamina of quartz, the
colored rays which constitute it have each their plane of special polarization—
have each particular and different planes in which their vibrations are performed.
When we proceed, then, to analyze such a ray with an achromatic double-refract-
ing prism, the colors are distributed in unequal proportions among the ordinary
and extraordinar y pencils, which consequently produce colored and ‘complimentar 'y
images.

The planes of polarization of the colored rays which have traversed the axis
of a lamina of quartz deviate from their primitive position by a quantity propor-
tional to the thickness of the lamina. ‘They exhibit a double angular deviation
for a double thickness, and, at the moment of their emergence they present pre-
cisely the position in which they would occur if they had been made to turn
uniformly in the same direction around the axis during their transit through the
lamina. From this it will be seen, that by giving to the lamina of quartz a
sufficient thickness, the primitive plane of polarization of a ray might be made
to turn even several semi-circumferences. This shows that there isa fundamental
difference between the action of the quartz on a polarized white ray, and that of
a prism of glass on a ray of natural light; it is, in effect, that the first is a molec-
ular action, while the second is due only to the difference of refractive power of
the surfaces.

By giving a suitable thickness to the lamina of quartz, we may obtain, there-
fore, such a tint as is desired for a given position of the principal section of the
prism. M. Arago has, with reason, chosen the thickness which gives a pure
blue of the second order in the ordinary image; this thickness is in general from
six to seven millimetres.

It results from what has been said, that the intensity of the blue color in the
ordinary ray depends upon the perfection of the polarization of the ray which
falls on the lamina of quartz, on the thickness of that lamina, and on the posi-
tion of the bi-refracting prism. For a constant thickness of the lamina and an
equally constant position of the bi-refracting prism, the intensity of the color
can, therefore, only depend on the greater or less perfection in the polarization
of the incident ray; in other words, on the relative polarization of that ray.
Now, when the pile of glasses in the cyano-polarimeter is perpendicular to the
incident ray, the polarization is null, and consequently the coloration is equally
null. The more the pile is inclined and the incidence of the ray oblique, the

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 191

more perfect is the polarization and the more intense the blue color of the ordinary
ray. Fora pile of eight glasses, the polarization may be considered as perfect
when the ray of light: reaches it under an incidence of 10 degrees; it is at that
point, therefore, that we should have the most intense blue, and it is evidently
this angle which might serve as a point of departure, were it not for the cireum-
stance which I am about to mention. The pile of glasses transmits, in effect,
only a part more or less considerable of the incident light, and reflects the rest.
Now, when the incidence of the ray is too oblique, the quantity of reflected
light is so much augmented that more is lost in vivacity of color by the reflec-
tion, than is gained by the perfection of the polarization. There is, therefore,
an angle at which the polarized ray gives a maximum of the image; that point
passed, the ray still gains in polarization, but loses considerably in brightness.
It is thought by most authors that this maximum is obtained when the pile of
glasses makes with a perpendicular to the ray an angle of 55°; in other words,
when the ray reaches the pile under an incidence of 35°* It is in fact under
this angle that we obtain the maximum of absolute, but not of relative polari-
zation.

This is the angle also that Peltier has taken as being that which gives the
maximum blue. I confess, however, that it has appeared to me that we should
still gain by continuing to incline the pile. We lose, it is true, a little in light,
but to me it has seemed that the blue tint became more pronounced. I think
that the angle which gives the maximum of coloration is rather between 25° and
30° than at 35°; it may be, however, that this would vary according to the indi-
vidual.

Optical principles of polarimetry.—W e now pass to polarimetry. In researches
on this subject, the observer is always supposed at the centre of a sphere of
which the sun is one of the poles and the anti-sun the other. This sphere has
its meridian and its equator, endowed with the properties which characterize
those great circles.

We will suppose, then, the axis of the objective tube to be in the plane of
the meridian, the pile also, and moreover rectangular with the incident ray; we
will suppose, in fine, that the index of the ocular points to the zero of the
graduated circle. If now, by means of the vertical joint, the objective tube be
carried successively to all points of the meridian of the optical sphere which we
are considering, the following is what we observe: the rays proceeding directly
from the sun and those little distant from them give no signs of polarization,
and consequently no coloration in the images, but in proportion as the angle of
the radius vector with the direct rays of the sun is enlar ced, the signs of polar-
ization supervene and coloration makes its appearance. ‘The extraordinary
image takes the blue color, and the ordinary image assumes the orange-yellow
complementary tint.

The intensity of the tints increases up to about 90°, that is to say, to about
the point of intersection of the meridian and equator; thence it decreases till
about 150°. ‘This number attained, we find the neutral point for whose discov-
ery we are indebted to M. Arago. Beyond this, polarization is again reproduced,
but in an opposite direction; that is, the plane of polarization of these new
polarized rays is perpendicular to the plane of polarization of the preceding;
consequently it is no longer the extraordinary image which is colored blue; it is
the ordinary image.

This singular change in the plane of polarization of the reflected rays results
from the circumstance that that portion of the sky no longer reflects the rays
proceeding directly from the sun in so great quantity as “the rays proceeding
from the different illuminated points at the horizon. Consequently the neutral
of M. Arago evidently results from the union of equal rays polarized rectangu-

* Peclet, Traité de Physique, § 1439, p. 447.

192 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

larly, for such rays conduct themselves like the rays of natural light. M. Arago
has remarked, moreover, that this point does not always correspond to the ver-
tical plane passing by the sun, but that it is sometimes found diverted to the
right or to the left, when the reflection is altered in one of the reflecting sectors,
whether this alteration proceeds from the presence of clouds, or from that of
diffused vapors, or from the neighborhood of a mountain, &c.

We will not enter into further details on this subject; it may suffice to direct
the reader’s attention to the origimal researches of M. Arago, as well as to those
of MM. Quetelet and Delezenne.* It may be stated, however, that a second
neutral point has been found by M. Babinet, about 30° above the setting sun,
and a third by Mr. Brewster, below the setting sun; but these two neutral points
are rather difficult to be observed. All these neutral points, it may be added,
exist only in the meridian or in the great circles but slightly remote from it.

We have supposed that the pile was placed in the plane of the meridian, and
that it presented itself perpendicularly to the incident ray. If during the move-
ment communicated to the eye-glass along the meridian, we incline the pile on
the axis of the luminous pencil, the intensity of the colors will be seen to dimin-
ish; in a word, the pile then depolarizes the atmospheric ray. It depolarizes it,
however, unequally, according to the direction that is given to its inclination;
for if it is inclined towards the sun it depolarizes rapidly and completely, while
if it is inclined in the other direction, towards the opposite pole, it depolarizes
much less and often very little.

If now the tube of the eye-glass be turned in its collar, so that the plane of
the pile shall be perpendicular to the meridian, and if, in this new position the
pile be inclined on the incident ray, the intensity of the tints is augmented,
instead of diminishing as in the previous case. Thus, in the first position, that
of the pile in the plane of the optical meridian, the pile in inclining depolarized
the rays of the atmosphere; in the second, on the contrary, it adds new polar-
ized rays to those which already existed.

Instead of placing the instrument in the plane of the meridian, the observer
may place it in the plane of the equator; suppose, then, the objective tube of
the polarimeter in this latter plane, and that the pile also be in the same
plane, and thus presents itself perpendicularly to the incident rays; if now we
direct the instrument in succession to all points of the equator, from the maxi-
mum point, which has its place on the meridian at the intersection of these two
great circles, to the horizon, we shall find the extraordinary image colored blue ;
moreover that it preserves the same intensity in the whole line of the equatorial
circle; only in approaching the horizon, the tint becomes a little weakened,
through the vapors diffused in the strata of air very near the surface of the globe.
We have supposed the pile in the plane of the equator and perpendicular to the
incident rays; if we incline it on those rays the intensity of the colors is aug-
mented; if, on the contrary, we place it perpendicularly to that plane its inclina-
tion depolarizes the atmospheric rays and renders the images colorless.

Thus in the two great rectangular circles which we have been considering,
one forming the meridian of the optical sphere and the other its equator, the
- extraordinary ray is blue, the ordinary ray has the complementary tint, orange
yellow; the pile adds to the atmospheric polarity when it is parallel to the
equator, while, on the contrary, it depolarizes when perpendicular to it. As to
the horizon, if we examine it at the moment of the rising or setting of the sun,
it will be found that the coloration is null for the rays which proceed directly
from that luminary; that it increases up to about 90°; that it then diminishes till
about 180°, where it is at its minimum; that it recovers anew till about 270°,
where is found a second maximum, to again disappear when it falls within the
too direct rays of the sun.

* See the Correspondance Mathématique de M. Quetelet, t. 1, pp. 275 and 338.

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 193

From the above, it is seen that the maximum of coloration is always found in
the extraordinary image, with the sun at 90°. Now, it is evident that this should
be so, since the angle of maximum polarization for the air is precisely at 45°.

If we look with the objective tube of the polarimeter towards a point of the
heavens situated outside of the optical meridian and equator, the blue of the
extraordinary image is altered; it becomes violet, or else green, according to
the direction of the displacement. This change in the tint of the images indi-
cates an equivalent change in the plane of the reflector or polarizer. 'T'o regain
the blue, it is necessary to turn the bi-refracting prism by an angular quantity
equal to the supposed angular deviation of the reflector, with a view to replacing
the principal section of the prism in the same relation that it had with the plane
of the polarized ray before this deviation of the reflector; we therefore turn the
ocular tube which bears the bi-refracting prism, until we shall have recovered
the blue; then we carefully note the number of degrees by which it has been
turned, for it is this notation which gives the position of the plane of polariza-
tion in the point of the atmosphere which we may be studying. Unluckily, the
rotation which has been communicated to the ocular to restore the blue of the
extraordinary image, has at the same time destroyed the blue of the ordinary
image which proceeds from the pile and from the other lamina of quartz—that is
to say, the blue which is to serve as a point of comparison; it was requisite,
therefcre, to find the means of reproducing the normal blue of the ordinary
image.

To attain this result, Peltier covered the cap of the left and his lamina of
quartz with another cap, turning with easy friction. In this new cap he set a
lamina of mica of a thickness sutlicient to restore to the image its normal blue by
tuming the cap on itself, and placing by this means the principal section of the
lamina of mica in the plane necessary to obtain this restoration of the blue.

V.—METEOROLOGY.

Introduction.—Astronomical and meteorological phenomena are, beyond ques-
tion, the first which must have attracted the attention of man. The diurnal
movement of the sun, its annual movement and the periodical retum of the
seasons, must have so much the more interested him as they bore directly on his
existence and his material well-being. On the other hand, the astounding spec-
tacle of storms, the lightning and the thunder, could as little fail strongly to
impress his imagination. Kverything, therefore, would lead us to conclude
that, from the earliest times, mankind have been seriously occupied with the
study of the different phenomena of astronomy and meteorology.

But if these two sciences were born at the same time, they are far from having
made the same progress. Astronomy has long ago attained a certainty so great
that it may be considered in this respect the first of all the sciences of observa-
tion; meteorology, on the contrary, is still in its infancy. The reason of this
difference is easily comprehended. The movements of the heavenly bodies are
subjected to a small number of very simple laws, always identical ; meteorolo-
gical phenomena, on the contrary, are generated by the action of a host of dif-
ferent causes, all widely diverse, and highly variable as to their nature, their
mode of action, their power and their mutual influence. But this is not all: to
arrive at the point it has attained, astronomy has had to ask little succor from
the other sciences ; it has, in some sort, had need only of direct observation for
the registration of facts, and of mathematics for their co-ordination and the
deduction of consequences. It is not so with meteorology, for meteorology is
most frequently only the application of the different laws of physics to a par-
ticular class of phenomena, and could not exist in an independent manner ;
meteorology, therefore, could make no real progress until other sciences, and
especially physics, were sufficiently advanced to constitute a satisfactory body of

13 § 67

194 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

doctrines. Now, the most important part of physics for meteorology, electricity,
dates back scarcely a century. The discovery of the Leyden jar by Musschen-
broeck and Cuneus dates from 1746, the experiments of Dalibard and of Frank-
lin from 1752; what could meteorology be before that epoch ? Evidently it
could consist only of theories, of suppositions more or less vague and unmeaning;
in fact, before that epoch, but little consideration was applied to it. It was
quite otherwise after the period in question ; the discovery of Musschenbroeck
had aroused all thinking minds; the analogy between the electric spark and
the thunderbolt appeared evident ; all the world threw itself with ardor into
the study of electrical phenomena on the one hand, and of meteorological phe-
nomena on the other; a great number of savants devoted themselves to the
study of atmospheric electricity, and if the results at which they arrived had
not at first all the precision that might be desired, they always maintained an
interest which fostered and kept alive the general attention.

The number of savants who occupied themselves with experiments on atmo-
spherie electricity in the second half of the eighteenth century was very con-
siderable. Some of these, like Lemonnier, Ronayne, Read, Schtbler, made
use, by preference, of fixed apparatus, while others, like Romas, the prince
Galitzin, Musschenbroeck, Wan Swinden, the duke de Chaulnes, Bertholon,
Franklin, Cavallo, joined thereto the use of the electrical kite. Beccaria, who
had at first experimented only with fixed apparatus, employed also the electrical
kite at a later date.

The results at which these savants arrived were most contradictory. Romas,
Galitzin, Masschenbroeck remarked from the beginning that the electric signs

varied with the course of the kite; on the other hand, Beccaria, Read, Schtib-
ler, complained of the little accordance of the fixed apparatus ; hence it was
impossible to reach a conclusion even approaching certainty. Yet, as doubt is
always painful to the human mind, it came to be admitted generally, on the one
part, that the air was electrical; on the other, that the electricity of the air
proceeded from the evaporation which takes place at the surface of the soil.
For the substantiation of this opinion, reliance was placed on the old experi-
ments of Volta, Lavoisier, and Laplace, and on the more recent ones of M.
Pouillet. These experiments consisted in projecting water on a body raised to
a high temperature ; but it was M. Ponillet alone who had employed a crucible
of platina in place of an oxidizable metal as the other physicists had done. In
these experiments the vapor formed, almost always yields electricity, and when
it does so it is always vitreous electricity.

The first thing which Peltier did was to repeat, while he also simplified, the
experiment of Pouillet, and he showed that the formation of vapors only gives
an appreciable electricity when the vase has a temperature of at least 110
degrees; that below that temperature the instruments can no longer collect any,
and that, in fine, even at that temperature they can only collect it when there
has been calefaction and then decrepitation of the drop of water projected.*
The high temperature and the assemblage of phenomena necessary to maintain
separate the electricities produced, never meet together in our ambient medium ;
never does the vapor, when it rises on the surface of the soil, possess any con-
siderable tension; hence spontaneous evaporation gives no electrical signs,
unless under circumstances wholly peculiar.

Spontaneous evaporation being incapable of communicating electricity to
vapors, and those of the atmosphere containing considerable quantities of it,
Peltier felt engaged to seek the true origin of that electricity. He recurred,
therefore, to an old experiment of Saussure and Ermann, which in their hands
had been barren of results; and as this experiment may be considered as the

* See the note of Peltier contained inl’ Institut, vol. ix, p. 31; and his memoir on atmo-
spheric electricity, Ann, de Chim. et de phys., 3 series iv, p. 385.

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 195

fundamental basis of all meteorology, we judge proper to recite it here with
some details.

A place is selected perfectly uncovered and commanding all the environing
objects ; an electroscope is to be taken furnished with a stem of about four
decimetres, surmounted by a ball of polished metal of a radius of from three to
four centimetres, with a view to augment the effects of influence and to avoid
the efflux of the electricity which may be repelled into the upper part; the
instrument is to be held with one hand, the equilibrium to be managed with the’
other, in putting in communication the stem and the foot. All the reac-
tions ‘being equal on one part and the other, the gold leaves of the electroscope
fall straight and mark zero. In this state of equilibrium the instrument may
be left in contact with the free air for a whole day under a clear sky without
the least sign of electricity being manifested ; it may even be moved and the
air agitated ; as long as the instrument is kept at the same altitude it remains
completely insensible. But if, instead of leaving it in the same horizontal stra-
tum of air, it be elevated from four to five decimeters, the gold leaves are at
once seen to diverge and to indicate a vitreous tension. If the instrument be
replaced at the point of departure the leaves again fall exactly to zero; if it be
sunk lower than this point of equilibrium the leaves diverge anew, but now
they are charged with resinous electricity. On raising it again to the point of
departure the instrument resumes its zero, and retains nothing of the free elec-
tricities which it has for an instant shown.

Since no free electricity has remained in the instrument the air has of course
communicated nothing to it, and the electrical signs which the instrument had
presented proceeded only from the electricity developed in its interior by the
influence of a neighboring body in proportion as it was brought nearer to or
removed further from it, by elevating the instrument above the point where it
had been in equilibrium or depressing it below that point: it suffices, in effect,
to replace the instrument at the same point to canse them to disappear. ‘They
were, I repeat, nothing more than signs of electricity by influence, such as may
be perceived i in bodies which are brought near to or removed from another body
charged with free electricity, a phenomenon which may be reproduced in the
closet by placing one’s self on a resinous or a vitreous surface. The conse-
quence of this experiment is that dry air is not electrical of itself; that the

earth has a resinous tension, and space a vitreous tension. We may, in effect,
interpret this experiment in relation to space, or in relation to the earth. In the
first case we say if, after having placed an electroscope in equilibrium at a cer-
tain height, we raise it to a greater height, we approximate the terminal ball to
the celestial space or to the vitreous body. This latter then acts with more efh-
cacy ; it decomposes a portion of the natural electricity of the ball, attracts the
resinous and repels the vitreous in the gold leaves which diverge and indicate a
vitreous tension. In the second case we say if, after having placed an electro-
scope in equilibrium at a certain height, we raise it to a greater height, the
foot of the instrument, forming with the arm which lifts it the extremity of a
point more elevated and conducting, becomes charged thereby with a more con-
siderable resinous tension ; the resinous electricity thus accumulated in the pla-
tina and in the armatures acts now with more force, decomposes the natural
electricity of the upper part of the instrument, repels the resinous in the termi-
nal metallic globe, and attracts the vitreous in the gold leaves which diverge.
As may be seen, these two interpretations end in the same result; but, accord-
ing to the ideas of Peltier on electricity, the last alone is logical and admissible.

‘Peltier may be considered as the founder of meteorology. No doubt, before
him, a great number of distinguished savants had occupied themselves w ‘ith this
branch of knowledge; among the more recent it might suffice to mention
MM. de Humboldt, Boussingault, Kaemtz, Quetelet, Lamont, Arago, Gasparin,
&c., &c. But all these savants starting with the erroneous ‘principle that the

196 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

air is, in itself, electrical, and that it is vitreous, had not been able to draw any
gencral conclusion, to deduce any law from their observations. There had been,
unquestionably, meteorological observations at once curious, interesting and
exact; there had been, indeed, a great number of them; but as nothing con-
nected, co-ordinated, concatenated them with one another, meteorology as a sci-
ence did not yet exist ; it was Peltier who founded it, for it was he who first
stated its laws; of this the reader will be convinced by a perusal of the sum-
mary review which we propose to give of the discoveries and ideas of Peltier
on this subject, based on his published researches.*

The principal works of Peltier on meteorology are the following: first, his
Traitée des trombes, (on water-spouts,) published in 1840; his memoir on the
electricity of the atmosphere, published in 1842 in the Annales de Chimie et de
Physique, (3d series, vol. iv, p. 385;) his memoir on fogs, which may be found
in the 15th volume of the Alémoires de l Académie de Bruxelles, and has been
reproduced in the Annales de Ch. et de Physique, vol. vi, p. 129; his writings
on electric meteorology, printed in the Archives d’Hlectricité de Geneve, 1844, vol.
ivy, p. 173; finally, his great memoir on barometric variations, published in vol-
ume 18th of the Wemoitres del Académie de Bruxelles. To these should be added
certain articles of the Dictionnaire Universel des Sciences Naturelles (ctoiles
filantes, fondre, galvanism, gréle, &c.,) and many other less important commu-
nications, composed in the form of letters, whether to the Academy of Sciences
of Paris or to the Société Philomatique.

Distribution of diurnal vapors under the double influence of the earth and the
tropical current——The diurnal vapors situated between the earth and the tropical
current, that is to say, between two like forces acting in a contrary direction, are
divided into three very distinct strata.t The lowest, that which receives most
immediately the resinous influence of the globe, becomes vitreous. The portion
next to the surface cannot, it is true, long retain its electricity, for the proximity
of the earth too greatly facilitates its efflux; it is only the zone placed at some
distance which is sufficiently insulated to preserve a part of its own. The infe-
rior vapors, in assuming the globular form, become white and humid; they form
the ordinary fogs, which so easily resolve themselves into dew or drizzling rain
through the attraction of the globe.

The cause which develops in the inferior vapors a vitreous electricity is also

found in the tropical current, charged like the globe with resinous electricity ; it
repels from above downwards the resinous electricity of the diurnal vapors, as
the earth repels it from below upwards. The most elevated portion of these
vapors, being thus subjected to a resinous influence, becomes also charged with
vitreous electricity. As they grow opaque, these vapors assume a tint of glow-
ing white, and form the beautiful cumulus or brilliant cirrus which appears at a
great elevation. The vapors which receive the resinous electricity, repelled
from above downwards by the tropical current and from below upwards by the
earth, extend in large, slaty bands which can acquire no great thickness, since
they are confined by these two antagonistic forces. Ina word, the diurmal
vapors, such as rise every day in all countries, and which diffuse themselves
between the earth and the tropical current, are divided into three well-defined
and distinct strata, as, in summer and in the country, may readily be discerned
after the setting of the sun. A light, whitish mist is then observed in contact
with the earth; above this appear large grayish strata; still higher, white
masses of cumulus, or sometimes the refulgent cirrus which seems to stretch
away towards the tropical current.

* It has been deemed proper to restrict the translation to a few heads only of this review,
and the reader must be left, therefore, in a measure to his own surmise as regards the degree
in which filial veneration may have prompted the absolute claim here advanced on behalf
of Peltier to be regarded as the founder of meteorological science. —TR.

t Peltier, Mémoire de Météorologie Electrique ; Archives d’Electricité de Genéve, 1844, vol.
iv, No. 14.

a

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 197

The succession of electrical signs is accordingly as follows: the earth is res-
inous ; the inferior vapors which give rise to the white mists are vitreous ; the
middle vapors, which produce by their condensation the large, slate-gray strata,
are resinous ; the superior vapors, which in their turn generate the ‘voluminous
white cumulus, are vitreous ; aad! finally, the tropical “current which overtops
the whole is again resinous, like the omutles

In a medium so movable as the air, and subject, moreover, to so many differ-
ent influences, this triple distribution has stability only for the succession of
Vapors in time and space, and not for those which, ata given moment, form the
triple superposition. We have before said that the inferior vapors retained but
for a short time their vitreous electricity, and that they quickly resolved them-
selves into drizzling rain; but that is not all. When, ‘through the lowering of
the temperature, the vapors have ceased to ascend and to thus feed the superior
zone, the cumulus which is suspended therein disappears by degrees under the
form of elastic vapors. This new transformation is effected so much the more

rapidly as the air at that altitude is drier, and as the electric action of the trop-
ical current is more intense.

The inferior vitreous vapors, those which presented themselves under the form
of mist or fog, being resolved into drizzle or dew, the visible, superior, vitreous
vapors, those which presented themselves under the form of cumulus, having
returned to the state of elastic vapors, there remains in the atmosphere nothing
but the intermediate vapors, which are alone seen at evening and at night,
extended in long, opaque curtains, forming clouds of a slaty gray. Surrounded
by an electricity of the same nature as the globe and the tropical current, the
repulsion which these clouds encounter on each side retards their re-y raporization ;
they repass into the state of elastic vapors only when, notwithstanding the
re-vaporization of the white and vitreous clouds, the air is still far from satura-
tion; they change their state by the sole force of hygrometric affinity, and not
by the help of electric attractions, as takes place in regard to the two other
zones. Hence it often happens that we still see, the next morning, portions of
these grayish strata not re-vaporized, and which present themselves under the
form of dark spots, or even extensive black bands, strongly relieved by their
deep color in the midst of the ruddy hues of the dawn.

On the influence of hydro-meteors on the distribution of temperature at the sur-
face of the ground.—The temperature of a place depends not alone on its lati-
tude; it depends also on its longitude. ‘Thus Kastport, in America, and Stock-
holm, in Sweden, have a mean temparature of about 5°.5, and yet their latitude
differs by 14 degrees. New York and Naples are in the same latitude, but the
mean temperature of winter at Naples is 9°.9, while that of New York is—1°.20,
the difference being 11.1 degrees.

By uniting by lines all the points for which the mean temperature is the same,

we obtain curves which Humboldt first traced on maps, and which are desig-
nated under the name of isothermal curves. These lines are very far from form-
ing parallels with the equator: thus the isothermal line of 10° passes successively
by Fort George, (10°.1); by Erasmus Hall, near New York, (10°. *)5 by Dublin,
(9°.56) ; by London, (10.4) ; by Harlem, (10°. 0); and by Odessa, (Se ‘86); that is to
say, by 46°.18 of north latitude; AO? Sih; 58). 2h rom al soe alan and 46°.28,
The extent of the divergence is therefore about 13°. From this we see that the
angle under which the rays of the sun strike the earth is not the only element
which determines the temperature of a place. Several other causes, in effect,
contribute their action.

The trade winds impelling towards the equator masses of air proceeding from
high latitudes, refresh the intertropical regions. On the contrary, the warm
wind of the southwest, which proceeds from the equator and which sinks
towards the earth in proportion as it advances nearer the poles, communicates to
the regions which it touches a portion of its heat and moderates the rigor of

198 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

their climate. Hence, for the equator, calculation gives stronger temperatures
than those realized by direct observation. In higher latitudes, on the contrary,
the values to which it leads us are too small. These two results are satisfacto-
rily explained by the opposite influence of the trade winds, which warm the
poles and cool the equator. The cwrents of the ocean join their action to that of
the currents of the atmosphere, and concur in warming the countries of the north.
Such is, beyond all, the case with the Gulf Stream, which, after bathing the coasts
of the United States, presses on in summer as far as Iceland and even the shores
of Norway.

The causes which have been signalized are evidently of a nature to modify
the temperature of the places on which they act, but they could not have sufh-
cient power to explain the great differences which are sometimes observed
between localities, although in near proximity. They cannot especially explain
the constant decrement of temperature in the different localities of Europe and
of central Asia, in proportion as we advance into the interior of the land.

If we depart from the western coast of Europe and proceed directly towards
the east, always advancing under the same latitude, we shall observe the follow-
ing meteorological phenomena: 1. In proportion as we advance towards the

east, the mean temperatures of the year continue to become progressively lower
at the places by which we pass. This fact is: still more remarkable if, instead
of taking the mean temperatures of the year, we simply take the mean tempera-
tures of the winters. 2. It will be found, moreover, that the mean quantity of
rain that falls in a year goes on diminishing in proportion as we advance from
the west towards the east. 3. Finally, it will be observed that the relative
quantity of water which falls in winter continues also to diminish; in other
words, if we represent by 1.00 the annual quantity of water, it w ill be found
that in proceeding towards the east the quantity of water which falls in winter
becomes a fraction less and less considerable of the whole quantity.

These three facts, namely, the diminution of the temperature, the diminution
of the annual quantity of water, and the diminution of the fraction of water
which falls in winter, are easily cbserved in proportion as we advance into the
interior of the continent, proceeding from west to east. We will cite several
examples:

Mean temperature of winter for one and the same parallel at different longitudes.

= ae ; Longitude east Mean temperature of

Names of localities. Latitude. of Paris. winies te Centigrade
© us Opp we Oy
Hdinburcthieee oases ase ae ce 55 «58 5 30 +3 47
Wopenhatenteesee see eeseeaeee 55 41 10 J5 — 0 42
MI sits ues to en ee se eere eee 55 04 19) SE —3 06
INTOSCOW: tbc e ee tes coke oeeeeeeee 55 47 30 13 —10 05
ea zan Ae seo cette setee ae sees ee 55 48 47 10 —12 29
isleforsMan << ein cremein eee eeces 545 2 6 50 W. +5 53
(uRMaven censor seeoo ee ee eer ee 5p} BP 6 24E. +0 03
SPIAISUN Gace Soe St ee cee cee on eee 54 19 10 45 —0 17
Devils baaaieopseuaeaoaadapanegaes 54 21 16 18 —1 91
TGS SPS Gas ooaoods co5505955 er 54 42 18 09 — 3 26
\ WHITES S55 BD 8CDS SIGs Sec n nee HD Reare 54 41 22 58 —4 60

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 199

We will cite further as extreme points the islands of Feroe and Iakoutsk :

. = Mean temperature of
Names of localities. Latitude. Bereude oar winter in Centigrade
of Paris. den
egrees.
re) / fe] ! fe) i]
Thorshavenyeee aeree aan ere sess 62) 2 8 30W. +4 3
Wakoutskines seecscee a octes ans weceaee- 62° «21 127 24K. —38 «9

Tt has been our purpose, as far as possible, to introduce into these tables only
places of little elevation above the level of the sea; so that, in effect, there were no
corrections to make in regard to the height. Yet there are exceptions, Moscow
being 148 metres above the level of the sea, Kazan 58, Wilna and lakoutsk
117. These heights, however, are much too ‘insignificant to have any notable
influence on the fesults, for it is usual only to admit a diminution of 1° Centi-
grade for 200 metres of elevation.

The preceding tables suffice to show the rapid decrease of the mean tempera-
ture of winter for the same latitudes in advancing from west to east. The dimi-
nution of the absolute quantity of rain in the year and the diminution of the
absolute and relative quantity of rain in winter are not less evident. If we count
the number of days of rain for the different countries of Europe, we have the
following table :

Number of days of rain in different regions of Europe.

Number of day3 | Number of days | Ratio of this last quan-

Names of regions. of rain in the of rain in win- tity to the former in
year, ter. hundredths.
JOG péterines ea aaresaeosesasen A 152 40.3 26.5
Western Mrance! 9322153 {22802 Pie 152 37 24.3
Interior of sh rancer.s=te esses sss ece 147 39.6 24,2
lain stot Germ ayes c= si-jsie =o 141 32.6 23.
WESTON PINUSSIa ste siete co ere ene sae: 138 29 21
LINEA neh ore ee aptaliae bd ae tes i pean 90 16 17.5
Teo nis kee eeey. sree Ss oa see eee ses 60 6 10

If, instead of taking the number of days of rain, we take the quantity of rain
expressed in millimetres, we arrive at the same result :

Quantity of rain in the different regions of Europe.

Ratio of this last quan-

Annual quan- | Quantity of rain tity to the former in

Names of countries.

tity of rain. during winter. Rentiedinn
mm. mm.
Western PD inolande serrate emctiice = 950 251 26.4
Western Prances 2.5. ssee ace tees s/o, - 680 159 23. 4
asternylrance.s- nen cten oie so ae 650 127 19.5
PlamssomGermanyercewsee see cee: 540 98 18.2
WresterngRussiasacess.asecismeoeclesae 480 82 17
a zaneeesod saecwins ws ewceee Sees 350 52 15

Wakoutske soso ec Os won aia.cieye ae ayers 250 95 10

200 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

For further details on this subject recourse may be had to the great treatise on
meteorology of Kaémtz, in 3 volumes, pp. 450, 500; the smaller treatise on
meteorology by the same author, translated, with notes by Ch. Martins, p. 138
and seq.; the memoirs of Gasparin on the distribution of rains in Europe,
(Bibliotheque Universelle, t. 38, pp. 54 and 264;) and the Atlas Physique of
Berghaus, charts 10 and 12 of the meteorology. p. 19 and seq. of the text.

The tables above given establish, therefore, the three facts in question : the
diminution of temper rature, the diminution of the annual quantity of water, and
the diminution of the relative quantity of water falling in winter. What, now,
is the cause of these three phenomena? what is the bond which connects them ?
It is this which we propose to explain while expressing ourselves with all the
reserve which is proper on such a subject.

The winds of the southwest bear from the Atlantic ocean a large quantity of
clouds and vapors; these, nearly throughout Europe, are the winds pre-emi-
nently rainy. The clone are formed of elobules of transparent vapor and of
globules of opaque \ vapor, both kept apart by the latent caloric and the elec-
tricity, which render them mutually repellant. If any cause abstracts from a
cloud the greater part of its electricity, one of the two forces which co-operated
to keep the globules separate is suppressed. 'The globules of transparent vapor
approach one another, are condensed, and transformed into opaque vapors; the
globules of opaque vapor, for the same reason, pass into a liquid state, the dens-
ity of the cloud, its specific gravity, is angmented, the cloud sinks and falls on
the earth in the form of rain. On arriving at the surface the clond disengages
the latent heat it possessed, and thus the soil, as well as the ambient air, is ren-
dered warm.

The quantity of rain which falls annually is naturally, all else being equal,
more abundant in western Europe than in the interior of that continent; the ~
forests, the mountains, especially when wooded, radiate much electricity ; ‘they
neutralize, therefore, the electricity of the clouds, and thus induce, in a manner
more or less indirect, their precipitation. When this current from the southwest
reaches Germany it is already deprived of a great part of its vapors. When it
arrives in Russia, there remains still less of them; finally, in Siberia there is
scarcely any at all remaining. It thus appears that the quantity of water which
falls in a year must continue always diminishing as we penetrate into the interior
of the continent; it is evident, consequently, that the quantity of latent heat
abandoned by the clouds must also progressively diminish, and that the tempera-
ture must undergo a corresponding abatement. ‘These facts are more marked in
winter than at any other season, because then the wind from the southwest brings
a less quantity of vapors, while these are less elevated and consequently termi-
nate at lower latitudes. Another cause, moreover, concurs in augmenting the
asperity of the cold in the interior of Russia: this is the intensity of the radia-
tion which takes place in consequence of the great serenity of a sky which is

obscured by neither cloud nor vapor.

It results from what has been just said, that a locality in Europe situated to
the east of a chain of mountains should alw ays be colder, all else being equal,
than a locality situated to the west. The chain of mountains in effect, by pre-
cipitating a great quantity of vapors, must have abstracted a considerable por-
tion of the latent heat, which is hence naturally in deficiency on the other side ;
moreover, if these places are situated in a latitude somewhat high, where the
clouds are already very low, this effect will be still more decided. This in
reality is what occurs as respects Sweden and Norway in reference to the Scan-
dinavian Alps. We may cite as an example Drontheim in Norway, and Uméo
on the Gulf of Bothnia, in Sweden, (see ’Jnstitut of 18th F ebruary, 1846, p. 61,
the communication of M. Martins.) These two cities are nearly in the same
latitude, and yet the mean eagles rature of Drontheim during winter is —4°.75,
while that of Uméo is—10°.2, a difference of 5°.45.

APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER. 201

The same fact is observed, if we compare together Bergen and Stockholm.
Bergen is in 60° 23/ north latitude, and west of the Scandinavian Alps; Stock-
holm is in 59° 20/, and east of that chain of mountains. Bergen is therefore one
degree further north than Stockholm, and yet the mean temperature of winter
at Bergen is +0°.79, while at Stockholm it is —3°.61, a difference of 4°.4. Besides
this, the quantity of water which falls in a year at Bergen is enormous ; it reaches
2,250 millimetres, and in winter 598. At Stockholm, on the other hand, the
quantity of water which falls in the year is but about 520 millimetres, and the
fall in winter 76. In the latter place, then, there falls in winter about eight
times less of water than at Bergen. Moreover, if the total quantity of rain fall-
ing in a year be represented by 100, it will be seen that at Bergen there falls in
winter 26.6, while at Stockholm there falls but 14.8. These two places, there-
fore, fully confirm the facts which we have above indicated, and lend their sup-
port to the explanation which we have given.

Hydrometeors influence also the mean temperature of summer; in general,
when we penetrate into the interior of Europe, pursuing always the same line of
latitude, the mean temperature of summer will be found progressively ¢ growing
higher; the difference, however, being not so great as for the winter, and in the
ee eS direction. ‘This is generally “attributed to the fact that on the borders
of the ocean there are frequent sea mists which veil the sun. ‘Thus the coun-
tries situated near the western coast of Europe have summers somewhat less hot
and winters rather less cold than the countries situated in the interior of the con-
tinent in the same latitude. Hence the climates have been distinguished as
equal or marine climates, and continental or excessive climates.

If the explanation which we have given of the inclination of the isothermal
lines towards the equator in the interior of the continent be true, it is evident
that the isochimenal lines (:oo¢ equal, ve¢vwy winter) should, for a certain extent
of their course, be perpendicular, or nearly so, to the direction of the southwest
wind—that is to say, to the direction of the wind pre-eminently a rainy one.
Now this is in reality the case. The number of observations is not yet suffi-
ciently great to enable us to trace these curves with exactness; but they suffice
to show the general direction of several of them. If we take, for instance, the
localities at which the mean temperature of winter varies between —1° and
—1° 5, we find that this isochimenal line passes successively by Odessa, Dant-
wig, Lund in Denmark and Ullensvang in Norway. This curve extends,
therefore, in latitude from 46° 28 to 60° 20 ; it thus traverses 14 degrees of lati-
tude and is almost perfectly perpendicular to the direction of the southwest wind.
The same is very nearly the case with other isochimenal curves ; they all decline
strongly towards the south in proportion as they withdraw from the western coast
of Europe in advancing eastwardly into the interior of the continent.

It may be proper i addition to cite Venice, Paris, and Edinburgh ; the first is
situated in 45° 26 of latitude, the second in 48° 50, the third in 55° 57. Now, in
these three cities the mean temperature of winter is very nearly the same; at
Venice and Paris it is +3° 3, and at Edinburgh +3° 6.

Sometimes, as the sequel of abundant rains, , and especially tempestuous rains,
a decided lowering of the temperature is observed. ‘This fact, at first elance,
seems in contradiction with the theory of isothermal curves which we have pro-
pounded; yet it is by no means so. “Almost always after a storm the sky grows
clear, if only for a few hours; the air of the middle and interior regions unbur-
dened of the great masses of vapor which have been precipitated in the form of
rain, then presents a certain degree of relative dryness; the earth, on the con-
trary, is soaked with rain; there takes place, therefore, at its surface an extremely
abundant evaporation, which withdraws in a few instants a considerable quan-
tity of heat from the earth and the air in contact with it. It is this subtraction
of caloric which produces the cold in question.

The temperature indicated by the thermometer, moreover, is not always in accord-

202 APPENDIX TO MEMOIR OF PELTIER.

ance with the sensation experienced by living beings. Often, in fact, individuals
realize a much sharper cold or intense heat than the thermometer seems to verify ;
this depends evidently on the hygrometric condition of the air. In its natural
state the body of man is always covered with a film of humidity, an insensible
transpiration. If the air is calm and saturated with humidity there will be no
evaporation on the surface, and complaint will be made of oppressive heat; if,
on the contrary, the air is dry and agitated by the wind, the evaporation will be
considerable, and a disagreeable sensation of cold will be complained of, alto-
gether disproportioned to the thermometrie indications.

Before concluding this section a word should be said of the effect of denuding
mountains of their trees on the annual mean quantity of rain, on its distribution,
and consequently on the climate. This influence, long denied, is now every-
where admitted—tacts speak loudly enough for that. “As to the explanation,
we shall endeavor to give it.

The clouds which are in the middle region of the atmosphere are almost always
resinous. As long as their electric tension is moderate and inferior to the tension
of the earth, this “latter repels them and keeps them at a greater height than
comports with their specific gravity. When these clouds pass above naked
and woodless mountains, inasmuch as the mountains more nearly approach
them, the action in question is more efficacious, and the clouds are forced to
ascend somewhat higher in consequence of the energetic repulsion exerted by
the mountains. In this case the clouds pass without a discharge of rain. If, on
the contrary, the clouds have a considerable electric tension, this tension is more
powerful than that of the earth. When, therefore, these clouds pass over moun-
tains destitute of trees, their resinous electricity represses the resinous electricity
of the mountains into the interior of the soil, decomposes a portion of their
natural electricity, and attracts the vitreous to the surface. The phenomena of
repulsion are then changed into the phenomena of attraction, and the cloud is
wholly precipitated, and that with violence, upon the mountain.

When the country is mountainous and wooded, the occurrence is quite different.
I have already said that vapors, transparent or opaque, were kept at distance by
two forces, heat and electricity; that all the phenomena which diminished by
their action one or the other of these two forces, induced indirectly the con-
densation of the vapors, and consequently the precipitation of a part of them.
These principles are directly applicable to the question with which we are
engaged. When masses of transparent or opaque vapors, charged with resin-
ous electricity, pass above wooded mountains, the vitreous ‘electricity developed
by influence in the soil flows off by the trees, which furnish thousands of points,
and neutralizes a part of the resinous electricity of the super-jacent masses of
vapor. The vapors, being less repelled, draw together and are condensed, the
transparent vapors into opaque vapors, and these into drops of rain which fall in
a regular manner and in measure proportionate to their formation.

In sum, then, the cloud, in the case of mountains naked and divested of wood,
either passes without discharge or is precipitated in its entire mass; the result is
an incessant oscillation from great drought to deluges of rain; in wooded moun-
tains, on the contrary, the rains are gentle and continuous. From this we may
see that to denude mountains of their woods does not perhaps diminish the
annual quantity of rain, but that it modifies the distribution of the rain, or, to
speak with more exactness, its mode of precipitation.

THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. -

Bie sh De NEALE Live

[TRANSLATED BY C. A. ALEXANDER FOR ‘THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.*]

I.—CouNT RUMFORD, PRINCIPAL FOUNDER OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION.

“The Royal Institution of London,” says Cuvier, in his loge historique of
Count Rumford, “enjoys an unsur passed reputation as an establishment for pro-
moting the progress of the sciences and their application to public utility.” In
proceeding to give some account of the Institution, it is deemed proper to prefix
a few words respecting the distinguished man to whom it was chiefly indebted
for its origin.

Benjamin Thompson, afterwards known as Count Rumford, was born in 1753,
in the English colonies of North America, at a place then called Rumford, but
now Concord. Devoted at an early age to the study of science, he adopted the
profession of teacher for a livelihood, but, by an adv antageous marriage, when
scarcely more than 19 years old, he secured for himself entire independence i in
his pursuits. He had accepted the grade of major in the militia of his native
province when the war of the Revolution broke out, and was led by the connec-
tions of family and personal predilection to take the part of the royal govern-
ment. He served with courage and address, and after the evacuation of Boston
by the British troops in 1776, was sent with important despatches to London,
where he acquired the confidence of Lord G xeorge Germaine, secretary of state
for the colonies, and was by him attached to that department of the public ser-
vice. In 1780, Mr. Thompson was advanced to the post of under-secretary of
state, but the disasters of the royal army, the constant object of his solicitude and
activity, continuing to accumulate, the young minister “felt that he could not
serve W ith honor a » sinking cause, without serving it at the peril of his life.” t
Having raised a regiment “of dragoons in America, he proceeded to take command
of it and distinguished himself in several affairs. At the cessation of hostilities,
he returned to England and was knighted by the King, eventually obtaining
permission to enter the service of Charles Theodore, elector of Bavaria, by whom
he was soon received into favor.

Sir Benjamin Thompson (which was the title he bore on his arrival at Munich,
in 1784) became successively aide-de-camp, chamberlain, and privy councillor
to the elector ; was created leutenant general of his armies; and when, on the
death of the Emperor Joseph IT, Charles Theodore was called to the functions
of vicar of the empire, the latter promptly took advantage of the prerogative
attached to that position to advance his favorite to the dignity of Count, giving
him the title of his native village in New Hampshire.

5 :
Count Rumford passed 14 years at the court of Munich; charged at once with

* From the Annuaire de l' Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles, par A. Quetelet, directeur de cet
établissement, &c., &c.
tG. Cuvier, Eloge Historique du Comte de Rumford.

204 THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

the administration of war and the direction of the police, he applied himself, on
the one hand, to the melioration of the condition of the soldier, and, on the other,
to the suppression of mendicity by organizing a house of labor for the poor. He
had never lost sightsof the sciences, his earliest predilection. Researches on the
cohesion of bodies and on the force of powder had procured his admission, in 1779,
into the Royal Society of London. In his new position he undertook experi-
ments on the nature of heat and light, as well as on the laws of their propaga-
tion, with a view to supplying large assemblages of persons with economical
nourishment, clothing, warmth, and artificial illumination, It is not within the
scope of this paper to discuss these researches of Count Rumford; they will be
found detailed in his Essays.* Suffice it to say that light and heat became the
engrossing subjects of his philosophic attention. Thus we find him, in 1796,
establishing a prize at London “ for new discoveries tending to the improvement
of the theories ree garding fire, heat, light, and colors, and for the inventions and
processes by w hich the production, preservation, and employment of heat and
light may be facilitated.”

In 1798 he proceeded to London as minister plenipotentiary of the elector
of Bavaria, but was held to be disqualified for fulfilling the functions of that
office by the fact of his being still regarded, in point of law, as a British subject,
and incapable, therefore, of “representing a foreign power at the British court.
Soon afterwards he learned the death of the prince, his benefactor, and, fore-
seeing that he would have scarcely less difficulty in resuming his old ian in
exercising his new functions,{ he turned with habitual earnestness to other pur-
suits, and, in becoming the principal founder of the Royal Institution, of which
his favorite ideas formed the basis, established one of his best claims to lasting
remembrance.

The latter years of Count Rumford were passed in retirement. In 1802 he
transferred his residence to Paris, where he contracted a second marriage, with
the widow of Lavoisier. This union proved unhappy, and was terminated after
three years by a private separation. ° He then retired to a country house at
Auteuil, about four miles from Paris, and there devoted his time to the embel-
lishment of his domain, and to the cultivation of chemistry and experimental
philosophy. Here he died, August 21, 1814, at the age of sixty-one years.

IJ.—THE FIRST PROSPECTUS OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION.

The first meeting of the founders and directors of the Institution took place
the 9th of March, 1799, at the mansion of Sir Joseph Banks, those present
being Sir Joseph, the earls of Morton and Spencer, Count Rumford, Richard
Clark and Thomas Bernard. Sir J oseph was named president, and Thomas
Bernard secretary. ‘The prospectus of the establishment, for the preparation of
which Count Rumford was designated, bore the following title: “ Proposals for
forming, by subscription in the metropolis of the British empire, a public
institution for diffusmg the knowledge and facilitating the general introduc-
tion of useful mechanical inventions and improvements; and for teaching, by
courses of philosophical lectures and experiments, the application of science
to the common purposes of life—by Benjamin, Count Rumford, F. R. 8.,” &e.;
in octavo, 54 pp.; Cadell & Davies, 1799.

The following extract from the prospectus, given by the Bibliotheque Britan-
aque (sciences and arts) of Geneva, for the year last mentioned, will convey an
idea of the objects of the new establishment:

When the directors shall have chosen a site, there shali be prepared large and airy apart-
ments to receive and exhibit the mechanical inventions and improvements which seem to

* See also the Eloge by the Baron Cuvier, already referred to.

t See the History of the Royal Society of London. Count Rumford founded a similar prize
at Philadelphia, United States.

} The new elector, Maximilian Joseph, conferred on him a pension of 30,000 francs,

THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 205

improvements which seem to merit public attention; and more especially such
kinds of apparatus as tend to multiply the conveniences of life; to promote
domestic economy; to form the taste and facilitate the exercise of useful indus-
try. Efforts shall be made to procure the most perfect models for each object.
The following will deserve particular attention: Chimneys for cottages, with
appropriate utensils ; complete kitchen for a farm-house, with all its furnishings ;
complete kitchen, suitable for a family in easy cireumstances ; rooms for wash-
_ing, drying, and ironing clothes for a rich family or hospital, with boilers and
other necessar v utensils ; ; German, Swedish, and Russian stoves for heating
apartments and passages.

“ Tn order that those who visit the establishment may acquire just ideas of these
different inventions, and of the circumstances which constitute the particular
merit of each of them, working models shall, as far as possible, be used for
exhibition; and it is evident that the greater part of those just spoken of are
susceptible of being presented in that form. In the different apartments, chim-
neys contrived on the best principles shall be provided, to serve as models for
constructors, and fires shall be constantly kept burning therein during cold
weather. In the same apartments, models of grates, adapted both for ornament
and economy, shall be exhibited, as well as models of ornamental stoves, in the
form of elegant chimney-places, for large saloons, dining-rooms, &c.

“Tt is proposed also to introduce small models (though such still as shall be
capable of being put in operation) of that curious and useful machine, the
steam-engine; models also of the apparatus for brewing, with improved fur-
NaAces ; of large stills, with the new condensers; of extensive ranges for the
kitchens of hospitals and the marine, with improved fire-places. P lace should
be found likewise for models of ventilators for renew ing the air of apartments
and the interior of ships; of hot-houses, with all the known improvements; of
lime-kilns of divers construction; of steam-boilers for preparmg the food of
domestic animals; of rustic houses, upon different plans; of wheels for spinning,
and looms for the production of fabrics especially suited for the poor, and calcu-
lated to furnish them employment at home; together with models of all the new
inventions proper to promote the advancement of agriculture; those of bridges,
constructed on various principles; and, in fine, of all that the directors shall
deem deserving of public attention in point of utility and convenience. Each
article shall be accompanied by a detailed description, and exact drawings, and
a designation be given of the name and abode of the artist engaged in its pro-
duction, with the price of his work.

“Tn order to realize the second object of the Institution, that, namely, of show-
ing the application of science to the different requirements of life, a course of
public lectures on natural philosophy, accompanied by experiments, sbaJ] be
established. TF orthe use of this course there shall be a cabinet of physics and
a laboratory of chemistry.

“Among the different subjects treated of in these lectures, particular attention
should be given to that of heat in its application to the various uses of life;
combustion, and the relative quantities of heat furnished by different combusti-
bles; the management and economy of fire; the causes on which depends the
heat of different substances used for clothing; the effects of heat and cold, both
in a stationary and circulating atmosphere, upon the human body, w hether in a
state of health or sickness ; ‘the effects of vitiated and confined air on respira-
tion; the means of rendering ordinary dwellings agreeable and healthy ; the
construction of ice-houses and preservation of ice in summer; the prevention of
ailments in different seasons and climates; the cooling of liquids without the
use of ice, &e.

“Vegetation and the effects of different manures, with the method of prepar-
ing and adapting the latter to various soils, should receive attention ; also the

t=)
changes which alimentary substances undergo in the different processes of cook-

206 THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

ing, as well as in those of digestion; the chemical principles involved in the
tanning of leather, with the objects to which artisans , who may seek to perfect
so important a process , should direct their efforts ; the chemical prinicples of the
art of making soap, of bleaching, of dyeing, and, in general, of all the mechan-
ical arts which bear a relation, more or less direct, to manufactures.

“There shall be five Pines of contributors: 1, subscribers at 50 guineas, pay-
able once for all; 2, subscribers at 10 guineas, likewise payable but once; 3,
subscribers at two guineas; 4, testators or benefactors ; 5, persons who pay ‘the
ticket of admission. Of these, the first class are the proprietors of the estab-
lishment. They alone elect the directors and visitors, and can alone exercise
office. The establishment will be gratuitously conducted by nine directors.
There shall be also nine visitors.”

“Such an institution,” adds the editor of the Bibliothéque Britannique, “is

calculated to form an epoch in the history of civilization.” In the month of
July, 1799, there were already 138 subscribers at 50 guineas a head, 103 at 10
guineas, and 97 at two guineas. The capital of the society, therefore, was at
that time 7,950 guineas ~ besides 194 guineas contributed by annual subserip-
tion. The first meeting of the proprietors had taken place April 20 previous.

III.—SITUATION OF THE ESTABLISHMENT AT THE BEGINNING OF 1800—pr.
GARNETT, THE FIRST PROFESSOR OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

The charter of the new corporation, which by permission of George III had
assumed the title of Royal Institution of Great Britain, bears date January 1 a,
1800. It was published with a new prospectus, mainly of a descriptive charac-
ter; the indetatigable activity of Count Rumford having bastened the execution
of the ideas contained in his first appeal to the public. It is here said:

* * * “The tardiness with which improvements of every kind are intro-
duced, even such as are of the most evident utility, is a remarkable fact; it stands
in striking contrast with the avidity of the public in adopting the frivolous
changes created by caprice or folly, and which circulate in society under the
auspices of fashion. * * * 'The Royal Institution has two principal objects:
one, to spread promptly and introduce into all the ramifications of society a
knowledge of inventions and useful improvements, drawn from the experience
and practice of all nations; the other, to make known the applications of which
scientific discoveries are susceptible, to the advantage of the arts and manufac-
tures of this country, and the augmentation of domestic enjoyment and con-
venience. * * * ‘The directors have purchased (June, 1799) a commodious
and spacious edifice on Albemarle street, where large and airy apartments are
in course of preparation for exhibiting such mechanical inventions or improve-
ments as may be thought to merit public attention. Particularly will those
inventions be exemplified which tend to increase domestic comfort and economy;
to improve the taste, or advance the industry directed towards objects of utility.

“An amphitheatre will be arranged for lectures and demonstrations, accom-
panied by a laboratory and complete collection of instruments of experimental
physics and chemistry. This branch of instruction will be confided to savants
of the highest merit, * * * A place has been provisionally prepared in
which three courses are given: First, a course of natural philosophy on the
principles of astronomy, electricity, magnetism, mechanics, hydrostatics, pneu-
matics, and optics. The meetings take place every Tuesday, at 2 o’clock, and
this course is particularly directed to the instruction and amusement of persons
who, without having leisure or opportunity to explore thoroughly these different
branches of matatak knowledge, still desire to know wieneeon most strongly
provokes curiosity.. Second, a course of chemistry and its application to the
arts, to manufactures, and the requirements of life. ‘lhe meetings take place
Wednesdays at 2 o'clock. Third, a complete and scientific course of experi-

THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 207

mental physics, in which the propositions are first demonstrated mathematically,
afterwards illustrated by experiments, and finally applied to the various uses of
the arts and domestic economy. ‘The meetings occur three days in the week, at
8 o’clock in the evening.”

The professor who had charge of this course was Dr. Garnett. In Nicholson’s
journal it is said, under the date of April 1, 1800: “'The course of physics and
of chemistry opened by Dr. Garnett, in the apartments of the Royal Institution,
is followed with the most marked attention by a numerous and distinguished
auditory.”

Thomas Garnett was born in 1765 or 1766, at Casterton, in Westmoreland.
He received the degree of doctor of medicine at Edinburgh, in 1788, and prac-
ticed his art successfully at London, at Bradford, at Knaresborough, and at Liv-
erpool. Called in 1796 to Glasgow to teach chemistry, he afterwards quitted
that city in order to occupy at the Royal Institution the chair which had been
offered him by Count Rumford. Dr. Garnett died at London June 28, 1802, in
the prime of life. We owe to him a compendium entitled, Outlines of a Course
of Lectures on Chemistry, Delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain —
London, 1801.

IV.—THE SITUATION OF THE ESTABLISHMENT IN MAY, 1801, AND APRIL, 1802.

To M. Pictet, one of the editors of the Bibliothéque Britannique, who visited
London in 1801, we owe the following notices of a report made by Count Rum-
ford to the directors and visitors of the Institution, in the month of May in that
year:

“The sums subscribed for the execution of the proposed plans amount at
present to £23,000, without comprising £7,000 generously offered by a small
number of the proprietors (which subvention will, however, not be needed) to
supply deficiencies in the cost of new buildings. Those already acquired are
very extensive. The ground on which the principal edifice stands was originally
occupied by four private dwellings, and the location is central to that part of
London to whose inhabitants the establishment most naturally appeals for an
enlightened interest, (Albemarle street, Piccadilly.) Professors and demonstra-
tors in physics, chemistry, and mechanics have been engaged, and lectures are
given in two spacious ampbitheatres, one of which will contain 300, the other
900 persons. An ample laboratory having been provided, a manager and opera-
tor have been nominated, and negotiations are on foot with a skilful German
chemist to serve as assistant to those two individuals. Shops for the construction
of models, furnished with the most complete assortment of tools that could be
procured, have been placed in order, under a master-workman, who will have
charge of all the physical apparatus pertaining to the Institution, The opera-
tives engaged are: a mathematical instrument maker, a constructor of models,
a cabinet maker, a carpenter, a workman in brass and copper, another in tin, and
still another in sheet iron. ‘T'o these will be added a brick maker and mason,
who will be instructed and rendered competent to instruct other workmen in the
art of constructing chimneys, ovens, furnaces, &c., upon the principles recently
applied to the management of fire and the economy of fuel.

“There has been established in the apartment of the janitor a complete kitchen
suitable for a family of small means, with an oven for roasting of the most sim-
ple construction, a chimney place adapted to cottages, a steaming kettle, &c.
All these objects are open to the inspection of those who frequent the Institution.
It is proposed also to establish a principal kitchen, which shall be rendered as
complete as possible in every particular. It will include ovens for baking, others
for roasting, steam boilers of every construction; and in order that every one
may learn to avail himself of this diversitied apparatus daily use will be made
of it in the Institution, and certain persons be specially charged with showing

208 THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

it. And in order that the proprietors and subscribers may be enabled to judge,
by experience, of the merit of such or such method of cooking, or of any new
viand which may be suggested, a dining-room has been provided at the Institu-
tion, in which the directors will, from time to time, prescribe experimental din-
mers, of which the proprietors and subscribers shall be invited to partake, the
whole at the expense of the guests.

“ A conversation-saloon has been provided. * * * One of the divisions on
the ground floor has been assigned for a printing-office, which pertains exclu-
sively to the Institution. It is particularly designed for printing its journals,*
which will probably be issued once a week, and of which three numbers have
already appeared. These memoirs will contain not only the detail of all that
is done at the Institution and in England relative to the introduction of inven-
tions or useful improvements, but also a selection from everything of foreign
production which can be of advantage to the country. * * * ‘As the prin-
cipal object of the establishment is to promote improvements i in the mechanical
arts, to stimulate and encourage the exercise of genius and industry, bearing on
objects of practical and immediate utility, it has been decided to introduce
nothing which has reference to the three learned professions: theology, law, and
Boe

“ A department will shortly be arranged for the accommodation of 18 or 20
young persons destined for different mechanical professions. An evening school
will be established with this view, in which will be taught the art of designing,
practical geometry, and the elements of mathematics’

We are indebted to the Bibliothéque Britannique (vol. xx, 1802) for the state-
ments which follow, taken from the report of Count Rumford, April 26, 1802:

“The new amphitheatre, where the Jectures are given, is finished; notwith-
standing its large dimensions, a voice uttered in.a low tone can be heard from
one extremity to the other, and neither echo nor resonance is remarked when a
high tone is employed. Light is admitted from above by means of a cylindrical
lantern of double glass, and complete obscurity is obtained by lowering the
movable top of this lantern to the level of the ceiling. ‘The saloon is of a
semi-circular form, with the addition of a parallelogram equal in length to the
diameter of the circular part (60 feet) and 15 feet in width. Eleven ranges of
seats ascend from the floor to a gallery which contains three additional ranges.
The amphitheatre is warmed in winter by steam, which is made to circulate in
tubes of copper conducted under the first range of benches. * * * ‘The
depot of models is a saloon 44 feet long by 33 w ide, and comprises a large num-
ber of new and useful mechanical inventions. * * * The chemical labora-
tory is finished, as are likewise the workshops, which are all in activity. The
great kitchen is in operation, and is furnished with a complete battery, * *
The price of subscription has been considerably advanced, so that while the
expenditure amounts to but £3,894, (97,350 francs,) the receipts have risen to
£5,484, (212,000 francs.) The Royal Institution may thus be considered as
completed and firmly established.”

V.—THE ENGAGEMENT OF HUMPHREY DAVY.

From what has been said above, we may form an exact idea of the plan which
had been proposed by Count Rumford in creating the Royal Institution. ‘This
plan, however, was desiined soon to undergo essential modifications, and nothing
more greatly contributed to the change than the engagement of Humphrey
Davy by Rumford himself.

Mr. Underwood and Dr. Hope (their names deserve commemoration) having
spoken in the most eulogistic terms of the young chemist of Penzance, Count
Rumiord entered into negotiations with Davy in January, 1801, and, 16th Feb-

*Journals of the Royal Institution of Great Britain.

THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 209

ruary following, the future president of the Royal Society of London was enrolled
in the service of the Institution as assistant professor of chemistry, director of
the laboratory, and joint editor of the journals of the establishment. The pro-
ceedings of the directors import that he should be allowed to occupy a room in
the house, be furnished with coals and candles, and be paid a salary of 100
guineas a year.*

Davy arrived in London the 11th of March. His first lecture completely
justified the expectations of his patrons, nor was he long in becoming extremely
popular through his natural eloquence, his chemical acquirements, and the sue-
cess which crowned all his experiments. His first interview with Rumford, it
would seem, had not been favorable. At the almost childish appearance of the
candidate, his rather provincial manner, accompanied by some remains of the
Cornish dialect, Count Rumford, who did not shine in point of affability, became
more frozen than usual; it was with difficulty that Davy obtained leave to give,
in a private apartment of the house, a few lectures on the properties of gases ;
but he needed nothing more. ‘From the first, the variety of his ideas, their
ingenious combinations, the warmth, the vivacity, the perspicuity, even the nov-
elty of their mode of statement, all the charms that the combined talents of the
poet, the orator, and the philosopher could lend to the instructions of the chemist,
enchanted the small number of those who had ventured to come and hear him.
With so much enthusiasm did they speak of him that at the second lecture the
room which had been assigned him could not contain the throng which presented
itself, and it was necessary to transfer his course to the great amphitheatre of
the establishment. The youthfulness of a professor just emerging from adoles-
cence, his handsome face, his ingenuous manner, scarcely contributed less than
his eloquence to conciliate affection.” (Cuvier, Eloge Historique, &c.) .

Davy (born Deceinber 17, 1778, at Penzance, a small town of Cornwall) was
then 22 years of age. Son of a carver in wood, he had early entered, as appren-
tice, the office of a skilful surgeon of his native place, who at the same time con-
ducted a pharmaceutical establishment. It was Davy’s intention to become a
physician, but the plan of study which he had traced for himself embraced seven
languages, from English to Hebrew, and all the moral and physical sciences,
from theology and astronomy to rhetoric and mechanics. It is somewhat remark-
able that he does not seem to have seriously occupied himself with chemistry
until he had attained his 19th year. From that time he devoted himself to it
with all the ardor of his temperament ; and his eldest sister, who lent her services
to assist him, well remembered the damage sustained by her dresses from corro-
sive substances. (Paris, Life of Davy.)

His resources were very limited, like those of Priestley and Scheele at their
entrance upon the same career. His apparatus consisted principally of phials,
wine glasses, tea cups, tobacco pipes, and earthen pipkins, and his materials
were chiefly the mineral acids, the alkalies, and some other articles of which use
is made in medicine. He commenced his experiments in his sleeping-room, and
when he had need of fire, descended with his vessels to the kitchen. (Jlemotrs
of the Life of Sir Humphrey Davy, by his brother, John Davy, London, 1836.)
A shipwreck which occurred on the coast procured him some unexpected resources.
He had the good luck to lay hands on a box of surgical instruments. Among
them there happened to be a common syringe; of this he constructed an air
pump! “During his whole life,” says Cuvier, “he continued to make use of
everything that came to hand in the service of his researches; and the sim-
plicity of his apparatus was not less remarkable than the originality of his
experiments and the elevation of his views.”

*It was the intention of Count Rumford to try Davy as professor, and to give him the
succession of Dr. Garnett, whose services the Institution was on the point of losing. ‘* Lit-
tle accommodating in his disposition, Count Rumford had already broken with his professor
of chemistry, Dr. Garnett.” (G. Cuvier, Eloge Historique de Sir Humphrey Dury.)

14 s-67

210 THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Dr. Beddoes, having founded at Bristol an establishment (the Pneumatic Insti-
tution) where the therapeutic properties of the gases might be carefully studied
and turned to account, had need of an assistant. On the recommendation of
Davies Gilbert (who presided over the Royal Society of London from 1827 to
1830) he made choice of the young Davy, whose merit he could well appreciate
from a memoir which the latter had sent him for insertion in a journal which he
edited. Davy left for Bristol October 2, 1798, and, the year following, he there
discovered the properties of nitrous oxide g gas, (protoxide of nitrogen ,) a discov-
ery which rendered his name popular in the three kingdoms.

VI—THE FIRST COURSE OF CHEMISTRY GIVEN BY DAVY.—THE DISCOVERIES
MADE BY HIM IN THE LABORATORY OF THE INSTITUTION.

We have shown how Davy had entered the Royal Institution and the success
which he there attained as professor. His lectures took place on Thursdays at
2 and 8 o’clock in the afternoon, and on Saturdays at 2. The earlier lectures
of the afternoon were devoted to general chemistry, those of the evening to its
applications. The abstract of his first course has been preserved ;* it was
divided into three parts: the chemistry of ponderable substances; the chemistry
of imponderable substances; the chemistry of the arts.

The first of these parts treats: (1) of chemical forces and their modes of
application ; (2) of uncompounded substances or simple principles ; (3) of bodies
compounded of two simple substances ; (4) of bodies compounded of more than
two simple substances; (5) of substances compounded of different compound
bodies and of simple bodies ; (6) of the general phenomena of chemical action.
The second part treats: (1 ) of heat or caloric ; (2) of light; (3) of electrical
influence; (4) of galvanism. ‘The third part treats: (1) of agriculture; (2) of
tanning ; (3) of bleaching ; (4) of dyeing; (5) of metallurgy ; (6) of the man-
ufacture of glass and porcelain; (7) of the preparation of solid and liquid ali-
ments; (8) of the employment of artificial heat and light.

Nominated to the incumbency of the chair of chemistry May 31, 1802, Davy
resigned it April 5, 1813. He had given his last lecture April 9: 1812 , the day
after that on which he had been knie hted by the prince regent, and the eve of
lis nuptials with Mrs. Apreece, a union which made him master of a large for-
tune. He had shed great lustre on the Royal Institution, at the same time that
he changed the character which had pervaded the thought of its founder. ‘The
Institution was no longer a school of arts and trades, established with a view
to the most numerous ol ass of society, but redounded almost exclusively to the
profit of the higher classes. “ Ladies of the highest rank,” says Cuvier, “ fol-
lowed his lectures, together with lords of high degree, and the most distin-
guished of the young men.” ‘The spirit of research was introduced, and the
laboratory of the Institution became the theatre of the most brilliant discoveries.
It was there that Davy discovered the laws of electro-chemical decomposition ;
succeeded in decomposing the fixed alkalies, established the true nature of
chlorine, and the philosophy of flame. 'The electric battery with which the
separation of potassium and of sodium was effected, and w hich is still preserved
in the establishment with other apparatus used by Davy, consisted of three bat-
teries combined, one of 24 square plates of copper and zine, of 12 inches to the
side, another of 100 plates of six inches, and the third of 150 plates of four
inches. ‘Lhe discovery of potassium was made October 6, 1807. The pleasure
which Davy experienced at seeing the small globules of the new metal spring
through the crust of potash and Kindle on contact with the air was witnessed
by his relative and assistant, Edmund Davy. “Our professor could not restrain

* A Syllabus of a Course of Lectures on Chemistry, delivered at the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, by H. Davy, professor of chemistry, pp. 91, octavo, London, Cadell &

Davies, 1802.

THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN 211

his delight, and began dancing around the room in a transport of joy, and it
was some time before he recovered sufficient composure to continue the experi-
ment.” The directors and principal members of the institution afterwards
caused a galvanic battery of 600 pairs of four-inch plates to be constructed,
and this again was replaced by a battery of 2,000 pairs. ‘This powerful artil-
lery was directed against the earths, and the new metals received the names of
barium, strontium, calcium, and magnesium, after the names of the earths from
which they were separated.

The limits which we have prescribed to ourselves do not permit us to follow
Davy after his retirement from the Institution. ‘If I relinquish teaching,” he
wrote to his brother at the time of his marriage, “it is solely with the purpose
of having more time to devote to original researches and to the advancement of
the great objects of science.” But from 1812 his life was essentially that of a
traveller and man of the world; he was created baronet in 1818, three years
after the discovery of the safety-lamp,* and died at Geneva May 29, 1829.

VII.—NoMINATION OF DR. YOUNG TO THE CHAIR OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

Towards the close of 1801 the directors of the Royal Institution nominated
to the chair of natural philosophy (physics and mechanics) a man of perhaps
still greater genius than Davy, the celebrated Dr. Young.

Thomas Young was born at Milverton, in Somersetshire, June 13,1773. He
was an infant prodigy. At two years of age he could read fluently ; at four he
could recite from memory a great number of English -writers and even Latin
poems, of which, however, he understood not a word. From nine to fourteen
he learned, besides Greek and Latin, the Trench, Italian, Hebrew, Persic, and
Arabic languages ; “‘ French and Italian, incidentally, for the purpose of satis-
fying the curiosity of a comrade who had in his possession several works printed
at Paris, whose contents he was desirous of knowing; Hebrew, in order to read
the Bible in the original; Persic and Arabic, with a view to the decision of
the question, which had arisen in a conversation at table, whether differences exist
between the oriental languages as marked as those which exist between Kuropean
languages.” (Arago, Biography of Thomas Young.) His passion for knowl-
edge was unbounded, and no obstacles stopped him in its pursuit. Having seen
a land-surveyor at work, when he was scarcely eight years old, he applied him-
self to learn, by means of a dictionary of mathematics, the nature of the opera-
tions, and soon qualified himself to make the calculations. Still later, he con-
ceives an ardent taste for botany, and undertakes to construct a microscope.
For that purpose he must first know the theory of the instrument; and, as he
has at hand nothing but a book bristling with analytic formulas, he studies
the differential calculus in order to comprehend it, and, between times, acquires
great skill in the art of turnery. His favorite maxim was, that every man may
do what any other man has done. While he was prosecuting his medical studies
in Edinburgh, which had been commenced in London, he acquired so much
skill in funambulism as to compete with a famous professor of the art; aud at
Gottingen, where he passed nine months, and where he received the degree of
doctor of medicine, he attained extraordinary dexterity as a vaulter on horse-
back. Profoundly versed in the theory of music, he also cultivated his powers

* See the History of the Royal Society of London, where will be found other details respect-
ing Davy, and, among the rest, respecting the mortification which he sustained in relation
to certain means he had proposed for preventing the corrosion of the copper with which ves-
sels are lined. I add an extract from a letter, which he wrote on this occasion to Mr. Chil-
dren: ‘‘A mind of much sensibility might be disgusted, and one might be led to say: Why
labor for the public interest, when the sole recompense is abuse? ‘They have irritated me
more than I should have been, but I become wiser day by day, calling to remembrance
Galileo and the time when the philosophers and benefactors of society obtained no other
recompense for their services but the stake.”

212 THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

of execution to such an extent that Arago says of him in the biography before
cited: “Of all known instruments, including even the Seotch bagpipe, it
seems certain that there were but two on which he could not perform.” His
brilliant discoveries in physics are well known. In 1818, the illustrious author
of the doctrine of interferences of light, having been nominated secretary of the
bureau of longitudes, and charged with the superintendence of the Nantical
Almanac, turned his attention to astronomy, and abandoned almost entirely the
practice of medicine. As a physician his services had never been in any great
request. He was suspected of beg too learned, and, in truth, “ notwithstand-
ing his knowledge, or, perhaps, even by reason of its vast extent, he was wholly
deficient in confidence at the bedside of the sick*

In a notice of the Nautical Almanae, I have mentioned the vexations which
he incurred as astronomer, and I shall not here return to the subject.

Dr. Young died May 10, 1829 ; nineteen days, consequently, before his former
colleague, Sir Humphrey Davy

VIIJI.—THE INTRODUCTORY LECTURE OF DR. YOUNG

We shall here consider Dr. Young only as regards his connection with the
Royal Institution. This connection was of no long continuance. His. first
lecture was given January 20, 1802, and he retired after having filled the pro-
fessorship two years. If we are to believe the author of his life i in the Biogra-
phie Universelle of the brothers Michaud, he had not been popular. He was
reproached with being too laconic, with helt giving sufficient development to his
explanations, with want of clearness: But the learned world owes to |:is con-
nection with the Institution a work of the highest order, which appeared in 1807,
under the title of “A Course of Lectures on ‘Natural Philosophy and the Mechan-
ical Arts,” by Thomas Young, M. D., &c.; 2 vols. quarto, comprising together
1,570 pages and 458 plates.t

The first lecture, which serves as an introduction to the course, POSSESSES SO
high an interest that we deem it due to our readers to place it, at least in part,
before their eyes; there is always something to be gained by knowing and
reflecting on the ideas of a man of eenius :

“Tt is to be presumed that the oveater part of those who honor with their
attendance the amphitheatre of the Royal Institution, already know the nature
of the objects which its founders and promoters have been endeavoring to attain ;
yet it would seem by no means superfluous that I should define with accuracy
my own views of the utility which is likely to be derived from it and the most
effectual means of accomplishing its purposes, in order that we may discover
more easily the best route to be pursued in our common progress through the
regions of science, and that those who are desirous of accompanying me may
know precisely what path we mean to follow, and what departments will more
particularly arrest our attention, * * * The primary and peculiar object
of the Institution is to apply to domestic convenience the improvements which
have been made in science, and to introduce into general practice such mechan-
ical inventions as are of decided utility. But, while it is chiefly engaged in
this pursuit, it extends its views, in some measure, to the promotion of the same
ends which pertain to the special province of other literary societies ; and it is
the more impossible that these objects should be wholly excluded, as it is upon

* Biography by Arago.—‘‘ No study,” said Dr, Young, ‘* is so complicated as that of medi-
cine. It surpasses the bounds of human intelligence. Physicians who proceed without
attempting to comprehend what is before them, often see as far as those who place reliance
in hasty generalizations, based upon observations in regard to which all analogy is in
default.”

t Young had published, at the commencement of 1802, a programme of the lectures
which be proposed to deliver at the Royal Institution, under the title of ‘A Syllabus of
Lectures on Natural and Experimental Philosophy,” in a quarto volume of 193 pages.

THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 213

the advancement of these that the specific objects of the Institution must ulti-
mately depend. It follows that the dissemination of physical and chemical
knowledge becomes a truly essential part of the design of the Royal Institu-
tion ; and this department must, in the natural order of arrangement, be anterior
to the application of the sciences to practical uses. ‘To exclude all knowledge
except that which has been already applied to immediate utility, would be to
reduce our faculties to a state of servitude, and to frustrate the very purposes
which we are laboring to accomplish. No discovery, however remote in its
nature from the subjects of daily observation, can with reason be pronounced
wholly inapplicable to the benefit of mankind.

“Tt has seemed to me, therefore, to be not only the best beginning, but also an
object of high and permanent importance in the plan of the Royal Institution,
to direct public attention to the cultivation of the elementary doctrines of nat-
ural philosophy, as well speculative as practical. Those who possess the genu-
ine spirit of scientific investigation, and who have tasted the pure satisfaction
arising from an advancement in intellectual acquirements, are contented to pro-
ceed in their researches, without inquiring at every step what they gain by their
newly discovered lights, and to what practical purposes they are applicable ; they
receive a sufficient gratification from the enlargement of their views of the con-
stitution of the universe, and experience, in the immediate pursuit of knowledge,
that pleasure which others wish to attain more cireuitously by its means. And
it is one of the principal advantages of a liberal education, that it creates a sus-
ceptibility of an enjoyment so elegant and so rational.

“A considerable portion of my audience, to whose information it will be my
particular ambition to accommodate my lectures, consists of that sex which, by
the custom of civilized society, is in some measure exempted from the more labo-
rious duties that occupy the time and attention of the other sex. ‘The many
leisure hours which are at the command of females in the superior orders of soci-
ety, may surely be appropriated, with greater satisfaction, to the improvement of
the mind and the acquisition of knowledge, than to such amusements as are
only designed for facilitating the insipid consumption of superfluous time. The
hours thus spent will unquestionably become, by a little habit, as much more
agreeable at the moment, as they must be more capable of affording self-appro-
bation upon reflection. And besides, like the seasoning which reconciled the
Spartans to their uninyitine diet, they will even heighten the relish for those
pursuits which they interrupt; for mental exercise is as necessary to mental
enjoyment, as corporal labor to corporal health and vigor. In this point of
view, the Royal Institution may in some degree supply the place of a subordin-
ate university to those whose sex or situation in life has denied them the advan-
tage of an academical education in the national seminaries of learning.

“ But notwithstanding the necessity of introducing very copiously speculations
of a more general nature, we must not lose sight of the original objects of the
Royal Institution; and we must therefore direct our attention more particularly
to the theory of practical mechanics and of manufactures. In these depart-
ments we shall find some deficiencies which may, without much difficulty, be
supplied from scientific principles; and by an ample collection and display of
models, illustrative of machines and of inventions of all kinds, we may proceed
in the most direct manner to contribute to the dissemination of that kind of
knowledge which is more particularly our object. So that we must be more
practical than academies of science, and more theoretical than societies for the
improvement of arts; while we endeavor at the same time to give stability to
our proceedings by an annual vecurrence to the elementary knowledge which is
subservient to both classes of institutions, and, as far as we are able, to apply
to practice the newest lights which may, from time to time, be thrown on par-
ticular branches of mechanical science. It is thus that we may most effectually
perform what the sophists of antiquity but verbally professed, to bring down
philosophy from the heavens, and make her an inhabitant of the earth.

214 THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

“To those who are engaged in the practical cultivation of various arts condu-
cive to the conveniences of life, these lectures may be of utility by furnishing
them with well-established principles, applicable to a variety of cases which
may occasionally occur to them, when a little deviation from the ordinary rou-
tine of their profession may be necessary. Unfortunately, the hands that exe-
cute are too often inadequately supported by the head that directs; and much
labor is lost for want of a little previous application to the fundamental doc-
trines of the mechanical sciences. Nor is any exorbitant portion of time or
industry necessary for this purpose; for it happens that almost all practical
applications of science depend on principles easily learned. = si af
We may also be able. to render an important service to society, and to confer a
still more essential benefit on individuals, by repressing the premature zeal of
unskilful inventors. We need only read over the monthly accounts of patents
intended for securing the pecuniary advantages of useful discoveries, in order to
be convinced what expense of time and fortune is continually lavished on the
feéblest attempts to innovate and improve. If we can be successful in convine-
ing such inconsiderate enthusiasts of their real ignorance, or if we can show them
that even their own fairy ground has been preoccupied, we may save them from
impending ruin, and may relieve the public from the distraction of having its
attention perpetually excited by unworthy objects. The ridicule attendant on
the name of a projector has been in general but too well deserved; for few,
very few, who have aspired at improvement, have ever had the patience to sub-
mit their inventions to such experimental tests as common sense would suggest
to an impartial observer. We may venture to affirm that out of every hundred
of fancied improvements in arts or in machines, ninety at least, if not ninety-
nine, are either old or useless; the object of our researches is, to enable ourselves
to distinguish and adopt the hundredth. But while we prune the luxuriant
hoots of youthful invention, we must remember to perform our task with len-
ency, and to show that we wish only to give additional vigor to the healthful
branches, and not to extirpate the parent plant.

“The Repository of the Institution, as soon as it can be properly furnished,
will be considered as a supplementary room for apparatus, in which the most
interesting models exhibited and described in the lectures will be placed for
more frequent inspection, and where a few other articles may perhaps deserve
admission, which will not require so particular an explanation. To those who
have profited by the lectures, or who are already too far advanced to stand in
need of them, our rooms for reading and for literary conversation may be a
source of mutual instruction. Our librar y in time must contain all those works
of importance which are too expensive for the private collections of the gener-
ality of individuals, which are necessary to complete the knowledge of partic-
ular sciences, and to which references will occasionally be given in the lectures
on those sciences. Our journals, free from commercial shackles, will present the
public from time to time with concise accounts of the most interesting novelties
in science and the useful artS; and they will furnish a perpetual incitement to
their editors to appropriate, as much as possible, to their own improvement,
whatever is valuable in the publications of their cotemporaries. When all the
advantages which may reasonably be expected from this Institution shall be
fully understood and impartially considered, it is to be hoped that few persons of
liberal minds will be indifferent to its success, or unwilling to contribute to it
and to participate in it.

“'lo that regulation which forbids the introduction of any discussions connected
with the foamed professions I shall always most willingly submit and most
punetually attend. It requires the study of a considerable ‘portion of a man’s
life to qualify him to be of use to mankind in any of them; and nothing can be
more pernicious to individuals or to society than the attempting to proceed prac-
tically upon an imperfect conception of a few first principles only. In physic

THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 215

the wisest can do but little, and the ignorant can only do worse than‘nothing ;
and just as anxiously as we are disposed to seek whatever relief the learned and
experienced may be able to afford us, should we cautiously avoid the mischievous
interference of the half-studied empiric; in politics and in religion, we need but
look back on the history of kingdoms and republics, in order to be aware of the
mischiefs which ensue when ‘ fools rush in where angels fear to tread.’ ”

LX.—COoNTINUATION OF THE INTRODUCTORY LECTURE

“Deeply impressed with the importance of mathematical investigations, both
for the advancement of science and for the improvement of the mind, I thought
it in the first place an indispensable duty to present to the Royal Institution in
my syllabus a connected system of natural philosophy, on a plan seldom if ever
before executed in the most copious treatises. Proceeding from the simplest
axioms of abstract mathematics, the syllabus contains a strict demonstration of
every proposition which I have found it necessar y to employ throughout the
whole extent of natural philosophy. In the astronomical part only, some obser-
vations occur unsupported by mathematical evidence. Here, however, it was as
impracticable as it would have been useless to attempt to enter into ‘investiga-
tions, which in many instances have been extended far beyond the limits even
of Newton’s researches. But for the sake of those who are not disposed to
undertake the labor of following, with mathematical accuracy, all the steps of
the demonstrations on which the doctrines of the mechanical sciences are ‘founded,
I shall endeavor to avoid, in the whole of this course of lectures, every intri-
cacy which might be perplexing to a beginner, and every argument which is
fitter for the closet than for a public theatre. Here I propose to support the
same propositions by experimental proofs; not that I consider such proofs as the
most conclusive, or as more interesting to a truly philosophic mind than a
deduction from general principles, but because there is a satisfaction in discover-
ing the coincidence of theories with visible effects, and because objects of sense
are of advantage in assisting the imagination to comprehend and memory to
retain what, in a more abstracted form, might fail to excite sufficient attention.
This combination of experimental with analogical arguments constitutes the
principal merit of modern philosophy.

“With regard to the mode of delivering these lectures, I shall in general
entreat my Sadionce to pardon the formality, of a written aiccauee in favor of
the advantage of a superior degree of order and perspicuity. It would unques-
tionably be desirable that every syllable advanced should be rendered perfectly
easy and comprehensible, even to the most uninformed ; that the most inattentive
might find sufficient variety and entertainment in what is submitted to them to
excite their curiosity, and that in all cases the pleasing, and sometimes even the
surprising, should be united with the instructive and the important. But when-
ever there appears to be a real impossibility of reconciling these various objects,
I shall esteem it better to seek for substantial utility than temporary amuse-
ment; for if we fail of being useful for want of being sufficiently popular, we
remain at least respectable ; but if we are unsuccessful in our attempts to amuse,
we immediately appear trifling and contemptible. It shall, however, at all times
be my endeavor to avoid each extreme, and I trust that I shall then only be
condemned, when I am found abstruse from ostentation or uninteresting from
supineness. ‘The most difficult thing for a teacher is to recollect how much it
cost himself to learn, and to accommodate his instruction to the apprehension of
the uninformed ; by bearing in mind this observation, I hope to be able to ren-
der my lectures more and more intelligible and familiar ; not by passing over
difficulties, but by endeavoring to facilitate the task of overcoming them; and
if at any time I appear to have failed in this attempt, I shall think myself hon-
ored by any subseqnent inquiries that my audience may be disposed to make.

216 THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

“We have to extend our views over the whole circle of natural and artificial
knowledge, to consider in detail the principles and application of the philosophy
of nature and of art. i x To insist on the propriety of a distinct and
logical order is unnecessary ; for, however superfluous we may deem the scholastic
forms of rhetoric, it is confessedly advantageous to the judgment as well as to
the memory to unite those things which are naturally connected, and to separate
those which are essentially distinct. When a traveller is desirous of becoming
acquainted with a city or country before unknown to him, he naturally begins
by taking from some elevated situation a distant view of the distribution of its
parts; and in the same manner,.before we enter on the particular consideration
of the subjects of our researches, it may be of use to form to ourselves a general
idea of the sciences and arts which are to be placed among them. * * *
The division of the whole course of lectures into three parts was originally sug-
gested by the periodical succession in which the appointed hours reeur; but. it
appears to be more convenient than any other for the regular classification of
the subjects. The general doctrines of motion, and their application to all pur-
poses variable at pleasure, supply the materials of the first two parts, of which
the one treats of the motions of solid bodies, and the other of those of fluids,
including the theory of light. The third part relates to the particular history
of the phenomena of nature, and of the affections of bodies actually existing in
the universe, independently of the art of man; comprehending astronomy, geog-

raphy, and the doctrine of the properties of matter, and of the most eeneral and
powerful’ agents that influence it.*

“The: sy vnthetical order of proceeding, from simple and general principles to
their more intricate combinations in particular cases; is by far the most compen-
dious for conveying information with regard to sciences that are at all referable
to certain fundamental laws. For these laws being once established, each fact,
as soon as it is known, assumes its place in the system, and is retained in the
memory by its relation to the rest asa connecting link. In the analytical mode,
on the contrary, which is absolutely necessary for the first investigation of truth,
we are obliged to begin by collecting a number of insulated circumstances which
lead us back by degrees to the knowledge of original principles, but which, until
we arrive at those principles, are merely : a burden to the memory. or the ple-
nomena of nature resemble the scattered leaves of Sybilline prophecies; a word
only or a single syllable is written on each leaf, w hich, when separately consid-
‘ered, conveys no instruction to the mind; but when by the labor of patient investi-
cation every fragment is replaced in its ‘appropriate connection, the whole begins
at once to speak a perspicuous and harmonious language. : '¢ a

“Before proceeding to the examination of the several parts of our plan, we
must pause to consider the mode of reasoning which is the most generally to be
adopted. It depends on the axiom which has always been essentially concerned
in every improvement of natural philosophy, but which has been more and more
employed, ever since the revival of letters, under the name of induction. ‘That
like causes produce like effects, or that in similar circumstances similar conse-
quences ensue, is the most general and most important law of nature; it is the
foundation of ‘all analogical reasoning, and is collected from constant experience
by an indispensable and unavoidable propensity of the human mind, * * *
In the application of induction, the greatest caution and circumspection are neces-
sary; for it is obvious that before we can infer with certainty the complete simi-
larity of two events, we must be perfectly well assured that we are acquainted

* This third part should include, along with the properties of matter and the particular
action of its particles, the whole of chemical science; but the variety and importance of
the researches of chemistry require a separate and minute discussion, and the novelty as well
as beauty of many of the experiments with which the labors of our contemporaries have
enriched this branch of knowledge, and which will be repeated in the amphitheatre of the
Institution by the professor of chemistry, suffices to make this part of natural philosophy the
most interesting of all the sciences.

THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN 21%

with every circumstance which can have any relation to their causes. The error
of some of the ancient schools consisted principally in want of suflicient precau-
tion in this respect ; for although Bacon is with great justice considered as the
author of the most correct method of induction, yet, according to his own state-

ment, it was chiefly the guarded and gradual application of ‘the mode of areu-
ment "that he labored to introduce. He remarks that the Aristotelians, from a
hasty observation of a few concurring facts, proceeded immediately to deduce

universal principles of science and fundamental laws of nature, and then derived
from these, by their syllogisms, all the particular cases which ought to have been
made intermediate steps in the inquiry. Of such an error we may easily find a
familiar instance. We observe that, in general, heavy bodies fall to the eround,
unless they are supported; it was therefore concluded that all heavy bodies tend
downwards; and since flame was most frequently seen to rise upwards, it was
therefore inferred that flame was naturally and absolutely light. Had sufficient
precaution been employed in, observing the effects of fluids on falling and on
floating bodies, in examining the relations of flame to the circumambient atmo-
sphere, and in ascertaining “the specific gravity of the air at different tempera-
tures, it would readily have been discovered that the ereater w eight of the colder
air was the cause of the ascent of the flame—flame being less heavy than air, but
yet having no positive tendency to ascend. And accordinely the Epicureans,
whose ar. uments, as far as they related to matter and motion, were often more
aceurate than those of their cotemporaries, had corrected this error; for we find
in the second book of Lucretius a very just explanation of the phenomenon :

‘* See with what force yon river’s crystal stream
Resists the weight of many a massive beam.
To sink the wood the more we vainly toil,
The higher it rebounds with swift recoil.
Yet that the beam would of itself ascend
No man will rashly venture to contend,
Thus, too, the flame has weight, though highly Tare,
Nor mounts but when compelled by heavier air.’

“Tt may be proper to notice here those axioms which are denominated by New-
ton rules of philosophizing , although it must be confessed that they render us
very little immediate assistance in our investigations. The first is that ‘no more
causes are to be admitted as existing in nature than are at once true and suflicient
for explaining the phenomena to be considered ;’ the second, ‘therefore effects
of the same kind are to be attributed, as far as possible, to the same causes ;
thirdly, ‘those qualities of bodies which cannot be increased nor doe,
and which are found in all bodies within the reach of our experiments, are to be
considered as general qualities of all bodies existing; fourthly, ‘in experi-
mental philosophy, propositions collected by induction from phenomena are to be
esteemed either accurately or very nearly true, notwithstanding any contrary
hypothesis, until other phenomena occur by which they may either be corrected
or coufuted?

“As an illnstration of the remark that these axioms, though strictly true, are of
little real utility in assisting our investigations, I shall give an instance from the
subject of electricity. Supposing that we wish to determine whether or no the
electric fluid has weight, we are to inquire whether or no gravitation is one of
those properties w hich are described in the third rule, and w ‘hether that rule will
authorize us to apply it to the electric fluid as one of those qualities of bodies,
which cannot be increased or diminished, which are found in all bodies within
the reach of our experiments, and which are therefore to be considered as general
qualities of all bodies existing. Now, it appears to be, in the first place, wncer-
tain. whether or no the increase and diminution of gravity, from a change of dis-
tance, is strictly compatible with the terms of the definition; and in the second
place, we are equally at a loss to decide whether or no the electric fluid can with

218 THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

propriety be called a body, for it appears in some respects to be wholly different
from tangible matter, w hile it has other qualities in common with it. Such are
the difficulties of laying down general laws on so comprehensive a scale that we
shall find it more secure to be contented to proceed gradually by closer induc-
tions in particular cases. We shall, however, be seldom much embarrassed in
the choice of a mode of ar eumentation. The laws of motion, which will be the
first immediate subject of ‘diseussion, have indeed sometimes been referred to
experimental evidence, but we shall be able to deduce them all in a satisfactory
manner, by means of our general axiom, from reasonings purely mathematical,
which, wherever they are applicable, are unquestionably preferable to the imper-
fect evidence of the senses, employed in experimental] investigations.”

X.—SUMMARY OF DR. YOUNG’S COURSE OF LECTURES.

A scientific publication* of that epoch takes the following notice of the work
of we have just been speaking:

“When Dr. Young accepted the chair of physics in the Royal Institution, he
regarded that position as demanding of him something else thee a simple com-
pilation from elementary treatises ; ; consequently he engaged i in researches among
original authorities, in examining ‘attentiv ely and uniting in a single system all
that related to the principles of ‘mechanical science, and all that could contrib-
ute to the improvement of the useful arts. In following this plan he has reduced
the fundamental doctrine of movement to simple mathematical axioms in a more
immediate manner than had before been done, and he has facilitated the appli-
cation of those principles to all the cases which present themselves in practice.
He has investigated by a great number of experiments the force or tenacity of
materials of every kind; a labor of which the results are highly important to
the engineer and the architect. He has simplified, extended and elucidated the
theory of the movement of waves, that of the circulation of the blood, and of
the propagation of sound. He has studied the curvature of images produced by
lenses and mirrors; he has examined in detail the functions of the eye, and rep-
resented in a very comprehensive and very exact manner the phenomena of colored
light; he has also pointed out some new cases of the production of colors. He
has reduced the theory of tides to a very simple form; and his researches on the
cohesion and capillary action of fluids are anterior to those of M. de Laplace.
He has made different comparative experiments on the elasticity of the steam of
boiling water, on evaporation and the hygrometric indications; in fine, his work
is strew n, to a lar ge extent, with new inventions and practical applications. ;

“The second volume begins with the mathematical elements of the physical
sciences. Here are found all the propositions requisite for forming a complete
series of demonstrations applicable to all the important cases w hich occur in that
department of scientific inquiry. ‘The author has excluded only some of the
more complex calculations of astronomy. A considerable portion of the volume
is occupied by a comprehensive catalogue of works relating to physics and the
arts, methodically subdivided, and accompanied with such strictures as, in the

judement of the author, were due to their respective degrees of merit.

XJ.—THE COURSE OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY GIVEN AT THE ROYAL INSTITU-
TION BY DOCTOR DALTON.

After the retirement of Young, Dalton,t the celebrated author of the atomic
theory, was invited to London to give a course of natural philosophy at the

* Nicholson’s Journal. Our extract is derived from the Bibliothéque Britannique, t. xxxvii,
No. 4, April, 1808.

t John Dalton, born September 5, 1766, at Eaglesfield, in Cumberland, died July 27,
1844, at Manchester, where he had passed his life in making chemical analyses for the
manufacturers, the price of which varied from a few shillings toa sovereign, and in giving

THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 219

Institution. He has himself recorded, in a letter to one of his friends, what
_ occurred on this occasion, and the relations which he had borne to Davy. “I
was presented,” he says, “to Mr. Davy, whose rooms at the Royal Institution
adjom mine. Heisa most agreeable and intelligent young man, and of an evening
we have some interesting conversations. His chief defect, as a philosopher, is
that he does not smoke. Mr. Davy advised me to spare no labor on my first
lecture. He told me that the world hereabouts would be disposed to form its
opinions from this introduction : consequently I resolved to write my first lecture
throughout; to do nothing but give a statement of what it was my intention to
under take, and to expatiate on the importance and utility of the science. I studied
and wrote for nearly two days; I then calculated, almost to a minute, the time
which my lecture would occupy, adapting my discourse to a duration of 50 min-
utes. The day before that on which I was to deliver my lecture, Davy and I
repaired, in the evening, to the amphitheatre, where I read my lecture to the end,
while he remained stationed in the farthest corner; next, he read while I repre-
sented the auditory. We then discussed our respective styles. The next day I
read my discourse before a company of 150 to 200 persons, which was more than
had been expected. When I had finished there was general applause, and a
great many of the audience came forward to compliment me. Since that occa-
sion I have rarely written at all, relying solely on experiment and verbal expla-
nation. In general, my experiments have been highly successful, and I have
not once become embarrassed in my statements; so that now, when I enter the
lecture room, I feel scarcely more concern than when I smoke a pipe with you
on Sunday and Wednesday evenings.” ‘To believe, however, an eminent critic,
Dalton must unconsciously have put too high an estimate on a success, of which
the politeness of the audience seems to have defrayed the chief expense, and to
which the simplicity and singularity of the man contributed probably more than
any talent he possessed as a “professor. “Tt would be difficult to conceive,” says
the writer referred to, (Quarterly Review, No. XCVI,) “anything more awk-
ward and inadequate than his manner of treating the great phy sical truths before
him. His experiments in public frequently failed; his delivery was dry, indis-
tinct, and without expression, and he was far from possessing the laneuage and
power of illustration necessary to the professor who deals with the lofty themes
of philosophy, and by means of which Davy and Faraday have shed so brilliant
a light on their great discoveries

Dalton survived Davy and Young, and, in 1830, was chosen to replace the
former as one of the foreign associates of the French Academy of Sciences. In
1832, having gone to Oxford to be present at the meeting of the British Asso-
Giation, he received from the University the diploma of ‘Doctor of Civil Law ;
and hence, modest and simple as he was, a man whose chief pleasures on earth
were the pipe and playing at bowls, he was to be seen, for several days, invested,
whenever he went abroad, with the red robe of the doctorate. He allowed him-
self, at the instance of Mr. Babbage, to be presented at court, and that gentle-
man has recounted for us all the incidents of this grand event in the life of the
philosopher of Manchester. Lord Brougham, at that time Lord Chancellor,
offered his services to make the presentation, and had already spoken of it to the
King; but difficulties supervened. Dalton, in his quality of Quaker, could not
assume the uniform of the court, which would have required him to wear a
sword. It was suggested to dress him in the robe of a. doctor of laws of
Oxford; but red was not a color admissible by Quakers. Luckily, the sight of
Dalton was of such a nature as did not enable him to distineuish colors ; lie
labored under a sort of blindness as regards them. There remained the cap of

lessons on chemistry and mathematics, at the rate of two shillings and a half per hour when
he had but one scholar, and one and a half only for each scholac “when he had two or more.
In 1833, the government had spontaneously granted him a pension of 150 pounds, which
pension was doubled in 1856.

290 THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

velvet; but he was made to observe that the cap was usually carried in the
hand, and that it was rather the sign of a dignity than a covering for the head.
“These difficulties being overcome,” continues Mr. Babbage, “the doctor cama
one morning to breakfast with me. We were alone, and, after breakfast, I
recited the ordinary forms of a levee, and, placing some chairs to represent the
different officers of the reception room, I stationed the doctor in the midst of
the circle to represent the King. I then said to my friend that I would repre-
sent a greater man than the King; that I would personate Dr. Dalton; that
T would enter at the farthest door, make the tour of the circle, and bow before
his Majesty; and that thus he would have an idea of the ceremony in which he
was to take a part. In passing in front of the third chair, before arriving at
the King, I deposited my card on the chair, apprising the doctor that this was
the post of the lord in attendance who took the cards and handed them to the
sueceeding officer, who announces them to the King. In passing before the
philosopher I kissed his hand, and, moving afterwards around the rest of the circle
of chairs, I thus gave him his first lesson as a courtier.” A second rehearsal
having taken place, Dalton made his entrance at Saint James’s in the midst of
an assembly in which figured several of the high dignitaries of the Anglican
church. “I intimated to the bishop of Gloucester,” adds Mr. Babbage, ‘that
T had beside me a Quaker, but at the same time assured him that my peaceable
friend was far from meditating any attempt against the Church. | The effect was
electric on the whole party; Episcopal eyes had never witnessed such, a specta-
cle in such a society, and I am not without apprehension that, notwithstanding
my assurances, some of the prelates may have thought the Church. seriously in
danger.” As to Dalton, he came out of the affair very creditably. The King
addressed to him several questions, to which he replied without being at all
disconcerted.

XI1.—CourSsE OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY BY SYDNEY SMITH.

Sydney Smith, (born 1768, died February 22, 1845,) one of the founders of
the Edinburgh Review, whom we must not confound with the celebrated admiral
of the same name, arrived in London towards the close of 1803. He quickly
became noted as a preacher, and obtained great consideration in the highest soci-
ety. The directors of the Institution were at that time, as they have never
ceased to be, on the watch for all talents capable of reflecting lustre on their
establishment; they invited Smith to give a course of moral philosophy, embrac-
ing all the operations of the mind. “I did not know,” said he,* forty years
afterwards, “the first words of moral philosophy, but I had need of 200 pounds
to furnish my house. The success was prodigious.” Smith is pleased to exag-
erate his ignorance. He had passed five years at Edinburgh, and had enjoyed
opportunities of hearing Dugald Stewart and Thomas Brown in their favorite
science.

The first course commenced in November, in 1804, the second was delivered
in the spring of 1805, and the third the following year. Conversation, during
the winter of 1804-1805, turned scarcely on anything else but the young
Roscius and his lectures. He had from 600 to 800 auditors, (Quarterly Review,
No. xcvii.) Yet, if we are to believe the celebrated Review founded by Sydney
Smith, it would be impossible to conceive an assembly less prepared to compre-
hend the mysteries of the understanding than a metropolitan audience at that
epoch.t

* Letter addressed to Dr. Whewell in 1843. Quarterly Review, No. xcvii.

t Edinburgh Review, No. xci. The lectures of Sydney Smith have been published in 1849,
at London, under the title: Elementary Sketches of Moral Philosophy, delivered at the Royal
Institution, in the years 1804, 1805, and 1806.

THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. vA

XIII.—BRANDE, THE SUCCESSOR OF DAVY, AT THE ROYAL INSTITUTION

It has been seen that Davy gave his last lecture at the Royal Institution April
9, 1812, but did not resign the chair till a year afterwards. In the interval, Mr.
W. T. Brande (born at London January 11, 1788) was invited by the directors
to prepare a course of trial lectures, which was delivered in 1813, and was
immediately followed by his nomination to the vacant chair. The same year
Copley’s s medal was awarded to him by the Royal Society for his communica-
tions on the alcohol contained in fermented liquors, and other memoirs published
in the Philosophical Transactions. In 1816 he replaced Walloston as one of the
secretaries of the Royal Society, and occupied that post, for which he had been
designated by Wollaston himself, till 1826.

Mr. Brande has been successively superintendent of the chemical operations
at the College of Pharmacists, in London, professor at the Royal Institution, and
warden at the English Mint. He resioned his chair at the Institution March
16, 1852, and gave his last lecture April 3. The following are the terms in
which he took leave of his auditors :

“YT have aimed in this course to show the intimate relation which exists
between abstract science and the useful arts, between the refinements of modern
chemistry and the improved and extended condition of some of our principal
manufactures ; and having terminated that course, it remains for me to take
leave of you.’ I can say “conscientiously that it is with reluctance that I quit
my chair, but the hoarseness to which I am subject has, for some time, so interfered
with my lectures, and is so evidently aggravated by the exertion of speaking,
that the measure has become, if not a necessity, at least an aet of prudence.

“YT have been officially attached to the Institution for a period of 40 years.
During the greater part of that time, from 1815 to 1848, I gave also a series of
lectures and demonstrations on theoretical and practical chemistry in the labor-
atory beneath us. They were designed for students of every kind, and took
place three times a week, from October to May. 'Thev were the first lectures
given in London in which the attempt was made to embrace so extensive a view
of chemistry and its applications, comprising technical, mineralogical, geological
and medical chemistry ; and I recur to them with “arnt satisfaction, Hecause ig
can legitimately claim for them the merit of having sustained the ] plan of this
Institution and added to its usefulness; of having aided in ates the knowl-
edge and love of science, to-day so general ; of having done this for students of
every grade and of all classes; and “of having thus fulfilled one of our principal
objects.

“As regards the lectures which are given in this amphitheatre, I will not dis-
semble that I relinquish them with regret. ‘The instruction here given in chem-
istry has to me been always a pleasure; and it has not been nor can it be
granted to more than a very few to teach it with success, and to such an audi-
tor y, for so long a period. * * * Other thoughts still press upon me, when
I look back upon the long years which I have ‘passed within these walls. I
rejoice that I leave the Institution more prosperous, in all respects, than at any
former epoch; its scientific reputation better established, its foundation more
solid, its halls more frequented, its usefulness better recognized; and I cannot
but see in it a fruitful source of the popularity of science, and the extension of
schools destined tor scientific instruction, features which so eminently distinguish
the present age, and which are especially manifest in this powerful metropolis.
* * * “When I regard the Royal Institution under a personal point of view,
T reverence it as my alia mater, where, while yet a scholar, I listened to the
pregnant eloquence of Davy, before I enjoyed his acquaintance and shared his
friendship; where I was distinguished by the patronage of Sir Joseph Banks;
where I was chosen by Wollaston to succeed himself as secretary of the Royal

Dae THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Society ; where I have been frequently brought into contact with the chiefs of
science, of literature, and of art; where Faraday became my pupil, my col-
league, and my friend.”

Mr. Brande was named honorary professor, and the chair of chemistry was
given, in 1863, to Mr. Edward Frankland.

XIV. — Mr. FARADAY. — HIS OUTSET IN LIFE.—HIS RESEARCHES AND
LECTURES.

Mr. Faraday (Michael) was born in 1794, at Newington. His father, who
was a farrier in narrow circumstances, early apprenticed him to a book-binder of
London. At spare moments, the young Michael occupied himself with the con-
struction of the instruments of physics; he even succeeded in making an electrical
machine. It occurred one day to his master to show these objects to a customer
of his, Mr. Dance; and the latter was so much pleased with them that he pro-
cured for this apprentice, at once book-binder and physicist, permission to attend
the four last lectures of Davy at the Royal Institution, of which Mr. Dance
himself was one of the earlier members. Faraday, seated in the gallery, heard
with attention and took notes; so that he was able to write out the lectures and
send them to Davy, with a brief and modest mention of himself and a request
to be employed in the operations of the laboratory of the Institution. Davy
was struck with the perspicuity and accuracy of the memoir, and, having satis-
fied himself of the talents and industry of the author, offered him, at the begin-
ning of 1813, the place of assistant, w hich had become vacant at the Institution.
Faraday promptly accepted it, and, at the close of the year, accompanied Davy
to the continent in the capacity of confidential secretary. On his return to
London, in 1815, he resumed his functions at the Royal Institution, of which he
was named director in 1825, and two years afterwards became one of the pro-
fessors in ordinary.

The scientific researches of Mr. Faraday date from 1820. ‘They have been
conducted, like those of Davy, in the laboratory of the Institution, at the cost
of the establishment, and without any assistance on the part of the state. He
has himself indicated their principal object in a few lines :

“T had early conceived the opinion, I may even say the conviction, that the differ-
ent forms under which the forces of matter manifest themselves have a common
origin; or, in other words, have so direct a relation towards and dependence
upon one another, that they are in some sort convertible among themselves and
possess equivalents of power in their action.”

His efforts have, therefore, been directed towards the reciprocal relations of
heat, hight, magnetism, and electricity ; and he has succeeded in demonstrating
that, io, a een point, the imponderable bodies, as they were heretofore called,
are so many different manifestations of one and the same force. ‘To speak noe
only of light, it may be mentioned that, after several abortive trials which failed
to shake a conviction founded on philosophic considerations, he has succeeded
in magnetizing and clectrifying a ray of light, and in illuminating a magnetic
line of force.

Nor are these the sole researches of Mr. Faraday, though to them his name
has become more especially attached.

“'The memoirs which he has published on other subjects,* and his public
lectures, evince the extent of his inquiries. His rare merit as a professor is
attested by the thousands of persons who flock every year to hear him. Pos-
terity will applaud the ardor with which he has always embraced philosophic
truths, without allowing any unworthy jealousy, as so often happens, to distort

* Mr. Faraday has succeeded in liquefying and even solidifying several gases regarded as
permanent; among others, carbonic acid.

THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 2935

them in his eyes; nor will it fail to recognize in him a penetrating and exact
reasoner, endowed with powers of imagination which communicate a degree of
poetic vigor to his conceptions ; a genius of extraordinary resources when « exper-
iments are to be devised for realizing his ideas, and singularly skilful in execut-
ing them; a scientific writer, clear, candid, and judicious, and often rising to
eloquence, when the orandeut of the subject is capable of inspiring Site
siasm.”— Quarterly Revi iew, No. LX XIX.

Mr. Faraday received from the University of Oxford the degree of doctor of
laws, in 1832, the same year when it was conferred on Dalton. He is one of
the eight foreign associates of the French Academy of Sciences, as were also
his distinguished predecessors, Davy, Young, Dalton, and Count Rumford, the
founder of the establishment. He is regarded, in England, as the boast and
stay, decus et tutamen, of the Royal Institution.

XV.—MnR. JOHN TYNDALL, PROFESSOR OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY SINCE 1853.

The professor of natural philosophy at the Institution has, from 1853, been
Mr. John Tyndall, doctor in philosophy of the University of Marburg. He
was born at London, July 21, 1820, and pursued his studies at Marburg and
Berlin; he is known as the author of numerous researches on the glaciers, and
a work entitled Heat Considered as a Mode of Movement, a course of twelve
lectures delivered at the Royal Institution, and which has been translated into
French by the Abbé Moigno.

The theory set forth in these lectures considers heat as an effect of a move-
ment of vibration communicated to the molecules of bodies. Count Rumford,
who was the originator of this theory, “recognized a proof of it in the continual
production of heat which takes place from movement. The boring of a bronze
cannon, for instance, in a short time throws the water into ebullition, and this
ebullition lasting as long as the movement which produced it, he found it difh-
cult to conceive how, in such a case, a matter of any kind could be disengaged ;
for then it would necessarily be inexhaustible.” (G. Cuvier, Hloge Historique de
Rumford.) ‘The moleentar movement may be generated by friction, percussion,
and compression, as well as by combustion. The mutual convertibility of heat
and mechanical action has been demonstrated, and it is practicable to calculate
the mechanical equivalent of heat, by which is to be understood the weight which,
raised to the height of one metre, is the equivalent of the heat necessary to
raise by one degree centigrade the temperature of a kilogram of water.*
XVI.—CHAIRS FOUNDED AT THE ROYAL INSTITUTION BY MR. JOHN FULLER.—

THE PRIZE FOUNDED BY MRS. ACTON.—THE PRESENT ORGANIZATION OF

THE INSTITUTION.

In 1833 Mr. John Fuller founded, at the Royal Institution, two chairs, one
of chemistry, the other of physiology ; the former was given for life to Mr.
Faraday ; the incumbent of the latter is elected every third year. ‘The two
professors bear the name of I’ullerian Professor, from the name of the founder.
In 1838, Mrs. Acton invested the sum of £1,000, trom the interest of which
the Institution is to award, once in seven years, 100 guineas to the author of
the best essay on the benevolence of the Almighty as manifested by scientific
discoveries.

The Royal Institution of Great Britain is under the patronage of Queen Vic-
toria. The charter granted it by George III, in 1800, was confirmed and
extended, in 1810, by act of Parliament. ‘It is an association of persons devoted

* The labor which consists in raising 425 kilograms to the height of a metre is capable
of being produced by the quantity of heat requisite to raise by one degree the temperature
of a kilogram of water: in other words, 425 kilogrammetres are equivalent to a caloric.

224 THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

to science and desirous of promoting its progress; its principal objects being:
(1) To stimulate to scientific and literary researches; (2) to teach the princi-
ples of inductive and experimental science ; (3) to show the application of these
principles to the diferent arts of life; (4) to afford opportunities for study. It
comprises :

1. Public lectures, designed to supply what books or private instruction can
rarely give, namely, experimental exhibitions, comprehensive designs or detailed
descriptions of objects connected with science or art. They usually embrace a
short course at Christmas,* and at least six courses, before and after Easter, the
season extending from the middle of January to the middle of June. ‘The
usual subjects of these courses are some of tle branches of the science of induc-
tion, such as mechanics, chemistry, heat, light, electricity, astronomy, geology,
botany, and physiology. ‘There are also, on occasion, courses upon ‘subjects of
general interest, such as literature, the fine arts, and music.}

2. Weekly meetings of the members of the Institution. These meetings take
place every Friday evening during the season. They were established in 1826,
the members having each the privilege of introducing two of his friends by
ticket!‘ The object. of these reunions is to bring into contact men of letters and
savants, and to furnish the opportunity of communicating, by discourses in the
amphitheatre, either new views or new applications of known truths, or of
demonstrating experimentally and of rendering familiar by description new
results which have been recently recorded in the scientific memoirs of philosophic
societies. Extracts from these discourses, prepared by the speakers, are printed
in the Proceedings of the Royal Institution, a copy of which is sent to each
member. ‘The P) ‘oceedings began to appear in 1851; they constitute a sequel
to the Journals of the Institution, which began to be published in 1802, but
had undergone long interruptions.

3. A laboratory, for the cultivation and advancement of the chemical and

electrical sciences, by means of original investigations and experiments. It is
in this laboratory that the researches of Davy and of Faraday, as has been
already said, were made, embracing a period of more than half a century.

4. A lib ary of about 33 ,000 volumes, comprising the best editions of the
Greek and Latin writers and of the fathers of the Church ; histories of the Eng-
lish counties ; works of science and literature, of art and archeology ; memoirs
of the principal scientific academies and institutions of the world, with numerous
historical and other treatises.

5. A reading hall for study. Were are to be found various series of memoirs
and scientific publications, whether English, French, German, or Italian, and a
ue number of works relating to the natural, medical and mathematical sciences.

A reading-room for journals, furnished with the principal reviews, maga-
at and journals of England, France, and Germany. ‘The Institution sub-
scribes to a circulating library w vith the view of giving the members an. oppor-
ay of seeing the newest works as soon as published.

“A museum, containing a large selection of specimens of mineralogy and
Becisoy: collected by Davy, Hatchett, Wollaston, &c., and much of the original
apparatus employed by Cavendish, Davy, Faraday, and others who have ‘been

* This course has been long given by Mr. Faraday; it was specially designed for a juve-
nile audience and comprised six lectures, the subjects of which for the years 1857-58 to
1860-61 were: Static electricity ; the properties of metals; the different forces of matter ;
the chemical theory of a candle.

+ Of these courses those which have obtained most success in late years are : a course in
nine lectures on the History of Italy in the Middle Ages, given in 1858 by M. Lacaita ; and
a course in nine lectures on the Science of Language, ¢ eiven in 1861 by M. Max Muller, and
which has been printed and translated into F rench.

{ This is the enumeration for 1863 ; it must be now much greater. A new catalogue of
the library, accompanied by an index of authors and subjects, has been published by the
keeper, Mr. Vincent. It includes a chronological list of pamphlets, dating from the reign
of James I.

THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 225

professors of the establishment; together with many other objects, given in
great part by the members.

The collection of minerals dates from the year 1804. In a review of that
period, ( Bibliothéque Britannique, t. xxviii, 1805,) it is said, with reference to
the Institution :

“This establishment has not ceased to extend and prosper. A considerable
fund has been destined for a library, and, last year, a sum of £4,000 was pro-
cured by private subscription for the purpose of forming a mineralogical collec-
tion, to be attached to the establishment under certain conditions, with a labora-
tory exclusively intended for the regular assay of mines. The first idea of this
useful undertaking is due to Messrs. Gieville, St. Aubyn, and Hume, distin-
guished amateurs of mineralogy and well known onthe continent. ‘They remark
in their prospectus that, while on one hand the private working of mines is con-
ducted in England with a combination of pecuniary, mechanical and chemical
means of which no other country affords an equivalent, on the other hand there
exists not a state in Europe where persons desirous of being instructed in this
important branch of human knowledge find so little help in public institutions.
This consideration leads them to propose to form by subscription: 1, a scientific
collection of minerals on a large scale, comprising the most recent discoveries,
and arranged in the order best adapted for offering complete sets and all the
most interesting facts in mineralogy; 2, an office or bureau of assay, exclusively
destined to the advancement of mineralogy and metallurgy. Each of these two
establishments shall be conducted by a man of the first merit in his line and
entirely devoted thereto, a condition necessary for the progress of science, for,
although private and occasional researches may produce some interesting dis-
coveries, the perseverance, which is always crowned by success, can only be
expected from a savant exclusively devoted to this particular branch of study.”

* * * * # # #

Thus it would seem to have been in contemplation to annex to the Royal
Institution something lixe a school of mines; but this project was abandoned for
want of encouragement on the part of the guvernment and the proprietors of
mines.

XVII.—CoNnTINUATION OF THE PRESENT ORGANIZATION—THE FINANCIAL
SITUATION.

The imembers,* after having been regularly presented, are balloted for, the
iby S is Tiel abt ee 2
first Monday in each month, and pay at their admission 10 guineas, (five guineas
J ’ pay oe 8 ) S
as a first annual payment, and five as a contribution to the fund of the library,)
or 60 guineas in place of all payments. They are admitted to all the lectures
given at the Institution, the libraries, the museum, the meetings on Friday, and
have the right of voting at the monthly reunions. ‘They can also introduce,
by ticket, two friends to each of the weekly evening meetings, and their fami-
A y) ag vi bo) Loop ai
lies have the privilege of attending the lectures at reduced prices. Further
P S eh NS : : )
by means of a supplementary subscription of 20 guineas once paid, or three
guineas a year, each member can introduce personally or by written order a
visitor to each public lecture.

The annual subscribers to the Institution pay five guineas, with an additional
guinea to the library fund, at the time of their admission. They are admitted
to all the public lectures given in the amphitheatre of the Institution, to the

eran: S Ae a
libraries and the journal-room, but they have not the privilege of being present
? fo} Ss P

*The Royal Institution counted, in 1863, 17 honorary members, the Prince of Wales,
the King of Wurtemberg, the Prince of Hesse, and 14 learned foreigners, among whom
are M. Plateau, professor at the University of Ghent, and Ad. Quetelet, both elected in 1849.
The Prince of Wales was elected, in 1863, vice-patron of the Institution, to replace the
prince consort, Albert, who had exercised the same functions since 1843, and who had been
assiduous in his attendance on the lectures and soirées of Friday.

15 $ 67

226 THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

at the evening reunions. The widows of members, and the sons and daughters
of the same, if above the age of 21, are admitted for the season to all the
courses and to the museum on the payment of one guinea; and to each special
course on the payment of a half-guinea for each course. 'The sebscribers to the
courses pay two guineas for all the courses, extending from Christmas to mid-
summer, and a guinea for each special course. For the Christmas courses,
youths below 16 years pay each a half-guinea.

The members of the Royal Institution meet 1st of May in general assembly
to hear the annual report of the visitors on the condition of the establishment,
to revise the accounts, and to elect a president, treasurer, secretary, fifteen direct-
ors, and as many visitors, The vice-presidents, six in number, are chosen by
the president from among the directors. ‘The treasurer may also be designated
for this office.

The property of the institute—consisting of buildings valued at £15,000;
furniture, £1,400; library, £6,500; laboratory and mechanical apparatus,
£1,400; collection of minerals, €300—was estimated, December 31, 1862, at
a suin of £24,600, (615,000 francs.) It possessed at the same period a capital
ot £29,341 (783,525 francs) vested in consols. This capital, which amounted,
December 31, 1857, to but £25,166, had risen to £30,108 at the end of 1862.
At this last date the total annual revenue of the Institution amounted to £5,532,

The expense of the public courses for 1862 amounted to £670, of which
£453 were paid to professors other than those attached to the establishment.
These latter received: The professor of natural philosophy, who lodges in the
establishment, £300; the Fullerian professor of chemistry, who also lodges in
the establishment, £96, besides £350 which he receives as director of the labor-
atory; the Fullerian professor ef physiology, £96. We have not ascertained
the amount of the salary paid the professor of chemistry, who is remunerated
by the Institution.

MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE’ AND WORKS.

BY PROFESSOR A. DE LA RIVE.*

Science has just lost one c* its most eminent and faithful representatives.
Faraday died on Sunday, the 25th of August, 1867, at Hampton Court. He
was born on the 24th of September, 1791, ‘at Newington Butts, near London.
In 1804, at the age of 13, he was apprenticed to a bookbinder, i in whose work-
shop he remained eight years. So many books passed through his hands that
he could not resist the temptation of opening and reading some of them.
These readings, performed in the evenings after the work of the day was
finished, gave him a taste for study, and in particular for that of the sciences.
The Encyclopedia Britannica first of all introduced him to some notions of elec-
tricity ; and it was afterwards, from the works of Mrs. Marcet, that he derived
his first knowledge of chemistry. His labors received their permanent direc-
tion from this opening ; their essential objects were electricity and chemistry.

“Do not fancy,” he said to me ina lettert of the 2d of October, 1858, in
which he gives me these details, “that I was a profound thinker er a precocious
child; I had merely a good deal of life and imagination, and the tales of the

Thousand and One Nights pleased me as much as the Encyclopedia Britannica.
‘But what saved me was the importance I early attached to facts. In reading
Mrs. Marcet’s book on chemistry, I took care to prove every assertion by the
little experiments which I made as far as my means permitted ; and the enjoy-
ment which I found in thus verifying the exactitude of the facts contributed
essentially to give me a taste for chemical know ledge. You may therefore
easily imagine “the pleasure I experienced when I subsequently made the per-
sonal acquaintance of Mrs. Marcet, and how delighted I was when my thoughts
went backward to contemplate in her at once the past and the present. When-
ever I presented her with a copy of my memoirs I took care to add that I sent
them to her as a testimony of my gratitude to my first instructress.”

“TY have the same sentiments towards the memory of your own father,” adds
Faraday, “for he was, I may say, the first who encouraged and sustained me,
first at Geneva, when I had the pleasure of seeing him there, and afterwards
by the correspondence which I regularly maintained with him.”

Faraday here alludes to a journey in which he accompanied Davy to Geneva
in 1814, and in which, during a stay which he made with his illustrious master
at my father’s, the latter quickly discerned the merits of the young assistant,
and formed relations with him which were interrupted only by death. At the
time when he travelled with Davy, Faraday was his assistant at the Royal
Institution in London; and I must say that he has more than once expressed.
to me, both by letter and viva voce, his thankfulness to the eminent chemist
who had admitted him to one of his courses, and consented, after running
through the notes of this course prepared by the young pupil, to take him for
his assistant.

After the journey just referred to, Faraday, with the exception of rare and

* Translated from the Bibliothéque Universelle, October 25, 1867, Arch. des Sci., pp. 131-
176.

t This letter was addressed to me on the occasion of the death of Mrs. Marcet, and the
notice which I was about to publish on this distinguished woman. (See Bibl. Univ., nouvelle
série, 1858, vol. iii.)

228 MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS.

short absences, never again quitted the Royal Institution, where he had his
laboratory and his residence. Married to a lady worthy of him, and who shared
and understood all his impressions and all his sentiments, he passed a life
equally peaceful and modest. He refused all the honorary distinctions which
the government of his country wished to confer upon him; he contented him-
self with a moderate salary and with a pension of £300 sterling, which fully
sufliced for his wants ; and accepted nothing supplementary to this except the
enjoyment, during the summer, in the latter: years of his life, of a country house
at Hampton Court, which the Queen of England graciously placed at his dis-
posal,

Without children, a complete stranger to polities or to any kind of adminis-
tration except that of the Royal Institution, which he directed as he would have
directed his own house, having no interest but that of science, and no ambition
but that of advancing it, Faraday was of all savants the one most completely
and exclusively devoted to the investigation of scientific truth of which the
present century offers us an example.

One may easily understand what must be produced under such circumstances
by a life thus wholly consecrated to science, when to a strong and vigorous intel-
lect is joined a most brilliant imagination. Every morning Faraday went into
his laboratory as the man of business goes to his office, and “then tried by experi-
ment the truth of the ideas which he had conceived overnight, as ready to give
them up if experiment said 70, as to follow out the consequences with rigorous
logic if experiment answered yes. His every-day labor experienced no interrup-
tion except the few hours which he devoted from time to time to the exposition
in the theatre of the Royal Institution, before an audience equally numerous
and select, of certain parts of physics and chemistry. Nothing can give a
notion of the charm which he imparted to these improvised lectures, in which
he knew how to combine animated and often eloquent language with a judgment
and art in his experiments which added to the clearness and elegance of his
exposition. He exerted an actual fascination upon his auditors; and when,
after having initiated them into the mysteries of science, he terminated his lec-
ture, as he was in the habit of doing, by rising into regions far above matter,
space, and time, the emotion which he experienced did not fail to communicate
itself to those who listened to him, and their enthusiasm had no longer any
bounds.

Faraday was, in fact, thoroughly religious, and it would be a very imperfect
sketch of his life which did not insist upon this peculiar feature which charac-
terized him. His Christian convictions occupied a great place in the whole of
lis being ; and he showed their power and sincerity by the conftrmity of his
iife to his principles. It was not in arguments derived from science that he
sought the evidences of his faith; he found them in the revealed truths at
which he saw that the human mind could not arrive by itself alone, even though
they are in such great harmony with that which is taught by the study of
nature and the marvels of creation. Faraday had long and justly perceived
that scientific data, so movable and variable, cannot suffice to give to man a
solid and impregnable basis for his religious convictions; but he at the same
time showed by his example that the best answer which the man of science can
give to those who assert that the progress of science is incompatible with these
convictions, is to say to them, And yet I am a Chistian.

The sincerity of his Christianity appeared in his actions as much as in his
words. The simplicity of his life, the rectitude of his character, the active
benevolence which he displayed in his relations with others, gained him general
esteem and affection. Always ready to render services, he could quit his labo-
ratory when his presence elsewhere was necessary to a friend or useful to
humanity. We see him putting his knowledge under contribution both for
inquiries upon questions of public health or industrial applications, and to give

MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS. 229

practical advice to an artisan or examine the discovery of a débutant in the sci-
entific career. Only, as I have already said, with these exceptions, he made it
a rule not to allow himself to be turned aside from the labors to which he had
consecrated his life by occupations of another kind, or by those pretended duties
of society which waste time, abridge intellectual life, (already so short,) and
very often leave nothing behind them but emptiness and regret. It was not
that he could not be eminently sociable when necessary, or that he did not
allow himself some relaxations when, fatigued with work, he needed some
repose. But these were only accidental circumstances in his life, which was so
exclusively devoted to his laboratory.

The scientific career of Faraday was equally fortunate and complete. Named
as early as 1823 a correspondent of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, he was
called in 1844 by this same academy to ocenpy one of its eight foreign asso-
ciateships, after having been associated successively with all the learned bodies
of Europe and America. He was by no means insensible to these scientific
honors, which he accepted with genuine satisfaction, whilst he constantly refused
every other kind of honorary distinction.

But it is time to commence the more important part of this notice, that which
is to be devoted to the examination of the works of Faraday. Only I may,
perhaps, be allowed, before speaking of the works themselves, to say a few
words of the manner in which Faraday worked.

Is it true that the man of science who wishes to interrogate nature must set
himself face to face with his apparatus, make them act to derive facts from
them, and wait until these facts have appeared, in order to deduce their conse-
quences, and all without any preconceived idea? Most certainly the philoso-
pher who could advance such an opinion has never experimented, and in any
case this method has never been that of discoverers ; it was assuredly not the
one adopted by Faraday.

There is a second method also which was not his, although it is truly worthy
of attention, and often fertile of results. This consists in taking up known
phenomena and studying them with great precision, carefully determining all
the elements and numerical data, so as to deduce therefrom the laws which
govern thein, and often also to show the inexactitude of the laws to which they
were supposed to be subjected. This method requires great previous study,
great practical talent in the construction of apparatus, remarkable sagacity in
the inter pretation of the results furnished by experiment, and, lastly, much per-
severance and patience. It is true that it leads with certainty to a result ; and
this is its good side ; but the difheult concétions which it imposes are so many
obstacles which prevent its being generally followed, except by the highest
intellects.

A third method, very different from the last mentioned, is that which, quitting
the beaten track, leads, as if by inspiration, to those oreat discoveries which open
new horizons to science. This method in order to be fertile requires one condi-
tion—a condition, it is true, which is but rarely met with—namely, genius.
Now this condition existed in Faraday. Endowed, as he himself perceived, with
much imagination, he dared to advance where many others would have recoiled ;
his sagacity, joined to an exquisite scientific tact, by furnishing him with a pre-
sentiment of the possible, prevented him from wandering into the fantastic.
Still always wishing for facts, and accepting theories with difficulty, he was
nevertheless more or less directed by preconceived ideas, which, whet her true or
false, led him into new roads, where most frequently he found what he sought,
sometimes, indeed, what he did not seek, but where he constantly met with some
enon a discovery.

Such a method, if indeed it can be called one, although barren and even
dangerous with mediocre minds, produced great things in Faraday’s hands—
thanks, as we have said, to his genius, but thanks, also, to that love of truth

230 MCIHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS.

which characterized him, and which preserved him from the temptation so often
experienced by every discoverer, of seeing what he wishes to see and not seeing
what he dreads.

The works which have issued from his brain, so well organized, are numerous
and varied; they relate essentially, as we have already stated, to chemistry and
electricity. Those on the latter subject are by far the most numerous and import-
ant; we shall, therefore, devote to them the greater part of this notice, after giv-
ing ‘a summary exposition of the others.

T. In 1816, Davy received a specimen of native caustic lime from 'Tuscany.
He gave it to Faraday for analysis, and found that the account given was so
perfect that he had it printed, and accompanied it with some observations. This
success, by giving Faraday confidence in his own strength, encouraged him to
attempt other original researches. He published (in 1817 and 1818) an investi-
gation of the passage of gases through narrow tubes, from which it appeared

that the velocity of the flow of elastic fluids does not depend upon their density
alone, but also upon their individual nature. Various other points of chemistry
and physics, besides those which had electricity and magnetism for their object,
attracted his attention from time to time throughout the whole of his scientific
career. Now we have a note upon the combustion of the diamond; then an
investigation of the sounds produced by the combustion of gases, or by the super-
position of a strongly-heated iron rod upon a mass of copper at the ordinary tem-
perature, (‘Lrevelyan’s s experiment ;) and then, again, researches upon the limit
of vaporization, or upon the evaporation of mercury at low temperatures. We
may notice two important memoirs—one upon the explanation of certain optical
illusions produced by bodies in motion, the other describing some new acoustic
figures proceeding from the vibrations of the stratum of air in contact with the
surface of vibrating plates. His elegant discovery of regelation (that is to say,
of the power possessed by two fre agments of ice when brought together to become
amalgamated by the fact of their simple contact at a temperature above 32° Fah-
renheit) followed into its consequences as it has been by Tyndall, has had a
much greater influence than perhaps he ever expected. In all these notices , even
the least important of them, we find an original idea, a new and striking point
of view, which enables us at once to recognize Faraday. And, in connection
with this, how can we omit to mention his simple and clear explanation of table-
turning, and the i ingenious experiment by which he so clearly shows the muscu
lar efforts made unconsciously by the persons who, by laying their hands upon
the table, cause its movement ?

Let us now dwell for a few moments upon some researches of longer dura-
tion, the publication of which preceded, and also in great part accompanied, his
great works on electricity.

In 1820 Faraday described two new compounds of chlorine and carbon.
One of them is solid, transparent, and colorless ; it crystallizes in little prisms
and in lamina, and is obtained by exposing to the direct action of the sun bicar-
bonated hydrogen gas with a large proportion of chlorine. The other contains
less chlorine ; it is liquid and colorless, possesses great density, and is prepared
by passing the former through an incandescent tube, from which chlorine is set
free. The discovery of these two compounds filled up an important gap in the
history of chemistry.

Subsequently, (in 1825,) by the compression of the gas obtained from coal,
Faraday obtained a new compound, which, no less interesting than the preced-
ing from a scientific point of view, had besides a great industrial importance.
This was a bicarburet of hydrogen in a liquid state, which was found to be a
mixture of several compounds endowed with various degrees of volatility, and
which could be separated by distillation. Every one knows the advantage, in
the production of colors, derived from this by the illustrious chemist Hofmann,
when he extracted aniline from it.

MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS. 231

The discovery of this bicarburet of hydrogen was only an incident in the
researches which Faraday had undertaken in 1823, upon the condensation of
gases into liquids. His mode of operation in this investigation consisted in
placing in one extremity of a recurved tube, closed at both ends, the necessary
ingredients for the production of the gas, and plunging the other extremity in a
freezing mixture. 'The gas, evolved in a closed space, speedily condensed into
a liquid state in the refrigerated extremity of the tube. In this way chlorine,
sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, protoxide of nitrogen,
cyanogen, ammonia, and hydrochloric acid were successively reduced to a liquid
state. With the exception of chlorine, all these liquefied gases were colorless
and perfectly transparent ; and all of them had a refractive power superior to
that of water. 'The attempts made to reduce the other gases, especially hydro-
gen, oxygen, and nitrogen to a liquid state were fruitless. ‘Twenty years later
(in 1844) Faraday resumed these experiments by directly condensing the gases
by mechanical processes in very strong and hermetically sealed tubes, retrige-
rating them by means of the mixture of ether with solid carbonic acid pro-
duced by Thilorier’s method. The condensation could be brought to fifty
atmospheres, and the lowering of temperature to —166°F., or 110°C. below 0°.
In this way Faraday succeeded in liquefying, besides the gases which I have
already mentioned, olefiant gas, phosphuretted hydrogen, and arseniuretted
hydrogen, as also fluosilicic acid ; but he did not succeed in solidifymg them.
On the other hand, by applying his new process to the gases which he had pre-
viously liquefied, he brought them not only to a liquid state, but even to that
of transparent and crystalline solids; hydrochloric gas alone of these latter
would not become solid, whilst hydriodic and hydrobromic gas were successively
liquefied and solidified.

It is easy to understand all the importance of an investigation the result of
which was to modify completely the received ideas as to the constitution of the
permanent gases by causing them to enter into the category of simple vapors ;
this was to introduce into molecular physics a new and important notion, the
consequences of which have gradually unfolded themselves.

It is also to a question of molecular physics that we must refer the memoir
on the relations of gold and the other metals to light, published by Faraday in
1857. Among other interesting facts that this memoir contains, we shall cite
that of a leaf of beaten gold, which, when placed upon a plate of glass,
becomes perfectly transparent and colorless when it is brought to a high tem-
perature, and which, when seen by transmitted light, resumes its green color
when it is subjected to strong pressure. A great number of experiments upon
the pulverulent deposits of various metals obtained by electrical discharges
transmitted through very fine wires, led to remarkable results as to the varia-
tions of color arising from change in the molecular state of the same body. We
also find in this memoir a detailed investigation of the various colors presented
by different solutions of gold, and especially of the fine ruby-red tinge obtained
by the solution of a quantity of gold which, if agglomerated into a single mass,
would not occupy the seven-bundred-thousandth part of the volume of water
which it colors. It is not necessary to dwell upon the interest presented by
researches having for their object the study of the influence, still so imperfectly
known, of the molecular structure of bodies upon their relations to light, and
especially upon their transparency.

Among the numerous works of Faraday relating to the applications of sci-
ence to the arts, we shall confine ourselves to citing his researches upon the
manufacture of steel, and of glass for optical purposes, these being the most
important.

It was by the analysis of the Indian steel called qwootz that he was led, in
concert with Stodart, to compose an alloy which had all the properties of this,
by combining aluminium with iron and carbon. In a letter addressed in 1520

232 MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS.

to Professor De la Rive,* he relates all the attempts made by his collaborateur
and himself during two years of persevering labor, to discover the most satis-
factory alloys. He indicates, as one of the best, that of rhodium and steel,
and, as presenting curious peculiarities, that of steel and silver; this last alloy
does not become a true combination unless the silver only forms one five-hun-
dredth part of it. Platinum, on the contrary, combines in all proportions with
steel, but it does not furnish so good an alloy as rhodium and silver for the con-
struction of cutting-instruments.

Although interesting in many respects, the results which Faraday obtained
in his great investigation of the alloys of steel were not proportionate in their
importance to the time and trouble which they cost him. We may say the
same of the laborious researches upon the manufacture of glass for optical pur-
poses, which he made a few years afterwards, (in 1829.) It was upon the initia-
tive taken in 1824 by the Royal Society of London, which named a committee
for the study of the improvement of glass with a view to its optical use, that
Faraday was called upon to occupy himself with it. Whilst he pursued the
chemical part of these investigations, Dollond worked up the glass, and Her-
schel subjected it to the test of experiment. At the end of long and difficult
experiments, Faraday ascertained that the greatest difficulty in the way of the
fabrication of a good flint glass (that is to say, a very refractive glass) was the

resence of streaks and striee proceeding from a want of homogeneity, due, in
its turn, to differences of composition between the contiguous portions of the
same glass. The employment of oxide of lead in the composition of flint glass
was the cause of this defectiveness, which could not be avoided even by making
use of the most efficacious means of rendering the mixture perfect while in a
state of fusion. Among the combinations tried, that of borate of lead and silica
furnished a glass endowed with optical properties still more strongly marked
than those of flint glass, and at the same time presenting a very uniform struc-

ture. This glass, which, on account of its great density (double that of flint
glass) has been named heavy glass, is found, unfortunately, to have a slight
yellowish coloration, which renders it unfit for optical purposes; but the labor
which Faraday devoted to its fabrication has not been lost ; for, as we shall see
hereafter, this same glass, in the hands of the talented experimenter, became
the instrument of one of his most beautiful discoveries.

In the long and curious memoir which he published upon the fabrication of
optical glass, Faraday gives a minute description of all the processes employed
by him—of the construction of furnaces, selection of crucibles, means of heating,
various artifices, such as the injection of platinum in powder into the fused glass
to cause the disappearance of bubbles, &c. It is a genuine instruction in chem-
ical manipulation, and, as it were, a complement to his treatise on this subject,
which was published in 1827, and has since gone through three editions. Only
those who are called upon to experiment in the domains of physics and chem-
istry can appreciate the immense service which this treatise has rendered ‘to
them, by teaching them a multitude of processes of detail so valuable for them
to know, and of which a description was previously nowhere to be found, so
that every one was obliged to undergo an apprenticeship to them on his own
account. It was necessary that a savant who for so many years had been strug-
eling with the difficulties of experimentation, and who had been able to sur-
mount them in so ingenious a manner, should give himself the trouble to
describe the means which he had employed, so that his experience might be of
service to others. Faraday was this savant, and his object was completely
attained.

Here, perhaps, before proceeding to another set of subjects, we ought to
speak of certain of Faraday’s theoretical ideas relating to general physics, and
more especially to the nature of the ferces, and their correlation to each other
and to the essence of matter ; but we prefer not to discuss the opinions emitted

*See Bibl. Univ., (1820,) vol. xiv, p-209.

MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS. 233

by him upon these questions until after the exposition of his works on electricity
and magnetism. We must, however, at once admit that his views on these mat-
ters are very contestable, and that, if they inspired him to make experimental
researches of the highest interest, this is a proof that, in the hands of a man of
genius, even a bad theory may be the origin of the most beautiful discoveries.

II. I pass now to the examination of those works of Faraday which relate
to electricity and magnetism. It is not without embarrassment that I approach
this examination ; for these researches are so numerous that it would be neces-
sary to extend this notice beyond all bounds in order to give only a simple
analysis of them; and they are at the same time so varied that it is impossible
to explain them in the chronological order of their publication without confusion
being the result. Thus, for example, the researches on induction are interrupted
by others on electro-chemical decompositions, to be afterwards resumed and com-
pleted. Each memoir certainly forms a complete whole; but one memoir is
most frequently followed by another the subject of which is quite different. It
seems as if the author, after having treated one question, found it necessary to
recollect himself before resuming it, and to divert his mind from it, so to speak,
by taking up some other kind of work.

It has, therefore, appeared to me that the best thing for me to do was to group
all these various works under a few distinct heads, so as to be able to give their
essence without requiring to enter into too many details. The first would include
all the researches relating to electro-chemistry ; the second those which have for
their object induction, whether electro-dynamic or electro-static ; and the third the
phenomena relating to the action of magnetism and dynamic electricity upon light
and upon natural bodies in general. It is true that there are some works which
elude this classification, as they will not enter into any one of our three divisions.
But these are less important works, and such as were produced as occasions
offered; that is to say, they are the fruit of some particular circumstance which
attracted Faraday’s attention to some special point. Such is, for example, the
memoir which has for its object the investigation of the electrical properties of
the Gymnotus—and that devoted to the evolution of electricity by the friction
exerted against solid bodies by the globules of water or other substances carried
up by vapor—experiments undertaken in consequence of the invention of Arm-
strone’s machine. Lastly, there are others which only contain the more or less
indirect consequences of the fundamental discoveries, which will be explained
in one of the three subdivisions under which we have grouped them. We shall
not dwell upon any of these, thinking that we may give a more exact and com-
plete idea of all the progress which Faraday caused the science of electricity
and magnetism to make by confining ourselves to pointing out in some detail
the most prominent parts of his researches upon these subjects.

Faraday commenced with chemistry in his scientific career; it is therefore not
surprising that he approached electricity by the study of electro-chemistry. It
was, moreover, towards electro-chemistry that his attention must have been first
directed in that laboratory of the Royal Institution which had witnessed the
magnificent discoveries of Davy in chemical decompositions effected by the pile,
and especially in the production of the alkaline metals. In taking up this sub-
ject Faraday only followed the traditions left to him by his predecessor.

His researches upon the electrical conductibility of bodies constitute a first
step in this path. The business was to ascertain whether, as was previously
supposed, the presence of water is necessary to render solid bodies conductors,
and whether solid non-metallic (and consequently compound) bodies can conduct
electricity without being decomposed. Commencing with water, which is an
insulator when solid and a good conductor in the liquid state, Faraday shows
that a great number of compound substances are in the same case. Such are
many oxides, some chlorides and iodides, and a multitude of salts, which do not
conduet electricity in the solid state, but, without any intermixture of, water,

234 MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS.

Lecome excellent conductors when liquefied by heat, and are not decomposed by
electricity with separation of their elements in the same way as aqueons solu-
tions. ‘T'o the list of these compounds Faraday adds that of those substances,
either simple, like sulphur and phosphorus, or compound, such as the periodides
and perchlorides of tin, and many others, which continue isolators when fused
as well as in the solid state. In this first investigation, notwithstanding a great
number of experiments in which he employed the influence of heat and of elec-
tricity of high tension in the study of the conductive power of solid bodies, he
did not succeed in determining very accurately the conditions of electrical con-
ductibility ; he only ascertained that, with one exception, which he justly
regards as only apparent, there is not a solid body which, on becoming conduct-
ive by its passage to a liquid state, is not decomposed by the electrical current.
We may add, so as not to return to the subject, that Faraday sometimes had
doubts upon this point, and that he even thought that water could conduct elec-

po)
tricity without being decomposed. Now experiment shows that in all cases,

even those which appear most favorable to this opinion, electricity cannot be
transmitted under any form through a compound liquid body without this body
undergoing electro-chemical decomposition.

As to the causes of conductibility, they are still far from being known; when
we see bodies, such as the gases, becoming conductors when eveatly rarefied,
whilst under the ordinary pressure they are perfect insulators, we are compelled
to come to the conclusion that the impossibility that we find of explaining this
difference, as well as so many others presented in this respect by solid and
liquid bodies, is due to the fact that we have not yet a correct notion of the
molecular constitution of bodies. Perhaps the recent theories of several physi-
cists, particularly that of Clausius, who regards the particles of bodies as being
in a constant state of movement, may succeed in elucidating this subject, which
is still so mysterious. Faraday himself had fully foreseen this relation between
electrical conductibility and the ideas which we may form as to the nature of
matter. In a remarkable article published in 1844 he showed, upon an experi-
mental basis, that in the theory according to which a body is regarded as con-
sisting of atoms possessing weight separated from each other by larger or
smaller intermolecular intervals, there are a multitude of facts, some of “which
can only be explained by assuming that the atoms are the conductors and the
molecular space an insulator, and the others by supposing that the intermole-
cular space is the conductor and the atoms insulators—a contradiction which is
inadmissible. He concluded from this that we must imagine matter to be con-
tinuous, or rather imagine the atoms to be simply centres of force, and conse-
quently replace the atomistic by the dynamical theory. We shall often find
traces of these ideas in the subsequent works of Faraday ; for ourselves we
cannot take this view. We are convinced that it is not by denying the exist-
ence of matter, properly so called, and admittmg only that of forces, that we
shall succeed in solving the difficulties under Pe edention and many others,
but rather, following the example of Clausius and others, by modifying the
ideas hitherto accepted as to the mode of constitution of bodies, and replacing
them by others more in accordance with recent discoveries.

But we must return to electro-chemistry. I have already said that Faraday
first occupied himself with chemical decompositions effected by the electrical
current. He commences by effecting the decomposition of water and of soln-
tions by means of a jet of ordinary electricity, rendered as continuous as possi-
ble by leaving a stratum of air interposed between the metallic points which
convey and carry off the electricity from a machine, and a strip of moistened
paper which this electricity traverses. He observes that the deposition of the
elements, separated from the decomposed liquid, takes place against the surface
of the air which is in contact with the paper. Then investigating the decom-

)
positions effected by the pile, he examines the various explanations which have

MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS. 235

been given of this phenomenon, and concludes that it is much rather a chem-
ical phenomenon than a truly electrical one. In other words, it is a peculiar
form of affinity which, under the influence of electricity, is exerted between the
neighboring molecules, so that the decomposition is the easier in proportion as
the affinity is stronger. He shows that the transfer of the elements can. only
take place between 1 bodies the constituent parts of which have an affinity for
each other: and if these elements separate in a free state against the surface of
the metallic poles of the pile, this is because they cannot combine with the sub-
stance of these poles; for whenever this combination is possible, they are no
longer set free. Water in some cases, air in others, as we have already seen,
may serve as poles just as well as solid bodies. Faraday justly rejects the old
idea of certain physicists who attributed electro-chemical decompositions to the
ordinary electrical attractions and repulsions exerted upon the elements of a con-
ductive liquid by the voltaic poles immersed in it. The metallic wires, or other
conductors , Which transmit electricity into a liquid, are merely, according to
him, the roads by which the electric current passes into the liquid ; therefore, to
exclude any idea of electrical tension, which is more or less implied in the name
pole, Faraday proposed to substitute for the denomination poles that of elec-
trodes. He likewise applied the term electrolysis to the chemical decomposition
effected by electricity, reserving that of analysis for the ordinary chemical
decompositions in which electricity does not assist. Lastly, he gives the name
of electrolytes to these compound bodies which are capable of being decom-
posed by the electric current.

After this preliminary and general study of the subject, Faraday enumerates
the results which he obtained by submitting to electro-chemical decomposition a
very great number of compounds, some of them simple acids or simple bases,
others saline combinations. He dwells particularly on the secondary effects
often manifested in these decompositions, especially in the case of aqueous solu-
tions, in which decomposition of the water and of the substance dissolved takes
place at the same time. But the essential point of his researches is the law at
which he arrived as to the definite mature of electro-chemical decomposition.
He demonstrates, relying solely upon experiment, that the quantity of chemical
action exerted by an electrical current is proportionate to the quantity of elec-
tricity constituting this current; and, further, that the same quantity of elec-
tricity, or the same current, decomposes chemically equivalent quantities of all
the compound bodies through which it is passed. Thus, if we place one after
the other in the circuit of a voltaic pile, several pieces of apparatus arranged
for the decomposition of water and for collecting the gaseous products of this
decomposition, we find that in all, even when the degree of acidity of the water
and the form and size of the electrodes are different in each, the same current
traversing them for a given time produces the same quantity of gas, and conse-
quently decomposes the same quantity of water. The quantity of water decom-
posed in a given time, appreciated by the quantity of gas evolved, is, therefore,
the exact measure of the quantity of electricity which has produced this effect,
Hence, like Faraday, we give the name of voltameter to the very simple appa-

ratus Which holds acidulated water destined to be decomposed by the current,
and by means of which the volume of gases set free by this current in a given
time may be exactly measured.

‘he second principle, that the same quantity of electricity decomposes chem-
ically equivalent quantities of all compound bodies, was demonstrated by Fara-
day by placing several different electrolytes one after the other in the same cir-
cenit; as, for example, acidulated water in a voltameter, and protochloride of tin
and chloride of lead in a state of fusion; and he obtains quantities of tin, lead,
chlorine, hydrogen, and oxygen, which are chemically equivalent. Then, rising
trom the effect to the cause, “he comes to the conclusion that there is a perfect
equality between the electricity which decomposes a body and that which is

236 MICHAEL FARADAY——HIS LIFE AND WORKS.

generated by the chemical action which produces the direct decomposition of an
equal quantity of the same, or of a chemically equivalent quantity of seme other
body. He is thus led to pay attention to the theory of the pile, and to recog-
nize that the power of this apparatus originates in chemical action, and not in
the contact of two heterogeneous metals—a contact which is not necessary
either to produce a spark or to cause a chemical decomposition.

He establishes, in the first place, that, either to effect a decomposition or to
produce a spark, a plate of zinc immersed in acidulated water is sufficient with-
ont its being necessary to bring the zinc into contact with any other metal. He
shows that in every pile the presence of an electrolyte (that is to say, a liquid
susceptible of being decomposed) is indispensable for the evolution of elec-
tricity. Then, distinguishing i in the electricity generated the intensity (or the
te nsion) and the quantity, he studies the circumstances, depending either on the
nature of the chemical action or the number of voltaic pairs associated, which
exert an influence on these two characters of the current. In a word, he estab-
lishes such a correlation between that which occurs in the interior of a pile, and
that which takes place in the electrolyte interposed between the poles of this
pile, that it is impossible not to admit (with him) that electrolytic decomposi-
tion is nothing but a form of chemical affinity transferred from the pile into the
electrolyte decomposed.

Wishing to obtain an idea of the quantity of electricity which is associated
with the particles of which matter is composed, he endeavors to estimate that
which is necessary for the decomposition of a grain of water, regarding it, as he
is justified in doing, as equivalent to that produced by the direct chemical
action (of the acidulated water upon the zinc) which decomposes this grain of
water. He arrives at this incredible result, namely: that this quantity of elec-
tricity, appreciated by the heat evolved by it in traversing a fine platinum wire,
is superior to that manifested in 800,000 discharges of a battery of Leyden jars,
charged by thirty turns of a powerful plate- machine, and consequently equiva-
lent to that constituting a violent flash of lightning.

S
The gen of which I have been speaking were made in 1833, 1834,
and 1835. I had previously paid attention to the same questions, and had

arrived by somewhat different methods at the same conclusion with Faraday,
namely: that it is in chemical action that resides the origin of the evolution of
electricity in the voltaic pile. Faraday frequently alludes to my investigatipns
in a very kind manner; and subsequently (in 1840) he wrote me a letter in
which he said that, being a thorough adherent of the chemical theory, he had
just attacked the question directly, as I had already done, by demonstrating that
contact alone, if not accompanied by chemical action, is not a source of elec-
tricity. The memoir in which he probes this question to the bottom is the last
which he devoted to this department of electricity. In it, by means of a multi-
tude of ingenious experiments, he demonstrates that the presence of an electro-
lyte (that is to say, of a liquid which is at once a compound and a conductor of
electricity) is indispensable for the production of electricity in a voltaic couple ;
he varies his experiments in a thousand ways, sometimes by exhausting the
number of chemical compounds employed as electrolytes, sometimes by the inter-
vention of temperature or of other agents; and he concludes by showing by
general considerations the improbability of the existence of a force of contact.
We may say that this last work, a precious supplement to the preceding ones,
has rendered perfectly evident the truth of the chemical theory. This theory,
foreseen by Wollaston and Fabroni, but opposed by most of the physicists of
the early part of the present century, had found a powerful argument in its favor
in the beautiful experiments of the elder Becquerel upon the elec tricity developed
by chemical actions. It was then (from 1825 to 1835) that, profiting by these
experiments, and seeking, on my own part, to make others of the same kind
although in a slightly different direction, I published several memoirs to support

MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS Zot

and render more precise the chemical theory of the voltaic pile. But I cannot
but admit that we are indebted to Faraday for having based this theory upon
irrefutable proofs, not only by the great number and ‘variety of his researches,
but especially by his beautiful discovery of the definite decomposing action of
the electric current—a discovery which established between the external chemical
action of the voltaic pile and the chemical action which takes place in the interior
of this apparatus, a relation so intimate that it is impossible not to see in the
latter the cause of the former.

III. In 1831 Faraday discovered electrical induction ; it is the most important,
although perhaps not the most brillant of his ieeaucies Ten years before
(in 1821) he had observed a perfectly new phenomenon in the science of elec-
tro-dyn amies—that science which issued comp}ete, as we may say, from the brain
of Ampére, after GErsted’s discovery. Strack by the experiments of the great
French physicist upon the mutual attractions and repulsions of electrical currents
and magnets, Faraday was led, by theoretical ideas which were rather disputable
and not very comformable to the principles of mechanics, to assume that an electric
current must tun round the pole of a magnet with a continueus movement, and
reciprocally that the pole of a magnet must in like manner turn round an electric
current. He verified this double result by experiment ; and Ampere soon showed
its accordance with his theory, adding to it other facts of the same nature. It is
not the less true that the discovery of a continuous movement of rotation due to
the combined action of a magnet and an electric current was quite unforeseen,
and at the same time very important ; for up to that time there was no example
of any such action in physics. It was a first step in the course which was to
lead to the finding of a relation between mechanical movement and the mole-
cular forces.

Arago (in 1824) was the first who directly established this relation by his
beautiful discovery of magnetism by rotation ; for he showed that simple
mechanical movement could render a body, in itself non-magnetic, capable of
acting upon the magnet. Faraday advanced still further in 1831 by discover-
ing that it was sufficient to bring towards, or remove from, a metallic wire form-
ing a closed circuit another parallel wire traversed by an electric current, or
simply a magnet, in order to develop in the former wire an electric current. He
discovered induction—that phenomenon which so many others had sought in
vain, although suspecting its existence, but which he alone had succeeded in
producing.

Let us dwell for a moment upon his fundamental experiment. Two metal
wires covered with silk are rolled together round a cylinder of glass or wood ;
the two wires are thus isolated, and have all their spires approximate and_par-
allel. An electric current is passed into one of these wires; immediately a cur-
rent is manifested in an opposite direction in the neighboring wire, the extremi-
ties of which are united by a galvanometer; but this current only lasts for a
moment. ‘The current passing through the first wire is interrupted ; immedi-
ately another current is developed in ‘the second wire, which is momentary, as
in the former case, but directed in the same way as the producing current,
instead of in the contrary direction. The momentariness of these two currents,
and the fact of their alternately opposite directions, constitute the two important
characters of this new mode of production of electricity.

Faraday did not stop at this. Starting from Ampére’s idea that a magnet is
only an assemblage of electric currents arranged round an axis in a manner
very analogous to the circulation of an electric current through a metallic wire
rolled into a coil, he tried the replacement, in his fundamental experiment, of
the wire traversed by the current by a simple magnet. For this purpose he
twisted a single wire instead of two into a coil round a glass or wooden tube ;
then he introduced a magnet into this tube, and ascertained thar at this moment
&@ momentary current is developed i in the coil of wire, and that a see-nd, equally

“a

238 MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS.

momentary, but in an opposite direction, is developed at the moment when the
magnet is withdrawn. Here, therefore, was realized that production of elec-
tricity by magnetism which Faraday had long been seeking, convinced, as he
was, that as electricity produces magnetism, magnetism in its turn must produce
electricity.

Is it necessary to follow Faraday in the multiplied experiments by which he
demonstrates that the electricity developed by induction possesses all the proper-
ties of voltaic electricity, and of the ordinary electricity produced by machines—
that it heats fine metallic wires, gives shocks, and even produces the spark ?
To produce an electric spark by means of the action of a simple magnet, is one
of those striking facts which give to the discovery leading to such a result a
popularity, if I may venture so to express myself, which is reflected upon its
author.

Faraday soon showed that terrestrial magnetism, like that of a magnet, can
develop electric currents by induction in a metallic wire rolled into a coil or a
circle, and actuated by a movement of oscillation in a plane perpendicular to
that of the magnetic meridian. He found that it was not even necessary to
employ metallic wires to ascertain the influence of the terrestrial magnetism
upon the production of induced gurrents, but that it sufficed to set a metallic
disk (of copper for example) in rotation in a plane perpendicular to the direc-
tion of the inclination-needle to find that it is traversed by electric currents
passing from the centre to the circumference, or from the circumference to the
centre, according to the direction of the rotation. Still more readily does the
vicinity of a magnet to a similar disk set in rotation in any plane under the
influence of this magnet develop in it induced currents, the presence of which,
directly ascertained, explains in a perfectly satisfactory manner the phenomena
of magnetism by rotation discovered by Arago.

These currents, although difficult to perceive, must nevertheless possess con-

siderable power, since they can drag a rather heavy magnet by the action which
they exert upon it. Itis probable that this power is due less to their individual
intensity than to their number, which appears to be very considerable. We
may cite two examples which prove in a striking manner the energy which this
mode of production of induced currents may acquire. The first is furnished by
a curious experiment of Faraday’s, in which, on causing a cubical mass of cop-
per suspended by a thread between the poles of an unmagnetized electromagnet
to turn upon itself, he saw this mass stop suddenly the moment he magnetized
the electro-magnet, in consequence of the magnetic action exerted by the cur-
rents which induction had set up in the copper. We find the second example
in the fact observed by Foucault, of the sudden stoppage which is likewise
experienced by a thick disk of copper set in rotation between the poles of an
electro-magnet the moment the latter is magnetized. This stoppage is such that
it can only be surmounted by a considerable effort, and the disk itself becomes
very strongly heated if the rotation be continued in spite of the resistance it
meets with. In order that such a heating effect should be produced in a mass
of such considerable size, and that we should experience an attractive action so
strong on the part. of the electro-magnet, the induced currents thus produced
must be of very great power—a power which they owe essentially to the exces-
sive rapidity of the movement generating them.

I shall not follow Faraday through all his works upon induction which accom-
panied his fundamental discovery. I shall only refer to the fact that in 183
he discovered a new important fact, namely: the production of an induced cur-
rent in the very wire that conducted the inductive current, and which takes
place at first at the moment when the latter current begins to circulate, and
then at that when it ceases passing. If this wire is rolled in a coil round a
cylinder of soft iron, the effect produced acquires great intensity by the fact of
the alternate magnetization and demagnetization of the iron which accompanies

MICHAEL FARADAY-——HIS LIFE AND WORKS. 239

the passage and interruption of the current in the wire. We all know the
advantage that has been taken of this combination in the construction of very
powerful apparatus. We also know how, from one improvement to another,
we have come to find in induction, and consequently in the simple mechanical
movement which gives birth to it, the most simple and economical principle for
obtaining electricity, especially with regard to its application to therapeutics
and illumination.

The discovery. of electro-dynamical induction (that is to say, the preduction
of a current by the influence of an exterior current) led Faraday to examine
more closely than had previously been done into the phenomenon of statical
induction—that is to say, the development at a distance of tension-electricity
in an isolated conductor by the influence of an electrized body. He ascertained,
what no one had previously suspected, that the nature of the body interposed
between the source of electricity and the conductor submitted to the action of
this source had a great influence upon the effect produced—that, of the various
bodies, some facilitated the development of electricity at a distance, whilst
others completely stopped it. He named the former dielectrics ; and he proved
that these dielectrics, which are essentially resins, sulphur, shellac, oils of tur-
pentine and naphtha, &c., enjoy this property of transmitting electricity by influ-
ence in different degrees, whilst there is not in this respect any difference
between the gases, which have the same dielectric power, whatever their nature
or their density may be. On the other hand, none of the metals are dielectric;
they are subject to the electrical influence, but do not transmit it.

From the investigation which we have just summarized, Faraday drew the
conclusion that induction does not take place at a distance, but that it is effected
by the intermediation of the particles interposed between the inductor and the
inducted body. He assumed that these particles are polarized one after the
other, which M. Matteucci afterwards demonstrated directly by experiment ;
that consequently the mode of propagation of electricity is the same in insu-
lating as in conducting bodies ; and that the various substances only differ from
each other by the greater or less facility or rapidity with which this polarization,
necessary for the transmission of electricity, takes place in them. Then, passing
from this to the analysis of the different modes in which electrical discharges
take place, some obscure, others luminous, some electrolytic, (that is to say,
accompanied by the chemical decomposition of the conducting body,) others
disruptive, (that is to say, effected by the mechanical disjunction of the particles
of the interposed substance,) he applied himself more particularly to the study
of the various forms displayed by the electric spark in more or less rarefied
gases. I should never have done if I were to attempt to explain all the experi-
ments which he made to elucidate these different points and to arrive at an idea
of the actual nature of the electric current. The identity of the current, what-
ever may be its origin—that its production is due to polar forces which may
exert a transverse action, as is the case in electro-dynamical phenomena—that
these polar forces emanate from contiguous particles; such are the principles
which Faraday endeavored to establish as the consequences of his experimental
researches, at the same time that he rejected the idea of actions at a distance,
referring all electrical manifestations to the presence of ponderable matter.

Whether or not we completely admit all Faraday’s ideas, it is impossible not
to acknowledge the immense advance which he caused the theories of electricity
to make, either by demonstrating by experiment the falsity of certain concep-
tions generally accepted up to his time, or by opening up perfectly new points
of view as to the actual nature of electrical phenomena. We have just had the
proof of this in the consequences to which he was led by his investigations on
statical induction. His discoveries in electro-dynamical induction have had
still more important consequences, by introducing the notion of mechanical move-

. 5 .
ment into the essence of electrical movement, and thus enabling Weber to cum-

240 MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS.

bine, in an equally ingenious and satisfactory manner, the mechanical phenomena
of electro-dynamics, discovered by Ampére, with the electrical phenomena due
to mechanical movement, discovered by Faraday.

Ampére and Faraday: two names which will always be united by the inti-
mate relation of their works to the history of the science of electricity, in which
they have opened such new and vast horizons; and yet minds as dissimilar in
their mode of proceeding as similar in the power of their genius. Both emi-
nently endowed with that faculty of divination which generates great discoveries,
but one of them, Faraday, arriving at them by impression, by a kind of instinet
which never deceived him, the other, Ampere, advancing with a more certain
step, having as his instrument those calculations which he handled with such
remarkable ability, and thus arriving at results which he hardly required experi-
ment to confirm, so certain was he that this would not contradict him.

TV. I now pass to the last great series of Faraday’s works. I have said, and,
I think, proved, that induction was the most important of his discoveries; I
must now say that the action of magnetism and electricity upon light was the
most brilliant. Often the attempt had been made to see whether magnetism and
electricity exerted any direct influence upon light; but these attempts had always
failed. Investigators had operated upon luminous rays travelling in the air or
in liquids, and endeavored to act upon them, sometimes by strong magnets, some-
times by electric currents or by statical electricity ; but these attempts had led
to nothing, absolutely nothing. All these negative investigations have never
been published, but they have nevertheless been made.

Guided by theoretical considerations upon the rhutual correlation of the forces
of nature, Faraday, after many fruitless attempts, succeeded in finding the con-
nection which exists between light and the magnetic and electric forces. Instead
of taking an ordinary ray, he operated with a polarized ray; instead of acting
directly upon this ray by means of a magnet, he submits it to the influence of
magnetism while it is traversing a glass prism in the direction of its length.
This prism, terminated by two square and parallel bases, the surfaces of which
are well polished, and which are those by which the polarized ray penetrates and
issues from the prism, is placed between the poles of an electro-magnet in such a
manner that its length and, consequently, the direction of the transmitted ray
are parallel to the line joining the magnetic poles. Lastly, the polarized ray on
issuing from the glass prism only reaches the eye after passing through a Nicol’s
prisin, Y which serves as an analyzer. It is also by traversing a Nicol’s prism
before penetrating into the glass prism that the ray of light is polarized; but
this may be effected in any other manner.

It is well known that by turning the analyzing prism to a certain angle the
polarized ray is extinguished in such a manner that the brilliant spot is replaced
by a black spot. If, after this operation has been effected, a strong electric cur-
rent is passed through the wire surrounding the electro-magnet, the black spot
disappears and the bright one again makes its appearance. Then by turning
the analyzing prism a little further in the same direction, the Inminous ray is
again extinguished; but this extinction ceases as soon as the magnetic action is
suppressed by the interruption of the current which magnetized the electro-
magnet. The action of magnetism, therefore, consists simply in causing the
plane of polarization to turn by a certain angle, and to give artificially to the
glass, while it is under the magnetic influence, a property which certain sub-
stances, such as quartz and essence of turpentine, possess naturally.

Any transparent substance, except gases, may serve, although in different
degrees, as the medium for magnetism to act upon the polarized ray. But that
by means of which this influence is best manifested is the yellowish heavy glass
(borosilicate of lead) which Faraday obtained in his experimental researches
upon the fabrication of glass for optical purposes. He happened to have at
hand several specimens of this glass; and it was by using one of these for per-

MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS. 241

covery to which I have just alluded is that as the magnet acts by attraction
upon magnetic bodies, it acts also by repulsion upon all other bodies in nature.
From this it results that whilst a rod of iron, or of some other magnetic sub-
stance, suspended between the poles of an electro-magnet, places itself avially,
(that is to say, parallel to the line which joins the poles,) a prism of heavy
glass (the same, for example, which served for the experiments on light) places
itself equatorially, (that is to say, transversely to this line.) <A rod of bismuth
is in the same case; and this metal and heavy glass are the substances on
which this repulsive action of the magnet is most eiounotly exerted ; but all
bodies in nature which are not magnetic (and these are by far the moet numer-
ous) present the same property, although in various degrees. In this way
Faraday comes to class all bodies under two heads: those which are magnetic
or paramagnetic, as he calls them, such as iron, nickel, &c.; and those which
are diamagnetic, such as bismuth, antimony, heavy class, &c. The character
of the former is to be attracted by the magnet, that of the latter to be repelled
by it. It is true that this repulsion, to become sensible, requires an enormous
magnetic power even in the case of bodies of which the diamagnetism is most
strongly marked, whilst a very weak magnet is sufficient to betray its action
upon the magnetic bodies, such as iron, steel, nickel, &c.

It therefore required very powerful means, such as Faraday employed, for the
discovery of diamagnetism. Nevertheless a distinguished amateur in science,
M. Lebaillit of Paris, had shown, as early as 1828, that a fragment of bismuth
or antimony very evidently repels a delicately suspended magnetized needle
when brought as near as possible to one of the poles of the needle, but without
touching it. Mr. Faraday was ignorant of this circumstance when he published
his first work on diamagnetism. I immediately informed him of it, at the same
time indicating the journal i in which I had published M. Lebaillif’s "5 S experiment,
which I had witnessed at the time. He accepted my reclamation in the most
amicable manner, and at once, with his usual good faith, recognized the priority
of M. Lebaillif with regard to bismuth and antimony.

In the numerous researches which F araday devoted (from 1845 to 1855) to
diamagnetism and at the same time to magnetism, there are some important
points which I must indicate. He discovered the remarkable influence exerted
upon this kind of properties by the molecular constitution of bodies, and espec-
ially by crystallization. He showed, for example, that a crystallized lamina
of bismuth or antimony can place itself axially between the poles of an electro-
magnet like a magnetic body, as well as equatorially, and that the position
which it takes depends on the manner in which it is suspended relatively to the
direction of its cleavage. He endeavored to investigate the force which comes
into play in facts of this order, which he names magnetocrystalline force ; whilst
Pliicker, on his part, widened its field by his beautiful and numerous researches
on the manners in which crystals place themselves between the poles of an
electro-magnet ; and Tyndall, the worthy successor of Faraday at the Royal
Institution, by his ingenious experiments analyzed the phenomenon in its gener-
ality and succeeded in connecting it, in a perfectly satisfactory manner, with
the laws which govern magnetism and diamagnetism. Subsequently Tyndall
succeeded also in demonstrating, by a decisive experiment, that diamagnetism,
like magnetism, is due to a polarity caused by the influence of the magnet in
the diamagnetic body, but with this difference, that, instead of opposite poles,
homonymous poles are developed by the poles of the magnet. ‘Thus fell to the
ground all the other more or less rash attempts at explanation which had been
given of diamagnetism.

Another point which deserves attention is the investigation which Faraday

made of the magnetism and diamagnetism of gases. He arrived at this curious
result, (observed likewise by Edmond Becquerel at the same time,) that of all
gases oxygen alone is magnetic, and this in a very marked degree, while all the

16°83" 6%

242 MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS.

forming the experiment just described that he discovered the magnetic rotation
of the plane of polarization, a phenomenon which would probably have escaped
him if he had made use of ordinaty glass at first starting. Thus the long and
painful labors to which he had for merly devoted himself without any g great stic-
cess, in order to discover a glass fitted for the fabrication of lenses, were not
lost to science, since they facilitated his enriching it with one of his finest dis-
coveries.

Let us now study the new phenomenon a little more closely, so as better to
slow all its importance. Some substances, we have said, naturally possess the
property of causing the plane of polarization of a polarized ray traversing them
to rotate through a 1 larger or smaller angle ; some cause it to turn to the right,
and others to the left, of the observer. "The discovery of Faraday was that the
influence of magnetism or of electric currents develops this same property in
nearly all transparent substances, but with this difference, that the direction of
rotation of the plane of polarization depends only upon the position of the
magnetic poles, or the direction of the currents with relation to the transparent
substance. The law is, that if the north pole of the electro-magnet is placed
on the same side as the observer who receives the ray into his eye, and conse-
quently the south pole on the side by which the polarized ray enters into the
substance, the rotation of the plane of polarization takes place, to the observer,
from left to right. It takes place from right to left if the direction of the cur-
rent, and consequently that of the magnetization, be changed. The action of
the magnet may be replaced by that of a coil in the axis of which the trans-
parent ‘substance is placed. In this case, again, the rotation of the plane of
polarization is very well observed when a rather strong cwrent is transmitted
through the wire of the coil; and the direction of the rotation is always the
same as that of the current.

Thus, whilst in substances naturally endowed with circular polarization the
rotation of the plane of polarization always takes place, according to the nature
of the substance, either to the right or left of the observer, in Faraday’s experi-
ment the direction of this rotation only depends upon the direction of electric
currents or the relative position of the magnetic poles, since it is completely
independent of the position of the observer. ‘These two kinds of action are
therefore not identical, and we cannot say that by the influence of the magnet
or of electricity we produce in all transparent bodies exactly the same property
that certain substances naturally possess. Faraday well shows this difference
by an experiment which consists in producing, by an ingenious artifice, the inter-
nal reflection of the polarized ray upon the extreme surfaces of the prism; this
may be done once or several times before the ray is allowed to escape, and
doubles, triples, or quadruples the angle of rotation of the plane of polariza-
tion, according as the ray is reflected once, twice, or three times. But when,
instead of the magnetic, we have to do with the natural rotary polarization, the
result is quite different, the return of the reflected ray neutralizing the effect
which the direct ray had undergone while travelling in an opposite direction.
In this case the angle of rotation of the plane of polarization reflected twice,
and which consequently has three times traversed the transparent substance, is
no greater than that of a ray which has only traversed it once.

‘The general phenomenon so unexpectedly discovered by Faraday has hith-
erto remained unexplained, notwithstanding many investigations, and especially
the persevering and remarkable researches of M. Verdet.

It has not even been possible to connect it with some other property of bodies,
although each substance has its specific magnetic rotatory power. Faraday,
however, drew from it a general consequence which led him to another dis-
covery, namely : that magnetism acts upon all bodies, since all transparent
bodies may be modified under its influence sutliciently to acquire, in different
degrees indeed, a power which they do not possess of themselves. The dis-

‘MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS. 243

other gases are diamagnetic. Considering the great part taken by oxygen in
the composition of our atmosphere, he attempted to explain, by the magnetic
properties of this gas combined with variations of temperature, the phenomenon
of the diurnal variations of the magnetic needle which he traced over all parts
of the surface of the globe. It is impossible for us not to regret a little the
considerable time which he devoted to this investigation, especially as it appears
to us very probable that it is not in the action of the atmosphere, but much
rather in that of the earth itself, or perhaps even in that of the sun, that we
must seek the cause of all the phenomena presented by the magnetic needle.

Lastly, a third point remains to be noticed, namely, that which relates to the
investigation of the magnetic field and of what Faraday denominates the lines
of magnetic force. According to him, as we have already had occasion to
remark, there is no such thing as action at a distance ; consequently the mag-
netic field (that is to say, the space included between two approximated mag-
netic poles, such as those of a horseshoe magnet) is a medium from which, in
every one of its points, forces emanate, the distribution and direction of which
are indicated by the very regular arrangement effected by fine iron-filings
placed in this space. The lines which he calls lines of magnetic force thus
become visible and even tangible. But they exist none the less even when we
cannot see them, and it is the displacements or modifications which they expe-
rience by the presence of a ponderable body in the medium in which they occur
that give rise to all the remarkable effects of which the magnetic field is the
scene. Such is, in a few words, Faraday’s view upon this particular question.

We pass in silence over a multitude of interesting details upon diamagnetic
polarity, upon the distinction to be set up between magnetic and diamagnetic
bodies, and upon the possible relation between gravity and electricity. In
1850 Faraday reverted to this question, which he had previously attempted, but
without success. We see that it is with regret that he is obliged to relinquish
the discovery of this relation, which he had twice sought after; but with his
usual good faith he admits that, although convinced that it exists, he was una-
ble to find any fact to establish it. If experiment, which he knew so well
how to employ constantly, gave him a negative response, would not this be
because his point of view was not correct? and did not his error arise from his
forming too vague ideas as to the transformation of forces, not taking sufli-
ciently into account that it is the work effected by the force, and not the force
itself, that must be considered in questions of this kind?

V. We have passed in review the principal labors of Faraday ; and it only
remains for us, in order to complete this notice, to endeavor tu form an idea of
the special character of these labors, and of the influence which they have
exerted on the progress of science.

The first character that strikes us is their number. What Faraday published
in the form of memoirs, from 1820 to 1855, is incredible. And what would it
have been if, side by side with the multitude of experiments which he has made
xnown, we placed in a parallel series those which he never published? It is
true that if he has left them buried in his journal, it is because they gave hin
negative results ; but from how many fruitless essays and erroneous attempts
he would have preserved scientific men if he had not been so discreet !

A second character is the exactitude of the results obtained: I do not think
that Faraday has once been caught in a mistake; so precise and conscientious
was his mode of experimenting and observing. It must be admitted that in
him the hand marvellously seconded the head ; he was of remarkable dexterity,
and possessed a practical talent, rare and precious in men of science, which
enabled him, when necessary, to construct and modify his apparatus for himself,
with the view of attaining with more certainty the desired result.

A third character, of quite a different kind and of much greater value, is the

originality of the works of Faraday. A disciple of Davy, he undoubtedly

244 MICHAEL FARADAY=——-HIS LIFE AND WORKS.

shows traces of the school from which he came, especially in the choice of the
subjects of which he treats; but he does not blindly follow either the method
or the steps of his master, and, soon quitting the beaten track, he strikes out a
path for himself. What is this path? I shall be asked. This is not easy to
say; but I will nevertheless attempt it.

‘At the commencement of the present century, thanks to the important works
of which it had been the subject, the science of physics had acquired a character
of precision and clearness which seemed almost to make of it a mathematical
science. ‘The fine treatise, in four volumes, on Experimental and Mathematical
Physics, published in 1816 by M. Biot, gives the most correct and complete idea
of the point at which this science had arrived. 'To the confusion which still
reigned in the middle of the eighteenth century between the various depart-
ments of the science, to the ignorance which then still prevailed upon a great
number of these departments, s succeeded a clear and substantial analysis of all
the phenomena, brought under simple and rigorous laws. Heat, lig rht, elec-
tricity, and magnetism were regarded in it as so many distinct agents, having
their special properties and obeyi ing their own laws. Calculation was admirably
fitted to these clear and precise conceptions ; ; hence we find it greatly used, as
witness the very title of M. Biot’s treatise.

The great discovery of GArsted, (in 1820,) upon the relations existing between
electricity and magnetism, began to diminish confidence in this mode of con-
sidering the phenomena, a confidence which was already a good deal shaken by
ihe researches of Fresnel and Arago upon light. 'The breach once opened, the
fortress was soon entered; and among the most intrepid assailants Faraday
figures in the front rank. By his neccancles on the condensation of gases, he
shows that there is nothing absolute in the laws of Mariotte and Gay-Lussac
and in the distinction so “generally accepted between vapors and permanent
gases. By his investigations upon voltaic electricity, he establishes between
chemical affinity and the production of electricity a relation so intimate that it
seems as if the one was only a form of the other. By his discovery of induc-
tion, he brings in mechanical movement as an important element in the produc-
tion of electrical phenomena. By his experiments on the influence of the mag-
net and of electricity on polarized light, and by those which were the conse-
quence of it, he opens to science a new path which no one had foreseen. He
succeeds thus in establishing between the natural agents which we name light,
heat, electricity, magnetism, chemical affinity, and molecular attraction such
intimate relations, such a connection, that it is impossible not to think that we
shall one day succeed in demonstrating that they are only different forms of the
same agent. No doubt he is not the only one that has followed this path.
Many others have brought in their contingent to this work of demolition and
reconstruction ; but he was one of the first, most active, and most persevering.
Therefore his works, | have no doubt, will always be regarded as corner-stones
in the new edifice which we are now endeavoring to construct.

I designedly say, which we are endeavoring to construct ; for we must care-
fully avoid thinking that it is already constructed. Since the fine discovery of
the mechanical equivalent of heat, it seems as if everything had been said and
everything were easily explained by means simply of a ponderable matter, an
imponder ‘able ether, and a mechanical impulse. Vulgarizers of science, more
anxious to produce e an effect than to remain faithful to scientific truth, proclaim
a molecular system of the world destined to form a pendant to the Iécanique
Céleste of Laplace. According to them, nothing is more simple, nothing clearer;
attraction itself, which has been the object of the study of so many superior
minds, is merely the effect of an impulse easy to understand. A ‘dangerous
illusion ! which, if it succeeded in propagating ‘itself, would be as fatal to the
true progress of science as opposed to its useful diffusion ; for it is especially
upon those who take to themselves the high mission of popularizing science

MICHAEL FARADAY—HIS LIFE AND WORKS. 245

that it is imperiously incumbent to spread none but correct and well-founded
ideas.

Let us not, however, exaggerate anything, or refuse to recognize in the too
positive ideas which we have just combated that portion of truth which they
may contain. With this purpose let us try, in conclusion, to lay down in fes
words the point at which, in our opinion, in the present state of science the
important question of the unity of forces has arrived.

After having for a long time arrested the progress of science by abstract and
general considerations upon the phenomena of nature, the philosophers finished
by adopting, with Galileo, the experimental method, the only one that can lead
with certainty to the discovery of the truth. A rigorous and profound analysis,
placed at the service of this method, furnished certain and fundamental results.
Reverting to a synthetic phase, many superior minds now seek by means of
these tediously and painfully collected materials to reconstruct the edifice of
which the raising was formerly attempted in vain. No doubt science has thus
entered upon a fertile course, but only on condition of advancing with sure and
consequently with slow steps. We speak of the unity of force, and of the
transformation of forces one into the other; but do we know what are forces ?
do we know their nature? We have certainly proved transformations of move-
ment, and shown that one work may change into another work, mechanical
motion into heat, and heat into mechanical motion; these are, without doubt,
the most important points gained by science, and enable us to get a glimpse
of the existence of a single cause manifesting itself in various forms. But it
is a long way from this to the discovery of this cause, this single force. Shall
‘we some day arrive at it? It is possible and even probable; and in this case
the name and the works of Faraday will always remain associated with one of
the greatest problems which the human mind can entertain.

THE JUSSIEUS* AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

BY M. FLOURENS, PERPETUAL SECRETARY OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Translated for the Smithsonian Institution by C. A. ALEXANDER.

Introduction. Few books of botany, or even natural history, have had more
success than the small treatise of Magnolt (I say small, for it has less than a
hundred pages,) entitled: Prodromus Historia Generalis Plantarum in quo
Familia Plantarum per tabulas disponuntur, Monspelii, 1689. ‘The fine preface
of this little book—and it is only the preface which is fine—comprises but thirteen
pages; and the name of Magnol, (such is the vitality inherent in ideas of a
high order, when they are also the first, and touch upon some great problem, )
can never be forgotten.

“After having examined,” says Magnol, “the methods most in use, and found
that of Morison insufficient and defective, that of Ray too difficult, t I thought
that I could perceive in plants an affinity, according to the degrees of which it
might be possible to arrange them in different families, as it is customary to
classify animals. ‘This relation between animals and vegetables has given me
occasion to reduce plants into certain families, (for thus I would call them by
comparison with the families of men;) and as it seemed to me impossible tu derive
the character of these families from the fructification alone, I have chosen the
parts of the plants wherein the principal characteristic marks are met with,
such as the roots, stalks, flowers, and seeds ; in a number of plants there is even
a certain similitude, a certain affinity, which consists not in the parts considered
separately, but in the whole. I doubt not that the characters of families may
also be drawn from the first leaves of the germ at its exit from the grain. I[
have therefore followed the order observed by those parts of plants in which
are to be found the principal and distinctive marks of families, and, without
confining myself to a single part, have often considered several together.”

There are many ideas in this page, and all of a striking character. Magnol
perceives that plants may be arranged im families as we arrange animals; he
seeks the parts in which the principal characteristic marks occur ; he sees that
the characters of families may be derived from the first leaves of the germ, §c.
And yet how much uncertainty is still apparent—how much vagueness !_ Some-
times he considers such or such parts separately, the roots, the flowers, the
seeds ; sometimes he considers several of them together ; sometimes he con-

*An account of several members of the distinguished scientific family of Jussieu will be
found to be embraced in the present article. ‘* When, in 1833,’ says M. Flourens, ‘‘I had
pronounced before the academy the Eloge of Laurent de Jussieu, M. Adrien de Jussieu ex-
pressed to me an earnest wish that the study should be extended to all the members of his family,
and that some details might be added to show their patriarchal habits and the ties of mutual
regard which uuited them. He then confided to me certain private manuscripts which his
premature death has devolved on me the duty of employing, and of which I have reproduced
some extracts in this notice.” ;

tMagnol was the first who introduced into the Method the word ‘‘ family.”

+ This method, too difficult, though very learned (quamvis doctissiienm,) indicated at that
ely period the grand division of monocotyledons and dicotyledons: hec divisio (that of
dicotyledons and monocotyledons) ad arbores etiam extendi potest : siquidem palma et con-
generes hoc respectu eodem modo a reliquis arboribus differunt quo monocotyledones u reliquis

herbis. (Joannis Rati, Methodus Plantarum Nova, etc., 1682.)

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 247

siders the whole of the plant. Hesitation is everywhere conspicuous, because
the inquirer is destitute of a guiding principle—the principle established by
Bernard de Jussieu and developed by his nephew Laurent—the principle, in a
word, of the subordination of characters. ‘The natural method,” said Linnzeus,
“has been the first and will be the last term of botany,” (methodus naturalis
primus et ultemus finis botanices est et erit.) To this end, in effect, have tended
all persistent and comprehensive researches. When, in the middle of the six-
teenth century, Gesner indicated the characters drawn from the fructification
as the most essential,* he pointed out the right path. ‘It was Gesner,” says
M. Cuvier, “who discovered the art of distinguishing and classing plants by the
organs of fructification, the art which has, in truth, created scientific botany ;’’t
when, shortly after Gesner, Czesalpinus founded the first genera on the root and
germ ;t when, profiting by the labors of Gesner and Cesalpinus, though without
acknowledgment, Morison established his classification on the seeds;§ when
Magnol wrote the suggestive page just read;!| when Tournefort excluded
from the constitution of genera every other character but that of flowers and
Jruits ;| when Linnzus published his Researches respecting Natural Orders ;**
these vigorous intellects did but follow, by successive advances, the route
opened by Gesner. The problem of the natural method was in the nature of
an enigma, which they transmitted from one to another, and of which the two
Jussieus, Bernard and Laurent, eventually found the solution.

The Jussieu family, natives of a small town in the mountains of the Lyonnais,
which separate the basin of the Loire from that of the Sadne, had then exercised,
from sire to son, the function of notary for several centuries, when, about 1680,
oné of its members quitted Montrotier, near the hamlet which bears their name,
in order to seek his fortunes elsewhere. ‘This more enterprising member, whose
name was Laurent, having taken his degrees in medicine, established himself

««* Ex his (flore et fructu) enim potius quam foliis stirpium nature et cognationes apparent.”
(Epist.ad Theod. Zuinggerum.) ‘‘His notis (a fructu, semine et flore) staphisagriam et con-
solidam regalem vulgo dictum aconito congerem facile deprehendi.”’ (Jbid.) ‘* Melissa Con-
stantinopolitana ad lamium vel urticam mortuam quodam modo videtur accedere, seminis
tamen, unde ego cognationes stirpium indicare soleo, figura differt.” (£pist. ad Adolph.
Occonem. )

t Bibliographie universelle, article Gesner.

t‘* Partes sunt radix et germen: ex horum igitur differentiis prima genera constituenda
sunt.’’ (De plantis, 1, cap. 13.)

§ After claiming for his doctrines equal novelty and infallibility (Plantarum Hist. Univ.
Oxoniensis, seu herbarum distributio nova, 1715,) pretensions on which the judgment of
Magnol has already been seen, Morison proceeds to say: ‘‘ Notas genericas et essentiales a
seminibus eorumque similitudine petitas per tabulas cognationis et affinitatis disponentes
stirpes exhibebimus. Ditferentias specificas a partibus ignobilioribus, scilicet radice, foliis
et caulibus, odore, sapore, colore desumptas adscribemus.”

|| It Was Pierre Magnol who replaced Tournefort at the Academy of Sciences as titular
member. Magnol did not reside at Paris, but against such merit as his no rule is valid. I
find in the proceedings of our anvient academy (Iebruary 6, 1709) this note of the secretary,
Fontenelle; ‘‘I read to the company a letter from M.-Pontchartrain to the Abbé Bignon,
dated Versailles, February 5, in which it is anounced that, for the nomination of the 30th
of January, the King has chosen M. de Magnol, though a non-resident, on account of his
great reputation in botany. About the time when Morison, Magnol, Ray, published their
general views, and thus opened for their successors the way to the study of the botanical
affinities, Rivin, by a few pages replete with philosophic views, anticipated Linnzeus in sev-
eral points of the reform which was required in the nomenclature. (Jntroductio Generalis in
rem Herbarium, 1690.) Morison’s work, Plantarum Unbelliferarum Distributio Nova, bears
the date of 1672; his Plantarwin Historia Universalis, that of 1680; the work of Ray, Methodus
Plantarum Nova, &c., appeared in 1682; that of Magnol in 1689; that of Rivin, the title
or which has been just cited,in 1690; and the Elements de Botanique of Tourmefort in 1694.
Ju every department, it is from the close of the seventeenth century that the first steps of
the great philosiphie movement of the eighteenth century date their commencement.

4] ‘‘ Heec, cum ita sint, genera plantarum statui non posse liquet, nisi flores simul et fructus
adhibeantur.” (fsagoge in rem Herbariam, p. 57, 1700.) ;

** Kragmenta Methodi Naturalis vel Ordines Naturales, 1738.

948 THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

finally as a master of pharmacy at Lyon. He there married and became the
father of sixteen children, three of whom, Antoine, Bernard, and Joseph, have.
on different grounds, been remarkable among the most celebrated botanists of
an epoch of unrivalled brilliancy as regards the cultivation of their science.

ANTOINE DE JUSSIEU.

Destined to the ecclesiastical profession and educated at the college of the
Jesuits, Antoine had, from an early age, substituted for the rude sports of youth
the observation of plants. This taste, already very decided in the child, became a
passion for the young man. “He passed,” says his biographer, Grand-Jean de
Fouchy, “in searching for plants the whole time which his duties left at his dis-
posal, and some of that, perhaps, which those duties might have properly claimed.”
From the age of fourteen years he explored, in his herborizations, the environs
of Lyon, la Bresse, Bugey, Forez, &c., and even a part of Dauphiny. ‘To find
means of classifying the plants he collected, he addressed himself to a celebrated
physician, M. Goiffon, who placed in his hands the L/éments de Botanique of
Tournefort. ‘This work gave a fixed direction to his ideas; and from that moment
all traces of the ecclesiastic disappeared.

Having terminated his collegiate course, he ventured to avow to his father
that he felt it impossible to direct his thoughts to any other subjeet than the
study of nature, and, after some irritation and reproaches, this father, though
chagrined at seeing his plans disconcerted, but having no grounds for doubting
the sincerity of his son, yielded so far as to give him permission to pass from
the seminary to the medical school of Montpellier. A place in a public vehicle
was retained for the fugitive, but, notwithstanding the rigor of the cold, he
made his journey on foot, still herborizing, and reserving his right of tra sport
only for the purpose of sheltering the plants collected on the way. At Mont-
pellier, neither his medical studies, nor even several years of practice as physi-
cian, in any degree estranged him from botany, for he had there had the advantage
of hearing Magnol. 'Thenceforward his most earnest wish was to obtain access to
the instructions of Tournefort, and as soon as circumstances permitted he repaired
to Paris, with a view of attending the annual courses of that great botanist at
the Jardin Royal. This was in 1708, and Tournefort, who had already sustained
the accident which so prematurely removed him,* was no longer teaching. The
surprise of Antoine may well be imagined when, not later than the fuliowing
year, he found himself occupying, at the age of twenty-three, the chair from which
he had hoped to receive instruction ; for Isnard, who had been at first nominated
for the succession, after a few lectures retired, and Antoine was then, at the in-
stance of the admirers whom he had left at Montpellier, preferred to the vacant
place.
* * * * * * * *

The volumes of our Academy contain several botanical memoirs of Antoine
Jussieu on Fungi, on coffee, the simarouba, contrayerva, torch-thistie, catechu,
&e.; and they contain also five on fossi/ remains, both of animals or vege-
tables, a subject of study then entirely new, and which, for that reason, would
seem worthy of a passing notice. ‘The first of these five memoirs has tor
its title: An examination of the causes of the impressions of plants observed on
certain stones of the environs of Saint Chaumont in the Lyonnais, ( Memoires de
V Academie des Sciences, 1718;) the second: Physical researches on the petri-
factions of different parts of foreign plants and animals which oceur in France,
(lbid., 1721;) the third: On the origin and formation of a species of convoluted
stones, called horns of Ammon, (Ibid., 1722;) the fourth: On the origin of

*“ As he was going to the Academy of Sciences he had his breast violently pressed by the
axle of a cart which he could not avoid, and died December 20, 1708, aged only 53 years.”’
(Mémoire Historique et Littéraire sur le Collége Royal de France, par Ablé Goujet, article
Tournefort.)

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 249

stones called adders’ eyes and toad-stones, ( Ibid., 1723;) and the fifth: Odser-
vations on some bones of a head of the hippopotamus, ( Ibid., 1724.)

Of these memoirs the most important is the first; it is, so to speak, the
author’s memoir of discovery. And yet how far was the learned world at that
date from any just conception respecting those phenomena of remote ages
which every day become more imposing in proportion as they are better under-
stood. If we listened to Antoine de Jussieu, the question would seem to relate
only to certain national antiquities, which give to one people a title to glorify
themselves above others on account of their possession. ‘There is no nation,”
he says, “which does not pride itself on the monuments of whatever nature which
seem to indicate the antiquity of the country; when the still existing remains
of human labor are not available for this purpose, recourse will be had to any
other peculiarity which points to a remote origin. Even botany, since its
recent and striking progress has attracted more general attention, has been laid
under contribution as aliment for the sentiment in question. Thus MM. Lloyd
and Woodward have arrogated honor to England from the discovery of stones
on which have been observed the impression of different plants. M. Mill claims
the same distinction for Saxony. and M. Leibnitz has enumerated all the places
in Germany which may pretend to the possession of these ancient vestiges of
nature. M. Scheuchzer, lastly, extols Switzerland for an unequalled affluence
in these impressions of vegetable forms, whose types, he alleges, existed before
the deluge.”” We see in this statement with how much fairness Antoine recog-
nizes the title of other nations ; but, proceeding to assert for France an equality
of advantages in this respect, he says: ‘Of this I had an opportunity of sat-
isfying myself when, passing through the province of the Lyonnais on my way to
Spain, I traversed the environs of Saint Chaumont.” ‘The honor of France
being thus assured, be enters upon the subject and recounts that up to the gate
of Saint Chaumont and along the little river of Giés he had the pleasure of
observing on most of the stones which he picked up, the impressions of an
infinitude of fragments of plants, so different from all those which grow in the
Lyonnais, the neighboring provinces, and even in the rest of France, “ that it
seemed to him as if he were botanizing in a newgworld.”

This explorer of a new wor/d, and relatively much more nev than he supposed
it, first remarks that in these stones the impressions of plants are found only
on the surface of the laminations. He next remarks, tliat on each flake or lamina
they are different and placed in different directions, and the number of these
flakes, the facility of separating them, the great variety of plants distinguishable,
causes him, as he ingeniously says, “to regard these stones as so many volumes
of botany which, in each quarry, compose the most ancient library of the world,
and all the more curious inasmuch as these plants either 2a7st no longer, or, if
they still exist, only in countries so remote that we should have no knowledge
of them without the discovery of these impressions.”’ I have italicized the words
exist no longer, as being in effect not a little remarkable, and as presenting, though
under a rather hesitating expression, a first indication of the grand idea of the
Buffons and Cuviers on /ost species.

Among the thousands of strange plants which have left their traces on our
rocks, the practiced eye of Antoine quickly rec gnizes capillarias, ceterachs,
poly podiums, adiantums, osmundas, filiculas, and species of ferns which resem-
ble, he says, “those that R. P. Plumier and M. Sloane have discovered in the
islands of America, and those which have been sent from the East and West
Indies.” He recognizes also leaves of palms and other forvign trees, peculiar
stems, seeds, &c. But how does it happen that all these strange plants, these
plants of India and America, occur in this country, in France, in the Lyonnais,
at Saint Chaumont? Antoine is not willing to have recourse to the deluge; he
is content with simpler means: “‘ Without being obliged,’ says he, “to recur either
to the inundation of the universal deluge, or to those earthquakes and violent

250 THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

concussions which have produced great openings through which the waters of
the sea have entered ; without speaking of the fearful overthrow of vast moun-
tains which, in their fall, have occupied a great space in the bed of the sea, and
thrown its waters far inland, ¢here ts no want of proof that the greater part of
outlands, which seem to have been inhabited from time immemorial, were orig?-
nally covered with the water of the sea, which has since either iusensibly or
suddenly abandoned them.” No; truly, there is no want of proof that the greater
part of the land has been covered by the waters of the sea, and not only o7?g/-
nally, as Antoine says, but repeatedly ; for originally will not suffice; and in
the present case it is evidently necessary that the earth, before being covered
by the sea, should have been first dry land, since it had already produced ¢er-
restrial plants ; there had been, therefore, two epochs, and there are two facts:
the zrruption of the seas and their retreat. ‘ From the moment,” says Antoine,
“that it is apparent that different places have been covered with water, it is easily
comprehended that impetuous floods, impelled from north to south, and again
repelled from south to north, whether by the resistance of high mountains or by
violent hurricanes, have swept with them the animals and vegetables of southern
countries, and that in this reflux the waters having entered and remained in
the recesses where certain mountainous formations have constituted bays or
basins, have there retained these light bodies, some entire, others broken.”
Thus, impetuous floods driven to and fro, violent hurricanes, arrangements of
mountains, constitute the mechanism which Antoine imagines for such grand
effects, and which draws from Fontenelle the remark that “in such matters it is
enough to obtain the faintest glimpse of a system.’ It was enough for the time.
Limited explanations must precede comprehensive ones ; and, in regard to the
causes, so long hidden, of the displacement of seas, one could scarcely expect
from a botanist who wrote in 1718, the bold and profound system which has
been only granted in these latter days to the persistent efforts of the most in-
trepid of our geologists, Leopold von Buch.

I may dismiss the other memoirs more briefly. In the second our botanist
examines a fossil seed, which he believes to be that of the arbor tristis, ( Nyctante
de l’ Inde, ) of which marvelling travellers had related that it blossoms at night,
and that its flowers fall at daybreak, because they open in the evening and close
in the morning; in the third he considers the horns of Ammon, which he takes
for the shell of the nautilus; no wide mistake, since these fossils, or, as we now
call them, ammonites, a species wholly lost, were, in fact, cephalopods mollusks,
closely allied to the nautilus; in the fourth he treats of adders’ eyes and toad-
stones, which, notwithstanding their absurd names, he rightly recognizes for the
teeth of certain fishes, and in one case, with rare precision, for the teeth of the
pogonias ; and in the fifth he discusses certain foss¢l bones, which he properly
refers to the hippopotamus; thus, in the early years of the last century, presenting
some curious attempts, to which their date at least gives an interest, in fields
of inquiry which have most largely occupied the science of modern times. I
find the same sagacity, and, if 1 may so term it, prececious curiosity in another
memoir, which has remained unpublished, and which is entitled ‘On the necessity
of a new arrangement of plants in reference to the foreign ones recently
discovered.” he author, in the first place, earnestly deprecates any intention of
interfering with the method of Tournefort. ‘At the proposal,” he says, “of a
new arrangement of plants, there is perhaps no one who will not suppose
that some innovation is contemplated in the method invented by M. de Tourne-
fort, and that it is on the ruins of the work of that illustrious academician that
changes of importance are to be introduced, under pretext of rendering more
easy the study of botany; but we are very far indeed from wishing to interfere
with an arrangement of classes and genera so happily conceived, and which has
united the suffrages of men the most expert in this science. The aim, on the con-
trary, is only to give to that method a new degree of perfection resulting from

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 251

the observations made by sundry botanists during the lapse of nearly fifty
years in different foreign countries ; observations which can only be rendered of
advantage to botany by referring them to the place which they would naturally
occupy, and which M. Tournefort would not have failed to assign them, had he
lived till this day.”

The modification, or, to use his own phrase, the new perfection, which Antoine
proposes to introduce into the method of Tournefort, does not in effect intrench
upon the spirit, the essence of that method. It proposes, as he explains, only
to add certain new classes or sections in order conveniently to admit the plants
recently discovered in foreign countries; but he has done more than he proposed ;
for a question of pure method, he substitutes another wholly different and new,
which as yet had no name, and which we now call a question of botanical
geography. He establishes these three points: first, that our continent has a
multitude of plants which are peculiar to it and which are not found in the new,
and that the new, in turn, has a multitude of others which are not found in the old;
secondly, that the greater part of the plants which occur with us arrange them-
selves in classes into which but few foreign ones enter, and conversely ; and
thirdly, that in the two continents there are a certain number of plants which
pertain to both, and arrange themselves under common classes. ‘These three
propositions are strictly correct ; and to appreciate their merit, it is enough to
remember that at the moment when Antoine wrote, the able dissertation of Buffon
on the distinction between the animals of the two continents did not yet exist.*

Strictly speaking, Antoine never occupied himself with method. We sce this
in the care with which he deprecates an intention of interfering with that of
Tournefort ; still more clearly from his Discours sur les progrés de la botanique,
and more than all from the Introduction a la connaissance des plantes. He says,
in the Discours, with reference to Fagon, who had called Tournefort to the Jardin
Royal: “For what advances is not botany indebted to him in the choice of the
most exceilent person who had yet appeared, since he was skilful enough to
fix the principles of a science which till then had floated in uncertainty ?”
And in the Introduction, “the most perfect of methods being necessarily that
of which the rules are the most simple and invariable, there is none more distin-
guished by these characters than that which teaches us to know plants by their
flowers and their fruits.”” Now, the method which teaches us to know plants
by their flowers and fruits is that of Tournefort ; and the whole Introduction of
Antoine de Jussieu is little more than a summary exposition of that method.
Nevertheless, thanks to Vaillant,t he -had already formed more just ideas
respecting the flowers, particularly the stamens, which Tournefort only regarded
as excretory vessels. “‘ We understand,” says Antoine, “by flowers that combina-
tion of parts called stamens and pistils, serving for their multiplication.”

A passage in his Discouwrs paints, in an artless manner, the pleasure which the
Jardin Royal yields to those who frequent it in the pursuit of science: “ How
great the satisfaction of being able, within so limited a space, to see at once
whatever, in both the Old and New World, is most curious in the domain of vege-
table nature ; to be able in an instant to compare the imperfect state of botany
among the ancients with that which we witness to-day; to have facilities for
recognizing on the spot so many plants which it has been necessary to seck
beyond seas and upon mountain ranges ; without trouble to reap the benefit of dis-
coveries which have cost so much suffering and toil to explorers, and to have it
in our power to discriminate at a glance, and in the same parterre, so much of
what constitutes the separate riches of each nation.”

* Antoine died in 1758, and the volume of Buffon on the distinct animals of the two con-
tinents ap peared in 1771. J

+ It is proper to recall that six years before the celebrated Discours of Vaillant, a memoir
had been published by Claude Joseph Geoffroy, of the French Academy, on the Structure and
use of the principal parts of flowers, in which the sexual organs of plants are demonstrated.

252 THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

It was Antoine de Jussieu who, in 1720, consigned to the Chevalicr Des-
clieux, midshipman, that famous coffee plant which, transported from our con-
servatories to Martinique, has produced all which have been since reared there.
The plant deserved an historian; ‘‘ Europe,’ says Antoine, ‘‘is indebted for the
culture of this shrub to the care of the Dutch, who brought it from Moka to
Batavia, and from Batavia to the garden of Amsterdam, whence an offset was
conveyed to Marly, presented to the King, and then sent to Paris to the garden
of his Majesty, where we have seen it yield in succession flowers and fruit.’’*

I proceed, lastly, to notice a memoir by Antoine of a wholly different kind from
those which precede, and in which, by a fortunate and brief excursion beyond
the domain of strict science, he retraces for us historically the origin of the
collection of vellums belonging to the Jardin des Plantes. ‘The memoir is enti-
tled: “ A history of the facts which have occasioned and perfected the assemblage
of paintings of plants and animals on sheets of vellum, preserved in the Bibli-
othéeque du Rot.”

* * * * * * * *

This inestimable collection, begun in 1650 by Gaston of Orleans, and continued
by Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI, was at the latter date composed of
sixty-four volumes or portfolios. At this day it comprises nearly a hundred,
and it should be added that its scope has been greatly extended. No longer con-
fine1 to plants and a few birds, it embraces all the classes of the animal kingdom;
to zoology it has added comparative anatomy and physiology ; and to the two
living kingdoms, the inorganic: geology, mineralogy, and crystallography.

It has been seen how active was the life of Antoine de Jussicu, and how
varied were the subjects with which he was occupied. Unprovided with fortune,
he had been obliged to devote nearly all his time to the practice of medicine,
in which he attained great eminence. Had he been enabled to place his active
intelligence and ardent curiosity wholly at the service of science, much might
have been expected from him. But while the labors which I have recited sufiice
for the illustration of his name, his best title to acknowledgment will be always that
of having introduced into botany his brother Bernard, who for forty years was the
companion of his life. “They journeyed and studied together’, says their
nephew, M. Adrien de Jussieu, and the younger profited by the situation of his
brother to give himself wholly to natural science. Both being unmarried, they
lived together in fraternal union, which on the part of Bernard might have been
characterized as truly filial. The disposition of which they thus set the exam-
ple, reinarkable in itself, seemed innate in this family ; paternal protection on the
part of the elder ; tenderness, respect, and confidence on the part of the younger;
community of principles, of sentiments, often of studies, almost always of goods;
a union of interests and affection rarely paralleled, at least in modern times.
In a like spirit Joseph, the youngest,t came at a later period to join his two
brothers, for whom he preserved the same deference, the same devotion.”

* * * * * # * 2

* Histoire du café, (Memoires de V’ Acad. des Sciences, 1713, page 292, edition 1716.) The
following, from this memoir, is a new proof of what I have remarked elsewhere, touching
the law imposed upon our Academy, from its origin, of asserting nothing except on the direct
observation Of nature: ‘‘As the authority of authors who have not seen the objects is not
decisive in point of natural history, and our Academy can only establish its progress on a
scrupulous examination of nature itself, on verified facts and exact experiments, we may
regard as imperfect the descriptions of the coffee plant which have appeared heretofore, since
we have been enabled to make one from the tree itself now in the royal garden.”

t ‘This brother was also a botanist of distinction, and accompanied, in that capacity, the
scientific commission sent by the Academy to Peru to measure a degree of the meridian at
the equator. ‘‘ His curiosity,’’ says M. Flourens, * held him captive for many years in
those regions so rich and unexplored, where he often joined the labors of the engineer with
those of the botanist. To him Europe owes several new plants, the heliotrope, cierge du
Perou, &c., with many curious and then unknown species. Condoreet remarks that, by a
singular chance, he was an academician for thirty-six years, without having ever appeared at
the Academy.”

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 253

BERNARD DE JUSSIEU.

§ 1—His youth.

This first founder of the natural method, whose name is so well known, whose
personal history so little, was born at Lyon, 17th August, 1699. His youth
seems to have passed without indications denoting any special taste or aptitude,
much less superiority. Having pursued his early duties at the jesuits’ college
in Lyon, and completed that of rhetoric, his brother Antoine invited him to Paris,
in 1714, that he might there finish his course of philosophy.

To be left to meditate in tranquillity was then the whole ambition of the
young philosopher. But Antoine having, in 1716, projected a visit to the south-
ern provinces of France, and thence to Spain and Portugal, teok Bernard with
him as a comp»nion. It was during this excursion, and especially during his
exploration of the Lyonnais and Saint Chaumont, that Antoine made his valua-
ble observations on natural history. ‘His young brother,” as their nephew
Laurent tells us, ‘was then acquainted with but few plants, and had no decided
taste for botany ; the plants which he met with were examined, however, with so
much attention that he never forgot them; and, at a greatly advanced age, still
perfectly recollected the places where he had gathered them.”

* * * ® x * * *

In 1722 Antoine procured him the appointment of sub-demonstrator to the
chair of botany at the Jardin Royal, and unequal as the position might appear
to his merit and subsequent reputation, he could never be prevailed upon to
relinquish it ; nor, with the exception of two short trips to England, did he again
quit the environs of Paris. *

In the mean time he had become a licentiate in medicine, in 1724, and in 1726,
at the instance of Antoine, was enrolled as doctor in the medical faculty of Paris.

“The functions of Bernard at the Jardin Royal,” as Laurent informs us,
“consisted in directing the cultivation of plants, and in conducting in the country
the herborizations of pupils who attended the courses. He also superintended the
gardeners, and would relinquish to none the gathering of seeds, &e. Nor can
we omit to notice his unalterable patience in the study of plants which he sedu-
lously watched under all the forms they assume at the different stages of their
growth.” 'Tournefort had published, in 1698, a * History of the Plants in the
Environs of Paris,” and this work being out of print, Bernard gave, in 1725, a
new edition, enriched with notes. The first of August, of the same year, the
Academy of Sciences admitted him to membership.

I have already said that the two brothers lived together, and were unmarried.
In this intimate union Bernard was indefatigable in the use of means for sec-
onding Antoine. He foresaw and prepared everything for his lectures. When
the care of the sick necessitated the absence of Antoine, on Bernard devolved
the reception of their common friends, and however retiring his nature, he dis-
charged this duty in such a manner that the fraternal mansion became the centre
of a cheerful, as well as learned, society, where everything new in botany and
natural history was unaffectedly discussed.

§ 2.—Correspondence of Bernard de Jussieu and Linneus.

From the mutual letters of Bernard de Jussieu and Linneust we are enabled
to form an idea of the singular contrast which existed between the two, united,

* Laurent remembered having heard him relate that on one of those occasions he brought
back with him from London, in his hat, a pot containing two plants of the cedar of Lebanon,
which had not, as yet, been seen in France. One of these two cedars forms, at this
day, a distinguished ornament of our Jardin des Plantes.

t Epistole Caroli a Linné ad Bernardum de Jussieu inedita, et mutue Bernardi ad Linneum :
curante Adriano de Jussieu. (Exactis Acad. Art. et. Scient. Americ., t. v., ser. nov. Canta-
brigize, Nov. Ang., 1854.) Most of the Leltres of Bernard had been published by Smith, but
translated into English. M. Adrien de Jussieu has given them in latin, the language in
which they were written, and interspersed them with those of Linnzeus.

254. THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

as they were, by a passion for study, and the same study ; the one all enthu-
siasm and unreserve, of an activity incapable of restraint ; the other always self:
collected and calm, of an inertia almost insuperable. “These two celebrated
men,” says Vieq d’Azyr, ‘‘of whom each was the only rival whom the other
could fear, were asssociated in many herborizations. The impatience of M. Lin-
nus, who never asserted anything without warmth, opposed to the simplicity
and composure of M. Bernard de Jussieu, who looked on every phase of nature
with a reg gard of equal satisfaction, could not fail to present a very surprising
contrast.” (Hloge de Linné.) This contrast is manifest even in the numerical
proportion of the letters. Of the twenty-eight of which the correspondence con-
sists, one is from Antoine, nine from Bernard, and all the rest from Linnzeus.
From his irrepressible inclination to learn from every one, as well as to communi-
cate information to others, Linnzeus had the pen constantly in hand. ‘“ Assu-
redly,” he says to the Abbé Duvernoy, “if I had ten hands they would scarcely
suffice to answer all the letters I receive; and if you were to see me at this work
you would think that I did nothing but write and wasted therein both money
and time.” “If I had as many hands,” he writes to Jacquin, “as the famous
Chinese idol, I would still not have enough for all the answers I have to give.
It is certain that I alone write more letters every year than all the other profes-
sors of the university together.’ Accordingly, while we have several volumes.
of the correspondence of Linnzeus, as regards Bernard there can be no question
except of siagle and scanty letters. It had required all the heat of Linnzus
to melt the ice of Bernard, but this communicated heat could not subsist. Of
the last twelve letters of the collection there is but one from Bernard. Linnzeus
grew weary, at last, of so inert a correspondent, and directed his epistolary
ardor to other quarters.

The correspondence commences in 1736, and terminates in 1763, thus em-
bracing a period of twenty-seven years. It opens with a letter from Antoine de
Jussieu to Linnzeus, but evidently only an answer, for Antoine mentions therein
the “ Flora of Lapland”? as a work Linneus had promised to transmit, and
“which is eagerly expected in Paris on account of the early departure of our
academicians for those frozen regions.” It was, in effect, at this time that, with
a view to a more precise measurement of the figure of the earth, Bouguer, Godin,
and La Condamine were proceeding to Peru, and Clairaut, Camus, Lemonnier.
and Maupertius to Lapland.

* * * * * * * *

The second letter is from Linnzeus to Bernard. He had learned that An-
toine had devoted himself with great succes to the practice of medicine, and
is unwilling to trespass upon time so usefully employed. He therefore addresses
himself to Bernard, as being more at leisure, and consequently more disposed to
write. (How little did he know of Bernard.) Linnzeus sends him his “Critica
Botanica,” and solicits his opinion on it: “I send you,” he says, “ my Critica,
a work written in a crude and uncouth style. I have been constrained to pub-
lish it almost without devoting to it a single moment, my whole time being oc-
cupied by my Hortus Cliffortianus, which I propose to publish towards the end
of the year.” Bernard replies: ‘‘I have received your two letters, and your
Critica Botanica,” nor is there a word more respecting a book, which, by re-
forming the entire nomenclature of botany, substituted Linneeus for all other
terminologists, and naturally aroused the jealous susceptibilities of all scientific
cotemporaries. ‘The fourth letter of the collection is again from Linnzus, and
in this he announces himself as about to depart for pac where he arrived soon
after, (in 1738.)

Linnzeus was then aged thirty-one, having been born in 1707, the same year
with Buffon, and, for three years, had been travelling i in quest, if I may say so,
of scientific adventures, having left home with a few crowns in his pocket, a pas-
sion for knowledge, and hope. From Sweden he had gone into Holland, first
to Amsterdam, then to Leyden, and finally to Hartecamp. His resources be-

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 255

coming exhausted, Hartecamp opened for him new ones ; he there found in George
Citiffort, celebrated for his taste for natural history, a generous friend.. It was in
the cabinet, the garden, the library of Cliffort, that he wrote the following ad-
mirable works: The System Nature, the Fundamenta Botanica, the Bibliotheca
Botanica, the Genera Plantarum, the Classes Plantarum, &c., and that other
book, by no means to be forgotten, the Hortus Cliffortianus, a touching testimonial
of the gratitude of a man of genius towards one of worth. In 1736 Linnzeus made
a short excursion into England, and two years afterwards passed into France.
At the time of his arrival, Tournefort and Vaillant were no more, and the
two Jussieus held the sceptre of botany. He presented himself to Antoine,
with a letter from Van Royen, a learned professor of Leyden, who said of him:
“The bearer is Charles Linnzeus, whom I would cheerfully name the prince of
botany, if I acknowledged one.”
* * * * * # * *
The Jussieus received Linnzeus as Van Royen had hoped they would; and
during the month he remained at Paris he was constantly with them, especially
with Bernard, who placed himself unreservedly at his disposal. In announcing
his projected visit, in the fourth letter, Linneeus had given the most lively and
ingenuous expression to his hopes: “‘ Happy shall I be if you grant me your friend-
ship; if I shall be allowed to see your plants and those of Tournefort ; if, through
you, I can make some progress in a study for which an ardent thirst consumes me.
Hitherto I have received the kindness of all the botanists I have met with, and I
trust that you will not be more difficult.” These hopes were not disappointed. 'To
form an idea of the cordial union then cemented between these two individuals, it ia
only necessary to pass from the letter, in which Linnzeus announces his departure
for Paris, to that which communicates his return to Stockholm—from the letter of
hope to the letter of acknowledgment: “I live in the recollection of your kind-
nesses, of your house, your table so liberally offered to me, your days which were
allatmy disposal, your garden, your herbariums, to which I had unrestricted access.
I returned in safety to my own country, and fixed my residence at Stockholm, at
first unknown to almost every one ; soon afterwards I entered upon the practice of
medicine, and with success; I have been recently appointed physician in ordinary
to the marine; lastly, I have taken a wife, a friend long and ardently coveted, and,
if I may say so between ourselves, sufficiently rich, so that I am leading at present
a contented and tranquil life.”
* * * * #* # * #
Proceeding with the correspondence, I pass by a letter of Linnzeus which
mentions nothing new but the foundation of the Royal Academy of Sciences of
Stockholm, in 1739, and arrive at a letter of Bernard; this time, a real letter,
for the former was but a note: “I discovered,” he says to Linnzeus, “ during last
summer the flowers and entire fructification of the Pz/ularia, and have published
a memoir upon it in the acts of our Academy. This year I shall add a history
of the Lemma of Theophrastus, a plant allied to the Prlularia, but differing from
it sufficiently to form a distinct species.”
In the memoir on the Pilularia,* I remark a passage which could scarcely

* Bernard can, in strictness, be scarcely regarded asa writer. At most, he has left in the vol-
umes of our Academy but three very short memoirs on botany, one on the Lemma, another on
the Pilularia, a third on the plantain, besides a zoological memoir, not of greater length, on the
polypes. The following briefanalysis of the three botanical memoirs is presented by Laurent:

‘*The first memoir (1739) gives a description of the Pilularia, a plant before but little
known. He shows therein the sexual organs, which had notthen been discovered, and proves,
by their analogy with those of the ferns, that it is of the same family. The stamens especi-
ally are described with care, as well as the form of their pollen, and the phenomena which
they present ia the water, seen with the microscope. He compares them with those he had
observed in the pollen of other plants submitted to the same examination. Placed on water,
he says, they presently eject, by a small rent which takes place at u point of their capsule, a jet
of liquid or oly matter, which remains in the water without mixing with it, and in small globules
of extreme tenuity. These grains of pollen, swelling in the fluid like small vesicles, have an

256 THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

have been written at that time by any other than the destined founder of the
natural method: ‘‘ My object,’’ he says, “is not to demonstrate in this place the
preference of one method over another; I only propose in the present memoir
to compose the history of a singular plant of the environs of Paris, and. if I have
joined with this history, by way of digression, some observations which might
seem foreign to it, it is because I have thought them necessary for the perfect-
ing of the method.” “The character of a plant,” he continues, “ is what distin-
guishes it from all those which bear some relation to it; and this character, by
the established laws of botany, should be formed from an examination of the
parts which compose the flower. We call that an ecomplete character, or with
M. Linnzus an artificial character, in which are described only some parts of
the plant, while silence is observed respecting other parts which, according to
the method one follows, are assumed to be unessential; whereas we understand
by the xatural character, that in which all the parts of the flower are designated,
and their number, their figure, and their proportion are considered.”

This being premised, Bernard proceeds to inquire to what place in the botanie
eal field the plant which he is studying should be assigned, following first the
method of Tournefort, and then that of Linnzeus, and he very correctiy decides
that the generic characters proposed by Linnzeus are better than those of Tourne-
fort. “This character,” he says, (that, namely, derived from the method of
Tournefort,) “is incomplete, for it does not express all that is necessary to be
remarked in the flower of the Pilularia, and it is not possible, from such a
character, to give to this plant a place which will suit it in the classes of several
botanical methods. The mode in which M. Linnzeus establishes the natural
character of plants, in his book entitled Genera Plantarum, does afford this
advantage; it is more exact, and appears to me fo deserve some preference.’*
T’rom those last words we feel that Bernard already has a glimpse of something
preferable to the process of Linnzus ;t and, in effect, when he shall have suf-
ficiently matured his ideas, he will not stop, as he does here, with considering
together and on the same footing all the circumstances—nuwmber, situation,
figure, proportion; he will see that they have not all the same signification, the
same constancy, the same weight, and he will found the xatural method on the
decisive principle of the relative importance of the characters.

Quitting the memoir, I return to the letters and find there, at nearly every
step, proots of the profound attention with which Bernard applied his mind,
from this time, to the search for the natural method. Linneus makes an

almost spontaneous movement, or movement of attraction, and after the rent or expulsion of the
liquid, they remain flaccid and at rest.”

** In 1740, M. de Jussieu presented amemoir on the Lemma, a plant known to the ancients,
but in which flowers had never been observed. He showed that the small bodies situated at
the base, and similar, in some respects, to those of the Pilularia, contain stamens and pistils.
He describes both with the same exactness, observes the same phenomena in the pollen of
the stamens, and draws the same consequences, assigning the Lemma to the family of
ferns, in proximity to the Pilularia.”’

‘* The memoir presented in 1742 on aspecies of plantain which has but one flower at the
extremity of each stalk, is also very interesting. The author shows, in this plant, two
characters before unknown: the one, drawn from the absence of the pistil in this apparent
flower, which is male; the other, from the existence of several female flowers, hidden in the
axiilee of the leaves, at the base of each stalk of male flowers.”’

‘In order to omit nothing of the little written by Bernard, we cite, in the last place, his
memoir of 1747, on the effects of the Eau de Luce (a mixture of volatile alkali and oil of yellow
amber) against the bite of vipers. ‘* Having made repeated proofs of it,”’ says Laurent, and
being well convinced of the efficacy of this substance, he always carried a flask of it with .
him in his herborizations.”—( Notes manuscrites sur Bernard. )

* Memoires de lV Academic des Sciences, 1739.

t We feel it also from these other words: ‘‘' There can be no embarrassment in giving to
the Pilularia in the arrangement of plants, a place which will suit it, from its manner of
vegetating. As, in the natural method, the monocotyledons should form the first general
division of plauts, we will place it there, and, if there is any class into which it can enter, it
appears tome to be that of the ferns.” (Mem. de V Acad. des Sc., 1739.)

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 251

inquiry respecting his projected publication of the Plantes of Plumier.* In reply
Bernard says: “ The Plantes have not yet appeared, and will not appear before
I have succeeded in arranging them in an order conformable to the natural
method, or at least approximating to that method.” In the following letter he
felicitates Linnzeus on his nomination to the chair of botany at Upsal. “ Lhave
received this news,” he says, ‘with great joy, for, devoted as youare to the study
of plants, your new position will give you new means of ascertaining that natural
method which is the hope and desire of all botanists.” What we have been
reading above was written by Bernard from 1739 to 1742, and it was not until
nearly twenty years later, in 1759, that he ventured to make, in the garden of
Trianon, the first experimental trial of his ideas.

The memoir on the polypes exhibits Bernard under another aspect; he reveals
to us, in this remarkable study, that singular sagacity which seemed instinctively
to guide him to the truth in everything.t Nothing had more interested the
naturalists of the XVIII century, and nothing was better calculated to do so,
than the experiments of Trembley on the polype, that animal which is repro-
duced from a slip like a plant, which may be turned inside out like the finger of
a glove, and every portion of which when cut off becomes a separate and eatire
animal. The polypes of 'rembley’s experiments were those of fresh water ; the
polypes of Bernard are those of the sea, animals not less surprising than the
former, having equally the property of reproduction from a slip, like plants ;
composite, multiple animals, of which several live united together by a common
trunk, having a common sensibility, a common movement and even a common
nutrition, for what is eaten by one nourishes and suflices for all.

These animals had long been taken for plants ; they were called marine plants ;:
it was even thought that the flower had been discovered, and the author of the
discovery, Marsigli, had become famous. Peyssonnel was the first who, in the
pretended flower of the coral, had the sagacity to recognize, in 1727, a real animal,
the coralline animal, as he called it, the polype of the coral, as wesay at present;.
a fact which then appeared so strange that Reaumur, charged with the duty of
announcing it to the Academy, did not venture toname the author. “The esteem,”
said he at a later period, “ which I felt for M. Peyssonnel made me avoid naming
him as the author of an opinion which could not fail to appear incredible.”

Bernard wrote to Linnzus: “ Ihave made some excursions, and, last autumn,
traversed the coasts of Normandy, where I discovered things of no little novelty,
and you will wonder, some day, to see how much the animal kingdom is enriched.”
In his memoir he says: ‘The diversity of opinions on the nature of the marine
plants, so far from satisfying a botanist, has seemed to me only the more capable
of stimulating his curiosity, and I acknowledge that mine has been excited by

‘the desire of making some researches on this subject.” He repairs therefore to
the sea-coast, repeats the observations of Peyssonnel, finds them at all points
exact, and, at his return to Paris, hastens to announce this to the Academy.
Thereupon the question was considered to be decided, and a whole class of beings

* Since Bernard’s time, the musenm has received several manuscripts of Plumier, and ina
rather singular manner. “ Plumier had left a large number of manuscripts, some of great
value, but his monastic brethren, among whom there was neither botanist nor naturalist,
held them in very little estimation. At the epoch of the revolution, when the convents were
visited and the libraries of the monks carried off, some of these manuscripts were found which
had served for fire-screens. M. Laurent de Jussieu had them carried to the Jardin du Roi,
and deposited in the library. (Cuvier: Lecons sur l’ Histoire des Sciences Naturelles. )

t In proof of this ‘‘singular sagacity,’’ we are told that ‘‘ Bernard de Jussieu’s scholars
used to bring him flowers which they had mutilated or compounded with others, for the pur-
pose of testing his knowledge, and he always recognized them immediately. Some of them
having made the same experiment on Linnzeus, he said, ‘ God or your teacher (Jussieu) can
alone answer your questions.’”’? Cuvier, in a biographical memoir on Richard, calls Bernard
‘‘the most modest and perhaps the most profound botanist of the eighteenth century, who,
although he has scarcely published anything, is, nevertheless, the inspiring genius of modern
botanists.’”’—(Encyc. Americana. )—TR.

17 s 67

258 THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

passed from one kingdom of nature into another. Reaumur, in turn, regretting
the wrong which he might possibly have done to Peyssonnel by his silence, gave
utterance to these generous expressions: “‘ The attention which M. Peyssonnel
had brought to his observations ought to have convinced me sooner that these
flowers, with which M. Marsigli had endowed the different productions just
spoken of, were in reality minute animals.’’*

The tenor of all the letters written by Bernard to Linneus, or by the latter
to the former, is the communication and discussion of novelties like these.
“These things,” says Bernard ingenuously to Linnzeus, “constitute your delight
and mine: Hoc res sunt tue, sunt mee delicie.”’ At one time it is Linnzeus who
consults Bernard on some difficulty with which he is occupied. What is the
Peloria, that species of metamorphosis which transforms certain flowers, the
flowers of the Linaria, for example, from irregular flowers, as they usually are,
into regular ones? Must this be considered a monstrosity? “That,” replies
Bernard, “is what the seeds sown cannot fail to teach us.’ Nor was he mis-
taken; the Peloria is reproduced by the slip, and is not reproduced by the
seeds. Every one now knows with how new alight the admirable theory of
M. De Candolle on the primal symmetry of beings,t has elucidated this
phenomenon, which, on examination, has been found much more general than
was at first supposed: ¢ the Peloria is the primitive and regular type of the
irregular flowers. At another time, it is Bernard who announces to Linnzeus
some new miracle of science: Sed quid moror? Ecce nova panduntur orbi
litterario miracula. It chances, however, in this instance to be a false miracle;
the matter in question being the azimalcules which Buffon thought he had dis-
covered in the liquids of females, and which do not exist there.§

* * * * * * * *

For another trait of Linneus, we may cite the friendly warmth with which
he everywhere speaks of Bernard; going so far at one time as to say ‘that he
loves him more than any one else, with the single exception of his wife.”

* * * * * x * *

The true key, indeed, to everything in Linnzeus, is to be found in the inexhaust-
ible fund of his geniality and goodness of heart. Thus, how touchingly does he
speak in his letters of his pupils; calling Kalm, Kalmus noster ; Hasselquist,
his dearest disciple. We cannot wonder at the affection which they in turn all
vowed to him. They might be said to have constituted a body of apostles
intent on carrying his doctrines everywhere, and bringing back to him new
subjects of study; with this view, Kalm betook himself to North America,
Forskal to Arabia, Hasselquist to Egypt, ‘Toren to the Indies, Osbeck to China,
Thunberg to Japan, Sparrman to the South seas, &c. Through his disciples
the world, in some sort, pertained to him. On the other hand, if kindliness is the
characteristic of Linnzus, modesty is the quality which attracts us in Bernard.||
Of this Linnzeus is especially sensible, and Bernard is the only botanist against
whom the former has not launched some shaft of petulant impatience. Well,
indeed, might he be considerate of that signal disinterestedness and silence which
left him the secure possession of a supremacy which Bernard alone could have
disputed with him.

* Respecting the whole history of the coral animal see the analysis of the manuscripts of
Peyssounel, which I inserted in the Journal des Savants for 1838.

t See the Memoir of De Candolle, Smithsonian Report for 1859,

t Linnzeus had at first observed it only in the Linaria arvensis ; it has been observed since
in several other plants of different species.

§ See, in the notes of the edition which I have given of Buffon’s works, the causes of this
error.

| Nothing, his nephew Laurent tells us, was more familiar to him than the answer: je ne
sais pas (I do not know.) Jean Jacques, who had become an enthusiast in botany, sent to
ask of him what method he should follow. ‘‘ None,” replied Bernard; ‘‘let him study plants
in the order in which nature offers them to him. It is impossible that a man of such genius
shouid occupy himself with botany and not teach us something.”

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 259

The last letter of Linneus bears the date of March 1, 1763. He had just
been named one of the eight foreign associates of our Academy, and says: ‘Of
all the academic titles I have received, none has flattered me so much as this,
with which I alone, of all my countrymen, have as yet been invested.” On
Bérnard’s part the correspondence had stopped much sooner; his last letter
bears the date of 1751; a subject of no little regret, for it was towards this
period that he made, at Trianon, the first trial of his natural orders. He would,
without doubt, have said something to Linnzeus on the subject, and however
brief his communication, it would now be of much interest.

§3.—On Bernard de Jussicu’s mode of observing in botany.

It is my good fortune, due to the kindness of Dr. Tessereau,* to be now able
to add to the memorials already considered sixteen letters of Bernard; a number
which, after what has been said, would seem almost incredible. But the explana-
tion is not difficult : between Bernard and a certain M. Artur, a@ member of the
higher council of Cayenne, to whom the letters are addressed, there runs,
throughout the correspondence, an incessant exchange of reciprocal solicitations.
Artur constantly urges Bernard to procure an increase of his appointment, which
seems to have been scanty, and Bernard, as ceaselessly, presses Artur to send him
plants and other objects of natural history. In an early part of the correspond-
ence Bernard, under date of December, 1736, writes as follows: “ You know
that the seeds of all the plants of the colony interest us; I hope that you will be good
enough to collect them for us, as time and opportunity permit. Pray do not neg-
lect to send us roots of the simarouba, as well as branches charged with leaves
and dried between paper, and the ripe fruit of that shrub ; skilful as you are in
drawing, you might sketch for us the flower it bears; and you are highly com-
petent to give its description, with that also of the pareira brava, the ipecacuanha,
and other plants recommended by their virtues in medicine or use in the arts.”

Apparently Bernard’s estimate of Artur’s competency must have undergone
some modification, for in the fifth letter he takes the trouble to compose for his
guidance a very brief and yet complete treatise of elementary botany, taking
care, at the same time, to spare, as far as possible, the sensitiveness of his cor-
respondent.

« Hxactness, in the description of all the parts which constitute flowers, be-
comes,” he says, “more and more necessary for the perfection of the method
which arranges plants in classes, and distinguishes essentially each species; we
should not adhere solely to the form of the petals, and the part which, in the
flower, changes into fruit; it is necessary to particularize the figure of the calyx.
its composition, the different figure of the petals, the part they occupy, their
number, their division, the number of the stamens ; whether they stand alone
and distinct, or whether, united in several bodies or a single one, they spring
from the sides of a calyx or a petal. ‘The pistils are sometimes single and some-
times many in the same flower; and there are three parts to be considered in
them, the lower, which is the ovary, the middle, which is the style, and the upper
and last, which is the stigma.”’

Everything in this little treatise is worthy of remark, for, in indicating to M.
Artur the mode of observing, Bernard, at the same time, indicates the scrupulous,
attentive, and complete manner (and for the first time complete in botany) prac-
ticed by himself. I think it proper, therefore, to reproduce the whole letter :

“These parts are not always found in the order in which I mark them; in that
case, great attention is to be paid in observing the fact; these parts, too, are often
multiple—that is to say, there are several ovaries, several styles, and several
stigmas ; again, their figure, situation, porportion, vary, and all this requires de-
tails ; finally, the ovary becomes the fruit, either naked or enveloped, simple and

.* An eminent physician and author of a valuable treaties on hygiene.

266 THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

containing but one seed, or composite and divided into different loculaments, and
the seeds have their appropriate form.

«There are, besides these particulars, bodies which are met with in the flowers,
either on the petals, or simply adherent to these petals, to the calices, to the base of
the embryons of the ovaries, where they appear as tubercles, cornets, ornamental
leaves, or narrow strips. As they serve to secrete, in the interior of the
flowers, a juice or honeyed liquid, modern botanists have given them the name of
nectarium; it is important to remark, in any flowers, whether this body exists,
what part it occupies, and what is its conformation. You well know that in
plants some are hermaphrodites ; others bear only flowers with stamens, and are
males; others, which are females, have only pistils; there are some which, on
the same stalk, are furnished, at different places, with distinct male and female
flowers ; we see what it is proper to observe, and also what is wanting in the char-
acters which have been established in the methods we possess respecting plants.
If you have time to labor more at botany, you will do well to verify all that
may suggest itself to you in reference to the principles I have above indicated ;
you will not only find inthe occupation a source of pleasure, but will be enabled
by your researches to correct, reform, and authenticate more particularly what-
ever information is attainable respecting the plants of the colony of Cayenne.,
In adapting your phraseology to the plants which you shall arrange according
to species, do not make use of comparisons, but express, in few words, the specific
mark which you perceive in a species, which serves to distinguish it from those
you already know; if you know but one of the species, it is useless to bestow
upon it other phrases than the name it bears or’'which you may assign it, for we
should not distinguish a species which is unique; this would be to distinguish
the known from the unknown, and the consequence is obvious. I write in haste,
and may have failed to explain myself clearly; have the goodness to supply
what is wanting, by omitting no circumstance of what you see in the plants you
wish to describe ; be on your guard respecting the varieties which cultivation or
a difference of soil may present ; these should be left to the amateurs of flowers
and fruits. Adieu, my dear colleague.”*

* * * * * * * %

§ 4.— The catalogue of Trianon.

The papers which contain this valuable memorial, the first foundation of the
aatural method, are inscribed with this title: Order established by M. Bernard de
Jussieu for the plants in the garden of Trianon, in 1759; with a notification by
Laurent, importing that “from this catalogue, written by his own hand, was
copied that printed in the Genera Plantarum.”’t

In this catalogue of Trianon, everything is reduced to a list of names; but
+hese names are arranged in a determinate order, and that happily-conceived
order has been found to contain the key of the natural method. Linnzus also
had, before Bernard, given in his Classes plantarum (1738) a series of names,
fragments, as he expresses it, of the natural method—Fragmenta naturalis
methodi. How comes it, then, that the names of Linnzeus have produced nothing,
and that those of Bernard have produced the method? Simply because Lin-
uzeus failed to discover the true order, while Bernard discovered and disclosed it.

* To this letter attention is due, as important in the history of Bernard’s progress towards
che natural method. It was necessary to commence by establishing the complete enumeration
of the characters, before proceeding to their appreciation, their relative valuation, the great
principle of the subordination of characters. This letter is of 1738, the catalogue of Trianon
of 1759. Bernard does not hurry himself, but he is always advancing.

t To this M. Adrien de Jussieu has subjoined the following: ‘‘ The catalogue printed in
the Genera plantarum differs from it in seme points: in the suppression of citations and
synonyms, the intercalation of certain species written in general by the hand of A. L. de
Jussieu, the omission of name in some families, and even the division of some of them. The
arrangment of all the hypogynous monopetaleze is here different, another manuscript, of the
date of 1765, haying been followed in the printed copy, in relation to this group alone.”

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 261

Not a few botanists have attempted, as well since the death of Linnzus as
during his life, to discover the key of his xames, the hidden principle of his order,
but none has suecceded. Giseke, one of his pupils, had maintained at Gottingen,
in 1767, athesis on the New systems of botany, (Systemata plantarum. recentiora,)
and, in reference to the natural orders of Linnus, had said: “ Linneus has
written a series of names, but nothing more; no character, no description; a
genuine enigma, almost impossible to divine; one knows not why such a plant
is placed here, another there, nor what reason has prevailed with the author for
uniting or separating them.” After some hesitation he sent his thesis to Lin-
nzeus, who answered him with his usual good-nature: ‘“ You ask of me the char-
acters of my orders, and I confess that I cannot give them.”

* * * * * * * *

Bernard would not have spoken thus lightly of his orders, and would not have
changed the arrangement he had given them for another, and this because he
possessed the key, the reason, the ascertained principle of that admirable arrange-
ment—a principle which, after having carried the natural method into botany,
has carried it into zoology, and will carry it everywhere; a principle which is
to-day so universally recognized under the name of the principle of the swbord-
nation of characters.. “ In examining characters,” says Laurent de Jussieu in
speaking of Bernard, “that botanist had remarked that some were more general
than others, and ought to furnish the first divisions. After having appreciated
them successively, he had recognized that the germination of the seed and the
respective arrangement of the sexual organs were the two principal and most
invariable. He adopted them, and made them the basis of the arrangement which
he established at Trianon in 1759.”

There is, in effect, a visible succession, a visible subordination of the organs,
and consequently of the characters. In plants, the first rank pertains to the
embryo, the end and purpose of vegetation, as destined to preserve the life of
the species; the second, to the organs which concur in the formation of that
embryo—that is to say, to the stamens and pistils—but taken together and con-
sidered in their reciprocal relations; then come the organs which protect these
or the other parts of the flower, of the fruit, of the seed; then the secondary
modifications of the essential organs themselves, considered separately ; and then
the organs of vegetation, which contribute only to the individual life. Before Ber-
nard the characters were enwmerated ; since his time, they are appreciated ; we
know, since then, that they have unequal values, that a character of the first rank
is equivalent to several of the second, one of these to several of the third, &ce.
Neither Tournefort, nor Adanson, nor Linnzeus had discerned this controlling prin-
ciple ; Bernard perceived it, availed himself of it, and embodied it silently in his
catalogue ; Laurent de Jussieu drew it thence, developed it, and placed it in full
light; M. Cuvier transferred it, by giving it wider scope, from botany to zoology ;
and thus by successive steps we have been endowed with the natural method.

§ 5.—Old age of Bernard.

“ Convinced that principles exist ready formed in nature,” (it is Laurent who
speaks,) “and that the botanist ought to confine himself to seeking them there,
without attempting to establish them apart from nature,” Bernard had excused
himself from the labor of composing a book. According to him, the perfect book
was open to all; it was only necessary to learn to read it. When he found
himself intrusted with the creation of a botanic garden, he could not fuil to ex-
perience the liveliest pleasure, for it was the living book, of which he had in-
dulged a dream, that he was now commissioned to produce by arranging plants
in the natural order, of which he had discovered the clue. Simply to supply an
aid to his memory, he had then composed his catalogue, and such is the charm
of truth that this catalogue, which is only a long series of barbarous names, be-
came the poetry of a life instinctively devoted to one great task.

262 THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

Years meantime had accumulated, and Bernard, always absorbed in his
problem, perceived the lapse of time as little as he did the renown which had
encircled his name. Nothing had altered the serenity of the life of the two
brothers; the love of order had, in this house, passed from theory into the
most scrupulous practice. To this modest retreat in the rue des Bernardins
regularly resorted Malesherbes, Duhamel, Lemonnier, Poivre, aud other dis-
tinguished men, whom similarity of labors and opinions and long attachment
united in the bonds of the closest intimacy ; here also every learned stranger,
particularly every botanist, was emulous of being introduced. ‘The prolonged
life of the good Tessier has left to us only the impression of the aged man;
here he appeared as the young debutant. Andre Thouin was indebted to the
two brothers for the origin of his botanical fortunes, and not a few besides,
devoted upon similar grounds of gratitude and affection, enlarged the circle by
which our celibataires were encompassed.

Occupied in scrupulously fulfilling towards his elder brother the duties of a
piety which might well be called filial, it is easily imagined with how poignant
a grief Bernard was affected when a short malady bereft him of Antoine. He
fell into a gloomy reverie, from which nothing seemed capable of arousing him.
Seated alone at the once common fireside, his long meditation only then began
to be interrupted by bitter. reflections. He no longer quitted the house except
to go to the church, the Jardin Royal or the Academy.
* * * * * * * *

The protracted life of Bernard condemned him to blindness; but those allevia-
tions which he had ministered to Antoine were in turn supplied to himself by
Laurent, the son of their eldest brother, who was, during many of his later years,
the inmate of his house. Seated daily near this nephew, and superintending his
studies, the old man, under the appearance of a tranquil reverie, became once
more absorbed in his former pursuits; it was as a second phase of the same life,
as a thought which revives and is perpetuated. Passing away thus, the exist-
ence of Bernard may be said to have been at last rather transformed than ex-
tinguished ; his mortal remains left the fraternal mansion November 6, 1777.

* * * * * * * *

LAURENT DE JUSSIEU AND THE COMPLETE VIEW OF THE METHOD.

M. de Candolle, in his Théorie Elémentaire de la Botanique, undoubtedly the
most original and maturely considered of his works, thus expresses himself
respecting the two Jussieus: ‘“ Without seeking, in any manner, to assign a
distinct part to each of these skilful botanists, and to separate names which,
united as they were by consanguinity and the most confidential intimacy, will
be always still more closely united by fame, we shall merely remark that what
characterizes the method of the Jussieus is that it is founded on the subordi-
nation of characters.’ Now, this problem of the distinct part borne by the two,
and the proper merit of each, a problem which M. de Candolle has chosen to
evade, is precisely that which I propose to consider; but, before attempting its
solution, it is necessary to refer to some manuscript notes of Laurent de Jussieu
respecting his uncle.* It is of interest to see how Bernard was regarded by

* These valuable notes on the life of Bernard de Jussicu are accompanied with a notice
that ‘‘ they were intended for instructions to M. de Condorcet.” It was, in effect, on these
notes that was founded the historical eloge of Bernard de Jussieu, read by Condorcet at the
public session of the Academy of Sciences of the 29th of April, 1778, and, what added to the
eclat of the ceremonial, read before Voltaire. At that moment, which so shortly preceded
his death, Voltaire was the object of general admiration. ‘‘ Paris contained at the same
time the celebrated Franklin; the latter was naturally desirous of seeing a man whose fame
had so long occupied the attention of both the Old and the New World. Voltaire, although he
had lost the habit of speaking English, attempted to sustain the conversation in that language,

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 263

his nephew, who was at the same time his successor and continuator; without
whom we should with difficulty have penetrated the secret of his thoughts or
possessed the authentic explanation of his catalogue.

“He regarded botany,’’ Laurent tells us, ‘‘not as a science of memory or of no-
menclature, but as a science of combinations, founded on a thorough knowledge
of all the characters of each plant. He compiled, every day, materials for form-
ing that natural order which is the touchstone of botanists. Always thinking
himself not sufficiently advanced, he neglected to publish his first essays, and
sought the improvement of his work. This distrust of himself continually ar-
rested him, and even brought him to the point of doubting of all.’ * * * *
This last and curious phrase is one which any other than Bernard would scarcely
have suggested, and which reveals a species of superiority to which few attain
or even aspire. “ He wrote little,” continues Laurent, “but observed mucb; and
the fruits of his labor would perhaps have been lost to science but for a favorable
circumstance, which obliged him to give a practical exposition of his general
system in the arrangement of plants.’ 'The favorable circumstance was the foi-
lowing: Louis XV having seen at Saint Germain the plantations in which the
Maréchal de Noailles had indulged his taste, by collecting the trees and shrubs
of foreign countries, was struck with the fancy of forming similar ones at
Trianon, and of founding there a school of botany. With this object, and
guided by Lemonnier, then first physician of the royal infants of France, he cast
his eyes on Bernard, who ‘being constrained,” as Laurent expresses it, “to
adopt some arrangement, judged it expedient to substitute his new plan for the
ancient methods.” Thus we see on how mere a contingency depended our
possession of this new plan; without the visit of Louis XV to Saint Germain,
Bernard would not have been constrained to adopt an arrangement, and quite
probably would never have written his catalogue. :

Respecting those ancient methods for which he substituted his new plan, Lau-
rent has conveyed to us the views of his uncle: ‘Those methods were, according
to him, only descriptive tables in which the plants were arranged agreeably to a
conventional order adopted for the convenience of those who study them. ‘The
science, limited to these methods, is a factitious science, very remote from that
of the natural order, which is the true one, and which consists in a knowledge of
the real relations of plants and their organization.” * * * * « Whenaman,”
adds Laurent, “has combined the characters of plants to such an extent as to be
able, in an unknown species, to determine the existence of many from the pres-
ence of a single one, to refer on the spot this species to the order which suits it;
when he has destroyed the prejudice, so disparaging to botany, that it is to be
regarded as a science of memory and nomenclature, and has made of it a science
of combinations which affords aliment to thought and imagination, that man may
be called the creator, or at least the restorer of the science. Others will, perhaps,
extend its bounds, but he will have been the first to point the way, to trace the
plan, to establish the principles. M.de Jussieu has not, it is true, consigned
them to any book, but in the garden of Trianon we recognize the conception
of the author. The same conception reigns in the recent arrangement of the
Jardin Royal of Paris, formed upon the model of that of Trianon, and only differ-
ing from it in some points for greater facility of study.” Finally, Laurent
arrives at the higher view which characterizes the Jussieus in botany, at the
key which has given them the natural order, the principle. namely, of the swbor-
dination of characters. “Inthe examination of characters, Bernard had remarked
that some were more general than others, and should furnish the first divisions.

but presently resuming his own: I could not resist the desire (he said) of speaking fora
moment the language of M. Franklin. They met again at a public sitting of the Academy
of Sciences ; they here embraced amidst the acclamations of the spectators, who exclaimed
that it was Solon embracing Sophocles.” (Condorcet: Vie de Voltaire.)

264. THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

After duly considering their relative value, he recognized the germination of the
seed and the respective arrangement of the sexual organs as the two principal
and most invariable; he adopted them, and made them the basis of the arrange-
ment which he established at Trianon in 1759.”

Thus the solution of the problem I had proposed is seen to have little diffi-
culty; for Laurent himself tells us, as well in these notes as in the preface to
his Genera Plantarum, that it is to Bernard we owe the discovery of the prin-
ciple of swbordination of characters. “'This inequality of characters had not
escaped the excellent author of the Orders of Trianon, neither the subordinate
part of the more variable, nor the importance of the more constant, nor the dig-
nity of the embryo and the sexual organs, nor the aftinity of the genera and
orders which are associated with one another by these primary indications. The
families which he has established are, in general, strictly natural, and conforma-
ble to these principles.” At a still later period, he styles the Catulogue of
Trianon, that mature result of the long meditations of Bernard, “the most solid
monument of his renown.’’ Nor does M. Adrien de Jussieu, though disposed
by a natural bias to incline the balance rather to the side of his father than his
uncle, bear a different testimony: ‘‘I have beneath my eyes the manuscript cata-
logues of Bernard: there are two of them; that which was printed at the head
of the Genera, and another still longer, in which are enumerated, in connection
with the name of each kind, the species according to the Linnzean nomenclature,
with a brief synonomy of former authors. But the whole is limited to a series
of names, without a word of development or explanation. Such as they are,
however, they evince that Bernard de Jussieu had established the principle of
the subordination of characters, and had determined those to which must be
assigned the first rank; an immense step in advance, and sufficient in itself to
immortalize him who conceivedit.’” * * * * But does this embrace,” asks
M. Adrien with reason, “all that we find in the Genera Plantarum?’ In reply,
let us briefly examine that work. At the time of its appearance, botany possessed
20,000 plants, of which more than half had been unknown to Bernard—those
of Commerson, of Dombey, of Forster, of Forskal. ‘lhe author distributes these
20,000 plants into a hundred orders; these hundred orders into 1,754 genera;*
to each of these orders and genera are assigned its characters, and to all these
characters their due valuation and weight.

The author divides the characters into three classes: The first class, essential,
constant, uniform in ail the orders, and drawn from the most important organs,
the number of lobes or cotyledons of the embryo, the insertion of the stamens
or their arrangement in relation to the pistil, the situation of the staminiferous
corolla; the second class, general, nearly uniform in all the orders, or only vary-
ing by exception, and drawn from organs less important—the presence or defect,
whether of the calyx or of the non-staminiferous corolla, the structure of the
corolla considered as monypetalous or polypetalous, the relative situation of the
calyx and the pistil, finally the presence or absence of the perisperm; the third
class, sometimes uniform and sometimes variable, now furnished by one organ
aud now by another, the calyx monophyllous or polyphyllous, the ovary simple
or multiple, the number, proportion, connection of the stamens, the number of
cells of the fruit and its manner of opening, the position of the leaves and flowers,
&c., &e. By virtue of this classification of the s/gns, Laurent has always before
him the principle which controls the arrangement of plants. It only remains
to respect everywhere this first classification, which gives the other. Let no
character of a genus intrude into the definition of an order, nor of an order into
the definition of a genus. The least inversion produces dissonance in the natural
order. By this system the method is seen, more clearly than ever before, to be
the science of characters. ‘There are found to be laws by which these characters

* Add 150 genera which are supernumerary, or of doubtful place (plante incerte sedis. )

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 265

imply or exclude one another; the presence of a single one, as we have already
heard Laurent say, suffices to determine the existence of many, and it is even in
this that the most distinctive feature of the method reveals itself.

Adanson* and others, who censured Laurent for this exclusive preference
given to one part among all the rest, were completely at fault. They failed
to appreciate that wonderful correspondence through which a character, aptly
chosen, far from excluding others, as they apprehended, comprises, implies, involves
them, as its consequence, and in proportions always definite, in combinations always
fixed. They failed to perceive those subordinations, those obligatory connec-
tions, or, as Cuvier at a later period called them, those necessary correlations of.
parts, which enable us from each to infer the whole, and reciprocally from the
whole to infer each—a singular prerogative inhereut in the natural method, and
which that method, among all others, alone possesses. But by what process
had Laurent elevated himself to a knowledge at once so thorough and original,
to what might almost seem an instinctive appreciation of characters? Doubtless
the catalogue of Trianon had been his first guide, the counsels and conversation of
Bernard his earliest and most valued resource. But in the following extract from
a short manuscript account of himself, which lies before me, we obtain an insight
into the means he had devised for rendering this knowledge peculiarly his own.
* * * * * * * *

“In 1773,” he says, “a place of botanist being vacant at the Academy of Sci-
ences, I was tempted to compose a memoir in order to be admitted to it, and with
a view to understand thoroughly what are called families, I determined to take
one of them as the subject of my essay. Linnezus had published his Frag-
menta Naturalia or Ordines Naturales ; Bernard.de Jussieu had arranged his
Familles in the garden of Trianon, and Adanson had published his Familles
des Plantes in 1763. I selected for a subject the family of the Ranunculaces,
adopted by these three authors, and after having studied their catalogues, I
reviewed this family in all its characters, and soon recognized that these had not
all the same value; that some were constant in all the plants of the family, that
others varied only by exception, and that others again were more or less variable ;
whence I concluded that, in comparing them, it was not sufficient to have regard
to the number of like characters, but that it was necessary to take into account
their unequal value: thus it was that the seed furnished me the first values, the
sexual organs, taken together, the second, and the other characters, successively
diminishing in proportion, gave me fivally more definite ideas on these relations.
My memoir, composed by myself alone, but approved by my uncle, was accepted
by the Academy and opened its doors to me in March, 1773.”

‘This work on the characters of the Ranunculacee being finished and published,
Laurent immmediately commenced a similar one on the Composite, the Gramineae,
the Leguminosae, the Umbellifere, &c., families alike natural by the consent of
all botanists ; and, this completed, he felt that he was master of the science.

* «The principles of M. Jussieu,”’ says Adanson, ‘‘will encounter perhaps some difficulty on
the part of botanists who believe that a method, in order to be natural, should found its di-
visions On an examination of all the parts taken together, without giving to any one an ex-
clusive preference over others.” (Report of Adanson to the Academy on the first memoir of
Laurent de Jussieu. )

Adanson was, after Bernard de Jussieu, the man of his time who had given most attention
to method. In his elaborate work, Families des Plantes, he remarks: ‘‘ In the artificial methods,
of which the object was simply to render more facile a knowiedge of plants, by disentangling
it from the multiplicity of characters, consideration was given to but one or a few of the more
geneial or prominent parts of the fructification, but, in a natural method, the characters,
whether of the class, the genus or the species, ought to be taken from all parts, more or less
obvious, of the plant.” Laurent de Jussieu having one day read a memoir to the Academy,
Adanson abruptly remarked that he recognized therein several ideas which he had himself
already made public. ‘tI can well believe it,” was the calm reply of Laurent; ‘‘we studied
under the same master.’’? Adanson had, in effect, studied under Bernard; moreover, the
pene tion of the garden of Trianon dates from 1759, while the Fumilies des Plantes appeared
in 1763.

266 THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

“From that time,”’ he says, “I conceived the plan of a new classification; * *
I projected, upon these principles, a new method, whose entire plan is sct forth
in my memoir of 1774; I combined together the labors of the three authors
before cited.” ay) THER ay BP Davaaes Be At length, in 1788, after fifteen
years of this persistent labor in the study of characters, the printing of the
Genera commenced. ‘The author was so full of his book that he began to print
without having written it, or, as he himself says, “it was sent to press in pro-
portion as it was composed.” It appeared in 1789, under the title: Genera
plantarum secundum ordines naturales disposita, juxta methodum in horto regio
parisiens, exaratam.

Now that both Bernard and the Genera are known to us, may we not say with
confidence that Bernard would never have taken upon himself the execution of
so laborious an exposition? He loved truth, but sought it only for the satisfaction
it procured him. On a nature of so much simplicity neither vanity nor ambition
had any hold. In 1758, after the death of his brother Antoine, whose sub-
demonstrator he had been, it was proposed to him to be advanced to the first
place; he preferred to retain the second: “The old,” he answered, “are content
with what they have; they do not like change.” In 1770, Lemonnier, the
suecessor of Antoine, being appointed first physician to the king, and hence
obliged to reside at Versailles, it became necessary to find a substitute ; Buffon
referred the nomination to Bernard, who presented Laurent. Very different in
this respect from his uncle, the latter accepted the charge, though then only
twenty-two years of age and nearly ignorant of botany. —

** * * * * * * *

«Tt was now time,” he tells us, “that I should apply seriously to the study
of the science; the method of Tournefort, then taught in the garden, was, it
is true, very easy, and the students were novices; there was little difficulty in
retailing to them in the morning what I had acquired the evening before. My
uncle, who had always arranged the plants, whether for his brother Antoine
or his suecessor Lemonnier, rendered me the same service, and, in the earlier
lessons, supplied me with the characters of the principal species.’ When
Bernard, in 1770, fulfilled this part of sub-demonstrator to his nephew of twenty-
two, he was himself seventy-one years of age; no circumstance perhaps could
more strongly mark the difference of their respective characters.

* * * * * * 7 *

LIFE OF LAURENT DE JUSSIEU AND INFLUENCE OF HIS LABORS.

It has been seen that Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, born at Lyon April 12,
1748, and adopted by his uncle Bernard in 1765, at once became, under the direc-
tion of the latter, a master in science. The explanation of this is, that having
been guided by the impressions he received into a path at once true and untrodden,
all the steps which he took were naturally confident and progressive.

* ** * * * * * *

In the memoir which procured him, at the age of twenty-five, admission to
the Academy, he had laid down the principle “that, without neglecting the
nomenclature, it was above all necessary to devote attention to the investiga-
tion of characters, the most important part of botany.’’ This was one of the
truths which had occupied the life of Bernard, and now proclaimed by Laurent,
it challenged general recognition at the moment when it had become most neces-
sary to the progress of the science.

In 1774, he presented, in a second memoir, written on occasion of the reor-
ganization of the botanical school of the Jardin Royal, the plan of a new classi-
fication. This new frame-work of the science, a skilful combination of the labors
of Bernard at Trianon, of the method of Tournefort and of the nomenclature
of Linnzeus, was developed with a precision and confidence which struck all con-
siderate minds, and established Laurent as an innovator at the Academy and

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 267

among botanists. In this memoir he lights the torch destined to guide all the
great labors upon method executed during his era. I cite the following passage :
«There exist in vegetables, as in animals, primary classes which comprise other
secondary clases ; both are founded on general and invariable characters, which
can only be derived from the organs most essential to life, and the reproduction
of the species; all beings which differ in the structure, situation and function of
these principal organs ought to be separated; hence the first divisions of the
animal kingdom result from the inspection of the heart, the number of its ven-
tricles and auricles. The organs, which hold after this the first rank in the ani-
mal economy, will give the second divisions, and so on. This principle, from
which no departure can be made without lapse into error, is the foundation of
all researches in organized bodies ; nothing conclusive can be obtained from the
examination of the external parts, of those parts which supply, at most, charac-
ters of the third or fourth order ; methods founded on these characters always
deviate from nature, both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms.

«These truths,” he continues, “did not escape my uncle, and the arrangement
of families, in the garden of the Petit Trianon, proves that he was thoroughly
penetrated with them ; his order is more natural than the methods published up
to this time, because it is simple in its general divisions, and preserves the in-
tegrity of families. We find there the three primary classes, characterized by the
embryo; the acotyledons are arranged according to the more or less marked ap-
pearance of the parts of fructification; in the monocotyledons the author is
guided by the insertion of the stamens, and successively passes imreview the
stamens borne on the pistil, those which adhere to the calyx, and those which
are attached to the support. The dzcotyledons are divided, likewise, by observing
that, when the corolla bears the stamens it is their insertion which becomes the de-
cisive character in referring the plants to one of the three insertions of the stamens.”

For his classification Laurent takes from Linnzus, as we have already seen,
the genera, the species, the nomenclature ; from Bernard, the orders, or natural
families ; from 'Tournefort, a means of multiplying the classes of Bernard, with-
out breaking up his orders or his families. The genera of Linnzeus were the
most precise which had yet been known; his speczes the most definite; his xo-
menclature was admirable. This nomenclature, which reduced the long phrases
of Tournefort and Gaspard Bauhin to two words for each plant, the name of
the species and the name of the genus, constituted in itself a great reform in the
science. Yet when the question arose of introducing it at the Jardin des Plantes,a
difficulty occurred ; Button, who was then intendant, rejected the Linnzean names
simply because they were those of Linnzus. A little reflection, however, recalled
him to a sense of right, and the Garden received at the same time the nomen-
clature of Linnzeus and the natural order of Bernard. A year later, instruction
was given only according to the new method. The presence of Bernard, coming
every morning to arrange the plants for the lectures, lent a sanction to the de-
velopment given by the young chief of the doctrine to the thoughts which had
been suggested to him by the old one.

A science whose progress strikes the imagination is sure to attract a throng of
proselytes. Never had botany counted so many. The expeditions into the
country, to which Bernard had imparted so much interest, and which Linneus,
by adopting them, had rendered still more famous, had now no other guide than
Laurent. ach spring-time saw the train which accompanied him increase in
number; neither age nor celebrity stood aloof, for the same attraction captivated
all minds however different their predilections. There might be seen the youth-
ful son of a procurator, escaped from the jargon of the paternal office, who
merely skimmed the surface of botany preparatory to a bolder flight in another
science, through which he would one day endow his country with the glory
attached to the name of Lavoisier; or it might be Raynal, coming to seek the
scientific details embraced in his history of the two Indies. We have already

268 THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

seen Jean Jacques Rousseau ask from Bernard directions for the studies which
consoled his latter years. or five seasons, the author of Emilius assiduously
followed the herborizations conducted by Laurent, and often succeeded in turning
their course towards Montmorency. De Jussieu, fascinated by the blandish-
ments of the distinguished man, complied the more readily with his wishes on
such occasions, because a compact existed between them which interdicted all
allusion to the works of the philosopher, and under this condition the latter
showed no want of the qualities of a gay and complaisant companion.
* * * * * * * *

Let us return to the two memoirs, which may be considered as the basis of all
that was effected by Laurent in the sequel* They had been written while
Bernard and Linnzeus were alive; a few years had elapsed and the two patri-
archs of botany were no more. Thenceforward ‘the first place was open, and
all felt that it was Laurent who must occupy it; it was impossible that he him-
self should not feel it. Accordingly, we find in a letter of his, written about
this time, these noticeable words: “There are circumstances of which it is our duty
to take advantage, and one offers itself to me which J should be wrong to neg-
lect. We have lost, within three months, the three first botanists of Europe,
M. Haller in*Switzerland, M. Linnzeus in Sweden, the third at Paris. It would
be a proud thing to succeed them, and to retrieve for France the pre-eminence
which foreigners have disputed.” These words evince the consciousness which
he felt in his own strength; what still more evinces it is the labor which he
then projected of comprehending the entire vegetable realm within the princi- -
ples which he had just established in his two memoirs; a vast enterprise, result-
ing in his great work on the families of plants, the celebrated Genera Plantarum
which we have already had under consideration.

In this admirable production a circumstance especially worthy of remark is
the use which the author has known how to make of the materials within his
reach at the time of its composition. Their number has since been increased
fourfold, and yet there is no great principle of the natural order which is not
laid down in his book, and scarcely any of the combinations established by his
successors of which the germ is not to be found. Fontenelle admires in Tourne-
fort a classification in which twelve hundred new species, which, he adds, no one
expected, have found admission without disturbance of the plan. What would
he have said of the method of M. de Jussieu, in which nearly fifty thousand
species, unknown at the moment he wrote, have found their place, and almost
everywhere a place indicated in advance, a place which expected them ?

I have said that the author had established a hundred primitive families ; none
of these has been suppressed; more than half have undergone no modification.
Three have been transferred, and transferred entire, into neighbouring groups,
which is but a different mode of association. Of the others, the greater part,
through the natural effect of so many new species collected in the lapse of nearly
half a century, have been necessarily disintegrated and subdivided ; but scarcely
one has been so, except by sections or divisions indicated by Laurent himself.
Finally, there are five, and only five, of them which have been recognized as
natural only by fragments. Hesitation then exists only respecting some frag-
ments of families, some scattered species, and even here there is rarely ever wanting
a note, an indication, a doubt, pointing in the direction of the truth—truth which
ouly the most wonderful sagacity could then have descried, so few were the ele-
ments at hand from which to deduce it, and so great the need of since collecting
new ones, in order to establish it in a complete manner.

Systems grow more sacred with age, and the promoter of the natural method
lived long enough to see it almost universally adopted. Desfontaines not only
taught it, but rendered it essential service by an important discovery in vege-

* For the note, which, in the original, is appended to this passage, the reader is referred to
the end of the article, whither it has been consigned on account of its length. °

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 269

table anatomy. Richard, who first applied exact and detailed analysis, was
often associated with Jussieu in his labors. I find a memoir inscribed by him
to the latter in the words, To the greatest botanist of Europe; and no one
who ever knew Richard will suspect him of flattery. The penetrating and
critical spirit of Du Petit-Thouars found nothing to censure; De Candolle, Mir-
bel, Robert Brown have developed the method in their writings; Humboldt
has applied it to botanical geography ; the pupils reared by them, and the gene-
rations which have succeeded, have all rallied under its laws. Intelligent acqui-
escence has in this been only equalled by the docility with which vegetable
nature has enlarged by thousands of species the outline originally traced, without
permitting an infringement of the ordinances of the lawgiver.

In 1793, the Jardin des Plantes received a new organization, and took the
title of Museum of Natural History. Daubenton was the first director, and was
succeeded by De Jussieu. In those difficult times, he devoted himself entirely
tothe administration of this admirable establishment. 'The libraries of the religious
bodies having been suppressed, he obtained leave to select from them all that
had a bearing on natural history, and thus laid the foundation of the present rich
collection of the Museum. Nearly always secluded in his cabinet, he had re-
mained a stranger to the political agitations which then convulsed France ; it
had even been a subject of public reproach that he never appeared in the pop-
ular assemblies. He judged it expedient therefore to repair to his section, which
was that of the Sans Culottes. It was the day for choosing a president, and,
to his amazement, he found himself promptly promoted to the honors of the
chair. From this time municipal dignities were showered on him; dignities
which it was dangerous to refuse, however earnestly he might covet the retire-
ment of his garden. Yet, in the exercise of functions thus unexpected, his spirit
of order and method suggested to him a report on the hospitals of Paris, which
is still regarded as a model.

As a relaxation from severer studies, M. de Jussieu applied himself to the
compilation of Memoirs of the Museum, an exact and complete history of men
and things. We there see the origin of the Jardin Royal, which was at first but
a garden for medicinal plants; this was indeed its legal title, its cabinet being
but a depot of drugs. In tracing the successive steps by which it has become
the most magnificent of collections, its historian recalls the difficulties of every
sort which were to be surmounted for the establishment of instruction in natural
history, independent of that in medicine, and the petty war which it was ne-
cessary to sustain against the Faculty, who could not tolerate the introduction of
chemistry, the object of one of the new chairs, into the course of instruction,
as being, (so said the Faculty,) for good causes and considerations, prohibited
and denounced by decree of Parliament.

In 1804, the chair of materia medica in this same Faculty, having become
vacant by the death of Peyrilhe, M. de Jussieu offered himself,* and all com-
petition disappeared. As professor, he took for the basis of his lessons the fruitful
principle of the correspondence of the properties of plants with their botanical
affinities.t ‘ Reasoning, founded on experience,” he had said in his memoir of
1774, demonstrated that plants conformable in their characters possess the same

* He had, in 1766, taken a very active part in the formation of the Royal Society of Medi-
cine, and ably seconded the efforts of his friend Vieq d’Azyr, to found and sustain a body,
then so strenously combated by the old Faculty, and which, at a later period, became the
nucleus of the new Faculty.

t The development of this principle forms the basis of the discourse which he read at the
public meeting of the School.of Medicine in 1806. It is curious to see this important princi-
ple already distinctly enunciated by Morison: Plante que generis societate junguntur ple-
rumque et similes possident facultates, (Plantarum Historia, &c.) But it should be remarked
that this principle has only become really serviceable to the materia medica, when it has been
practicable to apply it to groups more comprehensive than the genera, to orders, namely,
or families.

270 THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

properties, so that, the natural order being once given, it will be practicable to
determine their virtue by exterior signs.

During the latter half of his life it was his most cherished purpose to give a
second edition of his principal work. Unfortunately he was able to leave but
fragments of these labors, all, however, of a singular completeness. They form
a succession of memoirs, inserted, almost uninterruptedly, from 1804 to 1820, in
the Annales du Museum. Here more than half the primitive families of the
author pass in review, each is examined in detail, and in each the species which
compose it. The great work of Geertner on fruits was not available to bim in
1789. He now takes it as a term of comparison, as a touchstone, so to say, of
the new groupings which he proposes. In studying the seed Gertner had
brought anatomy to bear upon the same organ, from which M. de Jussieu has
drawn the principal bases of his method. Applied to the science of relations,
the observations of Gertner acquire an unexpected importance, and they are
taken advantage of by De Jussieu to throw new light on the computation of char-
acters, on the formation of families, on the art, but little known before, of adapt-
ing to one another those two resources, on which depended thenceforth the advance-
ment of the science—anatomy and the method. Numerous articles, scattered
through the Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, are also important productions,
and, collected in a single work, would form one of the most useful of books upon
botany. The article Methode naturelle is a second edition of the introduction to
the Genera Plantarum; that upon families, though much shorter—sinee much
would have been only repetition—is a model in its kind. The articles relative
to each particular family all present, and in proportions required by the subject-
matter, the same brevity, the same precision, the same definite views of the facts
composing them. Lastly, those of which the object is the determination of the
names of plants, as reported by travellers, exhibit his sagacity under a new
aspect. ‘These names, barely accompanied by a few vague and incomplete indi-
cations, were so many enigmas which piqued his curiosity, and in the search for
whose solution he found a sort of learned diversion.

The philosophic tranquillity of his spirit had taught him the secret of sparing
himself unnecessary trouble. When attacked, as he was in almost all languages,
he never replied. ‘If Iam mistaken,” he would say, “it is natural that I should
be attacked; and if I am not, all attacks will be futile.’ He never ceased to
refer the greater part of his success to his uncle. A stranger was once congrat-
ulating his son on the good fortune of bearing so honored a name; “ Yes,’’ re-
plied M. de Jussieu, who was present, “it has been a very useful one to me.”

* * * * * * * *

A very decided myopy was common to all the members of this family who
devoted themselves to botany. Laurent, whose sight had always been weak,
lost the use of one eye while he was yet in the prime of life, and towards the
close of his career the other became so enfeebled as to allow neither of writing
nor observing.

* * * * 2. eae * * *

In advanced age he passed a part of the year in the country, still finding his
chief pleasure in the search for plants, which, while some degree of vision remained,
he recognized by bringing them close to his eye, and, when he could see no lon-
ger, by the application of touch. To succeed under such circumstances pleased
him as a sort of triumph. At the creation of the Institute he became naturally one
of itsmembers. He was nominated to the Council of the university in 1808, was
for sixty-three years a member of our Academy, and for sixty-six vears a profes-
sor at the Jardin des Plantes. His constitution was robust, his stature tall; his
gait and whole bearing denoted the self-possession of a profoundly thoughtful man.
The simplicity of his tastes, the habit of labor, the tender cares of a devoted family,
secured to hima long and vigorous old age. He expired September 17, 1836, in
the midst of the most cherished objects of his affection, at the age of 88 years.

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 271

ADRIEN DE JUSSIEU.

In this sole and last direct inheritor of the name of Jussieu were early manifested
a singularly just and acute discernment, a certain archness of humor, and a senti-
ment of profound respect for his progenitors. ‘Io these was added a thorough and
very comprehensive instruction. M. Adrien had recognized and resolutely accepted
the great weight imposed on him by the celebrity of his ancestry. His works,
stamped with merit of a high order, attest even by their small number, due to
his scrupulous regard for excellence, a respect for his predecessors and himself.
Some of his memoirs * are finished models of that complete and profound study
of families which embraces not only all that belongs to the formation of groups,
but all. that relates to vegetable anatomy, physiology, and geography. His
Traité Elémentaire de Botanique supplies the most substantial, precise, and at
the same time most elegant survey of the actual state of the science, while his
article Taxonomie, in the Dictionnaire universel d’ Histoire Naturelle, is the
most well-considered and profound disquisition which has been given, in our day,
on the important subject of Methods.

His father, who had relinquished to him his chair at the museum in 1826, had
the satisfaction of seeing him, in 1831, take a place beside him at the Academy.
The herborizations, which his great-uncle Bernard and his father had rendered
famous, were continued by him. In 1845 he was designated to fill the chair of
vegetable organography at the Faculty of Sciences. His pupils will not readily
forget with how much skill all available knowledge was’condensed in his les-
sons. He had been long collecting the materials for a history of botany, and it
cannot be too much regretted that his protracted sufferings did not permit him
to finish it. Never has an historian been more happily adapted to his task.
For such a work he possessed at once clear-sightedness, discrimination, and pro-
fundity of knowledge. His colleagues and friends have still in lively re-
membrance the vivacity and originality of his conversation, the humorous and
graphic turn of his mode of narration. M. Adrien had religiously cultivated the
domestic virtues, which were traditionary in his family, and which contribute so
much to the happiness of life. His veneration for his father was almost idola-
trous, while his devotion to the two daughters, who survived him, was not less
marked by features of the most tender and judicious regard. He died June 29,
1853, aged 55 years, having been born December 23, 1797.

Jole to page 23.

All that M. de Jussieu has produced may be regarded under two chief points
of view: character aud classification. It was with his memoir of 1773 that he
opened the study of the former, and in that of 1774 that he laid down the prin-
ciples of the latter.

§ 1. Of characters.—Characters are the signs which indicate the relations of
beings. In every organized body, whether animal or vegetable, each part has
necessary relations with all the others. We may therefore judge of all by each.
And those parts which are thus taken for s¢gns of others, those parts by which
we judge of others, are what we name characters. Naturalists had begun by
seeking these characters, these signs, almost indifferently in all the parts. It
was subsequently recognized that these different parts are very far from having
an equal value either in uniting or separating beings. Thence has sprung the
valuation of characters, and this valuation has furnished the solution of the pro-
blem of method.

* Especially those on the Euphorbiaceae, (1824, ) the Rutacee, (1825,) the Meliacee, (1830,)
the Malp ghiacee, (1843,) &c., and lastly, his fine treatise on Monocotyledinous embryos,
(1239.) I here but indicate his labors; the time for their complete appreciation has not yet
arrived.

272 THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

Everything depends, then, on the principle of the relative importance of charac-
ters. But how is this relative importance to be learned? By two means equally
sure, and which M. de Jussieu has himself. explained: one, founded on reasoning,
infers directly the ¢mportance of the character from the importance of the appa-
ratus which furnishes it. Everything in the vegetable tends to the formation
of the flower; everything in the flower tends to the formation of the embryo,
of the new being; the formation of this new being, the embryo, is therefore
the aim and end of all the other vegetable functions. “It is in the embryo,
then,” says M. de Jussieu, “that naturalists must seek their principal chare-
ters.” (Dict. des Sc. naturelles, article Methode naturelle.) In his memoir
of 1774, he had said: ‘A different conformation in the vegetable embryo
occasions, in the development and organization of the plant, remarkable differ-
ences, which constitute so many characters; these differences being dependent on
those of the embryo, the characters which they give depend equally on a single
one which determines their existence; whence it follows that the character
derived from the embryo must have a value equal to that of all the others
united.

So much for the first means, that founded on reasoning—the ratzonal means.
When this fails, M, de Jussieu supplies it by another purely exper¢mental, and
which never fails. In defect of the function which is not known or is badly
known, he determines the ¢mportance of the organ by its constancy. Nor is this
all; it is with each circumstance of an organ, as with the organ itself: the cir-
cumstance the most constant, that is to say, the most general, is always the most
important. Linneus has made of the stamens the base of his system; the num-
ber, attachment, union, proportion, situation of these parts, are all considered,
all employed; and he does not see that, among all these characters, one only
has importance, because it alone has constancy, namely, the attachment of the
stamens, or their insertion. 'Tournefort has founded his system on the corolla.
He considers the absence, presence, situation, division, form of the corolla,
and employs all these characters which are variable, while he neglects precisely
the character derived from the attachment of that organ, which alone is constant.
The natural order has escaped both these sagacious men, and has escaped both
from the same cause, because of their not baving recognized the relative import-
ance of characters. Still further, if we take the botanists from Gesner onward,
all those who have been fortunate in their attempts, who have discerned some
fragments of the natural order, all, without knowing it, were guided by the prin-
ciple of the importance of characters. Yet more, there are natural families
already formed, such as those of the graminee, the composite, the umbellifere ; if
we study these families, every character which varies in the family is subordi-
nate, is secondary; the primitive and essential character, the important character,
embraces the entire family. There is, therefore, a gradation, an order in charac-
ters; and, as I have elsewhere said, the true problem is to begin by classifying
these characters, according to which the objects, in turn, are classified.

But it will be said, perhaps, and with reason, are the important characters
always accessible, always easy to be determined, to be seen; and then how shall
we be governed in reference to the inferior, the accessories? 'To know this, we
need only refer to M. de Jussieu: ‘All the characters,” he says in his memoir
of 1773,“ have not the same value, the same efficacy in uniting or separating

lants. Some are primary, essential in themselves and invariable, like the num-
fos of lobes 6f the embryo, its situation in the seed, the position of the calyx
and the pistil, the attachment of the corolla and the stamens; these serve for
the principal divisions. The others are secondary; they sometimes vary, and
only become essential when their existence is intimately connected with that of
the preceding ; it is their assemblage which distinguishes families. It is true
that the fundamental characters of any order whatever should always be taken
in the fructification, but at the same time it is necessary to regard those which

THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. Ze

the other parts furnish, as accessory characters, which announce the existence of
the preceding, whose minuteness or situation sometimes hinder them from being
remarked. It is thus that, among animals, the external disposition of the parts
indicates the number of ventricles of the heart and other distinctions of the class
or genus.” Lastly, in his memoir of 1774, he says: ‘Characters simply general
are usually connected with some of the essential characters, a circumstance which
affords accessory signs announcing the existence of the true characters ;” and,
with reference to the organs of animals, he adds: ‘He who should content him-
self with exterior or secondary signs without establishing their affinity with the
interior parts, would have but an imperfect idea of the true relations which
exist between animals.’ There is profound analysis in these observations, and
equally true whether it be applied to zoology or botany.

§2 Of classification.—Let us first consider the classification of Bernard, as
stated by M. Laurent de Jussieu: “The orders traced by Bernard in the gar-
den of ‘Trianon amount in number to sixty-two, more than half of which are en-
tirely conformable to actual families. Several others, likewise conformable, differ
only by the addition of strange species which ought to have been detached.
Others, still, are a union of several families, which should sometimes remain
united, sometimes be more or less separated. The author, having given only a
simple manuscript catalogue, without other addition, has not characterized his
orders nor assigned the reason of their arrangement. But if we carefully study
that arrangement, we first recognize that, without indicating the classes, he has
adopted the three great divisions characterized by the embryo. The first orders
pertain to the acotyledons, excepting, however, the natades, which have been
separated more recently; and the aristolochie, which should be completely sepa-
rated. In the monocotyledons, which follow, there are seen to appear successively
the orders with epigynic stamens, those with perzgynic stamens, and those with
hypogynic stamens, which proves that he appreciated the characters derived
from the insertions. In the dicotyledons he pursues the same course, the same
distinction, though concluding with the perigynic plants, and referring to each
the monopetalous, pulypetalous, and apetalous plants, which have the same
insertion, sometimes intermingled, sometimes following one another separately.
He terminates his series by the amentacee united to the urticea, the euphorbi-
acee and the conifere. It will be seen that, without having proclaimed the
natural laws, he has almost always silently obeyed them.” (Article MZethode
naturelle of the Dict. des Sciences Naturelles )

Bernard, then, had established sixty-two orders or natural families; and hav-
ing done this, he had united these sixty-two orders into seven classes. ‘The
animal kingdom” says Laurent in his memoir of 1774, “has but seven classes ; in
following the divisions of Trianon we count no more in the vegetable kingdom.”’
This number of seven results in effect from the employment of the zzsertion of
the stamens alone for the subdivision of the monocotyledons and the dicotyledons.
We have, then, three classes for the monocotyledons, three for the dicotyledons,
making siz; the acotyledons, left undivided, because their flowers, so little
apparent and little known, form the seventh. Laurent felt the necessity of mul-
tiplying these c/asses, and availing himself of the corol/a, (a resource which
Bernard denied himself,) raised their number first to fourteen, and then to fifteen.
“The author of the order of Trianon,” he says, “regarding this work as proper
for botanists alone, as an advance towards perfection, and a simple indication of
the route which should lead to it, desired that, to satisfy the present object,
which is that of public instruction, we should labor rather for learners than for
adepts; that, without deviating from the true principles, we should seek to
establish a method which should have the classes in greater number, more pre-
cise, and consequently more easily to be apprehended. He thought, further, that
it was incumbent on him to comply, as far as possible, with the received preju-
dice which regards as the preferable method that which is founded on the parts

1S s67

274 THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

more apparent and easy to be observed. It has been thought that this donble
object might be fulfilled by joining to the essential characters, which are sometimes
little apparent, certain accessory characters, which are constant and always visi-
ble, and which indicate the existence of the former by associating the corolla
with the stamens, in order to designate the classes.’ (Memoir of 1774.)

Laurent has since said, (1824:) “It would be necessary to adhere to this
number” (the number seven of Bernard,) ‘if, in order to avoid all exception or
variation, the classes could only be founded on invariable characters. But if it
be observed that the number of families now adopted amounts to nearly one
liundred and fifty, and is consequently quite considerable for each class, the
necessi'y will be felt of forming new subdivisions, without deviating, however,
from admitted principles, and by always adhering to characters of the greatest
value. That which first presents itself, after the invariable, is the character
derived from the mediate or immediate insertions, or, otherwise, from the corolla
considered as existent or null, as monopetalous or polypetalous. Although it be
subject to some variations, it is still that which presents the fewest, and by
employing it for the subdivisions, the number of classes can be multiplied, which
diminishes embarrassment in the arrangement of families, and may much facili-
tate study. It is true that this character is of no utility in dividing either the
acotyledons, the flowers of which are too little apparent, or the three classes of
monocotyledons, in which the corolla does not exist, since the part which was
long taken for such is a true calyx. It is in the dicotyledons alone, then, that
we can employ the character of the insertions, whether mediate, simply immediate,
or essentially immediate ; or, in other terms more easily remembered, the character
of monopetalous, polypetalous, apetalous plants. We thus establish, though
admitting of some exceptions, in each of the three classes of dicotyledons, three
subdivisions, without deviating from the principles adopted, and the number of
dicotyledinous classes would then be raised to nine. Further, the subdivision
or class of monopetals with epigynic corolla, or corolla borne on the pistil, may be
separated into two, according to the character of their stamens, distinct in one
of its divisions, united in a sheath by the anthers in the other, which comprises
solely the great series of composite plants. This separation, which, in the
dicotyledons, adds a tenth class, does not separate families and conflicts with no
affinity.”

He afterwards adds: “It has already been stated that, in order to arrange the
families more easily, it was necessary to multiply the great divisions, always
adhering, however, to the most solid characters, and we have seen how it has
been practicable to augment this number of classes in the dicotyledons through
considerations derived trom the corolla. It has appeared to us, nevertheless, that,
with a view to facility of study, an object which should not be negleeted, it
was necessary, in order to have in the great divisions principal characters easy
of apprehension, and to approximate a little in this point to the method of 'Tourne-
fort, founded on the corolla, to give the preference to mediate and immediate
insertions over hypogynic, perigynic and epigynic insertions, and not to follow
rigorously the first principles established. We shall have the same classes, but
presented, in the dicotyledons, according to another series. Thus, by leaving
the four classes of the first two grand divisions to subsist in their integrity, and
without any change, we shall, in the first place, distinguish the dicotyledons into
apetalous, monopetalous and polypetalous plants. In the apetalous, or those with
essentially immediate insertion, we shall distinguish three classes with epigynie,
perigynic, and hypogynic stamens. If wenext passto plants witha monopetalous
corolla or mediate insertion, and if we remember that the insertion of this corolla
then becomes the essential and primary character, we shall subdivide the mono-
petals into the hypogynic, perigynic and epigynic corollas, and the epigyn will
be further divided into synantherz, having united anthers, and chorisantherz,
having distinct anthers. The polypetalous plants, or those having the insertion

THE JESSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD. 275

simply immediate, will be divided, like the apetalous, according to the insertions
epigynic, hypogynic, and perigynic of the stamens, without any further subdivi-
sion. ‘The class of diclines will close this series of eleven classes, which, joined
to the four preceding, will carry the whole number to fifteen, i in which we can
arrange all the families known, without decomposing them.” (Article Jlethode
naturelle of the Dict. des Sciences Naturelles.

The following is the table of these fifteen classes given by Laurent himself in
the article just cited :

JN GLOYMVAUIIDYOINI BS ses cokes codon soooaGosoonsnbenoobe EnorocSeposcosoccssanoceccodscse Acotyledones ..--. af
SLES nT hg Noy Apne Sie Roneb cosebrasnobocoossapoceanccGeo Monohypogyne.-- 2
MONOCOTYLEDONES J sae [CRIP A ATOU ee ce, qonedoils bon pesOKOSaeoOboodaeone Moneperigyne .-- 3
hearin eROWINS BoSoeaosodon ECE onadoejconSoceasoCuas Monoepigyne.-.. 4
{ StAMeNS! PIP VMNOUS kelaerajerattetelate alalsintel=layalaate Expistamenee ..-.- 5
APETALZE....- SLAMENS PCL y MOUS se aloes amin alclenmtalemieiaia Peristamine@....- 6
stamens hypogynons Hypostaminca.... 7
corolla hy pogynous.- 22 ----26c-2e- 2 cena Hypocorollce ..-.- 8
Corolla penipyNOUBieemiaaem teem Pericorollee ..--.- 9
Sar avaen anthers united. ......Epicorollea 4
DICOTYLEDONES ....¢ MONOPETALZ- corolla epigynous § Synanthera § ~~~ Mv
( anthers distinet.....--Epicorollee ..v a
| Chorisanthera § ~~ ~~
StamMensiepieyROUS:-cemiacmsmnl-mieeaee seer Epipetalee ..---.-- 12
POLYPETALE.. stamens hypogynous, ......--.----------- Hypopetale@ .....- 13
stamens perigynous.............---.---.. Peripetale@..---- - 14
[EDIGEINESS sft eases to cee es aoe niseer seen ee eee DiClWMeS esate eee 15

Tn the table placed at the head of the Genera Plantarum, instead of the names
which here indicate each class, the author had merely employed the number, a
mode of designation which, as is seen above, he judiciously changed.

INDEX METHODI

Ordines naturales complectentis.

JNCOVIENTLIBIDKOINDSIS) coesnchocnce toe ss ocon one done dé snoa do pisses doonpSensebooosonGibessectoosads I
§ stamina hypogyna IL

MONOCOTYLEDONES . Ps perigyna.-....- Tit
t OS SIDE IIE) Sonnet cok ebb edo nas Socobd onc adeodcmnepoesoocesocnesn IV

| fihorbheeenKe} Olena esc Son cSOeebOnADo Obese ononcDe sac Vv

APETAL A. s. 22. a DEINE. Soap ereodoon GopSdoboccoseaccdiec VI

| * iy PO Ry Naess tee ae esaleiee mictaleroleilesiteteia els VIL

| { Corolla Diy pO oy Wee ecco wale nel taieeale seers Vill

a MOMENI oocag sore osascoedsoocssahtdcanes IX

DICOTYLEDONES. .... ¢ MONOFELALE \ te iovna § autheris connatis.-...-......-. x
| ( eplsyR4 » antheris distinctis.......------ XI

Sena) GO AWE os oe sob ocdooonobpeSEncoonnDooaser Xil

POLYPETALE.. Ho UB NOYEN NEE God dosoue seecioondcooceSsuadose XI

| a OGRA oonoapancbooenenscosascadas c XIV

POT CISENE SMUIREUE Gr Us AUR Ste taalateteletate lata ats otal lale lel eletet eof wlele siete letel taller =tatatals XV

M. de Jussieu has been censured, and with reason, for the arrangement of his
classes, founded on the forms of the corolla. It will be seen that he censured
it himself: “ These classes,” he says, “ have the defect of not subsisting without
exception.” Again, he says that, “if the method be considered rigorously, and
not with a view to convenience, it would be necessary to adhere, as Bernard has
done, to the sole invariable characters, the lobes of the embryo and the cnsertion
of the stamens.” And yet, in proportion as the number of species has increased,
it has been found that even this last character, taken from the insertion of the
stamens, cannot be regarded as exempt from variation. On the other hand,
everything has concurred in confirming the grand division given by the lobes of
the embryo. Hence, the three groups founded on these lobes (the acotyledons,
monocotyledons, and dicotyledons) are far beyond simple classes, properly so
called; they correspond to the embranchements of the animal kingdom estab-
lished by Cuvier, and ought, perhaps, to be designated by the same name.
Under these three grand divisions should be placed the classes proper, each
formed by the union of several families, in conformity with the judicious reflec-
tion of Mr. Robert Brown: “A methodical and at the same time natural ar-
rangement of families is perhaps impracticable in the actual state of our knowledge ;

276 THE JESSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD.

but it would probably hasten the execution of that work were we to turn all
our attention to the combination of families in classes equally natural.” (Gen-
eral remarks, geographical and systematical, on the botany of Terra Australis,
p. 7, 1814.) All the ranks, all the subordinations of groups, would then be
marked; the entire outline of botany would be conformable to that of zoology,
and great advantages would result as regards the high and philosophical views
common to the two sciences. On this problem of families to be united into
classes, and classes to be separated from embranchements, M. de Candolle ex-
presses himself as follows: “'There are but three great classes known at present,”
(the three which I propose to name embranchements.) * * «Tt is beyond
doubt that each of these classes may one day be subdivided, so as to group
among themselves the families which are alike; but this subdivision of classes,
this institution of groups superior to families and inferior to classes, has not yet
been accomplished ina natural manner. * * Jn this lies the most important
problem which now presents itself for solution in the study of natural relations.”
(Theorie Llémentaire de la Botanique, 1813, p 195.)

NATURAL HISTORY: OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

FROM THE COURSE OF LECTURES OF M. MAREY AT THE COLLEGE OF FRANCE.
Translated by C. A, ALEXANDER for the Smithsonian Institution.

I.—HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF THE SCIENCES.

The course of instruction in the College of France is not limited to a simple
exposition of the state of science at each epoch, but, as a school of discovery,
extends its views to the actual tendencies of the human mind. It aims to sig-
nalize the new horizons which are opening for science, and which hold out to us
the promise of further acquisitions. In order, however, to judge of the direction
to be pursued, it is necessary, from time to time, to cast our glance backward,
to consider the space which has been traversed, to recall the windings, the haz-
ards, the difficulties of the route. Such a recurrence to the past is one of the
most useful preparations for a new departure, and will enable us to attain our
end much more promptly and certainly than it was possible for our predecessors
to do. Itis by availing ourselves of their experience that the march of improve-
ment has been constantly accelerated, until, in our day, more discoveries are pro-
duced in ten years than formerly in an age.

The history of the natural sciences has, not long since, been retraced in this
chair by the professor whom I have the honor of replacing. M. Flourens here
passed in review the life and labors of the learned naturalists of the XVIth,
XVIIth, XVIIIth, and XIXth centuries, having devoted to this subject several
years of his instruction. I shall not undertake to unfold anew this historic
tablet, however instructive may be its lessons. Permit me merely to retrace,
with a rapid glance, the principal phases of the evolution of science. We shall
thus see more clearly the tendency of scientific inquiry and the direction in
which we should look for its further advancement.

The natural history of organized beings comprises zoology and botany. If
we open the most ancient treatises on these subjects, we perceive that the engross-
ing occupation was to make an enumeration of the objects of nature. Science
might be said to have been then engaged in taking possession of its domain ;
in making the inventory of its treasures. Each object received a name which
might distinguish it, by recalling, as far as possible, its exterior characters. The
“embarrassment of riches” soon gave rise to the necessity of a methodical
arrangement. The first step was to separate animals from plants, and thus
were formed the two great kingdoms of the natural world. Afterwards, in each
kingdom, were created new divisions; first, branches, each of which was dis-
tributed into classes, and these again, by successive divisions, into orders, families,
tribes, genera, and species. To be useful, these classifications should combine in the
same group the beings analogous to one another, so that, by knowing to what fam-
ily an animal or a plant belongs, a preliminary idea may be formed of its principal
characters. It is for the attainment of this end that classifications have been so
often modified, tending constantly to become more vatural—that is to say, to

* Revue des Cours Scientifiques de la France et de l’étranger, March, 1867.

278 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

establish the affinity or the separation of beings on the most important char-
acters.

Anatomy, in the mean time, came in aid and revealed the interior structure
of animals and plants. It showed that certain organs seem, from their constant
occurrence in the series of beings, to have on that account a predominant
importance, while others which are “frequently modified, and sometimes wholly
wanting, appear to be but accessories, and of a secondary utility. Hence it is
that the presence of a vertebral canal containing the spinal marrow has furnished
the distinctive character of a whole branch of the animal kingdom, that , namely,
of the vertebrata. In this second phase of the evolution of the natural s sciences,
man no longer confined himself to the réle of a spectator of nature. He scru-
tinized and compared; he essayed to form an idea of the general plan of the
organization of beings. ‘The dry nomenclature had thus given place to a
methodical classification.

When Cuvier appeared, comparative anatomy was doubtiess already founded.
Antiquity itself had learned it from Aristotle; modern times had witnessed its
advancement by Cl. Perrault and Vieq d@Azyr; but much remained to be done
in order to complete the classifying of whale according to their anatomical
constitution. The branch of the invertebrata comprised | a multitude of meon-
gruous orders, among which new divisions were of course necessary. ‘The
invertebrates were divided by Cuvier into three new branches, the JZollusks,
the Articulata, and the Zoophytes. This natural classification, based on com-
parative anatomy, borrowed the distinctive characters from the arrangement of
the most important organs in the animal: from that of the nervous system.

It was now that, combining in a comprehensive synthesis particular facts in
order to derive from them general ideas, Cuvier was enabled to throw light on
some of the laws which govern the organized world. Such, for example, i is
the law of subordination of organs, which teaches us that such or such an or ean,
when it is present in an animal, implies the presence of other organs w hich are
associated with it after a necessary manner. Natural history had thus become
a veritable science, agreeably to the definition of Bacon: “Sciences are only
facts generalized.” Now, generalization had conducted Cuvier to the expression
of laws. These, in turn, led him to a remarkable consequence—to the creation
of paleontology. It was in conformity with his law of the correlation of forms
that he reconstructed the entire skeleton of a fossil animal when possessed of
but a few of its remains, and restored for science generations of beings which
had long disappeared from the surface of the globe.

By the side of Cuvier another grand historical ficure presents itself in Geoffroy
Saint Hilaire, his cotemporary and friend, more re¢ cently his scientific adversary.
Prepossessed by his labors in the natural classification of beings, Cuvier had
bent his whole force to the discovery of the differences which separated them.
The genius of Geoflroy disposed him rather to comparison; resemblances
attracted him more strongly than differences, and enabled him to detect, in the
zoological series, the unity of plan amidst the diversity of details. History
will preserve the remembrance of the memorable conflicts of these illustrious
adversaries, conflicts which powerfully developed two great conceptions in which,
at last, there is nothing irreconcilable. From this epoch dates the rise of
anatomical philosophy.

While zoclogy was establishing itself on foundations really scientific, botany
had been pursuing a parallel career. As early as the XVIIth century, Pierre Mag-
nol attempted to substitute for the ancient nomenclatures a natural classification.
He sought, in 1689, to distinguish plants according to their principal organs—
the roots, the stems, the flowers , the seeds. But vegetable anatomy was too
little advanced to permit a classification based on the constitution of the most
important organs of plants. Botany had still to pass through the artificial
clas ifications of ‘Tournefort and Linnzeus before arriving at the more perfect

NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES. 279

form which it received from the Jussieus. It was Antoine Laurent de Jussieu,
in effect, who first clearly apprehended and distinctly defined the principle of
subordination of characters. He based his classification of plants on the anat-
omy of the most important apparatus in the vegetable kingdom—the apparatus
of reproduction. Hence the number of the Tobes of the vegetable embryo,
that is to say, of the cotyledons, the insertion of the stamens in the flow er, became
the characters on which is still based the classification of plants.

Since Cuvier and the Jussieus, zoological and botanical classifications have
continued to improve; but naturalists have, on the whole, respected the plan
ee has been handed down to them. Lectifications have been made, and cer-

ain beings have been transferred from one family to another, with which they are
more closely allied by essential characters; at other times it has been found
necessary to enlarge the zoological and botanical outline for the admission of
newly discovered “individuals, but these partial modifications constitute but a
development of the fundamental idea which has remained unchanged: the
necessity, namely, of keeping constantly in view the classification of beings
according to the ‘most important characters of their organization.

Anatomy, which had produced these reforms, has itself advanced to new con-
quests. Up to our present century it had remained purely deseriptive—th: ut is
to say, it was limited to indicating the form of the organs considered cach in its
own mass. Thus it determined the form of the bones, of the muscles , of the
vessels, of the nerves, &c., whether in man or a lower species, or else it com-
pared the e arrange ement of these or gans in a succession of individuals of the zoo-
logical series. It was Bichat who impressed on anatomy a new character. He
created general anatomy, in the sense that he studied the tissues which enter
into the composition of the organism. ‘The extended employment of the micro-
scope gave a vigorous impulsion to these studies. ‘This instrument conferred the
power of discerning distinct and well-defined elements in those tissues which
had till then appeared homogeneous. ‘The globules of the blood, the animal-
cules of the sperm, the cellules of the epithelium, the tubes of the nerves, the
acini of the glands, have been all revealed to us by the micrescope. The
knowledge pertaining to these subjects constitutes histology, henceforth insepara-
ble from general anatomy. T Sees to the domain of comparative anatomy,
histology acquires a new interest; it shows us that certain elements of the tis-
sues undergo, like the organs themselv es, very decided modifications when we
follow them up in animals or plants of different families.

The microscope further conducts us to a discovery of great importance, that
of the development of the germs in animals and plants. Animal embryogcny
constitutes a new branch of science, with which are connected illustrious names,
almost all being these of cotemporaries : Von Baer, Graaf, Purkinje, Cosic.
Nor is veget table embryogeny less curious; the intimate phenomena ot Sonne.
tion in the two kingdoms resemble one another in a striking manner. The
surprised observer hesitates in pronouncing whether he has not under his eyes
an animal organism, when he sees the antherozoid of certain vegetables agitated
as with spontaneous motion, seeking with persistence the orifice through. which
it is destined to pass, or disengaging itself with apparent effort from the i impedi-
ments which obstruct it. The two kingdoms thus appear to be confounded in
the elements of their origin, while they deviate so widely one from the other
when we contemplate them only as complete beings.

'This collective view of org: anized nature, important as it is, still exhibits it to
us only under one of its aspects. It makes us acquainted with existencies as
regards their form and structure, abstraction being made of what is most essen-
tial in them; namely, life. We seem to have been traversing an immense
gallery of mechanisms of greatly varied combinations, some in appearance very
simple, others of an extreme complication; these of enormous mass, those of an
infinite delicacy. But everything here was mysterious in its immobility; the

980 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES

imagination is lost in conjectures on the function proper to each. It is now:
necessary to see these things in action, each executing the work for which it is
“ee The catalogue has been drawn up with sufficient exactness for present
needs. To-day the current no longer tends to classification, it is directed to the
study of the functions of life; that is to say, the play of the organs which anatomy
has disclosed to us. This study ef the phenomena which take place in living
beings is ordinarily called physiology, or, more correctly, biology.

All organized beings live; animals or plants all ace complish a series of acts
from their origin to their dissolution ; but life is interpreted in them by mani-
festations as varied as their organization itself.

lt may be said that biology i is the offspring of anatomy, for it was from the
form of the organs that man was first Inspired with the “comprehe nsion of the
function of each of them. This influence of anatomy gave to biology in the
first instance a deductive character from which, even in our day, it finds diffi-
culty in dis sengaging itself. It is true that when we see the arrangement of the
articulating surfaces which unite the different parts of the skeleton, we readily
comprehend the function of these organs; we see how each bone moves upon its
contiguous bone, and this in itself ‘explains the varied positions which certain
portions of the body may assume. But the action of the muscles was much more
difficult to be comprehended. Aristotle himself knew it not. ‘The representa-
tive of ancient science, the founder of comparative anatomy, must have con-
stantly observed the extreme variety of muscular development in different species
of animals, and yet this anatomical principle conveyed to lim no idea of the
function of the muscle. It was reserved for E rasistratus, grandson of Aristotle,
to discover first the elementary fact, that a muscle contracts in order to produce
motion. The réle of the other organs was still more obscure; but i regard to
these, not satisfied with ignorance, inquirers accumulated in the name of science
the most foolish suppositions. The viscera, in particular, were endowed with
singular functions; each of them ledged one of the properties of the soul. In the
head resided reason, in the heart courage and choler, in the iver concupiscence,
and so with different organs. Such ideas, of course, could never have been
inspired by anatomy, and they had, in effect, another source. Philosophers have
by no means been insensible to the attractions of the mysterious and incompre-
hensible; psychology is more ancient than the sciences, and Aristotle had
received from Plato a whole system ready made. It was thought indispensably
necessary to lodge three souls in the human body, and each of these had several
properties w hich could not be left without a habitat. Thus it is that mystical
tradition has iapeSe even on those who have conscientiously sought to place
themselves in direct relations with nature.

I would have willingly passed in silence these singular tendencies of the
human mind to depart trom the domain of real acts and to yield to the caprices
of imagination ; but the question relates not to a passing error to which time has
already rendered justice. The ideas of Plato have a hundred times changed
their form, but they have been transmitted from age to age; they prevail at
this day under the form of vitalism ; that is to say, the doctrine which pretends
to have explained every phenomenon of life when it has pronounced such or such
a phenomenon to be the effect of a particular property of the living being. ‘This
doctrine I shall not stop to combat; quite enough has been vainly” said "

attempting to confute those who do not choose to be convinced. It is safe
assume, however, that the vitalistic school is at present condemned for its ie
ity; th at it loses ground every day, while the number of those is daily increas-
ing who demand from the rigorous observation of facts and from experiment the
solution of the problems of biology.

It would be more interesting to follow through its successive stages the devel-
opment of the school of experimenters, To find its origin, we must go back to
remote periods. Surprising it is, that the two opposite tendencies which have

NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES. 281

so long contended for mastery come to us from the same source. Aristotle, who
encumbered science with entities uselessly imagined, has bequeathed to us many
exact ideas on the nature, whether voluntary or involuntary, of movement, on
the development of the foetus, &c. Erasistratus, who represented vital spirits as
circulating in the arteries, recognized the true nature of the action of the muscles.
Galen, so much prepossessed with humorism, with the four elements, with the
forces which preside over the functions, was ai the less a great experimentalist.
He alone made more discoveries than all his predecessors; he showed that it is
with blood that the arteries and the heart are filled; he pointed out the influence
of the nerves on the movement of the muscles ; he recognized the paralysis pro-
duced by a lesion of the spinal marrow. He realized, in fine, one of the most
striking experiments of physiology, by showing that ihe section of the recurrent
nerves “paralyzes the larynx and ‘extinguishes the voice.

Soon afterwards all progress is arrested before the invasion of the barbarians,
and science remains torpid for 14 centuries. On its revival, the two parties reap-
pear more opposed than ever; with an antagonism more precisely defined, and
each boasting its proper representatives. While Stahl revives the wnmaterial
principles of Plato, Hoffman vindicates the supremacy of physical laws in the
phenomena of life. Establishing themselves on the grand discovery of Harvey,
the organicians proceed to demonstrate the potency of the experimental method.
Finally, Haller appears, and, reassembling the materials of physiology, makes of
it a well-defined science, and impels it onward in the path of experiment.

Since this epoch discoveries have rapidly succeeded one another; with each
of them the name of some experimentalist is associated: J. Hunter, Bichat, Ma-
gendie, Ch. Bell, J. Miller, savants whose work has been so ably continued by
our cotemporaries. Animal physiology has reached a very advanced stage, and
one of great interest. Having emerged from that unsatisfactory phase in which
the sciences, while in a state of formation, are engaged in accumulating isolated
facts, and too often in seeking to connect those f ‘acts by premature hypothesis, we
are able not only to realize the principal conditions under which certain functions
are performed, but to obtain a view of their relations and reciprocal influences.
In the collective functions of the organism, we discover, in effect, a subordination
such as Cuvier has pointed out in the organs themselves. The nervous system,
the most constant apparatus in animals, presides over sensibility and movement,
the two prominent functions in the animal economy. But it governs also the
functions of organic life—respiration and circulation, which in turn react upon
the nervous system, so that the knowledge of one function would not be complete
if we did not know at the same time its influence upon the others.

Vegetable physiology is unfortunately much less advanced ; it can scarcely be
said to consist of more than certain rather vague ideas. Not only i is it true that
we do not at present understand the general har mony of the functions of plants ;
we have but a very incomplete know ledge of each of those functions in itself.
The phytologists have attempted to model themselves upon the procedure of the
zoologists, but without deriving much benefit from the imitation.

The functions of the vegetable have been classed nearly in conformity with
the functions of the animal, but this assimilation may itself have operated as a
shackle on the progress of the science. Al! that has heen said of the circulation
in plants was plainly suggested by ideas borrowed from the cireulation in ani-
mals. The double current of liquid supposed to ascend by the tubes of the lig-
num and to descend again by those of the latex, would seem, according to modern
authors, but a false analogy, established between the physiology of animals and
that of ‘plants. Vegetable respiration is however better known. The experi-
ments of Bonnet, Priestley, Senebier, and Th. de Saussure have established the
important fact, that the green parts of vegetables exhale oxygen under the influ-
ence of solar radiation, ie in darkness, these same parts disengage carbonic
acid.

282 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

As to other phenomena of vegetable physiology, they remain to a great extent
unexplained. Inquiry is, in a considerable measure, still confined to the verifi-
cation of facts, of which the interpretation has not yet been furnished. Such for
instance is the property possessed by the root and the stalk of vegetables, the
one of directing itself in accordance with the terrestrial attraction, the other of
rearing itself in the inverse direction of that attraction. Ingenious experiments
were instituted by J. Hunter and Knight with a view to arrive at the solution
of this problem, but the results obtained by these experimentalists have proved
insutiicient to explain the facts. 'The action also which the light exerts upon
plants in enrving their branches, the tendency which certain plants manifest to
twine themselves always in the same direction, to the right in the case of some,
to the left in the case of others, are facts ascertained but not explained. Ina
word, vegetable physiology is a science which is in process of formation, but is
far from having attained the degree of development presented at this day by
animal physiology.

In this rapid review, I have attempted to indicate the principal phases of the
evolution of the natural sciences ; their succession must doubtless take place in
an order which may be pronounced necessary, each phase preparing the way for
another, and rendering possible and productive researches which would previ-
ously have been premature. At the same time, the facts would certainly be
strained did we pretend to exhibit a succession of well-defined epochs, each exclu-
sively devoted to the elaboration of one of the links of this long chain. It is
not the less true however, that the human mind, in the evolution of the natural
sciences, has pursued in general the course above indicated, a course which we
can trace in the advancement of all the sciences which depend upon observation
and experiment.

Auguste Comte, a philosopher whose doctrines have given rise, of late years,
to so much discussion, has established a fact on which almost all parties are in
accord. It is this: that the sciences which may be considered as having reached
an advanced stage of maturity have passed through three successive phases ;
one theological, another metaphysical, the last positive. By this it is meant that
man, in presence of the phenomena of nature, has been led in the first instance
to suppose the influence of some divinity as the permanent cause of what he wit-
nessed ; that still later certain hidden forces or properties were imagined as goy-
erning matter in all its manifestations of activity ; that subsequently, having
become wise enough to resist the allurements of imagination, the authority of the
ancients and the influence of routine, inquirers have taken the part of accepting
nothing as true but what appeared susceptible of bemg demonstrated ; of renoun-
cing the search for first causes, and of directing their attention exclusively to the
verification of facts and the deduction of laws under the control of experience.

I advance no pretensions to modify this formula so ingeniously propounded by
Auguste Comte, still less would I venture to substitute another. Lut placing
myself at the more restricted point of view of the sciences which have for their
object the facts of nature, I think it competent still further to subdivide and
specily the phases of their evolution, and to say that in all these sciences we may
distinguish a certain number of periods, each corresponding to a certain stage
in their development. We should thus have, first the period of nomenclature,
next that of the natural classification of beings; still later the analytic study of
natural characters would be developed, to be followed by the study of phenomena,
leading finally to the establishment of general laws.

To show that the human mind has always proceeded by these steps, I shall
not multiply examples, but will take the most general of all. I borrow it from
the science which, in virtue of its comprehensiveness, takes precedence of all others,
the science of the universe or cosmos, of the great whole.

We see the immensity of space peopled with objects each of which is an orb
or heavenly body, and the first impulse of mankind was the desire to enumerate

NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES. 283

°

them. Artificial groups or constellations were first established, constituting a
true nomenclature of the stars. Afterwards the effort was to classify them, and
the stars which appear fixed were distinguished from these which exhibit move-
ment; among these last again, the planets, the comets, and the asteroids were to
be distinguished before the immutable laws of the planetary movements could be
discovered. In this classification the terrestrial globe became an individual per-
taining to the genus planet and a member of that class called the solar system.
Tt will be seen further, that the earth, considered individually, was submitted to
the same analysis as the individuals which pertain to the organized world. Thus
the earth has its deseriptive anatomy ; itis the physical geography which teaches
us the general arrangement of the planet, its double polar oblateness, the con-
figuration of the land and seas mailers altitude of the ground and depth of the waters
in different places, the course of the rivers which traverse the terrestrial surface
like the veins in our organs. The earth has also its anatomy of structure. This
is represented by geology, properly so called, which, according to the composi-
tion or arrangement of the formations, refers them to different types. as is done
with regard to the living tissues. T fe geologist, like the anatomist, does not
confine himself to the exterior appearance, but subjects each part to chemical
analysis, explores the densities and cohesions, observes with the microscope the
details of structure, &c. Hmbryogeny itseli finds its analogue in the science
which is occupied with the evolution of our globe and the genesis of the differ-
ent terrestrial strata. On one part and the other, we have the same method, the
same induction from what is passing under our eyes to what must have passed
at an epoch inaccessible to our observation.

_ Thus we observe, in regard to the material study of our planet, a striking
similitude between the methods employed and those to which naturalists have
recourse for the study of organized beings. Without forcing the comparison, it
may be carried even further. The earth has functions; there are phenomena
which take place in it that bear an analogy to actual life. As the moon lias been
called the cadaver of a planet,it may be said that the earth is a living planet.
Under this point of view, we shall see that it has also its physiology.

It is meteorology which reveals to us the functions of our planet. In the inge-
nious treatise lately published on this subject by M. Maric—Davy, there may “be
found a particularly vivid picture of that perpetual circulation of the waters ¥; hich,
quitting the sea under the form of vapor, rise into the atmosphere only to be con-
densed in clouds, and, falling again upon the earth, are borne by the brooks and
rivers to the sea from which they were separated. The atmosphere is the seat
of an analogous aerial circulation; the equatorial zone is the common goal of
the lower trade-winds, as it is the point of departure of the winds of an opposite
direction, the upper trade-winds, which flow thence to the polar regions, whence
they will again return towards the equator. The distribution of terrestrial heat
presents a perfect resemblance to that of animal heat; the same tendency on
either part to the refrigeration of the points remote from the central region; the

same transference of caloric by the circulation of heated liquids. Could we enter
here upon the study of the distribution of the animal temperature, it would be
seen that the analogies are still more striking than the present occasion permits
us to demonstrate.

If I have dwelt at some length on this retrospective survey of the progress of
the sciences, it is because I have thought that much instruction might be found
therein for those who are seeking to advance them; and should I have succeeded

in showing that the methods followed are always nearly the same, the history

of the progress achieved may enlighten us as to the value of each of those methods.

Thus, as I said in commencing , the experience acquired by our predecessors will

serve to conduct us in the new route which we shall have to traverse. ‘That

route is plainly traced; it is easy to see that the tendency is no longer to classi-
fications, which will, of themselves, become perfect under the influence of ulte-

284 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

rior discoveries respecting the functions of animals and plants. Nor yet is the
actual tendency, as it seems, to descriptive studies. At the point which anatomy
has reached, what is rather to be apprehended is confusion, through the multi-
plicity of minute details. Our science is already encumbered with descriptions
which the life of one man would not suffice to master.

To this it may be answered that it is precisely to remedy this obstruction that
recourse is had to a division of labor; that, by virtue of this expedient, we may,
look with confidence to the indefinite increase of human science, each ramifica-
tion of which will be developed by the assiduity of inquirers devoted exclusively
to some speciality. But can it be necessary to show how much such a state of
things is to be deprecated? The more thoroughly any point of science is inves-
tigated the more numerous and intimate are found to be its connections with all
others. Need we recall the services which zoology and botany have rendered
to geology, the utility of chemistry and physics to those who cultivate anatomy
or physiology? So much for the solidarity, the inter-dependence of the sciences,
in view of the means of study and the furtherance of one through the other;
a like solidarity is found in regard to the laws which govern them.

Every law, when once known, throws light on a va ast field, for it controls a
great number of phenomena. ‘The law of. proportionality to the squares applies
not only to the gravitation of the heavenly bodies, but to light, electricity, mag-
netic attraction, accelerated movement, &c. Chemical laws enable us to foresee
a great number of phenomena which no one has yet attempted to realize.

Tf all the sciences allowed of our evolving, from this time forward, precise
laws, it would be easy for us to combine in a grand assemblage all dispersed
facts’ a single mind might embrace in their eenerality all human cognitions ;
what the sages of antiquity could not realize by reason of the narrow extent of
their knowledge, would be accomplished to- day on a field much more vast,
thanks to the excellence and simplicity of method. This ideal, which however
we shall never attain, should at least be the star which serves us for a guide;
it is to the research of the laws of life that it behooves us henceforth to direct
our earnest attention.

IJ.—OFrricE OF ANALYSIS IN THE SCIENCES.—POWER WHICH IT DERIVES
FROM THE EMPLOYMENT OF GREATLY IMPROVED INSTRUMENTS.

I have endeavored to show that the human mind proceeds in all the sciences
after nearly the same manner, so that, as regards each of them, progress is rep-
resented by an evolution strikingly similar. I hope to prove also that the
sciences, in the process of their development, tend to an approximation towards
one another, resulting in their reciprocal advancement, since each of them sheds
light upon the other. Zvology and botany, it is obvious, have furnished to
geology an inestimable element of progress, by disclosing one of the most indis-
pensable characters for recognizing the relative age of different formations. This
character is derived from the determination of fossil species, some of which
characterize, so to speak, certain geological epochs.

Physics and chemistry have so many points of contact that it is almost
superfluous to mention them; the time may be foreseen when these two
sciences can be no longer separated, chemistry constituting, in effect, only
molecular physics. But “physics and chemistry éxert on the other hand an ever-
increasing influence on the natural sciences. Neither animal nor vegetable
phy sioloe ey can dispense with their aid; it may even be said that all that we}
know accurately in these two sciences is what is explained by means of the
laws of physies and chemistry. Examples would present themselves in crowds
were it requisite to furnish them. Thus the mechanical phenomena of respira-
tion were unintelligible before atmospheric pressure had been discovered. Anato-
mists and physiologists were surprised to see the air rush into the pleura when

NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES. 285

the diaphragm or walls of the breast of an animal, alive or dead, were pierced ;
there is now nothing obscure in the nature of this effect. ‘The same cause
explains also many phenomena relating to the exchange incessantly produced
between the gases of the blood and the atmospheric air, the action of respiration
on the course of the blood, &e. Mechanics elucidates the muscular phenomena,
and in general all the movements produced by animals. ‘The circulation of the
blood borrows from hydrodynamics the explanation of everything relating to the
movement of the sanguineous fluid. Without chemistry, what ideas could we
possess respecting the digestive functions, the offices of respiration, the function
of the glands? Optics and acoustics are treated,in the works on physiology, in
the same manner as in those on physics. Finally, the laws of electricity acquire
every day more ‘mportance in the interpretation of the nervous phenomena.

All this proves the reciprocal dependence (solidarity) of the sciences; it shows
that it is necessary to separate them as little as possible, that the tendency should
be to their simplification, to the reduction into general laws in order to render
them easily accessible to every one.

A very important point, for it is decisive of success or failure in scientific
researches, is the choice of a good method. On this subject it is necessary to
be guarded against a very common error. We become habituated generally by
the usual processes of demonstration to pass from the simple to the composite,
to start from a well established principle in order to arrive, from one deduction
to another, at the demonstration of more complex propositions. It is in this way
that the theorems of geometry are successfully demonstrated; but is it by this
method that a science is established? Far otherwise; nor do those who make
discoveries in the natural sciences proceed in this manner. ‘They observe a
great number of facts, compare them, place them side by side, seek the condi-
tions which modify each phenomenon, and succeed only in the last place in
finding a principle or a law which may guide the understanding in the midst of
an embarrassing complexity.

Medicine, a science which touches us so nearly, since it deals with the troubles
which occur in the functions of life, was long misled by that false method
which generates systems. Starting from a principle supposed to be true, it pro-
ceeded with the most irreproachable logic to heap deductions upon deductions,
till the moment when error became so obvious that the whole fabric collapsed
at once, and the work was to be commenced anew. It was a pure metaphor
that wrought the evil: “It was proposed to construct the science, and a corner-
stone was to be sought to support the edifice.” But by what right, among so
many materials, was one stone to be taken for this purpose sooner than another ?
By what token was it to be recognized as the real base of the structure? Cer-
tainly, by none. If there must be a metaphor, 1 would prefer to compare the
study of the natural sciences to the labor of the archeologists in deciphering
inscriptions traced in an unknown language. They try, turn by turn, several
senses for each sign; they seek assistance at the same time from the conditions
under which each inscription has been found, and from the analogy it presents
with inscriptions already known, and they arrive only in the last place at a
knowledge of the principles by which they teach others to decipher the strange
language.

In every science progressis only to be obtained by the employment of certain pro-
cesses which act like powerful levers in the service of the human mind: analysis,
which serves for research, and synthesis, which is employed to verify the results
of analysis, or to set in amore simple light a truth already discovered. But
everything is susceptible of improvement, even the means which are at our dis-
posal for the realization of further progress. I propose, therefore, summarily
to state the present resources of analysis and synthesis, instruments which are
so constantly to be handled by the teachers as well as cultivators of science.

Analysis consists in reducing to its most simple elements a phenomenon too

286 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

omplex to be otherwise comprehended. If the multiplicity of simultaneous
ets perplexes our understanding, we endeavor to abstract one of these
incidents, observe it as exactly as possible, then, passing to another, study it in
the same manner. In thus overcoming successively the difficulties which pre-
sent themselves, and which in combination exceed our efforts at comprehension,
consists the function of analysis, and it is this which constitutes the source of its
power.

But, in this conflict of details, difficulties of another order still present them-
selves. These arise from the insufficiency of our senses, baffled alike by objects
too small or too lar ee, too near or too remote, as well as by movements too slow
or too rapid. Man has found the means of creating for himself more powerful
senses in order to detect the truth which evades him. He has rendered his
vision more penetrating by help of the telescope which sounds the immensity of
space, and of the microscope which explores the infinitely little. Balance and
compass in hand, he estimates with precision the weight and volume of bodies,
which his touch indicated to him in only a rough manner. ‘The more advanced
the state of any science, the more it has need “of instruments, for it has passed
beyond the horizon embraced by the unassisted view of our predecessors. It
has transeended the limits of the circle in which the human intellect was so
Tong exercised, while exhausting itself in contemplating the surface of the same
objects and consuming in sterile dialectics the power which to-day it employs in
rigorous observation.

Instruments are the indispensable intermediaries between mind and maitter ;
the physicist, the chemist, the astronomer can effect but little without their suc-
cor; the anatomist, the physiologist, the physician have recourse to them as
indispensable to the progress of medical science. ‘The invention of cadaveric
injections and that of the microscope have inaugurated a new era for anatomy,
which owes to the use of these expedients the comparative perfection which
it has attained in our-day. ‘The same is the case with physiology; it is
to the manometer, the thermometer, to electric machines of various construction,
apparatus for registering, &e., that the physiologist is indebted for the power
of substituting experimentation, in its proper sense, for observation, always
slower and often powerless to discover the laws which govern life.

To show the progress already realized in the method of analysis, and to mark
the multiplicity of resources of which it may avail itself, we take a few
examples :

In chemistry, when the object is to recognize the nature of certain bodies
which enter into a combination or mixture, we proceed, by qualitative analysis,
to disengage cach of these bodies and to isolate them successively. Then, by
quantitative analysis, we determine in what quantity each substance existed in
the mixture. In making this discrimination, the balance is at our service.
This, we see, is an apparatus borrowed from physics which enables the chemist
to arrive at exact determinations. But the helpful intervention of phlyeics stops
not there. In virtue of that solidarity of the sciences, of which I have before
spoken, the chemist resorts to the physicist for the aid of still other instruments.
If, for instance, we have the solution of a known salt whose degree of concen-
tration we would ascertain, there is no need to destroy the mixture and
extract the salt, in order afterwards to weigh it; we seek, by means of the are-
ometer, the density of the mixture, and, knowing the density proper to the salt,
it is easy to calculate the quantity contained in the solution. If in another

solution substances exist which are crystallizable together with others which are
not so, the use of the dialyser enables us to effect their separation. This again
is an apparatus of physics placed at the service of chemistry. The polar imeter
is also of great utility. It enables us to appreciate in an instant the existence
of certain substances contained in a solution, and to determine their proportion
with rigorous exactness. Lastly, the spectroscope contributes a new power to

NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES. 287

chemistry: it has extended the domain of chemical analysis beyond the world
we inhabit, by enabling us, from the optical properties of the light of the stars,

to determine their chemical composition, and to affirm, for example, that in the
sun there must be iron, nitrogen, cobalt, &c.; in the star Aldebaran, sodium,
magnesium, calcium, iron, mercury, hy drow en, &e. “Thus science, by means of
analysis, has realized wonders which the most daring imagination would have

never ventured to conceive.

In physics, the functions of analysis are not less extensive. It is by employ-
ing different kinds of apparatus, each of which reveals certain properties of elec-
tricity, light, heat, &c., that we have succecded in forming an idea of the man-
ner in which these agents actin nature. The physicist renounces the idea of
ascertaining their essence as we renounce a knowledge of the essence of life,
and is content to describe each agent according to its manifestations. Tlectri-
city, which reveals itself to us in great meteorological effects, in the production
of lightning and boreal auroras, for instance, everywhere else evades ont per-
ception, and yet it is demonstrable that everyw here in nature electrici ity exists.
The clectroscope discloses it in the atmosphere which surrounds us. The galwan-
ometer shows us that electric currents are formed, so to say, wherever an act of
a physical nature is accomplished : water which evaporates, a plant which vege-
tates, an animal which lives, give rise to electric phenomena which our senses
cannot directly perceive, but which we render perceptible by means of instru-
ments of analysis. Such expressions as electric currents, electro-motive forces,
intensity and fension of electricity, are artifices of language which enable us to
conceive more readily the conditions under which the phenomena ealled elec-
trical are produced and modified. But in proportion as known facts become
multiplied by analytic researches, science is seen to disengage itself from the
ambiguities of language and to sacrifice the expressions which are no longer
useful to it. It is thus that the hypothesis of two electric fluids, the one positive,
the other negative, is tending at present to disappear.

What we know regarding light has been acquired by the same method: we
have learned to decompose it by the prisnz into its different elements ; some col-
ored in different manners, others invisible, but endued with heat or chemical
properties. Uhe theory of light furnishes us with a good example of the dis-
appearance of an hypothesis in the presence of contradictory facts. We know
that the hypothesis of radiation has vanished before the phenomenon of inter-
ferences, and has given place to the theory of undulations, which alone explains
all the phenomena actually known.

Thus physical agents become characterized every day in a more complete
manner, and are more and more accurately determined by the characters which
their analysis discloses. I shall not attempt to follow the progress realized by
the analytic method in the knowledge of magnetism, heat, mechanical force, &e.
{ confine myself to the statement, already made that. the solidarity of the
sciences constantly augments in proportion to the progress realized. For the
different branches of physics the fusion is evidently taking place in our own day.
It is interpreted to us by the profound conception of the equivalence of forces
and of the transformation of mechanical labor into heat or into electricity.

The naturalist who is not content with ebserving the forms, however varied,
of organization in animals and plants, must proceed like the physicist and chem-
ist, if he desires to discover the conditions of life. His first means for the
analysis of phenomena is vivisection. It is through this that he becomes a wit-
ness of the accomplishment of functions; all that is visible and palpable in the
play of the organs is revealed to him by this anatomta animata, as it was called
by Haller. On, this head I could say nothing which will not be found more
competently stated in the valuable treatise of M. Cl. Bernard (Jntroduction a la
Médicine expérimentale.) In this work may be seen everything relative to phy-

238 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

siological experiment, while excellent advice is given regarding the disposition
of mind which it is necessar y to bring to the study of biolowy.

But, of itself alone, vivisection is insufficient for this pursuit; it can do no more,
so to say, than lay bare the phenomenon simultaneously with the organ which
is the seat of it; it reveals to our senses only what they are capable of perceiv-
ing. Now, we have seen that in physics our senses teach us very little, and that
it is necessary, at every step, to have recourse to apparatus for analyzing the
more delicate phenomena. ‘The same is the case in biology. The electrical
phenomena which take place in animals are, in certain cases, directly percepti-
ble. ‘lhe commotion produced by the torpedo and gymnotus have been known
from antiquity, but the most sensitive galvanometers have been needed to detect
those electric modifications, so weak and yet so important, which accompany the
nervous and muscular actions. Du Bois-Reymond and his successors have
made known to us an entire new phase of physiology, and one of the most
interesting kind. Optical apparatus is indispensable for the exploration of the
interior of the eye, as well as for the delicate measurement of the curvatures of
each of the refractive mediums which compose it. Thus, while dissection
teaches us certain details of the organization, it would nevertheless deceive us
by destroying the normal disposition of the parts, had we not the means of
studying the living apparatus i situ.

Anatomy shows us the organs with a definite form and volume; physiology,
on the contrary, teaches us that most of the organs present, in the actions of life,
changes both of form and volume, a few of which only can be easily perceived.
We must resort to imstrumental aid for the demonstration of changes too deli-
cate for naked vision. Now, micrometry, as is well known, has attained an
extraordmary precision in the determination of the diameters of objects extremely
minute; it constitutes one of the principal resources at the disposal of histology,
and enables it, in effect, to assign to each element its normal diameter, which is
one of its important character ‘istics.

As there exists, then, a micrometry by which we can measure the slightest
changes in the volume of the organs in living animals, I deem it the more
important to indicate the apparatus destined for “this purpose, since it is still but
little employed, though possessing, in certain cases, very great utility. It will be
remembered that discussions were heretofore maintained respecting the dilatation
of the arteries under the afflux ef the blood propelled into them by the contrac-
tion of the ventricle. Some writers contended that the arterial system makes
room for the sanguineous wave by means of an elongation sustained by the ves-
sels, while others thought that the arteries, in this act, dilate and lengthen at
the same time.

To resolve this question, M. Flourens conceived the idea of encircling the
artery of a living animal with an interrupted ring formed of an elastic spring, which
would yield to the dilatation of the artery and manifest it by the separation of the
two ends of the ving. ‘This separation takes place, in effect, whenever a new dis-
charge of blood is received from the heart. But the method is not wholly free from
objection. If we suppose the pressure of the elastic ring to produce a slight
constriction of the vessel, the latter may simply recover its normal dimension,
and in this way, without ‘undergoing dilatation, would separate the ends of the
ring which compressed it. M. Poiseuille employed a more rigorous method,
which consists in placing the artery which we propose to examine in a small
box with rigid walls, pierced on one side and the other by a suitable hole. In
this box the arter y is maintained at such a degree of tension as to preclude any
liability to elongation through pressure of the blood. The box is filled with
liquid, and is furnished at some point in its walls with a capillary tube in which
the liquid ascends to a determinate level. If the blood-vessel thus enclosed
undergoes the slightest augmentation of diameter, it necess avily displaces the
liquid of the box, and the level in the capillary tube is seen to tise or descend,

NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES 289

according as the diameter of the vessel is increased or diminished. ‘This method
is susceptible of a great number of applications ; it enables us to show that all
the vascular organs undergo, at each sanguineous discharge from the heart, a
distension followed by contraction, similar to that presented, in a higher degree,
by the erectile tissues. Bui this mode of examination is not new; there may be
seen in the works of Swammerdam the description of an apparatus very analo-
gous to the one in question, and destined to determine whether a muscle in con-
tracting undergoes a change of volume.

Of all the phenomena which characterize life, movement is the most import-
ant; it may be said, indeed, that in general it is movement which gives their
distinctive character to all the functions; now, it is under this aspect that the
phenomena of animal life can be analyzed at present with the most admirable
precision in the three correlative elements of duration, extent, and force. We are
but little capable of appreciating duration with exactness, especially that which
is very short, and we generally consider as instantaneous such phenomena as
occupy a space of time shorter than the half or quarter of a second. For the
same reason we assume the synchronism of two acts which follow one another at
a short interval. But chronometry has made so much progress of late that we
can now measure the shortest durations, thanks to the apparatus employed by
the physicists. The velocity of projectiles, of light, of electricity, is readily
reduced to measurement, and nothing prevents the application in general of the
same methods to the still shorter durations of physiological acts. The extent of
a movement is susceptible of very exact appreciation, provided the movement fur-
nishes a trace which may be afterwards submitted to the estimates of micrometry.
The idea of force has recently undergone an important modification ; it has been
reduced to that of labor accomplished, and is referable henceforth to a determinate
standard, the kilogrammetre and its divisions. We find ourselves therefore in
possession of accurate terms of comparison, and should eliminate in future every
vague expression relative to movement. We should characterize it in every case
according to its duration referred to the second of time, its extent in terms of the
metre or its fraction, its force as expressed in kilogrammetres. Perhaps a still more
complete conception is that which further characterizes a movement by its form ;
that is to say, which takes account of the different phases of the movement, and
no longer only of its commencement and end, its maximum and minimun, but
which determines all the intermediate states. Such is the result obtained by the
graphic method, to which I shall have occasion elsewhere to call attention, as
furnishing of itself the solution of a great number of problems of the highest
importance.

Movement, before being executed, is, so to say, potentially contained im certain
causes which produce it: weight, elasticity, the pressure of a liquid, the tension
of agas. We now know how to appreciate these forces, which may be called
virtual. It is statics which measures them, and introduces into their measure-
ment that rigorowts exactness which tends at present to become general. The
application of the manometer to the valuation of the pressure of the blood, of the
thoracic aspiration, of the force with which the glandular reservoirs contract, is a
further step in the progress of our epoch.

If I have here given but a rapid and incomplete enumeration of all these exact
processes and their appropriate apparatus, it is because the occasion will here-
after present itself, in my collegiate course, of describing them more completely,
and of more fully exemplifying their value. I have aimed to show in the first
place the resources which we have at our disposal, and to prove especially that
it is by drawing more closely its relations with the other sciences, that biology
has become progressive and will continue to progress. Now that we are pro-
vided with new means for attempting the solution of the problems of life, we
may resume the researches in which our predecessors have been foiled. A
subject which might be supposed to be exhausted becomes once more a fertile

19 S67

290 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

field for study, if we acquire new processes with which to explore it. It is
chiefly when we recur to ancient experiments that we are struck with the pro-
egress which has been realized. We might almost be disposed to condemn the
narrowness of view of the old experimenters, if we did not revert in thought to
the epoch when they lived, and to the exiguity of the means of analysis of which
they could avail themselves.

Still another reason necessitates the employment of apparatus in physiology.
Even in the cases in which vivisection reveals to us important facts, it induces
such extreme perturbations in the functions of life as greatly to modify them
and to convey a false idea, if the normal expression of the function be assumed
to be exhibited in any phenomenon which we may thus witness. 'To take an
example, the case may be cited when the section of the spinal marrow is per-
formed on an animal, and artificial respiration is practiced in order to maintain
organic life as long as possible. Under these conditions the phenomena of cir-
culation undergo so profound a modification that we should be on our guard
against the false ideas which may be drawn from the experiment. The 1 rapidity
of the current of the blood becomes excessive, the pulsations of the heart are
accelerated, the central temperature is lowered, while the peripheral temperature
rises. The physiologist should, therefore, endeavor to inflict on the animal
which he is examining as little mutilation as possible, if he would obtain an
exact idea of the normal conditions of the circulation of the blood and the
animal temperature. We know, moreover, that the secretion of the glands,
under normal conditions, differs much from that which we. collect by artificial
means. ‘Thus the pancreatic juice derived from an animal in which an opening
has been effected differs chemically from that which the gland discharges nor-
mally into the duodenum. It would not be difficult to multiply ex amples show-
ing how necessary it is to leave the animal in its normal condition if we would
not have the function interfered w ith; but this is only attainable by means of the
different and delicate apparatus of w hich some portions are above enumerated.

Another cause often obliges us to renounce vivisection, and to substitute the
use of apparatus: it is the necessity of directly studying the human physiology.
Of all the beings whose organization and functions science has essayed to inves-
tigate, man has been the most frequent object of study. It is the human phy-
siology which serves, so to speak, as a type for that of the whole animal
kingdom.

Nevertheless, if it is true that our own organism and functions seem to
present the most complete model of animal organization, it is not less true that
certain organs, as well as certain functions, are, in us, less sharply characterized
than in the lower order of beings. Hence it is of the greatest importance to
follow, by analysis, each of the phenomena of life in ‘hes whole series of living
beings, or at least in the principal types, with a view to ascertaining what are
the different processes which nature employs in order to arrive at her end, the
life of the individual and of the species. Hence the origin and object of com-
parative physiology.

It is to the human being, however, his organs and his functions, that the
greater number of investigations is at the present day directed. And, as all
resources are to be laid under contribution in the prosecution of our object, we
may sometimes borrow aid from the science of medicine, which finds in the study
of maladies certain conditions not always to be realized by experiment. It
is not to be forgotten, however, that medicine is not the basis of biology,
though, in an utilitarian point of view, it may be its end. In such inquiries as
we are now pursuing, it is but one means the more of analyzing the conditions
which modify the functions of life, and of arriving at a better determination of
the laws which regulate those functions. In order to give an idea of the
influence which medicine has had on the knowledge of the organism, I need
but recall that it was in a case where a perforation of the thoracic walls had

NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES. 291

occurred that Harvey observed the beatings of the heart; and in another,
where a gastric fistula had been formed, that Beaumont conducted his memor-
able studies on digestion. The vices of congenital conformation furnish us
with numerous indications , not only on the subject of embryogeny, but also in
relation to certain functions s, such as those of the nervous system, respiration,
and circulation, which produce the movements of the cephalorachidian liquid, &e.
The above is but a summary statement of the means of analysis at our dis-
posal at the present time. Our resources, it will be seen, are great, and furnish
a guarantee of success in researches yet to be undertaken. 1 would repeat, in
conclusion, what I have before said, that progress is visibly taking place through
the fusion of the sciences, and for us, naturalists and biologists , resolves itself
into the facilities which we every day derive from physics ad chemistry.
The time will come, no doubt, when we shall be able in our turn to furnish to
those sciences new elements of progress. But, for the moment, we are their
debtors, for the reason that the physical and chemical sciences, more simple than
ours, and long disengaged from the bad methods by which we have been misled,
are to-day more advanced than biology, in the sense that they arrive more rea adily
at exact ideas of the phenomena which they study. It is only after having
fruitlessly employed in the study of the phenomena of life the methods supplied
by physics and chemistry that we shall have any right to invoke the intervention
of extra-physical causes for the explanation of the vital phenomena; and it is
not dificult to see how far we are from having exhausted the resources which
physical and chemical analysis now places at our disposal.

I1].—EXPERIMENTAL SYNTHESIS IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES.

In speaking of the processes which the human mind employs in scientific
researches, [ have mentioned analysis and synthesis. We have thus far treated
of analysis; we have considered it in its progressive improvements, and know,
in a general manner, the immense resources which it has at its command.

It remains to inquire the meaning of synthesis and the services whichit is capable
of rendering. It has already been seen that it is not a method of research; that
a science which should propose to found itself upon synthesis, by setting out
upon principles established @ prior?, would incur the peril of woing widely astray.
But nothing of this sort is to be ‘apprehended when analy sis has finished its
work and has put us in possession of a large number of facts, well established.
It is then that the office of synthesis commences. Synthesis is the opposite of
analysis; it reconstructs what has been decomposed. This is the most general
definition of the method. But to give a more complete idea of it, it is well to
follow it in its different applications. We will first examine experimental syn-
thesis, in so far as it serves to control the results of analysis by reproducing a
phenomenon through a reassemblage of the conditions of its existence. After
wards we shall pass to synthesis properly so called, being such as it is Teepe
by scholastics, and which collects particular facts into oeneral laws.

Experimental synthesis recompounds that which has been decomposed into its
different elements. The chemist, for instance, when he has decomposed water
by means of analysis and has separated it into oxygen and hydrogen, can
recombine those two gases. He has effected the synthesis of water. In
this second experiment, then, is found the most satisfactory demonstration of the
exactness of the first. Synthesis has served for the proof of analysis.

In organic chemistry the introduction of synthesis is altogether recent, but it
has effected in this branch of science a real revolution. In the last century,
chemists believed that organic matter was formed in animals and plants by virtue
of forces different from those which govern unorganized matter. Buffon even
recognized an animated organic matter, destined to furnish unceasingly the
material of beings endowed with organization. As late as 1849, Berzelius still

admitted of special chemical laws in organized nature.

292 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

It belonged to Berthelot to overthrow these erroneous opinions, and to show
that the same laws prevail in organic chemistry and mineral chemistry ; to prove
that by employing the inorganic elements disclosed by analysis, it is “practicable
to reproduce by synthesis a great number of the substances found in vegetables.
It was thus that, by means oe carbon and hydrogen, our learned chemist formed
acetylene, C*H?; this body, treated with nascent hydrogen, gave him olefiant
gas, C*H*.

By the employment of water and carbonic acid, Berthelot formed the oxide
of carbon, C70”. This again, by the fixation of the elements of the water,
yielded iene acid, C?H? OF, ae was obtained the gas of the marshes CH
From the gas of the marshes, in turn, are derived, by successive condensation
of the elements, acetylene, propylene, benzine, and naphtaline. ‘The ternary
bodies spring from the preceding by the addition of oxygen. 'Thus are produced
the alcohols: the methylic aleohol, C2H*O2, by the oxydation of the gas of the
marshes; common alcohol, CAHO2, by the ‘hydratation of the olefiant gas. By
removing the hydrogen from the alcohols, we obtain the aldehydes; by oxydizing
the alcohols, we form the organic acids. By the fixation of the nitrogen in these
new products, whether by means of ammonia or by the action of nitrous acid,
we obtain the quaternary compounds. So that it may be foreseen that a resort
to synthesis will enable us to reproduce artificially those important substances
which are called the alcaloids of vegetables.

The physicist also makes extensive use of synthesis. Thus, when he wishes to
produce with great intensity a phenomenon of which analysis has revealed to him
the conditions of existence, he constructs an apparatus in which he assembles
those conditions, and evokes the phenomenon with a degree of evidence which
leaves no longer any doubt. Knowing, for instance, the electric phenomena
which occur between two different metals , both submitted to a chemical action,
physicists have constructed batteries which produce currents of dynamic elec-
tricity of a surprising intensity. In general, what is called an instrument of
demonstration is constructed in virtue of a synthetic idea.

In biology, synthesis is generally too little employed, and yet it would appear,
in certain cases, eminently useful, whether for controlling the results obtained
by analysis or for furnishing a clear and striking demonstration of the phenom-
ena. ‘his means of control and demonstration should certainly not be neglected.
It is often proper that experiments should be made with the view of reproducing
a phenomenon, and demonstrating that it takes place in certain determined con-
ditions. In this case, the experimentation is synthetic. One of the principal
applications of this method consists in reproducing, outside of the living being,
certain phenomena which take place in the interior of the organism. Thus, in
order to demonstrate the action which the air exerts on the blood through the
walls of the pulmonary cellules, we make it appear that venous blood can be
arterialized by the action of the air taking effect through an organic membrane.
To prove the action of the acids of the stomach as well as that of heat in diges-
tion, it is usual to show that, in a matras, the addition of an acid to a mixture
of gastric juice and food excites an artificial digestion which would take place
but very incompletely without the presence of the acid. The action of heat in
digestion may at the same time be shown, for the temperature must be somewhat
elevated for that phenomenon to be produced with rapidity.

The physical phenomena which oceur in living beings are particularly sus-
ceptible of synthetic demonstration. The apparatus of demonstration or schemas
are admirably adapted to give an idea of the mechanism of these functions;
nor can anything more instr uctive be readily imagined than the employment of
such expedients, which enable us to assist, as it were, in the production of all
the details of the phenomena.

There are many, doubtless, who will recall the difficulties experienced, at the
outset of physiological studies, in comprehending perfectly the mechanism of

NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES. 293

respiration ; that virtual vacuum, as it is called, which exists in the cavity of
the pleura, and into which the air tends to precipitate itself as soon as an opening
is formed at any point of the thoracic structure. Now, this phenomenon can be
counterfeited in a very simple manner. (Ig. 1.)

We take a bottle whose bottom has been removed and is replaced by a
stretched membrane of caoutchouc : this bottle will represent the thoracic cavity,
while the membrane corresponds to the diaphragm. In the interior of this appa-
ratus we place an elastic bladder of caoutchouc, which represents the lungs. The
neck of the bladder is luted to the neck of the bottle, so that there shall be but
one orifice, that which enables the exterior air to communicate with the interior
of the bladder of caoutchouc. A hole has been formed in one side of the wall of
the bottle, and a cord is attached to the centre of the membrane which represents
the diaphragm, for the purpose of communicating to this membrane movements
which imitate the diaphragmatic action in respiration. We now proceed to pete
this apparatus in the same conditions with the thoracic cavity. We blow through
the throat of the bottle into the bladder, so as to distend it until it fills the cavity
of the bottle and expels the air contained therein. We have thus established a
state of things analogous to that in which the thorax is filled by the expanded
lungs. If we cease to blow, leaving the lateral hole free, the wind at once enters
with a whistling sound through the hole in question, precisely as happens in the
cage of an animal whose breast has been suddenly pierced. But, if we close that
hole after having finished the insufflation, the bladder will continue adhering to
the walls of the bottle, although the throat of the latter be open. ‘To imitate the
movements of the diaphragm, we exert a traction on the membrane ; the bladder
follows all these movements just as the lungs would do, and a reciprocating motion
is established between the exterior and interior air, through the throat of the bottle.
If we desire to measure the energy with which the bladder -lung tends to collapse
upon itself, a manometer is fitted to the hole in the side-w all; the mercury will
now be seen to be drawn towards the apparatus with a force represented by the
inspiration of a column of air a certain namber of centimetres in height.

A rather curious phenomenon sometimes occurs in surgery, being a hernia of
the lung through a wound of the breast. This hernia might seem inexplicable,
in view of the ‘tendency of the lung in such case to collapse upon itself. If we
close the throat of our bottle, an act which corresponds to the occlusion of the
glottis in an animal and prevents the escape of the air from the breast, the blad-
der will no longer have, as before, a strong tendency to retreat upon itself; for,
to do that, it must become empty. At ‘this juncture let the diaphragm be
stretched, which will be equivalent to a strong effort at inhalation. The blad-
der will then be seen to form a hernia through the opening in the side of the

5
bottle. The explanation of this fact is quite obvious: the air, compressed in the

294 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

elastic pouch with a certain force, tends to escape outwards by driving back the
thin membrane which confines it ; this it effects at the sole point where the walls
offer little resistance. Suppose, for an instant, that, in place of the thm mem-
brane which now forms the hernia, there were a spongy but more consistent
tissue, like that of the lungs; the hernia would become strangulated between
the edges of the opening and be unable to re-enter spontaneously, even when
the effort has ceased. Many other demonstrations might be made by means of
this simple apparatns.

Without digressing from the subject, another fact may be noticed which long
seemed obscure, but which is susceptible of a synthetic demonstration at once
simple and convincing. Have the intercostal muscles any action on the move-
ment of the ribs, and, if so, what is that action? This was the subject of much
discussion among the ‘physiologists of the last century.

The solution of the question was demanded of experiment, and it was found
that, in living animals, the external intercostal muscles contract at every inspi-

ration of air. But this result of observation presented something paradoxical
and inexplicable. The external intercostals are extended between two ribs:
it would seem, therefore, that they ought, in contracting, to bring the ribs nearer
to one another. Now, at the moment of inhalation, the ribs separate and the
intercostal spaces are enlarged.

P. Berard, in his courses of physiology at the Faculty of Medicine, was
accustomed to recall the discussions in question, and removed any hesitation on
the part of his auditory by tracing on a tablet a schematic figure which rendered
the phenomenon easily intelligible. He would state, at the same time, that he
had received from Dr. Hutchinson a small apparatus formed of pieces ‘of wood
in imitation of the arrangement of the ribs in relation to the vertebral column,
and of elastic bandelets which represented the action of the external intercostal
muscles. ‘The whole, when the parts representing ribs were lowered so as to
exert a traction upon the elastic bandelets, was calculated to take the position
attending the act of inhalation in the animal frame. Annexed is an apparatus
which I have constracted upon these indi-
cations and which aptly reproduces the phe-
nomenon in question, (Jig. 2.)

The vertebral column is represented by a
piece of vertical wood on which three trans-
verse pieces are articulated: these represent
the ribs. The direction of the intercostal
muscles is indicated by that of the braces of
caoutchoue fastened by pins on the cross-
bars of wood. When the ribs are horizon-
tal, as in the figure, there is a considerable
interval between them, but the insertions,
A, Bb, of the brace of caoutchoue are not so
widely separated as in the case when the rib-
pieces, being lowered, approach and touch
one another. In that case, the brace of
caoutchoue corresponds to the diagonal of a
very oblique parallelogram. Now, the
position of the elastic brace is that which
the external intercostals present in relation
to the ribs. The contraction of these mus-
cles serves, therefore, to raise the ribs, as
the elasticity of the caoutchouc acts in the
schema which we have been describing.

NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES. 295

Among the mechanical phenomena of the circulation of the blood there are
quite a number which may be imitated in a perfect manner. A schema, well
known in Germany, is that of Weber: it shows how the circular movement of
the blood is accomplished in that vast self-re-entering system represented by the
heart and blood-vessels, (jig. 3.)

FETA

We take an elastic tube, curved upon itself, so as to form a complete circuit,
which may be filled with a liquid by means of the funnel, e. At a point in
this tube a part, marked c, is bounded by two valves, both of which open in the
same direction. ‘This portion of the cireuit corresponds to the heart. At the
point directly opposite the portion c is placed, at ¢, a tube of glass, in which a
sponge is infixed tightly, forming, of course, an obstacle to the passage of the
liquid, in regard to which it exerts a resistance like that opposed by the capil-
lary vessels to the course of the blood. The apparatus being now filled with
liquid is ready for operating. If intermitting pressures be exerted on the part
¢ which represents the heart, the enclosed liquid is propelled and made to pass
into the portion of the tube where the play of the valves permits its being intro-
duced, namely, into a, a’. Under the influence of compressions frequently
repeated, the portion into which the liquid flows becomes distended. Now, it is
in this condition that the arterial system subsists in animals, since there the blood
is continually pressed forward by the systolés of the left heart. Hence the
liquid acquires in this part of the tube a considerable amount of pressure which
imitates, with sufficient exactness, the pressure of the blood in the arteries. The
sponge, ¢, allows the liquid to pass gradually from the arterial part of the tube
into the venous part, that is to say, into the portion 2 v of the apparatus. This
passage of the liquid takes place in a continuous manner, notwithstanding the
intermission of the impulses given to the liquid. Here, then, we realize an imi-
tation of the phenomenon produced in the circulatory apparatus: the regularity,
namely, of the course of the blood in the small vessels. In both cases this
result is obtained through the effect of the elasticity of the conduits in which
the liquid has circulated. Further, it is the same cause which produces in fire-
engines the regularity of the jet, notwithstanding the successive checks in the
play of the pump. In apparatus of the latter kind resort is had to a bell-shaped
receiver, under which the liquid arrives on issuing from the pump, and which
counteracts the irregularities of the motive force.

It should likewise be remarked, that, under the influence of successive impul-
sions given to the liquid by pressing on the part ¢, it will be found that the
arterial and the venous portion of the circuit present opposite conditions of
repletion: the arterial pressure constantly tending to distention at the expense
of the venous portion which is at the same time partially depleted. It is thus
also in the economy of the living animal, the repletion of the arterial system
taking place at the expense of the contents of the veins. Finally, it will be
observed that each impulsion given to the liquid, by the compression of the tube
at c, communicates to the whole of the arterial column a pulsation analogous to
that presented by the arteries of a living animal, and that this impulsion is
annulled at the extremity of the arterial part, so as to fail entirely in the venous
portion. On the whole, then, this schema of Weber’s reproduces in a very sim-

296 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

ple way some of the principal phenomena of the circulation of the blood:
Ist. The circuit and the continuous current through the whole system of tubes;
with the understanding, however, that the apparatus is intended to represent
only one of the two circuits which constitute the circulation in the higher ani-
mals—namely, the greater one. 2d. The formation of two unequal pressures,
one rather hich, being that of the blood in the arteries; the other lower, being
the venous pressure. 3d. The continuity of the course of the blood in the
capillary vessels under the influence of the elasticity of the arteries. 4th. The
pulsation which is produced in all the arteries at each systolé of the heart. It
might be possible to imitate in a more perfect manner the hydraulic phenomena
of the course of the blood, but the schema before us suffices for the moment as
exhibiting a synthetic reproduction of an action taking place in living beings.
In studying the circulation, theoretical considerations had led me to conclude
that the elasticity of the arteries produces on the course of the blood still other
effects than those demonstrable by the apparatus of Weber, and that this elas-
ticity itself favors the circulation by diminishing the obstacle which the heart
encounters at each contraction ; in other words, that the heart has less difiiculty
in emptying itself into elastic vessels than it would meet with if the arterial
system were formed of rigid conduits. Now this effect of the arterial elasticity
has been contested by the whole body of physiologists. Some of them have
held, with Bichat, that the cireulation would be effected quite as well in inert
tubes as in elastic ones, the only difference being that in inert vessels no pul-
sation would be felt. Others, relying on experiment, asserted that two tubes,
one elastic, the other inert, give passage to the same quantity of liquid if both
have the same calibre; and this is perfectly true if the flow of the liquid takes
place under a constant discharge, but ceases to be true if the afflux of the liquid
occurs in an intermittent manner, as is the case with the circulation of the blood.
Still other physiologists, struck with the regularity of the course of the blood
in the small vessels, have considered the elasticity of the arteries as an additional
force, which propels, the blood in the arteries during the repose of the heart.
But these also were in error, and we might refute their opinion by saying, with
Berard, that the elastic force of the arteries is in reality only indirectly contrib-
utory, a force d’emprunt, and that the heart is the sole impulsive agent which
exerts an active part in the circulation. Nevertheless, | maintain my proposi-
tion: the elasticity of the arteries is favorable to the course of the blood, but
it does not act as an impulsive force. ¢ diminishes the resistance which the
heart experiences when it propels the blood in the vessels. "The annexed schematic
apparatus will enable me to demonstrate this proposition.

3) We ee

A Maziotte vase V is raised on a support. From this vase proceeds a large
tube furnished with a faucet R. This tube is bifurcated at the point T, and

NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES. 297

each of its branches is continued by a long conduit. One 6 0/is elastic, being
formed of thin caoutchouc; the other a a@/is of glass, and consequently rigid.
A valve, placed at the origin of the elastic tube, permits the liquid to penetrate
freely into its interior, but opposes all reflux in an inverse direction. ‘The two
tubes have the same capacity of discharge: of this we may convince ourselves
by opening the faucet R and allowing a continuous current to be established.
But if the faucet be opened and closed alternately, it will be seen that the efflux
by the inert tube is intermittent, while that by the elastic tube is continuous ;
it will be also found that the discharge has become very unequal, and that much.
less of the liquid escapes by the inert than by the elastic tube. ‘The proposition
might be considered, then, as already proved, for it is evident that if the elastic
tube has discharged more liquid than the other, this results from its having
received more, and as the penetration of the liquid into the tubes takes place
under a constant charge, and can only be effected at the time when the faucet is
open, this clearly proves that at those instants the tube of glass was more per-
meable than the elastic tube.

But we may form a more exact conception of what occurs under these condi-
tions by inquiring not what issues from the tubes, but what enters them. The
Mariotte vase employed as a source of supply furnishes the means of knowing
accurately what penetrates into each of the tubes at a given moment, for not the
smallest quantity of liquid can issue from the vase without the indication of what
portion of it is withdrawn by the entrance of a more or less considerable quantity
of air. Now, if the liquid be permitted to flow by the elastic tube alone, or the
glass tube alone, it will be seen that in the two cases the Mariotte vase indicates
very different discharges. If the efflux be by the inert tube alone, bubbles of
air are seen to enter the vase one by one, at regular intervals, until the sup-
pression of the flow of liquid, when, by the same act, the entrance of the bubbles
is arrested. If, on the other hand, the inert tube being closed, the efflux.
commences with the elastic tube alone, a mass of air is seen on the instant to
rush into the vase, announcing the escape of a wave of the liquid at the first
moment; the bubbles then become more rare and enter with the same slowness
which was observed in the case of efflux by the inert tube. Let the faucet be
closed at this instant, and it will plainly appear that the elastic tube has
received a quantity of liquid greater than that received by the inert tube and
corresponding to the access of the large volume of air at the commencement
of the experiment. It is this excess of liquid which occasions a flow more or
less durable after the closing of the faucet. ‘This whole quantity of water accom-
modated by the distension of the tube constitutes the advantage of the elastic
tube as regards the afflux. If this tube more readily admits the penetration
of the water into its interior, it is because the liquid is not required, as in the
case of the inert tube, to overcome the total friction and flow outwardly, but
finds lodgment within the tube by reason of the extensibility of the latter. It
is obvious that as often as these intermittent openings of the faucet are repeated
a new advantage is created in favor of the elastic tube. Finally, theory teaches
us that to render the efflux by the two tubes as unequal as possible, it is
requisite that the faucet should be opened, each time for a very brief period, and
that the intervals between the openings should be of some duration.

The demonstration of this effect of the elasticity of the arteries, though here-
tofore unknown, would seem to be of much importance; it has enabled ime to
draw new conclusions, and to establish, for example, that if the arteries lose their
elasticity, as is normally the case with aged persons, the heart must experience
an increase of resistance, and, according to the known laws of pathology, become
hypertrophied. The researches which I have made with a view to the verifica-
tion of this prevision have furnished a complete confirmation of the theory, but
I shall not insist here on particulars which enter properly into the domain of
medicine, and which would divert me from my subject.

298 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

In returning to the synthetic reproduction of the phenomena which accom-
pany life, I shall present but one other example of synthesis. ‘The uses of the
natatory bladder of fishes have been very much controverted ; most naturalists,
however, have considered this organ as capable of modifying the volume of the
fish, and consequently its density, so as to render it hontietinien lighter than the
water, thus causing it to ascend to the surface; and sometimes heavier, thereby
enabling it to plunge to great depths. More recently, M. Moreau resumed the
study of this subject, and ‘pursued it much further than had previously been done.
Tis attention was first arrested by the circumstance that a fish drawn at sea from a
great depth swells and sometimes bursts when brought to the surface of the water,
and in this condition floats helplessly, because it has become much less dense than
the water. The elastic force of the air of the bladder, resisted under normal con-
ditions by the weight of a column of water extremely high,
brings on a great distension of the animal if the pressure is
diminished, so that, having become lighter than the water, it
floats on the surface. Hence it follows that a fish which lives
normally at great depths in the sea cannot rise above a certain
altitude, under penalty of being borne to the surface by the
expansion of the gas of its air- -pladder. And this theoretical
deduction involvesa converse one; that the fish cannot descend
to a depth greater than that for which its natatory bladder is
adapted. If it venjures to a greater depth the gases of its
bladder will undergo greater compression, the density of the
animal will be augmented, and it will be precipitated indefi-
nitely, even to the bottom of the sea; whence it can rise no
more, unless it could secrete within its bladder a quantity of
gas sufficient to distend it notwithstanding the enormous
pressure to which it is subjected.

Theory teaches us, then, that a fish is not fitted to live
except at a certain depth; that it cannot all of a sudden
transfer itself from a certain zone to which the state of its air-
bladder assigns it; that if it emerges from that zone in which
it possesses nearly the same density with the water, it must
be impelled indefinitely, whether to the surface or towards
the bottom of the sea. It may, moreover, be inferred that
the animal can within certain limits extend this zone to which
it is assigned, if it has the power of compressing or relaxing
its air-bladder; that is to say, of modifying spontaneously its
own density, whether in one direction or the other. It is to
be understood, finally, that the fish has the faculty of con-
tending to a certain extent, by the movements of its fins,
against the effects of its own density, and thus still furtber
enlarges the zone in which it can subsist.

The whole of these theoretical deductions can scarcely
seem evident at the first glance, hence experimental control
would appear to be indispensable. We know, by experience,
that a fish drawn from a certain depth to the surface of the
sea floats in spite of itself; but the inverse phenomenon, a
fish precipitated to the bottom of the sea, is What no one
has witnessed. Yet a very simple scheme will render this
phenomenon perfectly evident. The apparatus for this pur-
pose (77g. 5) is analogous to the ludion, an instrument with
which we are familiar. It is formed of a bladder of caout-
choue filled with air, and sustaining a weight graduated in
such manner as to give to the whole system a density equiv-
alent to that of water. ‘This apparatus is placed in a glass

NATURAL IISTORY OF ORGANIZED RODIES. 299

gauge having such a length that the liquid column shall represent a rather
strong pressure, when the ludion is plunged to a certain depth. The volume of
air contained in the ball is so regulated that the ludion, when at the surface of
the water, is a little less dense than the liquid, and emerges from it to some
extent. Let it be now sunk toa slight depth; it is still not so dense as the
water and tends to rise above its surface. Sink it a little deeper, and it will
remain nearly immovable in the zone in which it is placed, indicating that its
density is now equal to that of the water. It is thus that it is represented in
the figure. Let it be sunk more deeply and it will be seen to have a tendency
to descend of itself: it has become denser than the water.

Here, then, we have a new example of the synthetic reproduction cf the phe-
nomena which occur in living animals. Many analogous examples might be
cited, but it is only my purpose here to signalize the utility of this method, and
to show how important it is still further to extend its application. It may be
added that any one, by the construction of a schema of his own, will find that
the vague ideas which he may have at first conceived on an obscure subject,
acquire singular precision and development. New conceptions will be con-
stantly presenting themselves, and problems be suggested which the mind is
impatient to verify by new experiments. In a word, this manual labor of ihe
construction of schematic apparatus, far from absorbing the mind, sustains and
guides it by furnishing it at each step with an experimental test.

An objection will not fail to be made by those who pretend that there are,
in living beings, properties which such persons term vital, and which are alto-
gether peculiar. ‘They will tell us that synthesis may well reproduce the physi-
cal phenomena which accompany life, but that it is incapable of imitating the
vital phenomena. I will answer, for my own part, that I recognize but two
sorts of manifestations of life: those which are intelligible to us, being all ofa
physical or chemical order; and those which are not intelligible. As regards
the last, it is better to avow our ignorance than to disguise it under a semblance
of explanation.

1V.—LAWS IN BIOLOGY.

I have next to speak of synthesis considered as a mental operation, the oppo-
site of analysis; as collecting dispersed ideas to form of them a whole; as ascend-
ing from particular facts to the general law which governs all of them.

The highest point which the natural sciences can reach is the discovery of
the Jaws which govern the phenomena of life. This, as I have said, is the
ideal we should pursue, but which we have not yet attained. At present it is
the research for facts which occupies-us; we labor in behalf of successors, per-
haps far remote; we accumulate for them the materials of a vast synthesis, which
will enable them to embrace all these facts under a general point of view, and
to educe from them simple laws. Already, however, light seems to diffuse itself
upon certain points of the sciences in question, and some of their laws have begun
to emerge from the mass of details.

Let us premise this capital fact, that the laws of physics and of chemistry
reappear in the manifestations of animal or vegetable life, and that every day
the hypothesis which led to the admission of forces of a special nature in organ-
ized beings is becoming less and less necessary. As regards the laws of physics,
we have seen them applied in the operation of the schematic apparatus by means
of which we are enabled to imitate certain phenomena vbserved in living beings.
We shall doubtless still continue to discover these same laws in proportion as we
shall study in their more intimate details the functions of organized beings. As
regards the laws of chemistry, Berthelot has shown them as presiding in the
formation of the substances called organic. The hypothesis of a vital chemistry
of a wholly peculiar nature is now useless. Researches based on synthesis in
chemistry show us that the ordinary laws suffice to explain the formation of
organic matter in the interior of vegetables.

300 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

The best known of all vegetable functions, the respiration of plants, presents
this first experimental idea, that the green matter of plants, under the influence
of solar light, decomposes the water and carbonic acid, thus setting at liberty
the hydrogen "and oxide of carbon. Now, these latter substances | are the ele-
ments which chemical synthesis employs to form the ternary compounds, which
may all be derived from the action of nascent hydrogen on the oxide of carbon.

If the chemist, in his laboratory, must proceed by a series of transformations
in order to realize substances in which the elements are more condensed,
nature attains the same end in a more direct manner, without, on that account,
violating the ordinary laws of chemistry. In nature all the elements are in con-
tact in a nascent state, so that the simpler compounds which result therefrom
remain not long in their first phase of evolution, having close at hand every
principle necessary for the formation of more complex bodies. Organic bodies
arrive, therefore, with immediate effect at their highest degree of condensation,
while, in the chemical reactions of the laboratory, we are obliged, in following
up the conditions of the formation of these bodies, to create artificial and succes-
sive phases.

In the study of the functions of life, the physiologist finds himself confronted
with phenomena so complex that he cannot at once comprehend the laws which
govern them. But he is struck with certain characters which seem to him more
constant than others. J*rom these he deduces the existence of certain vital laws,
an ephemeral hypothesis which disappears soon or late before a more profound
investigation of the phenomena, and is absorbed in the more comprehensive
generalizations of physical or chemical laws.

First of all, the production of heat and that of movement seem to him to be
attributes of the animal kingdom. If some species appear to form an exception
to this sort of general law which he has established, the physiologist explores
the facts more attentively, and perceives that the animals which he had at first
distinguished from others by calling them animals with cold blood, constitute but
an apparent exception, and that they also produce heat, though in less quantity
than others, besides that they have not the property of preserving this heat, but
allow it to escape when they are placed in a cold medium. Eventually it is
recognized that the chemical actions which take place in the organism are the
cause of the production of heat in animals, and that the quantity of heat disen-

gaged increases or decreases according to the intensity and nature of those
actions. 'Thenceforth the production of animal heat presents itself only as a
particular case of the disengagement of heat im chemical reactions.

Movement in animals was at first considered a direct result of life; in its appa-
rent spontaneity, a character was even supposed to have been found which dis-
tinguished it from the movements whose laws are determined by mechanical
principles. But it was at length recognized that the production of movement,
like that of heat, requires in animals a chemical action; that its production,
therefore, is not unlimited, but must be assimilated to the Jabor of our machines,
which transform into movement the heat derived from the combustion of carbon.
Considered under this point of view, the animal organism would not differ from
our machinery, except in its more advantageous c capacity of production, but can
yield, on the whole, i in labor only what the chemical actions exerted on the
absorbed aliments will admit of. This extension of physical laws to the
functions of organized beings commends itself so strongly to reason, that no hesi-
tation is at present felt in pushing conclusions to their last consequences, and in
seeking, for example, in the animal economy the verification of the law of the
equivalence of heat and of mechanical labor.

Nothing can be more legitimate than this tendency to reduce all the phenom-
ena of nature to simple and gencral laws; to me it even seems that this mode of
procedure has every chance in its favor of being the right one; still, from prob-

5 S
able hypothesis to demonstration is a long stride. On this account it is that we

NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES. 301

must recur indefatigably to the study of particular facts, and that, without renounc-
ing the purpose of reducing them eventually to simple laws, ‘it is necessary in
the first place to refer them to other special laws, but to such laws as are sus-
ceptible of demonstration.

Upon these grounds, certain phenomena of life may already be referred to
demonstrable laws. M. Brown- Séquard, in particular, has given us, in his Journal
de la Physiologie, a short note containing a very noticeable attempt at that gen-
eralization of which I have been spe: aking. This physiologist sets forth, as
results of his own labors as well as those of the savants who have preceded
him, twelve lavs relative to the conditions under which nervous and muscular
actions are either produced, increased or exhausted, together with certain other
analogous phenomena which are observed in animals.*

Among these laws there are several which are not, perhaps, beyond the reach
of criticism, and everything would lead us to believe that the further progress of
science will reduce them to greater simplicity. Such as they are, however, they
appear to me w ell worthy of remark and meditation. For some of my auditors,
it is true, this generalization may be premature and difficult of comprehension ;
but for most of those who are somewhat initiated in biology, I would hope that
they might lead to an enlarged conception of the facts with which they are
already ‘acquainted. Some of these laws, being those which are specially appli-
cable to muscular contraction, are in substance as follows:

First Ltaw.—WMuscular contraction seems inseparable from an organic change
which nutrition alone can repair.

It is now known that the muscle in repose presents the alkaline reaction, and
that, under the influence of repeated contractions, it passes to the acid reaction ;
a chemical process has therefore been at work, which has modified the composi-
tion of the muscle. Again, if we seek in a muscle the proportion of matter solu-
ble in water, before or after energetic exertion, we shall find, with Helmholtz,
that the quantity of soluble substances has augmented under the influence of
that exertion.

Second LAw.—The rapidity of the circulation of the blood and the richness of
that liquid in restorative substances, favor the recuperation of the muscle, and ren- -
der it capable of new labor.

This law, like the preceding, is susceptible of experimental verification. We
can augment or diminish the one necessary for the recuperation of the muscle
by abating or accelerating the course of the ‘plood which traverses it. ‘The need
of alimentation which follows muscular exercise also confirms this law in what
relates to the influence of the qualities of the blood on the muscular restoration.
Even in the absence of circulation, the restoration still takes place within certain
limits, which is explained by the presence of the blood with which the tissues
are saturated, even when it ceases to circulate.

THIRD LAW, (flowing from the two preceding).—A_ mscle is subjected to
two influences, the one restorative, nutrition ; the other exhaustive, its motive func-
tion ; its actual faculty of producing movement varies according as one or the
other of these influences has acted.

Hence, after a prolonged repose, the muscle has attained its maximum of
aptitude to act, since the restoration is produced without waste. Conversely,
after prolonged action, the faculty of acting is at its minimum. It will be seen
how closely this law approximates to laws s purely physical, and how much the
muscle resembles an apparatus which on the one hand receives electricity, and
on the other dispenses it; as it does also a body subjected to a source of heat and
to an intermitting cause of refrigeration.

FourRTH LAW. v.—Recuperation after action is more rapid during the first few
instants than it is afterwards.

*In the number of these would further appear the electric phenomena observed in certain
fishes, the phosphorescence of certain animals, the movement cf vibratory cilia, &c.

302 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

That is to say that if, after the action of a muscle, therepose lasts one minute,
there will have taken place a certain degree of restoration of the faculty of act-
ine, and that if the repose continues for two minutes, the restoration will not
have doubled the muscular energy. This likewise offers a new analogy with
physical phenomena. In effect, a chilled body submitted to a source of heat,
gains much heat in the first few instants, and acquires but little afterwards in
proportion to the duration of the process of heating.

irra LAw.—The habitual activity of a muscle and its nutrition stand in such
relation to one another that repose too much prolonged produces atrophy of the organ,
while action frequently repeated increases the volume of the muscle and augments
its aptitude to produce movement.

The examples which confirm this law are well known; every one has had an
opportunity of observing the development of the muscles which, in some indi-
viduals, are more exercised than the rest, and, reciprocally, the atrophy of the
muscles which, for whatever reason, have been consigned to a long repose.
There are limits, however, beyond which this law ceases to be true; bnt these
limits have not yet been ascertained in a precise manner.

The laws here stated regarding the muscular function are sufficiently general
to enable us to recognize them in other functions which seem to have no analogy
with movement. Having incidentally mentioned the discharge of the torpedo,
I may here add that it wouid be interesting to inquire, within what limits the
laws above stated are verified in this order of phenomena. M. Brown Séquard
thinks, as I have before said, that they are governed by the same laws with the
muscular action ; but experiment has not yet succeeded in proving the reality of
this opinion, though it may be said to have every probability in its favor. ‘The
only point on which perfect identity has thus far been established consists in
the fact that the discharges of the torpedo become weaker and weaker when a
series of them is provoked. ‘There is, therefore, a real exhaustion of the function
simply by its own action; a fatigue of the electric organ, as there is a fatigue
of the muscle.

The presence of blood in the organ and its rapid circulation seem to be essen-
tial conditions for the abundant production of electricity and its prompt restora-
tion. Such, at least, is the conclusion which appears to result from the anatomy
of the electric apparatus of these animals, so richly provided with bloodvessels;
but the absence 6f exact means for appreciating the intensity of the discharges
of the torpedo has heretofore precluded rigorous experiment on this subject.*
We are able, however, as M. Moreau has shown, to verify the fact that a cessa-
tion of the current of the blood does not immediately prevent the electric appa-
ratus from operating, any more than it extinguishes instantly the contractility
of a muscle. But this suppression of the current of the blood would seem to
render the exhaustion of the electricity more rapid.

It will be seen that there remain many desiderata in relation to the produc-
tion of electric phenomena in fishes. ‘The presence, however, of certain charac-
ters perfectly alike in the function ef their electric apparatus and the muscular
function should induce inquiry whether other analogies exist. It is thus that a
knowledge of the laws of a phenomenon traces for us the path to be followed in
the study of others, by indicating the most probable result of the researches which
may be undertaken.

M. A. Morean has happily been led by the analogy which exists between the
production of electricity in the torpedo and the production of movement in the

*The galvanometers which have been employed are too sensitive ; the electric discharge
of the animal communicates to the needle so violent a deviation that it makes the circuit of
the dial-plate several times, and does not allow a comparison of the relative intensity of the
different commotions. It might be practicable, perhaps, by means of a circuit of derivation,
to give to the instrument only a part of the current, and as, in that case, the intensity of the
derived current remains proportional to that of the principal current, the variations of the
intensity of the discharge might probably be appreciated.

NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES. 503

muscle, to a study of the action of the nerves which proceed to the eleciric
apparatus. In inquiring whether these nerves ae similar to the motor-nerves
he has, in effect, found the resemblance perfect: 1. That the section of the for-
mer suppresses the spontaneous discharges of the phe just as the section of
the motor-nerves suppresses voluntary movement in the muscles to which they
are distributed. 2. That the excitation of the peripheral end of an electric nerve
provokes a discharge of the apparatus, as the excitation of a motor-nerve pro-
vokes a shock of the corresponding muscle. 3. That the excitation of the cen-
tral end of the electric nerve provokes in Te ‘animal no phenomenon of sensi-
bility, as mene is occasioned when the central end of a nerve of movement is
excited. 4. M. Moreau having poisoned a torpedo with strychnine, which com-
seruneatesh to the motor-nerves a series of repeated excitations and throws the
muscles into tetanic convulsion, found that this drug provoked in the electric
apparatus very frequent discharges, similar in all respects to the convulsions of
a tetanized muscle.

The phenomena of sensibility are, within certain limits, subjected to the same
laws with the phenomena of movement. We verify with regard to both the
law which teaches us that activity exhausts the function, and aa repose restores
it. <A lively sensation fatigues the sensibility, exhausts or abolishes it for 2,
certain time, while by repose its previous intensity is renewed.

Let us take as an example the most complex, but at the same time most inter-
esting of our sensitive manifestations, the sight. When we look at a very bright
luminous object, the point of our retina on which its image falls is vividly
excited ; it becomes fatigued, and if we turn the eyes on a field of a uniform clear
color, we see on it a darker spot, presenting the exact form of the bright object
by w hich our vision had been impressed. ‘Ehis spot is owing to the fact that the
fatigued point of our retina no longer perceives the luminous sensations with the
customary intensity. The more brilliant the body observed, and the longer the
time we have observed it, so much darker and more persistent is the ensuing
image. Repose of the sight causes this subjective image, as it is called, gradu-
ally to disappear.

The fatigue of our retina inay be restricted to certain elements of sensation,
if we have received the i impression of only certain elements of the light. 'T hus,
our vision may be fatigued for the blue, the red, or the yellow separately. Sup-
pose, for example, that a red wafer be placed on a sheet of white paper, and
that we look upon it intently for some instants. Let us now remove the water
without ceasing to look at the same point; we shall immediately see a green disk
of the same dimensions with the wafer appear in its place. The reason thereof
is: that in the white light of the paper our eye cannot perceive so vividly the
red rays in the point of the retina which is fatigued with that color, and as all
the other rays are there perceived, these form by their fusion the complementary
color of red, namely, green. In the same way, a green wafer would leave after
its disappearance a red subjective image; a yellow wafer would give a violet
image, &c.

I shall not dwell longer on examples of the very general law that every func-
tion which is exerted is momentarily exhausted, and that it is restored by repose.
Let us proceed to a brief consideration of laws of another order in the phenomena
of life. We will take, for example, the influence of functions upon one another.
On this subject I may be allowed to adduce certain general views which
appear to me to result from the observation of phenomena and from physiological

experiment. A law of harmony among the functions of life will, 1 think, be
admitted without dithculty; that is to say, that if one function reacts on another
it influences the latter in such manner as to derive therefrom advantage for itself.
To develope this idea, I will present a few examples: It has been already said
that any muscular action has need of being maintained by the circulation of the
blood; now the action favors this circulation and renders it more rapid.

304 NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED BODIES.

To leave no doubt regarding the first proposition, I proceed to support it by
experimental facts. It is in effect easy to demonstrate the necessity of the
sanguincous current in the exercise of a muscular action. Thus, when we tie
the lower aorta in an animal, we find that the muscles of the hind quarters are
quickly paralyzed. The same result follows if we inject into the arteries of a
limh a fine powder, which has the effect of obliterating the small vessels. M.
Flourens has shown that, under these circumstances, the muscles soon become
incapable of acting. T here is a malady which veterinary surgeons call inter-
mittent clause: and which has been attentiv ely studied in the horse by M.
Bouley and Dr. Charcot. This malady is produced by an obliteration of the
iliac arteries. In this state of things a new circulation is established by the
collateral vessels, but these have not the easy permeability of the large trunks
whose place they tend to supply. ‘The animal thus affected can move for some
time in the usual w ay; but presently the afflux ef blood to its muscles being no
longer sufficient, a sudden paralysis takes place and the horse stops. A moment
of repose re-establishes the muscular function, which is exhausted anew after a
few steps. The case wholly arises from the fact that the current of blood in the
muscles is no longer sufficiently rapid to maintain their function in a durable
manner.

Again, let us take a frog in which the vessels of one of the hinder feet have
been. tied, and suppose that both feet have been excited by induced currents,
and that in both the contractility has been fatigued hy prolonged action. If we
now excite the two feet of the animal, it will be seen that the sound foot has
recovered its contractility, while that whose vessels were tied still evinces in a
high degree the exhaustion consequent upon its fatigue.

Granting then the necessity of a circulation so much the more rapid as the
muscular act is one of more energy and duration, it is easy to prove the second
proposition which I just now advanced, namely: that this Tnuscular act commu-
nicates of itself a greater rapidity to the circulation of the blood. Every one
is aware that in venesection, if the member is motionless, the blood escapes
slowly from the vein, while the flow becomes much move copious if the patient
exerts contractions of the muscles of the fore-arm. The question here is not
that of a simple compression of the veins by the muscles, which would mechani-
cally express the blood contained in those vessels. Such a cause would speedily
have exhausted its effect, and extruded but an inconsiderable quantity of blood,
There is exerted, on the contrary, a continuous action which accelerates the
course of the blood as long as the contractions of the muscles of tle fore-arm are
continued. <A still more convincing demonstration of the influence of the muscu-
lar act on the current of the blood m: ay be given, by showing that the arterial
system is depleted in an animal which has just desisted from va and presents
in its interior a more feeble pressure than in a state of repose.* From such
facts as these it results that the muscular act operates on the circulation in such
a way as to accelerate the course of the blood through the muscles, and thus
promotes that action by which the acceleration was occasioned.

We might cite a great number of examples of this law of harmony of the
functions, and show, for instance, that the venous blood, when it arrives in
abundance at the lungs, stimulates that organ and provokes the respiratory
movements destined to arterialize it, while the respiration, at the moment when
it is executed, opens a passage for the blood on which it is to act, &c. But
these reciproc: al influences of the functions would exact too long developments
to be thoroughly treated on this occasion. I confine myself to a notice of the
existence of this law of harmony of which I have been speaking, the recognition
of which I consider of the greatest utility, as enabling us often to foresee pheno-
mena which experiment will verity.

*See, for further development of this subject, Marey, Physiologie médicale de la circula-
tion du sang, p. 223, Paris, 1863.

ON THE ELECTRICAL CURRENTS OF THE EARTH.

By CHARLES MATTEUCCI.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

The study of electric currents in the terrestrial strata dates, I think, from the
discovery of tbe galvanometer. M. Fox, in England, was the first who saw the
needle deviate when different points of a metallic vein were touched with the
extremities of the wire of the galvanometer. M. Becquerel afterwards made very
extensive researches on electric currents obtained between masses of water and strata
of earth existing under different conditions. Till then these experiments were
regarded but as obscure cases of electro-chemical action, of difficult interpretation.
‘There was no thought, in this case, of any such thing as a terrestrial phenomenon—
that is to say, of spontaneous electric currents, as they are called by the celebrated
astronomer of Greenwich—nntil very strong electrical currents had been observed
in telegraphic wires during the appearance of the aurora borealis. This phenome-
non presented itself for the first time, November 17, 1847, in the telegraphic wires
of Tuscany, while a bright aurora was visible on the horizon. ‘The description
of this phenomenon, which I gave to the French Academy in a letter addressed
to M. Arago, was followed shortly afterwards by similar observations made
in the United States. In late years numerous observations have been made on
this subject on all telegraphic lines, and have confirmed the first results. It
was natural to seek the existence of electric currents and their laws in telegraphic
wires, independent of the simultaneous appearance of the aurora borealis, and
the Academy of Sciences is cognizant of the researches on this subject which
have been made public by such eminent savants as MM. Baumgarten, Barlow,
Lloyd, and Walker. When their memoirs are read with the attention they
merit, no one can fail to be struck with the difficulty which presents itself in
harmonizing the results they have obtained and deducing some general conse-
quence which might set us in the way of explaining these phenomena. All these
researches have been conducted by introducing a galvanometer into telegraphic
lines, and measuring the currents at suck times as the lines were not in service
for the transmission of despatches. Ordinary communications, established as
telegraphic stations between the metallic wires and the earth, are effected, we
know, in different ways; sometimes they are formed by plates of iron or copper
plunged into the water of wells more or less deep, and connected with the
metallic wires; sometimes these wires communicate with the shafts of pumps or
with the rails of an ironroad. With the exception of the distinguished astronomer
of Munich, who seems, especially in his later experiments, to have duly con-
sidered the necessity of guarding against currents excited by the extremities of
the lines in communication with the earth, the observers have given us no inti-
mation how these communications were established.

Yet it is not difficult to discover on any telegraphic line taken at hazard that
the currents obtained in these lines depend on the heterogeneousness of the
plates which communicate with the earth. I have often seen these currents

20 S67

306 ON THE ELECTRICAL CURRENTS OF THE EARTH.

undergo a change of sign when the position of the plates was changed or
their heter ogeneousness was modified by causing the current of a battery to pass
in a given ‘direction. These currents disappear, or are considerably weakened,
by employing plates and liquids as homogeneous as possible. By employing
more sensitive galvanometers and quite homogeneous _ plates of copper, it
will readily be Tecornized that the slightest difference in the composition of
the water of the terminal wells suffices to excite currents. It need scarcely be
added that in operating upon telegraphic lines, it is necessary to take account
of the secondary polarities which the currents of the battery develop, some-
times in one direction, sometimes in the other. Telegraphic lines have also other
causes of error due to the variable contact of the wire with the posts. From the
moment when I proposed to study this subject, I felt convinced that, before
aught else, it was necessary to possess a method by which would be realized
the condition of having long conducting wires, perfectly isolated, extended in
definite directions, the communications of which with the earth should be abso-
lutely homogeneous, and which should form mixed circuits, all endowed with the
same conductibility. It was in the following manner that I attained these
objects:

The wire which I employed was of copper, two millimetres in diameter, and
covered with gutta-percha; this wire was suspended by means of a sort of cleft,
wrought in the top of a rod or slender post of wood, such as is in use here for
military telegraphic lines. ‘These wooden rods were planted at a distance of 25
or 30 metres from one another, in two lines exactly traced, one in the magnetic
meridian, the other perpendicular to the meridian. Each of these lines was six
kilometres in length, the place where they were established being the plain of
Saint Maurice, 22 kilometres from Turin, a plain set apart for military exercises.
The communications between the extremities of the wire and the earth were
effected in the following manner. At the extremity of each line I caused to
be dug a kind of pit of rectangular form, two metres in depth and length, and
one in breadth; at the bottom of this pit was formed a cavity much smaller, and
which might be termed a sort of capsule, having a width and depth of 30 centi-
metres. A bed of clay, such as is used in the fabrication of pottery, was carefully
spread over the interior surface of this capsule, so as to prevent the water from
percolating too rapidly through its wall. The same water, being that from a river,
was employed for the four cavities, and the person appointed to superintend at
each extremity had a supply of this water at hand, in order to maintain it constantly
at the same level. Lastly, a porous cylinder, such as is used for the batteries of
Daniell, filled with a saturated and neutral solution of the sulphate of zinc, was
plunged in the water at the centre of the cavity, and the wire of the line was
united to a plate of zinc perfectly amalgamated, and which in turn descended
into the solution of the sulphate. The porous cylinders thus prepared and the
plates employed were tested in advance, and this testing was renewed from time
to time, so as to be sure that the plates. were perfectly homogeneous. It rarely
happens that two plates once rendered properly homogeneous. undergo alteration
for several days when they remain constantly immersed in the solution. Should,
however, a slight heterogeneity appear, it will suffice to wash and amalgamate
them anew, in order to render them again homogeneous. ‘The two lines also
must be Eathiieiieds in advance to Hace the same conduetibility. In a uniform
plain, like that in which I operated, the pits being excavated in nearly the same
stratum, the differences of conductibility could not be ereat; but I succeeded
in rendering them equal by deepening by a few centimetres the cavities made at
the bottom of the pits of that line w which was found to be most resistant.

In this manner the conditions of the circuit which I deem essential for these
experiments were realized. It is proper to remark that, wishing to test in advance
two similar excavations, with cavities at the bottom as above described, and
formed at a distance of five to six meters from one another, I found no trace of a

ON THE ELECTRICAL CURRENTS OF THE EARTH. 307

current between these cavities, as I had obtained none in employing the two
porous cylinders with their plates of zinc plunged in a vat filled with water. I
proposed also to test beforehand whether the nature of the formations in which
the pits were excavated might have some influence. With this view 1 caused
the earth proceeding from the excavation of pits near the place where I was
established to be transported, and two cavities formed in a neighboring field to
be filled with it; having then introduced into this earth, in the mamner already
described, the none of the galvanometer, I abienied no sign. of a current.

Very near the place where the two lines, north-south and east-west, crossed
one another, each of the lines was interrupted, and the extremities thus hime’
were passed into two capsules filled with mercury in the chamber where I had
stationed myself with the galvanometer. I employed alternately three galvan-
ometers—one of 1,500 coils, another of 100, and a third of 24, 000 coils ; the
numbers which I shall report in my memoir were obtained with the first of fiver

I must be excused for these long details on the process which I employed; I
have thought it necessary to give ‘them, as well by reason of the importance of
such Tesedechios as of the Sines and uncertainty met with in the investiga-
tions which I have before cited. I continued the experiments on the two lines
for nearly a month, from the 12th or 16th of March to the 15th of April of the
present year, during which time the weather was generally fair, the air cold and
dry, the sun very warm. I cannot report in this abstract all the numbers obtained
in this long series of experiments; for ten days the observations were made
almost hour by hour, with a change of observers. I am compelled, therefore,
to give here only a recapitulation of the results at which I have arrived.

1. In two circuits, formed in the manner which I have described, it is rare not
to find electric Carents more or less constant, whose origin cannot be attributed
absolutely to the heterogeneousness of the fennel met tallie plates, nor to chemical
action between the water in which the plates are immersed and the terrestrial
strata.

2. These currents augment in intensity by deepening the cavities into which
ae terminal plates are plunged from 0™.50 to 2 metres; the greater conducti-
bility found in the mixed line by deepening the terminal cavities accounts for this
result. The same may be said of the slight and transient augmentation of the
electric currents which is realized by the effect of rain on the cane immediately
surrounding the cavities in which the electrodes are plunged.

3. It has not been found that the extent of the plates of zinc and the diameter
of the porous vessels have a distinctly marked influence on the intensity of these
currents, when operating at a depth of two metres.

4. In the meridian or south-north line, the current has always maintained a
constant direction; hundreds of ébednvations have continually shown that the
current entered the galvanometer by the metallic line coming from the south,
and issued from it through the line directed to the north. By comparing the
very nearly Seeeeaple: deviations obtained in this great number of obstrva-
tions, it w ould appear that this current presents in the 24 hours two maximums
and iat minimums of intensity. The two minimums occur during the day and
in the night, at nearly the same hours, that is from 11 to 1 avclook: After
i giulock in ihe night, the current augments and attains a maximum at from
5 to 7 o'clock in the morning. In the day this maximum oscillates between 3
and 7 o’clock in the afternoon. The difference of intensity between the maxi-
mums and the minimums of intensity is greater than that of 1 to 2.

5. In the equatorial line the results are very different, and subject to great
variations. Frequently the needle rests at 0°, frequently it oscillates, sometimes
into one quadrant, sometimes into the other, ranging from two to three degrees,
and even 14° and 15° on the same side, and often oscillating around 0°. The
direction of these currents, which has occurred most frequently in the equatorial

line, was from west to east.

308 ON THE ELECTRICAL CURRENTS OF THE EARTH.

6. By establishing communications between the lines south-east, south-west,
and north-east, north-w est, the currents realized were generally those which circu-
lated in the portion of the line pertaining to the south-north line.

7. Only the temperature more or less elevated, which varied from 0° at night
to + 14° or 20° by day, was ever observed; the humidity or dryness of the air,
and even stormy weather, had an influence on the direction and intensity of the
current of the meridian line.

8. The results have been the same, whether the metallic portion of the line
was suspended on posts or laid upon the surface of the ground.

What is the origin of these currents? I believe it impossible to answer this
question with any confidence. What ought to be considered as perfectly proved
by experiment is, that in a wire, when it reaches a certain length and its extrem-
ities are in good communication with the earth, there is an electric current which
constantly circulates, and principally in the direction of the magnetic meridian ;
the origin of this current is neither in the metallic part of the circuit, nor in the
terminal metallic plates, nor in any chemical action which might be surmised
between the terrestrial strata and these plates, or the liquids in which they are
immersed.

Should these currents be considered as derived currents? I have heretofore
demonstrated, what every one at present admits, and which is accordant with
theory, that the resistance of a terrestrial stratum is very nearly null and does
not vary with the length of that stratum. These considerations are not favor-
able to the idea that the currents we have described are derived currents. On
the plain of Saint Manrice, I have made some experiments to ascertain to what
distance from the electrodes of the battery derived currents were sensible. I
used for extremities of the derived circuit the same plates of zine plunged in the
saturated solution of the sulphate of zine which have been described above. The
circuit of the pile was six kilometres in length; its extremities consisted of square
plates of copper, 20 centimetres to the side, immersed in water to the depth of two
metres. The battery was composed of 20 elements of Daniell; the galvano-
meter of the derived circuit was that of 1,500 coils, before mentioned. When
each of the electrodes of the derived circuit was at a distance of 10 metres from_
the electrodes of the battery, ina straight line between these electrodes, { obtained
a steady derived current of 33°; this deviation remained constant during the
whole time that the current of aie battery did not vary, that is for several hours.
On increasing, to 50 metres, the distance between the electrodes of the battery
and those of the derived circuit, there were 4° of derived current; at 100 metres
this deviation was barely half a degree; and at a distance of 200 metres, it is
doubtful whether there was any movement at all in the galvanometer at the
closing of the circuit of the battery. It seems to me difficult ‘to derive from these
experiments any satisfactory reply as to the nature of the electric currents observed
in long mixed lines.

Gener ‘al Sabine, the highest authority of the present day in point of terrestrial
magnetism, appears to admit absolutely the magnetic influence of the sun upon
the earth. But, if this influence be admitted, w hat explanation can be given of
the currents we obtained and the differences of those currents according as the
line is in the meridian or perpendicular to it, or the periods of intensity in the
former of these lines? Assuredly these currents cannot be currents of induction
due to the rotation of the earth. It is stated that Father Secchi, the indefati-
gable astronomer of Rome, is occupied at this time in investigating the connec-
tion which exists between the electric currents of long mixed lines and the vari-
ations observed in the instruments which measure the magnetic force of the earth.
If a connection of this kind were well established, we should certainly have taken
a step towards the interpretation of the electric phenomena of the earth.

It remains to report a result which has some importance, and which I have
constantly realized: These terrestrial currents have a greater intensity, in the

ON THE ELECTRICAL CURRENTS OF THE EARTH. 309

ease of a mixed line, when, the distance between the extremities remaining the
same, the terminal cavities which constitute the communication between the wires
and the earth are at different levels, than when these communications are estab-
lished in a horizontal plane. For the verification of this, I have established on
the heights of Turin a line whose wire, in a straight direction, has a lengih of
scarcely 600 metres, while the terminal cavities have a difference of level of
nearly 150 metres. The line which joins the two cavities is in an intermediate
direction, or southeast and northwest. The current has circulated constantly,
for five or six months, from below upwards in the wire, or from the northwest to
the southwest extremity. All the precautions which I have before described
were observed in the construction of the cavities in which the plates of zinc are
sunk, and I am certain that the current obtained depends neither on any hetero-
geneousness in the wire, nor on the terminal plates, nor on a chemic al action
between the plates and the terrestrial strata in which they are imbedded. When
care is taken, as I have practiced for several days in succession, to maintain at a
constant height the liquids of the terminal cavities, that is to say, the water and
the solution of sulphate in the porous vessels, the deviation remains nearly invari-
able, whatever may be the state of the sky and temperature of the air, and only
after quite a long rain has the deviation ‘temporarily increased. In this line il
have not remarked the periods of which I have spoken. Other lines of nearly
the same length, established in similar formations at the foot of the hill on a
horizontal plane, yielded no sensible deviation.

If the influence of the difference of level of the extremities of the metallic line
should be verified in a great number of different cases, if the direction of the
current in the wire should prove constant, that is to say, always from below
upwards, might we not be tempted to attribute these currents to the negative
electric state of the earth, the tension of which is then unequal between the plain
and the elevated points, as we find in an electrified globe communicating with a
metallic point? As the signs of the positive electricity of the air are seen in
effect to angment in proportion as we ascend in the atmosphere, so also are the
signs of negative electricity found to be stronger in ascending, when an isolated
copper Wire, one extremity of which communicates with the earth, is carried with
the other extremity in contact with the ball of the electroscope. This explana-
tion might be submitted to proof when the atmosphere presents for a certain
time signs of negative electricity. I have sometimes obtained very transient
signs of this electricity at the approach of storms of rain, without noticing any
variation in the current of the line.

My chief object bas been to investigate the relation which exists between
these currents and atmospheric electricity, and next, to verify the result obtained
and described in the first part of this memoir, by studying these currents in
lines, the extremities of which are sunk in the earth at different levels. The
first experiments were made upon the line above described, between the hill of
Turin and the adjacent plain. The extremities, as has been already said, were ter-
minated by plates of amalgamated zinc immersed in a saturated solution of sulphate
of zine contained in a porous vessel, which was plunged in turn in the water of a
sort of capsule excavated from one to two metres below the surface of the earth.
This mode of constructing the mixed* line is the only one which yields sure and
constant results, and I w ould advise all physicists who occupy themselves with
the subject not to deviate from it. The water which filled the two cavities was
the same, and care was taken to maintain it at a constant level. During several
days of July, in the present year, I have continued to observe from hour to hour
the deviations of the galvanometer inserted in this line; the current was always
an ascending one in the wire, though I changed several times the position and

* By this term we understand a cireuit composed of an extended wire and the strata of earth
intervening between its extremities.—J. H.

310 ON THE ELECTRICAL CURRENTS OF THE EARTH.

the ground in which the terminal cavities were dug, and the deviation was not
found to vary in a lapse of many days, provided there w as neither tempest nor
rain. After rain, the deviation was constantly seen to increase. I have satis-
fied myself, by measuring a constant current transmitted in this mixed circuit,
that the augmentation which followed rain was only the effect of the better con-
ductibility of the earth depending ona state of greater humidity in the terrestrial
stratum immediately in contact with the extremities of the line. And, in fact,
it could be obtained by pouring around the cavity in which the electrodes were
plunged, within a radius of two to three metr es, a ‘few buckets of water.

I have tried the immersion of the electrodes in the water of a well, which wa
effected by a very simple contrivance. For this purpose, I take a thick sbtinre
piece of cork and fix, in a hole made in this cork, porous vessels filled with sul-
phate of zinc. ‘The cork suspended by a cord floats on the water of the well
into which the porous vessels descend; by means of a copper wire covered with
gutta-percha and bound to the cord, the electrode of zinc was introduced into the
porous vessel and communicated with the line. I was thus able to establish the
mixed line, employing the well water as extremities of the terrestrial stratum, in
which the electrodes were sunk. With this arrangement, also, I have realized an
ascending current in the wire, and the deviation was only a few degrees greater than
that of the current obtained by using the artificial cavities or pits which I have de-
scribed above. By using the wells we have this advantage : that the conditions
of conductibility of the terrestrial strata into which the electrodes are introduced
remain invariable. It is necessary to ascertain in advance that the waters of the
two wells, when those which we employ are in two cavities formed in the earth
at a short distance from one another, do not yield an electric current. I have
varied as far as possible the excavations situated at different levels, but in all
cases have found the current in the metallic line to be an ascending one. I was
even enabled to divide the line at the hill of Turin, a length of nearly 600 metres,
about midway where there existed a well, and this remarkable and constant
result was realized: that, notwithstanding the greater resistance of the entire
line, the current, which continued to be ascendant in the two halves, had still a
less intensity in the two lines taken separately than in the entire line.

I have had an opportunity of observing in these lines the effects of two or
three storms during the month of July. T will first remark, that I have satisfied
myself that in leaving one of the extremities of the line in communication with
the electrode and the earth, and the other in the air, I had never any trace of a
current, even when using a galvanometer of 24,000 coils. I have often made
the experiment of putting an isolated metallic vessel, at the end of a wooden
staff from seven to eight metres high, in communication with the extremity of
the line which was in the air; placing in the vessel sometimes lighted coals,
sometimes touch-wood, sometimes shavings saturated with burning alcohol, in
order to obtain a large flame and a current of heated air. In all these experi-
ments, whichever might be the extremity of the line immersed in the water or
raised in the air, I have never obtained a sign of the current in the most delicate
galvanometer, provided care were observed to isolate the line effectually and no
account were taken of the indications of the galvanometer at the moment when
it was necessary to touch the line with the hands.

Neither, during storms, have I observed, with the line, which was only 600
metres in length, any deviation in the needle at the moment when lightning
flashed between clouds, provided the two extremities of the line are not in com-
munication with the ground. When this communication is established and a
deviation of the needle has resulted from the terrestrial current, a sudden move-
ment is seen to take place at each flash, such as would be occasioned by the dis-
charge of the torpedo fish. I observed at the same time the galvanometer and
an electroscope of dry batteries (a piles séches) communicating with an iron wire

from seven to eight metres long, well isolated and raised in the air, and having

ON THE ELECTRICAL CURRENTS OF THE EARTH. 311

‘

a piece of lighted touch-wood at the upper extremity. Most frequently the elec-
troscope gave signs more or less strong of positive electricity, which augmented

suddenly | at the moment of the flash. At the same instant the needle of the gal-
vanometer made a deviation of at least 15° to 20°. This sudden deviation was
always in the same direction, indicating an ascending current in the wire, and
was additional to the terrestrial current. It should be remarked that I have
had the opportunity of making this observation in a case in which, on account
of plates of copper being employed as electrodes, the current of the tine was con-
trary to the terrestrial current which is constantly obtained with electrodes of
zine.

Thus, then, the ascending current in the wire whose extremities are sunk in
cavities which have a difference of level of about 150 metres, and which, from
the manner of operating, must be regarded as a terrestrial current independent
of the chemical actions of the electrodes and the strata of the earth—this current,
I say, augments suddenly at the moment when there is an electric discharge
between clouds. There remains here an important observation to be made, in
which, as yet, I have not been able to succeed: to notice, namely, what would
happen when ‘the atmospheric electricity is negative.

I have deemed it of some importance for the theor y of these phenomena to
substitute for the iron wire suspended on bells of porcelain, a copper wire covered
with gutta- “percha laid upon the earth and buried as much as possible in the grass
and under the leaves. None of the phenomena before described in the suspended
line, whether with a clear sky or during storms, have been modified by this
change of the metallic line. We can conceive that during the flash of lightning,
at the moment when an electrified cloud, which had acted by influence on the
points of the ground placed within its sphere of action, dischar, ges itself and sud-
denly ceases ‘to act, a sudden neutralization may take place in the conducting
wire, producing the electrical effect noticed w ith the galvanometer.

It remains for me to report the results I have obtained by operating on tele-
graphic lines of great length and whose extremities were at a great difference of
level. I employed the same galvanometer and the same process of communica-
tion for the extremities of the line with the earth, that is to say, plates of amal-
gamated zinc, immersed in sulphate of zine, contained in porous vessels floating
on the water in the manner I have described. I have made three series of experi-
ments, one on the telegraphic line from Ivrée to Saint Vincent, in the valley of
Aosta, 36 kilometres in length, and in which the difference of Teel of the extrem-
ities was 281 metres. ‘The second series was made on the line from Saint Vin-
cent to Aosta, 25 kilometres long, the difference of level of the extremities being
83 metres. The third line, 27 kilometres in length, passed from Aosta to Cour-
majeur, at the extremity of the valley, and the difference of level of the two
extremities was 642 metres. The electrodes of zinc were sunk in cavities dug in
the ground to the depth of about half a metre. These cavities I caused to be
filled with the whitish water proceeding from the glaciers, which flows in great
abundance in the valley; being that which, under ‘the circumstances, might be
considered as having in every respect, the same composition. I should state that
the line from Ivree to Saint Vincent is nearly parallel to the meridian, while the
other, from Saint Vincent to Courmajeur, intersects the former almost perpen-
dicularly.

The following were the results obtained. The electric currents in these three
lines, notwithstanding the much greater resistance in comparison with the line of
600 metres on which I had previously operated, were stronger; as were also the
regular deviations, so as to rise from 40° to 60°, and even 80°, instead of 20°
and 25°, which [ had realized on the hill of Turin. The experiments were
made at very different hours, but the regular deviation indicated in every case
an ascending current in the wire, as in the experiments on the line of the hill
just mentioned. In the greater number of cases, the deviation of the needle

312 ON THE ELECTRICAL CURRENTS OF THE EARTH.

)

remained at the same angle during the whole experiment, which sometimes con-
tinued for an hour; but I have observed also, without any change having occur-
red in the state of the sky, a movement in the needle almost periodic. Twice I
have seen the needle deviate at first by an ascending current, and after some
minutes descend to zero, then pass into the opposite quadrant and return after-
wards to the previous deviation, becoming eventually fixed under the action of
the current ascending in the wire. It has seemed to me that this phenomenon
was presented when the water which filled the cavities of the electrodes was in
movement and flowed rapidly away around the porous vessels. Reflection on
the conditions under which we are compelled to operate in this sort of experi-
ments, will suffice to evince the difficulty of solving all the doubts which may
present themselves in the prosecution of our inquiries.

Notwithstanding the difficulties inherent in such researches, and which impose
on the physicist the greatest reserve in his conclusions, we may regard, I think,
the following results as founded on a large number of facts confor mable with one
another and obtained under different circumstances :

When a metallic line is stretched upon the earth, but isolated from it, while
the extremities of the wire communicate with the earth at two points having a
different elevation, an electric current circulates constantly in the wire, the cause
of which current can be attributed neither to the chemical action of the electrodes,
nor to that of the terrestrial strata in which they are sunk.

This current is constantly directed in the wire from the lowest towards the
highest point, and its intensity is greater in the longer lines and as the difference
of level of the extremities is more considerable.

The intensity of this current does not vary sensibly with the depth of the
cavities in which the electrodes are sunk, and is the same in the wire suspended
at some metres from the ground as in that which is in contact with it.

‘T'wo circumstances present themselves as constantly associated with this phe-
nomenon, circumstances which, by their analogies, may assist in explaining it ;
I mean the difference of temperature of the two extreme points and the difference
of electric tension of these points. I shall only remark here that I could cite
resulis in which the influence of difference of temperature could not be consid-
ered as cause of this phenomenon, which to me appears to be due to terrestrial
electricity.

CONSIDERATIONS ON ELECTRICITY.

Translated for the Smithsonian Institution from the Leipsic periodical ‘‘ Aus der Natur,”
Ge eloae

There is nothing about which more speculation is indulged than electricity.
The word is in every mouth; yet is there nothing perhaps so little known.

What, then, is electricity? 2" At this question even the most learned remain
silent ; but these are at least so honest as not to dissemble their ignorance. The
unlearned would probably answer: electricity is lightning; and, “though nothing
is thereby gained, by this explanation the generality are satisfied. But what is
lightning ? Natural electricity. Let us, then, frankly confess our ignorance ;
the avowal can incur no reproach. ‘Till now the part of physics which deals
with electricity has been principally occupied in collecting a mass of isolated
facts, which are often without connection with one another. T hey may be likened,
therefore, to single stones awaiting arrangement in a building on some deter-
mined plan. These facts in like manner wait to be combined in a science, and
connected with one another by means of a general theory. Scarcely has the
way thereto been pointed out, ‘though these facts have been grouped together
under a number of subordinate laws, as, for instance, the phenomena of electri-
cal distribution of statical induction, and the operation of electrical currents upon
the magnet and their effect on one another. ‘These are indications by which we
must be guided in further advances ; laws which a future more comprehensive
theory must connect and explain. Let it, in the mean time, be known that all
which has been with great pains wrested from nature still leaves us in the uncer-
tainty arising from frequent chasms and insecure hypothesis.

The consistency of true science demands that experience should have first dis-
closed the fundamental facts; that next the inquirer, with eyes aided by every
resource of art and with balance in hand, should seek to conciliate with one
another, through their relations, the different and often deceptive phenomena
which determine those relations. Nor is this all; on the contrary, here begins
the real labor. A law must be found for these empirical facts; this may be some-
times simple, sometimes complex, but must always be a mathematical one and
capable of bemg expressed through formulas. 'This general law being once
found, it remains to deduce all possible consequences from it, and again to verify
these consequences by experiment.

True science is a connection of fundamental facts, with laws which are derived
from those facts, and deductions which have been subjected to verification. So
long as one of these three stages is wanting the science is not complete. Optics
and astronomy have arrived at that point; but how is it with electricity? We
still stand in the presence of groups of facts which yet wait to be connected
under a general law.

Let it not be said, then, that electricity is the single science which compre-
hends in itself all the rest. Let it not be proclaimed in the streets that our cen-
tury, which has called forth the electric telegraph, may sleep in peace, and has
nothing more left for it to do. Were it not, on the contrary, more judicious to
say that we have as yet scarcely accomplished anything? Better were it cer-
tainly for electricity if we kept in reserve a little of our admiration, instead of
Javishing it on the consideration of what has already been achieved. Perhaps

314 CONSIDERATIONS ON ELECTRICITY

the future has more in store for us than we have, by hazard, so to say, hitherto
found. The riddle is propounded; let us earnestly seek its solution. This,
according to the fine expression of Pliny ,is still hidden in the mysterious majesty
of nature.

That the most mistaken views upon the subject of electricity are widely cur-
rent is scarcely a matter of doubt. The “natural-born” inventors are expressly
governed by the idea of constructing an electric battery which shall cost nothing.
This i is with them a fixed idea, which can be shaken by no scient.fic diecuscion.
Yet what that is new and noteworthy has resulted from their attempts? Noth-
ing worth speaking of. All improvements of electrical batteries which have really
been adopted into practice are but variations of the models furnished by Grove,
Bunsen, Becquerel, and Daniell. In every electrical battery we have to keep
in view the intensity of the development of electricity and its constancy. Ac-
cording to circumstances, one of these must be sacrificed to the other. If the
inventor aims to construct a battery which shall occasion: the least possible
expense, he must of necessity occupy himself chiefly with the constancy ; since,
for a single element, the intensity of the current depends exclusively on the
electro-motive force of the electro-positive substance which is employed. In
this respect zinc, among all ordinary metals, occupies the first place. With the
alloys nothing has been attempted on account of the secondary phenomena which
here present themselves. It cannot, therefore, but be useful to give a compara-
tive statement of the electro-motive force of different metals in relation to zinc,
which always holds the first place, and is therefore marked as 100; especially
as so-called practical men seem to have little knowledge on the subject. This
comparison shows the energy of the principal solutions to which we can have

recourse in practice, upon the metals which industry has placed at our service.

Distilled | Chlorine) Water with 1-19 Water with 1-1]
water water. | sulphuric acid hydro-ehlonv
; : P » acid.
Potassium amaleam, (quicksilver,|.-2-=-----| 15252) |b-- 22 ee | ne
100 parts; potassium, 1 part.) .

Amalmanir ot ines ioe yale ae e eee Sat 103, 2 102. 1
Read! See ee sae cc ates aerele 66.4 7A.9 65. 9 65.7
Rinlatee ees Cee cease eee eeee | semisetiee ae 75.4 61.5 66. 4
Tiromeieetaeett OSes ih ea 55. 4 76.3 51.4 61.4
Aluminum). 32¢,24eece asta cell eens eeree ellos 45. 1 82.4
INC ISG eae tare a ep ee oe peepee | cies see lice epee 43.9 47.8
Bismuth cae Ast 25 oe ee sels leo iano 45.9 7.2 46.6
Amitiinonyee = Seka oe oe Se on eteahaess see + 48.8 35. 0 39. 5
@opperjseee =. ess. fas Sa E 10.0 59. 5 35. 0 45.4
SilWersccae Sepeetc cake: ae oaiete oe aa iemietorersreie= 50.8 21.8 33.6
Quwicksiliverceys tees ooee eee oe cee cepa sie rere: ll cee rears Sil Gyosuacaasce coce be
Grol diet bee See pee ale ae Sey nea 972 sceese aoa o enc nat
Platina se Sete eo eee hates ne ere ciel | me are (Oh Pes eS Socleadne -

Thus it will be seen that the intensity of the current developed depends on
the chemical action exerted by the liquid on the metal: chlorine, for instance,
imparts to the copper and silver a considerable degree of electro-motive force.
If we would employ the alkalies as the operative liquid, the order of the electro-
motive forces would be different ; foremost in this case would stand: potassium,
aluminum, zine; and then would follow: antimony, bismuth, and copper. It
has been sometimes proposed to make use of the sulphuric combinations as sourees
of electro-motive force ; sulphuret of potassium would then be certainly the most
applicable, but practice has shown that with this no advantageous result has been
obtained. Inventors, who are choosing the solution for a superior battery of a

CONSIDERATIONS ON ELECTRICITY. 315

single pair, may determine in advance the electro-motive force of their combina-
tion through the difference of the electro-motive forces of the metals which they
immerse in the selected liquid.

The first part of the problem is therefore fixed ; inventors must, consequently, not
step beyond this narrow circle. ‘The choice of the metal and the liquid depend
on the chemical operation upon one another, for thence results the electro-motive
force. Upon the question of practical economy it would be useless here to insist,
as the attention of the industrial inventor will of itself be sufficiently directed
to this point.

The sources of a competent electro-motive force having been discovered, and
the degree of intensity determined, next arises the question of persistency. ‘The
essential fact is here too easily forgotten, that the total intensity of a compound
pair is equal to the sum of the intensity of the chemical reaction of the liquid
on the electro-negative element, and of that of this liqnid on the depolarizing
substance, while “the total intensity of a single pair is equal to the difference
between the intensity of the chemical aetiy ity and that which inversely proceeds
from the intensity determined through the polarizing current. So soon as the
inventor leaves out of consideration essential elements, chance alone can lead
him to a satisfactory solution. Whatever liquid and metal be employed, there
always takes place a change of the latter, and a development of hydrogen gas
which collects about the positive electrode, whether this be metal or charcoal.
The inventor must therefore contrive that this gas shall be absorbed as com-
pletely and at as cheap a rate as possible. Acids, oxygen, salts, and combina-
tions of chlorine have hitherto been alone used.

The question as to what active metal should be employed in electrical batteries,

is already well nigh exhausted. Only inventors entirely ignorant of the grounds
of its preference seek to replace zinc by some cheaper metal in order to obtain
an equivalent amount of electro-motive force. Some have had recourse to the
alloys, but they have not paid sufficient attention to the secondary currents,
which nevertheless play so considerable a part in the action of an electrical bat-
tery. On this account even iron and lead, which their comparative cheapness
seems so strongly to recommend, can be no substitute for zinc; for by reason of
the variable contents of foreign admixtures it would be impossible to count upon
uniform electrical intensities. If it be true that the electrical function of quick-
silver in the amalgam of zine is not known, yet its influence cannot be denied ;
but it must not be supposed that this resource is applicable to iron, tin, or lead,
for these metals are still less adapted to amalgamation. The value of their
electro-motive force, when brought into contact with diluted sulphuric acid, refers
itself to tests which are as chemically pure as possible.
The chemists are at present engaged in researches for the discovery of new
metals, but they have as yet found only metals of alkalies or alkaline earths, of
which it would seem almost impossible that lar e@e masses should be furnished.
So soon as these metals shall have passed into the service of practical industry,
as is already the case with sodium, aluminum, and magnesium, there is reason
to hope that an electro-positive element for the electric battery will be discov-
ered, which shall be as potent as zinc. ‘The so-called spectroscopic metals will
in this respect probably be not far removed from potassium and sodium.

The choice of the liquid does not absolutely depend on that of the metal which
forms the electro-positive element ; we must here keep in view also the duration
of the action of the battery and the chemical nature of the depolarizing sub-
stance. If only the energy be regarded and the duration of action be limited,
the intensity of chemical activity is of greatest interest; for amalgamated zinc,
diluted sulphuric acid, is then preferably as the active liquid. It is not unimportant
liere to remark that the electro-motive force is not increased with the degree of
strength of the acid. Electro-motive force and resistance are words only too
often used without being sufliciently comprehended. Inventors who aim at con-

316 CONSIDERATIONS ON ELECTRICITY.

structing a battery of extraordinary intensity often take no consideration thereof,
and yet every elementary work on physics tells them that “the intensity of an
electrical pair is directly proportional to its electro-motive force, and inversely to
the total resistance.”

Muriatic acid, chlorine dissolved in water, or a chloride, would be active agents
almost as energetic as sulphuric acid, but less practical, with the exception of
common salt. Soda dissolved in water would act energetically upon zine, but
the equivalent of electricity thereby generated would be very expensive. A
pair whose active element should be aluminum and a solution of soda would
possess very great energy, but would be truly an article of luxury.

The controversy is greater when the choice of the depolarizing material and the
arrangement of the pair is in question. A methodical study should not allow
itself to be misled, however great may be the combination ; the observer must
pay attention to the two essential elements, which most inventors neglect. We
know the opposite influence of both the substances which surround the electrodes ;
we know, also, that the total electro-motive force is the sum of those which are
developed in the interior of the pair between the different elements of which it
consists; the analysis must therefore be extended to these partial actions. Ac-
count must then be taken of the conductibility which is proper to the elements
themselves, and of the influence which their arrangement exerts on the resistance
of the pair. ‘The electro-motive force is of course in each pair independent of
the disposition, the dimensions, and the nature of the diaphragms.

The three other points to be considered in the arrangement of an electrical
battery, the choice of the positive electrode, the dividing walls, and the general
disposition of the pair, are exclusively dependent on the resistance which they
oppose to the conductibility. The positive electrode must be as perfect a con-
ductor as possible, and on this account the purest possible metal must be employed ;
to supply such, however, is very costly. The use of platina has been renounced,
as it ismechanically wasted. or batteries of very energetic action, as those with
nitric acid, chlorides, &c., coke or retort coal would seem to be the only proper
conductor. But this substance, as furnished in trade, is found upon trial to have
very different qualities. Some specimens resist fracture and conduct well, while
others are very porous and frangible, so that sometimes the elements of one and
the same battery differ greatly in the intensity.

This inconvenience, which is founded on the inconstant nature of the positive
conductor, is diminished with elements of weaker intensity, where the depolariz-
ing substance is a metallic salt, whether in solution or solid. Here we may
plainly adopt the same metal which forms the base of the salt. The conducting
surface is then, through the action of the pair itself, always maintained in a state
of absolute purity. 'The constancy of the intensity of a pair results from the
maintenance of a continual identity in the surfaces of both conductors. Much,
moreover, is gained in this way as regards expense, for it is the only means of
completely recovering the costly substance which is employed in the depolariza-
tion. Another inducement for adopting for the positive electrode the same metal
which is contained in the salt surrounding it results from a consideration already
presented. Since the total electro-motive force of the pair is the sum of those
forces which are developed in the different parts, it must be an object of interest
to limit that foree which proceeds from the contact of the positive electrode, when
opposed to the principal intensity in consequence of the attack of the electro-
positive metal, and on the other hand to develop that which is similarly directed
with this intensity. The latter will generally be the case, if the neutral salt
and the metal are sufficiently pure.

The choice of the depolarizing substance must be decided by the following
considerations: by its affinity for hydrogen, in order that it may be readily and
completely reduced; by the nature and physical condition of the precipitated
metal, when it is a metallic salt, and by the chemical condition of the products

CONSIDERATIONS ON ELECTRICITY. 317

which originate under other circumstances. Thus, for example, from nitric acid
proceed many products of decomposition which are set free in the acid and weaken
its capacity for the absorption of hydrogen. The action ceases perhaps only in
consequence of the excessive resistance which the depolarizing liquid so quickly
assumes. ‘This cessation supervenes more speedily with the combinations of
oxygen heretofore tried; besides that they are very costly and yield residuums
which are of no value. Batteries of this order are generally very intense for a
certain number of hours, but their intensity then diminishes very rapidly, for the
twofold reason already mentioned. The metallic salts, which exert scarcely any
influence on the acting liquid, better preserve their intensity. Since they are read-
ily reduced, it is only their conductibility which comes into consideration. As the
immersed electrode is of the same nature, it will for some time be improved at
the expense of the salt, and in consequence of this reaction will also maintain
the physical uniformity in its vicinity.

Any advice respecting the diaphrams must necessarily be very precarious;
they are detrimental through the resistance which they occasion and on account
of the want of identity in their constitution.

The inventor of an electrical battery has still to pay attention to the con-
duetibility. It must be here remembered that the chemical decompositions pro-
ceed in fixed proportions, and since, as soon as the current circulates, each pair
in a battery acts as a decomposing apparatus, and each performs the same labor,
it suflices to determine the performance of but one pair in order to be able to
compute that of the whole battery. The weight of the copper precipitated in a
voltameter is directly proportional to the electro-motive force of the pair, and is
in Inverse proportion to the resistance. As, according to the electro-chemical
law, for one equivalent of the precipitated copper, one equivalent of zinc and a
corresponding quantity of the acid are consumed, we have the means of ascer-
taining the cost at which the pair operates. In reality, however, this is greater
than the theoretical estimate.

Poe Pare rT yy.

From GENERAL G. W. DopGe, U.S. A., Fort LeaveNwortH, Marcu 16, 1866.

My corps (the 16th) reached Reswell Sunday noon, July 10, 1865, and we
immediately crossed the river, and worked until Wednesday night putting in a
double-track trestle bridge. The weather was excessively hot, the hottest, I
think, we experienced during the campaign. On the south side of the river my
corps was formed very compact in a téte du pont, covering the bridge, for I had
all my artillery in position, and most of the infantry had their arms stacked, as
there were heavy details for work on the bridge. It was finished about 5 p. m.
Wednesday, and the 15th corps, which arrived there that day, commenced cross-
ing about 6 p.m. A gale of wind arose, blowing terrifically for 15 minutes,
when the thunder-shower came on, the rain pouring down in torrents, and the
thunder and lightning close together, and hardly any distinction from one peal
to another. It was so strong that at times the 15th corps had to halt. This
corps was crossing the bridge during the storm, and passed directly through my
lines, and went to the left, there not being room in rear of my entrenchments
for it to bivouac, and it was halted right « on the road and on the bridge, thus
being in the midst of my corps at the heaviest part of the shower. T fe light-
ning “first struck on the hill, on the south side of the river, in a battery in position ;
then in a regiment of infantry « a short distance to the right ; then on the north
side of the bridge, in the valley, and right at the head of the bridge, where my
pioneer cogs was camped, killing one man and several mules. During this
time it struck one or two other points, doing no damage, however. Horses and
men in the 15th corps, on the bridge, were knocked “down, but not materially
injured ; and a great many in the 15th and 16th corps felt the shock. It was
the most destructive in the battery. In my corps 33 or 34 were killed
wounded, and quite a number—lI believe 18, but I may be mistaken—were
killed outright. ‘The wounded were burned, paralyzed, and shocked—some
severely, some slightly, but all had to be put in hospital. On the bodies
of the killed could be traced the tracks of the lightning ; so I was told, but I did
not examine them. They werenot much, if any, mutilated; and I remember it was
spoken of that one or two of the killed had not even a trace on them. Several
stacks of muskets were struck, bent up, butts split, &c. It was one of the
most terrific storms I ever experienced, and the lightning appeared to strike
close around us at every flash for nearly half an hour. It struck close te my
tents, so close that all in them felt the shock sensibly. They were pitched on
the bluffs north of the river, one-half mile from the line, where most of the
damage was done. No persons were injured except in my corps. It was Lieu-
tenant Maury’s light battery F, 2d United States artillery, that suffered most.
I forget the regiments of infantry, but it included two or three.

I think the storm came from the northwest, but I will not be certain about
this. I know that, although it was only six o’clock or thereabouts, it was so
dark that we could not see. The heavens were very black, and all livht of day
seemed to be shut out. The ground, trees, and some stone buildings we had
erected were struck. ‘The storm did not extend very far to the north of us, nor
to the south. Its track seemed to be from the northwest to the sonthéast. I
ordered the medical officer to make a full report, stating the circumstances, the
nature of the wounds on both killed and wounded, which was done, and properly

ELECTRICITY. 319

forwarded. From that data, if it can be found, more definite and accurata
information can be obtained.

Note from General O. M. Por, U. 8. A., in relation to the above:

« At the time of the remarxable electrical discharge, of which General Dodge
sent you some account, he was in command of that portion of the 16th army
corps, which accompanied General Sherman in his Atlanta campaign. His com-
mand was at Reswell, Georgia, where they built the bridge referred to, and a
portion of the force had crossed to the southern bank of the Chattahoochie river,
and it was among this latter force that the casualties occurred.

‘“Reswell is situated on the Chattahoochie river, about 18 miles northeast from
where the railroad from Chattanooga to Atlanta crosses the Chattahoochie river.
It is about 15 miles due east from Marietta, and is in a very broken, almost
mountainous region—the southern slope of the Apalachian chain.”

From PROFESSOR JOHN C. CRESSON, PHILADELPHIA, May 23, 1866.

During a brief thunder-shower on Sunday, May 13th, at 4$ p. m., an electric
discharge occurred at Franklin square, in this city, under the following circum-
stances :

A small elm tree, about 40 feet high, standing about 190 feet south of a flag-
staff 150 feet high, was injured, and the bark torn from its southeast side for a
length of 20 feet. A splinter of sapwood two inches wide, one inch thick, and
about 20 feet long, was ripped out on the southeast side and scattered in minute
shreds.

This injury does not reach the base of the tree nor its topmost branches.

This tree is surrounded by several others, not more than 20 feet distant and
several feet higher, none of which are injured. At the distance of 12 feet nearly
east of the injured tree is an iron lamp-post, with a gas-pipe protruding at its
top, nine feet from the ground.

The thunder-cloud approached from the southwest, and the manner of the
occurrence seems to be thus: When the charged cloud came nearly over the
lamp-post and gas-pipe, the latter formed a prominent conductor, and by making
an open way for inductive action, determined the time and line of discharge.
The line was along the southeast side of the injured tree, and near enough to
cause the injury by violent disturbance of electrical equilibrium along and around
its path. Thinking the facts may be deemed worthy of record, I venture to
send this statement, and cannot forbear to accompany it with my notion of the
mode of action.

From Henry Haas, DEPAUVILLE, JEFFERSON County, NEw York, APRIL 20, 1867.

About sunset on the 20th of April, during the thunder-storm, an electric dis-
charge struck the dwelling of J. Edmunds, entering through the open front
door, knocking the wooden blocks from under the legs of a cooking-stove, with-
out upsetting the stove, then passing across the room into an adjoining apart-
ment and out at the window, breaking a number of lights, doing no other injury
to the building. Three persons sat around the stove at the moment the electric

fluid entered the house; they were more or less stunned, but all escaped unhurt.

From H. J. Kron, ALBEMARLE, NORTH CAROLINA, APRIL 24, 1867.

At Attaway Hill, Stanly county, North Carolina, there was a heavy thunder-
storm from the southeast during the night of the 24th of April, commencing at
about 11 o’clock. There was a rapid succession of thunder and lightning, with
beating rain and hail of small size, but no damage done. At the distance of
about a mile the lightning struck the lowest of two pines some nine feet apart.

320 ELECTRICITY.

The long spiral track from the summit down ended within a foot of the ground,
which latter was neither perforated nor ploughed up.

[Probably in this case the electricity was carried off by a temporary flood of
water over the ground at the foot of the tree—J. H.]

FROM PROFESSOR B. F. MuDGE, MANHATTAN, KANSAS, JUNE 15, 1867.

At 7 a. m. the lightning struck the house of William Higinbothom, in Man-
hattan, Kansas, (two miles from the college,) and severed the lightning-rod at
every connection or joint, without damage to the house. The rod was 32-inch
iron. The connections were made by a brass nut screwed on to the ends of each
section. ‘The brass nuts were in some cases melted. The point, to the length
of half an inch, which was of copper plated with silver, was also melted. When
tle fluid reached the eaves of the house it parted, and one portion followed the
tin gutter-spout round the house, turning eight square corners (right angles.)

5
At each angle the tin was burned or melted.

[In all cases of an electrical discharge a repulsive energy is evolved in the
direction of the axis of the conductor, tending to break it by a transverse frac-
ture.—J. H.|

FROM THE NEW HAVEN (CONNECTICUT) JOURNAL.

On the 20th of June, 1867, the lightning struck the house of Mrs. R. M..
Page, on the corner of Pleasant and Humphrey streets. ‘The bolt, as it neared
the house, divided, one part striking the roof near the west chimney, and passed
through the roof, tearing up the tin roofing in such a way that it looks as if it
had been forced off from the inside. ‘The fluid passed ‘into the attic, striking
the chimney near the roof, and gouging out a large hole in it, and then passed
out of the attic window, making two holes through one of the panes, as if two
small cannon-balls had been shot through it. After passing through the window
there were no further signs of its course. The attic room was thoroughly shat-
tered, and the ceiling splintered into a thousand fragments. The other branch
of the bolt struck the east chimney, knocking off a good portion of it. It passed
down through the roof to the attic floor, and passed out of the room at the
southeast corner, and ran down the water-pipe to the ground, shattering the
earthen tile drain that conducts the water to the cistern. From here it passed
through the corner of the house, following a nail, coming out near a water-pail
with copper hoops, that stood near the sink. It completely demolished the pail,
and seemed to have spent its force in doing so. Under the attic room, on this
side of the house, was a closet, the lath and plaster of which were torn off.
Some of the plastering was thrown across the chamber and struck the head-
board of the bed with such force as to stick fast. Under the pillow of the bed
was found a nail that was so hot when thrown there that it burned the sheets.
A woman who had just closed the basement window and crossed the room when
the stroke entered at the sink, was thrown prostrate, and was much stunned and
deafened for awhile; and her husband, who was sitting in the room alone with
his child, was also considerably shocked. Persons who were in the street near
the house at the time were also stunned, and had to grasp hold of the fence to
keep from falling.

From Dr. SAMUEL D. MarRTIN, NEAR CHILESBURG, KENTUCKY, OCTOBER 27, 1867.

I to-day saw for the first time a tree that had been struck with lightning,
probably in July. It was a white ash, about two feet in diameter, and stood in
a woodland pasture, about half a mile east from my house. 'The appearance indi-
cated a remarkable power in the discharge. The tree was split up into pieces

ELECTRICITY. Sok

about as large as common feénce-rails, which formed a circle around the stump 180
feet in diameter. One of these rails is 30 feet long, another 27, and most of
the others about 12 feet long. There were a great number of splinters, three
or four feet long, cast outside the circle.

[The remarkable energy exhibited in this case, as in others of a similar char-
acter, is probably due to the sudden conversion of the sap into highly elastie

vapor.—J. H.]
FrRoM G. WRIGHT, STERLING, WHITESIDE COUNTY, ILLINOIS, DECEMBER 5, 1867.

As I always watch the approach of storms with great interest, I was, in this
instance, well repaid for my trouble. The heavy mass of clouds in the south-
west gradually raised, so that the lower edge was distinctly marked upon the
falling rain, as is usual in sudden storms. But I observed to those near me that
I never before saw the line so clearly defined and so regular; but suddenly a
large mass began to protrude from the rounded outline and approach the earth
in the form of a cone, with the apex towards the earth. As we live on the line
of the great tornado, some of my family apprehended the cloud was taking the
fearful shape, but as it rapidly approached the earth a vivid flash darted from
the lower point, which was still rounded, and the whole mass was quickly drawn
up into line again. ‘This was repeated as the shower approached, until the cone
descended from the same part of the cloud three times, and then, as it began to
rain where we were, the outline of the cloud was lost to view. I cannot describe
to you the sensation which I felt as the great mass of dark clouds fell with
increasing velocity toward the earth, but it was much like that which one
experiences in rolling a large stone from the edge of a precipice. The display
was so grand that it will never be forgotten by those who saw it.

{An account of a precisely similar phenomenon is given in a letter to Dr.
Hare, from Z. Allen, of Providence, published in the Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society. The facts are interesting in relation to the connection
of electricity with tornadoes, of which the descending cone was probably an
incipient one.—J. H.]

FROM CHARLES C. BOERNER, VEVAY, INDIANA, MAy 26, 1868.

May 26, 11 p. m., to 27th, 1 a. m.—Thunder-storm of uncommon violence
from the southeast; wind from the same direction. It was preceded by a strong
gale of 15 minutes’ duration; lightning zigzag. The storm raged for 30 min-
utes, after which it somewhat abated, and apparently passed away, when sud-
denly, at 12 o’clock, a heavy discharge of electricity, accompanied by a terrific
explosion, seemed to startle all nature. In the morning I ascertained that it
struck near the market-place; the object was a rack placed there for the hitching
of horses. The rack is about 40 feet long, and upon posts (locust) three feet
from the ground; on the top rail are 25 iron rings, fastened with staples, and the
rails themselves fastened to the posts with heavy iron clamps. ‘This top rail
was entirely thrown off, and the posts shattered into splinters; some of them
were scattered in different directions more than 75 feet. ‘The most remarkable
fact is that the place is surrounded by high buildings, all of which escaped
destruction. Northwest, 75 feet trom the place struck, stands a brick building,
covered with metallic roof, '75 feet high; southward the open market-place ;
southeast the market-house, 40 feet high; and northeast, at a distance of 125
feet, a row of two-story brick buildings. None of these are supplied with
lightning conductors.

(Electricity, in its discharge from the clouds to the earth, frequently appears

very capricious; but in all cases the discharge is, as it were, predetermined by the
21 s6i

393 ELECTRICITY.

line of greatest attraction and least resistance, conditions which cannot, in all
cases, be ascertained, even with a minute examination of all the objects, since
active attracting materials frequently exist beneath the surface of the earth.—

J. H.]

From W. S. GILMAN.

One of the most beautiful electrical phenomena imaginable was witnessed on
the evening of the 9th January, 1868, in the office of the Atlantic and Pacific
telegraph line, Rochester, New York. Wire No. 1 of this line was down between
this city and Syracuse. Suddenly it was discovered that neither wire would
work. A continuous current of electricity was then observed to be passing over
the wires and through the several instruments, and this while the batteries were
detached. The current seemed to be of the volume of a medium-sized pipe-stem,
and exhibited the several colors of the rainbow. With the key open the current
flowed in waves or undulations, and from the surcharged wire it leaped over the
insulated portions of the key and passed along the wires beyond. ‘The same
phenomenon was observed at Buffalo and at Cleveland. The eas in the office
was lighted without difficulty by holding the end of a wire within an inch or two
of the gas-burner. The current was intense enough to shock one holding the
wires or instruments; indeed, one of the employés of the office had his fingers
scorched by the current. With closed keys the current was continuous, as before
stated.

‘This phenomenon has never been witnessed except when cold weather prevails
extensively. ‘The broken wire spoken of, which rested on the ground, was the
point of communication with the earth.

Here we may notice one thing not generally known. A portion of a speech
of Hon. William H. Seward in Rochester, a few years since, was telegraphed to
New York and from Boston to Portland by the electrical influences of the aurora
borealis, all the batteries on the line being detached. This feat, it is said, has
never been repeated.

The following additional information was furnished in answer to inquires by
the Institution :

The questions you put with reference to the Rochester electrical phenomena
are thus answered :

1. Whether any appearance of the aurora was visible at the time? I learn
of none; sky clouded at Rochester, Toronto, and Montreal, and storming.

2. Whether the discharges were continuous or fitful? From B. F. Blackall,
manager of the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Company, Rochester, I learn as
follows: At 4.30 p. m. trouble commenced while he was “transmitting a telegram
to New York over the No. 1 wire, which was afterwards located between Fulton
and Syracuse, one wire being broken, and the western end hanging across No. 2
rested on the ground. At the same instant I noticed my relay surcharged with a
unusual amount of magnetism. Upon opening my key, which we usually give
the sixteenth of an inch play, discharges of electricity, averaging as high as “300
pulsations a minute from one platina point to the other, and the nearer I placed
these points the more rapid they occurred. * * * * The fluid was passing
from west to east through the key. In addition there was a current about the
size of a pin flowing from the core of the helices to the soft piece of iron on the
armature, which sounded ver y much like electricity produced by friction on a
glass cy linder when passing toa Leyden jar.” The phenomenon continued until
about 7 p.m. ‘The writer informs me that he has witnessed a half dozen similar
but weaker displays during the past 14 years, and always between 4 p. m. and
7) pa

From C. W. Dean, manager of the same line, Cleveland, Ohio, I learn as
follows: An extraneous current made it impossible to work the wire on January
9th last. It was first noticed at 9 a. m., when the current grew so strong that

ELECTRICITY. 323

“the No. 1 wire was opened to Painesville, 30 miles east. This did not help it
in the least. I judged that our wires were crossed with those of Western Union
lines, and that we were getting the full strength of their 100 cups of battery.
One thing very strange was that the current pulsated, and the armature of the
magnet disconnected from the battery and the wire open east vibrated like a
pendulum.”

From J. A. Osborne, Buffalo, New York, connected with the same line, I
learn that the wires of their office were so heavily charged that he thought cer-
tainly they were crossed with the Western Union wires. ‘The wires could not
be touched. The current passed over in waves, and it was necessary to throw
the instruments out of circuit in order to prevent damage to them. Fantastic
streaks flashed across the wires. At one time a continuous stream of fire passed
off, which lasted from four to five seconds. Had the current been more steady
the wires could have been worked without the aid of the batteries. At Lockport
the electricity set fire to a board to which the wires were attached. The mag-
nets became so surcharged with electricity that when the wires were disconnected
the armature remained drawn up to the coils for full three-quarters of an hour.

3. Whether some time elapsed between each discharge, as if the conductor was
gradually charged? This question is answered in the above extracts from letters

5
received by me from the different operators.

[On the night in question an aurora is noticed in the Smithsonian records at
Independence, Lowa, and a heavy snow in Michigan. A wave of low tempera-
ture was passing from the west to the east from the 7th to the 10th of January,
reaching its minimum in the State of New York on the night of the 9th and
morning of the 10th. 'The phenomenon may perhaps have been due to the fall-
ing of the snow on a western portion of the line. The ascending vapor from
which this snow was produced would become negatively electrified by induction
from the plus electricity of the space above. In the subsequent freezing of this
vapor into snow, it would retain its electrical condition, and falling on the wire
would give the latter a charge of negative electricity which would be propagated
by conduction both east and west.—J. H.]

QUERIES ABOUT EXPRESSION FOR ANTHROPOLOGICAL INQUIRY.

By CHARLES DARWIN, OF DoWN, BROMLEY, KENT, ENGLAND.

1. Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide, and
by the eyebrows being raised ?

2. Does shame excite a blush when the color of the skin allows it to be visible?

3. When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body and head
erect, square his shoulders, and clench his fists ?

4, When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand any puz-
zle, does he frown or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids?

5. When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, and the inner
corner or angle of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French call
the “ grief muscle?”

6. When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin around and under
them a little wrinkled, and with the corners of the mouth a little drawn back?
| 7. When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper lip over
the canine teeth raised on the side facing the man whom he addresses?

8. Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is chiefly shown
by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow, and a slight frown?

9. Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips : and turning up of
the nose, with a slight expiration ?

10. Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper lip slightly
raised, with a sudden expiration something like incipient vomiting ?

11. Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with Europeans?

5
12. Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears into the eyes?

13. When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being
done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders, turn inwards
his elbows, extend outwards his hands, and open the palms?

14. Do the children, when sulky, pout, or greatly protrude the lips? ’

15. Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though I know
not how these can be defined.

16. As a sign to keep silent, is a gentle hiss uttered ?

17. Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation and shaken laterally in nega-
tion?

Observations on natives who have had little communication with Europeans
would be, of course, the most valuable, though those made on any natives would
be of much interest.

General remarks on expression are of comparatively little value. A definite
description of the countenance under any emotion or frame of mind would pos-
sess inuch more value.

An answer to any single one of the foregoing questions would be gratefully
accepted.

Memory is so decevtive on subjects like these that [hope it may not be trusted to.

ON THE VARIOUS MODES OF FLIGHT IN RELATION TO AERONAUTICS.

By Dr. JAMES BELL PETTIGREW.

[FROM THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. ]

The subject of flight, natural and artificial, is one which has occupied the
attention of mankind from a very early period.

It involves a more or less intimate acquaintance with anatomy, physiology,
mechanics, and the higher branches of mathematics.

If regarded as a natural movement, it forms one of the three kinds of loco-
motion by which animals progress—the remaining two being walking and swim-
ming; if regarded as an artificial one, it represents the unsolved problem of that
grand trio w hich has for its integral parts the locomotive, steamboat, and flying
machine. Had time permitted, it was my intention to have gone into the subject
of locomotion at length. I find, however, I must curtail my remarks under this
head, which I do with reluctance, from a feeling that the chain of animal move-
ments, like the great chain of existence, winds in and out and doubles upon itself
so completely as to render a partial examination of it in many respects unsatis-
factory.

The movements of animals are adapted either to the earth, the water, or the
air. There are others, however, of a mixed character, where they are suited
equally to the land and water, or even to the land, water, and air.

The instruments by which locomotion is attained are therefore specially
modified.

This is necessary because of the different densities and the different degrees
of resistance furnished by the land, water, and air respectively.

As the earth affords a greater amount of support than the water, and the water
than the air, it requires a greater degree of muscular exertion to swim than to
walk, and a still greater one to fly.

For this reason flight is the most laborious, and in some respects the most
complicated and difficult, of all the animal movements.

The peculiarities of the different media, as far as locomotion is concerned, may
be briefly stated.

On the land wé have the maximum of resistance and the minimum of dis-
placement.

In the air, the minimum of resistance and the maximum of displacement.

The water is intermediate in these respects.

As a consequence, the feet of land animals are small—their bodies large.
The horse and deer furnish examples.

In those land animals which take to the water occasionally, or the reverse,
the feet are enlarged and usually provided with a membranous expansion
between the toes. Of such, the otter, ornithorhynchus, seal, frog, turtle and
crocodile may be cited.

In addition to the land animals which run and swim, there are some which
precipitate themselves, parachute fashion, from immense heights, and others
which even fly. In these the membranous expansions are greatly increased—

326 ON THE VARIOUS MODES OF FLIGHT

the ribs affording the necessary degree of support in the dragon or flying lizard,
the anterior and 4 posterior extr emities in the flying lemur, flying cat, ‘and bat.

Although no lizard is at present known to fly, there can be little doubt that
the extinct pterodactyles, which are intermediate between the lizards and croco-
diles, were possessed of this power.

The bat is interesting as being the only mammal at present enjoying the priv-
ilege of flight ; it is likewise instrnetive, as showing that flight may be attained
without the aid of hollow bones and air- sacs, by purely muscular efforts and by
the mere contraction and dilatation of a continuous membrane.

If we now direct our attention to the water we find that the .amount of sur-
face engaged in locomotion greatly exceeds that in the amphibia. The fish fur-
nishes the best example.

In it the lower half of the body and the broadly-expanded tail are applied to
the water very much as an oar is in sculling. ‘The sea-mammals, as the whale,
dugong, manatee, and porpoise, swim in precisely the same manner as the fish,
with this difference, that the tail strikes from above downwards, or vertically
instead of horizontally, or from side to side. 'The seal is exceptional in this
respect.

The animals which furnish the connecting link between the water and the air
are the flying fishes on the one hand, and the diving birds on the other; the
former sustaining themselves for considerable intervals in the air by means of
their enormous pectoral fins, the latter using their wings for flying ‘above and
beneath the water, as occasion demands.

I have carefully examined the relations, structure, and action of the fins in
the flying-fish, and am of opinion that they act as true pinions; their inadequate
dimensions only preventing them from sustaining the fish for an indefinite period
in the air, at all events so long as they remain moist. ‘They operate upon the
air from beneath, after the manner of a kite or spiralifer, and in so doing, lever
the animal upw ards and forwards.

If they did not act as true pinions within certain limits it is difficult and indeed
impossible to understand how such small creatures could obtain the momentum
necessary to project them a distance of 200 or more yards, and that sometimes
at an elevation of 20 feet above the water.

In birds which fly indiscriminately above and beneath the water, the wing is
generally provided with stiffer feathers than usual, and reduced to a minimum as
regards size. In subaqueous flight the wings may act by themselves, as in the
g guillemots, or in conjunction with the feet, as im the grebes ; but in either case
it is the back or convex surface of the wing which gives the effective stroke, the
wing in such birds as the great auk, w hich are incapable of flight, being for this
purpose twisted completely round, in order that its concave surface, which takes
a better hold of the water, may be directed backwards.

The wing, therefore, operates very differently in and out of the water.

In the water it acts as an auxiliary of the foot, and both strike backwards
and downwards.

In the air, on the contrary, it strikes downwards and forwards, and this is a
point deserving of attention, as showing that the oblique surfaces presented by
animals to the water and air are made to act in opposite directions. This is
owing to the greater density of the water as compared with the air; the former
supporting or “nearly supporting the animal acting upon it; the latter permitting
the animal to fall through it in a downward direction.

But to come to the subject more particularly in hand, viz:

Flight in tts relation to Aeronautics—The atmosphere, because of its great
tenuity, mobility, and comparative imponderability, presents little resistance to
bodies passing through it at low velocity. If, however, the speed be greatly
increased, the action of even an ordinary cane is suflicient to elicit a recoil.

This comes of the action and reaction of matter, the resistance experienced

IN RELATION TO AERONAUTICS. 327

varying according to the density of the atmosphere and the shape, extent, and
velocity of the body acting upon it. While, therefore, almost no impediment
is offered to the progress of an animal in motion, it is often exceedingly difficult
to compress the air with sufficient rapidity and energy to convert it into a suitable
fulerum for securing the onward impetus. This arises from the fact that bodies
moving in this medium experience the minimum of resistance and occasion the
maximum of displacement. Another and very obvious difficulty is traceable to
the great disparity in the weight of air as compared with any known solid, (this
in the case of water being nearly as 1,000 to 1,) and the consequent want of
buoying or sustaining power which that disparity necessitates. ‘To meet these
peculiarities the insect and bird are furnished with extensive surfaces in the
shape of pinions or wings, which they can apply with singular velocity and
power at various angles, or by alternate slow and sudden movements, to obtain
the necessary degree of resistance and non-resistance. Their bodies, moreover,
are constructed on strictly mechanical principles—lightness, strength, and dura-
bility of frame; and power, rapidity, and precision of action being indispensable.
The cylindrical method of construction is consequently carried to an extreme ;
the bodies and legs of insects displaying numerous unoccupied spaces, while the
muscles and solid parts are tunnelled in every direction by innumerable air tubes
which communicate with the swrounding medium by a series of apertures termed
spiracles.

A somewhat similar disposition of parts is met with in birds, these being in
many cases furnished not only with hollow bones, but also (especially the
aquatic ones) with a liberal supply of air-sacs. They are also provided with a
dense covering of feathers or down, which adds greatly to their bulk without
materially increasing their weight. The air-sacs are well seen in the swan,
goose, and duck; and I have in several instances carefully examined them with
a view to determining their extent and function. They appear to me to be con-
nected with the function of respiration, a view advocated by Hunter in 1774,
and within the last year or so by Drosier, of Cambridge. That they have
nothing whatever to do with flight is proved by the fact that some excellent
flyers—take the bats e. g.—are destitute of them, while the wingless running
birds, such as the ostrich, and apteryx, which are incapable of flight, are pro-
vided with them. The same may be said of the hollow bones, some really
admirable flyers, as the swallows, martins, and snipes, having their bones filled
with medullary substance, while the bones of the running wingless birds alluded
to are filled with air. Furthermore, and finally, a living bird weighing 10
pounds weighs the same when dead minus a very few grains; and all know
what effect a few grains of heated air would have in raising a weight of 10
pounds from the ground.

When we have said that cylinders and hollow chambers increase the area of
the insect and bird, and that an insect and bird so constructed is stronger, weight
for weight, than one composed of solid matter, we may dismiss the subject ; flight
being, as I shall endeavor to show by-and-by, not so much one of weight as of
power properly directed, 7. e. power directed on strictly mechanical principles.
Those who subscribe to the heated-air theory are of opinion that the air con-
tained in the cavities of insects and birds is so much lighter than the surround-
ing atmosphere, that it must of necessity contribute materially to flight; bat
the quantity of air imprisoned is, to begin with, so infinitesimally small and the
difference in weight which it experiences by increase of temperature so inappre-
ciable, that it ought not to be taken into account by any one endeavoring to
solve the difficult and important problem of flight. The Montgoltier or fire-
balloons were constructed on the heated-air principle; but as these have no
analogue in nature, and are apparently incapable of improvement, they need not
detain us at this stage of the inquiry. The area of the insect and bird when
the wings are fully expanded is, with the single exception of the bats, greater

328 ON THE VARIOUS MODES OF FLIGHT

than that of any other class of animals, their weight being proportionably less.
It ought, however, never to be forgotten that even the lightest insect or bird is
imme asurably heavier than the air, and that there is no “fixed relation between
the weight of body and the expanse of wing in either class. We have thus
light- bodied and large- -winged insects and birds, as the butterfly, heron, and

albatross ; and others * whose bodies are comparatively heavy, while their wings
are insignificantly small, as in the sphinx-moth and stag- beetle among insects,
and the grebe, quail, and partridge among birds. Those apparent inconsisten-
cies are readily explained by the greater “muselar development of the heavy-
bodied, short-winged insects and ‘birds, and the increased power and rapidity
with which the wing is made to oscillate. This is of the utmost importance in
the science of eerostation, as showing that flight may be attained by a heavy,
powerful animal with comparatively small wings, as well as by a lighter one
with enormously enlarged wings. While, therefore, there is apparently no cor-
respondence between the area of the wing and the animal to be raised, there is
an unvarying relation as to the weight and number of oscillations ,8o that the prob-
lem of flicht seems to resolve itself into one of weight, power, velocity, and
small surfaces ; versus buoyancy, debility, diminished speed, and extensive sur-
faces ; weight in cither case being a sine qua non.

In order to utilize the air as a means of transit, the body in motion, whether
it moves in virtue of the life it possesses, or because of a force superadded, must
be heavier than it. If it were otherwise, if it were rescued from the operation
of evavity on the one hand, and bereft of independent movement on the other,
it must float about uncontrolled and uncontrollable, as happens in the ordinary
gas balloon. The difference between an insect or bird and a balloon here
insisted upon was, I have learned since writing the above, likewise pointed out
by his grace the Duke of Argyll, in his very able and eloquent article in Good
Words, “entitled “Lhe Reign of Law”*—an article whose merits cannot be too

5
widely. acknowledged or too universally known. ‘The wings of insects and

birds are, as a rule, more or less triangular in shape, the base of the triangle
being directed towards the body, the sides anteriorly and posteriorly. They are
also conical on sections from within outwards and from before backwards, this
shape converting the pinion into a delicately-graduated instrument, balanced
with the utmost nicety to satisfy the requirements of the muscular system on the
one hand, and the resistance and resiliency of the air on the other. While all
wings are graduated as explained, innumerable varieties occur as to their general
contour, some being falcated or seythe-like, others oblong, others rounded or
circular, some lanceolate, and some linear.

Wing of insect—The wings of insects may consist either of one or two pairs;
the anterior or upper pair, when two are present, being in some instances greatly
modified and presenting a corneous condition. When so modified they cover
the under wings when the insect. is Teposing , and have from this circumstance
been named ely tra from the Greek &Auzpov, a sheath. 'The elytra or wing-cases,
as they are sometimes called, are dense, rigid, and opaque in the beetles; solid
in one part and membranous in another in the cockroaches ; more or less mem-
branous throughout in the grasshoppers; and completely membranous in the
dragon-flies. The superior or upper wings are indirectly connected with flight
in the beetles, cockroaches, and orasshoppers, and actively engaged in this fune-
tion in the dragon-flies and butterflies. The true wings, and by this I mean the
membranous ones, present different degrees of opacity; those of the moths and
butterflies being non-transparent; those of the dragon-flies, bees, and common
flies presenting a delicate, filmy, gossamer-like appearance. They have, how-
ever, this feature in common, and it is fundamental: both pairs are composed of

* Good Words for February, 1865. This article I am glad to find has been reprinted in a
separate form with numerous illustrations, and should be read by all interested in the subject
ef wronautics. (J. B. P.)

IN RELATION TO AERONAUTICS. 329

a duplicature of integument, or investing membrane, and are strengthened in
various directions by a system of hollow, horny tubes, known to entomologists
as the neure or nervures. These nervures taper towards the extremity of the
wing, and are strongest towards its root and anterior margin, where they supply
the place of the arm in bats and birds.

The neure are arranged at the axis of the wing after the manner of a fan or
spiral stair; the anterior one occupying a higher position than that further back,
and so of the others. As this arrangement extends also to the margins, the
Wings are more or less twisted upon themselves, and present a certain degree of
convexity upon their superior or upper surface, and a corresponding concavity on
their inferior or under surface ; their free edges supplying these fine curves
which act with such efficacy upon the air in obtaining the maximum of resist-
ance and the minimum of displacement. As illustrative examples of the form
of wing alluded to, that of the beetle, bee, and fly may be cited; the pinion in
those insects acting as helices, or twisted levers and elevating weights, much
greater than the area of the wing would seem to warrant. The insects adverted
to fly, as a rule, with great accuracy and speed, and frequently in a straight line.

From the foregoing account it is evident that the wings of insects vary as
regards their number, size, and shape. They also differ as regards their sur-
faces, margins, venation, degree of consistence and position, so that it might
naturally be asked, Do the several orders of wings act according to a common
principle, or does each wing act according to a principle of its own? There
can, 1 think, be but one answer to this question. All wings obtain their lever-
age by presenting oblique surfaces to the air, the degree of obliquity gradually
increasing in a direction from behind, forwards and downw ards, during extension
when the sudden or effective stroke is being given, and gradually decreasing in
an opposite dixection during flexion, or when the wing is being more slowly
recovered preparatory to making a second stroke. The effective stroke in insects—
and this holds true also of birds—is therefore delivered downwards and forwards,
and not, as the majority of writers believe, vertically, or even slightly back-
wards. ‘This arises from the curious circumstance, that insects and birds when
flying actually fall through the medium which elevates them, thei course being
indicated by the resultant of two forces, viz: that of aravity, pulling v ertically
downwards, and that of the wing, acting at a given angle in an upward direc-
tion. The wing of the bird acts after the manner of a boy’s kite, the only dif-
ference being that the kite is pulled forward upon the wind by the string and
the hand, whereas in the bird the wing is pushed forward on the wind by the
weight of the body and the life residing in the pinion itself. The angle at
which the Wing acts most efficaciously as an elevator, as proved by an examina-
tion of the pinion of the living insect, bat, and bird, when fully extended and
ready to give the effective stroke, is an angle of 45° with the horizon. As,
howev er, “this angle could not be uniformly maintained without a rotar y motion
which would wrench the wings from their fixings, a compromise is adopted, the
wing being made to rotate on its axis to the extent of a quarter of a turn in one
direction during extension, and the same amount in an opposite direction during
flexion. ‘That the wing rotates upon its axis as explained may be readily ascer-
tained by watching the movement in the larger domestic fly. If the insect be
contemplated either from above or beneath, the blur presented by the rapidly
oscillating wing will be found to be concave, the depressed portion representing
the wing when its plane of least resistance is parallel with the plane of progres-
sion. Of this I have had the most convincing proof, particularly in semi-torpid
insects where the wing was plied with less vigor than usual. 'To confer on the
wing the multiplicity ‘of movement which it requires, it is supplied with a double
hinge or compound joint which enables it to move not only in an upward, down-
W ard, forward, and backward direction, but also at various intermediate degrees
of obliquity. An insect furnished with wings thus hinged may, as far as steadi-

330 ON THE VARIOUS MODES OF FLIGHT

ness of body is concerned, be not inaptly compared to a compass set upon
gimbals, where the univ ersality of motion in one direction msures comparative
fixedness in another.

Many instances might be quoted of the marvellous powers of flight residing
in insects as a class. The male of the silkworm moth (Attacus Paphia) i isstated
to travel more than 100 miles a day ;* and an anonymous writer in Nicholson’s
Journal calculates that the common house fly (Musca domesticus) in ordinary
flight makes 600 strokes per second, and advances 25 feet; but that the rate of
speed, if the insect be alarmed, may be increased six or seven fold, so that under
certain circumstances it can outstrip the fleetest race-horse. Leeuw enhoek relates
a most exciting chase which he once beheld ina menagerie about 100 feet long,
between a swallow and a dragon fly (mordella. ) The insect flew with such
incredible speed and wheeled with such address that the swallow, notw ithstand-
ing its utmost efforts, completely tailed to overtake it.t

Wi ing of bird.—There are few things in nature more admirably constructed
and where design can be more readily traced than in the wing of the bird. Its
great strength and extreme lightness, the manner in which it closes up or folds
during flexion, and opens out or expands during extension, as well as the method
according to which the feathers are strung together , and slate each other in
divers directions to produce at one time a solid resisting surface, and at another
an interrupted and comparatively non-resisting one, present a degree of fitness
to which the mind must necessarily revert with pleasure. 'The wing of the bird,
like that of the insect, is concavo-convex, and more or less twisted upon itself
when extended, so that the upper or thick margin of the pinion presents a dif-

ferent degree of curvature to that of the nether or thin margin, the curves of

the two margins in some instances even intersecting each other. This twisting
isin a great. | measure owing to the manner in which the bones of.the wing are

twisted upon themselves, and the spiral nature of their articular surfaces, the
long axes of the joints always intersecting each other at right angles. As a
result of this disposition of the articular surfaces the wing may be shot out or
extended, and retracted or flexed in nearly the same plane, the bones composing
the wing rotating on their axes during either movement. This secondary action,
or the revolving of the component bones s upon their own axes, is of the greatest
Importance in the movements of the Wings, as it communicates to the hand and
forearm, and consequently to the primary and secondary feathers which they
bear, the precise angles necessary for flight. It in fact insures that the wing,
and the curtain or fringe of the wing which the primary and secondary feathers
form, shall be screwed into and down upon the wind in extension, and unscrewed
or withdrawn from the wind during flexion. The wing of the bird may, there-
fore, be compared to a huge gimlet or anger, the axis of the gimlet representing
the bones of the wing, the flanges or spiral thread of the gimlet the primary
and secondary featene As the degree of rotation made by the bones of the
forearm and hand during extension amounts as nearly as may be to a quarter of
a turn of a spiral, it follows that in flexion the wing ‘presents a knife-like edge
to the wind; whereas in extension the curtain of the Wing is rotated in a down-
ward direction until its anterior or concave surface makes an angle of 45° with
the horizon. Irom this description it will be evident that by the mere rotation
of the bones of the forearm and hand the maximum and minimum of resistance
is secured much in the same way that this object is attained by the alternate
dipping and feathering of an oar.

In the majority of quick- flying birds—at all events in such as do not glide or
skim—considerable advantage is gained by the primary and secondary feathers
being thrown out of position during flexion, this arrangement preventing retard-

* Linn. Trans, vii, 40.

t The hobby faleon which abounds in Bulgaria is equal to this task, the dragon-fly form-
ing a principal constituent of its food.

IN RELATION TO AERONAUTICS. 331

ation, by diminishing the amount of air displaced. This slating or overlapping
and unslating action : of the feathers during extension and flexion i is, however, one
of the peculiarities or refinements, and not necessarily an essential in flieht, as
this function can be efficiently performed by the insect and bat where no feathers
are present, and where consequently no opening or closing of them can possibly
occur. The wing of the bird may be said to act in three different ways: Ist,
during extension, when it gradually makes an angle of 45° with the horizon;

2d, during the downward “stroke, When it maintains the angle of 45° with the
horizon, and makes a variable angle with the body; and "3d, during flexion,
when it acts at a gradually decreasing angle in virtue of its being c arried against
the wind by the body of the bird which is in motion; it being a matter of indiffer-
ence whether the wing acts on the air or the air on the wing, so Jong as the body

bearing the latter is under way; and this is perhaps the “chief reason why the
albatross, which is a very heavy bird,* can sail about for such incredible periods
without apparently moving the wings at all. Captain Hutton thus graphically
describes the sailing of this magnificent bird: ‘The flight of the albatross is
truly majestic, as with outstretched motionless wings he sails over the surface of
the sea, now rising high in air; now, with a bold sweep and wings iclined at an
angle with the horizon, descending until the tip of the lower one all bet touches
the crest of the waves as he skims over them.” f
‘Tranquil its spirit seemed, and floated slow,
e Even in its very motion there was rest.”

As an antithesis to the apparently lifeless wings of the albatross, the ceaseless
activity of those of the humming bird might be adduced. ‘In those delicate
and exquisitely beautiful birds, the wings, according to Mr. Gould, move so
rapidly when the bird is poised before an object that it is impossible for the eye
to follow each stroke, and a hazy circle of indistinctness on each side of the bira
is all that is perceptible.”

The various movements involved in ascending, descending, wheeling, gliding
and progressing horizontally are all the result of muscular power, properly
directed and acting upon appropriate surfaces—that apparent buoyancy in birds,
which we so highly esteem, arising not from superior lightness but from their
possessing that degree of weight w vhich enables them to suhjngate the air; weight
and independent motion being the two things indispensable in successful aerial
progression. ‘The weight in insects and birds is in great measure owing to their
greatly-developed muscular system—this being in that delicate state of tonacity
which enables them to act through its instrumentality with marvellous dexterity
and power, and to expend or reserve their energies, which they can do with the
utmost exactitude in their lengthened and laborious flights. ‘The elastic strue-

tures which receive or draw back the wing in the insect and bird during flexion
are of the utmost consequence in the movements of the wings; these, by their
mere contraction, enabling the muscles of the wing to rest nearly half the time
they are in action. In this we have a probable explanation of the extraordinary
power of endurance displayed by insects and birds on the wing.

The foregoing remarks on the wings of insects and birds lead me to speak of
the inclined plane as applied to the air, but before doing so it will be advisable
to allude briefly to the balloon.

Balloon. —This, as my audience is aware, is constructed on the obvious prin-
ciple that a machine lighter than the air must necessarily rise through it. ‘The
Montgolfier brothers invented such a machine in 1 782. ‘Their balloon consisted

of a paper globe or cylinder, the motor power being superheated air supplied by

* The average weight of the albatross, as given by Gould, is 17 pounds. ‘ Ibis,”’ 2d series,
vol. i, 1865, p. 295.

The Pelicanus onocrotalius weighs 25 pounds. Roget’s Bird’s Journal, vol. i, p. 490.

+ On some of the birds inhabiting the Southern ocean, by Captain W. F. ‘Hutton. ‘‘ Ibis,”
2d series, vol. i, 1865, p. 282.

332 ON THE VARIOUS MODES OF FLIGHT

the burning of vine twigs under it. The Montgolfier or fire balloons, as they
were ¢ called, were superseded by the hydrogen-gas balloon of MM. Charles and
Robert, this being, in turn, supplanted by the piney gas balloon of Mr.
Green. Since the introduction of coal gas in the place of hydrogen gas no
radical improvement has been effected ; all attempts at guiding balloons have

signally failed. This arises from the vast extent of surface which they neces-
sarily present, rendering them a fair conquest to every breeze that blows; and
because the power which animates them is a mere lifting power which, in the
absence of wind, must act in a vertical line, all other motion being extraneous
and foreign to it. It consequently rises through the air in opposition to the law
of eravity, very much as a dead bird would fall ina downward direction in
accordance with it. Having no hold upon the air, this cannot be employed as
a fulerum for regulating its Tnovements, and hence the cardinal difficulty in bal-
Jooning as an art.

Any one attempting to control the movements of a balloon is very much in
the position of a boatman who endeavors to steer his craft, which is drifting
with the current, by pushing against the stern.

If ever the balloon is to be utilized as a means of transit, this will probably
be achieved by converting part of its lifting power into a horizontal propelling
power, which possibly could be done by aflixing a horizontal screw, like a small
windmill, to the car; this apparatus receiving its motion by being forced against
the air from beneath during its ascent, (the air playing upon it from above,) and
communicating its movements to a similar and smaller screw placed vertically
or at right angles , Which could be made to revolve with great celerity as a
driving § screw. To prevent rotation in the balloon itself, it might be armed with
plates of some light material placed at right angles to the plane of rotation.
The great expense, however, involved in the construction and filling of the bal-
loon will always operate against its being used otherwise than as a luxury;
while the enormous expanse and delicacy of the material employed, as well as
the change in volume of the contained gas arising from increase or decrease of
temperature, cannot fail to prove troublesome, not to say dangerous.

Finding that no marked improvement has been made in the balloon since its
introduction in 1782, we naturally turn our attention to some other method of
traversing the air; and here I would add my independent testimony in favor
of the helice or screw, not only as a lifting power, but also as a propelling power.
When I commenced my inquires into the structure and the uses of wings, I was
early struck with the curious manner in which they are twisted upon themselves,
and how they are rotated on and off the wind during flexion and extension, after
the manner of screws; and without knowing (for the subject of artificial flight
is not much in my way) that the helice had been proposed as a means for raising
inanimate bodies, I had actually constructed a double screw, with a view to test-
ing its efficacy in this respect.* I have therefore unwittingly laid anatomy and
physiology under contribution in support of what I find is not a new doctrine.t
I was impelled in this direction by detecting the principle in nature, and from
knowing that a body to rise and progress in the air need not necessarily be
lighter than it; in fact, that the balloon is constructed on a principle diametri-
cally opposed to that on which the bat, insect, and bird are constructed, and is
from this circumstance open to serious, and in some respects, insuperable objec-
tions.

The efficacy of the screw in water is well known, and the action of the child’s
toy, usually called the spiralifer, will illustrate its utility as applied to the air.
This toy, for toy it has hitherto ‘been, consists of two inelined planes, produced

* This screw had four fars or blades, two of which revolved from left to right ; the remain-
ing two from right to left. This I found to be necessary to prevent rotation in the driving
apparatus, which consisted of a steel spring and clockwork.

7 Paucton, the engineer, predicted the future importance of the screw in aerial navigation.

IN RELATION TO AERONAUTICS. dan

by simply twisting the enveloping wires in opposite directions. It therefore
represents the most primitive form of screw. his apparatus, simple as it may
appear, curiously enough furnishes the mechanical appliance by which a body
may be elevated, or elevated and carried in a horizontal direction at one and the
same time. By applying the necessary power the spiralifer can be made to act
vertically or horizontally, or at any intermediate angle, so that we have in it an
easily regulated and perfect driving power. The position taken up by the advo-
cates of the screw is the reverse of that occupied by the advocates for the bal-
loon; so that the aeronaut promises at no distant day to be fairly impaled on the
horns of a dilemma, by having‘on the one hand a motor power which (because
of the space occupied by it) no human ingenuity can direct; and on the other a
thoroughly manageable and docile elevating and driving apparatus, minus an
adequate motor power. ‘The problem of flicl ht will probably be solved by one
employing a certain proportion of gas to assist him in overcoming the inertia of
his machine while he uses the screw as a propeller and partial elevator. Of the
two systems propounded, if they be judged separately, I incline to that which
proposes to employ the screw both in elevating and propelling, and this for two
reasons: Ist, Because the screw or a modification of it is the instrument by
which, as I have shown, the insect, bat, and bird rises and progresses; and, 2d,
Because a certain degree of weight is necessary to overcome the air and make it
useful for the purposes of aerostation.

That the principle of the helice as applied to the air is correct is proved by
the very remarkable experiments of MM. Pontin d’Amécourt and De la Lan-
delle, both of whom have constructed within the last three years helicopteric
models, which not only rise by themselves into the air, but also carry graduated
weights.* he difficulties therefore attending aerial locomotion by means of the
screw are already partially surmounted.

The advantages which will accrue from the employment of the screw in aeros-
tation may be briefly stated.

It occupies little space, is strong without being heavy, and is prodigiously
powerful.

It rigidly economizes the motor power by keeping the inclined planes of
which it is composed closely applied to the air throughout its entire revolution.

The speed of the screw can be increased at pleasure—increased velocity, as I
have shown in the insect and bird, conferring enormously increased propelling
and lifting power.

By a judicious combination of horizontal, vertical, and oblique screws, almost
any degree of speed may be attained, and any course, whether upwards, down-
wards, or forwards, pursued.

A machine elevated and propelled by screws will be necessarily a compact
machine—a machine which will navigate the air as a master; its weight and
the small surface occupied by it rendering it superior even to moderately high
winds.

The nearer such machine is kept to the earth, and the greater the density of
the atmosphere, the greater will be its facility and power—the inconveniences
arising from temperature and excessively rarefied air being thus avoided.

The aerial screw machine should be constructed, whenever practicable, of
hollow cylinders fixed into a floor, composed of one or more flattened ey lindroid
chambers filled with hydrogen or other gas to diminish weight. The ‘flattened

cylinders, if laid horizontally or inclined in a slightly upward direction, would
act mechanically as sustainers and gliders, as do. the wings in sailing and elid-
ing birds. It is just possible that the motor power required for the helicopteric
flying-machine may be derived from compressed atmosphere, the air being com-

* Extracts from a paper, by Mons. Nadir, 1863, quoted in Astra Castra: By Hattor
Turnor, London, 1865, pp. 340.

334 ON THE VARIOUS MODES OF FLIGHT, ETC.

pressed by the aid of an engine on ferra firma, and stowed away in the cylinders
comprising the floor or other portions of the machine before starting.

When and where such a machine will be successfully launched no one can of
course predict. The subject of artificial flight, however, has been so frequently
discussed of late years, and has excited so much interest in America, France, and
other portions of the Old and New World, that it must obviously receive a set-
tlement in one direction or other at no distant date. Even Britain, involved as
she is in business and politics, and caring little about science which is not
directly remunerative, has made a move in this direction, and we have now the
Aeronautical Seciety of Great Britain, presided over by his grace the Duke of
Argyll, himself a Goliath in aeronautical matters. It were much to be desired
that those who can afford the time or the means requisite for conducting experi-
ments on a scale commensurate with the importance of the subject would lend
their aid to this great public movement.

Homo Volans.—Whether the genus homo will ever be able, by his unaided
exertions, to leave the scene of his joys and sorrows for the fields etherean, time
only can determine. Borelli, a great anatomical authority,* made elaborate
calculations to prove the absurdity of such an attempt. His calculations, how-
ever, will not deter the more sanguine and specplative portions of magtind from
renewing their exertions in this direction as opportunity permits; and | may state,
for their guidance in the matter, that if man ever flies it will not be by employ-
ing his arms simply, but by concentrating the energies of his entire muscular
system—by transferring in fact the movements of his arms and legs to a central
AXIS OF shaft, surmounted by one or more horizontal and vertical screws of appro-
ptiate size and shape; these being made to revolve with a velocity to be determ-
ined by experiment. The value of this hypothesis could be readily tested, and
at a trifling expense, by a machine constructed after the manner of a velocipede,
which need not be of a very complicated character.

In order to construct a successful flying machine, it is not necessary to imitate
the filmy wing of the insect, the silken pinion of the bat, or the complicated
and highly differentialed wing of the bird, where every feather may be said to
have a Y peculiar function assigned to it; neither is it necessary to reproduce the
intricacy of that machinery by which the pinion in the bat, insect, and bird is
moved; all that is required is to distinguish the form and extent of the surfaces
and the manner of their application, and this has, ina great measure, been
already done. When Vivian and Trevithick constructed the locomotive, and
Symington and Bell the steamboat, they did not seek to reproduce a quadruped
or a fish; they simply aimed at producing motion adapted to the land and water
in accordance with natural laws, and in the presence of living models. ‘Their
success is to be measured by an involved labyrinth of railroad which extends to
every part of the civilized world, and by navies whose vessels are despatched
without the slightest trepidation to navigate the most boisterous seas at the most
inclement seasons. ‘The aeronaut has the same task before him in a different
direction, and in attempting to produce a flying machine he is not necessarily
attempting an impossible thing. The countless swarms of flying things testify
as to the practicability of the scheme, and nature at once “supplies ‘him with
models and materials. If artificial flight were not attainable, the insects and
birds would afford the only ex samples of animals whose movements could not be
reproduced. ‘Phe outgoings and incomings of the quadruped and fish are, how-
ever, already successfully imitated, and the fowls of the air, though clamorous
and shy, are not necessarily bey ond our reach. Much has been said and done

in clearing the forest and fertilizing the prairie: can nothing be done in reclaim-
ing the poanidless regions of the air?

* De Motu Animal.

MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH
AND THE REINDEER IN MIDDLE EUROPE.

Translated by C. A. ALEXANDER for the Smithsonian Institution, from ‘‘Aus der Natur:
die neuesten Entdeckungen auf dem Gebicte der Naturwissenschaften.” Leipzig, 1867.

While the eyes of inquirers were turned towards the east and followed with
interest the excavations in Assyria and Egypt, in the hope of finding there some-
thing conclusive regarding the earliest condition of our race, similar researches
in the drift deposits of France, Belgium, and England, in the silicious formations
of those countries and in the oldest pile-constructions of Switzerland, Germany,
Hungary, and Italy, brought to light incontestable proof that man had already
obtained a firm foothold in different parts of Europe, at a time which ascends far
beyond our chronology, and even lived cotemporaneously with the gigantic and
partly extinct animals of the post-tertiary period; with the mammoth, the gigantic
deer, the woolly-haired rhinoceros, the bear, the tiger, and hyena of the caves.

It will be understood of itself, that these discoveries were at first received with
distrust, because they totally subverted all previous conceptions and could by no
means be reconciled to the received theories respecting the age of the human
race. Even Christol and Tournal, who, in 1828, made, in the south of France,
the first discovery of fossilized human remains, mixed with fragments of pottery
and the bones of extinct species of animals, ventured not to vindicate for this
significant fact its just value, so firmly fixed in’ public belief was the doctrine of
Cuvier that man had first made his appearance on the earth after the era of those
primitive species. In the same manner fared it with the discovery of the Belgian
explorer, Schmerling, who, in 1833, found, in some caverns near Liége, human
bones intermixed with rude implements of stone and the remains of extinct ani-
mals, such as the rhinoceros, the mammoth, &c.; even the discoverer himself
suggesting that it was possible that these relics might have been floated thither

after the denudation of their original places of deposit. It was, of course, a

striking circumstance that already a number of rude implements of stone had
been found without the coincident occurrence of human remains; whence no par-
ticular significancy was attached to these when discovered, and many, without
troubling themselves with further investigation, were content to assign them to
a later date or to confound them with what they were pleased to call sports of
nature.

Nevertheless attention had become more strongly excited, and similar dis-
coveries, especially since 1840, stimulated further inquiries. Communications to
this effect did not, indeed, at once receive a proper appreciation, but finally the
grounds of proof became so preponderant that all objections of the skeptical
were put to silence. Meanwhile the proofs have continued to accumulate, so
that at length there remain no grounds of denying that man was an inhabit-
ant of the earth at the same time with the gigantic animals of the quaternary
period. The discoveries of late years enable us even to follow the human race
through different phases of improvement during the prehistoric era.

At the commencement of the quaternary period the aspect of Europe, as far
even as the latitude of Sicily, closely resembled that of the polar regions of to-
day. The entire continent was wrapped in a shroud of snow; enormous glaciers

covered the whole of Iceland, Scotland, and Scandinavia. All the valleys in

336 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH

the Carpathian mountains, the Balkan, the Pyrenees, and the Apennines, were
filled to the summit with ice. From the peaks of the Alps, which lose them-
selves in dense clouds, descended enormous glaciers which, towards the south,
stretched into the plains of Piedmont and Lombardy, as yet covered by the sea,
while, towards the north, another glacier, 720 square miles in extent and 36
miles in length, reached to the Jura. The European continent, however, was,
at that remote period, of much less extent than at present. ‘The more depressed
varts formed then the bed of the sea, and what was not covered with water lay
agent during the long winter, under the enveloping snow.

In the wastes of ice towards the north pole men contrive to live, but we
find no trace of them in Europe at the time we are speaking of. But centuries
elapsed, the snow gradually decreased, the glaciers retreated by degrees, as did
also the sea, and a strange fauna ocenpied “Europe: an elephant covered with
crisped hair and having a long mane, a rhinoceros similarly protected, a hippo-
potamus which ‘ae have immigrated from the south throug h the mouths of the
rivers, gigantic bears, a large kind of tiger, multitudes of hyenas of still existing
species, a huge . . These animals subsisted together under a still rude,
but less austere climate. At this Ge, also, man existed in Europe, in the midst
of this not precisely idyllic fellowship!

Now, the question is this: In western Europe was man indigenous or had he
migrated from Asia, together with the mammoth and rhinoceros? It would seem
probi able that, before entering Europe, he had inhabited Asia. During the great
glacier period, the climate in southern Asia was less severe than in Europe, and
therefore better fitted for the sustenance of man, whose dental system more nearly
approaches that of the granivorous than that of the sarnivorous tribes. It is,
indeed, believed that, during the glacier period, Europe was divided from Asia,
and that the two continents first became united after the retreat of the sea. At
that time also, the first migration of mankind to the west must have taken place,
induced by the desire of occupying the lands which had newly emerged from the
waters,

In what light shall we picture to ourselves the condition of these men?
The oldest implements of theirs which we possess, the traces of the hearths
which served them to cook their food, certainly do not reach back to the earliest
times of the existence of man upon the earth. However our pride may revolt
at the fact, we are forced to acknowledge that man, as he stepped at first upon this
part of the earth, bore, in his instincts, his passions and his wants, no small
resemblance to the brates. Fire was still unknown to him; his teeth show
that he drew his nourishment from roots and other growths of the soil, and when
he began to use flesh for food he must have devoured it raw. His unsettled life
was exclusively devoted to satisfying his material wants; no idea had he of any
exalted endowments ; his speech would consist naturally of only a small number
of words, in which, as is the case with re bushmen and other barbarous tribes,
the vowels played a prominent part. A skin, stripped from the beasts he had
slain, formed the clothing of the primeval European; his limbs were exposed to the
inclemencies of the weather, and when he would seek rest or protection from the
cold or from wild animals, his necessary resort was to the forest or to dark eavi-
ties in the earth. Yet, in spite of the humble stage at which man stood in this
early period of his mundane existence, he was still the paragon of creation.
He was gifted with reason, and this invested him with supremacy over the beasts
of the wilderness.

In time, by means of the lightning and voleano, man would become acquainted
with fire, and soon recognizing ity beneficial activities would learn to preserve it
as his greatest treasure. Since he knew not as yet how to produce it, he would

carefully maintain it by day and night. Hence, in the earliest times, fire would
naturally become the object of peculiar veneration. It must also have exerted
a powerful influence on the conditions of human existence. To the roots and

AND THE REINDEER IN MIDDLE EUROPE. 337

rather unsavory products of the earth, flesh would more generally succeed as a
diet, the means having been supplied of rendering it tender and digestible.
Against the rigors of winter, fire offered its ready and invaluable succor. The
continual reassemblage around the same hearth contributed in no small degree
to the formation of the family.

At this geological epoch the level of the water sank more and more, so that
the submerged ‘lands of Europe rose gradually above the sea. The ‘glaciers
melted in part, and at that time the valleys began to exist. The part borne by
the sea and by the water resulting from the melting glaciers in this first debacle,
admits of no accurate determination. From this period proceed also the deposits
of rounded pebbles which cover in great part different regions of Europe.
Another phenomenon stands in close connection with these great currents of
water: the caves were emptied of the clay which had filled them.

Amidst this grand melting of glaciers, and the floods thereby occasioned, the
volcanoes in Auvergne were emitting flames and lava. Their activity was wit-
nessed by human beings, who became, i in some cases, victims to their violence,
as is testified by the human remains found in the voleanic tufa of Mount Denise
de Velais. At the same epoch, herds of the gigantic mammoth and rhinoceros
roamed over middle Europe and central Asia. With them were to be scen also
the great bear of the caves, the colossal tiger, hyenas, the horse, and the larger
ruminants. Man had at once to defend himself against the savage animals and
to hunt them as the means of his own subsistence. ;

The animals which existed cotemporaneously with the fossil man were, accord-
ing to geological researches, the following : the mammoth (Elephas primigenius.
Blumenb.,) the Siberian rhinoceros (Rhinocer ‘0s tichorinus, Cuv.,) the hyena of
the caves (Hyena spelea, Gold.,) the tiger of the caves (Felis spekea, Gold.,)
the gigantic deer (Megaceros hybernicus,) the bear of the caves (Ursus speleus,)
the reindeer (Cervus tarandus, Lin.,) the ure-ox and the aurochs (Bos primige-
nius and Bison europeus,) together with many of the smaller carnivora, insec-
tivora, rodentia, &c. These animals, now in great part extinct or confined, like
the reindeer and bison, to certain narrow districts, lived, probably, thousands of
years before the era of the more recent pile-structures, whose occupants have
left behind them, in their utensils and implements, the traces of an unfolding
civilization, and had succeeded in domesticating some of the above species.

When we consider that the early men, with their miserably inadequate weap-
ons, were called upon now to hunt such fierce and gigantic creatures as game, and
now to contend with the more rapacious of them for their own lives and aequi-
sitions, the remark of Lyell will not seem overstrained, that it is truly wonder-
ful how the primitive man could maintain his existence in the presence of these
formidable adversaries. But it must be remembered, in explanation of the fact,
that in the case of these remote ancestors of ours, as in that of the rude tmbes
of the present day, the instincts which guide even the beasts were developed to
a high degree of energy and cunning, so that it would be practicable for them
to provide for their necessities and ward off apprehended dangers. In this, the
reflective understanding gave even to the earliest of our race a superiority not
to be undervalued, over the brutal force of the lower animals.

The power of endurance acquired by a life in the open air, partly in the
recesses of the thick forests, partly in caves, the bodily agility and dexterity in

| the use of their certainly very primitive weapons, supplied, especially in a com-
bined onset, something ‘of the efficiency of our fire-arms; and the exhausted
| and inces ssantly harassed beasts would finally become the prey of the indefati-
gable huntsman. For, that our earliest predecessors were huntsmen and fisher-
men, the scanty subsistence afforded by the flora of that age permits us not to
doubt. Many animals would be captured by means of pitfalls, as is now the
case in Africa and other regions. On the other hand, we see that the Esqui-
maux of to-day, seconded “only by their faithful dogs, and armed merely with

22 s 67

338 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH

harpoons pointed with fish-bone, more rarely with iron, successfully attack the
formidable polar bear; and the Indian of the Rocky mountains shrinks not from
an encounter with the fearful grizzly bear, and proudly wears its captured claws as
a trophy around his neck. With no less impunity does the Hottentot engage
in combat with the lion, the rhinoceros, &c.; for artifice and perseverance every-
where secure to man a superiority over the beasts of the desert and forest.

Before those whom we call savages had come into contact with the European,
they bore as weapons, with the exception of the North Americans, who were
already in possession of copper hatchets and knives, only the simple bow and
arrow, the lance and javelin. The oldest inhabitants of Europe had similar
weapons pointed with flint, stone hatchets, such as are now in use in Australia,
poinards of bone and buck-horn, lances, clubs, &c.; and hence weapons of
such a kind as are now effectually managed by the wilder tribes of men. No
doubt the aborigines of old had not less skill in the handling of their weapons
than is now witnessed among the savages of Africa, America, and Australia ;
and thus is to be explained the possibility of resistance against the strongest
animals, though, of course, the conflict of man with the latter must often have
resulted disastrously to himself.

The expertness of the uncivilized races in the use of their weapons is, if the
reports of travellers may be believed, something truly wonderful. 'Thus, for
example, the Indian of North America transfixes with his arrows, at surprising
distances, a horse or‘even buffalo; and a like skill was displayed by those
natives of Cape York, in Australia, who were brought to England in 1853.
They were able, without taking deliberate aim, to strike with their javelins, at
a distance of 20 paces and with invariable success, a small object fastened to a
stick. Captain Gay relates that the Australians generally are secure of killing
a bird at the same distance, and Starbridge informs us that the natives of Vic-
toria dive, with spear in hand, into the river Murray, and never return without
having transfixed a fish. Certain tribes of Patagonians live almost solely on fish
‘which, in diving, they sometimes take with the hands, or capture from the shore
by means of wooden spears, like the Indians of California. The dexterity of the
“South Sea islanders in the water is such that, descending among the coral reefs,
they thrust the fore finger into the eyes of any fish they have marked for prey,
and thus bring it to land. The natives of Tierra del Fuego display singular
‘Skill in hurling stones, and not less the Hottentot in the use of his rakum-
stick, a missile with which he dispatches the feebler species of animals at a dis-
tance of from 30 to 50 yards. The address of the semi-barbarous Guachos of
South America in the use of the lasso is well known; nor is the Patagonian
Jess adroit with his bolas, by means of which he throttles the puma or American
lion before dispatching him. The Esquimaux also avail themselves, for the
capture of birds, of a thong contrived on the principle of the bolas; it is a thin
strap of leather, loaded at the end with a bone-knob, as the bolas is with a
stone-weight, to facilitate its being wound around the neck of the bird at which
it is cast.

The boomerang of the Australians is an instrument for hurling, which was
long ago in use by the ancient fowlers of Egypt. Many of the peculiarly
formed stone implements of the oldest stone period may well be supposed to
have served chiefly as missiles, just as similar ones, made of iron, are employed
in Africa; for instance, the lissam or crooked club of the negroes of central
Africa, and the analogous hungamunga of the Tibboos, in the southeastern part
‘of the Sahara. It cannot be doubted that the effectiveness of a skilfully thrown
club or stone is little less than that of one of iron. Ht is therefore by no means
necessary to assume that the aborigines of the earliest times must have wielded
very heavy weapons, for it would appear, from what has been said, that those
already found would have qualified their possessors to cope even with the colos-
sal beasts of that remote era. Besides that the more ponderous animals would

AND THE REINDEER IN MIDDLE EUROPE. 339

be mostly captured by pitfalls, it has been seen that the American Indian pur-
sues the buffalo of his hunting-grounds with proportionably feeble weapons, and
that a single Esquimaux will enter into conflict with the polar bear when armed
only with his lance. Among the T’schutksches, who inhabit the northeastern
angle of Siberia as far as the Arctic ocean and Behring’ 8 straits, even boys of
from 12 to 14 years attack the bears with spears five feet long, and succeed in
killing them.

Opportunity i is constantly afforded us of witnessing what can be performed
by the ruder races of mankind with their simple implements. Stone knives of
obsidian, for instance, are not uncommon in Mexico, and in certain cases they
are even preferred to those of iron. We are told by Greton that the Damaras
dismember without difficulty the largest animals, ‘elephants and giraffes, by
means of the poorest instruments—thin pieces of iron fixed in a short handle—
while he himself could scarcely even pierce their hides with European knives of
the best quality. ‘he Caffres show remarkable skill in striking an object with
their peculiar missile at a distance of 20 or 30 paces. In doing this, they seize
the assagay between the thumb and upper finger joint, the point in front, raise
the hand to the level of the shoulder, not higher; draw the arm back and con-
trive, by striking the shaft against the wrist, to give it a vibratory motion from
point to butt, hurl it with great force, and the weapon, still vibrating during its
passage through the air, seldom fails of attaining its aim. To the same effect
may be cited their knob-kerris, sticks of an inch in diameter and four feet long,
terminating in a large round knob. 'These are usually cut from the off-shoots
of the ial olive tree, and are employed by the Caffres in hunting wild beasts
or destroying serpents. For this purpose they lay hold of the shaft of the
Weapon, measure with the eye the distance of the object, and throw the stick in
such a manner that, circling in the air, the thinner end shall strike the ground
a few feet from the point aimed at, and the knob fall, in the rebound, directly
on the victim. Equipped with such slight arms as these the Caffre seems insen-
sible to danger, and war has shown that, in bush-fighting, the best English troops
are scarcely a match for him.

We are, of course, not in a position to pronounce with certainty in what man-
ner the primitive man hunted those animals of which we have been speaking.
Had he been in possession of more formidable weapons than have been as yet
recognized, it is hardly possible but that some of them would have been found.
But that the animals in question existed as cotemporaries of man, and served
him for sustenance, has been placed beyond a doubt, and, in his encounters with
them, the primitive weapons of stone which have been already discovered will
appear to have been no such mean auxiliaries, when we consider the effects pro-
duced by the analogous and simple instruments wielded by the uncivilized tribes
of the present day.

This contest with the untamed animals gave the first impulse to an industrial
activity among men. Before all else the preparation of weapons was to be
thought of. Metals were then unknown, and men seized upon stone, especially
that known as flint, whose aptitude for piercing or cutting was easily recognized.
From this hatchets and the points of lances were formed and fitted to wooden
handles. The insufficiency. of these weapons led to progressive adaptations.
The beasts might fly, and must be overtaken by missiles; hence the javelin.
The fugitive beasts are not in this way easily reached ; a step in advance, there-
fore, was the bow, which sends the arrow to a greater distance. ‘The idea of
this was found in nature: man had before his eyes the curvature of branches of
trees by parasitic vines, and witnessed the elastic force thereby developed. The
cord of the first bows was supplied by strips cut with sharp stones from the
hides of animals, and the arrow was equipped at one end with a point carefully
wrought from flint. Stimulated by his necessities man would soon learn to
resort to ambush and other stratagems, and, gradually emboldened by success,

340 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH

be would no longer fear to attack, even with his rude and imperfect weapons,
the mightiest denizens of the wild—the mammoth, the rhinoceros, and the bear ;
nor was it seldom that these fearful enemies fell before his prowess or his craft.

The sedimentary deposits of this era contain numerous evidences of the
industry of these first men, together with their own bones. 'The celebrated dis-
coveries in the neighborhood of Abbeville, which we chiefly owe to the assiduous
researches of Boucher de Perthes , have furnished so many contributions to our
knowledge that we can now figure to ourselves an im age of those far remote and
obscure centuries during w hich mankind lived in caves of the earth, and merely
added to the stock of their implements by the employment of the bones of wild
animals in addition to the use of flint.

The few very ancient skulls hitherto found authorize us to speak only with
great reserve of the type of the races of men existing at that remote period.
The skull discovered in a cavern of the Neanderthal, near Diisseldorf, exhibits
an unusual thickness. ‘he projection of the supra-orbital ridges is enormously
great, the forehead narrow and very low. The development of the brain was
slight, and similar to that of certain Australians. Carl Vogt is of opinion that
this skull and that found by Schmerling in the cavern of Engis, near Liége, are
remains of a race no longer existing in Europe. But scattered discoveries like
these scarcely entitle us to such positive conclusions; it were well to await further
revelations before resigning ourselves to any settled determination on this point.
The size of the men of that distant date was not greater but rather less than at
present, notwithstanding the belief so generally prevalent that in prehistoric times
our earth was inhabited’ by a race of : giants. For the origin of this belief we
must look to the large elliptical mounds which occur in certain districts, the
so-called graves of the giants, in which are found in great numbers implements
and weapons of stone, indicating that these graves belong to a far-distant age and
were receptacles for the dead bodies of a primitive people. These graves are
sometimes more than a hundred feet long, so that, in comparison, our modern
sepulchres are mere molehills. But itis an error, from the magnitude of the graves
to infer that of the bodies deposited therein. As the dead, at the epoch 1 in ques-
tion, were buried, at least in part, without previous incineration, tolerably well
preserved skeletons have been obtained from the tombs, and these skeletons
evince that, so far from being the remains of giants, they are those of a race
inferior in stature to the or dinary proportions of the Caucasian. The age to which
these gigantic tombs are to be assigned cannot be exactly determined. Nor should
we be. justified in assuming that those who were deposited in them belonged to
the earliest race of men who inhabited Kurope after the disappearance of the ic Vv
investiture which, in the judgment of the most recent and judici ious Inquirers
wrapped that continent almost from side to side at the beginning of the present
geological era; for the implements of stone so commonly found in the tombs
bear witness to a considerable degree of skill, while the tombs themselves show
that the builders had made no contemptible progress in that branch of mechanics
which is oceupied with the management of heavy masses.

The strong projection of the superciliary ridge may possibly be a consequence
of the manner of life led by these cave-dw ellers. They must need be always on
the look-out against the beasts of which they were-in fear, or searching anxiously
for such as it was their business to capture for food. By ‘this incessant effort of
visual attention, the muscles of the part in question would become dispropor-
tionately leveloped, and the physiognomy be impressed with a peculiarly wild
and fier. aspect.

Wer, the men of that distant time cannibals ? The question scarcely admits
of berag positively answered. In Scotland, different skulls have been found, of
whic h some bear a resemblance to those of the ancient Britons, others to ‘dee
of the Australians. ‘Together with these have been discovered bones of chil-
dren which, according to Owen, bear upon them the traces of human teeth. Inter-

AND THE REINDEER IN MIDDLE EUROPE. 341

mingled with these remains, arrow-heads of flint occur and pottery of a very rude
description. Spring, who carefully examined the bones of children which were
found in Belgium, in the grotto of Chauveau, also arrived at the conclusion that
they were the remains of a repast made by cannibals. The proof offered by
these facts, however, is not of a convincing kind; on the contrary, it has been
met by strong objections. If men in the quaternary period devoured their fel-
low-creatures, it is difficult to suppose that the marrow of the bones would not be
a delicacy as eagerly sought as was that of the beasts slain in the chase. But
no human bones are found which have been opened in such a way as to extract
this much-coveted substance, while everywhere occur in abundance the bones of
mammalian animals which have been evidently fractured for that purpose.

A question has been suggested by Horn whether the marrow of the longer
bones of animals served the primeval men simply and solely as nourishment ?
It may have been used also for anointing the body, as well for protection against
noxious insects as against cold. Nor is it unlikely that one of its economical
uses may have been for rendering more pliant the skins which served for cloth-
ing. As an article of food the marrow must have been devoured raw, for most
of the bones show that they have undergone no action from fire. Indeed, dur-
ing the earliest stage of man’s existence in Europe, fire would seem to have been
unknown for any such purpose, as were also vessels artificially made of earth;
and if the marrow was to be melted for the processes just mentioned, it could only
be effected by the heat of the sun and in cavities of the rocks.

It has been remarked that in the bones of the human jaw which have come
down to us from the st:ll more recent age of stone, the incisor teeth are greatly
worn. Hence it has been hastily inferred that flesh was then eaten uncooked ;
but this view is in conflict with the discovery of charcoal under circumstances
which imply the former existence of a hearth; nor is it to be supposed that, after
haying learned the economical uses of fire, men would continue to devour their
food raw. ‘The abrasion of the incisors might perhaps proceed from a peculiar
mode of mastication. At this day the Esquimaux are said to use the front rather
than the molar teeth in manducating food.

The caverns in which at that remote era the bear, the tiger, and the hyena
found a lair, are easily distinguishable from those selected by man as a habita-
tion. In the former, the bones which occur are unbroken; they bear merely the
traces of having been gnawed by carnivorous beasts. In the haunts of the human
being, on the contrary, the bones are always broken in the direction of their length,
for the purpose of extracting the marrow. Our primitive ancestors devoured indis-
criminately the horse, the ox, the bear, the tiger, and even the rhinoceros, pro-
vided the chase was successful. If the mammoth fell into their hands, the thick
integument of the animal must indeed have been a prize for their rude dormito-
ries.

This first age of man must doubtless have comprised thousands of years. We
know how slow has been the development of the human race, and from the con-
sideration that each generation stands on the shoulders of the preceding and civil-
ization is but the product of the past, we can readily apprehend that the process
of improvement must have been tardy and difficult in proportion to the distance
of time which separates us from the period under contemplation. Accelerated
progress comes only with the experience and facilities of multiplied years. Long
must have been the ages when man’s life was but a struggle for existence and
for the bare satisfaction of the meaner necessities of his nature. Discoveries
have been too few and indecisive to afford us any distinct image of the habits
and mode of life which characterized this primordial condition of our race; but
it is gratifying to add that a discovery has at length been made which seems to
lead in that direction, and which is the more important inasmuch as it has given
a renewed impulse to explorations of the same kind.

In the year 1852, a laborer, named Bonnemaison, employed in repairing the

342 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH

roads near Aurignac, in the department of the Upper Garonne, observed that
rabbits when pursued took refuge in a hole on the slope of a hill in the vicinity.
Into this hole he thrust his arm, and, to his surprise, drew forth, not a rabbit, but
one of the long bones of a human skeleton. Proceeding to dig into the hill, he
encountered a large flat stone standing erect and closing a cavity into which the
rabbits had wrought an entrance. When Bonnemaison had removed the stone,
he saw before him a natural cavern wherein lay not less than 17 human skele-
tons. The discovery naturally caused a sensation in the neighborhood, and unfor-
tunately the mayor of Aurignac, Dr. Amiel, felt himself bound in duty to have
these human remains transferred to the churchyard and again buried. Not the
slightest misgiving seems for a moment to have been entertained by this conscien-
tious functionary that he was wresting from science an invaluable treasure. When
Lartet visited Aurignac, eight years later, and heard of this interesting discovery,
no one, not even the grave-digger, could point out the spot where the skeletons
had been interred. ‘Thus this rich harvest of ethnological knowledge seems for-
ever lost to the antiquary and geologist.

Lartet nevertheless failed not to visit the cavern, and to institute further
researches. ‘The rubbish which for hundreds or thousands of years had been
descending from the summit of the hill had buried the stone by which the mouth
of the grotto was closed, and had also covered a small terrace which existed in
front of it. These accumulations being removed, the original surface was again
exposed to view, and upon this were found a number of calcareous stones, the
remains of an ancient hearth, as well as the bones of many different animals and
objects of human industry. In the bed of earth which covered the floor of the
grotto were found bones of the cave bear, the aurochs, the horse, the reindeer,
&c., which had been neither broken nor gnawed, and, besides these, instruments
of flint-stone, a weapon constructed of the antlers of the reindeer which had been
sharpened at one end, together with 18 small disks formed of a white shelly sub-
stance and perforated through the middle. ‘These last were recognized as being
derived from shells of a cockle (Cardiwm) which is an inhabitant of the ocean.

The bones found on the terrace before the grotto had all been fractured, as if
to lay bare the enclosed marrow. Still distinctly to be traced were the notches
made by the stone hatchets or knives which had been used to detach the flesh,
as well as marks of the teeth of the hyenas which had resorted hither during the
night to feast on what remained of the spoils. Even the excrements of these
wild animals were still distinguishable. Some of the bones bore traces also of
having been submitted to the action of fire. The list of the animals to which
the bones pertained was by no means a brief one. Among extinct species were
recognized the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the gigantic deer, the great bear and
tiger and hyena of the caves; among those still existing, the aurochs, the horse,
the ass, the stag, the reindeer, the roe, the wild boar, the wolf, the fox, the badger,
and the polecat.

The objects of human art and industry found in front of the grotto were very
numerous. Sharpened instruments of flint, mostly knives, were discovered to the
amount of not fewer than a hundred, and, mingled with them what appeared
to be missiles intended for the sling. The circumstance that these objects
were accompanied by cores or nuclei of flint, the material from which they were
made, would seem to indicate that some of them had been manufactured at this
spot. Other objects also were found in considerable number, wrought of bone,
and especially of the antlers of the reindeer, such as points for arrows without
barbs, a shape with which we become familiar at a later age ; a bodkin formed
of the more compact bone of the roedeer and sharply pointed, so as to be well
suited for piercing the hides of animals in sewing them together ; and still another
of smaller size, provided with a very sharp point, which had probably been
employed for tattooing. Many flat pieces of reindeer’s horn, polished on both
sides, closely resemble, according to Steinhauer, of the museum of antiquities at

AND THE REINDEER IN MIDDLE EUROPE. 343

Copenhagen, certain implements still in use among the Laplanders for pressing
the rough seams. Another plate of the same substance exhibits on one side |
many transverse lines traced at equal distance from each other, and interrupted
in the middle so as to form two rows. On both faces of the plates are notches
cut still deeper than the lines, but also at equal intervals. May not these have
been counters for marking the values of different objects, or, as Steinhauer con-
jectures, memorials of the chase? J'inally, a fang of the cave bear, ( Ursus spe-
leus,) perforated lengthwise, as if for suspension as an ornament or amulet,
affords us rather an elaborate work of men’s hands, a primitive attempt of art to
imitate the animal form, being carved into the rude likeness of the head of a
bird.

It is not without interest to remark that the bones of the carnivorous animals
found around the hearth were entire, and showed no mark proceeding from the
use of the flint knives. Even the hyenas appear to have rejected them. The
bones which had been opened and were gnawed, belonged especially to the
aurochs, (Bison ewrop@us,) the reindeer, and the horse. The skulls of these
animals were wanting ; probably they had been broken to pieces in order to come
at the brain, and the fragments thrown into the valley. Pallas tells us that, at
this day, the Samoeides eat the brain and marrow of the reindeer raw.

From the above facts Lartet has drawn the following conclusions : The burial-
place of Aurignac reaches back to the highest antiquity of our race ; a proof of
this is furnished by the fauna found on the site, and which in part has long dis-
appeared from the earth. The depth of the layer of ashes, as well as the great
number of animal bones, show that, in front of this grotto funeral feasts were
held, and that it has been opened at different times to receive new bodies, until
the cavity was filled. On the other hand, the uninjured bones found in the interior
of the cave evince that offerings have been here consecrated to the dead. ‘The
various implements were deposited that the deceased might avail themselves
thereof on entering upon another life; a custom which we know to be still in use
among various uncivilized tribes. 'The carnivorous animals which man seems
not to have eaten may, by means of their skins or in some other manner, have
borne a part in these primitive rights of sepulture.

The absence of all traces of pottery is a further proof of the very remote anti-
quity of the human remains here discovered. We see, however, that, even at that
distant time, man was not destitute of a certain degree of practical skill. Already
there are instruments of horn, and the bodkin in particular was not ill adapted
for sewing together the skins which protected the person from thorns as well as
cold. Nay, the rude inhabitant aspired to some amount of luxury, though, it
must be confessed, of a very primitive sort. The disks pierced in the middle
must have served to form either an armlet or necklace, and in the bear’s fang
above spoken of we have perhaps the oldest monument of art which has descended
to us from its earliest infancy.

When Bonnemaison, the laborer who discovered the grotto, first entered it,
there were within it several entire skulls. According to the recollection of Dr.
Amiel, who counted the bodies, the remains were those of a race under the aver-
age size, and the skulls were brachycephalic or round, which accords with the
discoveries made at Moulin Quignon, and in other caverns. A human maxillary
bone found by Lartet, imbedded in the loose soil within the grotto, points also to
the same inferiority of stature.

In reference to these discoveries Sir Charles Lyell expresses himself in the
following manner :

If the fossil memorials of Aurignac have been correctly interpreted—if we have here before
us at the northern base of the Pyrenees a sepulchral vault with skeletons of human beings,
consigned by friends and relatives to their last resting place—if we have also at the portal
of the tomb the relics of funeral feasts, and within it indications of viands destined for the

use of the departed on their way to a land of spirits—while among the funeral gifts are
weapons wherewith in other fields to chase the gigantic deer, the cave lion, the cave bear

344 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH

and woolly rhinoceros—we have at last succeeded in tracing back the sacred rites of burial,
and, more interesting still, a belief in a future state, to times long anterior to those of history
and tradition.

It may perhaps seem strange that this depository of the dead at Aurignac
should have been preserved for us so many thousands of years, and not have
been swept. away by the diluvial cataclysms. But when it is considered that,
excepting at certain points where the upheaval of the soil has been distinctly
ascertained, the height of these inundations over the regions in question has not
exceeded 600 to 750 feet, it is clear that the grotto of “Aurignac, which has an
elevation of 1,290 feet, was beyond their eet There are various other cav-
erns, moreover, in which proof exists of the cotemporaneous existence of man and
extinct animals of the quaternary period. In a general point of view, these
caverns may be divided into three groups, those which have been inhabited by
men, those which have served as burial places, and those which have formed the
lair of the greater carnivorous animals. ‘These last contain numerous bones, the
remains of the prey dragged thither by such wild beasts as the tiger, the hyena,
and the bear. The bones are gnawed, never split lengthwise, nor do any traces
occur which would point to the presence of the human race. The caverns, on
the other hand, which have formed the habitations of man are readily to be dis-
tinguished, even in the absence of human remains, by the existing bones being
plat lengthwise i in the manner which was uniformly employed to get at the mar-
row. In certain caverns are found one or more overlying strata containing
remains and corresponding to different epochs. The grottoes which have served
as burial places are usually small, and entered by a narrow passage, so as to be
readily closed by a flat stone in order to protect the dead bodies from the rapacity
of hyenas and other carnivorous animals.

It is easily conceived that many caverns exist which do not fall within either
of these three classes. Some of them, which have two entrances, may have been
emptied of their contents by floods, or been completely filled up with mud and
rubbish. Others have been inhabited by man, after having been previously
occupied as dens by wild beasts. Others still have been hollowed out by men,
in order to be used for different purposes. In the latter, as in those exposed to
the action of water, much circumspection is requisite to determine the age of the
remains which are found therein.

The principal caverns pertaining to the age of the great cave bears are the
following: (1.) The grotto of Vallieres, in the department of the Loire and
Cher. It contains bones of the rhinocer ros, the hyena, the gigantic deer, the
bear, the aurochs, a horse, (Hquus adamiticus,) mingled with stone hatehets, of
the kind found in the valley of the Somme. (2.) The grotto of Arcy-sur-Yonne.
Under a more recent deposit it presents two strata of the quaternary period.
Here were found bones of the elephant, the rhinoceros, the bear, and the hyena,
intermingled with stone implements ; also the two branches of a human under
jaw, with teeth well preserved. (3.) The cave of Fontaine, in the environs of
Toul, containing bones of the bear, the hyena, and the rhinoceros, as well as
objects of human industry, including a needle of bone, provided with an eye.
(4.) The cave of Pontil, in the department of Herault. It contains a lower bed
bearing the remains of ‘the large extinct animals, and an upper one with human
remains, charcoal, and implements of stone, bone, and buckhorn, mingled with
the bones of horses and bisons. On the surface have been collected the bones of
the polecat, tog tig: with smooth stone hatchets, and objects which point to the
age of bronze. (5.) The grotto of Moustier, in the district of Peyzac, (Perigord.)
Here were presented the remains of the cave hyena, the great bear, and scales
of the molar teeth of the elephant, such as were found at Aurignac and other
places which had been inhabited by men. With the animal remains were min-
gled stone implements bearing a resemblance to those found at Abbeville. (6.)
The upper grotto of Massat, in the department of Ariege. Here, besides many
animal bones, have been recovered two human teeth and an arrow-head ot bone.

AND THE REINDEER IN MIDDLE EUROPE. 345

The caverns in which such discoveries have been made are not confined alone
to France ; in other countries revelations of the same kind have taken place.
Thus, for example, Colonel Wood has brought to light, in the cavern of Longhole,
(England,) the remains of two different species of the rhinoceros, (Lthinoceros ticho-
rlinus and I. hemitoechus,) together with knives of flint. In the cave of Welis,
in Somersetshire, in the Wokey caye, and in several caverns of the peninsula of
Gower, in Wales, bones of extinct animals have been found, but the cotemporary
presence of man ‘has not as yet been substantiated. 'The celebrated Gailenreu-
ther cave in Franconia is well known to be rich in remains of wild animals. The

grotto of Chiango, near Vicenza, and that of Laglio, on the shore of Lake Como,
contain numerous bones of cave bears, mixed with some implements and the
relics of rude earthen-ware, a rare contribution from so remote an epoch of the
human race. In Sicily have been found, in the grotto of Macagnome, bones of
the Hlephas antiquus, a cotemporary of man, together with bones of other beasts,
and the remnants of human industry. Were we to enumerate all the caverns of
this sort, the list would be a long one. We find such in all parts of the earth,
and it is not seldom, as for instance in Syria, Brazil, &ce., that they afford evidence
of the cotemporary existence of man and fossil species. Nor are the discoveries
which prove this synchronism of man with the great extinct mammalia limited
to the caves alone. ‘The valleys of the Somme, the Thames, &c., furnish the
traces of human industry in the form of implements wrought of flint-stone, in
common with the bones of the mammoth and rhinoceros. Especially rich are
these kinds of depositories in France, Belgium, and England.

But how was it that man and these great mammalia of the quaternary era pen-
etrated to England, after migrating from the north of Asia, where they perhaps
existed at the pliocene period? It is readily seen that the migrations may have
taken place before the irruption of the waters into the English channel, or if
later, over the ice of the frozen sea, for the winters, at the date of the upper sili-
cious deposit in the valley of the Somme, must have been very rigid.

The era of the cave bears embraces several thousands of years. During this
period the temperature in Europe was less inhospitable, but on the approach of
the epoch known as that of the reindeer a recurrence of intense cold must have
taken place. »

It is now some 30 years since the statement was authoritatively made in
Switzerland that the glaciers had, at a geological period of the earth’s history
which can scarcely yet be considered as having passed away, occupied a far
wider extent than at present, and not only descended to the level country, but
piled themselves to a considerable height against the wall of the Jura, opposite
to the Alps. Regarded at first by the older geologists as a rash and visionar 4
hypothesis, the elacier theory has ame to gain ground, basing itself on
researches restricted to no latitudes, but laying under contribution alike the north
and south, the mountains and the valleys; so that in these later times its most
bigoted adversaries will scarcely venture to deny that it has always followed
with ser upulous steps the observation of facts, and has never accepted anything
as proved which could not be established by direct reference to the glaciers and
arctic seas of the present day.

The rocks of Norway and Sweden, as well as those of Iceland, are in so many
places rubbed away, scratched and furrowed, that it may with certainty be
assumed that the agent by which these phenomena were produced has been in
operation over the w whole region, aud that where they fail to appear they have
been obliterated by subsequent influences, particularly elementary abrasion.
The polished and furrowed surfaces, all tending in a certain direction, are found
at a height of 5,000 feet in the Norwegian mountains, so that few peaks and
ridges rise above the level of the phenomenon. This has undoubtedly greatly

sontributed to the uniformity of outlme im the mountain chains of Norw ay ;
while in the Alps, where the height of the phenomenon reaches 8,000 feet, the

346 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH

uniformly rounded summits, the bellying convexity, as it is called, of the sur-
face show themselves only ibelox that limit, and above it first Ape eS age the
peculiar form, the individualizing structure which gives to the whole chain so
striking and sublime an effect.

As in all other mountain ranges, these scoured and furrowed surfaces stand
here in the most exact parallelism with the heaps of gravel and sand, as well as
the boulders, which occur now on the sides and now on the beds of the valleys,
and which have evidently been transported from far distant localities. In Sean-
dinavia, equally as in the neighborhood of the Alps, hundreds of places can be
pointed out where blocks of enormous weight and magnitude with sharp edges,
and which can therefore by no possibility “have been rolled, are found leagues
away from their place of origin and deposited on a substratum of rock widely
differing from their own structure. The direction of the furrows and strie on
the abraded surfaces accords with the route which these blocks must have fol-
lowed in their migratory movement; as it shows also the points from which the
moving force derived its impulse.

In various charts the observations made in Scandinavia and Finland respecting
the form and arrangement of these abrasions have been collected and compared.
Conformable for the most part with the direction of the great valleys and the
general slope, the highest point of which is found in the long coast-chain of
Norway, there are yet points where isolated mountain summits rise, as in the
Alps, to a loftier altitude, and from these the traces of the abrasion radiate into
the subjacent valleys.

From a collation of the phenomena under consideration, the abraded surfaces
with their rounded outlines and linear furrowings, the angular and unworn
erratic rocks, the accumulations of gravel and sand which either run along the
sides of the valleys or form in their beds transverse walls or ramparts, convex in
the direction of the descending slope, there can be no longer any reasonable
doubt that we have before us in these phenomena the work of glaciers—glaciers:
which once covered all the surfaces on which this assemblage of phenomena pre-
sents itself, and which therefore overspread as with a continuous roof of ice the
whole of the Scandinavian peninsula and Finland.

M. Kjerulf, of Christiania, calls notice very justly to the observations of Dr.
Rink, who passed several years in Greenland and there attentively studied the
ice envelope of the interior country. A continent of wide dimensions, not
smaller than the whole Scandinavian peninsula, is here seen covered with an
enormous ice-crust, which attains a height of 1,000* feet, and which exhibits a
general movement from the interior towards the western coast. Slowly but
steadily does this mass, bearing its adventitious freight of rocks, glide downward
to the sea, where it breaks off in immense fragments; and it is these fragments

f=)
which as icebergs, often of colossal size, are borne by the ocean currents even as

toler)
far as the latitude of the Azores, melting away gradually in their progress, .and
depositing their rocky burden on the bottom of the sea.

Precisely the same phenomenon was once exhibited in Norway, Sweden, and
Finland. ‘The land was hidden under a vast covering of ice, which carried down
towards the sea the pebbles and gravel, or, if the expression may be allowed, the
emery which served this stupendous polishing apparatus as a substratum. The
whole mass of Norwegian rock was worn down and striated as we now see it;
but the Arctic ocean itself which surrounded this pre-historical Greenland stood
at first deeper than the present one; for at many points the abraded surfaces,
with the furrows well preserved, stretch down under the water. If this cireum-
stance be not of itself sufficient to explain the refrigeration of this northern
region in a degree equal to that of Creenland, it is to be considered that the greater
elevation of the land above the sea must to some extent have co-operated to that

*2,000 feet perpendicular at the heads of the fiords which intersect the coast. (Lyell’s
Ant. of Man.)

AND THE REINDEER IN MIDDLE EUROPE. 347

effect. But where surfaces abraded by the glaciers show themselves under the
present sea the water must certainly have once stood at a lower level, for the
ice descends not beneath the plane of the sea, but is melted and undermined by
the latter, as is witnessed in the case of the polar glaciers, under which explor-
ers have found it practicable to penetrate at ebb tide to considerable distances.*

The sea meantime climbed upwards, the land became warmer, the general
ice-envelope melted, the loftier ridges came to light, while the glacial mass sep-
arated into isolated glaciers which filled the valleys to their mouths. Now, first
occur distinct moraines, as in the glaciers of to-day, lateral moraines, terminal
moraines, ramparts of rock heaped in lines, of which the outermost stretch to the
present coast, while the innermost rise to a certain height on the walls of the
valleys, or form barriers across them, where they denote the halting point of the
retreat before the sea. The sea followed to the height of some 500 feet, for at
this elevation are found banks of shells containing mollusks which belong to the
Arctic ocean. At the same time the mighty masses of ice, as they melted, gave
forth streams which, dammed up here and there by the terminal barriers of the
glaciers, formed inland seas, while the fine material, which all glacier currents
bear along with them in great quantities, settled down in the form of clay, marl,
and sand. The ocean on the one side, the inland waters on the other, plied
their work of erosion on the older masses underlying the ice envelope; the gla-
ciers continued to bring down erratic blocks which, after being long chari-
oted on their icy vehicle, finally sank on the sites where we now find them.
And thus was gradually brought about the geological period, in which the gla-
ciers extend only at a few places to the sea, or else impend at a considerable
height above its level, while in the bosom of the valleys reigns, for the most
part, a mild and genial climate.

This prehistorical glacier period of the north is no romance; its consistency
with observed facts is undeniable. The series of these facts is thus given by M.
Kjerulf :

What do we find to be the prevailing arrangement among these glacial masses piled up
and distributed by the sea? Undermost, where they could not again be subjected to the
action of water, sand, and rolled stones, that is to say, scoured sand and stones. In these
we have the material which was moved forward under the pressure of the ice over the face
of the rock. Would we learn the direction of the scouring process, it is to the blocks thus
moved that we must have recourse. As these are mostly broken to pieces, small and rounded,
they have been called ‘‘rolled stones,’ though this, strictly speaking, is an improper name,
and they might more properly be called ‘‘scoured stones.”” They have not been rolled, but
have been reciprocally crushed by one another, and fixed in the ice, like the diamond in the
graver’s burin, they have traced furrows and striz in the subjacent rock. Above the scoured
sand banks of rolled stones lie the different sorts of loam ; first, calcareous loam, marl loam ;
in precincts open to the waters of the glaciers, sedimentary lime and loam brought down
from the silurian strata; next shell loam generally, where the elevation was not too great or
the currents of cold, fresh water, produced by thawing, not too powerful; then brick earth,
without shells, referable perhaps to an age when the inundation of the interior country was
at its highest; then sand, and on the top of all sand loam.

The great erratic blocks first occur above the beds of scoured stones, loam,
and sand; in Scandinavia they have been brought into the position in which we
now find them in some instances by cakes of floating ice, but for the most part
by the glaciers themselves.

We have thus a long tract of time before us, during which a state of things

5 .
like that now existing in Greenland prevailed, and an icy ocean washed the

*The statement given by Sir Charles Lyell, in his Geological Evidences of the Antiquity
of Man, varies in some respects from the views of the text: ‘‘ When these masses of ice
reach the friths of Greenland they do not melt or break up into fragments, but continue their
course in a solid form under the salt water, grating along the rocky bottom, which they
must polish and score at depths of hundreds, and even of more than a thousand feet. At
length, when there is water enough to float them, huge portions, having broken off, fill
Batfin’s bay with icebergs of a size exceeding any which could be produced by ordinary
land glaciers.” (Chap. xiii.)

348 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH

glacier-crowned coasts of Scandinavia and Finland, which together constituted
at that time a separate continent. But it is not in this frozen continent alone
that the proofs of such a polar sea are to be found. The whole level country
of central Europe from Holland to Russia is strewn with erratic blocks, with
rolled or scoured stones, which have all been derived from Scandinavia and
Finland, and whose southern limit is determined by the elevation of the land
which passes under the name of the Weser chain, the Hartz and Eyz mountains,
and the Riesengebirge. To the east the limit of these erratic blocks winds
through the Russian lowlands to the Ural, and thence around to Finland by so
regular a curve as to be almost susceptible of being described with a pair of
compasses on the map. Here, then, we have the circle of dispersion of the icy
ocean in question, within which the blocks were stranded, and from the cireuit
of which it is at once to be discerned that the Scandinavian-Finnish region
was an island, and that a broad arm of the sea connected the present Arctic ocean
and the White sea with the Baltic.

Il. More than 20 years ago, an English geologist, Smith, came to London
with a collection of shells, which he laid before the director of the appropriate
department of the British | museum, with the request that he would pronounce
on their value and import. “My dear sir,” said the director, after a cursory
examination, “you have been taken in by some whale fisher; ieee are muscles
which have been picked up on the shores of the Arctic ocean, but they are in
bad condition, weather-worn, and in part broken to pieces, and are at best only
fit to be thrown into the street.” “1 did not buy the shells,” replied Smith ; ey
collected them myself from a stratum of argillaceous earth on the banks of the
Clyde, in Scotland, where they form an ancient sea-beach.” Nor was there in
this any misrepresentation ; there exists in Scotland a formation which contains
a complete arctic fauna of the class of shells im question.

Since that time such researches have been multiplied. In the whole extent
of the North American continent as low as New York, in England and Scotland,
in Scandinavia and Finland, and far to the east among the wastes of northern
Russia, occur everywhere the same formations; banks of rounded stones,
(Scheuersteine,) with superincumbent clay, marl, and sand, containing the specilic
mollusks of the high Arctic seas, or such kinds as only attain their full dimen-
sions in those waters, but which degenerate more and more in size as they

approach a southern latitude; whence it is to be inferred that their true home
must be sought in the higher regions of the north.

(uite recently § Sars, of Christiania, has directed his special attention to the
shell banks, which occur in southern Norway, and has, with his characteristic
sagacity and knowledge of the distribution of individual species, combined the
results of his observations. From the collections of shells as well as from their
geological stratification, he has been enabled to distinguish two different groups
of shell deposits, of which one corresponds to the highest advance of the Arctic
sea, the other to the later epoch of its retreat. To the former are related the
mon elevated accumulations of shells, which reach a height of more than 400
feet above the present level of the sea, and the deposits of loam which le imme-
diately above the gravel and rounded stones, attaining at most a height of 240
feet above the sea. These are the lines of strand and the more deep-lying deposits
of the glacial sea at the period of its greatest extension. In these deposits of
the sea, at its highest elevation, there are found, according to M. Sars, either
species which occur only in the north of Norway, and on similar glacial lines of
coast, or else such as, when met with in South Norway, England and Scotland,
evidently languish and. contrive to subsist only under a diminished form; while
on the north coast and in the Arctic ocean, where the full conditions of their
existence are present, they attain the size w hich they exhibit in the geological
strata. Here, then, the high northern fauna flourished in its fullest development,
and those species which at present only reach their full size and complete organ-

AND THE REINDEER IN, MIDDLE EUROPE. 349

ization in a glacial sea, maintained them at that distant time in one which
washed the southern coasts of Norway. <A farther note-worthy fact results from
these researches of M. Sars. There exists on the northern and western coasts
of Norway a beautiful coral, which forms large rose-colored branches, and which
is only found in the rocky chasms of the ocean, at the immense depth of 900
to 1 ,000 feet. C. Vogt collected some pieces of this coral (Lophelia prolifera)
during an exeursion to the Pippertind glacier, where the poor Laplanders of the
coast, in fishing for cod, had probably brought it up from the sea with their
angles.

‘This coral likewise occurs in the older shell- strata, but only in those beds which
lie almost immediately on the beach of the sea, or ‘under its level at a depth of
from 60 to 90 feet. In these old submarine banks of shells the stems of the
coral are still adherent to the rocks, but they are all dead, since the depth of
water requisite for their life is wanting. These facts admit of an easy explana-
tion. At the time when these zoophytes lived, the sea stood some 600 feet higher
than at present, and, of course, there was the depth of water required for their
existence.

Above these older strata, with their testacea of the high north, lie now the
more recent shell-strata which ascend to a level of some 300 feet, and corre-
spond with the period of the retreat of the glacial ocean. Here the remains of
the same shell-fish occur, which live at present on the south coast of Nerway,
though isolated species are also present, derived from the arctic fauna. The
arctic species had in general withdrawn towards the north as soon as the retreat
of the sea commenced, while the temperature of the subsiding waters became
like that which now prevails along the coasts of Norway.

All these results are further confirmed by discoveries recently made in the
depths of the great Swedish lakes, the Wettersee and the Wenersee, and which
have been described by Lovén from his own observation. In effect, there have
been here captured specimens of crustacea, several species of which, though very
different from those now living in the sea, are clearly related to marine forms;
among these a species, Misis relicta, (Geisselkrebs, ) whose congeners live alto-
eether in the ocean, and those resembling this new variety only in the most
northern latitudes. Another, of the species Gammarus loricatus, which is,
thus far, found only in the Arctic ocean, in Baflin’s bay, Greenland, and Spitz-
bergen; the Zdothea entomon, (Schlachtwurm,) which only occurs in the Arctic
and the Baltic; and still a another, a small Pontoporcia affinis, which is still found
in the Baltic, but whose related species only occur in the @reeniaad seas. These
singular discoveries show clearly that the Wenersee and Wettersee, the former
of which has an elevation of 300 feet above the present plane of the Baltic,
were formerly in communication with the general ocean. At that time, therefore,
these lakes were deep fiords, colonized “by a marine fauna which altogether
resembled that of the polar ocean, and the period of communication undoubtedly
corresponded with the higher advance of the glacial seas as indicated in Nor-
way and Sweden. The sea subsided or the land was upheaved; the inlets
were more and more detached, and finally altogether separated from the sea,
and have since slowly and gradually been filled with fresh w ater; this change
having been effected appar ently as well by sources in the bed of the lake as by the
few tributary streamlets. Now, few marine animals endure the sudden transition
to brackish water, and fewer still, when the change is very gradual, allow them- '
selves to be borne over into it. he colony of the sea gradually died out,
leaving in the depths only a few crustacea, which, as has been seen, correspond
in part to the species of the Baltic sea, and in part to those of the Arctic ocean.

But there are other not less interesting conclusions to be drawn from these
few species existing in the lakes of the interior, as well as from most of the
species of fish now living in the Baltic. In eenel ral there can be recognized a
close relationship with polar and arctic forms, even when the species are not the

350 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH

same. In general, also, there is a diversity observable as regards the species
living on the western side of Norway. From this, as weil as ‘from the difference
of the testacea, which are met with in the older deposits, Lovén has very justly
inferred that the basin of the Baltic was once connected with the Aretic ‘ocean
by an arm stretching eastwardly over Lakes Ladoga and Onega to the White
sea, but was, on the other hand, separated by a narrow strip of land or isthmus
from the western ocean, with which it now communicates through the sound.
This separation must first have taken place when the glacial sea was on the
retreat. ‘T'estaceous beds are met within the region of the eastern sea at an
elevation of 130 feet, and these correspond in some species with the arctic char-
acter. But, as Lovén properly remarks, the fortunes of the glacial fauna of
the east differed from those of the same fauna in the west. The basin of the
Baltic was by degrees wholly separated from the polar seas, and the water, by
progressive freshening and depression, became more and more unsuitable for
arctic life; while, at the west, the sea surrounding the southern coasts of Nor-

way stood constantly ia open connection with the Arctic ocean, yet gradually
acquired during the retreat a higher temperature, so that the northern fauna was
driven thence, and was replaced by southern forms. 'This substitution did not
take place in the Baltic. The opening of the sound at a later period brought
into that basin no new species from the western sea. 'The Baltic basin, there-
fore, grew poor through the deperdition of unreplaced species; while the western
sea, by the accession of the fauna belonging to warmer waters, acquired new
affluence.

Middle Europe also has had its glacial era. On both sides of the Alps, in
the Vosges and the Black forest, in the Pyrenees and other great mountain
ranges of Europe and lesser Asia, the stone barriers and erratic blocks, the
rolled pebbles, the polished and grooved rocks, which speak so plainly of gla-
cier action, have been pointed out.

At the time of the so-called reindeer epoch, an advance of the glaciers took
place for the second time, and this in consequence of a great inundation which
was slow in attaining its ultimate limits. By this incursion, most of the low-
lying tracts of Europe were laid under water. In Belgium, according to Dupont,
the flood must have reached a height of 450 feet. To this inundation are to
be ascribed the masses of gravelly clay, or calcareous mud, which have covered
a part of France and Belgium.

The cold during this new overflow must again have become intense, but not
so formidable as during the great glacial era. As most caverns were submerged,
and men were forced to withdraw into the more elevated regions, a chasm pre-
sents itself in the paleo-archeological documents of this period, which, from the
indications we possess, embraced several thousand years. Glaciers are not sud-
denly melted; valleys do not soon become filled with alluvium reaching to a
height of some hundreds of feet on their side-walls; tracts of country and
mountain chains cannot be heaved, at a jerk, as it were, into the air and raised
high above their previous level. Processes of this sort require time, much time;
and it is only by slow degrees that a state of great refrigeration, even when its
causes have ceased, is transmuted into one of warmth and comfort.

After the final retreat of the waters, the caves would again come into the
possession of men, and numerous and ’ valuable proofs of human industry be
prepared, which have been preserved even to the present time.

Here commences the true reindeer era. The reindeer, as the most charac-
teristic representative of the northern fauna, had, beyond a doubt, inhabited,
with the cave-bear and mammoth, the south of France. But it is at this period
that it first makes its appearance in great numbers. It now spread in large
herds as far as the Pyrenees, leaving no grounds for supposing that it had been
introduced by man and kept in ancient folds. On the contrary, it lived here in
its wild and naturally free condition. The last mammoths were yet alive, as

AND THE REINNEER IN MIDDLE EUROPE. 351

were also the rhinoceros and the great tiger. But the hyenas and the cave-
bears existed no longer in middle Europe. An entire fauna of the larger ani-
mals becomes extinct, and man witnesses its disappearance from the earth.

The anthropological facts which we possess in regard to this far distant time
are of course not very numerous, but not the less do they enable science to gather
the general characteristics of the human race which lived at the reindeer era and
in the period of stone implements which followed it. The stature of that race
was small and the head round, (brachycephalous,) the face broad and square, the
hair black.* The skull was usually thicker than with men of the present day.
Nor is there anything which announces that the people of the reindeer era were
particularly intellectual. From negative proofs it may be inferred that man at
that remote period believed in another life, but there is nothing on which we can
found an inquiry as to forms of worship. We find no figures or symbols which
point to a veneration of idols. ‘There has, indeed, been discovered a rude figure
of a woinan, carved on an elephant’s tooth, but the idolatrous destination of this
relic is not generally recognized. But while no religious idea can well be
attached to it, it affords a proof that an advance had been made in art, which we
cannot but consider highly creditable for this dawn of its development. The
Marquis de Vibraye, to whom we owe this discovery, remarks:

The mau of the earliest age makes himself known through his works ; he connects himself
through his relics with the extinct animals; and finally becomes the revealer of his own
existence by bequeathing us a representation of his corporeal figure.

Besides this rude female image, there is also a naked human figure, which
seems to bear a staff on the shoulder, that has come down to us on a piece of
reindeer’s horn. ‘The meagreness of the haunches and thighs, the prominent
belly, somewhat reminds us of that type of Australian savages which we have

oS
learned to recognize from frequent representations by travellers, as for instance,

from the atlas annexed to the voyage of Dumout d’Urville. The head is
delineated only by a circular line. Accompanying this figure are two horses’
heads, the neck of one horse being partially veiled by the human form, which
again is closely followed by what is apparently intended to represent a reptile of
considerable length, perhaps a serpent, but, judging from the shape of the head,
body, and tail, with some traces of fins, more probably a large eel trailed along
by the person in advance.

To the human figures in question is limited the personal representation which
has so far descended to us, of the race of men living at the period of their execu-
tion, and it may well be supposed that they afford imperfect grounds for ethno-
logical deductions. Yet, rude as they are, they do not want a certain interest
arising from the consideration that in presenting the human form entirely nude,
they may, perhaps, indicate that such was the habitual condition of that ancient
population, an inference which the climate of the south of France, at least in
summer, would render credible.

The discovery at Aurignac has already initiated us into the burial rites of the
oldest known period of our race, nor had the man of the reindeer age changed
the ceremonial which tradition had handed down to him. The grotto of Frontal
at Furfooz, in the neighborhood of Dimant, disclosed very nearly the same pecu-
liarities as the sepulchral cavern of Aurignac. ‘The remains of thirteen human
bodies, thrown one upon another by the floods of the diluvial era, have been here
discovered at a depth of 51 fect under the gravel, and at an elevation of 390
feet. The entrance of the grotto had been originally closed with a flat stone,
but this barrier has been destroyed by the irruptive waters. Two skulls only
remain entire; as yet, however, the conclusions to which these curious relies of

*This round-headed race disappeared in great part after the immigration of the Aryschen
race (dolichocephalous or oval-headed) from Asia, but it has not wholly perished. Accord-
ing to Nicolucci, it is still found in Hungary (the Magyars,) in Liguria, in the country of
the Basques, in Finland, Lapland, &c.

352 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH

the antideluvian era may conduct us, have not been discussed. According to
Beneden and Dupont, there is a ereat difference between the two remaining
skulls: the one is orthognathous, that is to say, with the teeth and bones of the
chin in a right line, while the other is prognathous, having the jaws and teeth
projecting; s ‘still the latter is said to have a higher forehead, and the cavity of
the skull a greater capacity. Together with chede remains was found an urn,
which, unfortunately, is broken to pieces. In this we have the oldest extant
specimen of the yet ‘infant art of pottery. This burial vault contains, besides
the above objects, instruments of stone, an awl and needle of bone, an arrow point
and an articulation of the foot, which has evidently been wrought into some instru-
ment. Thus it appears that the men of the reindeer period, like those of the
age of the cave-bear, were accustomed to deposit with their dead objects of
industry and ornament, which the deceased had doubtless been in the habit of
using. As regards the bones of foxes, goats, and wild boars, which are also
present, it is uncertain whether they have been borne hither by floods or are the
remains of offerings which, as at Aurignac, have been set apart for the deceased.
In the wide space before this cavernous sepulchre have been found numerous
implements of stone and reindeer’s horn, and, moreover, traces of a hearth, which
prebably indicates that a funeral feast had been held at the entrance of the
cavern.

The people of the reindeer era were not acquainted with husbandry, and as
little with the domestication of animals.* No instruments for fishing have been
recognized. If the weapons of the age were still imperfect, they answered all
necessary purposes, for we have already had occasion to notice the skill with
which barbarous races of men contrive, with but rude instruments, to slay the
swiftest and fiercest animals.

The beasts which lived cotemporaneously with man were, at this period,
besides the reideer, which had now attained its widest distribution through
middle Europe, the following: the aurochs (Bison europewus,) the horse, which
has improperly been regarded as differing from that of the present day, the pri-
meval ox (Urus pr imigenius, ) the musk-ox (Los moschatus,) the deer with
collossal antlers (Megaceros hibernicus,) the elk (Cervus alces,) the roe-buck
( Cervus dama,) the wild goat, the chamois, the wild boar, which was either rare
or its flesh not eaten, the elutton, the beaver, lemming, a species of hare, (Lago-
mys, ) and the marmot. Among birds, we may mention the great auk, the heath
cock, the moor-hen, the snowy owl, &e. It affords an argument for ‘the preva-
lence of a great desree of cold in our region at the time in question, that the
greater part of the animals just cited live most generally at the present day in
high northern latitudes, or on the snow-covered peaks of the Pyrenees and Alps.
The musk-ox descends in America only to the parallel of 60°, and habitually
frequents the limits of per petual snow.

In this reindeer period, the use of metals was unknown. Mankind continued
to avail themselves of stone for the construction of their implements, though,
together with this, they occasionally employed bone, horn, and ivory. There is
evidence that the commerce of men at this time alre: idy extended to considerable
distances. The population of Belgium, for instance, sought for silex in Cham-
pagne, which they might have found still nearer, in the vicinity of Maestricht
and in Hainault. From this it may probably be inferred that, in certain direc-
tions, communication was attended with much difficulty. Bridges and artificial
roads there were none, nor is there anything to show that resort was then had to

*A fragment of a reindeer’s skull, which still contained the arrow-head of stone with which
the animal was slain, shows that the reindeer was hunted as a beast of chase. It has also
been observed that the cartilage was still attached to bones which have been thrown away
by man after the extraction of the marrow, and that the edges of the fractures thereby occa-
sioned are still sharp, which would not be the case if the dog had been at that time a domes-
ticated animal.

AND THE REINDEER IN MIDDLE EUROPE. 353

boats for the passage of water-courses. Unwieldy rafts were seemingly the only
means of conveyance when inundation or other exigencies stimulated the earliest
attempts at navigation. ‘To travel in unknown regions, standing thick with
woods, where no teen marked out the way, was itself a irda: well caleu-
lated to repress adventure; yet not the less did these Belgians hold communica-
tion with what is now known as Touraine, a fact which is satisfactorily proved
to us by discoveries made in the cavern of Chaleux.

Human food was chiefly animal; the horse and reindeer furnished its principal
staple. But the bison, the great Ox, the goat, the chamois, were also eaten, and
even the rhinoceros, when he could be mastered. The marrow and brain of
animals were coveted as luxuries by a race, which did not, however, disdain the
water rat, if the chase had been rewarded by nothing more acceptable. In the
cave of Chaleux , Dupont found in the vicinity of the hearth more than 20 pounds
weight of bones of the above animals, some of which had evidently undergone
the action of fire. Yet, as the organization of the human frame is show mm, even
by its dental system, rather more ‘adapted to a diet of fruits than of flesh, ‘A may
readily be supposed ae this primitive people laid the forest under conimihaten
for something more than its contingent of animals. Acorns and chestnuts at least
must have entered into their dietary with the horse and reindeer, and while it
would be vain to challenge any proof of this, it must be considered that such
articles could not fail totally to disappear in the lapse of so many ages. It would
be difficult, in the midst of our civilization, to form a conception of the uncleanly
customs of this reindeer epoch, and, indeed, even of times still later. The bones
left from their meals were carelessly thrown into the corners of the cave, filling
it, of course, with putrescent miasmas. To find at present an analogous condition
oe things, we must go to the Esquimaux, who live towards the north pole. Like
the latter, the people of whom we have been treating cared little for the aecumu-
lation of filth in their habitations, but here, at least, the winds had free access,
and would, to some extent, expel the gases of decaying animal remains.

All caves in Belgium, France, England, &c., which were easily accessible,
and provided with a Y suflicient opening, were inhabited. In the middle was the
hearth, paved with sandstone or slate, and around this the family gathered during
the season of intense cold. ‘There were caves also, which being too much exposed
to the weather, served only as a dwelling in summer. Such occur in the south
of France, and are destitute of any traces of a hearth, though otherwise affording
the clearest evidence of having been inhabited by men. Are we justified in
concluding from this, as Professor Owen has done in regard to the inhabitants
of the cave of Bruniquel, that mankind in the reindeer era devoured the flesh of
animals raw? It is not, however, in caves alone that we find traces of the habi-
tation of men. Numerous dwelling- -places have been recognized, especially in
Perigord, which were established under the open sky, in the neighborhood of
water- -courses, and sheltered by a sloping bank or overhanging rock. Here haye
been detected layers of ashes, bones which have been crushed, weapons, imple-
ments, and even the crude essays of a primitive art.

For clothing, at this era, man had recourse to the skins of animals. That
these were stripped off for this purpose there is, singularly enough, adequate evidence
still in existence. Incisions made in certain bones, and particularly in the skulls
of reindeers close to the antlers, can only be supposed to have proceeded
from the act of flaying. Numerous instruments everywhere collected, and which

could have served for nothing else bat scraping, show that the hair was in some
cases removed from the skin. Means were probably known for making the hide
pliable, so that it might serve for clothing in summer, while for winter vesture
the fur would be preserved. We can of course know nothing as to the fashion
in which the man of the reindeer age shaped this clothing, but we are at least
certain that sewing was employed in preparing it. Bodkins or awls for making
holes in the hides are not of rare occurrence, and needles furnished with an eye

23 S67

354 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH

testify plainly enough to the practice of sewing. We know also that for thread
the sinews of ruminating animals, especially the reindeer, were employed. The
long shank-bones of these beasts often present a transverse incision, just at the
point where the lower end of the great tendon is inserted.

It may appear somewhat surprising that a taste for personal adornment should
have insinuated itself among the hard necessities of such a state of existence ;
yet such a taste there was, if of a very humble description. Bracelets and neck-
laces were then worn, sometimes composed of strings of shells, as well of fossil
as still surviving species, sometimes of the teeth of different animals. The
ivory-like part of the ear-bone of the horse is also found pierced, probably with
a view to being worn on the neck. ‘The canine teeth of the greater carnivori
(tiger, wolf, lynx) were often pierced for the same purpose. On the tooth of a

ar has even been found the carved representation of a bird’s head. In fine,
oe the old dwelling sites of this period have been gathered pieces of fluor-spar,
jet, silex, and copper ore, all alike perforated in ne centre, besides other objects
which have a semblance of having served as amulets. The save of Chaleux,
near Dinant, in Westphalia, has furnished 54 shells of fossil testacea, which it
is clear can only have been brought from Champagne, where it is probable they
were picked up by the ancient Belgians when they resorted thither for silex.
Most of these shells have the central perforation, which denotes their destination
for the toilet; no very costly ornamentation, it is true, but something foreign and
exclusive, and not to be obtained by everybody.

The weapons and implements were in the reindeer period of an improved con-
struction when compared with those of the age of the cave-bears. ‘The weapons
consisted of lances and javelins, but the stone points of these were more finely
cut. ‘The arrow-head of stone, without barbs, was not discarded, but a preference
was given to arrows made aa bone, or the Then of the stag ane reindeer, and
elaborated with more art and diligence than those of stone. Some of these have
been found, which are furnished with barbs on both sides, and specimens occur
in which the barbs are hollowed out, as if for reception of a poisonous substance.
The number of barbs is from four to six, ranged alternately on either side.
Lartet has discovered in Perigord a dagger of ‘reindeer’ s horn, on the hilt of
which is to be seen the rudely ¢ carved i image of a reindeer. The points of arrows
and lances thus furnished with barbs may have served alike for the chase and for
fishing. We know that in the hands of the South Sea islanders and the Esqui-
maux these barbed points, however clumsy they may seem, are no despicable
weapons on land or in water.

Very numerous are the utensils and implements found in the caves and at
other primeval dw elling sites of Perigord and Belgium. First among them may
be mentioned small saws, being plates of flint, dexterously notched or dentated
along the edge. This instrument was used to ‘divide the antlers of the reindeer,
a circular incision being made with it in the horn, which was then broken.
Knives or blades of flint, generally small ones, are everywhere plentiful, as are
also implements for scraping. The stone hatchets, on the other hand, have
almost disappeared. A block of quartz has been found, which probably served

as an anvil, for it still bears the trace of blows with the hammer. Among objects
prepared from other substances we distinguish awls of bone and needles of bone,

horn and ivory. Both instruments have been found in different places. There
are, besides, instruments for smoothing, such as are in use among the Esquimaux
to press the seams of the skins worn for clothing. Spoons of bone or horn also
occur, set off with a certain primitive ornamentation, and used probably to extract
the marrow from bones. We find, further, hunting whistles pierced with a round
hole, and formed from the first joint of a ’ deer’s foot; also knuckle-bones, used,
as now, in sports and games, together with many other objects, whose purpose
has not been determined.

Among the stone instruments particularly worthy of note are the augers or

AND THE REINDEER IN MIDDLE EUROPE. 355

gimlets which were employed to bore larger or smaller holes in bone or horn.
When teeth and bones were first found, now presenting needles pierced with a
small eye, and again containing holes as much as an inch in diameter, and these
quite round and thoroughly perforated, explorers attempted to produce similar
holes with the usual stone implements; but in vain: the points splintered, and
no such hole could be wrought. ‘There were English philosophers who asserted,
especially in view of these failures, that perforations of this sort could not be
made without metal. Now, M. Lartet has discovered certain implements of
flint, large as well as small, whose points, instead of being made sharp, are
roughly cut, so as to form angles not unlike those of a crystal. It occurred to
him that these had served for drilling the holes in question. He therefore fixed
one of these pieces in the cleft of a stick split for the purpose, and by dint of
turning it between both hands to and fro, found that it performed the work of
boring with great success. The communication of this fact has satisfied scepticism
as to the destination of these instruments, which are found in considerable quan-
tities and of different sizes.

At Tayac and Kizies have been fonnd pieces of quartz, either round or quad-
rangular, which have been hollowed out in the middle. M. de Vibraye con-
jectures that they were used for grinding grain, but most of them are too small to
have served for this purpose. M. Lartet is of opinion that they were made use
of in kindling dry wood by rapid attrition.

The people of the reindeer era manufactured by hand, and without the help
of the potter’s wheel, a sort of rude earthenware of a black, gray, and yellow
color, all tinged more or less with red. The clay was commonly mixed with
quartzose sand, the better to withstand the action of fire. A circular mark
formed the sole ornament. ‘These imperfectly baked vessels, of which only
fragments have been found, are not, however, the oldest specimens of the fictile
art in existence. ‘Traces of it have already been discovered in three grottoes of
the age of the cave-bears. In the earliest times man would feel the necessity
of providing a supply of water in his cavernous dwelling. <A cavity in a mass
of clay would be the receptacle of the water brought in skins from the brook.
To render the utensil lighter, superfluous parts would be removed, and it would
be dried in the sun, in order to harden it. Still later, man learned to mould rude
vessels, which he exposed to the heat of the hearth to procure a degree of hard-
ness greater than that produced by the sun’s rays. Such were the humble begin-
nings of an art whose finished performances surprise and delight us in the fabrics
of Dresden and Sevres.

III. It is now known that the populations of the reindeer era were not wholly
destitute of a certain plastic culture and of the art of delineation. If the forms
of most of the instruments of horn which have been found are susceptible of
explanation from the necessities of common life, and from the instruments which
have been used at later periods, such is not the case with a class of objects
whose signification and use had not heretofore been unriddled. ‘These consist
for the most part of the entire stem of a reindeer’s antler, frequently with one or
more prong’, especially that next the root, always smoothly polished, and at
times charged with a simple linear ornamentation. But in the generality of
cases these stems, more than a foot in length, are furnished with holes, which,
to the number sometimes of four, are seen ranged one after the other, while
the whole length of the stem is ornamented with curiously carved lines and
figures, among which horses and reindeers are particularly numerous. In the
International Exposition of 1861, among the objects sent by the savages of
Vancouver, figured just such, a staff, polished and bearing engraved lines; pro-
bably an ensign of command or rank. Might we not assign to the ancient staff
the same signification, and consider the holes and figures as bearing, in their
number and size, some relation to the circumstances of the owner?

We have thus arrived at the most striking of these relics of a remote antiquity,

356 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH

for from no other source probably can we derive such distinct ideas of the life
and habits of the reindeer hunters of southern France as from the remarkable
representations of the animal world which we find engraved chiefly on these
remnants of reindeer horn, but sometimes also on pieces of bone, ivory, or slate.
Thus far, indeed, and until further indications offer themselves, we must ascribe
the practice of this primitive art solely to the population who, within a circum-
scribed space, inhabited Dordogne. 'The representation of real objects for the
purpose of ornament is, in this case, the more remarkable, inasmuch as in far
later times, those namely of the pile-constructions of Switzerland and the stone
age of Denmark, no trace of such an application of art is to be met with; on
the other hand, however, indicative in form of a certain degree of taste, the orna-
mentation of these later ages is altogether confined to a combination of different
lines, of angles, circles, zigzags, &c., and never consists in an imitation of either
animals or plants. We should certainly have obtained a much clearer knowl-
edge of the social condition of men in the time of the pile-structures if we pos-
sessed in reference thereto representations similar to those which the reindeer
caves of Dordogne have supplied; for if these convey to a certain extent illus-
trations of the hunter and fisher life, the pile-builders, had their art taken the
same direction, would doubtless have bequeathed to us images, carved upon
horn or other material, illustrative of their husbandry and domestic industry.
This difference can perhaps only be accounted for through the original genius of
the races, as it can hardly be supposed that in the narrow district of Perigord a
particular population should have flourished, together with the whole northern
fauna, as it were upon an island, and only at a later period attained that higher
degree of art which distinguished it; and the less, as cotemporary deposits from
other caves show nothing of the sort. Thus the museum in Geneva contains ¢
truncheon of horn from a grotto at Saléve, which marks the eastern point of the
reindeer caves; and this instrument, while it is bored through the end, and the
general workmanship is the same as in Perigord, nowhere exhibits any other
than the common linear ornamentation of the period.

It is a fact worthy ef note that in all the figures yet found, no plants, but
only animals, are represented. This circumstance may not be without its signi-
ficance in the absence of all proofs of a vegetable diet on the part of these hunts-
men of the reindeer era. Yet it is to be observed that this defect of vegetable
forms plainly harmonizes with a certain vivid feeling of the artists for the repre-
sentation of movement. Animals stationary or in repose are extremely rare.
Reindeers, as well as other animals of the deer species, are shown in rapid flight,
as testified by the head bowed back upon the neck, the outstretched legs, some-
times by the gaping mouth and panting nostrils; at other times they are repre-
sented in the act of springing, with the fore legs bent back beneath the body,
the hinder legs stretched stiffly out behind. The climax of this infant art seems
to have been reached on a sheet of slate in the possession of the Marquis of
Vibraye, which is plainly intended to represent a group of fighting reindeers.
One of these struggles while lying on its back with its legs in the air; another
draws itself together as in the act of onset; a third, with head sunk down, has
evidently just overthrown the first.

Assuredly we do not mean to claim for these delineations anything like uni-
form merit, or an exact appreciation of characteristic peculiarities; the figures
present sometimes but a stiff and wooden appearance, and we are even left in
doubt whether we have before us an ox, a horse, or a reindeer. It is, however,
but just to say that such enigmatical figures are fragmentary only, and we should
doubtlessly recognize them more readily if the picture had remained entire. Most
of the figures, on the other hand, evince no mean facility of the artist in seizing
on distinctive traits, so as to enable us at the first glance to determine the species ;
though, of course, there can be no question here of finished execution, but merely
of a successful rendering of the most essential details; the characteristic outline

AND THE REINDEER IN MIDDLE EURRPE 357

conveyed in a few simple strokes. The reindeer, horse, bison, steinbock, ele-
phant, are not to be mistaken, and even the peculiar mode of movement of each
of these animals is rendered with great truth. In these cases a certain freedom
of execution is often exhibited which could only have been acquired by much
practice. Now, it is precisely this freedom in the representation of motion which
has inspired many with doubt as regards the authenticity of these relies ; it indi-
cates, they argue, an advanced stage of art, long observation, and persevering
practice of the eye and hand, to render such representation possible, and if the
saints and madonnas of the first Christians are commonly stiff and clumsy, cer-
tainly the products of prehistoric art must be expected to betray this character.
Admitting these views to be somewhat plausible, we may yet venture to oppose
to them the fact that the earliest attempts of Greek sculpture are particularly
distinguished by the characteristic conception of motion; that in the group of
the Avginetes, for instance, the movements of the figures in battle are rendered
with great felicity, while the expression of the faces is wholly slighted. It is
altogether the same in the present instance. ‘The art of the reimdeer period had
advanced so far as to be capable of manufacturing a stone dagger whose hilt
represents a reindeer in the act of springing; the horns and extremities are credit-
ably executed, and the movement is perfectly represented; but the skill of the
artist has failed in giving an expression of reality to minuter features.

It may be regarded as characteristic also that these representations, where they
occur on fragments of some size, always place before us a number of animals of
the same species, and disposed in such a manner as is usual when they move in
herds, being sometimes wide apart, and sometimes so closely crowded that the
body of one covers more or less that of another. Since attention was paid to
this rule of representation, it has been observed that, on the celebrated mammoth
piece hereafter to be noticed, there are certain strokes which, besides the princi-
pal animal, indicate two others of the same species.

If these representations are in themselves highly worthy of our attention as
art-productions of the earliest times, they are even more so in reference to the
objects represented, for these afford us a criterion of the methods of inquiry here-
tofore followed in regard to the animal bones which have been exhumed from the
eaves. ‘l'o many, who want confidence in the rigorous procedures of compara-
tive anatomy, it may perhaps have seemed presumptuous that a savant, having
before him only a joint of the foot, the end of a bone or a tooth, should pro-
nounce authoritatively that here a reindeer and not a hart, that there a bison and
not a common ox, has existed; but when, as now, a verification is afforded by an
exhibition of the entire animal form in its sculptured representative, when it
results from this that he who carved it on the horn must have known the animal,
and accurately known it, in order to portray it in its proper shape, all doubt must
vanish. The bones of the reindeer and bison could not have been washed hither
in a deluge from the far north and deposited in the southern cavern, as has been
pretended; the animal must there have lived in its flesh and blood where to-day
we find its bones and its sculptured figure. Let us see what were the species
known at present to have been thus represented.

Among these the reindeer is by far the most frequent, while its antlers have
in great part furnished the material on which the representation is carved. The
form of the head and horns and the hair of the neck leave no doubt in the deter-
mination of the species. The stag, which occurs more seldom, admits of easy
discrimination.. Next follows the horse, evidently of a race with short, thick
head, short neck, compact body, strikingly similar to the northerm race of our
own times. He that has once seen the Iceland horse, as it roams at large in its
native island, will here instantly recognize the original pattern.

On the piece on which is represented the man with horses and an eel, we see
on the other side two heads of bisons, which are perfectly characterized by the
profile of the forehead, the insertion and curvature of the short horns, and the

na

358 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH

profuse crinosity of the neck andhead. The bison or aurochs therefore flourished
here in companionship with man, the horse, and the reindeer. Another figure,
which unfortunately is mutilated, but is distinguished by the fineness of its hair,
seems to point to another of the bovine species differing from the bison; nor is
this a matter of surprise, since the testimony of the bones is to the same effect.
An animal of the goat kind, probably the steinbock, is not wanting, while some
other figures of horned and graminivorous species must be ac knowlede ed to be
deficient in point of distinctness.

The most remarkable relic, however, is the representation of the primeval
elephant, a real mammoth, on a plate of ivory, which formed part of a tusk of
large dimensions. In May, 1846, M. Lartet, in company with Dr. Falconer and
Verneuil, both well-known naturalists, caused excavations to be made in the
stratum oS the cavern of the Madelaine. ‘At the moment of our arrival,” says
Lartet, “the laborers disinterred five fragments of a rather thick plate of ivory,
which ‘must have been det tached, ages before, from a large tusk. After having
fitted the pieces together by their corresponding edges, it pointed out to Dr. Fal-
coner numerous scratches and lines somewhat deeply engraved, which, on collo-
cation, constituted an animal figure. The practiced eye of the distinguished
paleontologist, better versed than any one else in the study of elephantine ani-
mals, at once recognized the head of an elephant. He then directed our atten-
tion to the other parts of the body, and especially to certain tufted lines in the
region of the neck, denoting the characteristic mane of the mammoth or elephant
of “the glacial era. It is generally known that this peculiarity which marks
the arctic habitat of the animal, was verified, in the year 1769, by Adams, a
member of the Academy of St. Petersburg, i in the carcass of such an elephant,
found imbedded in ice near the mouth of the Lena. A bunch of its hair is still
to be seen in the geological collection of the Garden of Plants at Paris.

“T have shown the piece in question to competent observers, such as Milne
Edwards, de Quatrefages, Desnoyers Longpérier, and Franks, director of the
London Antiquarian Collection; and the latter has, by means of the pencil,
‘rendered the characteristic lines more distinct in the plaster cast which had been
taken of the object.

“This new fact only tends to strengthen the conviction already acquired of
the existence of man at the same time with the mammoth and the other large
graminiyorous and carnivorous beasts which, according to the geologists, lived
in the first section of the quaternary period. The truth of this historical fact
results from so many concurrent observations and from material facts of such plain
import, that even the most prejudiced cannot fail to recognize its entire validity,
if they will permit themselves to see and judge with ordinary conscientiousness.”

The elephant, thickly clad with hair on the neck, forehead, and breast, is seen
in profile and at its full length in the act of striding forw: ard. At first it was
not rightly known what was to be made of a tuft of hair and certain marks which are
seen to the left in advance of the line which forms the profile of the forehead.
Repeated and closer scrutiny of the fragment has enabled us, in the end, to
recognize therein the eye, the outline of the forehead, together w ith the proboscis
of a second elephant, which is advancing close by the side of the first. Some
lines on the leg would lead us to conjecture a third elephant, which followed on
the part of the plate which is broken off. The drawing of the figures is exe-
cuted with a free and bold hand, and the characteristic movement of the elephant,
which raises simultaneously the legs of the same side, is well preserved.

Another memorial of the art of this ancient epoch is an elephant’s head carved
on a reindeer’s horn, which was also discovered in Perigord by the Marquis de
Vibraye. These two relics are the more interesting as furnishing the proof that
man actually existed as the cotemporar 'y of the mammoth or cigantic elephant, a
fact which has been so often and so obstinately contested. But since the locali-
ties where these objects of primitive art have been found unquestionably belong

AND THE REINDEER IN MIDDLE EUROPE, 359

to the reindeer period, it is conclusively shown that some of the mammoth species
survived to that time.

It is rather remarkable that as yet only a single delineation has been found
which can be interpreted as relating to the bear, being the head of that animal,
while the rest of the carnivora are wholly unrepresented. That representations
of the unavoidable struggles of man with these animals should not have been
left behind is searcely to be believed, especially when their teeth, pierced with
holes and destined for suspension as trophies, bear unequivocal testimony to such
encounters. Birds and reptiles have not hitherto been found represented. Fish,
on the other hand, are very frequent, and can, for the most part, be recognized as
belonging to the carp family, which still frequents the fresh waters of the region.
We meet with no trace of marine animals; the men who lived in Dordogne at the
era of the reindeer seem to have known nothing of the sea and its inhabitants.

These objects of art have been found only in the three grottos of Les Eyzies,
Laugerie-Basse, and La Madelaine, in the department of Dordogne. The first
of these is high and wide enough to enable the light to penetrate throughout,
being 12 metres deep, 16 broad, and 6 metres high; it appears to have been
used in the middle ages as a stable for horses. When Lartet and Christy began
their explorations, the grotto had been considerably enlarged and deepened by
earlier occupants, though the explorers found at the bottom a compact floor, from
which projected masses of blackish stalagmite, flint mstruments, stones, and
pieces of bone; this bone-breccia lay immediately on the rock floor of the cave,
and showed a thickness of one to three decimetres. Large pieces were broken
loose, which were sent partly to different museums, but in greater quantity to
Paris, with a view to more exact examination. ‘The station of Laugerie-Basse is
partly in the hollow of a rock, whose face is 100 feet high, while a part of the
formation, on which appeared traces of an ancient fire-place, extended outwardly
in front of the cavern. Within, the breccia was full three metres in depth. The
neighboring station of the Madelaine lies at the foot of the rock, and forms a
decayed heap 15 metres in length, 7 in breadth, and 3 in depth, in which
some human bones were found, but unfortunately not complete enough to indi-
cate the race of men from whom they proceeded. Some fragments of blood-
stone and a coarse stick or pencil of ochre leave it to be inferred that in that dis-
tant age colored drawings were sometimes executed.

Thus we see how civilization was undergoing a slow but constant develop-
ment among the oldest inhabitants of middle Europe. The facts which the
excavations of Chaleux have disclosed, in connection with those discovered in
the grottos of Furfooz, furnish a picture of the first age of mankind in Belgium.
These old populations, with all their usages, reappear before us, after having
been many thousand years forgotten, reminding us of the fabulous bird which
sprang with renewed life from its ashes. So the primeval age of mankind is
rebuilt from its own ruins.

We see them in their dark, underground retreats surrounding the primitive
hearth, shaping with some skill and greater patience their weapons from flint-
stone and their utensils from reindeev’s horn, in the midst of the unwholesome
exhalations of animal remains, which in their carelessness they have heaped
around them. The skins of captured beasts are stript of hair, and from these
clothing is prepared by means of an awl of silex and a needle of bone. We see
them armed with arrows and lances, whose points of flint have been sharpened
for deadly execution, pursuing the beasts of the waste. We visit them in their
fastnesses, where a horse, a bear, a reindeer, forms the product of a successful
chase, and the repulsive flesh of rats their resource against contingent famine.
They conduct a commerce with the populations of France, and bring thence
molluscous shells and jet, with which they delight to adorn themselves, and silex,
which is so indispensable for arms and implements. Here is a store of fluor-,

360 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH

spar, whose colors beguile their fancy with a show of luxury, and there the wide
plate of sandstone destined for paving around the hearth.

But there come days of disaster, and truly disaster is not spared them. A con-
cussion, a sudden downfall drives them from their rocky dwelling. The objects
of their veneration, their utensils, are alike shattered, and they are cast forth to
seek for some other shelter. Or death invades them with its desolations, and
what pious cares do they then consecrate to those whom they have lost! We see
that they lay the body away in a cave; an urn, weapons, amulets, constitute the
equipment for the vault. “A broad plate of stone guards against the entrance
of wild beasts. Then begins the funeral feast in the immediate vicinity of the
sepulchre ; fire is kindled on the hearth, large animals are dismembered, and the
roasted flesh is distributed among the euests. There are no doubt other strange
ceremonies practised, as is now the custom with the rude tribes of America and
Africa, but these we can only conjecture. Analogy would point to songs, dances,
adjur ations, but science can afford us here not the slightest information. Again
and often will this vault open, and small children, as well as men of full stature,

take, one after another, their place in the cavern amidst the same ceremonies.

But the end of this oldest of known epochs is at hand. Floods overwhelm the
region. ‘The dwellers, driven from their caves, seek refuge in vain on the hills.
Death overtakes them; a dark grotto becomes the grave of those hapless fugi-
tives who, as at F utfooz, were metas of this great catastrophe. Nothing ~ is
spared by the fearful clement. The sepulchral caverns, the objects of a touch-
ing solicitude on the part of these poor people, are forced open by torrents
of water, and the bones of the dead are gener ally scattered abroad. Only the
dwelling-place of Chaleux is exempt from the ruin; it is protected by an earlier

catastrophe. This consisted in the downfall of the roof of the cav ern.

Lucky and multifarious discoveries have conducted us to these results. The
usages and industry of these tribes, which reach back to so distant an antiquity,
can be pictured with some exactness. But much yet lies in darkness. We know
nothing of their relations to the people of earlier times. Had they predecessors
m the land? The important discoveries which Schmerling and Prof. Malaise
have made at Engihoul seem to show that the men whose remains were found
on the Lys were not the aboriginal inhabitants of Belgium, but only successors
of an older population. At Chaleux also were found substantial indications of
that primeval ancestry, but the traces were scarcely discerned when they were
again lost.

Besides the three stations above named, a large number of caves have been
discovered in France and Belgium, which everywhere contained the bones of the
same animals. Among these, the reindeer plays the principal part, and is always
accompanied by the horse, the steinbock, the chamois, and the bison. The remains
of the mammoth, rhinoceros, wolf, brown bear, lynx, glutton, sheep, marmot,
and common deer, are seldom found; still more seldom those of the hyena, the
tiger, the poreupine ; while the bones of birds and fresh-water fishes, which we
need not enumerate, occur in abundance.

In the cavern of Bruniquel were found, by its owner, 1,500 different objects,
which were all purchased by Professor Owen for the British Museum. Here were
also discovered human remains, especially a jaw bone. The cavern of Chaleux,
in the valley of the Lys and neighborhood of Dinant, presents a remarkable
peculiarity, an ani logue, so to say, of Pompeii and Herculaneum, cities which
Vesuvius did not destroy, but has preserved for us. All the objects contained
in the cavern, just as it was occupied at the time, have, as already mentioned,
been kept entire by the downfall of its roof. The rubbish, under which the
various articles lay buried, has prevented the destructive effects of the diluvial
currents, After the removal of eight feet of compact detritus, the proper floor
of the cavern, upon which man had resided, was reached. Probably the inhabi-
tants were absent on the chase at the occurrence of the catastrophe, for no human

AND THE REINDEER IN MIDDLE EUROPE. 36]

bones have been found here, but some 3,000 implements of flint, as well as others
of bone and reindeer’s horn have been recovered. ‘The hearth, paved with flat
stones, lay in the middle of the cave, and on it were still found coals and ashes.

However incomplete may be the results thus far obtained, they still show in
the most conclusive manner the correctness of the deductions which have been
drawn from them. 'The remains which have descended to us undoubtedly pre-
sent many a riddle, but we should not despair of their ultimate solution. Per-
haps a fortunate incident may bring us, sooner than we think, the desired expla-
nation.

In conclusion, we should say something respecting the animals which, in that
distant age, lived as the cotemporaries of man. ‘The cave bear, ( Ursus speleus, )
according to Owen and Pomel, first made its appearance in England and at
Champeix in Auvergne, towards the end of the, tertiary epoch. Tf all the deter-
minations are correct, its remains have been found in Siberia, Scania, France,
Belgium, England, and Germany. ‘The cave bear was the largest of the species
known, and seems to have become extinct before the remdeer era.

The mammoth (Hlephas primigentus) was living in middle Asia about the
end of the tertiary epoch, but in Europe its remains are first found in the quater-

nary formations. It has inhabited a wide geographical zone, for it spread from
Sicily to England, but to the south it etonidell! not beyond caer Italy and the
Pyrenees. In Italy and southern France it seems to have survived during a
part of the reindeer period, while further to the north it had disappeared.

The rhinoceros lived almost universally in company with the mammoth, and
became extinct during the reindeer age. It is generally known that a carcass of
this rhinoceros was preserved, together with a mammoth, for many thousand
years in the ice of Siberia. When discovered, they were found to be still fur-
nished with both hide and hair.

The cave hyena (Hyena spelea) was, during the quaternary epoch, of very
frequent occurrence in Europe. It is commonly supposed to have belonged to
one of the two different African species still surviving. Thus far, traces of this
animal have only been found in the pliocene or upper tertiary deposits, and it
seems to have lived neither in Spain, the south of Italy,nor in Sicily. The cave
hyena became extinct during the reindeer period, and in Belgium even before
that era.

The gigantic cat of the caves, (Felis spelaa,) whether tiger or lion, a point
very difticult to be decided from the parts of the skeleton found in those reposito-
ries, makes its appearance only with the quaternary period, and seems to have
disappeared with the same. ‘The reindeer period reveals some traces of it, and
this indicates that the feline tenant of the caves had not then disappeared, like
its cotemporary, the cave bear. Lartet even asks whether the former, like the
aurochs, while withdrawing further to the east, did not survive within the period
of history. In fact, the lion of Thessaly, spoken of by Herodotus, and which is
figured on Grecian coins, endured a climate like our own, and could not there-
fore be the present African species. Dr. Falconer has gone even further: in his
opinion the great feline animal which subsists cn the slopes of the Altai and in
the north of China, and which is generally supposed to be identical with the
Bengal tiger, may well be the Felis spelaa, which, by reason of the increase of
mankind and the development of civilization, has retreated into the deeper recesses
of Asia.

The gigantic deer was chiefly an inhabitant of England and Ireland. A com-
plete and ver y fine specimen of it may be seen in the British Museum. Its remains
are met with, but not very frequently, in France as far as the Pyrenees, in Ger-
many and the north of Italy. This animal existed as early as the phocene era,
and became extinct during the reindeer period. Its horns measured from 10 to
11 feet in breadth. It has been improperly called the deer of tne peat moors,
since, at the time when these moors were formed, it no longer existed.

362 MAN AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH, ETC.

The reindeer (Cervus tarandus) made its appearance with the mammoth in
middle Europe, and hence at the beginning of the quaternary period. Its remains,
which occur so abundantly in the caves and other sites where man has dwelt,
testify to a vast numerical development at the epoch to which the animal has
given its name. ‘This circumstance enables us in some measure to account for
the rare occurrence of the ure ox and the deer, for it is known that both these
animals entertain a great antipathy for the reindeer. Where the latter has rested,
the former avoid feeding. The reindeer, whose geographical habitat extended to
the Pyrenees, withdraws towards the north and disappears in middle Kurope at the
period of the last great movement of the waters and of the red diluvium, At
the epoch of the peat moors it no longer existed in France. At present it inhabits
the coldest regions of northern Europe. The remains of the elk (Cervus alces)
are seldom met with in the temperate European latitudes. It seems to have fol--
lowed the reindeer in its migration to the north, where it now exclusively sojourns.

The aurochs (Bison europeus.) 'This wild ruminant seems to have existed
in the pliocene period, and was very widely distributed in middle Europe. Its
remains occur sparingly in the peat moors and in the pile settlements of Switzer-
land. Czsar did not observe it in Gaul or in the Hereynian forest, but Pliny
asserts that the bison, which could be none other than the aurochs, lived in Ger-
many. ‘The animal is now nearly extinct, wd found only in Lithuania, where
it is ‘protected by stringent laws, and at Cena , in the forests of the Caucasus.

The great ox, or ure ox, (os primigenius, ) appears with the quaternary era,
and attains so wide a eeographical diffusion that its remains are found in the
whole of Europe. It survived, like the aurochs, the ages of stone and bronze,
and subsisted even in the age of iron. Czesar mentions it in his commentaries,
and the Veson cornipotens of the Chronicle of St. Gall (10th century) is, accord-
ing to Steenstrup, nothing else than the Urus of Cesar. ‘The species is at
present wholly extinct.

The musk ox, (Bos moschatus,) a smaller ruminant, is intermediate between
the ox and the he-goat. It lived in France and England simultaneously with
the cave-dwellers, Its remains are found in the flint formations of the dilavium,
At present it lives only in the coldest regions of America.

The horse (Hquus adamiticus) dates from the origin of the quaternary forma-
tions. It differs from the horse of the tertiary era, but seems identical with the
now existing species, (Lquus caballus.) In the age of the eave bears and the
reindeer, the horse was very widely distributed through middle Europe, and fur-
nished the populations of that time with their principal food. A smaller race
is met with in the pile settlements of Switzerland and in the Pyrenees. It was
at a later period that man availed himself of the horse for riding, especially in
war. ‘The Greeks seem first to have practised equitation about the seventh
century B. C.

PHOTOCHEMISTRY.

By M. JAMIN.

Translated for the Smithsonian Institution from the ‘‘ Revue des Cours scientifiques de la France
et de l’etranger,” 20 July, i867.

Solar radiations, and in general those of all luminous bodies, are composed
of a multitude of superposed vibrations endowed with very distinct properties,
and which it is practicable to isolate by means of the prism. The first, and
least refrangible, are obscure, and manifest themselves to our organs only by
the calorific phenomena which they produce. These are followed by the lumin-
ous radiations which succeed one another from the extreme red to the ray H
of the spectrum. ‘To the violet rays, finally, succeeds a large number of radi-
ations, invisible it is true, but whose existence is revealed by their power of
effecting decompositions or chemical combinations.

I have heretofore insisted on the point that there were not three special classes
of radiations superposed at a given point of the spectrum, and differing by their
nature itself, but a single ray capable of possessing three properties—of being
calorific, luminous, and actinometric. From one end of the spectrum to the
other, the rays remain identical in their nature, but possessing increasing refran-
gibilities and vibratory velocities, more and more rapid. I have shown, by the
phenomena of phosphorescence and fluorescence, that these different rays can
be transformed one into the other. Thus, when luminous radiations, simple
and well defined, fall on a metallic plate, they are at first absorbed by degrees;
the plate grows warm; it then radiates in its turn, but gives out only obscure,
that is to say, less refrangible, radiations. Thus again, in the curious phenomena
of phosphorescence and fluorescence, we have seen that the ultra violet radiations,
searcely visible, were absorbed by different bodies, and became transformed finally
into luminous radiations. Ina word, different substances have the property of
selecting and absorbing certain simple radiations in preference to others, of them-
selves entering into vibration, and of yielding up by radiation the active force
absorbed, with this constant character, that a simple ray has been finally trans-
formed into an assemblage of other mixed radiations, all less refrangible.

It is another form of this proposition which I am about to expound in the
course of this lecture. I propose to show that the medium may retain the
vibrations which it has absorbed, and that the active force which they have
communicated to it, being incapable of being lost, is applied to the production
of an equivalent chemical effect. It is with photochemistry, in a word, that we
shall now occupy ourselves.

Scheele discovered, in 1770, that chloride of silver exposed to the light
assumes a violet tint, but he did not stop there. Proceeding to inquire to what
simple radiations this phenomenon was due, he studied it in the spectrum, and
found that the violet rays were alone capable of producing it. He named them,
on this account, chemical rays. Wollaston carefully repeated this experiment,
and observed that there existed beyond the ultra violet radiations still other
radiations, more refrangible and wholly invisible, but capable of acting on the
chloride of silver.

364 PHOTOCHEMISTRY.

This admirable discovery, which is the principle of all the phenomena of
photochemistry, remained long unexplained, under the chemical point of view.
'The explanation.was given by MM. Girard and Duvanne. These two chemists,
having exposed chloride of silver to the solar rays, found that this blackened
chloride was susceptible, in part, of being attacked, with disengagement of
hyponitrie acid, by nitric acid, a manifest “proof of a partial reduction of the
chloride into chlorine and into metallic silver under the influence of the light.

But this compound is not the only one in which this phenomenon is observed.
Light acts as a reductive agent on the nitrate of silver, the chloride of gold, the
chloride of platina, and in general on almost all the chlorides, bromides, and
iodides of metals the least oxidizable. The same is the case with a great
number of oxygenated metallic compounds. Every one knows that concentrated
nitric acid, entirely colorless when exposed to the light, is quickly colored yellow,
inconsider able quantities of this acid becoming decomposed into hyponitric acid
and oxygen. ‘The same may be said of chromic acid, which undergoes a par-
tial reduction, loses a certain ‘quantity of oxygen, and is transformed into sesqui-
oxyde of chromium.

In all these cases the light acts on the metallic compounds as an agent essen-
tially reductive. We are now about to see this same agent, in another order of
experiments, produce very varied oxidations, and favor ‘combinations in general.
Let us take, for instance, a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen, and expose this
mixture, enclosed in a flask, either to the solar radiations or the brilliant flame
of magnesium. <A sharp detonation will immediately announce the instantaneous
combination of these two gases in forming chlorhy drie acid.

There is here, then, no longer an action of reduction, but an action of com-
bination, which "the light has exerted. The phenomenon is the same for all
organic ‘substances. W e know, for example, that if hydrogenated compounds
be exposed to the action of the sun in presence of chlorine or bromine, combi-
nations are always formed in which the chlorine or bromine is substituted, equiv-
alent by equivalent, for the hydrogen of the organic compound. This, in effect,
is the starting point of the theory of substitutions devised by M. Dumas. ‘The
process of bleaching cloths by exposing them to the sun is a phenomenon familiar
to every one, and is also owing to a slow oxidation of the tissue.

Among these different examples of oxidation produced under the influence of
light, there is one which it is especi ially incumbent on us to cite, because it has
been rendered famous by an ingenious experiment, made in ‘1813, by Jean
Nicéphore Niepce, an experiment which was in some sort the starting point of
photography.

Nicéphore Niepee, having taken bitumen of India, (asphaltum,) dissolved it
in oil of lavender, and was thus enabled to spread it on a plate of glass, which
he exposed to the sun after having covered it with an engraving. Now, bitumen
has the curious property of becoming insoluble in volatile oils when it has been
for some time exposed to the light. This light penetrated to the bitumen through
all the white parts of the engraving, but was arrested by the black lines; and
by afterwards washing his plates with oil of lavender, M. Nicéphore Niepce
obtained a reproduction of his engravings. The white parts therein were rep-
resented by the bitumen, now become insoluble and of a milky-white appearance,
the parts from which the bitumen had been removed representing the black por-
tions.

This experiment, as I have said, was the point of departure for photography.
Still another example of these phenomena of oxidation remains to be noticed.
It is afforded by the resin of guaiacum, which has the singular property of
changing to a deep blue in the light at the same time that it is oxidized. If,
therefore, it is dissolved in alcohol, and a sheet of paper be impregnated with it,
we may obtain copies, as with the bitumen, by covering the paper with an
engraving and exposing it to the sun; but as ‘it remains white under the black

PHOTOUHEMISTRY. 365

lines, and becomes a deep blue under the white, we obtain, in reality, an inverse
image. ‘This is a negative proof.

Thus we see that the solar radiations, in acting on different bodies, may give
rise to two very distinct orders of chemical phenomena: phenomena of reduction
in all the metallic compounds; oxidation, a tendency to favor combination, as
regards all organic bodies.

‘Tf the opinions thus advanced are well founded, it is evident that by mixing
with metallic salts organic substances we shall double the effects by augmenting
the sensibility of the photochemie action. This may be demonstrated by numer-
ous experiments. The following, which is one of the most decisiy e, we owe to
M. Niepce de Saint Victor, nephew of the inventor of photography. He took
a piece of porcelain presenting a fresh fracture and covered it with a solution
of nitrate of silver; he then exposed it to the sun while screened from all
organic matter. ‘The nitrate of silver remained unaltered ; but when a leaf of
paper was imbued with this solution, or the nitrate of silver was mingled with
any organic matter, (gelatine, tartaric acid, for example,) before covering the
porcelain, the action of the solar rays was immediately manifested, and the sil-
ver was reduced to the metallic state. It i is evident that in this experiment the
active co-operation of the organic matter admits of no doubt.

We may further adduce an experiment of Professor Haghen, of Koenigsburg,
which leads to the same conclusions with the preceding. M. Haghen took two
tubes and filled them, one with a solution of nitrate of uranium in distilled
water, the other with an alcoholic solution of the same salt. The first of these
tubes was carefully closed, to exclude the access of any organic matter; both
were afterwards exposed to the sun, and, agreeably to M. Haghen’s previsions,
the second alone was altered and partially reduced. These results are con-
stantly turned to advantage in the art of photography.

And, indeed, in the preparation of sensitive paper the only object in covering
the sheet with a thin layer of choloride of silver is to bring together in a state
of considerable division the reducible metallic salts and the organic matter des-
tined to effect the reduction. It is proper, however, to add that, in order to still
further augment the sensibility of the papers intended for photographic proofs, it
is the practice to dip them, in the last place, in a solution of a chloride, a bro-
mide, or an alkaline iodide.

The following will serve as a final example of the energetic part which
organic substances play in these photochemic actions. About 1850, M. Poitevin,
one of the most celebrated French photographers, took a salt of sesquioxide of
iron, the sesquichloride, added to its solution an organic matter, and saturated
some leaves of paper with this mixture. Under the influence of light and by
virtue of the presence of organic matter this salt, which the light alone could
not modify, was partially reduced, and passed to the state of a photochloride. In

taking a photographic proof with such paper, it is sufficient, in order to make the
image appear, to wash the sheet with a solution of ey vanoferride of potassium or tan-
nin. ‘These compounds reacting only on the perchloride of iron wherever it has
been preserved intact, that is to say, under the black portions, we obtain a positive

proof, colored blue or black, according to the compound employed for washing.

I shall not further multiply these examples; but there is a fact of much more
importance, and to which I proceed to call your attention for a moment: I refer
to what are called, in photography, the revealing phenomena.

It is generally known that, when the sheet of prepared paper is withdrawn
from the camera obscura, the action of the light seems to have produced no par-
ticular effect on its surface ; ; and yet, w hen it is immersed in a certain bath,
the image immediately appears. This, i in the language of the photographers,
is the revelation of the image. We shall accept this ‘word, ambitious as it is,
and endeavor to render an account of the phenomenon, the most important and
certainly the most curious of photochemistry.

366 PHOTOCHEMISTRY.

What we must first remark is the following observation of M. Niepce de
Saint Victor: the function of the two active substances is reciprocal; it is a
matter of indifference whether the substance styled sensitive, iodide of silver
for example, be exposed to the light and afterwards washed with the revealing
substance, pyrogallic acid, or, inve erting the process, the gallic acid be impressed
and the sheet washed in the bath of silver. As regards intensity, the same
effect is always obtained by exposing one or the other to the sun.

M. Niepce de Saint Victor studied this phenomenon with care, and the fol-
lowing are some of the experiments which he made to this effect. He exposed
to the sun, for some time, a sheet of white paper which had received no prepara-
tion, and he perceived that this paper, placed in the camera obscura on a sheet
of sensative paper, blackened it as the light itself would have done. Upon this,
he conceived the idea of insolating or exposing to the sun his sheet of paper
after having first covered it with a photographic stereotype; he then placed it
on a sensitive paper. Not only had the white paper thus insolated acquired the
property of reducing the salt of silver of the sensitive paper, but it reproduced
on its surface the figure of the stereotype.

This curious property is exerted at a certain distance, but it ceases if a plate
of glass or of mica be interposed. ‘The insolated paper retains this property
for some time in darkness, but when once this paper has produced a certain effect,
the property is completely annulled; a new exposure to the sun is necessary to
restore it.

M. Niepce made this discovery under rather singular circumstances. He
exposed a sheet of paper to the action of the sun, enclosed it in a tube of tin,
and, at the end of some months, having opened the tube, he placed the paper on
a sheet which had been rendered sensitive. The latter received the impression
in the whole extent of the section of the tube.

How is this phenomenon to be explained? There are two modes of doing it.
M. Niepce supposes that there is light imprisoned in the insolated substance.
This light sometimes remains stored ieeia for a considerable time, till the oppor-
tunity occurs for it to produce an efficient chemical action. It is scarcely neces-
sary to say that this explanation, simple as it is, has not met with universal acqui-
escence ; difficulty has been felt in comprehending how light could thus remain
in a latent state on the surface of bodies for a time which may be termed indefinite.

Another explanation has therefore been advanced: it has been supposed that
the solar radiation occasions the formation of highly oxydable chemical pro-
ducts when it takes impression on the organic material. It would be easy then
to explain the indefinite preservation of a 2 volatile substance capable of acting at
a distance, and disappearing after having produced a determinate chemical effect,

To which of these two explanations should we give the preference? For my
own part, I strongly incline to that of M. Niepce, chiefly on account of the fol-
lowing experiment: M. Niepce takes a piece of porcelain presenting a fresh
fracture, exposes it to the sun, and then plunges it in the bath of silver, avoiding

5
with care the contact of organic substances; having afterwards washed it with

pyrogallic acid, he sees the silver immediately reduced. It is impossible, how-
ever, to admit the production of an organic matter under these conditions. ‘The
action of the sun, whether on the salts of silver, or on organic matter, or on
porcelain, always produces the same effect.

I have said that I incline to the explanation of M. Niepce: I do so, however,
with some degree of hesitation; and yet, when I see the phenomenon of phospho-
rescence, when I see an alkaline sulphur absorb light and give it out, in the end,
under the form of light, how can we persist in doubting that a substance like a
fracture of porcelain 1 may so far retain light as to cause it to produce, after a time,
not phosphorescence, indeed, but a chemical action? It is, in a word, a force
which remains there, for quite a long interval, until it finds the occasion for exert-

PHOTOCHEMISTRY. 367

ing itself in reproducing the phenomenon of photochemistry. However this
may be, we continue the study of these phenomena.

If we receive a pure spectrum on paper rendered sensitive, we shall find that
the calorific rays do not in general act: the more luminous take no effect ; the
more refrangible rays, on the contrary, which also produce phosphorescence and
fluorescence, are the only ones capable of developing chemical action. For the
chloride of silver, the effect commences at the ray F, attains its maximum at H, and
becomes progressively weaker up to the limits of the ultra-violet rays. For the
chloride of gold the effect is more capricious ; the action is slow in being pro-
duced, but, once commenced, it continues spontaneously, even in the dark. The
iodide of silver begins to alter in the red and presents two maximums. 'Theso
few examples suffice to show that each substance is impressible by particular
rays.

We must not think, however, that the calorific and Juminous rays are destitute
of all action. If a paper rendered sensitive be covered with glass of various
colors, blue, yellow, or violet, for example, we shall find, after an exposure of
some moments to the sun, that the red and yellow glasses have produced no
action, and that the blue glass alone has acted. If, however, we begin by caus-
ing the violet rays to act for a very short time, and the sensitive paper be then
placed under red glass, the action is continued. The red glass, which did not
possess the property of commencing the chemical action, has therefore the prop-
erty of continuing it after it has commenced. It is for this reason that M. Ed.
Becquerel, who discovered these phenomena, has given to the rays of little refran-
eibility the name of continuator rays.

The resin of guaiacum presents a peculiar phenomenon: it becomes oxydized
only under the influence of the violet rays. M. Becquerel, having impregnated
a leaf of paper with resin of guaiacum dissolved in alcohol, exposed it to the
violet rays, which oxydized it in rendering it blue; having then submitted it to
the action of light under a red glass, he found that it became deoxydized. In
the case of organic substances, then, there is an inverse action between the lumin-
ous rays and the chemical rays which it would be interesting to study, especially
with reference to the different phenomena of photochemistry. We have pre-
viously seen that, with the metallic salts, the chemical rays were alone excitators,
but that the luminous rays were continuators. ‘This very important distinction
between the different rays of the spectrum is again encountered in the daguerreo-
type. Every one knows how daguerrean proofs are made. The operation con-
sists in exposing to the vapors of iodine a well-polished plate of silver, for the
purpose of covering it with a thin layer of the iodide of silver; it is afterwards
exposed to the light in the camera obscura. Wherever the light has struck it
the iodide of silver is reduced. It suffices next, in order to render the image
visible, to expose it to mercurial vapors; the mercury is fixed, wherever the light
has struck the plate, in the form of minute globules, giving it a deadened color;
it is now only necessary to wash the plate with hyposulphite of soda. M. Clau-
det has shown, by the following experiment, that, even on daguerrean plates,
the luminous rays destroy the effect of the chemical rays. He exposed an iodized
plate in the camera obscura, and then ent it into four parts ; he observed that the
first could condense the vapor of mercury and yield an image; the second he
left in the dark, and placed the third under a red glass. At the expiration of
some time, the third had lost and the second had retained the property of giving
an image with mercury; the fourth, kept also under red glass, recovered its for-
mer sensibility, while it had lost all trace of an impression. It would therefore
serve anew to produce an image, a fact very important in practice, because 1t
admits of operating in the light.

Thus we see that the violet rays possess the property of deoxydizing the metal-
lic salts and of acting as oxydants on organic substances. ‘The red rays, on the

368 PHOTOCHEMISTRY

contrary, in the first case are only continuators, but they become reductors in the
presence of organic substances.

MM. Bunsen and Roscoe have sought to estimate the quantity of the chemical
forces annually discharged on the elobe by the sun; they caused the solar light
to penetrate by a very narrow aperture to a vessel containing a mixture of chlo-
rine and hydrogen. These gases, which do not combine in darkness, combined
over the whole tract of the luminous ray in proportion to the quantity of the

radiations absorbed. In a word, if the aperture by which the light arrives be
doubled or tripled, the quantity of chlorhydrie acid formed is also doubled or
tripled. In this way, MM. Bunsen and Roscoe found that the quantity of chemi-
cal rays annually discharged by the sun is capable of combining a stratum 35
metres in depth of mixed hydrogen and chlorine gas. The terrestrial atmo-
sphere absorbs a part of these rays, so as to reduce to 17 metres the stratum of
chlorhydrie acid which would be formed under the normal inclination, and to 11
metres if the sun traversed the atmosphere at 45 degrees.

It is also to photochemistry that the action exerted by light upon vegetables
is to be referred. Bonnet ascertained that leaves immersed in water and exposed
to the sun disengage a gas by their under surface. Priestley announced that
plants have the “property of restoring its primitive purity to the air vitiated by
animals. Towards the close of his life, having repeated his experiment, he
arrived at a different result, and failed to detect the secret of this difference. It
was Ingenhousz who explained this phenomenon in 1779. He proved that under
the action of the solar rays the green parts of plants purify the air, while, on the
contrary, they vitiate it in darkness. By what rays are these effects produced?
If the view which we have taken may be regarded as correct, we are justified in
saying that it is the red and the yellow rays which cause the production of oxy-
gen; the others produce carbonic acid. ‘The experiment has been conducted by
M. Draper, under conditions which leave nothing to be desired. He took seven
tubes of glass containing water charged with carbonic acid, and introduced into

each a leaf of grass; he then caused one of the seven colors of the spectrum to
fall on each ripel "After an interval of time, oxygen was disengaged in the
tubes exposed to the yellow and red rays; in the others there was none. The
red and yellow rays, therefore, are those alone which give to plants the property
of renewing the oxygen of the air.

I shall conclude by stating in a few words the means employed in the practice
of photography. A plate of glass is taken, perfectly cleansed, and is covered
with a thin coat of collodion containing suitable proportions of bromides and
iodides. Before the plate is entirely dry it is plunged into the bath of silver,
the operation being conducted under protection from the hight; itis then exposed
in the camera obscura. 'To bring out the image it is enough to wash with pyro-
gallic acid. Lastly, to prevent ulterior alteration it is washed with the hyposul-
phite of soda. It is thus that a negative proof is obtained; to obtain positive
proofs it suffices to apply this on paper rendered sensitive and to expose the whole
to the light.

It is not probable that photography will be limited to the progress which it
has made up to the present time. At this momént, great hopes are entertained
of obtaining, and that at no distant day, not only the outline of objects, but also
their proper color. Some time has already elapsed since M. Edmond Becquerel
conceived the idea of submitting to the action of the solar spectrum a plate on
which he had deposited a thin layer of iodide of silver. After the lapse of a
considerable time he thus obtained a perfectly distinct image of the spectrum,
with its stripes; and, what is remarkable, even the obscure calorific rays were
also represented. But the point most to be remarked in this experiment is that
the spectrum was colored. Unfortunately it was impossible to fix these images,
and only a very fugitive proof was obtained. M. Niepce de Saint Victor occu-
pied himself with these phenomena, and obtained in the camera obscura photo

PHOTOCHEMISTRY. ee 369

graphic portraitures, chiefly of dolls, with their colors. He did not succeed,
however, any more than M. Becquerel, in obtaining a persistent image. M.

Poiterin has taken up the inquiry, and by means of paper rendered sensitive

throngh chloride of gold and chromic acid, has obtained colored images of quite
pleasing appearance, a little more durable, "and which may be even preserved in
an album. Their preservation, however, is compatible only with a diffused light;

but it is probable that ere long success will attend the efforts for perfecting “this
part of photography.

In concluding, I would wish to give especial prominence to the idea that, if
heretofore much attention has been bestowed on photography, there is still some-
thing more interesting. It is the chemical action of light; it is this transforma-
tion of a certain sort ‘of movements in a phenomenon which, until now, has been
considered as a mechanical one, but which enters s, through these experiments,

into the phenomena of optics.

24 8 67

DORPAT AND POULKOVA.

BY CLEVELAND ABBE, DIRECTOR CINCINNATI OBSERVATORY.

The present condition of practical astronomy in the United States must
awaken strong hopes of our future eminence in cultivating this most useful
science. But in order to avoid committing grave mistakes and to press due
onward in the path of usefulness, we must carefully study and profit by the expe-
rience of our predecessors. Germany and England have each impressed certain
characteristic features upon astronomical instruments and methods of research :
it may be expected that the younger nations, Russia and America, will with cos-
mopolitan impartiality make such use of the results of the past experience of
astronomers as will determine an epoch of still further advancement.

We should do injustice and convey an erroneous impression, however, if we
characterized any school of astronomy as especi ially national—for it is and must
be in a considerable degree individual. It is to Kepler 1 and Roemer, to Bradley
and Herschel, to Bes cele and Airy, that practical astronomy is imdotied for much
of its present perfection, if, indeed, we ought to make any distinctions among a
host of names of those who have contributed their experience and labors towards
the increase of human knowledge. ‘Those who have studied the steady march
of our science during the past fifty years scarcely need to be reminded of him
to whom Dorpat owes its fame and Poulkova its magnificence. ‘To appreciate
this latter imperial observatory one must consider the beginning of the history
of Struve and his school of astronomy in their humbler home in Dorpat, the
Heidelberg of northern Europe: to that beautiful city let us direct our steps.

Leaving the St. Petersburg and Warsaw railroad at Pskoff, whose mouldering
battlements have not long been deserted by mailed warriors, sunrise finds us on
board of a neat little steamboat that is to bear us down a quiet river and over
the famous lake Peipus, away from Russia westward into the ancient country
of the conquered Letts. Very interesting are the views of the Lettish fishermen
and their villages on our right and Jeft as we in the afternoon ascend the mean-
dering Embach. At length the last rays of the setting sun suddenly disclose
before us the dome of the observatory ‘and the ruins of the cathedral, amidst
groves whose bright autumn leaves annually strew and will at last obliterate
the battle-field and the fortress.

Many are the eventful years preserved in the history of the ancient town of
“Derpt.” Centuries before the building of its majestic cathedral, the fortressed
hill, covered with its primeval forests, was the chosen battle-ground of Swedes,
Letts, Finns, and Ests—themselves the successors of the antediluvian races
whose only records are now found in the stone implements collected in the
museum of the University. The westward progress of the Sclavonic empire
caused the village at the foot of the hill to become a city of merchants; whilst
with its increasing wealth and strong fortifications it became in peace the thorough-
fare of the overland traffic between Europe and China and in war the coveted
strategic post. Seven times sacked and burned, it had as often risen anew from
beneath its ashes, until finally the civilization of southern Europe and the found-
ing of St. Petersburg robbed Dorpat of its importance. An hundred years ago
fier remained only ruins and the remembrance of former glory. Here, black
and mossy with age, the old stone bridge still spanned the Embach ; there,

. . * —) . 1 .
portions of the rebuilt walls, and the quaint church of St. John’s, told of

DORPAT AND POULKOVA. FG)!

bygone times; whilst always, with impressive silence, the crumbling cathedral
looked down from its commanding height, directing one’s thoughts through the
five past centuries back to the time when its own beanty was renowned through
all the land.

Seeking to retain for Dorpat its former military importance, the Empress
Catherine ordered her engineers to make of the entire hill, including the cathe-
dial, an impregnable fortress. The work was left only partially finished at the
close of the past century, and the immense earthworks still remain. May they
ever stand as an emblem that wisdom is stronger than force, and that the reign
of war is to be everywhere succeeded by the reign of knowledge.

It was certainly the instinct of true wisdom that in 1802 prompted the Emperor
Alexander I to dedicate this hill to the use of his new university. The for-
fortifications have been planted with shade trees, in the midst of which are found
the ruined cathedral, several of the university buildings, and the pleasure walks
of the Dorpat students. On the northeast brow of the hill is the observatory,
built upon the massive foundation walls of the former bishops’ palatial residence; a
few steps from its porch brings one to the brink of bastions fifty and one hundred feet
high; whilst from its dome the eye ranges over that beautiful country whose fitness
mcated Struve to begin the geodetic W Gtk that forty years later had stretched north-
wards to the Aretic sea and southwards to the Danube. As the illustrious Carl
Ritter could in the growth of his own mind trace the influence of the wide pano-
ramic view familiar to him in his youth, so may we well believe that the ever
present “Dom Ruine” and the beautiful broad landscape have exerted no little
influence upon the lives of Struve and the many others who with him hail Dor-
pat as Alma Mater. Thrice dedicated: to War, to Religion, to Education ; may
“coming centuries still find the home of learning sheltered beneath those quiet

roves.’

It is with pleasure that one contemplates the life of a great and good man,
whose whole course was a continued success, and who richly merited the unbounded
favor of emperors and the lasting respect of all. Such was Friedrie Georg
Wilhelm Struve; and often as the stor y of his brilliant career has been told, we
will again rehearse its noteworthy features.

Inheriting great ability, he received at the hands of wise and devoted chris-
tian par ents, at their home in Altona, so thorough a physical and mental develop-
ment that at his entrance, in 1808, at the age of 15, into the student life of the
university at Dorpat, his superiority was already perceived. His elder brother
Carl was then a lecturer at the university, and his own attention was strongly
turned to philology as affording a very congenial field for future lifelong labor.
It was not until after three years spent in literary studies, and after gaining the
highest university prizes, that he began to attend the lectures of Huth on math-
ematics and of Parrot on physics. Huth had in 1809 succeeded Pfaff as pro-
fessor of mathematics and director of the observatory, and held this chair until
his death, in 1815.

Obliged, for self-support, to give instruction as a private tutor, his residence at
Sagnitz with his patron, the Count von Berg, was fortunate, in that Struve could
find convenient relaxation from his duties in making a slight topographical recon-
noissance of the surrounding country. ‘This was in the summer of 1811, a period
signalized by the splendor of the eveat comet of that year. No wonder then,
that when in the autumn Strave began his attendance upon the scientific lectures
of Huth and Parrot, le, as‘an enthusiastic student, with his own hands released
the long-neglected telescopes from their packing boxes, and perfected himself in
their use. His observations of the angle of position of the components of Castor,
in August, 1811, show that his attention was now engaged by astronomy as
decidedly as it had in the early summer been turned tow ards geodesy. "Through
the remainder of Struve’s life these correlated subjects equally engrossed his
energies and were equally advanced by his labors.

aM DORPAT AND POULKOVA.

With the reception of his doctor’s degree, in October 1813, and the commem-
orative memoir upon the geographical position of Dorpat, Struve ceased to be
ranked among the students, and received in the following month an appointment
as professor extraordinary and astronomical observer. This was accomplished
through the influence of Professor Parrot, to whom Dorpat and science thus owe
many thanks.

The observatory had been built under Pfaff’s directorship, and furnished with
some instruments; but these might have long remained useless and unknown
had not an indefatigable observer been sent in the person of the young student
who now succeeded to Paucker as the “observer” under Huth’s directorship.

It was not in Struve’s power to remove the many defects in the observatory
building and instruments; but then, as ever afterward, he showed his ability and
disposition to make the best possible use of whatever means were at his disposal,
as he himself explains in the introduction to the first volume of the Dorpat
Observations:

When, three years ago, the position of observer in this astronomical observatory was
given to me, I considered long and seriously whether I might not, in the then state of the
observatory, carry on such a class of observations as that something of use in increasing our
knowledge of the starry heavens might possibly be deduced therefrom.

England had long been celebrated for instruments, and the massive walls of
Dorpat observatory contained fine specimens of the work of the best English
mechanicians. One may still see these preserved there as mementos of bygone
days.

The control of the instruments was now left by Huth entirely in Struve’s
hands, and from the commencement of 1814 dates the scientific activity of the
observatory, whose history for twenty-five years continues to be identified with that
of Struve; for the succeeding quarter century it has been honored by the presence
of the illustrious Maedler; at present Professor Clausen with cordial hospitality
presides within its honored walls. It is not onr design to trace minutely the
history of the observatory and its director, but rather to call attention to the
steps by which were realized the hopes and plans of Struve’s early youth.

In June, 1812, whilst conducting some experimental trigonometrical surveys
in Livonia, Struve foresaw the grandeur of the geodesical operations that might
grow trom the beginning there made. His first scientific jowmey in 1814, and
his second in 1815, (which was also his wedding tour,) introduced him, as the
astronomical observer of Dorpat, to many of the prominent German astronomers,
and opened a personal acquaintance that was afterwards of eminent service to
him. His succession in 1815 to the vacancy caused by the death of Professor
Huth placed him in a position of authority; and the separation in 1822 of the
chairs of astronomy and mathematics (this latter being given to Professor Bartels,
to whom Professor Minding now succeeds) left Struve full liberty to push for-
ward in his chosen field of activity.

The geodesic work for the map of the province of Livonia, ordered by the
Lieffland Economic Society, cecupied the summers of the years 1816-1819, and
brought the geodesist in contact with General Tenner, of the Russian military engi-
neers, Who was pursuing a similar work in the neighboring provinces. No sooner
was Struve’s work finished (in its prosecution a 10-inch sextant and an are for the
measurement of small vertical angles were the principal instruments used) than
he laid his definitive plans for the measurement of an are of 3° 35/ before the
council of the university, by whoin the undertaking was sanctioned. The neces-
sary appropriation was granted by the Emperor Alexander, who directed that
Strave should order the needed instruments in person, from the best makers ;
and who further showed his appreciation of the astronomer’s past labors by a
munificent appropriation for the purchase of better instruments for the university
observatory.

In the summer of 1820 Struve made his third journey, visiting southem as

“DORPAT AND POULKOVA. 373

well as northern Germany, drawing to him the hearts and good wishes of all,
especially his younger co-workers. Having seen the most renowned mechanists
and discussed with them the details of his new and long-hoped-for instruments,
lie returned to the university to await their arrival. The Reichenbach Uni-
versal Instrument was received in 1821, and in 1824 he began to use it in the
proposed geodesic operations, (in which Baron von Wrangell, of the Russian navy,
was his etlicient eo-laborer.) This latter work was nearly completed in five years.
The results are found in the “ Beschreibung der Breitengradmessung ; Dorpat,
1831.” The three-foot meridian circle, the mate of which was found at Kénigs-
berg, was received at the observatory in 1822. Observations with it began in
October, the winter months being henceforth especially devoted to astronomical
labors. It was in this year also that officers of the army and navy began to be
sent to Dorpat to study practical astronomy under a man of such ability. In
November, 1824, the uine-inch refractor of Frauenhofer was received, and in
February was begun the review of the heavens, whose results were published
in 1827 in the “Catalogus novus generalis stellarum duplicium et multiplicium.”
In this latter year it was that Professor Parrot was called from Dorpat to reside
at St. Petersburg as a member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, and almost
directly thereafter he was commissioned to prepare for the Academy the plans
for the new astronomical observatory, whose erection had long been before the
consideration of that body.

The labors imposed on Dorpat during the years 1820-1830 only stirred the
unwearied savant to greater undertakings, and as the work on the are of the
meridian drew to a close, Struve,in 1830, presented to. the Prince von Lieven, the
ininister of public instruction, a memoir relative to the possibility of prolonging
this are northwards through Finland. Simultaneously with Struve, General 'T'en-
uer had been at work to the southward; the junction of Tenner’s and Struave’s
work had been effected in 1828-1829, affording a meridian are of 8° 2’, which,
by the proposed measurement of an arc of 5° 26/in Finland, could be united to
the work of the French astronomers in Lapland, thus completing an are of 153°.
The difficulties to be encountered in Finland promised to be unusually great,
but the desirability of the work was properly represented, and the Emperor
Nicholas I granted at once the sum thought to be sufficient for its completion
within ten years.

In the spring of this year, and in connection with the great undertaking just
mentioned, Struve made his fourth scientific journey, extending it to England,
and in December visited St. Petersburg, where he was, in January, 1831, hon-
ored by a personal interview with the Emperor—an interview fraught with the
happiest consequences to the progress of astronomy in Russia. ‘This was the
momeut that had long been looked forward to by the director of the Dorpat
observatory, who had doubtless foreseen the inevitable result that would in due
time flow from his labors, both as geodesist and astronomer, during the previous
fifteen years. Struve’s adinirable tact and the eloquence of his earnest sincerity
were ever equal to the demands of the occasion, and we cannot do better than quote
his own account of this interview, at which the minister of public instruction,
the Prince von Lieven, was the third person present :

Having listened to my report upon the late scientific journey, and after having graciously
granted an increased sum to the observatory of Dorpat, the Emperor condescended to put
to me the following questions:

“What is your opinion of the observatory of St. Petersburg?”

I did not hesitate to respond, in all frankness and in accordance with the exact truth,
that the observatory of the Academy did not at all correspond to the present demands of
science, and that it partook of the nature of all the establishments of its kind placed in the
midst of large cities, as those of Vienna, of Berlin, &c¢., and even of Paris, where the meridian
instruments ought to be removed from the colossal edifice constructed under the reign of
Louis XIV, and be placed in modest apartinents adjacent to the principal structure.

Having listened to this reply, his Majesty addressed the minister of public instruction,
saying that he regarded the establishment of an observatory of the first rank near to the
ca, ital as an object of high utility and important to the scientific honor of Russia.

S74 DORPAT AND POULKOVA.

The minister did not fail to inform the Emperor that the Academy of Sciences had for
some years occupied itself with the project of a new observatory, and that he had only
awaited the completion of the plans and drawings in order to lay them before his Majesty.
Theo the Emperor ordered that the project should be presented to him as soon as it should
have been matured. Finally, his Majesty condescended to direct his attention to the choice
of the location for the institution to be erected. The minister having mentioned the site to
the north of the city and offered as a gift to the Academy, the Emperor condescended to
express himself in the following terms :

‘‘How? The Academy thinks to place the new observatory quite near the city on the
north side, and upon a sandy and marshy soil? That is hardly advisable. I would suggest
another position. It is upon the heights of Poulkova that the observatory should be placed.”

Then his Majesty condescended to address to me the following words:

“Sir Astronomer, you perhaps think it strange that the Emperor should wish to correct
the Academy ina scientific matter. But do you know Poulkova, and what do you think of
the site?”

My reply was that in 1828, passing for the first time by Poulkova in the company of the
Baron von Wrangell, [had been so struck with its position that I had, as if prophetically,
exclaimed: ‘‘ There upon the hill of Poulkova it is that we shall one day behold the observa-
tory of St. Petersburg.”

Such is Struve’s graphic account of his first interview with the Emperor
Nicholas. How rarely does history offer to us a brighter picture than this in
which the frank and enthusiastic savant reveals to the willing monarch the path
to honorable glory.

The astronomer returned to Dorpat to find that the endowment of his observ-
atory had been largely increased, and that he was in a position to undertake still
greater labors.

It was in October, 1833, that the Emperor Nicholas saw fit to give his definite
orders concerning a new observatory. ‘The long matured plans of Professor
Parrot and the Academy were thereupon presented; these being accepted, their
execution, at an estimated expense of 200,000 silver roubles, was ordered. A
committee, consisting of Messrs. Wisnieftski, Fuss, Parrot, and Struve, was
appointed by the minister of public instruction (Ouvaroff) to study and execute
the plans approved of by the Emperor on the recommendation of the Academy.
It was as well an impulse of duty towards his science as of gratitude to his
benefactor, that led Struve to express to the minister his opinion “that the plan
proposed by the Academy and given into the hands of this committee would fail
to realize the high anticipations of their august sovereign.” The committee
were ordered to revise their work; new plans were matured; the details of the
mutual relations of the prospective astronomers of the institution were discussed
with the Emperor in person ; Admiral Greig, the founder of the observatory at
Nicolairsk, was made president of the commission, and in March, 1834, the
ground was occupied for the erection of the new observatory. In the following
month Struve, on behalf of the committee, was presented again to the Emperor,
and a second time his personal representations resulted to the advantage of the
interests of astronomy. After explaining the motives that had led the com-
mittee to prepare plans for a far more costly observatory than had been before
contemplated, these latter received the imperial sanction, and Struve was ordered
to superintend in person the construction of the necessary instruments.

In the following summer a fifth journey into Germany was made on business,
which was specially congenial to Struve. After months of study and discussion
on the details of the new instruments, Ertel of Munich and Repsold of Ham-
burg were intrusted with their construction, and they have since proved them-
selves well worthy of their places inthe Central Observatory. The corner-stone
of the building was laid with due formality on the 3d of July, (June 25, O. S.,)
1835, and the entire structure progressed slowly but steadily towards completion.
In 1838, on his sixth journey, Strave revisited Hamburg and Munich, examined
his new instruments, now nearly completed, and, after making minor improve-
ments, finally approved them as satisfactory. He had four years previously been
directed by the Emperor to superintend the construction and equipment of the

DORPAT AND POULKOVA 375

observatory ; he was now chosen by the Academy of Sciences and confirmed
by the Emperor as the first director. In the spring of 1839 he removed his
residence from Dor pat to Poulkova, and on the 19th of August the formal
inauguration of the activity of the observatory was celebrated, ord those under
whose guidance so complete a success had been attained received the well-deserved
congratulations of the Emperor and the astronomers of his empire.

Whilst we are thus contemplating the rise of Poulkova we should not for-

get the importance of the past ten years in the history of Dorpat. From 1825
to 1831 Struve and Tenner had been engaged in joining their respective meas-
urements of meridian arcs. ‘The description of this operation was published in
1832; the full account of Struve’s work having appeared in 1831 in the ‘“ Die
Breitengradmessung.” The operations in Finland were then taken in hand
and pushed on to their completion in 1844, the difficulties of the ground and
the distraction incident to the erection of the Poulkova observatory having
delayed the work only a very little. In 1837 was published in the “ Mensure
Micrometrice” the observations on double stars, made with the Franenhofer
refractor, during the thirteen years that had elapsed since its reception in 1824 in
Dorpat. In 1839 appeared the fine volume containing the Dorpat observations
of Halley’s comet in 1835. Add to these the regular meridional observations
and their reductions for the years 1825-1841, as found published in the 6th, 7th,
Sth and 9th volumes of the Dorpat “Observationes Astronomicz,” and we see
that the older observatory was not neglected in the expectation of the new. In
the year 1822 had been inaugurated, as before mentioned, the practice of send-
ing a few military and naval officers to Dorpat to study under Struve; his
course of lectures was continued with but few interruptions until, by his removal
to Poulkova, he was able to make that a school of practical astronomy as well
as an observatory.

The history of Dorpat after the inauguration of Poulkova presents several
very interesting chapters; the quiet of the shady walks under her linden groves
was no longer enlivened by the activity of the many students whom Strave had
gathered about him, but if the professors missed their brilliant co-worker, or the
social circles missed his numerous family, all were in part reconciled to their loss
by the presence of his celebrated successor who was called to Dorpat, after some
little delay. In the winter of 1865—66 Professor Maedler retired from his
directorship to find in elaborate historical investigations that rest from his exhaust-
ing astronomical labors which failing sight had forced upon him. Six volumes of
Dorpat observations published during the quarter century of his administration
ata the activity of the observatory y, and many investigations into the orbits
of double stars, as well as those upon the proper motions of the stars and of our
solar system, show his ability as an astronomer. The present director, Professor
Clausen, and his assistant, Mr. Schwartz, well known by his contributions to the
geography of Siberia, have added to their other labors a series of observations
with the Reichenbach meridian circle in accordance with the plan proposed by
Argelander, as a means for comparing the peculiarities of the principal instru-
ments and observers of the world.

It has been remarked that after the inauguration of Poulkova it became instead
of Dorpat the school of practical astronomy for Russian officers and scientists.
Of the former over seventy names are recorded during the first twenty-five years
of the existence of the observatory, all of whom have more or less distinguished
themselves by their ability and activity. Of Russian and foreign professional astro-
nomers about forty have within the same period availed themselves of the privi-
lege of from one to five years’ residence at this magnificent institution, of whom

many are already well known in the astronomical world. It was inevitable
that the educated geodesists sent out from Poulkova through the length and
breadth of the Russian dominions should secure for their scientific alma mater
the honor and influence that she so richly merited. Struve was pre-eminently an

376 DORPAT AND POULKOVA.

utilitarian, and he found in this opening field of usefulness the proper opportu-
nity for fully reimbursing the government for the great expenses attendant upon
the maintenance of the observatory. But the diversion of the small astronomi-
cal force of the observatory from scientific investigations to practical applications,
from study to teaching, in the course of time threatened to seriously interfere
with the attainment of the first and important aim of the institution. So long as
the extended labors of the Central Observatory were borne by five persons, (the
director and four adjunct astronomers,) so long must the general progress of the
observatory work be painfully slow, and the “urgent need for making provision
for further assistance, especially in ‘the matter of reductions, became daily more
pressing.

It was in 1856 that the observatory was called upon to lament the death of its
founder and friend, Nicholas I, whose name it has since borne, but the imperial
successor, the present Alexander II, failed not to provide bountifully for the
proper maintenance of an institution 80 useful to the state and so honorable as a
testimonial to the wise munificence of his father. Within a year the annual
income of the observatory was doubled, and the friendly dispositions of the
department of war, of the navy, and of public instruction, were abundantly mani-
fested by their respective ministers. Not only were the hitherto meagre salaries
of the four astronomers now properly. increased, but by the addition of two
adjunct astronomers and two permanent computers, as well as by the ability to
engage temporary assistance, the effective working force of the observatory was
nearly doubled, and the immediate danger that abstract science would be entirely
supplanted by its practisal applications was averted.

The change in the relations of the Central Observatory to the various depart-
ments of the civil government which was brought about during the succeeding
five years was the inevitable consequence of its active usefulness during the first
eighteen years of its history. We will briefly consider the work done at Poul-
kova during this period, though we can scarcely do more than enumerate the
titles of the most important of the one hundred and fifteen memoirs published by
its astronomers previous to 1898.

The long series of Dorpat meridian observations extending from 1822 to 1843,
already published in successive volumes and in separate treatises, required, in
Struve’s opinion, a final revision as regards their reductions, and a publication as
one work, inasmuch as they had been conducted upon one plan and formed con-
secutive portions of a symmetrical whole. ‘The original Dorpat records of obser-

ration are still preserved at Poulkova in accordance with the laws regarding
that observatory, and from them were ae the resulting catalogue: : Stel.
larum fixarum positiones mediz; auctore F. G. W. Struve, Petropoli, 1852.
Tie following works must be considered as preliminary to this invaluable cata-
logue: The Deduetion of the Constant of Precession, (St. Petersburg, 1842,) by
Otto Struve; the Deduction of the Constants of Nutation and Aberration, by
Schidlofiski, (Dorpat, 1841,) by Lundahl, (Helsingfors, 1842,) and by Peters,
(St. Petersburg, 1842.) In conjunction with the last named memoir is to be
placed the determination by Struve (St. Petersburg, 1843,) of the constant of aber-
ration from his own observations made in 1839-1842 with the Poulkeva Repsold
Prime Vertical ‘Transit. This last was the first important publication of observa-
tions made at Poulkova, and was shortly followed (1844) by Peters’s Observa-
tions with the Ertel Vertical Circle upon the Pole Star; in both of which
works the scientific world found the proof of the superiority and accuracy of
these new instruments. The first publication of observations with the Merid-
ian Transit is found in Lindhagen’s memoir (St. Petersburg, 1849) upon the con-
stant of aberration deduced from observations made on the Pole Star.

hese works of universal interest and importance, inasmuch as they have
established the authority of the so-called “ Poulkova Constants,” now in general
use among astronomers, were accompanied by others of similar value ; ; such were

DORPAT AND POULKOVA. B17

the Revision of the northern heavens for all stars to the eighth magnitude, by Otto
Struve, in 184142, and the resulting catalogue of 514 new multiple stars, (St.
Petersburg, 1843;) the publication of Weisse’s Reduction of Bessel’s Zones,
(St. Petersburg, 1846 ;) of Déllen’s Reduction of the Kénigsberg Declinations,
(St. Petersburg, 1849;) of Otto Struve’s Revised Catalogue of Double Stars
discovered at Poulkova, (St. Petersburg, 1850;) of Fedorenko’s Reduction of
Lalande’s Circumpolar Stars, (St. Petersburg, 1854.)

And to these we must add certain studies which are of great interest and
value from their bearing upon subjects of investigation that still elude our secure
grasp: Struve’s Etudes d’Astronomie Stellaire, (St. Petersburg, 1848 ;) Peters’s
Recherches sur la Parallaxe des etoiles fixes, (St. Petersburg, 1848;) Otto
Struve’s Investigations into the Parallaxes of 1830, Groombridge, (1850 ;) of
a Lyre, (1852;) of a Lyre and 61 @ Cygni, (1854;) Déllen’s Criticism, St.)
Petersburg, 1853;) of Wichman’s Parallax of 1830, Groombridge.

Nor had the attention of the observatory been drawn from the bodies of the
solar system. In 1843 was published the elaborate memoir on the orbit of the
comet of 1839~40 by Peters and Otto Struve; in 1849 and 1850 the Observa-
tions of the Satellite of Neptune and Deduction of Neptune’s Mass, by Otto and
August Struve; in 1852 Otto Struve’s Observations of the Rings of Saturn, and
in 1854 his Observations of Biela’s Comet; finally, in 1853, by Struve and
Liapounoff, the Reduction of the Dorpat Observations of the Sun, Moon and
Planets.

In practical astronomy the publication (1845) of the Description of the Cen-
tral Observatory had formed a memorable epoch, and the annual Russian edition
of the English Nautical Almanac brought that indispensable work to the conve-
nient use of the Russian officers.

In geodesy the expedition of 183841, suggested and planned by Struve for
the determination of the difference of level between the Black and Caspian Seas,
(St. Petersburg, 1849,) had added much to the geography of that little known
portion of what was then the Russian frontier, and gave occasion to Struve to
make a very valuable contribution to our knowledge of terrestrial refraction;
the longitude expeditions to Altona and Greenwich in 184344, and the annual
geographic expeditions into the interior of Russia, and especially the steadily
progressing measurement ef a grand meridional are of 25 degrees of latitude,
were continual reminders of the vastness and national importance of the works
undertaken by the Central Observatory, and by those who were the co-workers
of its amiable director.

Nor was the rapid progress of astronomy in Russia unnoticed by the astrono-
mers of foreign countries. Already in 1840 had the kindly Schumacher cele-
brated the 25th year of their friendship by a personal visit to Struve, and had
borne testimony to the advance that had been realized by the establishment of so
imperial an institution; and in 1842 the King of Prussia, on beholding the
splendor of Poulkova, had the condescension to promise that Bessel and

-Argelander should certainly have opportunities given them to visit this “ Eldo-
rado.” It was, however, not until 1853 that the latter was able to leave
Bonn and gratify his long-repressed desire, and the life-long friend of Struve
could but say that the half had not been told him. Even from America came
tributes to the fame of Poulkova; first, when in 1848 it was visited by our emi-
nent countryman, whose impressions as published in the North American Review
(1849) created among us a wide-spread interest in Struve and his Central Obser-
vatory ; and again when visited in 1851 by the late director of the Harvard Col-
lege Observatory, to whom, when still at a distance from St. Petersburg, Struve
sent a message of welcome.

Tt was in 1857, when the high rank of Poufkova in matters pertaining to
astronomy and geodesy had thus been so forcibly demonstrated at home, and so
widely acknowledged abroad, that the necessity became imperative for a change

/

378 DORPAT AND POULKOVA.

in the relations of the observatory to the state. In effecting such a change, one
long previously foreseen by Struve, many dangers were imminent, many obstacles
were to be overcome. But if the director at any moment needed (sees sip he his
wide acquaintance with and profound knowledge of men secured to him such as
were desirable, and among them was one whose position as astronomer royal of
England and whose eminent usefulness gave weight to every suggestion.

In 1844 the advanced condition of the work on the Finland prolongation of
the are of the meridian had demanded that the next step, namely, the prelimi-
naries to its extension to the North Cape and to the Danube, should be defin-
itely agreed upon. Struve had, therefore, been sent to Stockholm, where an
interview with the Swedish commissioners and a final interview with the King
of Sweden led to a most satisfactory adjustment of the relations to be borne by
the various parties in the concluding portion of this extended international work.
On account of the quarantine regulations Struve found it convenient to visit Ger-

many and England in the course of this journey. ‘This visit, in connection with
the longitude expedition of the same year, had opened a most valuable intercourse
with the observatory at Greenwich, and the personal friendship between Struve
and Airy was cemented in 1847, not only during Struve’s third visit to England,
(on the occasion of the transportation of one of the bars of the Indian base ¢ appa-
ratus,) but still more by Airy’s consequent visit to Poulkova and his kindly
criticism of the peculiar features of that observatory. Widely as the latter insti
tution differed from its English predecessor, they yet had many common interests.
Central in its location, honorable in the history of its usefulness, and } eculiarly
favored by the state patronage, the position of the Royal Observatory of Eng-
Jand was very similar to that which Poulkova now virtually occupied, and it
became Struve’s desire to secure more completely for the latter that stability and
unembarrassed independence that had long been enjoyed by Greenwich. Not
only prudential considerations, but also the interests of the many other observa-
tories in the empire, were a matter of anxiety; possibly a certain clause in the
original laws regarding the Central Observatory, or possibly the name itself,

may sometimes have led similar institutions in Russia to fear lest Poulkova,
overstepping proper bounds, might assume authority over them; but the astron-
omers of the imperial establishment had ever labored to dispel any such injuri-
ous illusion. ‘The appointment of Struve by the Imperial Academy, in 1857, to
prepare a new set of laws for the reorganization of the internal and external
relations of the observatory was the opportunity by which he sought te remove
all misapprehension and to realize increased usefulness. Five years, however,
must elapse before the new code of laws could officially go into operation; a
delay which, while it may have resulted in perfecting the new statutes, was itself
the consequence of most painful events.

His exhansting labors in connection with the invaluable new catalogue of the
Poulkova library, and the publication of the “ Are du Meridian entre le Dan-
ube et la mer Glaciale, St. Petersbourg, 1860-61,” had necessitated a_ little
recreation, which Struve found in a short trip in October and November, 1857,
to Germany, France, Switzerland, and England. 'This was Struve’s eleventh
absence from Russia, and afforded him the opportunity of urging the importance
of, and of preparing the way for, an international measurement of an are of lon-
gitude, in which work he had ten years previously enlisted the active co-opera-
tion of General Wrontschenko, then conducting the Russian geodetic surveys.
In January, soon after his return to Poulkova, a severe attack of cancer pros-
trated his strength and necessitated a prolonged absence in the warmer climates
of southern Europe. The vice-director, Otto Struve, officiated in his father’s
place until the return of the latter in August, 1859, and in January, 1862,
Otto Struve succeeded as director of the observatory upon the resignation of
the former, since there no longer appeared reasonable hope of his recovery.
It was thus reserved te the present director, finally, to harmoniously adjust all

DORPAT AND POULKOVA. 39

the relations of the observatory, and to realize the ideal clearly conceived by the
father fifty years previously. It was proper that the son should complete the
immortal work of the father, but it is satisfactory to know that before the death
of the latter he had already in 1864, on the occasion of the celebration of the
twenty-fifth anniversary of the inauguration of the observatory, received the con-
egratulations of assembled astronomers, statesmen, and friends, upon the successful
completion of his life-labor, and the auspicious entrance of the observatory upon
its new career.

The period from 1857 to August 26-14, 1862, marked as it was by the ill-
ness of Struve and the succession of his son, may be considered as a period of
transition which was terminated on the latter date by the imperial approval of
the new “ Statutes of the Nicholas Central Observatory.”

These statutes recognize the observatory as having become a scientific astro-
nomical institution of permanent practical importance to the interests of the
state; and, therefore, the Academy of Sciences, to which body it had hitherto
been directly subject, is now, to a great extent, released from the responsibility
of its maintenance and activity. In order to avoid the danger lest the extra-
neous geographic and geodetic operations should interfere with the progress of
scientific investigation, the working force was further increased by placing at
the disposal of the director four positions additional to those created in 1857,
thus increasing the scientific corps to thirteen persons, and a regulation requiring
from each paid astronomer, except the director, three hours daily of computation
on the reduction of current work assures us that the long desired Poulkova obser-
vations will hereafter be rapidly reduced and published.

The necessity for promptness in business matters was of itself sufficient to
demand the newly introduced and direct responsibility of the director of the
observatory to the minister of public instruction, thus avoiding the frequent
delays incident to the previous relations with the Academy of Sciences. But
this most radical and beneficial change was accompanied by the equally wise
interposition of a ‘ committee,” reminding one of the ‘board of visitors” of
Greenwich, which should annually report to the minister the condition of the
observatory affairs, and whose recommendation or appreving vote, by reason of
the high authority of the individuals composing this body, “ would, at any time,
authorize the observatory to expect governmental support in its undertaking.”
The fifth article of the new laws defining the membership of this committee reads
in part as follows: ,

Section 5. The committee will be composed of persons who belong to those departments on
which the labors of the observatery have a direct bearing. It consists of the president of the
Academy of Sciences, as chairman; the president of the Imperial Geographical Society ;
the director of the Military Topographical Bureau; the chief of the Nicholas Academy of
the General Staff; the president of the honorable Naval Board; the director of the Hydro-
graphical Department; the permanent secretary of the Academy of Sciences; and of four
persons who will be annually chosen by the Academy from among their active or honorary
or corresponding members, &c.

On the occasion of the May visitation of this committee to Poulkova it
receives the annual report of the director. Itis by the organization and active
co-operation of this committee, which is indeed nearly equivalent to a “ board
of commissioners,” that the Central Observatory may expect to steadily advance
in prosperity. In it are represented not only the scientific Academy, but those
departments of the government which, having an interest in the observatory,
have also a common duty toward it.

As to the scientific members of the observatory corps, we must notice that
the election of the director by the Academy of Sciences and his confirma-
tion by special imperial assent, the nomination of the four senior astronomers
by the director and their confirmation by the Academy, the nomination of the
adjuncts by the director and their confirmation by the minister of public instruc-
tion, all combine to give high political authority, to secure acknowledged scien-

380 DORPAT AND POULKOVA.

tific ability, and to insure permanent stability—from all of which there will follow
the most energetic and best directed activity. These precautions, taken to secure
the best use of the money appropriated to scientific research, strike one with the
more admiration as existing under a government so autocratic as the Russian.
They are due not only to the wisdom of the Emperor Alexander II, and espe-
cially to his brother the Grand Duke Constantine, but also to the diversity of
the many interests that had clustered about an astronomical observator 'y, and to
the sagacity of Struve and his illustrious successor.

But if we return to the external scientific relations between Poulkova and
the other observatories of Russia, we are still more deeply convinced of Struve’s
consummate ability, in that he was able to dispel the fears which might have
led many to suspect that he aimed at a legalized astronomical autocracy. Per-
haps the name, CENTRAL, was unfortunately chosen; certainly it might please
a military monarch better than the quiet student. Bunt the experiences of others
stood the astronomer in good stead, and, notwithstanding the well-meant sug-
gestions of political friends, he endeavored to realize that which would, in its
moral beauty, eclipse the material splendor of Poulkova. “This observatory
will always be a central scientific authority, So LONG AS IT DESERVES TO BE
SUCH,” was the sentiment on which Strave 1 rightly desired the prosperity of
Poulkova to be based. ‘The inter pretation given by the Poulkova astronomers
to the obnoxious clauses in its former code of laws is found in the following
quotation :

It is allowed to the Central Observatory to apply the greater means over which she has con-
trol to the assistance of the other observatories and the furtherance of the labors that they
undertake ; and as the central institution it must strive for the most successful co-operation
of the different observatories of the empire. To this latter end, however, it possesses no
other means than fraternal intercourse. The use of and even the existence of such

intercourse must remain entirely dependent upon the estimation in which such is held by the
individual directors of other observatories.”

This was “co-operation—not monopoly.” As to the realization of these
principles, we may now behold an empire dotied with many scientific astronom-
ical institutions, harmoniously co-working under the stimulating influence of
EXAMPLE. The progress of each is the good of all.

As we perceive the external, wide-spread, national influence of Poulkova to
be pre-eminently beneficial, we are thus prepared for the harmony that exists
within. Honor to those whose entire devotion to the solitary studies of the
astronomer has enabled them, during many years, to labor amicably together,
absorbed in the search for truth 1ather than fame, and imbued with the spirit
of the example of their revered senior.

On the 23d-11th November 1864, Struve quietly passed away. His funeral
discourse was appropriately based upon the text, “God is love; and he that
dwelleth in love dwelleth in God, and He in him.” Only such a charitable
spirit as he possessed could ever be admitted within the little social circle that
constitutes the isolated scientific society of the observatory of Poulkova.

We have followed the history of the Nicholas Central Observatory from its
first conception in the mind of Struve to the complete development of the
clearly defined ideal through the munificence of the Emperor Nicholas I and
the liberal patronage of his worthy successor, Alexander II. The call of
Struve to the observatory of Dorpat in 1813, the inauguration of the observa-
tory at Poulkova in 1839, the permanent organization of 1862, and the sub-
sequent quarter-century anniversary celebration in 1864, embrace a space of fifty
vears. In the history of the past five years, as recorded in the annual reports of
the director, we shall find ample testimony to the vigor of the maturity of the
observatory. If, turning from the contemplation of its past history, one studies
Poulkova as it is, there is found on every side that which pleases both the man
and the astroncmer. An honor to the Russian empire, it may well serve as a
study aud example to other nations and to other men.

DORPAT AND POULKOVA. Low c

We shall supplement our rude historical sketch by a few words upon its inner
organization and present scientific activity, but would recommend to all the
interesting work of Sir Charles Piazzi Smy th, prompted by the hospitality
extended to him during his visit to Russia in 1859.

Among the marshes at the head of the Gulf of Finland, and on the islands
in the mouth of the river Neva, under the 60th° of north latitude, Peter the Great
founded the city of St. Petersburg. A plain surrounds the city on all sides, but
at various distances to the east and south this is bounded by ridges that were
once the shores of the gulf, when its waters covered the site of “the northern
capital; beyond these the elevated table lands of the rolling steppes begin.
Directly south of the city the plain is limited by a maerate elevation, “the
mountain Poulkova,” a hill laid out by Catherine fora pleasure garden, but Pnoeae
long before her fae by Peter as a favorite resort whilst fighting lie Swedes
and building up St. Petersburg. The great military road southward from St.
Petersburg to Warsaw, bending as its course strikes the steep northern face of
the ridge, sends a branch off to the southeastward to 'T'sarskoe- Selo, but itself
half encircling the hill Poulkova, continues onward until lost to the s sight behind
other ridges far to the southward. A village of peasants, formerly imperial
serfs, sheltered from the violent westerly gales, has clustered along the roadside,
and has given its name to the hill. On the northeast outskirts of the village, and
not a mile distant from the observatory, the centre of attraction, we “find a
favorite spot, whence we behold at once the full beauty of the observatory hill.
Looking to the southwest, we see at first only the log-houses and fruit gardens
of the villagers, whilst beyond a wild forest covers the mountain. But a more

careful scrutiny converts the forest into a semi-artificial grove, “the little Switzer-
land” of the Poulkovites covering the abrupt northern slope of the declivity.

The curving and ascending Warsaw road bounds our diminutive forest on the
side nearer to us; on the roadside nestling amidst the green trees of the observa-
tory park is a white-arched porch, covering a far- famed spring. <A little further

up, and to the left is the dwelling of the former observatory mechanician, whilst
very far behind it one sees a tall eeodetic signal. Behind the grove peeps ‘out the
tasteful little observatory of the oflicers of the military academy ; then the green
lawn spreads out in front of the imperial establishment, whose three turretted
domes crown the hill.

Those three domes even from a great distance are noticeable features in the
landscape. Let us leave St. Petersburg by the broad “T'sarskoe-Selo avenue,”
and long before entering upon the Warsaw road, even before passing under the
triumphal arch, if we look directly south we may see between its pillars the long
straight road, the Poulkova hill and the domes ten miles distant. The middle
and largest deme appears connected with the macadamized road by a narrow
line, but our swift troika soon brings us near enough to perceive that the line
is a ‘footpath leading straight up the hiil dividing the green forest of our little
Switzerland into equal portions on the right hand and on the left. Only the
monotony of the surrounding plains can justify our comparison with Alpine
scenery, as we readily acknowledge when having ascended to the topmost step
of the footpath, we learn that the village behind is scarcely 100 feet below us.
Behind us is the long road, with its double row of lindens, and St. Petersburg
in the distance; before us is a grassy lawn of ten acres, and beyond that the
observatory. Our path leads without turning straight through an avenue of
lindens, and between fragrant flower beds up “to the dorie columns of the ves-
tibule. A shaded path ‘to the left takes us behind ancient elms to the obser-
vatory of the military academy; one to the right brings us through a charming
grove of evergreens to the “Peter’s stone” and the tall signal. The Iussian
architects well understand the use of colors in relieving the monotony of a wintry
snow-covered landscape; we have before us on either hand the deep red-br ick

dwellings, flanked by evergreens and birches, and enclosing the observatory,

382 DORPAT AND POULKOVA

whose brown woodwork and cream-colored stucco resting apon light sandstone
foundations, contrast as beautifully with January’s snows as with the fresh
green of June. One should visit the Peter’s stone and the quiet grave-yard, and
linger in this beautiful park before entering the observatory. Under the noble
elms the village peasants spend many a summer holiday ; here travellers stop to
rest and lunch, and enjoy the view, and of a pleasant afternoon the observatory
families may be seen dining and chatting over coffee or tea—all enjoying the
luxury of that open air life that Europeans, and especially the Germans, indulge
in so heartily.

Struve’s appreciation of the beautiful is seen not only at every step of our
walk through the grounds and in the exterior of the buildings, but as pleasantly
impresses one on “entering within. Whether we consider the director's cosy
study or the elegant proportions of the airy observing rooms; whether we visit
the magnificent library or the unique portrait gallery y of the central rotunda ;
or study the details of the instruments, or the methods of using them, every-
where is appropriate symmetry, harmony and beauty. But leaving for the present
me material structure, ever 'y detail of which is so minutely recorded in Struve’s

“Description de VObservatoire, ” let us first consider that which is of prime
importance to the interests of science.

The inner organization of any institution should depend not only upon the
nature of the material, but equally upon the conditions and nature of the work
to be performed. 'The variety of the demands made upon the Royal Observatory
at Greenwich, and the imperative call for daily and annual results, as well as the
singleness of the object kept in view, have necessitated a simplified daily routine,
and a regulated organization of all the working forces; so that the director
holds in his hand a control over the minutest detail of operations; only thus could
all demands be met with unfailing regularity. At Paris, but only to a slight
extent at Washington, a similar course has heen imposed. The value of the
regular annual publication of reduced observations is seen, not only in the useful-
ness of these larger observatories, but also in that of smaller ones, such as those
at Berlin, K6énigsberg, Brussels, Dorpat, Oxford, Edinburg, Madras, &c., and
the arrangement by which Poulkova could have published “annual volumes of
results, would perhaps have been effected by Struve, had not his small force
and the diversion of their labors into various channels hindered the execution of
this portion of the duties of the institution, until it became apparent that the
observations could only be properly published when the distinct work to which
they belonged should be completed, and when the diverse parts of each could
be framed into an individual consistent whole.

Thus there came to be impressed more and more deeply upon the observatory a
prominent trait in Struve’s own character, who working always with energies con-
centrated upon the matter in hand, preferred, if possible, to bring each special work
to a speedy conclusion, that it might be given to the world, arranged as a syste-
matic treatise or investigation. “A definite aim being presented, its attainment
should mark the proper time for publication.” This principle is not entirely
inconsistent with the custom of annually publishing the various successive por-
tions of the work in hand; indeed, even the publication of unreduced observa-
tions is valuable, both as making them accessible, and as an evidence of life and
activity. But loving, as Struve did, general and comprehensive views, and
believing that the advance of astronomy was marked by investigations and
memoirs, and not by observations alone, being measured by eenerations of men,
and not by single years, this publication of annual fragments seemed only a
deceitful appearance of progress and advancing knowledge; the preliminary
results to be expected from his new instruments, even if desired as being in their
crudeness better than the most of those accessible to astronomers, ought to be
withheld until, after severe investigation, they could be presented to the world as

the best ronalia the instruments oon yield. This train of thought and the

DORPAT AND POULKOVA. 383

similar course pursued in the early history of many observatories, (of which
Greenwich was itself a notable example,) decided Struve to seek usefulness to
a future generation, rather than to the immediate present, and not to organize a
mechanical observatory, deficient in intelligence, and progressing only with the
progress of the science, but rather to develop a “living institution,” an associa-
tion of astronomers, desirous like himself by their own labors to lead on in
promoting the progress of their science.

The wide field in which these Poulkova astronomers should pursue their inde-
pendent yet correlated investigations is indicated in the following article of the
statutes of 1862:

§. 2. The establishment of the Nicholas Central Observatory has for its object :

a. The uninterrupted prosecution of observations and works for the promotion of astronomy
as a science.

b. The improvement of practical astronomy in its application to geography and naviga-
tion, the execution of observations in the interest of the astronomical and geographical labors
systematically undertaken by the different departments of the empire, the connection of these
labors with each other, and their scientific assistance.

c. To assist other Russian observatories in the attainment of a more successful prosecu-
tion of astronomy.

d. To offer to the officers of the general staff of the topographical corps and of the navy,
as also to other young scientists the opportunity of perfecting themselves in practical astro-
nomy, and its application to geography and geodesy.

To the attainment of these objects this institution freely opens to those young
astronomers who have resided at Poulkova as guest-students, as well as to those
who are its permanent officers, the use of the rich material of instruments, obser-
vations, and books in its possession. As to the relations with other similar estab-
lishments in Russia, their annual reports show how frequently in the details of
their equipment and work they are arranged in accordance with the suggestions
emanating from the Central Observatory... In matters pertaining to the applica-
tions of astronomy to geography there is an especial activity not only in that
five or ten officers of the general staff here pursue their two years’ practical course
under the directions of Mr. Déllen, but also in that the plans for geographical
expeditions and the working up of the results are generally more or less con-
fided to him. As to the astronomical investigations carried on at the observatory
proper, although all are engaged therein, yet these are especially expected from
the senior and adjunct astronomers, who form, as was Struve’s desire, an associa-
tion whose members labor individually for the promotion of their science. The
choice of the senior astronomers takes place according to the following article
of the statutes:

§19. The senior astronomers of the observatory must be chosen from among men of acknow]l-
edged ability in the department of astronomy. Unto them by preference will be intrusted
by the director the execution of all the works to be undertaken for the attainment of the
objects ef the observatory, mentioned in §2._ The choice of a candidate for the occupancy
of @ vacancy in one of these positions is the duty of the director. He proposes the chosen
candidate to the Academy of Science, which body, when it by ballot has approved the choice,
on its part presents the same to the minister of public instruction for confirmation,

It follows from the precautionary process thus enjoined that the four senior
astronomers (one of whom is also the vice-director) are but inconsiderably infe-
rior to the director in experience in their profession, and form a permanent
council, whose valuable suggestions always Lave weight in the conduct of scientific
affairs.

Besides the preceding permanent members of the astronomical corps, the third
article allows two adjunct astronomers and two permanent computers. ‘Thus far
the observatory has been, and probably it always will be, successful in securing for
these positions young men of promising ability. Indeed, although no system of
promotion is officially recognised, yet it will generally happen that the director
will be able to fill these positions from among the numerous young men who have
resided at the observatory, and similarly to find among the adjunct astronomers
those well qualified to become seniors; this is evidently peculiarly desirable in

384 DORPAT AND POULKOVA.

an institution that differs in many details from others now existing, and con-
tributes not a little to the consistency of the steady progress that experience
secures. On the other hand, the fact is never lost sight of that very often profit-
able suggestions and the infusion of new life are to be expected from the intro-
duction of an entire stranger into the observatory corps; thus the whole institution
preserves its cosmopolitan character and is kept from becoming antiquated.

To the nine members of the permanent scientific corps are to be added the
younger persons, not military officers, who seek a residence at Poulkova, as
allowed by §§ 27, 28, 29, 30, for their own advantage; generally these inevita-
bly contribute something’ to the furtherance of the scientific work of the observ-
atory, whilst receiving from it the treatment of guests. ‘The new statutes allow
the director to give these young men a position and rank as civilians serving the
observatory, but not in the service of the state; thus they may be properly
considered as supernumerar y astronomers, who, howev er, enjoy some of the priv-
ileges of such as are permanently in the state service, w vhich is no mean advan-
tage in the autocratic Russian empire. Although these are at liberty to devote
their whole time to their own studies, they yet generally chovose to contribute
several hours daily to the regular work of the observatory, receiving a small
compensation therefor. As there are often four such supernumerary astronomers,
we may consider the effective scientific force to number thirteen persons.

The young officers of the military.and naval schools who receive their instrue-
tion from Mr. Déllen, as they do not dwell on the observatory grounds and
only rarely take part in its geographical work until after their graduation, are
not to be considered as attached to the observatory.

To the preceding general outline of the officers of the institution let us add
the names of those who were, in 1866, attached to the observatory :

His Excellency Otto Struve, director; A. Wagner, senior astronomer and vice-
director; W. Déllen, senior astronomer; H. Gyldén, senior astronomer; P.
Smyssloff, adjunct astronomer; A. Kortazzi, adjunct astronomer ; C. Linusser,
computer; H. Fritsche, computer; Messrs. V. Fuss, A. Gromadski, G. Berg, and
C. Abbe, supernumerary astronomers.

At present, however, several changes are noticed since Colonel Smyssloff
has accepted the directorship of the Wilna observatory, and Mr. Berg is his
assistant. Mr. Fuss has been made adjunct astronomer. Mr. Fritsche has
become the director of the magnetic observatory at Pekin, Mr. Knorre, of Berlin,
fills his place.

T’o the preceding officers should be added the secretary, the mechanician, the
intendent, and the physician ; all of whom, with their families and the soldiers
assigned to duty at the observatory, constitute a colony of an hundred and twenty
souls or more.

The members of the scientific corps have been spoken of as the colleagues
of the director, and the genial spirit infused by Struve will always retain to
them that pleasant relationship; but a great power must needs be vested in the
hands of the superior, not only in order to perserve harmony of action, but
also because of the responsibilities imposed on the director. ‘The tenth article of
the statutes defines the duties of the director as follows:

Sec. 10. The principal aim of the director is to direct all the forces and means of the
observatory to the successful accomplishments of the objects of this institution, detailed in
section two. He must, therefore, see that astronomical observations of the highest perfec-
tion be conducted uninterruptedly, and that the instruments used to this end alw ays corre-
spond to the actual demands of science. As immediate chief of the observatory and of the
persons stationed there, he conducts the works that are to be executed, allots them, and
himself takes part in them.

As it was thus the pleasure of the elder Struve, so is it still the privilege of
his successor, to realize that “the activity of the entire institution concentrates
in him ;” whilst as its head he skilfully controls the moulding of the independent
works of his colleagues into one united “effort for the advancement of their science.

DORPAT AND POULKOVA. 385

The activity of the Central Observatory has doubtless suffered somewhat from
the restricted communication between Poulkova and the neighboring cities, St.
Petersburg and Tsarskoe-Selo. Tor, however much this isolation favors the
undisturbed prosecution of obser vations and study, it imposes a dreaded monot-
ony upon the lives of the non-astronomical portion of the community, from the
effects of which the astronomers themselves cannot be entirely free. ‘I’o coun-
teract the influence of this sameness—so prejndicial to mental and physical
health, and so detrimental to the harmony of society—requires the constant
attention of each individual living at the observatory. Jt will thus be easily
understood that the personal example and the influence of the director asa man,
no less than his experience as an astronomer, are needed in order to secure the
happiest working of all the parts. Possibly the sameness of the social circle
exaggerates the influence of the monotony of the astronomical work, for there is
in Poulkova no rotation of duties, such as in some other observatories affords a.
slight relief to the members of the corps.

Tt was in accordance with Strave’s foresight that the efforts of the observatory
to realize its general object, “the advancement of astronomy as a science,”
should be principally confined to stellar astronomy, and that to “each astronomer
should be assigned the instruments needed for the work undertaken by him,
and for whose execution he is responsible, thus reversing a very common prac-
tice of assigning the observer to an instrument. ‘The description of the instru-
mien and the mode of using them may be fonnd fully given in the well know»

“Description de Pobserve atoire.” The followi ing conde nsed notice of the progress
of the works there indicated as having been beg un will perhaps have interest.

The Great Refractor, made by Frauenhofer, in the central dome, has, since its
erection, been used principally by the present director. ‘The general survey in
1841 of the northern heavens, requiring the examination of 17,000 stars, and
leading to the discovery of nearly 500 new double stars, has been already men-
tioned. Up to the present time micrometric observations of relative positions
have been made upon 1,200 double stars, which will probably be published in
1869 in all their details. Struve’s method of observing position angles, é. ¢.,
by placing the two parallel threads of his micrometer so ‘that the space incladed.
between them is bisected by a line joming the two stars, leads probably to the
interesting systematic errors in observed angles of position, investigated by him
in 1852- 56, and again in 1866, by observations upon artificial ‘double stars.
In the latter year an investigation was also made of the errors of estimated
small distances, and a simple systematic correction deduced, by which these
become as valuable as actual measurements with the micrometer. Nine optically
double stars have been made the subjects of special investigations for relative
parallax. ‘The determinations of relative positions of comets and faint com-
parison stars have next claimed attention. ‘lhe series upon the Biela’s, Faye’s
and Donati’s comets, and those of 1861 and 1865~66, are to be specially me
tioned, as also the fruitiess search after Biela’s comet at its late predicted return.
The observations of Neptune’s satellite and the determination of the planets’
mass have been already mentioned; a large number of observations upon the

satellites of Uranus and Neptune still await t publication. The oceultations of the
Pleiades, in which a dozen observers sometimes combine, have been regularly
continued. The study of Saturn’s rings and of the great nebula in Orion have
also claimed attention whenever circumstances have conspired to favor the pros-
ecution of these very delicate observations. 'The results already attained, and
their comparison with those of the Bonds at Cambridge, are already well known
to the world. ‘The instrumental changes made in the oreat refractor have been
quite insignificant ; but on account of increasing unsteadiness i in the parallactic
movement the director has proposed to replace ‘the clock-work by some one of
the improved mechanisms now made. This will become the more necessary ir

25 8 67

*”) .

v0) DORPAT AND POULKOVA.

order to prosecute telescopic spectrum investigations, the apparatus for which
was received in 1866 from Donati.

The Heliometer, made by Merz and Mahler, in ‘the eastern dome, for want of
an observer could not be brought into continuous use until quite recently. Not
only was this delay caused by the necessity of making several much-needed
instrumental changes tending to convenience of use and accuracy of results, but
it was also best to await the result of the further experience of Bessel, Wich-
man and Johnson, before deciding to trust so complicated an instrument in
delicate investigations. Possibly Dr. Auwer’s study in 1861-’62 of the heliome-
ter used by Bessel confirmed the decision to use the Poulkova instrument for
other purposes than that for which it was originally intended ; and certainly the
reported valuable results recently obtained by Rutherford in stellar photography
assure us that probably this method will advantageously replace the heliomeiric
for the measurement of large relative distances. From 1858 to 1864 this tele-
scope has been used by Dr. Winnecke in photometrical measurements and in
observations upon the several comets, as also upon the conjunction of Venus and
Jupiter in 1859. Since 1864 Mr. Fritsche has made use of it in the observa-
tions of several asteroids.

The Small Refractor, made by Baader, in the western dome, has been princi-
pally used in the observation of comets, asteroids, and occultations.

The Prime Vertical Transit, made by Repsold,in the south wing, was used until
the end of 1842 by Struve himself on the series for the determination of the
constant of aberration. Seven stars were observed upon at the periods of maxi-
mum and minimum influence of aberration and parallax, and the results are pub-
lished in his well-known memoir. Observations on three of these stars were con-
tinued for the determination of the constant of nutation ; the series being inter-
rupted in 1856 by Struve’s illness, was continued by Otto Struve, and will pro-
bably be soon published. In 1S61-’63 this instrument was used by Lieutenant
Oom, (now director of the Royal Observatory at Lisbon,) in determining the
zenith distances of about. 80 stars whose declinations are between 57° 46” and
59° 46’, each star being observed at least four times. After the determination of
aberration and nutation, the proper use of this instrument is found in the inves-
tigation of absolute annual parallax ; accordingly, in 1866 it was used in the
determination of the relative declinations of certain double stars as preparatory
to an extended series in which the subjects of relative and absolute parallax,
aberration and periodicity of latitude should be simultaneously investigated.

To the Meridian Circle, made by Hepsold, in the cast reom, was assigned the
observations fer a catalogue of 3,755 stars, including all of the sixth magnitude
north of 15° of south declination. This work was, begun in 1841 by Sabler,
and continued by him until 1854, assisted in the interval—1844 and 1849—by
Dollen. In the years 1853-756 Sabler and Lindhagen were occupied in obser-
vations of the comparison stars of Biela’s comet. ‘The catalogue work was con-
tinned by Winnecke from 1858 until 1864; in 1866 its further continuation was
assigned to Mr. Gromadski, whose diligence i in filling up the many gaps caused by
the mmfavorable weather of the winter months and the twilight of the summer,

authorize the belief that the completion of the series is soon to be looked for.
The number of stars that will have been observed with the meridian circle will
be greater by 1,500 than that of the catalogue originally contemplated ; the
reduction of this series of observations has been del layed more than that of any
other undertaken by the observatory. It is intended that each star shall be
observed in the two positions of the circles and of the interchangeable ocular
and objective. ‘The published results of Sabler’s and Lindhagen’s observations,
as given in Gould’s Astronomical Journal, and those of Winnecke made at
the opposition of Mars in 1562, give assurance of the high value that the cata-
logue will have when published. With this instrument will be made the deter-
minations of the positions of the 500 stars to be used as fundamentals in the

DORPAT AND POULKOVA. 387

new review of the heavens lately undertaken by the German Astronomical Asso-
ciation.

The spirit of investigation inculeated by Struve asks for the simplest instru-
ments and the smallest ones consistent with optical power, and demands the
most laborious watchfulness over the instrumental errors, together with such
a symmetrical arrangement of the observations as to necessitate only the simplest
possible assumptions with regard to the unknown or suspected sonrces of error.
‘These principles have possibly increased the labor and somewhat retarded the
completion of the work assigned to the meridian circle, but have had a still more
decided influence upon the progress of the work undertaken with the two prin-
cipal meridian instruments. ‘These stand in the west room, and some of the
results attained by them are already known through the memoirs of Lindhagen
and Peters.

The Vertical Circle, made by Ertel, standing on the west side of the observing
room, was used by Peters until 1849, in observations for latitude and the declina-
tions of about 350 bright stars. The determination of latitude has been already
published in a memoir previously cited, as also has been the special series in which
the absolute parallaxes of the stars Polaris, a Aurigze, ¢ Ursee Majoris, Groombridge,
1830, @ Bootis, a Lyre, a Cygni, 61 Cygni, were investigated. Dr. Gyldén’s
refraction tables for Poulkova, deduced from Peters’s observations, were pub-
lished in 1865; the entire series of observations previous to 1849 will probably
be published within three years as a complete work, although the places of a
number of stars in the original catalogue remain undetermined. From 1849 to
1863, the vertical circle was used by Ddéilen principally for observations ef the
sun, and in determinations of the declinations of stars used in the geodesic work of
the Russian surveys. Since 1863 Dr. Gyldén has with this instrument directed his
attention towards the standard stars of the Berlin and British almanacs ; some
observations upon Venus, made at her superior conjunction in 1865, are valuable
as affording strong negative testimony on the question of the solar atmosphere ;
equally interesting are the thorough investigations made into the errors of the
meteorological instruments used in connection with the vertical circle, and into
the law of the decrease of temperature with increasing altitude above the earth’s
surface.

The Principal Meridian Transit, made by Ertel, at the east end of-the west
observing room, was designed, in connection with the Kessel normal clock, not
only to give the time to the rest of the observatory, but also for the determination
of the absolute right ascensions of some 300 fundamental stars ; this latter num-
ber was increased to 400, and the prescribed series of observations was substan-
tially finished in 1853. A preliminary series specially directed to the circumpo-
lar stars had been made by Peters in 1840. New piers having been provided,
the two meridian marks established, and the normal clock received, observations
on the fundamental catalogue were begun by Schweizer and continued by him
from 1842 to 1844; by Fuss from 1844 to 1847; by Lindhagen from 1847 to
1850; by Wagner from 1850 to 1857. In 1855 and 1856 the transit was
used by Lindeléf in determining the right ascensions of stars used in the lon-
gitude expeditions. In 1860 the instrument was given into the hands of Mr.
Brauer, the successor of Pohrt as the observatory instrument maker; several
changes, including the regrinding of the pivots, were then made, and in 1865 the
objective was mounted upon three points in order if possible tc secure greater
constancy in the collimation error. Since 1860 the redetermination of the 400
fundamental right ascensions has been undertaken by Wagner, and the series
will probably be completed before 1870. The reduction of the observations
previous to 1853, and the compilation of the resulting catalogue, are now finished ;
their publication may be looked for in the present year. ‘The reduction of the
second series (made with the transit since its improvement by Mr. Brauer, and
recorded chronographically) progresses with the observations.

388 DORPAT AND POULKOVA.

The reduction of the “eye and ear” observations having shown that the
Houth-Wetzer clock in the west room, and the Kessel’s normal clock originally
placed in the central rotunda, were affected by the unavoidable changes of temper-
ature, the former was replaced in 1861 by a dial connected by eleztricity with the
normal clock, thus avoiding the laborious comparisons by chronometer that had
been until that time carried on daily. In order to secure a still more uniform
temperature the normal clock was then placed in an inner vault underneath the
rotunda, where the daily thermometric term in the clock rate is quite impercep-
tible. Since 1862 the observations have been recorded upon a Krille’s chrono-
graph, which stands in a warmed room adjacent to the observing room, and differs
from those in common use in America principally in that the observer’s pen is
independent of the neighboring clock pen, and in having a very convenient
arrangement by which the observer at the transit can at will stop the revolving
cylinder or set it in motion again. The clock automatic circuit-breaker is that
of Krille. It consists of a thin vertical slip of mica at the extremity of a short
arm attached at right angles to the upper portion of the pendulnm, and in theplane
of vibration ; at every second the mica cuts through a small horizontal thread
of mercury through which the electric current is passing. ‘The Muston mean time
clock was in 1866 connected with the central telegraph station in St. Peters-
burg, and regulates several sympathetic clocks. A noonday signal is also auto-
matically given.

The exquisite small WWertdian Transit, made by Brauer, and now found in an
appropriate building southwest of the larger observatory, was used in the longi-
tude expeditions to Derpat, Moscow, &c., and has been employed by Fritsche
in the series of lunar observations recently published by him in the Bulletin of
the St. Petersburg Academy. A mate to this fine instrument is to be found at
the naval observatory at Cronstadt. The five-inch Steinheil cbjeetive, mounted
in 1866 parallactically in the east dome of the small auxiliary observatory erected
in 1863, 100 yards south of the principal one, is intended to be used by
Wagner in an investigation into the relative parallaxes of some of the brighter
stars. The evidences of the extraordinary accuracy attained with the Meridian
Transit are such as to justify the expectation that very decisive results will ensue
from this renewal of the method so lately applied by Auwers to the determina-
tion of the parallax of 34 Groombridge.

The celestial photometry which has remained until lately in so crude a state,
thanks to the labors of Steinheil, Seidel, and Zéllner, promises in future to rank
as an exact science. An ingenious Photometer, invented and made by Professor
Schwerd, of Speyer, was mounted in 1866 by Messrs. Smyssloff and Berg in the
west dome of the auxilliary observatory, and offers a fine opportunity for research
in a field that has as yet been but too little cultivated. A mate to this unique
instrument has been ordered for the observatory of Bonn by Professor Arge-
lander, who has signified his intention of devoting his future years to its use,

A little to the northeast of the central building is the convenient and tasteful
observatory erected at the expense of the military academy, and furnished with
a clock, a fixed transit, and very many portable instruments, together with very
convenient arrangements for their use. This structure, completed in 1857, is of
course exclusively for the use of the officers of the geodetic division of the Nicolas
Military Academy whilst pursuing at Poulkova their course in practical astron-
omy. Among the works executed by these officers under Déllens’s directions are
several whose results may be looked for with general interest, such as the twelve
repetitions of the measurement of a short base line, in the year 1864, and the
observations made in 1866 for the investigation of the local attraction of the
plumb line in the neighborhood of Poulkova.

In recounting the larger fixed instruments of the Central Observatory, we must
not omit a few words concerning the smaller portable ones, of which the insti-
tution possesses several fine specimens of the best workmanship of Ertel, the

DORPAT AND POULKOVA. 389

Repsolds, Brauer and others. These have found their most frequent use in con-
nection with the geographic and geodetic labors conducted by its astronomers,
of which we shall only mention the two grand international undertakings that
have not as yet been surpassed in their magnitude—we refer to the measure-
ment of an are of latitude of 25°, and one of longitude of 69°. The former we
have already frequently mentioned as being a w ork intimately connected with
the foundation and the history of the first 25 years of the observatory’s exist-
ence. ‘The preliminary steps ‘for continuing this work ten degrees further south-
ward to the island of Crete are now being taken. ‘To this meridian measure-
ment that of an are of longitude naturally forced itself upon Struve’s attention
as a necessary supplemental undertaking, and he had already, in 1848, prepared
the way by enlisting the interests of Genera! Wrontschenko, then engaged in
the triangulation of the southern part of Russia. This original project of a
measurement along the 47th paratlel, as proposed by Struve in 1857, having
failed of execution, Otto Struve in 1860 proposed the measurement of an are
from Valentia, in Treland, eastward to Orsk, at the southern end of the Ural
mountains. ‘Chis work will he brought to a close this present summer—the future
further prolongation of the line throngh Narvaul and Irkutsk to Nicolaieff may be
confidently expected. ‘The Repsold Portable Vertical Circle has been used in the
latitude determinations on this measurement of an are of longitude; the Brauer
Portable Extra-meridional Transit has been adopted for the telegraphic longitude
determinations, all of the latter being made by two observers, Dr. Thiele of
Bonn and Captain Jalinski of Poul kova. The instruments, as well as the observ-
ers, exchange places during the season’s work. We may, then, soon expect from
this eid ‘operation valuable additions to our knowledge of the curvature of
the Enropean portion of the earth’s surface. The por table instruments alluded
to merit more than a passing allusion. 'The Repsold Circle has been made the
subject of an elaborate monograph by Smyssloff; a short notice of its construc-
tion and perfor mance will be found in Silliman’s American Journal for 1867.
The Brauer’s 'Transit has not as yet been similarly brought to public notice ; this
is owing to the fact that the few (six) that have been made by Brauer have ‘been
in continual use since they left his hands, but it is promised that this neglect
shall be remedied ere long. ‘These instruments, constructed at Poulkova at
Dillen’s suggestion, are specially adapted to use cut of the Meridian, for which
purpose nothing can be desired more convenient than the formule given py Déllen
in his memoir entitled “ Die Leitbestimmung,” &c., “'The determination of the
time by means of a portable transit instrument established in the vertical of the
Pole Star. St. Petersburg, 1863.”

In connection with eeodesy we must not omit to notice the Basc-measuring
Apparatus used in Struve’s work, and now generally adopted by the Russian
geodesists. This is distinguished by its simplicity and the facility with which it
is used. ach picce is a plain bar of iron furnished at one end with a touch lever
and enclosed in a packing of cotton within its wooden case; two interior ther-
mometers and a reversible level complete the apparatus. With such means the
rapidity and ease with which a base is measured compares favorably with that
attained in other countries, and the accuracy of the results have never as yet, we
believe, been called in question. One of the mest interesting operations per-
formed in connection with this base apparatus was the comparison with specimen
bars used in other countries. This work, conducted during the interval 1850-54,
has only been surpassed in magnitude by the more recent comparisons made at
Southampton.

Among the geodetic apparatus worthy of special mention is the Pendulum A ppa-
ratus made by the Repsolds for the Central Observator y, and used since 1864 b

Professor Sawitsch, who proposes to visit all the stations of the Russo-Scandi-
ae meridian arc. ‘This apparatus may be defined as Bessel’s symmetrical
pendulum with reciprocal axes, being constructed according to the views of that

390 DORPAT AND POULKOVA.

eminent astronomer as gathered from his well-known memoirs and his posthumous
papers, published in the Astronomische Nachrichten, volume xxx. In this con-
struction we find the effect of atmospheric resistance reduced to a minimum, and
by the exchange of the knife edges the effect of their curvature may be elimi-
nated. A mate to the Poulkova apparatus may be found at Geneva, and the
complete investigations published by Plantamour demonstrate its excellence. The
full publication of Professor Sawitsch’s results will be looked for with the more
interest because of the early attention paid in Russia to these matters. Preuss
in Kotzebue’s voyage of circumnayvigation in 1822-28, and Parrot and Feodoroff
in their ascent of Mont Ararat in 1830, were the first to attempt to directly measure
the influence of mountains in causing local irregularities in the earth’s attraction,
if we except an almost forgotten and unpublished “pendulum survey” of the
Harz and Brocken hills, by Zach, in 1797.

Finally, yet among the really most important instruments, we notice with great
interest the many chronometers deposited at the Central Observatory, and contin-
ually being investigated there when not in use in the longitude expeditions. To
their investigation Colonel Smyssloff has given very special attention, and to his
results, as W ‘ell as to the care with which they are used and their own intrinsic
excellence, are to be attributed the accuracy of the longitude determinations
annually made throughout the empire.

In closing this notice of the observatories of Dorpat and Poulikova, we can-
not but revert to that very wide-spread but erroneous notion that astronomy is a
science that of all others has least to do with the everyday wants of mankind.
Such an opinion ignores that history which clearly points back through thousands
of years to a long array of learned men who have hailed astronomy as the senior
and protector of all learning. In the most ancient times the astronomer (and
not merely the astrologer) was honored for his valuable services, but it was
reserved for Greenwich and Poulkova to develop, each for itself, a path of use-
fulness through which to make its importance felt by the state. In so far as
similar efforts are made by savants everywhere, they may rightfully look to the
state for support: especially in this democratic country, where education is so
widely diffused and useful science so liberally supported, is it the duty of inves-
tigators to show that the national progress consists not in the mere repetition to
the children of that which their fathers knew, but in the actual INCREASE of
knowledge.

ON TRACES OF THE EARLY MENTAL CONDITION OF MAN.

By EpwarbD BuRNET TAYLOR, Esa.
[FROM THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. }

Tf an antiquary is asked his opinion as to the early condition of mankind, he
will probably take up the question with reference to an excellent test of man’s
civilization, the quality of the tools and weapons he uses. He will show how,
within our own knowledge, the use of metal instruments has succeeded the use
of sharpened stones, or shells, or bones; how the stone axes and arrow-heads
found buried in the ground prove that in every great district of the world a Stone
Age has prevailed at some more or less remote period; and lastly, how recent
geological researches have displayed to us the traces of a Stone Age extraordi-
narily low and rude in character, and belonging to a time as extraordinarily
remote in antiquity. ‘The history of man, as thus told by a study of the imple-
ments he has used, is the history of an upward development, not indeed a gradual
steady progress of each family or tribe, but a general succession of higher pro-
cesses to lower ones.

Now there also exists evidence, by means of which it is possible still to trace,
in the history of man’s mental condition, an upward progress, a succession of
higher intellectual processes and opinions to lower ones. ‘This movement has
accompanied his progress in the material arts during a long but undefined period
of his life upon the earth; and of this evidence, and of the lines of argument
that may be drawn through it, the object of the present discourse is to give a
few illustrative examples.

I. In the first place, the art ef counting may be examined from this point of
view. We ourselves learnt to count when we were children, by the aid of a
series of words, one, two, three, four, and so on, which we were taught to associate
with certain numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, and can thus reckon up to the largest imaginable
number, and down to the smallest imaginable fraction. But if we look round
among other tribes of men we find a very different state of things. As we go
lower in the scale of civilization, it becomes easier and easier to puzzle a man
with the counting of 20 objects, or even of 10, and to drive him to the use of
nature’s counting machine, his fingers. When we reach the low level of the
savages of the Brazilian forests or of Australia, we find people to whom 3 or 4
are large numbers. One tribe, described by Mr. Oldfield, reckoned one, two,
and then bool-tha, “many ;” but when their poor word-language fails them they
fall back on gesture-reckoning. Mr. Oldfield tells us, for instance, how he got
from a native the number of men killed in a certain fight. The man began to
think over the names, taking a finger for each, and thus, after many unsuccessful
trials, he at last brought out the result by holding up his hand three times, to
show that the number was 15.

Now our words, one, two, three, four, &c., have no etymology to us, but among
a large proportion of the lower races numerals have a meaning ; as among many
tribes of North and South America and West Africa are found such expressions

as, for 5, “a whole hand,” and for 6, ‘‘one to the other hand;” 10, “ both hands,”

892 ON TRACES OF THE EARLY MENTAL CONDITION OF MAN.

and 11, “one to the foot;” 20, “one ee :” and 21, “one to the hands of tha
other Indian ;” or for 11, “foot 1;” for 12, “foot 25” for 20, ‘‘a person is finished ;*
whilst among the misei rable natives of ‘Van Dieman’s s Land, the reckoning of a
single hand, viz: 5 is called puganna, “a man,’

For displ: ying to us the picture of the savage counting on his fingers, and
being struck ‘with the idea that if he describes in “vords his gestures of reckoning,
these words will become a numeral, perhaps no language approaches the Zulu.
Counting on his fingers, he begins alw ays with the little finger of his left hand,
and thus reaching 4, he calls it “a whole hand ;” for 6, he translates the appro-
priate gesture, alling it tatisitupa, “take the thumb 3? ‘while 7, being shown in
eesture by the for efinger, and this finger being used to point w ith, the verb komba,
“to point,” comes to serve as a numeral expression, denoting 7.

Now, though many numerals, especially fives, tens, and twenties , were named
from the fingers, hands, and fect, this is far from being the only source : of numerals.
Many centuries ago, the Hindu scholars, besides their regular series, made a new
set of words to serve as a sort of memoria technica for remembering dates, &ce.
Thus, for 1 mee said “earth” or “moon ;” for 2 “eye,” or “arm,” or “wing ;”
for 3, “ Rama,” or “fire,” or “quality” _—there being considered to be 3 Ramas,
3 kinds of fire, 3 3 gunas or qualities; for 4 “age” or “veda,” because there are 4
ages and 4 vedas. One line of an astronomical formula will show the working
of the system:

vohni tri rtwishu gunendu kritagnibhtta:
That is to say:
‘* Fire, three, season, arrow, quality, moon, four of dice, fire, element :”’
Mhats 3 316.0 el Ao

When Wilhelm von Humboldt, more than 36 years ago, looked into this
artificial system of numeration, it struck him that he had before him a key to
the gener ral formation of numer tals, When a Malay, he said, calls 5 lima, that
is, “hand,” he is doing the same thing that the Hindu pandits did when they
took “wing” as the numeral for 2; and then, he suggested, the numeral w ords
having thus been once made, the sooner their original meaning was got rid of
and they were reduced to the appearance of mere unmeaning symbols, fhe better
it would be for their practical use in language. Now a number of actual facts
may be brought forward in support of Humboldt’s far-sighted suggestion. ‘The
Abipones of ‘South America counted to : 3, and for 4 said “ostrich “toes,” from the
division of their ostrich’s feet; then, for 5, “one hand;” for 10, “two hands,”
and so on. In Polynesia there is a regular set of decimal numerals , but some-
tines, for superstitious reasons, they turn words out of their language for a time,
and have to use fresh ones. Thus, in Tahiti, they ejected rua 2, and rima 5
and in a missionary translation of the Bible we find piti and pae ee ad; now
piti, the new word for 2, means “ together,” and pae, the new word for 5, means
“side.” F

In other South Sea islands, the habit of counting fish or fruit one in each
hand has led to tauna, “a pair, becoming a numeral ‘equivalent for 2; the habit
of tying bread fruit in knots of 4 has made a new numeral, pono, cr knot,”
while other terms for 10 and 100 have had their origin front words meaning
“bunch” and “bundle.” And so, even in European languages, numeral words
break out from time to time, re: ady to become proper numbers, should a vacancy
be made for them in the now meaningless series, one, two, three, Jour. ‘Thus in
English we have pair or couple for 2, and score, that is “notch,” for 20. ‘The
Letts count crabs and little fish by. throwing them 3 at a time, and thus the
word mettens, “a throw,” has come to mean Ey and so in many other cases in
other languages.

Now when tribes count by saying hand for 5, take the thumb for 6, half a man
for 10, and so on, itis evident that the basis of their numeration is fine er counting.

ON TRACES OF THE EARLY MENTAL CONDITION OF MAN. 393

But there is also evidence in the systems of numeration of most civilized lan-
guages that they, too, are the successors of a rude unspoken system of gesture
counting, The rule of the whole world is to count by fives, tens, and twenties 8;
the exceptions are so late or so incidental that we may neglect them and say that
the original counting of mankind is the quinary, the decimal, or the vigesimal
sy stem, or a combination of these. We nced not go abroad for examples. In
the Roman numerals, which count to V, and then begin again VI, VII, we have
the quinary system. The decimal system is our familiar one. And when we
speak of “threescore and ten,” “fourscore and thirteen,” we are counting by the
vigesimal system, each “score” or notch, thus ideally made, standing for 20, for
‘“one man,” as a Mexican or Carib w ould put it. It is a very curious thing that
both we and the French, having two good decimal systems of our own, should have
run off into vieesimalism. W hy should we have ever said “fourscore and thir-
teen” for the 93, w — we have good Saxon tens to express? and why shonld
they say in France, “ quatre- vinetst treize,” instead of holding to the Latin original
of their language, and saying ‘“nonante-trois?” ‘The reason seems to be that
counting by scores is a strongly marked Keltic characteristic, found in Welsh,
Trish, Gaelic, and Breton, and has been taken up into the alien numeral systems
of France and England. At any rate, the rule of the world is to count by fives,
tens, and twenties; and the connection of this rule with the practice of counting
on the fingers and toes will hardly be disputed. Indeed the remark has often
been made that the fact of our having LO fingers and 10 toes has led us into a
system which is actually not the best; while if we had had 6 fingers on each
hand, and 6 toes on each foot, we should probably have taken to using, like the
carpenter, the more convenient system of duodecimals.

These are examples of the facts which tend to show that man’s early way of
counting was upon his fingers ; as Massieu, the Abbé Sicard’s celebrated deat
and dumb pupil, records in describing his recollections of his yet uneducated
childhood: “J knew the numbers before my instruction ; my fingers had taught
me them. I did not know the ciphers. I counted on my fingers.” Among the
lower races, the use of word language has only to a small extent encroached
upon eesture language in counting ; among races above these, numeral words
are more largely used, but preserve evident traces of a growth out of gesture
counting; while among the higher peoples, though language gives little trace of
the original sionification of numerals , there still ‘prevails the system of counting
by fives, tens, and twenties, of w hick we can hardly doubt that the norm is given
by the arrangement of the fingers and toes. ‘Thus it appears that in the mental
history of mankind we may see back to a condition so much lower than our own,
that the numerals, which we look upon as so settled a part of speech that we
use them as one of the first tests of the common derivation of languages, were
still unspoken, and their purpose was served by the ruder, visible signs which
belong to the department of gesture.

II. The next argumeat to be brought forward belongs to a very different
province of thonght, and touches on the early opinions of mankind as to the
nature and habits of spiritual beings. It is well known that the lower races of
mankind account for the facts and events of the outer world by ascribing a sort
of human life and personality to animals, and even to plants, rocks, streams,
winds, the sun and stars, and so on through the phenomena of nature. It is
also known that a low stratum of the religion of the world consists in belief in,
and adoration of, spiritual beings who inhabit the winds and trees and streams,
who preside over the ripening of frnits and the falling of rain, give success in
war, or inflict disease or misfortune on the savage hunter. ‘Thus the Mintira, a
low tribe on the Malayan peninsula, asvribe every ailment that happens to them
i a spirit or hantie. ‘One causes smallpox, another brings swelling and inflam-

nation in hands and feet, another causes the blood to flow from w ounds; indeed,
to enumerate ail these hantus would be to give a list of all their known ailments.

394 ON TRACES OF THE EARLY MENTAL CONDITION OF MAN.

The worship of such spirits, found among the lower races over almost the whole
world, is commonly known as “fetichism.” It is clear that this childlike theory
of the animation of all nature lies at the root of what we call mythology ; if the
sun and moon are described as semi-human beings, called by the Greeks Helios
and Selene, by the Esquimaux Anninga and “Malina, this personification is
founded on an original opinion still found in lively existence in the world, that
the sun and moon are living Anthropomorphic creatures. It would probably
add to the clearness of our conception of the state of mind which thus sees in
all nature the action of animated life and the presence of innumerable spiritual
beings, if we give it the name of animism instead of fetichism. Now, by
examining a single phase of this animism, it seems possible to give some idea
how generally man in his lowest known state of culture is a wonderfully igno-
rant, consistent, and natural spiritualist; and also how the effects of his early
spiritualism may be traced through the development of more cultured races in
proceedings which have often changed their meaning, and lost their original con-
sistency by the encroachment of mroe real knowledge.

We all know how deep and sincere is the terror of ghosts among savages.
It is often no exaggeration to say that they are in more deadly fear of a man
after he is dead than while he is alive. The savage’s notion of a ghost corre-
sponds very nearly with that of the English peasant in our own day—it is a
thin phantom going from place to place, like the person it belonged to, when it
does appear, but often invisible, though capable of knocking and uttering sounds.
The notion of the ghost runs almost inextricably into that of the spirit or soul,
of the breath and the blood, and of those unsubstantial somethings which follow
the man and are like him, his shadow and his reflection in the water. Now it is
consistent with this opinion of ghosts to hold that by killing a man you can
release his ghost and send it where you will. Thisis what the King of Dahome
does when he sends men day after day to take messages to his father in the land
of shadows. ‘The Getee, according to Herodotus, sent a man every five years to
their god Zamolxis, giving him their MeSSAges, and then throwing him up and

catching him on their spears. Thus, in British India, some 80 years ago, it is
on record that two Brahmins, believing that a man had taken 40 rupees out of
their house, took their own mother and cut her head off, that her ghost might
torment and pursue to death the offender and his family—the old woman being
herself a consenting party to the transaction. This is not an isolated case, but
one belonging to a ‘recognized Hindu practice.

In perfect accor dance with this opinion we find in almost every country in the
world, at some time or other, the practice of slaying men and women at the
graves of the dead. In one of the South Sea Islands a cord is put round the
wite’s neck at her marriage, and when her husband dies it will be tightened, to

release her soul, that it may accompany his to the land of shadows, and continue
to catch fish and cook yams for him there. The Dyaks, of Borneo, have a
passion for waylaying their enemies and bringing home their heads; as they
told Mr. St. Jobn, “the white men read books, we hunt for heads instead.’
They do this to secure the services of aslave in the next world. These practices
are the consistent w orking out of a spiritualistie theory, which, if crude and false,
is at any rate intelligible. To some extent the same may be said, when not only
the dead man’s wives and slaves, but his dogs and horses are killed, and buried
or burnt at his grave. The man’s ghost is ‘to ride the horse’s chost i in the land
of shadows, and the dog’s ghost will run on before after ghostly game; or, as in
Mexico, the dog was to carr y the man across the river ‘which lies between the
world of the living andthe world of the dead; while in Greenland, a dog’s head
was placed by the grave of a little child, that the soul of the dog, who ever
knows his way home, might guide the helpless infant to the land of “spirits.

But when not only men and oe but inanimate objects are buried or burnt
for the dead,. what does this mean? When the hunting tribes of North America

ON TRACES OF THE EARLY MENTAL CONDITION OF MAN. 385

provide the dead man with his favorite horse, and at the same time with his bow
and arrows; while the fishing tribes bury the dead man in his canoe, with the
paddle and the fish spear ready to his hand, what difference can we discern
between the purpose of the ee and of the inanimate offerings, which alike are
to serve the spirit of their owner? When the dead chief’s wives and his slaves,
his horses, his w eapons, his clothes and ornaments, are indiscriminately buried
with him; when food is put in the grave with the dead man, and fresh supplies
brought every month; when the little child is provided with its rattle and play-
things, and the dead warrior has the ceremonial pipe put in his hand, that he
may hold it out as a symbol of peace when he comes to the other w orld, while
a store of paint is buried with him that he may appear decently among his
brother warriors; in these and hundreds of other instances, the spirit of the “dead
man is to use the spirits alike of men and animals, and of w eapons, clothes, and
food. ‘Then we should expect savages to be found recognizing the existence of
something of the nature of a spirit or ghost belonging to inanimate objects; and
this in fact they do.* ‘The existence of the Fi ijian opinion is well authenticated,
that lifeless objects have spirits, and that the souls of canoes, houses, plants,
broken pots, and weapons may be seen floating down the river of death into the
land of souls; and crossing into North America we find the same idea, not only
that souls are like shadows, and that everything is animate in the universe, but
that the souls of hatchets, kettles, and such like things, as well as of men and
animals, have to pass across the water which lies between their home in this life
and the Great Village where the sun sets in the far West. We must not expect
the spirits of spears “and kettles to have’the same distinctness and vitality in

savage philosophy as the spirits of men and horses. Inanimate objects want
those signs of life that are given to men and animals by the breath, the blood,
the independence of voluntar y action; but at any rate they have shadow S, as In
the New Zealand tale of Te Kanawa, who offered the fairies his neck ornament
and ear-rings; they took the shadows of them, but the substance they left behind.
They have also that property which in the mind of the savage has so much to
do with defining the nature of ghosts—their impalpable phantoms ¢ can and do
appear far away from where their real substance is, in the dreams and hallucina-
tions which savages look on as real events. When we meet with notions of
apparitions among more civilized people, it seems that they hold a theory imher-
ited from the full animism of the lower races, but much damaged in its consist-
ency by the interference of a better knowledge of facts. When the ghost of
Hamlet’s father appeared, he “wore his beaver up.” What beaver? To an
European believer in ghosts, it would seem foolish to talk of the ghost of a
helmet; but to a North American Indian it is quite reasonable that a helmet
should have a ghost as well as the warrior who puts it on his ghostly head. The
opinion of the European ghost-seer is no doubt the more scientific, the more
atfected by knowledge of the facts of nature; but the broader spiritualism of
the savage is more full, more thoroughly consistent, because, as there is much
reason to think, it is nearer to its source.

A slight acquaintance with the spiritualism of the savage has sometimes led
to its being considered as the result of a degeneration from the opinions of more
cultured races; but more complete knowledge of the facts tends to show that
such an opinion inverts the real history of events. The way in which the fullest
and most consistent theory of ghosts i is at home among savage tribes is well
shown by the belief that the spirit arrives in the next world w hole or mutilated,
according to the condition of the body at death. For instance, there is an Aus-
tralian tribe who believe that if a man be left unburied, his soul becomes a
wandering ghost. If one of their warriors kills his enemy, he is sometimes

* The speaker mentioned that he had just found in the works of an American writer, Mr.
Alger, independent confirmation of the view he had taken of the savage theory of spirits,
as including spectres of inanimate as well as of animate objects.

396 ON TRACES OF THE EARLY MENTAL CONDITION OF MAN.

embarrassed with the difficulty that by so doing he is setting free a hostile ghost:
to vex his own people, and therefore he resorts to the device of cutting off the
dead man’s right thumb, so that the ghost can no longer throw his spear, and
may be safely left to wander as an evil spirit, malignant, but harmless. ‘The
history of the very funeral offerings just spoken of shows in the most interesting
way the progress of a ceremony from its source in a crude and savage philosophy
to its gradual breaking down into mere formality and symbolism. To the Aryan
of the Vedas it was quite reasonable to burn the priestly sacrificial implements
with the dead man’s body for his use in the next world; but the modern Hindu
lays one thread of woollen yarn on the funeral cake of his father, saying, “May
this apparel, made of woollen yarn, be acceptable to thee!” We may learn
from Ovid how the offerings of food to the dead, in ruder times a thorough prac-
tical savage proceeding, had in his time dwindled to a mere affectionate, senti-
mental ceremony. Garlands, he says, and some scattered corn and grains of
salt, and bread steeped in wine, and violets laid about: with these the shade
may be appeased. ‘Little the manes ask, the pious thought stands instead of
the rich gift, for Styx holds no greedy gods.”
‘‘ Parva petunt manes—pietas pro divite grata est
Munere. Non avidos Styx habet ima deos.”

We may see how the early Christians kept up the heathen custom of burying

ornaments with the dead, of putting playthings in a child’s grave, doing just

c

what a red Indian squaw will do, but doing it with how changed a purpose.
The Chinese keeps up the time-honored custom of providing the dead with clothes
and money ; but the money that he will palm off on his dead father is a pasteboard
coin, stamped like a Spanish dollar, and covered with silver-leaf; this he will
burn, and his father will have the spirit of it to spend in the next world. ‘The
same Chinese will yearly spread a feast for the souls of his dead ancestors; he
and his friends will wait a decent while for the ghosts to eat the spirits of the
food, and then they will fall to themselves. To see the same thing done nearer
liome, you have only to travel into Brittany, where on the night of the Féte
des Morts you will find the fire made up and the hearth swept, and the supper
left on the table for the souls of the dead to come and take their part. And
when we see a wreath of everlastings laid upon a tomb, or a nosegay of fresh
flowers thrown into an open grave, a full knowledge of the history of funeral
offerings seems to justify us in believing what we should hardly have guessed
without it, that even here we see a relic of the thoughts of the rudest savages
who claim a common humanity with us, a funeral offering vastly changed in
signification, but nowhere broken in historic sequence.

Lastly. Another subject may be found to throw light upon an early condition
of men’s minds. We are all agreed that there is a certain mental process called
the association of ideas. That we are in the habit of connecting in our minds
different things which have, in actual fact, no material connection, we all admit
as a matter belonging to this association of thoughts or of ideas. Now we have
been taught to keep an eye on the action of the association of thoughts, to
recognize it as a fallacious process apt to lead us into all manner of unreasonable
opinions. But if we descend to a lower range of civilization, we shall find that
the mental association which we tolerate as a sort of amiable weakness, and
against which we are at any rate forewarned and forearmed, is the very philos-
ophy of the savage. There is one particularly excellent way of studying the
effects of the association of thought. It began to produce, in a time associated
with a very low human condition, a set of opinions and practices known as the
occult sciences, witchcraft, divination, astrology, and the like. The germs of
these imaginary sciences are to be found still lively among the lower races.
Their development into elaborate pscudo-scientific systems belongs to a period
now beginning to pass away; and we can still study them in their last stage
of existence, that in which their remnants have lingered on into a period of

ON TRACES OF THE EARLY MENTAL CONDITION OF MAN. 397
higher mental culture, and have become survivals, or, as we call them, “ super-
stitions.” In producing the ocenlt sciences, the as $0Ci iation of thought ‘works i in
Ways most distinctly recognizable. When ‘the Polynesian weather-maker prac-
tices on his sacred stone, wets it when he wants to produce rain, and puts it to
the fire to dry when he wants dry weather; and when, in Europe, water is poured
on a stone, or a little girl led about and pails of water poured on her that rain
may in like manner be poured down from the sky, we have practices resting on
the most evident and direct association of thoughts.

r

Thus we may see a Zulu busy chewing a bit of wood, and thereby performing
an ideal operation, softening the heart of another Zulu with whom he is going
to trade cows, that he may ‘cet a better bargain out of him. So it is w hen we
find lingering in Englanda practice belonging thoroughly to the savage sorcerer,
that of ‘making an image representing an enemy or part of lim, and “nelting it,
drying it up, or wounding it, that the like may happen to the person with w hom
it is associated. From time to time there is still found hidden about some coun-
try farm such a thing as a heart stuck full of pins, the record of some secret
story of attempted magic vengeance.

In the ancient and still existing art of astrology we see the same early delusive
association of ideas producing results so perfectly intelligible to us that it is
really difficult for educated people to have patience to study its details. An
astrologer will tell us how the planet Jupiter is connected with persons of a bold,
hearty, jovial temperament; and how the planet Venus has to do with love and
marriage; while to us the whole basis of this theory les in the accident of the
names of certain gods having been given to certain stars, which are therefore
supposed to have “the attributes of these gods. The wonder is not that much
of the magician’s sham science is inexplicable to us, but that the origin of so
many of its details is still evident.

[An extract from Zadkiel’s almanac was here read, with the object of showing
the principle on which the astrologer’s deductions are still made, the movements
of the heavenly bodies being simply t taken to symbolize Seer action, virtue
end good fortune being connected with the aspects of the sun and Jupiter, (sunny
and jovial influences,) “&e., the working of the early childlike principle of the
association of ideas being thus trace: able through the oceult sciences from their
rise among savages to their decay among educated men. |

By the study of facts like those of w hich a scanty selection has here been
brought forward, it seems possible to look back to an early condition of our race
much. more nearly corresponding with that of existing savages than with that
of the civilized nations even of very ancient times. We seem to have before
us the traces of a state of language so low that words for counting had not yet
arisen in it, but mere gesture- language served their purpose. It is not meant
to imply that we have evidence of a state of pure gesture-language anterior to
any spoken language; we do not seem to have such evidence, and even among
the lower animals we find, in a rudimentary form, expression by action and by
voice going on together. Tn the working of the minds of these early tribes

ve trace a childlike condition of thought i in which there is a wonderful ‘absence
of definition between past and future, between fact and imagination, between
last night’s dream and to-day’s waking. Out of this state of mind we find aris-
ing all over the world a consistent, intense, and all-pervading spiritualism to
form a basis upon which higher intellectual stages have been reared. In this
low and early mental state there reigns supreme the faculty of association of
thoughts. Out of this, when unchecked by experience, arise those delusions of
sorcery which pervade and imbitter the whole life of the savage, and carry a
stream of folly far on into the culture of the higher races. But through age
after age there has gone on a slow process of natural selection, ever tending to
thrust aside what is worthless, and to favor what is strong and sound. Wiihelin
von Humboldt, already once quoted, may serve us again iby ! laying down in few

398 ON TRACES OF THE EARLY MENTAL CONDITION OF MAN.

words one of the great generalizations of our intellectual history. “Man,” he
says, “ever seeks the connection, even of external phenomena, first in the realm
of thought; * * * * his first endeavor is to rule nature from the idea
outward.”

Now if the result of inquiries like the present were to bring out mere abstract
truth, barren of all practical importance, this would perhaps be the last place
where it would be needful to apologize for the want. But it is to be noticed
that they do happen to have this practical importance. There are certain studies
which have entered upon a thoroughly scientific stage, and ask no aid from
ethnographic research ; they care nothing for the crude theories of earlier times,
but go directly to their own observed facts by which they must stand or fall.
But there are other studies , of not less importance to us than astronomy or chem-
istry, which are in a very different state. In such especially as relate to man,
the operations of his mind, his relations to the rest of the universe, the past and
future condition of his race, his ethical and political rights and duties—in all
these complex and dithcult problems we find established side by side sources of
opinion of very different value. Some opinions come to us authorized by the
best of evidence, and when put to the test of reason and experience the trial
proves their soundness. Others again, though fonnded on some erude theory
of less educated times, have been so altered in their scope and meaning by the
lessons of experience, as to be on the whole the best known eae of facts,
and by this not unsatisfactory title they hold their ground. Others, lastly, may
arise out of opinions belonging to a low stage of culture, and Save we their
place, not because they are “proved to be true or useful, but simply because they
have been inherited from long past generations. Now it is one duty of ethno-
graphic research to follow up ieee Rae of thought, to mark out, among existing
opinions, which are old notions kept up in a modified condition to answer a more
modern purpose; in what cases a growing knowledge goes about with the
remains of the old philosophy which once clothed it, now hanging in strips and

tatters about its back; in what case opinions belonging to a low and early
mental state survive into the midst of a higher culture, “pretending to be knowl-
edge, and being really superstition. apes the study of the lower races has a
work to do in facilitating the intellectual progress of the higher, by clearing the
ground, and leaving the. way open for the induction of eeneral laws and their
correction by the systematic observation of facts, to the results of which method
alone we may fitly give the name of Science.

ETHNOLOGY.

INDIAN REMAINS NEAR RED RIVER SETTLEMENT, HUDSON’S BAY TERRITORY.

By DonaLp GUNN

Rep River, April 1, 1867.

T have been collecting a few Indian relics of former ages, such as stone axes,
mallets, and skulls. The axes are made of a fine- grained blue-stone, the mal-
lets of gneiss; the skulls were taken from what are apparently sepulchral
mounds. Last October a neighbor living on the east side of the river, requiring
an additional cellar to preserve his root-crop from the winter frosts, commenced
digging into the top of a knoll in the woods, close to his field, taking out eight
feet. square. He did not dig precisely into the centre of the "knoll, but some-
what to one side; on digging down he was rather surprised at the depth of the
surface-soil, or black vegetable mould, being so much greater here than he had
ever found it anywhere else ; ; he, however, continued digeing until he got from
four to five feet deep. Here he beg an to cut through decayed wood, apparently
oak, which had been laid ina horizontal position. On getting afoot or so below
this, in paring down the side of the pit, he uncovered a human skull, having its
lower jaw attached, and lower down the vertebra, showing that the dead had
been placed ina sitting posture. In digging still further, he found other human
remains, and at a depth of eight feet from the top of the tamulus and on a level
with the surface of the surrounding country he struck on a floor of very smooth
and hard white mud, which appeared to have been hardened by the action of
fire, since bits of coal were found on it. On this clay flooring the following
articles were found, viz: four or five skulls lying on the face; a number of
small bones, those tof fingers and toes; an earthen kettle, wih a shell in it,
such as live at present in “this river; bones of the beaver; two pipes of fine
blue-stone, without a perforation ; three ornaments made of shell or bone—two
of them, I think, of the shells probably of the small turtles found here in
the river; the other must be of bone and is about five inches in length; one
perforated shell, used for ornament ; a few beads, made of shell.

There is another tumulus 400 or 500 yards directly south of this. It is
larger than the one that has been opened, and I think that if opened something
interesting would be found in it. ‘These mounds have been known for many
years past, but never supposed to have been works of art, or raised by human
labor; but now I begin to entertain the opinion that many such sepulchral
mounds are to be found in this vicinity.

The Indians dwelling in this section of the country have no traditional
knowledge relating to these mounds ; when any questions are put to them as to
the time when erected, and the use for which they were raised, they answer
that they were mud dwellings, such as are occupied at present by ‘the Mandans
on the upper Missouri; and that they had been built very long ago; who the
builders were they know not.

This ignorance of former times can, to some extent, be pretty satisfactorily
accounted for from the well-known fact that this region has often had a change
of inhabitants since the advent of the whites. The Crus were in possession
when the first traders found their way to Lake Ouinipeg, as they then called it.
The Assinaboines succeeded the Crus, on the latter tribes breaking off or sep-

AGO ETHNOLOGY.

arating from their kindred, the Dakotas. The Santena or Ojibois followed in
the wake of the traders from Canada, chiefly in the last decade of the last cen-
tury. If ever the Crus or the Assiniboines deposited their dead under mounds
of earth, they discontinued that mode of interment long before the advent of
the w hites, otherwise both missionaries and traders must have seen and recorded
the custom, or at least some traces of it. In the absence of all testimony we
are led to the conclusion that they are monuments of considerable antiquity,
and that the race who constructed them, and whose remains they cover, have
MEAS away ages since or becotne mixed up with a race or races, if not more
barbarous, evidently less energetic and industrious, who did not manifest their
affc stionate regard for the dead by performing so much labor in covering their
remains. May we not with some reason conjecture that the object for whieh
these mounds were heaped up with so much toil was to transmit to generations
then unborn the fame of some renowned patriot or chief who led the warriors.
of his tribe to combat against encroaching foes, and who was victorious in the
strife? The first thonght that occurs to the mind in examining these tokens of
mortality is that they were in course of erection during a long period of time ;
that succeeding generations took each a share in the work ; buried their dead
over those who had been deposited before them, and added their share to the
earth until the mounds assumed their full dimensions, or the practice of this
mode of interment fell into disuse ; yet, on reflecting over the subject, I am dis-
posed to come to the conclusion that these mounds were raised over the remains
of men who stood high in the esteem of their family and tribe; who labored
to build their tombs trom the laudable motive of perpetuating the memor y of
friends and benefactors. The tombs might have been reopened from time to
time to receive the remains of the family or kindred of the first occupier to
Whose memory it had been erected, down ‘to periods of time much more recent
than their origin ; or the Indians might prefer interring in these mounds, finding
them dry and easier to excavate than the surrounding soil ; such seems to have
been the case in regard to the great tumulus on the west side of this river.

Some time about 1786 the small -pox spread over what is now known as Hudson
Bay territory, carrying off the natives by thousands. The Crus at that time
occapied this vicinity. 1 have seen and spoken to an old man, the only sur-
vivor out of many tents, who stated that at the commencement of the mortality
the Indians, for some time, buried in the mound above Uescribed, but did not
erect it, and that at a later period of the disease the living did not attempt bury-
ing the dead.

Up to the last years of the last century the Indians on the western shores of
Hudson’s bay oceasionally disposed of their dead by placing them on scaffolds
_or stages. Iam not aware that they ever returned to look after the bones for
the purpose of interring them. The Indians occupying this part of the country
at present inter the dead, but never, to my knowledge, in a sitting posture.
They press the knees up tow ards the chin—in a word they roll up the dead into
the smallest possible space, open a shallow grave, lay the body on its side, with
the face generally towards the east. ‘The Assiniboines still continue the custom
of laying their dead on stages.

T trust that you will let me know if the Institution is desirous of having any
of those antiquities of which I have written, viz: skulls, pipes, ornaments, &e.
lf they are desired, I will search into some other mounds in this vicinity and
send whatever I find that may appear worth the cost of transportation.

The winter has been late in setting in; we had very little snow before the
beginning of January. We have had - ry little snow in the settlements ; but
it is spoken of as being very deep towards the Lake of the Woods and in the
plains towards the Missouri. The cold has not been extremely intense, but
very regular; this is the 22d of March, and we have not had as much thaw as
to wet the soles of our moccasins.

ETHNOLOGY. 401

ANCIENT MOUND NEAR CHATTANOOGA, TENNESSEE.
By M. C. REaD.

The mound from which the specimens sent you were taken is situated on the
left bank of the Tennessee river, above Citico creek, and about one mile from
Chattanooga. It ison the rich alluvial land bordering the river, and so situate
on the outer side of a curve of the stream as to be readily seen by parties coming
up or down the river, as well as by any one approaching the valley over any of
the hills and mountains by which Chattanooga is surrounded. Directly east of
it is the site of an ancient pottery and manufactory of flint arrow-heads, several
acres being covered with fragments of broken pottery, burned clay, chippings
of flint and arrow- -heads, many of them apparently spoiled in the lands of the
manufacturer. Broken stone hammers, stone and earthenware pipes, flat circu-
lar disks of the size of large checker-men, made of stone, pottery, and occa-
sionally of hard, mineral coal, are frequently found. The place where these
are found has been for years under the plough, but, on digging to the depth of
eighteen inches or more, ashes and coal, amorphous Sais ce mona clay, frag-
ments of bones, and abundance of broken pottery, are found. ‘This is all of a
coarse character; the various attempts at ornamentation being rude and inar-
tistic. The material used was the earth taken from below the surface and filled
with finely comminuted fragments of river shells. ‘The surface is covered with
these shells, many of them in a good state of preservation, of the same character
with those found more abundantly down the river at Shell Mound and other
places, and all identical with the species still existing in the river. These facts
are of especial interest on account of their bearing upon the relative age of the
mound. ‘This one is of an oval form, with a base of 158 by 120 feet; the larger
diameter being upon the true meridian, or as near it as we could determine by
an ordinary pocket compass. The dimensions of the top, which was substan-
tially level, are 82 by 44 feet, and the height 19 feet.

For purposes of examination, and to provide the gardener of the Sanitary
Commission, who had his office on the mound, with a place to store vegetables
for spring planting, a tunnel was excavated into the mound from the east, a
little one side of the centre, and on a level with the natural surface of tlie
ground. When the point directly under the outer edge of the top of the mound
was reached, holes were found containing fraganents of rotted wood, showing
that stakes or palisades had been erected here when the mound was commenced.
The sound of the pick indicating a cavity or different material below, the exca-
vation was carried downward about two feet, when two skeletons were uncovered,
fragments of which, preserved, are marked No. 1. The bones were packed in
a smnall space, as though the bodies were crowded down, without much regard to
position of hands, into a pit not exceeding three feet in length. One “of the

sskulls is of especial interest, as possibly indicating that the remains are those of
victims immolated in some sacrificial or burial rites. The side was crushed ms
as if with aclub. I have connected together the pieces of the upper jaw, s
that they retain the position in which they were found, a position which aa!
with probability, be supposed to be the result of the settling of the earth around
it, if unbroken when buried. The bones of the bodies, although so friable that
they could not be preserved, were entire, in positions indicating that the bodies
had not been dismembered, and forbidding the supposition that they were the
remains of a cannibal feast.

The excavation was carried forward as indicated on the plat, and on a level with
the location of the skeletons first found. It became evident at once that the mate-
rial of which the mound was constructed was taken from the immediate neigh-
borhood ; it being composed of the same alluyial soil, full of the shells found
on the surface, but in a much better state of preservation; but no arrow-heads,

26 s67 :

402 ETHNOLOGY.

chippings of flints, or fragments of pottery, now covering the surface, were
found. 'Chese would have been abundant if the mound had been erected subse-
quently to the manufacture of the pottery and arrow-heads at that place. Sin-
gle fragments of pottery were found, but these were painted and of much better
quality than those found upon the soon

‘The mound was composed of alternate layers of earth and ashes, showing
that a surface of the size of the top, when finished, was kept substantially level,
and raised only two to three feet at a time when fires were kindled, which must
have been large or continued for a long time, as the amount of the ashes and
fragments of charcoal abundantly indicate.

Near the centre of the mound rows of stake-holes were found, as far as fol-
lowed, marking two sides of a rectangular parallelogram, which, continued,
would have formed an enclosure around the centre. In some of these were the
remains of the wood and bark; not enough to show the marks of tools if any
had been used. They penetrated the natural surface of the ground to the
depth of about two feet.

Here, and at about the same level as at No. 1, were found the skeletons of
which the skull-bones and other parts are marked No. 2. ‘They were appa-
rently the remains of a youngish woman and two children, all so far decomposed
that only the parts sent could be preserved. ‘The larger skeleton was in such a
position as a person would take if kneeling down, then sitting upon the feet, the
hands were brought to the head, and the body doubled down upon the knees.
The head was toward the south. ‘The remains of the children were found at
the right side of this body, the bones mingled together.

About two feet directly under these, the skeleton, of which the skull is marked
No. 3, was found in a similar position, it is said, (1 was not present when it was
taken out,) with the one above it.

I attempt no description and indulge in no speculations in regard to these
remains, as I have decided to forward them to you, for the examination of those
who can compare them with other skulls, and are better qualified to make a
proper use of them. They are nnquestionably of the age of the “mound
builders.”

I enclose also, marked No. 4, remains taken from between two flat stones
near the surface of the mound at point marked No. 4. These are doubtless
of Indian origin.

I enclose also a poor photograph of the mound after it had been cleared and
ornamented by the gardener, showing his office, arbors, seats, &c., on the top,
and guards and laborers in front. It will serve to give you the outline of the
mound.

It was my purpose to continue the examination further; to follow round the
line at No. 1; ascertain whether other bodies were buried in a similar position ;
to look for a ’ completion of the parallelogram at the centre; to carry a shaft
upward to the top, and connect and measure the successive layers of earth and
ashes ; but the simultaneous firing of the heavy guns in the forts about Chatta-
nooga, at the celebration of Lee’s surrender, produced such a shock that the
mound “ caved in,” burying tools, vegetables, &c., to be found, perhaps, by
some future explorer, as proof of the intelligence of the race of the mound
builders. No other works are found in the neighborhood, but I obtained verbal
information of very many mounds, stone forts, rock inscriptions, &c., &c., in the
State, a careful examination of w hich might throw much light upon the charac-
ter of a race who have left no other records.

ETIINOLOGY. 403

ANCIENT BURIAL MOUND IN INDIANA.

e
By WILLIAM PIDGEON.

At Vincennes, Indiana, in 1859, in the removal of a battle burial mound, I
noticed features altogether unlike any I had previously seen. It seems not only
to have been used as a deposit for the fallen warriors, but also as a place in
later times where bodies were consumed by fire. That this was a custom of the
mound builders for many ages I have no doubt. This mound was removed
from a plat of ground owned by Hasselback & Co., in the suburbs of the city,
and occupied as a distillery stock-yard. It was larger than mounds usually are
of that description, and at the time of its removal it had a diameter at the base of 66
feet anda perpendicular altitude of 16. I think it was originally more pyramidal
in form, its expansion at the base having been increased by the tread of animals.
It has "frequently been observed in the forest, where civilization has not yet
reached, that the battle burial mounds have an altitude of about one-third of the
diameter of the base. This mound, however, was the place of resort, for two
years, of several hundred hogs and cattle, enclosed within less than three acres,
although the surface, destitute of vegetation, seemed to resist all impressions
from the horns, hoofs, or snouts of the animals, — It was removed in a manner
that favored the most critical investigation. ‘The excavation, beginning at the
south side of the base, was continued on a level to the opposite side, presenting,
in well-defined outline, four separate stratifications above the first, which con-
sisted of a bed of human bones, arranged in a circle of 18 feet in diameter,
closely packed and pressed together, so ‘much so that it was with difficulty that
we raised from the entire mass two leg-bones retaining their primitive length,
which was twenty-seven inches. Others longer and Spans were seen, but Peald
not be disinterred. Around the outer edge of this circle the stratum was thinner
than in the centre; skulls, legs, rib ‘and back bones lying promiscuously
mingled, indicating a pile of bodies thrown together in py ramidal form. This
deposit was covered with a stratum of tough, orayish clay, that resisted satura-
tion almost as well as tallow; the stratum was houes and clay each being thirty-
three inches in depth at the centre, the clay retaining its thickness throughout.
The third stratum was composed of earth that seemed to be formed of ‘ashes,
with an occasional speck of calcined bone throughout the entire mass, but abund.
ant near the centre. Above this was a twelve-inch stratum, resembling the
subsoil around the mound, the whole being covered with clay that resists satu-
ration to an extent that, if protected by grass, would resist the elements for
centuries.

- ANCIENT REMAINS IN COLORADO.

By E. L. BerTHoup.
May 21, 1867.

About half a mile west of Golden city, Jefferson county, Colorado Territory,
and near the entrance of the cafion of Clear creek, are ruins, formed of an old
broken down circumyallating circle of rough stone derived from the neighboring
mountains and a sandstone ridge south of them. These ruins are at the junction
of a ravine ten feet in depth and the bed of the creek, which is about twenty feet
vertically below the wall. A large amount of stone has been taken for founda-
tion walls, &c., but enough remains to give an outline of its position and shape.
The stones are in many places imbedded in the soil and mossy with age. On
the south side is a pit twelve feet wide and about fifteen to eighteen inches deep,
shaped like a saucer. The central mound, very plainly discernable, is nowhere

404 ETHNOLOGY.

ever one foot high, is formed of granitic sand, and around its circumference are
ihe evidences of five or six shallow pits, surrounded by a stone enclosure now
almost all gone and traced b¥ broken fragments of stone, burnt bones, &c.
Both in the ‘central mound, in the outer wall, and in the soil of the neighboring
pits and ridges, are many old decayed bones of buffaloes, fragments of antlers,
&e. No human remains, nor any tools, w eapons or utel asils of any kind, except

two flint fragments and a number of plates of mica, were discovered.

MOUNDS IN MISSISSIPPI.

By SAMUEL A. AGNEW.

Guntown, Miss., January 11, 1868.

While reading the article on “the ancient earthworks in the United States,”
in the appendix to the Smithsonian Report for 1866, I thought that perhaps I
might be able to furnish some facts relating to this general subject which might
perhaps contribnte something to those engaged i in the study of ancient Indian
remains, and I venture to forward them to the Institution, although I am uncer-
tain whether or not what I may state is unknown to those pursuing such studies,
Dille remarks “no earthworks of any kind were seen by him in Mississippi.”
I am acitizen of that State and have resided here fifteen years, and being a
minister of the gospel have had occasion to visit different sections of this portion
of the country. During my peregrinations several mounds have attracted my
attention, and I will proceed to note down the localities of those and of others
of which I have some knowledge. I should state that when I mention the
height, circumference, or area of mounds, the figures are not the result of meas-
urement but of an estimate made from their appearance.

The following comprises a list of some of the mounds in this portion of the
country :

No. 1. On the land of Joseph Agnew, on Camp creek, in the southeastern
part of Tippah county. It is about ten feet high and has several trees growing
on it. It has never been dug into.

No. 2 is near James W iley’s x, in Pontotoe county, six miles west of Ellistown.
It resembles in appearance and is about the same height as No. 1.

No. 3 is near Jobn M. Simpson’s, five miles southeast of New Albany, in
Pontotoc county. The road cuts into one side of it. The elevation above the
surface is six or eight feet. Human bones were found in this mound.

No. 4 is on the north side of Tallahatchie bottom, on the road from New
Albany to Ripley. Its top has been flattened, and when I last saw it, eight
years ago, a neat little residence was on the summit.

No. 5 isa large mound in Pontotoc county, near the residence of William
Parkes, between Butchiecunifila and Oconitahatchie creeks, about ten miles
southwest of New Albany. It is quadrangular, with a flat top, and contains, I
suppose, as much as a half acre of level land on its summit. It is from ten to
fifteen feet high and I think has not been examined for remains.

No. 6 is in Tishomingo creek bottom, near Dr. Selman’s farm, five miles
west of this place. Its summit embraces an area of from one- -quarter to half an
acre. ‘Trees are growing on its surface. I did not ascertain its height.

No. 7 is on the same creek, near Duncan Clark’s, ten feet high, and about
thirty feet in diameter.

No. 8, near Mr. T. A. Sullivan’s, in the same vicinity, is another mound ten
feet high. Two large post oaks are growing on its top. It was dug into
several years ago and a bed of ashes was reached, when further excavations
ceased.

ETHNOLOGY. © 405

No. 9 is a mound which was on the Fane place, in the same neighborhood,
the surface of which was cultivated. In 1860 a silver thimble was ploughed up
on this mound, which is in possession of Dr. Selman of this place. He says
that it is much lar ger than ordinary-sized thimbles, and is of the opinion that it
is a relic of past times evidently of a civilized people.

No. 10 is a mound in Mr. Longbridge’s farm, near Birmingham, the surface
of which is cultivated, which was due into eight or ten years ago, and pieces of
pottery with strange fioures on them discovered. Silver ear- rings were taken
from some ancient. graves adjacent to it. All of these mounds, from No. 6 to
No. 10 inclusive, are situated from five to eight miles west of this place.

No. 11 is a mound two miles above Baldwyn, and within fifty yards of the
Mobile and Ohio railroad, of considerable size. An Irishman dug into it just
previous to the war, but I have not learned the result of his explorations.

No. 12 is a mound six miles southeast of No. 11, on Michenor’s near Mana-
tachie creek, thirty or forty feet in circumference. A hickory tree two feet in
diameter grows on its top. ‘The moundis eight feet high.

5
No. 13 is a large mound near Knight’s mill, in this county (Lee.) Its sum-

mit contains about half an acre; a maolling and well is on the mound.

No. 14 is a small mound ae Dr. Mane two miles east of Ellistown, eight
feet high, which has a red oak growing on it, three feet in diameter.

No. 15 isa mile south of Guntown, on the Mean’s farm, sixty yards in cir-
cumference and eight or ten feet in height. It is cultivated.

No. 16 is a group of some seven or eight mounds, in T'wenty-mile creek bot-
tom, at a distance of from eight to fifteen miles east of this.

No. 17. I have heard of another mound which I ought not to omit to men-
tion. Itis on the bottom (low ground) of Yorribie creek, three miles south of
Birmingham, on the lands of John A. MecNiel, said to be one hundred feet high,
and covers an are of a half acre. Large trees are growing over it from three to
three and a half feet in diameter.

No. 18. Near this mound, in the same creek bottom, are two other mounds,
large, on the lands of a Nes York land company.

From all the information T have obtained, I believe that there are multitudes,
I might truly say hundreds of mounds scattered over Tippah, Pontotoc, Lee, Itaw-
amba, and Tishomingo counties. I am informed that there are several in
Osctibbeha county, and perhaps it might be safely affirmed that they may be
found in the greater part of the State.

The mounds are, so far as my observation extends, situated adjacent to water-
courses. ‘They are generally placed in what we call second bottoms—eievated
level Jand lying between the bottom proper and the hills. Some, however, are
in the low ground, near the water-courses. They are found on 'Tallahatchie,
Oconitahatchie, Yorribie, Camp creek, Tishomingo, Twenty-mile creek, Mana-
tachie, &c. Why they are always so situated I am unable even to conjecture.
It certainly is not the result of chance.

The popular opinion among the people is that the mounds are places of burial.
Human bones were found in one near J. M. Simpson’s. A gentleman not far
from here used the earth of a mound for making brick. He found, to use the
expression of another, “a heap of coals and a piece of isinglass.” In the mound
near Sullivan’s, ashes were found.

Another fact is, they are not confined to a particular locality, but are scattered
through the country. Sometimes a solitary mound stands remote from others,
and again you will sometimes find several grouped near each other.

I have no doubt that a thorough exploration of north Mississippi (and I might
include the whole State perhaps) would show that mounds abound, and no field
offers more abundant materials in which to search for the remains of a departed
race.

While writing of these Indian mounds, allow me to direct your attention to

406 * ETIINOLOGY.

a fact which may or may not be of importance. Nearly 12 years ago I had
pointed out to me on a long ridge, between John’s creek and Friendship church,
in Pontotoe county, the remains of ancient ditches or embankments. I did not
examine them closely , and hence cannot describe them satisfactorily. ‘The
direction of the ditch or embankment could be clearly traced by the eye, and,
according to my recollection, plots of ground in the shape of parallelograms
were enclosed by these ditches. I was told that the first settlers found these
things when they came to the country, and that the Indians did not know who
had made them, or with what design. To me they seemed too regular and exact
to be the work of ignorant savages. The idea suggested itself to my mind
that perhaps these ditches or embankments were the remains of some fortified

camp occupied by De Soto, during his famous march through this region of
country. I believe that our histories relate that he spent a ‘winter in camp in
the Chickasaw nation. But my knowledge of the methods of fortification m
vogue at that period is so limited that I am not qualified to venture an opinion
on the subject. But the intelligent antiquarian might in these remains find a
clue which would throw some lieht on the past, and interest the historic world.

All the accounts that I have seen of the wonderful march of this Spanish
chieftain agree that he spent, in 1640, a cheerless winter among the Chickasaws,
his progress being impeded by impassable rivers, &c. One historian says his

camp was on the Yazoo, but this must be an error. It is generally conceded

that he first reached the Mississippi near Memphis, and in tnarching from the
Chickasaws to that point he would not see the Yazoo, which was in the Choe-
taw country. Some writer (perhaps Wailes, in his Geological Report of Missis-
sippl, 1856) states that De Soto was in Pontotoc county. Now there is no
stream between Pontotoc county and Memphis so likely to ‘hinder his march as
the Tallahatchie. Hence I think the cheerless winter he spent among the
Chickasaws was on the south side of the Tallahatchie river. ‘These remains
are a few miles south of the river, and possibly this may be the very place
where De Soto camped. If the locality remains uncleared, as when I saw it,
T have no doubt they can still be traced. And should their examination be
deemed of interest, I will with pleasure direct any one to the gentleman who
pointed them out to me. An examination might ‘demolish my theory, for you
remember that I disclaim any knowledge of their character or extent. All that
I can state positively about them is that they were there when the country was
first settled by whites, and the Indians could give no information respecting
them.

Captain B. F. Loughridge informs me that in 1852 the silver front of a cap,
with the French inscription: “ Dieu et mon Droit,” was picked up on his place.
This, probably, is a relic of the Bienville expedition against the Chickasaws,
about 100 years ago. In the old Indian fields near Harrisburg, in this (Lee)
county, cannon balls have been picked up, and other evidences of a battle found.
They are probably relics of the same expedition.

CAVE IN CALAVERAS COUNTY, CALIFORNIA.
By J. D. WHITNEY.

The following is an account of the cave from which the skulls now in the
Smithsonian collection were taken. It is near the Stanislaus river in Calaveras
county, on a nameless creek about two miles from Abbey’s ferry, on the road to
Vallicito, at the house of Mr. Robinson. There were two or three persons with
me who had been to the place before, and knew that the skulls in question were
taken from it. ‘Their visit was some 10 years ago, and since that the condition
of things in the cave has greatly changed. Owing to some alteration in the

ETHNOLOGY, 407

road, mining operations or some other cause which I could not ascertain, there
has accumulated on the formerly clean stalagmitic floor of the cave a thickness
of some 20 feet of surface earth that completely conceals the bottom, and which
could not be removed without considerable expense. ‘This cave is about 27 feet
deep at the mouth, and 40 to 50 feet at the end, and perhaps 30 feet in diameter.

It is the general opinion of those who have noticed this cave and saw it years
ago, that it was a burying place of the present Indians. Dr. Jones said he found
remains of bows and arrows and charcoal with the skulls he obtained, and which
were destroyed at the time the village of Murphys was burned. All the people
spoke of the skulls as lying on the surface, and not as buried in the stalagmite.
The skulls should be examined by some craniologist, and then if the results
make it worth while to have excavations made in the cave to see if anything
further can be discovered underneath the soil, $100 would pay the expenses, I
presume. In the mean time everything will remain as it is. There can be no
further harm done or material carried away.

I visited several other caves in this region, with negative results as far as bones
were concerned.

[These skulls were, with a large number of others belonging to the Smith-
sonian Institution, examined by Prof. Jeffries Wyman, who discovered no pecu-
liarities by which they could be distinguished from other crania of California.
A complete series of measurements could not be made of their several dimensions
without removing the stalagmite which encrusted nearly the whole surface of

each.—J. H.|

ETHNOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE FRENCH EXPOSITION, 185%.

[ Translated for the Smithsonian Institution from the Revue des Cous Scientifiques de la France
et de UV étranger. |

M. G. de Mortillet is abont to publish an octavo volume, having for its
title ‘Pre-historic Rambles at the Universal Exposition,” comprising a descrip-
tion of that part of the collections which illustrate our knowledge of the works
of industry, as elaborated by our first ancestors, who were cotempor ary with the
great fossil animals; for scientific research has penetrated into that era, and is
now seeking to restore to us their customs, mode of living, and, in fine, the first
rudiments of civilization. Numerous figures are given representing the most
curious objects to be found in this section of the Univer sal Exposition; indeed,
the richest and most instructive ever assembled in one place. We borrow the
following passage from this interesting work, exhibiting the most recent disco-
veries in pre-historic anthropology, and upon a subject which holds a place in
the history of mankind analogous to that of geology to the history of the earth.

ART IN THE CAVES.

(First French corridor of the history of labor—first ¢lass case from the centre.)

This case contains an exhibition of the state of art at the period of the rein-
deer, or the second cave epoch. There are 51 exceedingly curious pieces—a
wonderful collection, which has been estimated at a million franes by an ama-
teur, who made an offer of that sum if the whole should be transferred to him.
Undoubtedly they are the most original works in the Exposition of 1867. No-
thing similar has ever before been exhibited. Of very recent discovery, and only
in part as yet seen by the public, they have never been brought together before

408 ETHNOLOGY.

this time. It may further be stated that they are exclusively of French pro-
éuction, none such having as yet been met with elsewhere, and even for France
are only at present found grouped in a small corner on the southwest part of the
empire. One may almost say that in those obscure times a feeling for art had
made its appearance, and was undergoing gradual development in a limited
circle, without spreading among the adjacent tribes, possessed of similar manners
and civilization. In fact, it is only made apparent at present by the representa-
tion of organic beings, by animals or plants, in Dordogne, (the principal centre,)
Vienne, Charente, Tarni-et-Garonne, and at Ariego. The reindeer period with
its various industry has, however, been recognized at many points in the eastern
part of France. It has yielded a rich harvest in Belgium, where it has been
studied with care by M. Edouard Dupont; finally it has been noticed in Wurt-
emberg, not far from Lake Constance, by M. Fraas, but neither of these stations
have furnished representations of animals.

The substances in which the artists of that period worked are sometimes plates
of stone, more or less schistose in character; likewise at times the ivory fur-
nished by the defensive organs of the mammoth, or some portion of his bones;
but the most common material was the horns of the reindeer, more than half of
the objects on exhibition having been sculptured in it.

Of the 51 pieces on exhibition at least 12 of them belong to those staffs,
pierced with one or more large holes at the base. ‘The exceeding care taken in
ornamenting these objects fully confirms the opinion: of M. Lartet, who looks
upon them as insignia of office or batons of command.

Six or seven other sculptured pieces belong to those implements so sharply
pointed at the upper end and bevelled or sloped off at the base. ‘This shows
us that they were lance-points or heads, since they would never with so much
pains have ornamented their arrows, which were to be lost at the first throw.

Upon some of these lance-points, as I have already stated concerning the
second division, the slope of the base cuts away and destroys a part of the design.
In certain instances of these batons of office, piercing the holes has produced the
same effect. All this shows that these people placed art above industry. In
truth, they were eminently disposed towards art. In their carving and sculptures
there may be observed so true a feeling for form and movement that it is nearly
always possible to pronounce exactly what animal is represented, and to perceive
fully the intention of the artist. There is very considerable liveliness shown in
the treatment, and, although only the infancy of art, real art it incontestably is.
These efforts are far, very far removed from the clumsy, rough draughts made
by children, and particularly the ridiculous counterfeits, caricatures.

The mammoth.—Standing before this case and fronting the centre, there is
perceived a large plate of ivory, coming from Madeline, in Dordogne, (exhibited
by MM. Lartet and Christy,) upon which is engraved, in a sketchy manner, an
elephant with swelling forehead, very little eyes, and long trunk. What is still
more interesting is that the tail of the animal is clothed with long hair forming
an ample tuft or brush, which proves that the design is not to represent our living
species, but that of the mammoth or long-haired elephant. Above it is the
lower end of an official staff or baton of reindeer horn, carved into an elephant’s
head with protruding forehead, on either side of which may be seen a Jarge ear
and a small eye, and the trunk is neatly arranged extended along the base of
the baton. ‘This specimen, which belongs to M. Vibraye, comes from Langerie-
Basse, in Dordogne.

Close at hand is a piece still more complete; it is an entire mammoth carved
upon the broad antler of a reindeer. This specimen was found under the shelter
of a rock at Bruniquel, (Tarne-et-Garonne,) and belongs to M. Peecadeau de
Isle. ‘The four limbs are at once recognized, straight, thick, without sensible
joints, and terminated by large, flat feet. From the front passes out the haft of
a poniard; if the broken stump which is left be taken away, it will be seen that

ETHNOLOGY. 409

the animal has his head lowered, and the elongated trunk extends down to
between the two front feet. The mouth is distinctly defined; the tusks only are
not exactly in their right position, since, for their support, it was found necessary
to lay them out against the blade of the poniard, causing them to be placed higher

than they should be, and consequently locating the eyes in a somewhat abnor-
mal relation. 'This elephant, so well characterized by his large, flat feet, his
trunk and tusks, is certainly the mammoth. In fact, the sculptor ‘has given an
elevation or turning up to his tail, which having Ween broken off, as may e: isily
be seen, the artist has drilled a hole from one side of the palmated antler to tlie
other, and has inserted in the hole another similar caudal appendage. Existing
elephants having but little or no hair, have no fouet, and do not turn the tail
up. With the mammoth, however, it was far otherwise, having a felt thickly
compounded of wool and hair, 'The elevation of the tail may “also be noticed
in the carved mammoth on an ivory tablet of M. Lartet. Very probably it was
the accidental fracture of the tail of the mammoth which induced the artist of
Bruniquel to arrange the tusks a little out of their normal position in order to
give them a more solid support against the blade of the poniard.

The reindecr.—A curious, unfinished attempt to make a dagger of a horn of
reindeer, coming to us from Langerie- -Basse, exhibited by MM. Lartet and Christy,
explains perfectly the preceding specimen. The handle is formed of a reindeer
carved with his nose projecting towards the antlers flattened on his back, the
front legs bent under his body so as not to wound the hand; the hind legs are
stretched out so as to connect the animal forming the handle to the blade of the
dagger, which is inserted in the posterior part.

This specimen is entire, but the carving is unfinished. This much cannot be
said for two other poniard handles likewise representing the reindeer. They
were also found under shelter of the rock at Bruniquel, as the mammoth just
described; they belong to M. Peccadeau de V’Isle, and are of ivory. They are
admirably sculptured, ‘nicely finished, and executed altogether with much art.
Undoubtedly this is superior to any specimen hitherto discovered. The two
reindeer handles have the nose of the beast extended forward, a position into
which it is forced by laying the antlers along the back. The blades of these
daggers are broken. In one of them the blade passed out of the upper part of
the body, and the hind legs were supported against it, the front legs being folded
under the body. In the other, on the contrary, the blade passes out of the
anterior part, from between the head and the fore legs. The hind legs, being
projected beyond the body, unite again at a certain distance, leaving an open
space between them, which in all probability answered the purpose of a ring, by
means of which the poniard could be hung up. In the mammoth the space
which was between the legs, closed at the feet, answered the same purpose.

Below these two handles for poniards will be found a flat piece of schistose
rock, on which is engraved a sketch of an amorous combat of the reindeer. M.
de Vibraye is the collector of this specimen, this true picture, at Langerie-Basse.
A male animal is seen in fierce attitude, which, after having made his rival bite
the dust, approaches the female in an amorous manner, of which nothing is seen
but the hind quarter. This composition of quite a complicated character, ren-
dered with a true feeling for the situation, is executed with remarkable sprightli-
ness. Each of the animals is drawn as if none other was present. Thus the
legs of the defeated reindeer, which ought to be concealed by the body of the
female, are, notwithstanding , fully and neatly represented.

In one of the angles of this case many other carvings of the reindeer may be
seen; among which one may be cited, a very handsomely sculptured head, trom
Langerie-Basse, belonging to M. de Vibraye, and a fragment of a staff of office,
on which is carved a fawn of this deer with spotted skin, accompanied by its
dam. This morceau, of the collection of MM. Lartet and Christy, comes from
Madeline. For the sake of the locality mention may be made of a fragment of

410 ETHNOLOGY.

a lance-head from the grotto of la Chaise, (Charente,) belonging to M. Bourgeois,
on which are carved two reindeer.

Cave tiger.—The central line of this case is occupied, beginning at the left,
by a fragment of a staff of office, from Bruniquel, (M. Brun,) on which is neatly
carved a large tiger. Its head is rendered perfectly, and comparing it with a
fine cranium found in this case, fronting the spectator, travée 4, one easily recog-
nizes it as that extinct species which the people of Bruniquel intended to repre-
sent.

Man.—Ahbove these objects are placed some representations relating to man.
The principal one consists only of a fragment of an official staff, from Madeline,
(MM. Lartet and Christy,) on which is engraved a small human figure of a thin
and elongated shape, placed between two horse’s heads, followed by a serpent, or
a fish resembling an eel.

5 .
Next stands a small statuette in ivory, from Langerie-Basse, which has been

designated by its owner, M. de Vibraye, as an obscene idol. It is a female fig-
ure, thin and elongated, ‘the sexual parts being very large, and the posteriors also
prominent. ‘The head and feet are wanting, ‘having been broken off in ancient
times; the arms never existed. <A little on one side may be seen a piece of a
lance-head from Madeline, (MM. Lartet and Christy,) on which are carved in
bas relief, one after the other, a row of hands, so shaped as to exhibit but four
fingers. M. Lartet has called attention to the fact that certain savage tribes
still represent the hand in this manner, omitting the thumb.

The ape-—Adjoining these human effigies is a small plate of bone from Bru-
niquel, (M. Peccadeau de VIsle,) on which is carved the head of an animal
closely resembling that of an ape. No fossil bones of this animal have as yet,
however, been discovered.

The great bear.—At the end of the central line, right side, is a schistose peb-
ble, having on a flat surface a sketch of a great cave bear. This design, dis-
covered in the grotto of Massai (Ariege) by M. Garrigou, can only be seen ‘with
difficulty. At the time of its discover v the depressed tracings were partly filled
by incrustations which served to render it more plainly visible, but having passed
through numerous hands, by which means the surface was more or less “rubbed,
these incrustations have at ‘length nearly disappeared, rendering the sketch but
feebly visible.

Stag.—Next to the pebble of Massai comes a piece of stag-horn from Made-
line, (MM. Lartet and Christy,) on which is carved an ordinary stag.

The aurochs—In one of the corners are grouped different representations of
this bull. Among others a head carved on a reindeer horn, being the lower end
of a baton of office, from Langerie-Basse, belonging to M. de Vibraye. Other
heads carved in the same material or on bone exhibit handsome types of bulls,
which should be referred to the aurochs. One is particularly remarkable, from
Langerie-Basse, and belonging to M. de Vibraye. From Eyzies, also, (MM.
Lartet and Christy,) there is a young bull carved with great perfection.

Horses.—In another corner the representations of horses are grouped together.
On a staff of office of reindeer horn from Madeline, (MM. Lartet and Christy,)
may be viewed a carving of three horses in a manner perfectly characteristic of
the animal.

A very singular implement, made of reindeer horn, from Langerie- Basse,
(MM. Lartet and Christy,) which is armed at one end with a harpoon carrying
a barb, shows very near to this latter appendage a finely carved horse’s head.
The ears are carefully elaborated—a little long. If we connect this fact with
what is shown in the carving of a head in this third travée, the ears of which
resemble those of an ass, we ‘will be led to believe that at that epoch there existed
a race of long-eared horses.

There is yet to be noticed a number of different animals scattered through this
case, but more particularly grouped in the fourth éorner, viz:

The wild gout—Kepresentations of these animals are brought from Madeline

ETHNOLOGY. 411

and Langerie-Basse, (MM. Lartet and Christy,) and from Massai, (Ariege,) (M.
Garigou.) Those which are best executed are trom Langerie-Basse, on a large
palmated surface of reindeer horn.

Birds.—Some figures of birds having a long neck, from Madeline and Lang-
erie-Basse, (M. de Vibraye,) very much resemble the swan. On a piece of a
lance-head from Madeline (MM. Lartet and Christy) may be seen a series of
birds, one following the other, probably geese.

Fishes.—There may be seen a figure of a fish on the harpoon previously
described as bearing a horse’s head. <A fragment of reindeer horn from Made-
line (MM. Lartet and Christy) contains three or four fishes with their scales dis-
tinctly marked, even exaggerated; and another skeletonized, as it were, finely
carved on a piece of the lower jaw of a reindeer; it comes from Langerie-Basse,
(M. de Vibraye.) Another, exhibited by M. Garrigou, brought from La Vache,
(Ariege,) is finely carved on a piece of bone; it is thought to be a figure of the
morse. But the appendages regarded by some as representing the tusks of that
animal, seem to me to be nothing more than the beard of the barbel, gudgeon,
or loach, fishes common in that region.

Reptiles—Figures of different reptiles more or less distinct are exposed; one
of a tadpole is very neatly sketched on a lance-point, which comes from Made-
line, (MM. Lartet and Christy.)

Flowers.—The vegetable kingdom is infinitely less represented than the ani-
mal. Among all the figures here recounted as filling the central glass case,
there are found sketches of but three flowers. Two of these are large, having
nine petals, carved upon a lance-point, from Madeline, (MM. Lartet and Christy ;)
and one of the shape of a tulip with a waving stem, also carved on a lance-point
from Langerie-Basse, (M. de Vibraye.)

Conclusion.—The contemporaneity of man and the various extinct animals,
and with the indigenous reindeer in France, is broadly, firmly, incontestably
proven by the discovery of these products of human industry and skill, so abund-
antly mingled with the exuvia of these extinct or emigrated animals, in the undis-
turbed quarternary beds, and in the midst of cave deposits which have never
been See In this relation an inspection of the glass cases which deco-
rate the left part of the first corridor of the history of French labor, leaves no
doubt on the mind; they fully convince the most obstinate and incredulous.

‘The case containing an exposition of the art of the reindeer period affords a
demonstration still more irresistible. Man has not only perfectly represented
the reindeer, an animal now emigrated to the north, but likewise the great cave
bear, the cave tiger, the mammoth, which are extinct, and habitually the carv-
ings are executed on the spoils of the reindeer and mammoth themselves. Be-
yond all question man was the contemporary of those animals, parts of which he
used for his sustenance, and which he has represented so truly by his art. No
more convincing demonstration could be desired or expected.

NOTES ON INDIAN HISTORY, &c.
By Dr. F. V. HAYDEN, U. S. GEOLOGIST.

JULESBURG, CoLoRADO TERRITORY, October 10, 1867.

I have made some interesting observations in regard to Indian history in the
course of my geological survey of this Territory. Most of the Indians of the
lower Missouri, as the Pawnees, Otoes, Iowas, Missourias, live in earth-built or
stationary villages, and have done so from time immemorial. The tribes on the
upper Missouri do the same—Arickarees, Mandans, and Minnetans. All along
the Missouri, in the valley of the Little Blue, Big Blue, Platte, Loup Fork
rivers I have observed the remains of these old dirt villages, and pieces of pot-
tery are almost invariably found with them,

412 ETHNOLOGY.

But on a recent visit to the Pawnee reservation on Loup Fork I discovered
the remains of an old Pawnee village, apparently of greater antiquity than the
others, and the only one about which any stone implements have as yet been
found. On and around the site of every cabin of this village I found an abund-
ance of broken arrow-heads, chipped flints, some of which must have been
brought from a great distance, and a variety of small stones, which had been
used as hammers, chissels, &c. Ihave gathered about half a bushel of the
fragments of pottery, arrow-heads, and chipped flints, some of which I hope to
place in the museum of the Smithsonian next winter. No Pawnee Indian now
living knows of the time when this village was inhabited. Thirty years ago
an old chief told a missionary that his tribe dwelt there before his birth, but he
knew nothing of the use of the stone arrowheads, though, he said, his people

used them before the introduction of iron.

This discovery is interesting, as it is the first tribe that I have ever been
able to find connecting the stone age with the persons in the Missouri valley.
I have asked the most intelligent Indians of more than 20 tribes in the valley
how far back in the past the Indians used stone arrow points, and I have
received but one answer. They would point toward heaven and say, “The
Great Spirit only knows. We do not.”

At Pine Bluffs, on Cole creek, a branch of the Platte, and on the line of the
Union Pacific railroad, there are large quantities of chipped flints and arrow-
heads, showing that in former times they wrought them at this locality.

Mr. 8. B. Reed, s superintendent of construction Union Pacific railroad, found
specimens of pottery abundant, arrow points, and chipped flints on the plains
near the Humboldt mountains.

The pottery was made of disintegrated granite, as it was full of particles of
mica. ‘These remains may possibly be modern, for the Digger Indians, who
inbabit this region, a low, degraded people, even now use flint arrow points,
though they use no pottery. There is now no evidence that the Indians of this
region ever used any pottery like that found, so that it may be possessed of
some antiquity.

I have collected considerable material in the Omaha, Pawnee, Winnebago,
and Otoe languages for the second part of ethnography and philology of the
Indian tribes of the Missouri valley, and hope to have the memoir ready for
publication in two years.

DESCRIPTION OF A HUMAN SKULL IN THE COLLECTION OF THE SMITHSO-
NIAN INSTITUTION.

By J. AITKEN MEtGs, M. D.

This remarkable cranium, No. 6439 of the Smithsonian collection, was found
in June, 1866, in a fissure of the rock, at Rock Bluff, on the Illinois river,

ETHNOLOGY. 413

where this river is crossed by the 40th parallel of latitude. The fissure, which
is three feet wide, was filled with the drift material of this region, consisting of
clay, sand, and broken stone, the whole being covered with astratum of surface
soil. In this bed. which had apparently been undisturbed since the deposit,
was found the skull under consideration, at the depth of three feet.

It is dolichocephalic and symmetrically oval in form, and is especially remark-
able for its great length, for the protuberance of the posterior or parieto-occipital
region, the flatness of the frontal bone, the great development of the super-
ciliary ridges and the mastoid processes, and “the depth of the temporal fosse.
The length as compared with the breadth is as 41 to 27, and with the height
as 41 to 28. The sagittal suture has evidently undergone complete ossification
at a comparatively early period; a small portion only of the anterior part of
this suture showing any traces of the serrations. The lambdoidal suture appears
to have become ossified at a later period, and is less completely obliterated than
the sagittal. The occipito-temporal sutures, which are generally the first to
ossify, are still open, as is also the coronal suture. Owing to this departure
from the usual order of ossification of the sutures, the lateral expansion of the
brain has been interfered with, and its antero-posterior or longitudinal develop-
ment greatly favored. The extreme elongation of the skull, therefore, is readily
accounted for. From the superior region the skull widens out towards the base
to such an extent that the intermastoid diameter or breadth at the base is some-
what greater than either the bi-temporal or vertical diameters. The mastoid
processes are very large. The upper half of the os occipitis is quite prominent,
and the conyexities indicating the position of the cerebellar fossee moderately
full and rounded. The alisphenoids curve backwards considerably between the
anterior, inferior angles of the parictals and the squamous edge of the temporal
bones. Their external surface is deeply concave, as is also that portion of the
os frontis lying directly behind the external angular process, and below the
temporal ridge. Hence the temporal fossee are unusually deep. ‘The super-
ciliary ridges are thick and protuberant, curving somewhat like the horns of a
goat, upwards and outwards from the glabella, of which they appear to be the
continuation, and completely overhanging the ossa nasi and the upper and inter-
nal angles of the orbits in such a manner as to coalesce with and obliterate the
inner half of the supra-orbital margins. Above these ridges the os frontis is
incurvated, but becomes somewhat more prominent again at a point just below
the middle of the frontal suture. The great prominence of the superciliary
ridges in this cranium is a notable feature, inasmuch as the American aboriginal
skull is characterized by the absence, rather than by the presence of these ridges.
I find, upon careful examination, that in the great majority of the American
Indian crania contained in the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences,
these ridges are wholly or almost entirely absent. They are moderately devel-
oped in the following specimens: Assinaboin, No. 659; Naas, No. 213; Klika-

tats, Nos. 203, 207, “461; Calapooyah, No. 574; Cherokees, Nos. 1 285, 1297 ;
Chetimache, No. 70; Chippewa, No. 683 ; Creeks, Nos. 441, 579, 1454, 204 ;
Hurons, Nos. 1217, 1218; Iroquois, Nos. 16, 989; Lenapés, Nos. 418, 1265;
Mandans, Nos. 740, 741, 742, 1220, 1222; Miami, No. 106; Mohawks, Nos.
895, 896; Narragansetts, Nos. 950, 954, 956, 1040; Naticks, Nos. 110, 116;
Osage, No. 54; Ottigamie, No. 415; Penobscot, No. 89; Pottawatomie, No.
Le Seminole, No. 732; Shoshoné, No. 1449; Euchee, No. 39; Oneida, No.

; Pocasset, No. 1036; Seneca, No. 1516; from the pues Nos. 53, 1270,
ie Inaya, No. 990; "Araucanians, Nos. 655, 997, 1242; Caribs, Nos. 638,
692); "Brazilians, } Nos. 1254, 1528; Peruvians, Nos. "67, 1279, 1282, 1363, 13,
77, 84, 85, 92, 409, 1456, 1461, 1462, 1465, 1470, 1472, 1473, 1481, 1482,
1499, 1500, 1504, 72, 996, 1413, 1416, 1417, 1426, 1427, 1432, 1440, 1442,
73, 449, 68, 91; Kahnica Mexican, No. 34; Otomie Mexicans, Nos. 1000,
1002; Pames Mexican, No. 681; Ancient Mexicans, Nos. 1314, 682, 234;
Lipans, Nos. 1345, 1346; Modern Mexicans, Nos. 1515, 555, 558.

414 ETHNOLOGY.

The superciliary ridges are more decidedly developed in the Lenapés, Nos.
135, 249; Mandans, Nos. 78, 563; Miami, No. 541; Mimetari, No. 749; Otoes,
Nos. 755, 756, 757; Ottawa, No. 1006; Ottigamie, Nos. 639, 694; Pottawa-
tomie, No. 657; Sauks, Nos. 561, 1246 ; Shawnees, Nos. 691, 1210; Shoshonés,
Nos. 1446, 1447, 1448; Upsarookas, Nos. 1228,1229 ; Winnebagoes, Nos. 559,
560; Yamassees, Nos. 1215, 1216; Apache, No. 935; from the mounds and
caves, Nos. 416, 1237, 1510, 436, 437, 653, 439, 440, 1287, 1288, 992, 1564,
1512; Kenawha, No. 212; Brazilian, No. 1529; Peruvians, Nos. 1365, 1366,
1367, 1368, 75, 95, 406, 697, 752, 1474, 1475, 1490, 1491, 1495, 1496, 1501,
1509, 1221, 1326, 1370, 1373, 1407, 1408, 1428, 1443, 1484, 412, 414, 452,
231; Mexicans, Nos. 714, 717, 718, 720.

The dimensions of the Smithsonian skull are exhibited in the following table:

Inches
Occipito-frontal ‘or lengitudimal (diameters-sb 2/2 2her 2/5.) '- | ESE oe 7b
Erontalidiameter: 22% AxS lw 58 le es ee eee aes 5 2s ee 32
Bittemiporal idiainetaros |} Asc. Ses ee PRs Gee eee oe hee ee 5s
Picpanietal diameters. o. SUR eck Eee er ieee pet eles ae 5
Posterior transverse diameter, (between the posterior, inferior angles of the
Pee baila) chs )etete Se eyes Cle ie te alae are eet) re pee 53
Wertiea! diameter é 2 joni a. she ead 1S ates See ee i ee 54
Intenmastoid diameters ave. ay. ae eerie rene aie ae eee Bee 53
ccimite-trontal arcsec! oe Sie eater atte ect e 143
TON GAL ANC et eek Sys ee IS SS OA fe a pee ee 114
Parietal arebunt 226 ee Pee oe ek Be eek’ asd ss tae ata eet een ee oe £2
Occipital arch 227228 sede oes Se eee eee eee 10
Hlonzontall peripleny2t) 2/25 =n ei e feet ere oe alien eae 20 2
Meato=frontad diamieter 212 esis Pee Sie ra a a ER 4).
Meatotparietal diameters saihid sews ec Ss A ane ieee ee 375
Meato-occipital (diameter sci. leo. Sal, ek MASE 2 4it

The region of country from which this cranium was obtained was occupied,
when first visited by the Jesuit missionaries in 1665, by the Sauks, Saukies, or
White Clay Indians; the Foxes, Ontagamies, or Ottigamies, or, as they called
themselves, Musquakkink, or Red Clay Indians; the Kickapoos, and the Illi-
nois—the latter comprising the Kaskaskias, Cahokias, amaronas, Peorias, and,
by confederation, though not by consanguinity, the Mitchigamias. ‘These western
tribes of the great Algonkin stock are represented in the academy’s collection
by three Sauk, four Ottigamie, and six Illinoiscrania. The Smithsonian cranium
bears no resemblance to the Sauk or Ottigamie skulls, nor to any of the Illinois
crania, except Nos. 1500 and 1511, which were taken from an ancient mound.
These two skulls are very much alike, and they resemble the Smithsonian head
in their oval form, in the flatness of the frontal bone, the prominence of the
superciliary ridges, and the depression above these ridges. There are two other
mound skulls in the academy’s collection, Nos. 1287 and 1288, which bear
some resemblance to the skull under notice. ‘hese were taken from an ancient
mound in Chillicothe, Ohio, by Dr. E. H. Davis and Mr. E. G. Squier. No.
1287 has a flat forehead and somewhat elevated superciliary ridges, and is
dolichocephalic and oval in form. No. 1288 is more like the Smithsonian speci-
men in its elongated and oval eorm, and in the prominence of the occiput ;
though the frontal bone is not so recedent, and the superciliary ridges much less
prominent. ‘The dolichocephalic Upsaroka skull, No. 1228, somewhat resembles
the Smithsonian specimen in the elevation of the superciliary ridges, and the flatness
of the frontal bone. Of all the American Indian crania, however, contained
in the museum of the academy, No. 744, which I have provisionally referred to
the Kootenays, approximates the Smithsonian specimen most closely in its
dolichocephalic, oval form, the flatness of the forehead and prominence of the

ETHNOLOGY. 415

superciliary ridges. No. 744, however, is less regularly and symmetrically oval,
projects more in the super-ccipital region, and has a more recedent forehead.
‘The superciliary ridges are equally prominent in both skulls, but in the Kootenay
head they do not coalesce with the supra-orbital margins, as is the case in the
Smithsonian skull. In the Kootenay cranium the supra-orbital margins are dis-
tinct and well defined throughout their whole course, from the internal to the
external angular processes. In the Smithsonian head, as we have just seen, the
inner half of these margins are so encroached upon by the superciliary ridges as
to be obliterated.

Bearing in mind the locality in which it was found, the skull under considera-
tion is so far unique in its ethnical character, that I do not feel authorized to
refer it to any of the aboriginal American cranial forms with which I am
acquainted. If the position in which it was discovered be any evidence of its
age, it belongs, in all probability, to an earlier inhabitant of the American con-
tinent than the present race of Indians. In the absence of a complete series of
American Indian crania, it is impossible to assign to this skull its proper ethnical
position.

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE COPTIC LANGUAGE.
By M. Kasis.

[ From the Transactions of the Eygptian Institute.
ygp

The Egyptians, when they adopted Christianity, substituted Greek letters for
the ancient hieroglyphics, and after that time used the language which the mod-
-erns designate as the Coptic, which prevailed over Upper and Lower Egypt until
the Arabic language, introduced with Mahomedanism, took its place. We shall,
further on, speak of the true etymology of the word Copt; but it will not be
out of the way here to show what were the motives and the historical cireum-
stances which led the Christians of Egypt to make this change.

We have to remark, then, that the graphic system of the ancient Egyptians
was so intimately connected with their religious system that it was scarcely pos-
sible for one of them in the time of the Pharaohs or of the Ptolemies to write
the smallest circumstance without mixing it up with the symbols of mythology
and of polytheism. The images of the gods and of the sacred animals formed
many of the characters employed in their writing; and an Egyptian could no
more avoid using them than we could write without our alphabet. Now, nothing
could be more at variance with the purity of the Christain religion, then newly
adopted by the Copts, and the piety of the worshipper than the profane hiero-
glyphic symbols. The early Christians of Egypt then found it to be absurd to
represent under the images of Ammon, or Ptah, or Osiris, the God of their faith,
whom they reverenced as a pure Spirit, separate from every sensible or material
form. Wishing, then, to disengage themselves as much as possible from the
ancient superstition, these disciples of St. Mark rejected the graphic system of
their ancestors, supplying its place with the Greek alphabet, to which they
added six purely Egyptian letters, to express sounds in their language, which
could not be represented by the Greek.

With the alphabet they also adopted a number of Greek words. That was
in the beginning a matter of necessity. They were not willing to express in
the equivocal terms of the ancient mythology the new ideas of Christianity.
But this necessity soon degenerated into an abuse, and Greek expressions
became the fashion. This was much more the case in Lower Egypt, on account
of the frequent intercourse between the Greeks of Alexandria and the inhabit-
auts of the delta, and for the same reason the dialect of Memphis is less pure
than that of Thebes. It must be remarked, also, that the introduced Greek

416 ETHNOLOGY.

words underwent no change from their original form. They may be recognized
at a glance, and do not in anywise alter the face of the Coptic language. This
is a simple and positive evidence that the language and literature of the Copts
are essentially Christian. Such manuscripts as have been published, or up to
this time examined by savants, prove that the language was cultivated only by
the monks, who during the early ages of Christianity dwelt in the deserts of
Egypt. These holy anchorites concerned themselves only with the exercises of
devotion. Abandoned to themselves, and separated from any intercourse with
the world, they divided their time between prayers, manual labor, reading the
Bible and the lives of other monks. The study of literature, science, history,
especially if it were pagan, had no interest for them. 'Their writing , then, could
treat only of religion and monkish institutions. I believe it would be difficult
to find among Coptic manuscripts any proper scientific compositions. The
Coptic language should not, however, lose its interest with savants. If the
anchorites of the Thebaid did not treat ex professo of historical events, their
writings could, notwithstanding, furnish mary historical data of precious value,
and illustrate many points w hich now embarrass the critic. For it is well known
that, since the time of Constantine, the history of Christianity and the church
is intimately connected with that of the people and the empire. The bishops
often shaped the decrees of the Ceesars, and the latter charged themselves with
executing the ordinances of the Pontiffs. The Coptic monks, then, when treat-
ing of the history of the church, can supply us with interesting documents
relating to the history of their age. They also occupied themselves frequently
in translating the works of the more celebrated Greek fathers, and we might
find intere sting treatises preserved in Coptic, of which the original Greek no
longer exists. I have myself seen such fragments in the library of the Vatican
at Rome, and executed a translation of them into Latin for the venerable Car-
dinal Mai, curator of that library. These are, however, not the only motives
to interest us in the Coptic; it has for us and all the learned world a very spe-
cial and supreme importance. The immortal Champollion the younger, when
seriously applying himself to study the famous inscription on the stone found at
Rosetta, during the French expedition in Egypt, succeeded, in 1822, in deci-
phering the hierogly phic symbols. ‘The interest excited in Europe by that dis-
covery is known to all, and the learned of all nations since have occupied them-
selves in perfecting this growing science. Now all the learned, as well as
Champollion the elder, have acknowledged that the Coptic language is no other
than that of the ancient Egyptian Pharaohs; that it is the key and the dic-
tionary of hieroglyphics; that without an available knowledge of it it would
be very difficult or well-nigh impossible to interpret them.

There would be a truly valuable service rendered to science if those who are
in position to do so would suggest to his highness the Viceroy Mahomet-Said to
assemble at the museum or at the Egyptian Institute, both of which do him so
much honor, a collection of Coptic manuscripts, which should be accessible to
students and the learned. In the Coptic convents there lie, enveloped in dust,
innumerable Coptic volumes ; no one there understands them, and the worms
only have the privilege of visiting, gnawing, and destroying them. 'To this
class of MSS. should be added a collection of Arabic authors, particularly of
the middle ages, which was the golden period for Arabic literature. * * *

If I have one wish which I should like tv see reciprocated in the breasts of
this assembly, it is that my colleagues should unite their efforts with mine to aid
in restoring the Coptic language to life here in its own native place. Our society
will fail in its mission if it shall neglect this duty. The Institute will no longer
be Egyptian if it fail to oceupy itself with the language of Egypt. Besides,
all the learned societies of Europe are impatient to see the results of our labors
upon ancient Egypt. Behold, then, how much is expected of this Institute!

NOTES ON THE “TONTO” APACHES.

BY CHARLES SMART, BREVET CAPTAIN AND ASSISTANT SURGEON U. S. ARMY,
FORT M’DOWELL, ARIZONA.

[A partial vocabulary of the language accompanied the original, which will appear elsewhere. ]

Tuey form a village or sub-tribe of the people known as Apaches. They
call themselves ‘“‘ Coyateros ;’’ Americans and Mexicans eall them ‘“ Tontos,”
applying the name “Coyatero Apaches” to a tribe dwelling in the mountains
southeast of this, beyond the Gila river.

About a year ago, that is previous to the arrival of the United States troops
in this part of the Territory of Arizona, these Indians dwelt in the neighbor-
hood of what is now the site of Fort McDowell, on the banks of the Verde or
San Francisco river, a few miles above its junction with the Salinas, Rio Salado,
or Salt river. The Verde at this point runs southward through a valley about
twenty miles broad, which is bounded on the east by the Mazatsal range of
mountains, and on the west by a chain of hills to which no name has been
applied. ‘The bottom lands are very narrow, not more than a half a mile broad
at their broadest part. The soil is sandy, but when irrigated is very fertile,
yielding large returns of corn, sorghum, beans, melons, &c. Cottonwood trees,
willows, and alder, line the banks in great luxuriance, and grape, melon, and
hop vines bind the whole, often into an impenetrable thicket.

From these low lands, extending outwards and gradually rising to the foot-
hills of the mountain ranges, is a dry rocky “mesa” very irregular in surface,
from the numberless deep ‘“ arroyos” which the autumn rains have washed out.
The “mesa” is more or less completely covered with sage brush, mesquite,
pilo verde, and a variety of individuals of the cactus family. Towards the
mountains grows the mescal, much used by the Indians as an article of food.
During the rainy months, July, August, and September, a light covering of
grass spreads over it, but throughout the greater part of the year it is bare
and garish—rocky on the ridges, sandy in the arroyos.

On the Mesa, more especially towards the mountains, deer are occasionally
met. Cayotes and rabbits are plentiful, of the latter two kinds—the cotton-tail and
Jackson rabbit; rats, gophers, and other rodents are equally numerous. Of
birds, quail exist in great abundance. Here the Indians say they were born
and grew up, living upon deer, rabbits, rats, mescal, mesquite beans, cactus
fruits, and a variety of nuts gathered on the mountains. ‘They were at constant
war with the Pininos, and made occasional plundering excursions to Sonora,
but on the establishment of Fort McDowell they retired to the eastern moun-
tains, taking up their abode in the caiions to the north and east of the Mazatsal

eaks. Of late their rancheria has so often been broken into by scouting parties
of the friendly Indians, that they do not seem to have established a permanent
settlement. But the permanent differs in nothing from the temporary hut, both
being simply a brush shanty, with a hole scooped in its floor by way of bed-
room.

In this sub-tribe, during the time it remained at the fort, I counted a hundred
and fifty warriors and forty women and children, but the majority of the women
and children, and probably a proportion of the warriors, did not leave the moun-
tains. They gave us to understand that there was sickness among the people
in the hills. ‘They stated that there were other villages of their people whom

27 3 67

418 NOTES ON THE “TONTO” APACHES.

they expected to arrive at the fort for the purpose of making peace, and that
together they numbered about two thousand (2,000.)

Their average height is about five feet four or five inches. They are slimly
built, and possess but little muscular development, yet they are very agile,
climbing the mountains with great rapidity, and running on more level ground
for many miles without any semblance of fatigue. The skin is of a light brown-
ish red color, so fair in many instances as to lead to the probably correct sup-
position that Spanish blood has been mixed with the Indian stock. 'The features
present nothing peculiar. They have generally the traits well marked of the
American Indian; some, however, have a full round face and Chinese cast of
countenance. ‘The head is covered with a mass of rusty black hair, cut off in
front on a level with the eye-brows, and permitted to grow a little longer behind,
but never reaching the shoulders; occasionally the hair is worn quite short, round
head cut. The beard, when any does grow, is dragged out hair by hair, by
means of an elongated piece of tin, formed into a forceps by being bent lengthwise
on itself, and which is usually carried suspended from the neck by a thong of buck-
skin.

They practice no such disfigurement as flattening the head, but among the
women were observed a few who had had the cartilaginous portion of the nose
cut off, thereby spoiling their good looks, for it was noticeable that only those
who had any pretensions to beauty had been so mutilated.

A scrofulous taint affects their system; this was more distinctly manifested
among the children; but of the adults many were suffering from strumous
ophthalmia or its consequences.

The dysentery, which at the time was severe on the troops stationed at the
fort, did not exempt the Indians from its attacks. One died from this disease
during their stay here, and many were said to be sick in the mountains.

With one exception they were not painted. The paint in the exceptional
case was of a grayish white color, and laid on in lines, narrow, closely set, and
wavy, transverse and parallel, covering the face, chest, and back. Their dress
cousists of the breech-cloth and a pair of buckskin moccasins. ‘The latter have
a stout hard sole, which curves upwards a little in front of the toes; poorer speci-
mens only cover the ankles, but others are so long that when drawn up they encase
the thighs. This, with a leather bracelet on one wrist and a bow and quiver
of arrows, forms the general outfit. But others are more completely equipped,
wearing a buckskin thrown over one shoulder and fastened in the opposite arm-
pit, and perhaps possessing a waist-belt of leather and an old sheath-knife, the
product probably of some Sonora enterprise.

Some of them carried a straight stick about five feet long, curved into a hook
at one end, like the handle of a walking-stick. This they call kish-ish-ai, and
use it in hooking down the fruit leguara and in tearing up the earth when
breaking inte a rat or rabbit hole. They possessed also about half a dozen
lances, formed of a long knife or bayonet socketed into the end of a long pole.
The bow is a stout piece of tough wood obtained from a tree stated by those
who have seen it to bear some resemblance to the mulberry. It is about five
feet long, strengthened at points by a wrapping of sinew. It is straight along
the greater part of its length, but curves lightly towards its extremities, which
are joined by a sinew string stranded and rolled into a perfect round. Their
arrows from notch to point are three feet long. They are formed of a cane
which grows in the mountains in the neighborhood of springs and water-courses.
Tor a distance of six or seven inches from the notch the cane is winged with
four strips of feather, held in place by threads of sinew. Into the hollow of its
other extremity is inserted a slender piece of stiff wood, which is colored, as if
with the blood of some animal, and which bears on its free end an elongated
triangular piece of quartz, flint, or rarely iron. This arrow-head is sharp at the
point and slightly serrated along the margin. In some the slender cylinder of

A

NOTES ON THE -TONTO” APACHES 4ly

wood bearing the arrow-head is inserted firmly into the cane and withed in that
position, while a the others the attachment between the two is so slight as to
admit of being severed by very gentle traction. None wore any covering for
the head with the exception of the chief, whose crown consisted of a closely
fitting skull-cap of skin, unadorned behind, but covered in front with feathers
and many spangles of brass and tin. He also possessed a doublet of prepared
buckskin, brownish red in color, with some blue linen markings on it. They
were very eager to obtain cast-off clothing from the troops; and their requests
for tobacco were constant. The latter they manufactured into cigaritas, although
they had no objection to a pipe when offered.

The only methods of communication between distant parts of the country
(excluding the messenger of course) which I knew them to employ are fire by
night and smokes during the daytime.

I saw no earthenware vessels among them; the utensils employed in the
preparation of food being shallow basins of closely netted straw. They carried
water in pitchers of the same material, but they were matted all over with a pitch,
which communicated its flavor to the contents.

They are not bold in their manner of carrying on a war, attacking only when
their numbers, and a well-laid ambush, promise a certainty of success. They
seldom scalp, but very frequently mutilate otherwise the bodies of their slain
enemies.

In disposition they seem to be light-hearted, but subject to sudden fits of
suspicion and timidity, which is perhaps sufficiently accounted for by the active
campaign of late kept up against them by our Indian allies, and the circumstance
of living for the first time in the neighborhood, and in a great measure in the
power, of the whites. Very frequently after having spent the evening in dance
and song, during the night they would become suspicious of something and take
to the mountains, returning only after some days, and in small parties at a time.
The dance is similar to that of the California Indians; a stamp around, with
clapping of hands and slapping of thighs in time to a drawl of monotones.

The only act of a religious character which I observed, took place during our
first interview with them. The old squaw, who was the first to venture into the
fort, intimated, through a Maricopa who possessed a smattering of Apache, that
her people wanted peace, but being afraid to come among the whites, prayed
them to come to the mountains to hold a council. Some four or five officers
accompanied her. Shortly after crossing the river they were met by a small
party of the Indians, one of whom chalked a cross on the breast of each, with a
yellow earth, which he carried in a satchel at his belt. Previous to doing so he
muttered some words very solemnly with his hand uplifted and eyes thrown
upwards. Again, on arriving at the camp of the people, the chief and others in
greeting them took a similar vow, touching thereafter the yellow chalked cross.
Sonora may have furnished them with some of their notions of a Deity.

The peace negotiations fell to the ground, inasmuch as the other villages
of the tribe, not having been so great sufferers from the war as this one, refused
to join it in its propositions.

CHARLES SMART,
Brevet Captain and Assistant Surgeon U. S. Army.

Fort McDowELut, ARIZONA,
September 13, 1866.

REPORT OF EXPLORATIONS IN CENTRAL AMERICA.

By Dr. C. H. BERENDT.

New Yorxr, December 24, 1867.

Although my labors in exploring the northern part of Guatemala and south-
eastern Mexico are not finished, and though I intend to return to the work after
a short visit to the United States, I deem it my duty to lay before you a report
of the results which have thus far been obtained under the auspices of the
Smithsonian Institution.

Having occupied myself in former travels and during several years of resi-
dence in ‘Tabasco with researches relative to the geographical and ethnological
features of this almost unknown part of America, I resolved to complete my
observations by a visit to the belt extending from the Caribbean sea through
Belize, Peten, and Chiapas to the F cific ocean. ‘This region, scarcely ever
visited by modern wavellers, presents objects of high interest in all branches of
ethnology and natural history as an important centre of ancient civilization and
a region abounding in the productions of both the vegetable and animal king-
doms. 'The Institution furnished the instruments for meteorological observations
and part of the ontfit required for collecting specimens of natural history. It
also procured letters of recommendation from the diplomatic agents of England,
Guatemala and Honduras to the governments and local authorities of the dif
ferent districts to be visited, and secured the co-operation of several learned
societies and private gentlemen interested in pursuits of this character, in con-
tributing to the expenses of the expedition, with a view to obtain a share of the
specimens collected.

T left the United States in the bark Pallas the 2d day of December, 1865,
and arrived in Belize the 21st of the same month. My letters of ‘introduction
procured me a very friendly reception from the governor of the colony. He
introduced me to all the prominent officials and leading merchants, from whom I
could obtain the necessary information as to topography and resources of the
country, and in particular of that almost uninhabited region through which I
had to pass on my way to Peten. The crown engineer, Mr. Faber, and two
civil engineers kindly communicated to me what they knew relative to the regions
which had been surveyed or visited by them, and I was permitted to copy a
number of ancient and modern manuscript maps of the colony. With the chief
magistrate of the police court, Judge $. Cockburn, a member and meteorologi-
cal correspondent of the Royal Astronomical Society of London, I arranged
cotemporaneous observations for the purpose of computing with more accuracy
the absolute height of the principal points included in my tour. I found in
the possession of Mr. Parson, an American merchant, a valuable collection of
specimens of natural history, and was so fortunate as to secure it for the Smith-
sonian previous to the death of Mr. Parson, which took place a few months
afterwards. I also made a very agreeable and useful acquaintance in the per-
son of the Rev. Alexander Henderson, a distinguished linguist,* whom I found

* The Rev. A. Henderson, Baptist missionary in Belize since the year 1234, has written a
grammar of the Moskito language, printed in New York in 1846; a Gospel by Luke and a
vocabulary, MSS. ; the Gospel according to Matthew, in the Caribbean language of Hon-
duras, printed Edinburgh, 1847; a grammar and enlarged vocabulary of the same, MSS.,
since 1855 in the hands of the Ethnological Society, London; a translation into English of
Beltran’s Arte de el Idioma Maya; a translation into Maya of the book of Genesis and the
book of Psalms, MSS.; a Maya primer, printed in Birmingham, 1863, and two tracts in the
same language, published by the American Tract Society.

REPORT OF EXPLORATIONS IN CENTRAL AMERICA. 421

occupied with a dictionary of the Maya language, giving the dialect actually
spoken in the district of Bacalar, Yucatan, and in some recent settlements of
Yucatan Indians in the territory of the colony. Having been engaged myself
for a number of years in the work of reproducing from old and rare manuscripts
the Maya language as spoken and written in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
turies, I derived both information and pleasure from the intercourse with this
learned missionary. 'The collections of specimens of natural history made in
and near Belize consisted almost exclusively of birds, shot and prepared by my
assistant, and have been forwarded to the Smithsonian Institution. Uniortu-
nately circumstances beyond my control obliged me to part in Belize with this
assistant, very much to my regret, as his dexter ity and expediency in skinning
and preserving specimens would have added a far greater value to the collections
subsequently made. Another unlucky accident was the loss of a trunk con-
taining a number of instruments belonging to the Institution and myself, and
several articles of travelling apparel, s stolen from the loaded boat in the night
before my intended departure from Belize, during a temporary absence of the
watchman. Part of the most necessary implements was within a few months
kindly replaced by the Institution.

After having lost a few days in fruitless endeavors to recover the stolen prop-
erty, of w hich no traces have as yet been found, I left Belize the 12th of January,
1866, pursuing the course of the Belize river upwards as far as it is navigable
for larger canoes, and reached, after eleven travelling and two resting days, San
Pedro Buenavista, the farm of a mestizo from Yucatan, on the western branch
of the Belize river, a few miles above its confluence with the southern branch,
or Rio Macal. The Belize river has its head-waters in the wide plains limited
to the north by the Chaltuna, or Peten lake, and to the south by the Passion
river, (Rio de la Pasion.) The country through which it winds to the coast is
alluvial, with sandy tracts between the tributary rivers and the main channel
called pine ridges. Specimens were collected from three species of pines and of
two oaks, which are almost the solitary vegetable production of these sandy plains;
and also, among a few other birds, a woodpecker which, like the Melanerpes ormi-
cworus, in California, preserves acorns in neat round excavations pecked into
the soft barks of the pines. This is for the purpose of feeding on the worms
which soon appear within the nuts, leaving the trunks of the pine trees perforated
with many holes resembling those produced by musket balls. Rocky ridges
of a calcareous stone intersect now and then the course of the river, causing a
niumber of rapids, of which, in time of high water, the passage is rather dangerous.
Little could be done during the boat voyage besides a careful rectification of
the river’s course in the maps, and the entering in their proper places of names
of existing settlements along the river banks. While on the Rio Hondo and
Rio Nuevo, as well as on the coast of the British colony, a number of well-con-
ducted agricultural settlements exist, there are on the Belize river only wood-
cutting establishments belonging to merchants in Belize. 'These are either
being actually worked under the direction of a foreman, (usually a mulatto,) or
abandoned, the buildings being occupied by negroes, w ha make a scanty living
cutting logw ood on their own account, which they sell in Belize, bringing back
brandy and dry provisions, their only food, as they are too indolent to plant
any thing i in the fertile grounds ar ound their decaying huts. Only where Yucatan
Indians have settled among them, a cornfield, a banana plantation, or fruit-trees
are to be found. Whenever it was possible to make short excursions without
too much delaying my voyage, I examined the country along the river. Some
specimens of petrifactions from the calcareous ridges, when ‘broken by the cur-
reut of rivulets, were procured; also a number of land and fresh water shells,
and some birds, When no convenient settlement of Belize merchants or Indian
houses could be reached, we were wont to camp in the forest, using the leaves
of the corossa or cahoon palm for shelter and protection.

422 REPORT OF EXPLORATIONS IN CENTRAL AMERICA

In San Pedro Buenavista I found waiting for me mules and muleteers, which
the corregidor of Peten had sent on at my request. For the transportation of
smaller articles I had counted upon Indian carriers from the villages near this
place, who generally serve in that capacity in the trade between Belize and
Peten. But the recently received news of a revolution which had broken out
in Peten made those Indians unwilling to go to that place, and I was obliged
to stop in San Pedro until messengers, sent through the wilderness, could pro-
cure from the corregidor of Peten the necessary number of carriers. More than
a month passed before they arrived, a month lost for explorations, as the neces-
sary vigilance over my baggage in an unclosed hut, among thieving negroes,
forbade my being absent from the place. Some few reptiles, fishes, coleoptera,
and molluses were, however, collected. The villages in the neighborhood of
this farm are of late origin, peopled by Indians from Yucatan, almost every one
of them formerly engaged in the war of races which for the last twenty years
has desolated that unhappy country. From my host, who kept some merchan-
dise for trading with them, and who employed some of their men as laborers on
his farm, I had opportunity to become acquainted with many of them, and
obtained interesting information as to their social and political condition. They
are by no means hostile to the white man in general; their hatred is directed
against the Mexican and Spaniard only, while they are friendly to other foreign-
ers, and are remarkably frank and outspoken with such strangers as speak their
language and know how to gain their confidence. ‘The insurrection of the Yuca-
tan Indians broke out in 1847, and spread in the following year almost over the
whole peninsula, approaching as near as sixteen miles to Merida and three to
Campeche. A Catholic priest, sent as commissioner by the Meriden government
among the insurgents, caused a division among them which still continues.
Those of the south and east, known by the whites of Yucatan as the Huithes,*
but who call themselves Cruzoob,t or Cruzes, have continued an uninterrupted
war against the Meriden government, while those of the west have remained in
peace with the whites, and even acknowledged a certain dependency on the gov-
ernment of Campeche. They are called Pacific Indians. In the year 1857 the
Cruzes invaded the Pacific Indians of the district of Chichanja. Since that time
the Pacific Indians of that disiict have settled in the formerly uninhabited mon-
tana (forest-plains) around the frontier between Yucatan, Peten, and Belize, and
their number has been increased by numerous deserters from the ranks of the
Cruzes. They all, threatened by their common enemy, the Cruzes, retain cer-
tain connections with each other, although those on Belize or Peten territory
have formed villages under the authority of the English and Guatemalean goy-
ernments, while those in Yucatan and in the region of doubtful pertinency t
remain subject to the chiefs of the Pacific Indians. To those who only know
about the insurgent and independent Maya Indians from the reports of their bar-
barous warfare against the whites of Yucatan, it is highly surprising to see these
ferocious warriors organizing themselves without any external influence as quiet
settlers, laborious and orderly, submitting to their self-elected local authorities,

* Hu th is the breech-cloth.

+ Ths Spanish word cruz (cross) with the Maya plural termination 0ob. They worship
the cross, in whose name the Tat-ich (their head chiet) and twelve governors (military chiefs,
priests, and counsellors) govern.

t TLo limits between these three countries are most uncertain. A decree of the Spanish
government fixed in 1787 the boundary line between the intendencies of Yucatan and Gua-
temalz: on the parallel 17° 49’ north latitude, but it has never been ascertained where this
parallel runs. A treaty between England and Guatemala has adjusted a boundary line
between the colony and the republic, running from Gracias a Dios on the Sarstoon river
to Garbutt falls on the Belize river, and hence northwards. The map of the colony (pub-
lished s. @. et a. but London, 1864) runs it to the 18th degree, iuto the undoubted territory
of Yucatan. The actual jurisdiction of Peten compriscs all the villages on and near the road
from etan to Yucatan, up to Becanchop, ten miles north from Nojbecan, near the 20th
decree, while the country to both sides is subject to Mexico, and the census of the State of

Campeche (1861) includes all these villages into its territory

REPORT OF EXPLORATIONS IN CENTRAL AMERICA. 423

honest in their dealings, rigorous against criminals among them, and by far the
‘best class of people in either the British colony or Peten. They are Catholics,
and are proud to show their abomination of the heathen worship of the Cruzes.
I have been shown a long memorial, written in the Maya language, containing
numerous letters, orders, proclamations, ete. It states their motives why they
separated from the Cruzes, the principal and repeatedly asserted reason being—
“We are a Christian people.” As to the number of these Indians, the most
discordant opinions exist. According to such Belize and frontier traders as are
the best judges, the Cruzes do not number less than 10,000 and probably not
more than 15, 000 warriors, and of these half their number only are married.
Estimating a family to consist of five souls only on an average, would give for
their whole number about forty thousand; and the number of the Pacific Indians
is considered but little less. Both together occupy about one thousand square
miles.

The main road from the last settlements on the Belize river to Peten leads
through immense forests, with very few and inconsiderable elevations of the
eround. The Sierra de Yucatan, which in our maps diversifies this region, does
not exist. ‘The general direction of the road is from east to west. At distances
trom 10 tol5 miles, in places where water, food for mules, and palms for camp
building are near at hand, the usual resting places of travellers are situated. We
left the main road at one of these places called San Clemente for another shorter
road recently opened by the Corregidor of Peten for my convenience. It led to
the village of Macanché, on the lake of the same name, and thence to Remate,
a deserted hamlet on the eastern end of the northern portion of the Chaltuna, or
Peten lake. This lake, it is well known, has almost the shape of a horseshoe.
Here we found canoes from Peten awaiting our arrival, and were paddled by
our carriers in twelve hours along the nor thern eurve of the lake and round the
point of Nima to the city of Flores. This is situated on the rocky island of
Remedios, in the entrance of the southern portion of the lake, and not more than
a mile distant from the southern shore. ‘Che valley or depression occupied by
this lake and two smaller ones is surrounded on all sides but the southeastern
by chains of calcareous hills from 200 to 500 feet high, covered with stately for-
ests. A peninsula which, ranning from east to west, ‘divides the northern section
of the lake from the southern, i is studded with low hills, many of them being
artificial mounds upon which are scattered the dilapidated remnants of ancient
buildings.

The department of Peten, the largest of the seventeen into which the republic
of Guatemala is divided, covers the immense area of from 4,000 to 5,000 square
miles, with about 8,000 inhabitants. They live chiefly in the villages in the
savanna region to the south and northwestern shore of the lake. The « country 1n
its general “character is flat, covered with immense forests, and watered by the
numerous rivulets which constitute the head waters of the Belize river, the Rio de
la Pasion, and the Rio de San Pedro. The Rio de la Pasion divides, i in its west-
ern course, the departments of Peten and Verapaz, receives the Lacantun river from
the mountainous department of 'Totonicapam, and, breaking through the chain of
mountains on the frontier of Tabasco, emerges into that Mexican state called there
Usumacinta. Near the Passion river the land is low, full of swamps and lakes,
and subject to annual inundations. ‘The climate is warm but mild, with remark-
ably small daily or annual changes of the thermometer, which ordinarily ranges
between 70° and 80°; the lowest and highest Sbsenaiene during more than a
year were 62° and 89°. The rainy and dry seasons are the same as in Yucatan
and Tabasco, and the season of north winds is here, as also in the interior of
these states, marked by mist and drizzly rains. The country is one of the
healthiest in the tropics, and the average duration of life longer than in most other
countries of the same latitude. The prevailing diseases are intermittent and
remittent fevers throughout the year, and dysenteria in summer, but of a mild

424 REPORT OF EXPLORATIONS IN CENTRAL AMERICA.

character. The yellow-fever has never apppeared, though the cholera has made
great havoc among the Peteneros.

The inhabited part of Peten is separated by wide deserts from all the sur-
rounding countries. ‘The traveller is obliged to journey, in going to Yucatan,
nine days, to Verapaz and Guatemala eight days, (in bad w eather eleven,) and
to Tobasco and Belize six days, through an uninhabited countr y. The Spanish
settlement in this region, after the conquest of the Itzas in 1697, was for half a

century only a militar y outpost with a small garrison from Guatemala: After-
wards it was used by.the government of that dependency as a criminal colony,
(presidio.) The offspring of the prisoners, of their keepers, and of the natives,
with some admixture of negro fugitives from the coast, together with the rests of
the Lacandon tribe on the Passion river and the immigrated Maya Indians of the
montana, form the actual population of the department. In their isolated situa-
tion and at a distance of about 270 miles from the city of Guatemala, they neces-
sarily have remained in a yather primitive state. The ladinos, or so- called whites,
(though with a good deal of mixed blood,) form a kind of patriarchal aristoc-
racy. The {ndians and negroes are the field-hands and house-servants of the
whites, under the system of peonage, as in some parts of Mexico and Central
America, @hliged to serve the master to whom they are indebted until their
debt is pe‘d. Others live free in the villages, subject to the local authorities
appointed by the government. ‘The corregidor is at the same time civil gover-
nor, military chief, judge, revenue collector, and postmaster. Ecelesiastically
subject to the bishop of Guatemala, a vicar and two curates are assigned for the
spiritus! administration of the whole department. The raising of cattle and
horses is almost exclusively the business of the country; oxen, horses, hides,
moccssins for the negroes of the British colony, a little coffee, wild cocoa, India-
rubber, and kala (the palm leaves of which the so-called Panama hats are made)
are their only articles of exportation. The returns consist in cheap merchandise,
drv goods, hardware, ete., imported from Belize. Such is the state of agriculture
that in the richest soil there is scarcely produced the necessary quantity ‘of Indian
cern beans, sugar-cane, tobacco and Sisal hemp for their own consumption.
All the land belongs to. the government, but is free for the use of every one.
Schools exist nominally in the city and ‘Targer villages, but they are for the
greater part of the year closed on account of the want of funds. There xs little
division of labor; every one builds his own house, raises his own corn, and, if
he has the aye Gs some cattle, hogs, and chickens. Every one is by turns
butcher or baker, and sells meat or bread, (the latter only in the vity,) and makes
his own soap and candles. Almost all make moceasins, and a few industrious
persons occupy themselves, besides raising their corn, as carpenters, tailors, and
silversmiths. No store, no physician, no apothecary is to be found in the coun-
try. ‘The people, poorly educated, unrestrained, and with but few necessities,
lead a lazy and sensual life, much given to gambling and intoxication, and join-
ing now and then in a petty conspiracy, or even in an open revolt. On the
other hand they are good-natured, kind and hospitable; crimes against persons
or property are of rare occurrence. In their social intercourse they exhibit the
mild and polite manners characteristic of the Spanish-American, and in their
external behavior they are far above the same classes in more civilized countries
of America and Europe.

The city of Flores during the last 15 years has been reduced to half its for-
mer size by a continuous rising of the lake in the midst of which it is situated.
This is occasioned, it is supposed, by the stoppage of a subterranean outlet. It
has now about 900 inhabitants, who live, crowded together, in miserable huts
built of sticks covered with mud and roofed with palm leaves. ‘The connection
with their fields and stock, which are on the main land, is effected by frail canoes,
and is often altogether interrupted when a northern wind strongly agitates the
waters of the | ke. I found here, as everywhere in the country, the most friendly
reception, thanks to the special orders of the government in my behalf and to the

REPORT OF EXPLORATIONS IN CENTRAL AMERICA. 425

natural kindness and hospitality of the people. During a month which Iremained
on the island, I made some excursions on the lake and to the mainland, collect-
ing sp ecimens and exa mining some points of special interest to archeology.
The difficulty of movements from this place, however, decided me to choose another
centre for my further explorations, and I changed io the village Sacluk, about
20 miles to the southwest of Flores, situated in the savanna region, half way
between the lake and the Passion river. ‘The prairie lands, border ed at the north
by the forest hills surrounding the Chaltun4 lake, and to the south and west by
the woods along the Passion river and its tributaries, are of a peculiar formation.
An alluvium of red clay,* covered with. a stratum of humus form three to eight
inches thick, on which graminez of great variety and only a few species of small
trees grow, 1s intersected by numerous groups and chains of low conical hills
from 30 to 120 feet high, formed by large calcareous rocks (some with caves) and
boulders. In the norther n part these hills are covered with wood and forest trees;
in the southern part they are, like the plain, covered only with grass and small
prairie herbs. ‘The country, divided into numberless smaller and lar eer valleys,
many of them adorned with lakes, around which the cattle feed, forms 2 beauti-
fully varied and picturesque landscape. Irom this point I made numerous excur-
sions in all directions; I surveyed part of the Rio de la Pasion and a number of
its tributary rivers and lagoons, all of them located erroneously and with false
names in the existing maps, thus collecting the material for the completion of a
map of southeastern ‘Mexico, which has occupied my leisure hours during a num-
ber of years. Among the Peten Indians and the Lacandones of the Passion
river, who both speak dialects of the Maya language, I found favorable oppor-
tunity to continue my ethnological and lineuistical studies, and was enabled also,
by occasional meetings with Indians from Gaueinan and Caban, to add the Quecchi
to my collection of vocabularies of languages belonging to the region between
the isthmus of Tehuantepec and the other of Honduras.

Of all the Indians of this part of Central America none are of so great interest
as the Lacandones. Once a numerous and powerful nation, which, united with
the Manchés and Acalanes, (both now extinct,) gave so much trouble to the con-
querors, and, in fact, have never been fully subjugated, they are reduced to-day
to a very insignificant number, living on and near the Passion river and its tribu-
taries. Some old authors distinenish the eastern from the western Lacandones,
and it seems that they were, in fact, as well as those of the west, of different
tribes, living on the borders of the Mexican state of Chiapas, speaking a differ-
ent language, called Putwm or Chol, which belongs to the family of languages
connected with the Maya. To these western Lacandones are referred the stories
of a large inaccessible city mentioned by Stephens. ‘They live far from the set-
tlements of the whites and do not trade with them, nor do they entertain any
relations with the eastern Lacandones, who fear and avoid them. ‘The eastern
Lacandones are a harmless tribe, who live in small palm huts, consisting of lit-
tle more than a roof, and grouped into little hamlets of a few families, often
changing their locality. ‘They cultivate the field, plant fruit-trees, sugar-cane,
and Sisal hemp; search the woods for wild cocoa, beeswax, honey, and other
products of the forest; hunt with bows and stone-headed arrows, and navigate,
by means of their small canoes, the lagoons and rivers from which they obtain
plenty of fish and turtles. Although occasionally baptized by Catholic mission-
aries and fond of saying their prayers, they still adhere to their old heathen wor-
ship, and indulge in polygamy : keeping as many wives as they are able to pur-
chase or to steal. They visit the villages of the whites and settled Indians to
sell their produce. Having adopted a little orphan boy of this tribe, and speak-
img their language, I soon won their friendship. They have, in my excursions
on the water and in the woods, been of the greatest utility to me, as also to the

* On occasion of the excavation of a well in Sacluk I saw the clay reaching a depth of
50 feet, mtersected at about 30 feet from the surface by a small layer of pebbles.

426 REPORT OF EXPLORATIONS IN CENTRAL AMERICA

corregidor, who, with their assistance, has found a new route through the unknown
wilderness to Verapaz and Guatemala, which was long in vain searched for, and
which reduces the distance to less than one-half of that usually travelled.

In the month of October, 1866, I was planning my departure from Peten fur-
ther west, and had ordered the required remittances from Belize, my base of sup-
plies, when troubles among the Indians in the British colony arose and changed
all my plans. One of the many blunders of the unhappy Emperor Maximilian,
who, with the best intentions, knew too little of the country which he thought so
easy to reform, and who was especially unlucky in the choice of his employé és,
was a proclamation to the Cruzes, inviting them to a full amnesty, but threatening
to destroy the very last of them if they w vould not submit to his fatherly entreaty.
The Cruzes were at that time in greater part tired of the war, and, undisturbed
by the whites, had ¢ommenced to remain quietly in their districts. The menace
stirred them up again, and they armed themselves for resistance with the war
implements and supplies which they could readily obtain from the English tra-
ders. Maximilian’s troops finally did not succeed in their operations ag: ainst them,
but had to retreat after a fruitless campaign, much reduced in numbers , though
consoling themselves with boastful reports of sham victories. ‘The Pacific Tndiang,
seeing the Cruzes again on the war-path, and fearing a long-threatened attack
of their old enemies, armed also. One of their militar Vv chiefs got into difficul-
ties with the Belize wood-cutters, on account of abuses committed by the English
against the Pacifie Indians in the colony, and also within the territory of the inde-
pendent Indians. An insurrection of the Belize Indians followed, in consequence
of which all wooed-cutting establishments in the colony were abandoned, and all
communication between Belize and Peten cut off. The English, after two result-
less campaigns, succeeded in setting the Cruzes against their enemies, and a gen-
eral sts ampede of the Indians of the montaiia was the consequence. ‘These move-
ments caused a frightful panic among the people of Peten, who are not much
given to fighting and always afraid of one or the other invasion of their country,
which they i imavine to be superior to any, and coveted by all other nations. Fugi-
tives from the colony and immigrants from the montaiia kept us posted on all
occurring events. I learned that part of my supplies, despatched from Belize
before the outbreak, had been stored in some hut on the Belize river and had disap-
peared. Month after month I waited in vain for an opportunity to communicate
with Belize, and atl efforts to establish a correspondence with the Gulf coast were
fruitless. I resolved to go myself to Tabasco and to put myself again in com-
munication with the United States and Europe. In the excited state of the coun-
try, where every day an invasion by the much-feared Indians was expected, I
could find neither carriers, mules, nor drivers to move my baggage and collections.
I considered myself happy to wet away with my manuseripts and with the indis-
pensable provisions for a travel through the wilderness, and left Sacluk in April,
1867, for Tenosique and San Juan Bautista, the capital of Tabasco. From this
place I despatched my correspondence. A seqarn to Peten during the rainy sea-
son being out of question, I used the time which was to pass before answers could
arrive for a revision and completion of my former surveys of the Usumacinta,
its branches and tributaries, and followed its course upwards 164 miles above
Tenosique, to the so-called “Large cataract,’ which, however, at that time, with
high water, appeared only as a rapid with about three fect fall within a distance of
some 20 yards. Above this place the course of the river is entirely unknown in
a distance which I estimate between 50 and 70 miles. On my return I visited
the ruins of Palenque, and during the trip was enabled to complete a map of the
department, and to collect vocabularies of the Putum and Tzental languages, both
spoken in Chiapas, and of the Chontal of Tabasco.

I was thus occupied when private business rendered a visit to the United
States of importance to my personal interests; but, having concluded it, I am
now about to return to the same field to finish my interrupted explorations, and
to bring home the collections from Peten.

NOTES OF AN EGGING EXPEDITION TO SHOAL LAKE, WEST OF LAKE
WINNIPEG.

MADE UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1867,
By DonaLp GuNN, RED RIVER SETTLEMENT.

On the 6th of June, 1867, I had all things ready for commencing my hunting
excursion to the lake; but, to my chagrin, the rain fell in torrents on the 7th
Sth, and 9th, which prevented our setting out till the morning of the 10th, when
the rain had ‘moderated ; and about 7 o’clock a. m. I left home, accompanied by
two men, two oxen in two carts, carrying a birch-bark canoe and our baggage.
We plodded on through “mud and mire,” travelling very slowly a distance of

15 miles on the public road to the Frog plain, where we turned off to the plains,
taking the road leading to Shoal lake, in a northwest direction. Soon after we
entered on the plain we halted to allow our animals to feed and to refresh our-
selves. While here we were joined by an Indian, his squaw, and their son.
These people had been to the settlement with their spring trade. They had two
carts, and were taking back, in exchange for their furs, flour, clothing, and ammu-
nition. This Indian resides in a house at Oak Point, and is reputed the best
hunter in that district, which fact accounts satisfactorily for his comparative
wealth. After a short stay we resumed our journey, which was continued until
dark, making a distance of six miles from the settlement. We camped on the
plain, and, after the usual preliminaries of cooking and supping, laid down to rest
under a cloudless sky, and slept soundly until sunrise of a clear day.

The unburnt portions of our last night’s fuel were quickly gathered together
and ignited, water drawn from the ne: arest pool, boiled, a liberal quantity of tea
thrown into it, boiled again for a few minutes, then allowed a short time to cool,
when we all aa down and despatched our mor ning meal with great zest ; attached
our cattie to the carts, and were on our journey hefore the sun was a span high.
The road led us over a beautiful, dry, level plain, a distance of six or seven miles,
at the end of which we came to a ridge of elevated land composed of limestone,
gravel, and granite boulders. ‘This ridge is well wooded with poplars, and is a
continuation of the Grand Coteau at Long lake. Back of the Assiniboine its
course is from northeast to southwest. It appears to have been the border of,
or an elevation in, some ancient lake in ages long gone by. Lake Winnipeg
might have flowed round it or washed its southeastern face. — It extends eight or
10 miles in breadth. The declivity on the northwest side is gradual but per-
ceptible, and ends at what is called the Big swamp, where we arrived at noon.
Here we overtook our companions of last night, and a heroic dame from Oak
Point, who left her home a few days betore tor Red river, and was now on her
way back with two cart loads of pine boards and planks. She has a consider-
able portion of white blood, yet exhibits all the hardihood of the squaw, and
can, with wonderful dexterity; avail herself of all the resources of the forest and
the lake. Here she made a few snares, chased the rabbits into them, and in a
very short space of time had a number of them boiling and roasting, and after
hunting, cooking, and eating her dinner, was ready to start as soon as any of us.

After a stay of two hours we pr oceeded on the road leading over a flat, rich soil,
composed of black, vegetable mold on a sub-soil of clay, and winding through
hundreds of young poplars, tall and slender, but, so far as we could see, untit

428 NOTES OF AN EGGING EXPEDITION TO SHOAL LAKE.

for building purposes. On the right the forest extends to Lake Winnipeg, near
which pine and tamarack abound, which, at some future period, will be used for
building materials in this region. About 5 o’clock we arrived at the ridge;
unyoking our cattle we gave them some time to drink and feed. In a very
short time two or three fires were blazing and several of our party were run:
ning with their tin kettles to bring water, which was soon converted into tea;
after which we sat down in groups to enjoy this evening meal without the luxury
of plates, knives, or forks » Ke. ; ; some, for the former, using a few poplar leaves;
others a bunch of green eras + and for knives and forks their tecth and fingers.
After eating, pipes were called into operation, and after smoking, stretching, and
rolling, we, by mutual consent, harnessed our cattle and left this delightful place.
This ridge runs parallel with the other , and is composed of similar materials—

abrupt on the southeast side, but, once on the summit, the declivity towards Shoal
lake is imperceptible. A short time before sunset we sighted and were soon
after travelling along this irregular sheet of water, neither fresh nor salt, but
containing enough of the latter ingredient to render its water very bitter and
unpalatable. As we passed along the lake, I observed a stone pillar, or cairn,
formed of small granite boulders ‘throw n loosely together, and on inquiry of my
companions from the lake “ What mean ye by these stones?” I was informed
here, in 1843, in passing from Red river to Manitowaba to establish a mission
amoung the natives, the Rev. Abraham Cowley and party passed their first Sab-
bath in the w ilderness, and that these stones were set up to commemorate the
sermon preached on the occasion. We continued our journey some time after
sunset, and finally encamped for the night where we had plenty of wood and
good water. On the morning of the 12th we left camp about sunrise, continuing
our journey along the lake, intending to pass round to the north of that part of
it along which we were travelling, then turn to the south through the point oppo-
site where we w ere, and at a distance of five or six miles from us, to a rather
deep bay in that point, it being the only place where we found the orebes i in any
considerable number when I was there in 1865. That year we encamped on a
point running into the lake from the south and at some distance to the west of
the narrows. We had to find our way to the breeding places, which consumed
some time, and proved inconvenient on account of its distance from where cir-
cumstances compelled us to stop with our carts and oxen. Moreover, on account
of a great storm of south wind that sprang up and continued for 48 hours, we
were prevented returning to camp with the products of our hunt until both birds
and eggs were beginning to spoil, and adding considerably to the distance in
going 40 Manitowaba lake. 'T'o avoid these inconveniences I intended, as stated
above, to follow the west side of the lake, turn round the north end of that bay, or
arm of it, and then proceed south to the bay where we formerly made our hunt.
On inquiring of our Indian companion as to the kind of soil to he travelled over in
going into the point, he represented it as full of quagmires, and altogether unfit
to bear oxen and carts. ‘This tale, which in a few days after we found to be
untrue, and only showing the Tinian jealousy of intruders on their hunting
grounds, made us stop on the west side, whence we had to go six or seven miles
to hunt.

In the first part of the day we secured some eggs and birds—among others a
pelican. I remained in camp to clean the eges and skin the birds. ‘The pelican
was a female; she contained four eges of a ‘Jaree size, with some smaller ones.
None of them had any shell, and Tam inclined to think that the flock of which
she formed a part was on its way north to some breeding place, probably Lake
Winnipeg. They have for some years forsaken this place, being continually dis-
turbed by egg hunters. After gumming our canoe, my men (an Indian and my
youngest son, who accompanied me in 1865) set off for Grebe bay. Late in the
evening the wind blew strongly from the southwest, bringing torrents of rain
on its wings, against which my only defence was an ox- chide. The rain, with

NOTES OF AN EGGING EXPEDITION TO SHOAL LAKE. 429

some short intervals, continued during the following day. The third day was
dry and clear. In the evening our hunters returned, bringing ducks, grebes,
and eggs in abundance. On their arrival at the hunting eround they were not
a little surprised to find others there before them. ‘These people were from
Manitowaba lake, having transported their little dug-out canoes on carts drawn
by oxen over the very ground which our Indian friend had represented as one

continuous quagmire. However, as we had already made a good beginning, we
decided on remaining where we were, and extended our excursions thence. As
soon as we had skinned our birds and emptied their eggs we took to the lake for
more, which operation we repeated from day to day, until we had secured a con-
siderable number of specimens.

The annual resort of the Podiceps occidentalis to Shoal lake is, as has been
observed, “remarkable.” Irom the most reliable information that I could obtain
from the Indians at this place, it has never been seen on the Red river, nor on Lake
Winnipeg; and I never heard of its having been seen anywhere in what is com-
monly known as Rupert’s Land, except at Shoal lake and Manitowaba; and I
may add that it is also remarkable that there are very few grebes to be found in
any other of the bays connected with the lake, although all these b: ys abound
in reeds and rushes. Possibly these birds prefer the bay on the north point, on
account of its being sheltered ‘from the wind; and probably a greater facility for
obtaining food in that locality may uence them in the choice they make. I

5
am inclined to think that the large grebes feed on aquatic plants. I opened

several of their gizzards and found nothing in them but grass. ‘l’he western
grebes, when seen in groups on the smooth, unruffled waters of the lake, make
a splendid appearance, sometimes raising themselves out of the water and flap-
ping their wings, their white breasts glistening in the sun like silver. They are
not timorous, but when alarmed they sink their bodies in the water, and if the
object of their fear still presents itself they plunge head foremost and dive, and
continue a long time under the water, often disappointing the expectations of their
pursuers by reappearing in a different direction from that anticipated. ‘They
make their nests among the reeds, on the bent bulrushes of the last season ; the
frame or outer work is of reeds and lined with grass from the bottom and reed
leaves. The nest is nearly on a level with the ‘surrounding water, and may be
said to float at its “moorings, ” held there by the reeds. We found hundreds of
these nests, containing two, three, and four egos each ; I believe six to be the
highest number we found in any one. We took 13 grebes, of which the males
were larger than the females; the largest males measured before skinning, 274
by 364 hee and 14 inches round the body at the heads of the wings. The
lar est female measured 245 by 323 inches. We shot not a few of them in the
act of leaving their nests, and most of them on being skinned proved to be
males ; which fact inclines me to believe that the male bird takes his turn in
sitting on the eggs.

The Podiceps auratus are very numerous in this bay. They make their nests
on the bulrushes, composed of the same material. "We found as many as six
eges in some nests, but in the greater number of nests only four. ‘They are very
shy and expert divers ; are very common on the Red river, and breed in the
marshes near the lake.

I may here observe that great numbers of night-herons breed here. They fix
their nests to the reeds eight or nine inches above the water, and deposit in each
four or five roundish, blue eggs. I think this is the only place in Rupert’s Land
where this species is found. We gave them the ‘“go-by” last summer. ‘The
Indians call them kitché-geskman, 7. e., big king-fisher.

Ducks and their nests are found everywhere round the lake. The ruddy duck
‘is sometimes found in swamps near thts river, but they are more numerous at
Shoal lake and Manitowaba.

There are numbers of terns breeding annually at Shoal lake—some of them

430 NOTES OF AN EGGING EXPEDITION TO SHOAL LAKE.

on small, gravelly islands. These form their nests by removing the gravel,

making hella in which they lay their eggs; others of them take up their abode
among the reeds and rushes. Here with great industry and ingenuity they make
their nests of reeds and grass, fixing them in their place to keep them from float-
ing away. When in Lake Winnipeg, in 1862, I observed that the terns which
oce npied sandy and gravelly islands made their nests as those do on the gravelly
islands in Shoal lake; and the terns found on the rocky island on the east side -
of the lake chose for their nests depressions and clefts in the surface of the rocks.
These they line carefully with moss, three or four eggs being laid in each nest;

thus exhibiting a remarkable example of instinct, which teaches these little crea-
tures that their eges laid in soft sand and in loose gravel are safe without any
lining to proteet them, bat that when laid in hollows and clefts of rocks, lining
to protect their eggs "and young from injury by these hard and at night cold
materials would be Indispensable.

All round the lake there is an abundance of wood, with many fine, open plains
in every direction, offering great facilities and promising rich rewards to the
industry of the husbandman. ‘he only drawback in the way of making settle-
ments at this lake is its bitter, disagreeable water.

After a stay of ten days at Shoal lake we set out early in the morning for
the Pitoo-Winnipeg Manitowaba. We found a well-defined cart road leading to
Oak point. On our way we met a young half-breed from the bay going to Grebe
bay. He had his ‘ ‘dug-out” on a cart drawn by an ox. He stated that his
object in going there was to hunt muskrats and collect as many eggs of all kinds
as he could, to take home to eat. As these people neither sow nor reap, they
have to subsist on what the seasons afford. After travelling for 10 or 11 hours
over a dry, level road, we arrived at Oak point in the afterncon. Here we stopped
a short time to dine and give our cattle time to feed and rest. Afterwards we
proceeded to the lake, where we saw great numbers of those beautiful birds, the
Franklin gully, soaring over the w are near the shore, and at short intervals
plunging in to seize their prey. We could have secured numbers of them if we
had had stuffing material. The following days we hunted in marsh, but found
very few gull eggs. We procured some Fast nests, and among them were two
Athaya Ameri icana, (red-head ducks’ nests,) one containing eight eggs, the other
19. When I was there in 1865 we found one belonging to “the same kind of
ee containing 19 or 20 eggs. ‘The Indians accuse this duck of dishonesty,

ating it to have ver ‘4 little respect for the rights of property, being inclined to
Ae other ducks of their eggs and place them in its own nest. This species and
the canvas-back are both found at Shoal lake and at Manitowaba, but nowhere
in great numbers.

While here I was attacked by a cutaneous disease, which affected my eyes
very paintully. After a residence of three days we turned our faces homeward.
The morning was fine and bright; in the afternoon the clouds gathered fast
from the south. The night overtook us before we crossed the plain at the south
end of Shoal lake. We found some water for ourselves and cattle, and laid
down to rest under one of our carts. Soon the rain began to pour down in tor-
rents, the wind blew hard, driving the rain through all our defences, and in a
short time blankets and clothing began to communicate anything but a pleasant
sensation to our chilled frames. But the night was dans and we had to keep
our post until daylight, every moment expecting that the lightning would strike
our cart and most probably terminate our journey ; and, unfortunately, our speci-
mens got wet and considerably injured. We attached our oxen to the carts and
were moving off before sunrise. At 8 o’clock we halted at the Big ridge ; while
there the sun began at times to peep through the broken clouds, the rain ceased,
and at last the sky became clear and the air warm. ‘he road was in many
places covered with ponds of water, rendering the travelling slow and unpleasant.
At noon we halted at the Big swamp, had ‘dinner, and afterwards resumed our

NOTES OF AN EGGING EXPEDITION TO SHOAL LAKE, 43}

journey, the weather and road improving as the day advanced. At sunset we
came to our first camping place from the settlement, men and oxen being very
tired, and [ very unwell and nearly blind from the affection of my eyes; we were,
however, much improved by a ood night’s rest, and left camp after sunrise. In
passing over the plain we shot a meadow lark; these birds are found in pairs
along the Red river to the end of the plains, and on the south side of the Assini-
boine. They appear in pairs in May, generally perched on a low tree—willow
or reed. They are very watchful, seldom allowing the hunter the chance of a
fair shot. We found the public road much improved since we passed on it,
before; the tempest which passed over us at Shoal lake did not extend to the
settlement. We reached home at 3 in the afternoon, and found “all well.”

It may not here be amiss or out of place to make a few remarks on the Mani-
towaba region. I have travelled a distance of 40 miles on the east side of it,
and am delighted with the beauty of the landscape; the wide expanse of w ater
in the foreground, the dark green forest in the rear, with a beautiful green plain
of three or four miles in extent, gently declining from the iorest to the lake,
inviting the husbandman to put in the plough. Here are neither stones nor
roots to impede his operations, and I am sure the soil is generous and would
amply repay his toil. This large lake abounds in a varicty of fish of the best
kinds, which an industrious population would turn to profitable account. In
this region there are at present three small villages: one at Oak Point, contain-
ing from 10 to 15 dwellings, called houses, of the most primitive kind; another
at what i is called the Ba consisting of seven or eight houses, and favored as
the residence ul a Catholic priest. A third village is rising two or three miles
to the south of the latter. The population of these villages is composed of
Indians, of half, three-quarter, and of seven-cighth Indians, with a few very
aged French Canadians. These people are like the fowls of heaven; they
“neither sow nor ret ap,” nor do they even, as far as I have been able to see, plant
potatoes. They possess a few cattle and horses; the latter roam through the
woods summer and winter, living independent of their masters’ care. The finest
of hay grows within a few vards of their houses, yet I have been informed that
many of these people are so indolent as to allow their animals to die in winter
from, starvation. ‘There are two or three exceptions to the above rule. The
question will naturally arise, how do people so bound down by indolence procure
food and clothing? In answer to this query we will begin with the opening of
the spring. I said above that the lake abounded with fish. As soon as the
thaw commences the fish forsake the deep places to which they resorted as the
winter advanced, and swarm towards the shore, and run into the many little ereeks
that pass out of the marshes into the lake. Here they are taken in nets and by
angling from the beginning of April until the breaking up of the ice in the latter
end of May, and for some time after continue plentiful until the water in the lake
becomes warm, when the fish return again to the deep places. In April the ducks
and geese return in great numbers, become plentiful, and feed in numerons flocks
in all the marshes fringing the lakes for at least a month and a half. The gray
geese and ducks draw “off “by degrees in May, but the white geese (wawee) come
generally in the last week of April, and begin to clear away for Hudson’s bay
on the 13th or 14th of May, where they invariably arrive on the 15th of May;
the last of them leave here from the 20th to the 25th of the same month.

While the fish and wild fowl can be had these people enjoy a continual feast ;
and when these fail, rats, which have been taken in great numbers for some years
past, are considered desirable articles of food; even when plenty reigns in the
land the rat furnishes them not only with food but with the means of providing
themselves with clothing. Since the country has been partially opened the furs
are busily competed for, and it follows that a high price is invariably paid for
them. When all the wild fowl have taken to their breeding places the people
Lave a hard struggle for dear life against hunger, which compels them to search

432 NOTES OF AN EGGING EXPEDITION TO SHOAL LAKE.

along all the lakes and marshes for eggs, and for every other eatable that falls
in their w ay; and during the month of July and part of August they suffer much
privation of food, unless possessed of means to enable them to draw on the set-
tlement for flour; but when the young ducks take to their wings and the fish
begin to approach the shore, they are able again to set hunger at defiance for a
time. In the beginning of October the fall “fishing commences, 7. €., the white
fish (the a-ticki-meg of the Indian) approach the shore and the shoals for the pur-
pose of spawning, ‘and if the season be favorable those who command a little
industry and plenty of nets will be able to lay in a good stock for winter use ;
but when the fishing fails and the rabbits disappear, as s the case is this year, these
people are, indeed, brought low—even to starvation’s door. Flour is selling
there this winter at 40s. per ewt. Another trait of these people of primitive
habits and manners is, that, although occupying these villages for a long time,
they have neither president, council, nor magistrate, and I never heard of any
crime of any kind being committed by any of them except once, and that was
a case of manslaughter which arose out of undue provocation.

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

By J. T. RorTurRock, M. D.

A complete list of Alaskan plants with a detailed account of their geographi-
cal distribution cannot yet be expected. But a small portion of our newly
acquired possessions has been at all explored by botanists; indeed, if we except
Sitka and its immediate surroundings, we may say xo part has been thoroughly
investigated. Future researches will not only add much to our knowledge of
the species known to exist there, but will largely increase that list. The strip
of land extending south from Mount St. Elias to the Steekine river would well
repay exploration, either from a commercial or a scientific point of view. It is
almost a matter of certainty that this will be found to have a large number of
more southern species extending up into it.

It may not be amiss, in passing, to glance at the timber and prairie lands of
British Columbia; lying, as they now do, between our possessions, our interests
must be materially affected by them. ‘The forests of British Columbia west of
the Coast range, and perhaps as far north as the Steekine river, are for the most
part made up of the following trees:

Taking them in the order of Dr. Lyall, in his report on the botany of north-
western North America, we have first in size and commercial importance, Abies
Douglasii, Lindl., (Douglas’ spruce,) from 225 to 250 feet high, and often 12 or
13 feet in diameter. This tree has acquired already a great commercial value
in the lumbering trade of the coast. It is said by Dr. Lyall to make good spars;
it has a fine, clear “grain,” and is destined to become more important as the
resources of the country are developed. The tall flagstaff in the royal gardens
at Kew is made of a single trunk of this tree. It is also found more in the inte-
rior of the country, in the valleys of the Rocky mountains.

Abies Menziesii, Lindl., (Menzies’ spruce,) a somewhat smaller tree than the
last-mentioned, though still a titan.

Abies Mertensiana, (Mertens’ spruce,) from 125 to 200 feet high, and with a
beautifully straight trunk, which, as Dr. Lyall remarks, often grows 60 or 70
feet high before giving off a branch. It is found as far north as latitude 57° on
the shores of Norfolk sound.

We will insert here Abies Canadensis, which is said to have been found by Mr.
Tolmie as far north as latitude 57°, on the shores of the Pacific, and by Mertens
in Sitka. This tree, though of large size, is very inferior as timber. ‘The bark
may be turned to account in tanning.

Pinus contorta is found throughout the valley of the Frazer on high grounds;
it grows from 25 to 50 feet high and a foot in diameter. On the upper Frazer
this tree is eminently social, and one often finds mile after mile of forest made
up exclusively of this tree. In the spring months the Indians are in the habit
of stripping off the outer bark and scraping the newly-formed cambium from the
trunk; this is eaten either in the fresh state or dried and pressed into compact masses

The present report on the botany of Alaska was prepared at the request of the Smith-
sonian Institution, by Dr. J. T. Rothrock, professor of botany in the Agricultural College of
Pennsylvania. The original material committed to his charge consisted principally of the
collections made by employés of the Western Union Telegraph Company, in their explora-
tions connected with the Russian overland telegraph expedition, Dr. Rothrock himself among

the number.
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution,

28 s67

434 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

for future use. Early in the season the taste is not unpleasant, and the effect is
that of a gentle laxative; but later, when the tree has fairly commenced its sum-
mer w ork, and begun to ‘elaborate ‘its peculiar terebinthinate principle, it is too
strong for other than Indian palates, or except as a last resort against starvation.
This “ girdling” of these trees has resulted in an extensive destruction of them
near the Indian villages.

Thuja gigantea, Nutt.—This magnificent tree grows sometimes to a height of
170 feet, and to a diameter of 10 feet and over. The timber is light, easily
worked, and tolerably durable. I am not certain that it is found north of the
51st or 52d degree of latitude. I have seen boards 20 feet long split from it
by the Indians. From it in part the celebrated “ northern canoes” are made.
These canoes, “dug” from the single trunk and afterwards steamed into shape,
will often carry fourtons. From the wood the Indians also manufacture paddles,
dishes, and boxes, some of them exquisitely neat. From the inner bark they
twist ropes of great strength; mats, hats, and baskets are also woven from the

same material. The liabxity of the wood to split when exposed to the sun is
rather a disadvantage.

dicer macroph yllum (Large-leaved maak) is found in the valleys of the Pacific
slopes as far north as latitude 55°. This tree attains a height of 70 feet and a
diameter of two or three feet; its wood is perhaps the best substitute on the
Pacifie coast for the hickory of the Atlantic slope; the Indians use it to make
snow-shoes, spear-handles, and axe-handles; from its inner bark they weave
baskets, hats, and mats so closely as to hold water. Leaving the headwaters of
the Frazer and crossing the mountain range to the west in latitude 55° north, I
met this tree first, growing in company W ith 7’ huja excelsa. On the wpper waters
of the Skena river I found the Indians using it in preference to any other wood, as
fuel, during the long, cold winter nights ; frequently they have completely denuded
the hill-sides of it. Lower down on the Skena the cottonwood and Thuja mingle
with the maple in about equal proportions. ‘The forests there present a most
cheering contrast to the sombre hues of the conifers that abound in the valley
of the Irazer, and almost remind one of the variegated woods of the Atlantic
slope; birches, too, attain there a height they do not reach in the interior valley
above mentioned. Nowhere have I seen forests more beautiful than those near
Rocher de Bouller on the lower Skena.

Before concluding this passage on British Columbia I will add a letter from
Major F. L. Pope, w who, in mid-winter, made a most trying trip from Lake Tatleh
to aie Pacific via the headw aters of the Steekine river :

“The timber on the upper Skena for 50 miles northwest of Bear lake is very
thick and of the same kind as around Lake Tatleh, (Pinus contorta and Populus.)
It averages about a foot in diameter. Still more towards the head-waters of the
Skena, open, grassy plains begin to appear, growing more and more frequent as
you go north; over these are interspersed trees, (still of the same kind,) but
growing apart like trees in a park. At the head of the river, about 4,000 feet
above the sea level, conifers are scarce and dwarfed, but these apparently are
stili of the same species. When cottonwoods are met with they are of good
size. Passing the summit and descending the valley of the Steekine, which
runs nofth for about 100 miles, we still find the same trees, but not so abund-
antly. On the upper Steekine are great numbers of small poplars and willows ;
here, too, I occasionally found some patches of pine, in which the trees were
about 12 feet high, with a coarse, red bark, crooked limbs, and large cones. On
the benches along the ‘Great canon’ there is very little timber, what there is
being.small pine growing in patches. After getting through the canon, cotton-
WwW oods grow in great abundance on the points jutting out “into the river; asso-
ciated with them are alders and willows without number. As near as I can
remember there are no cedars (Thuja) until you approach the coast. I do not
recollect seeing any maples, though there may have been some.”

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA. 435

Quercus Garryana, Dougl., which is so abundant near Fort Vancouver, is also
found on Vancouver island. Hooker states “the wood is good and well adapted
to ship-building.” It grows 80 feet high.

Pyrus rivularis grows to be a small tree, and the wood is hard enough to take
a good polish; it may be turned to some use in the arts of life; the fruit has a
decidedly pleasant flavor, and is largely used by the Indians.

The less elevated prairie lands of the lower Frazer are thickly covered with
various species of Poa, Eragrostis, &c., intermixed with Victa Americana. HKiven
as far north as Fort St. James I have seen the grass and “pea vine” three feet
high; these spots afford luxuriant pastut age. At the above-mentioned post of
the Hudson Bay Company, (latitude 54° 41/ north,) the horses live nearly the
entire year without other forage than such as they find. Mules, however, are not
so successful in sustaining themselves when the snow covers the grass, and require
“looking after.” The swamps are thickly covered with carices; among w hich
Carex utriculata predominates in number of individuals over the other species.
The high grounds afford the “bunch grass” (Elymus) of the packers ; ; so nutri-
tious is this that even when apparently dead and dry, “stock” will become fat
on it, and remain so under hard work for long periods if this be plentifully sup-
plied.

Of the main land from Steekine river north to Bristol bay we have but little
definite botanical knowledge. Sitka, however, has been well explored, both by
Mertens and later by Ferd. Bischoff. We may be said to know its flora pretty
thoroughly. Perhaps after the list of plants given on the following pages I can
present no better popular idea of the vegetation of this island than by quoting
from a letter of Mertens “ to a friend in St. Peter sburg ;” it is published in Hooker’s
Botanical Miscellany, vol. iii: “If we compare the lofty forests of Sitka (Sitcha
in letter) with the wintry coasts of Kamschatka, where, 4° more southerly at St.
Peter and Paul, the birch only attempts to rise into a kind of tree, we shall here
find a confirmation of that law which proves, by comparing the climates of Lis-
bon and Philadelphia, Paris and Quebec, England and Labrador, Drontheim and
Iceland, that countries situated to the east of the sea possess a milder tempera-
ture than those which are placed to the west of the ocean.”—(Op. citat., p. 12, |
prefatory remark by Adrian von Chamisso.) “It [the forest] principally consists
of two kinds of fir; the Russians who inhabit Sitka call one of them pine, (yely
or jeli,) the other the larch, (listwenj,) though neither of them bears the least
similarity to the trees which are thus named in Russia. Both are referable to
Michaux’s genus Abies. The pine, as it is called, seems to me analogous to the
North American pine, (Pinus balsamea.) Both of these trees must be peculiarly
eligible for masts and building timber in general, as they attain an immense
height; yet the wood of the pine is not much prized; it is said to be of short
duration ; that of the larch, as it is called, lasts much longer. ’—(Mertens in lit.
ex. op. citat., p. 16.) “The axe scarcely ever echoed in these woods; indeed,
the surrounding wilderness is immense, and strikes the beholder with a fecling
of horror. For centuries these trees have never fallen but under the w eight of
years ; and their mouldering remains give rise, without alteration of form, to future

=
generations of trees again to flourish and again to die! Nevertheless, the abund-

ance of shrubs, herbs, and mosses, which clothe these hoary forests, and rise
over the natural graves of their former denizens, impart to the scenery an air of
vigor and of youth.” —(L.¢., p. 17.)

“After ascending some distance up the mountain sides of the island he finds
“the wood, which now appears again in increased denseness before us, consists
par ticularly of a noble Thuja, called, on account of its agreeably scented wood,
duschnik, (scent-wood.) It is the timber most valued here. The tree, indeed,
oceurs frequently lower down at the foot of the mountains, and even to the sea,
but so scattered that it is necessary to search for it among the more predominant
pine trees which conceal it from view; but here it constitutes almost the entire

436 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

timber, and the pine and the larch are seldom seen—the latter, however, not ceas-
ing so soon as the former.”—(L. c., p. 19.)

Mertens completes the picture of the vegetation of Sitka with reports of the
species of aconite, aquilegia, claytonia, rubus, saxifraga, epilobium, vacciniun,
mimulus, orchids, and sedges, which add variety and beauty to the scene; some
of them specifically the same as those growing on the eastern slope of America
and in the United States. He also notes a grass (Poa) growing two or three
feet high; “ various ferns, which are, however, types of those which prevail in
Russia, grow in great (he ee y)

From Chamisso (in Hooker’s Botanical Miscellany, vol. i, p. 317,) we learn
that on the peninsula of Alaska (Alaska proper) a few trees are found; but on
the island of Ounalashka, which has a more Arctic oceanic climate, the scene is
changed; for “a few miserable firs, originally brought from Sitka and planted
at Ounalashka, may still be seen, most of them decayed, and the others seem
scarcely likely to live.”

“At Ounalashka, under the same latitude as Lubeck, the willows scarcely grow
higher than the luxuriant grass and herbs of the moist grounds. As soon as
we ascend the inferior hills a completely Alpine vegetation appears; even on
the least elevated regions of the mountains are some Vaccinia, resembling V.
Myrtillus, which scarcely rise above the ground. Besides the brilliant verdure
(due to a moist atmosphere) which here adorns the grass and enlivens the rocks,
the lustre of the fresh unsullied snow and of some social plants bestow on this
dreary country a rarity and beauty of hue which are quite delightful. Lupinus
Noothatensis, Mimulus luteus, Epilobium angustifolium and latifolium, Phododen-
dron Kamtschaticum, etc., are among the most conspicuous. The ees green
of the turf even reminded us of the valley of Ursera.

“The vegetation here appears to have nothing further in common with that of
St. Peter and St. Paul than as respects its Alpine flora and the coast plants of these
northern shores. Besides such species as are likewise found more north we have
only Lilium (Lritillaria) Kamtschaticum and the Uvularia amplexifolia (Strep-
topus) common to both places, while on the contrary we found more Kamtschat-
kan species of plants on the American coast north of Behring’s strait, which we
missed at Ounalashka. It is the flora of the northwest coast of America which
descends to the base of the hills of this island, where it unites with the Arctic
flora. As examples of this we may cite Rubus spectabilis, Lupinus Nootkatensis,
(which may also be found, though dwarfish, on the hills.) Epilobium luteum,
Minulus luteus, Claytonia Unalaschkensis and Sibirica may also be reckoned here.
Sanguisorba Canadensis, Lithospermum angustifolium belong to the common
flora of America. Many species of grasses thrive in the low lands, with some
Umbellate, such as Angelica, Heracleum, ete. A dozen Carices, scarcely forming
a larger proportion of the vegetation than in the north of Germany, some Script
and Lriophora, accompany them, with a few Jwnci in the proportion of about one
to two. ‘The Orchidacee form a group of some importance, both because of the
number of the species and the beauty of the individuals. They prevail both in
the valleys and on the hills, and we encounter eleven kinds, among them a beau-
tiful Cypripedium. Higher north we did not observe a single species of the
family. Of the ferns we found about eight species; nearest the pole there is but
one Filix, and of this we saw but a single specimen. In Ounalashka there are
some Lycopodia; in the more Arctic regions but one. We found in the lakes
many water plants, Potamogeton, Sparganium, Ranunculus aquatilis ; in the
higher latitudes we “observed only the two species of Hippuris and the common
Cullitriche.” (1. ¢. pp. 317, 318.)

[1 can now enumerate but ten species of orchids. Some are also found north
of Ounalashka. ‘The remark concerning the ferns needs the qualification of at
least one, and perhaps of two, more species. —J. T. R.]

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA, 437

“ At Ounalashka the mosses and lichens begin to assume that prominent sta-
tion which they hold in all the very cold districts.” (L. ¢., p. 321.)

From all the above we may safely infer that a much lower summer temperature
prevails at Ounalashka than on either of the opposite main lands under the same
parallel. The comparative height of the snow line is also another evidence of
the same thing. At Ounalashka it is but 3,510 feet above the sea level, while
exactly three degrees further north and on the Kamtschatkan side it is 5,249
feet above the ocean.

For most of the general results of botanical exploration north of Norton sound
we are indebted to the Report on the Botany of the Herald, by Berthold See-
mann, and to Dr. J. D. Hooker’s paper on the Distribution of Arctic Plants. As
will be observed, I quote freely from both these authors.

Seemann says of the truly Arctic region about and north of Behring’s strait:
“The soil is always frozen and merely thaws during the summer a few feet
below the surface. But the thawing is by no means uniform. In peat it extends
not deeper than two feet, while in the other formations, especially in sand or
gravel, the ground is free from frost to the depth of nearly a fathom, showing that
the sand is a better conductor of heat than peat or clay. The roots of the plants,
even those of shrubs and trees, do not penetrate into the frozen subsoil. On
reaching it they recoil as if they had touched upon a rock through which no
passage could be forced. It may be surprising to behold a vegetation flourish-
ing under such circumstances, existing, it would seem, independent of terrestrial
heat, but surprise is changed into amazement on visiting Kotzebue sound, where
on tops of icebergs herbs and shrubs are thriving with a luxuriance only equalled
in more favored climes.

“On the eastern side of America no forests are found above the mouth of the
river Egg, about the 60th degree of north latitude. On the western side they
extend as far as latitude 66° 44/ north, or nearly seven degrees nearer the’ pole.

‘With a sun shining throughout the twenty-four hours the growth of plants
is rapid in the extreme. The snow has hardly disappeared before a mass of
herbage has sprung up, and the same spots which a few days before presented
nothing save a white sheet are teeming with an active vegetation, producing
leaves, flowers, and fruit in rapid succession.”

We further learn from Dr. Seemann that even during the long Arctic day the
plants have their period of sleep—short, though plainly marked as in the tropics.
This time of rest is indicated by the same drooping of the leaves, and other
signs which we observe in milder climates.

“The whole country from Norton sound to Point Barrow is one vast moor-
land, whose level is only interrupted by a few promontories and isolated moun-
tains.

“About Norton sound groves of white spruce trees and Salix speciosa are fre-
quent; northward they become less abundant, till in latitude 66° 44/ north, on
the banks of the Noatak, Pinus [Abies] alba disappears. Alnus viridis extends
as far as Kotzebue sound, where, in company with Salix villosa, S. Richardsoni
and S. speciosa it forms a low brushwood. With the commencement of the
Arctic ciwcle Alnus viridis ceases to exist; Salix speciosa, S. Richardson, and
S. villosa extend their range further, but are only able for a short distance to
keep their ground; at Cape Lisburne, in latitude 68° 52’ north, they are in the
most favorable localities never higher than two feet, while their crooked growth
and numerous abortive leaf-buds indicate their struggle for existence.

«The Esquimaus eat the roots of Polygonum viviparum and collect for winter
use raspberries, whortleberries, and cranberries, which are frozen so hard as to
require an axe to break the mass.”

A Salix speciosa measured by the botanists of the Herald was found to be but
twenty feet high and five inches in diameter, yet the annual rings showed the
tree had reached the age of eighty years. [For the above facts in regard to the

438 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

mainland north of Norton sound I am indebted to Dr. Seemann, op. citat —J.T.R.|

Chamisso writes of Kotzebue sound that “the vegetation is much more luxu-
riant than in St. Lawrence cove,” (some distance further to the north on the
Siberian side;) “the willows are ti uler, the grass grows stronger, all the plants
are more stout and succulent, while the greater number of species common to
the American coast than appear in St. Lawrence cove, indicate a more temperate
climate. On the island of St. Lawrence the Cineraria palustris grows with a

, remarkable luxuriance in the well-watered slopes formed at the base of the mounds
of ice, while Betula nana (dwarf birch) is seen even to the very shores. The
plain country of this island is free from snow throughout the summer.

It will be observed that Mr. Seemann draws a line from the mouth of the river
Noatak in a HOU a) direction across the country almost to the estnary of
Mackenzie river; this he assigns as the northern limit of the woods. This line
nearly coincides with the July isotherm of 50°, which temperature may be
regarded as a fair growing mean for the species oF that region.

‘Beyond this all piant life is truly Arctic, and comes within the se ope of Dr.
Hooker's paper on the Distribution of Arctic Plants. The distinguished author
just named divides the Arctic circle around the globe into five districts. Going
east from Baflin’s bay we have, first, the Greenland district ; the second one lies
between the western coast of Arete Europe, and extends as far to the east as
the river Obi, and includes Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen; the third extends
from the Obi river to Behring’s strait; the fourth from Behrine’s strait to the
Mackenzie river; and the fifth from Mackenzie river to Baftin’s bay. Primarily
we are concerned with but three of these divisions: first, the fourth or Arctic
Alaskan, and then merely en passant with the third and fifth lying on either side
of it. Irom the same paper we learn that the fourth district has of flowering
plants 364 species, (the term species being used by Hooker in a very wide sense,
and all forms which are not clearly marked are regarded merely as ‘boreal varie-
ties of some older species.) Of these 364 (flow ering) species, 110 of them are
Asiatic and American forms; the third or Arctic Siberian district contains 233
species, and of them but 44 are peculiarly Asiatic and American; the fifth or
Arctic eastern American has 379, and of them 110 are peculiarly Asiatic and
American. From the above it will be seen that the Arctic Alaskan district has
a flora much richer both in specific and peculiar specific forms than the Siberian
district, but is not quite so rich in species as the fifth or eastern American; the
northern limits of vegetation will vary in different longitudes. Rather a rich
vegetation clothes the Arctic Alaskan shores , Judging from the number of plants
collected by Captain Pullen. Herald island, however, in latitude 72° north and
longitude 176° west, rewarded Seemann’s se earch with but four species. Eastern
Greenland, between 70° and 75° north, gives 150 species. The reason of this
disparity in numbers is, in part, found in the following passages :

“The climate of eastern Arctic Asia is marked by excessive mean cold;
the Obi the isotherm of 18° cuts the Arctic circle in its southeast course, and at
the eastern extremity of the province the isotherm of 20° cuts the same circle,
while the centre part of the district is all north of the isotherm of 9°. The
whole of the district is hence far north of the isotherm of 32°, which descends
to latitude 52° north in its middle longitude. The extremes of temperature are
also very great; the June isotherm of 41° ascending eastward through its west-
ern half to the Polar sea, while the September isotherm of 41° descends nearly
to 60° north ; whence the low autumn temperature must present an almost insu-
perable obstacle to the ripening of seeds within this segment of the Arctic circle.

“The warming influence of the Atlantic currents being felt no further east
than the Obi, and the summer desiccation of the vast Asiatic continent, combine
to render the climate of this region one of excessive drought as well as of cold;
whence it is in every way most unfavorable to vegetation of all kinds.”

Of its 233 species 42 are monoctyledons and 191 are dicotyledons, making a

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA. 439

proportion of 1 to 4.5. In marked contrast to the foregoing is the following from
the same author:

“The Arctic circle at Kotzebue sound is crossed by the isotherm of 23°, and
at the longitude of the Mackenzie by that of 12° 5/, while the June isotherm of
41° ascends obliquely from southwest to northeast, ‘from the Aleutian islands to
the mouth of the Mackenzie, and passes south of this province; the June and
September isotherms of 41° and 32° both traverse it obliquely, ascending to the
northeast. The vast extent of the Pacific ocean and its warm northerly cuv-
rents greatly modify the climate of west Arctic America, causing dense fogs to
prevail, especially throughout the summer months , while the currents keep the
ice to the north of Behring’s strait.”

In this Arctic Alaskan district we have 76 monoctyledons and 288 dicotyle-
dons, giving a proportion of 1 to 3.7. Dr. Hooker finds in “comparing this
flora with that of temperate and Arctic Asia that no less than 320 species are
found on the northwestern shores and islands of that continent, or in Siberia,
many extending to the Altai and the Himalaya. A comparison with eastern
Arctic America shows that 281 species are common to it.” Of the 364 species
of Arctic Alaskan plants “almost all but the littoral and purely Arctic species
are found in west temperate North America or in the Rocky mountains, 26 in the
Andes of tropical or sub-tropical America, and 37 in temperate or Antarctic
South America.”

The above paragraph affords an excellent illustration of the migration south-

ward of northern plants during a period of cold long since past. ~ Whether we
clothe this joint explanation of Messrs. Forbes and Darwin with all the dignity
of a theory logically deduced from other and well-established facts, or reduce it to
the rank of a mere hypothesis, it still remains the only philosophical explanation
of these examples of widely-extended distribution along a given meridian.

Dr. Hooker also directs attention to the variety. of glumacez in the Arctic
Alaskan flora: “Of the 138 species of Arctic glumacez only 54 are natives of
west Arctic America.”

I insert here the following letter from Mr. H. M. Bannister, who spent the
winter of 186566 at Fort St. Michaels, on Norton Sound. It is to the point
and explains itself:

“‘T am sorry that I can give from personal observation so little information
concerning the trees of Russian America. At St. Michaels there were no trees,
and the only bushes which rose above the ground were stunted alders and wil-
lows. At the head of Norton sound, however, a forest of spruce trees extends
nearly to the coast, and occasional trees are seen on the immediate shore. ‘These
trees are usually from 20 to 45 feet high and not more than a foot in diameter.

“The drift logs which float on the Kvichpak are sometimes more than two feet
in thickness, though the most will not average over a foot or 16 inches. I think
it probable the largest trees do not grow where they will be undermined by the
river current.

“Mr. Pease reported having seen trees nearly 80 or 100 feet high on the lower
Kvichpak. From 1,000 to 1,500 feet of lumber was sawn at Fort St. Michaels
during the winter I was there. It made very fair-looking planks and scantling.
I think the wood was softer and whiter than that of the Oregon pine. The
other trees noticed were poplars and birch; of how many kinds I cannot s say.
The birch is used by the natives for everything that requires a harder and tougher
wood than the spruce, 7. e., sled-runners, boat-frames, &c. I have never seen
birch there over eight inches in diameter.”

In looking over the plants collected by Messrs. Dall, McDonald, and Houle,
at Fort Youkon, I have been surprised to see how large a number of them were
common on the head-waters of the Mackenzie and the Pelly. Whether Fort
Youkon can be considered a point which in their wanderings from more southern

localities they might veach, | am not prepared to say ; possibly the waters of

440 SKETCH OF TIIE FLORA OF ALASKA.

the Pelly may have borne them north, and that of the Mackenzie done the same
for its banks. Once established on the shores of the latter river a short transit
would again place them within reach of the waters of the Porcupine, and this
could bear them to and beyond Fort Youkon.

At the same point some plants (few, indeed) have been found that might more
naturally have been expected to be confined to the Arctic coast. I do not as yet
attempt any explanation of why this place should be a meeting-ground for some
few species of more northern and more southern plants. :

In how far can our Alaskan possessions raise the grains and vegetables suf- °
ficient to support an active population? Vague rumors have reached our ears of
this or that hardy vegetable raised at Fort St. Michael or Youkon and after-
wards gracing the tables there. Such gardening comes more under the head of
possibilities than of daily support. I think we cannot say more yet than that
barley and oats will grow at Sitka, and just possibly at Kodiak. Potatoes,
radishes, cabbages, cauliflowers, peas, onions, carrots, and turnips may be de-
pended upon as ‘far north as Kodiak, with greater or less certainty. ‘T’ he timber
of Alaska is certainly valuable, and much needed on the Pacific coast.

Among the grasses enumerated in our list will be found a number of value as
forage plants. The forests once cleared it is certain some of the hardier grasses

can be raised, and in considerable quantity. Dr. Kellogg, in his report « on the
botany of the country, informs us that (Phleum pratense) timothy flourishes..
As he has not stated in what part, we may perhaps suppose he meant at Sitka,
or, possibly, even Kodiak. Several species of bromus are found in various parts
of Alaska, and among them may be found perhaps a forage that can be used as
a dernier resort. Poa annua, or annual spear-grass, grows at Sitka, and affords
an early and acceptable pasture ; the moist climate of Sitka would, doubtless,

suit it well. The Kentucky blue-grass (Poa pratensis) is found as far north as
Ounalashka and Kotzebue sound; the well-known hardihood of this grass and
the readiness with which it is eaten by cattle give ita value. ‘The wood meadow-
grass (Poa nemoralis) also flourishes at Kotzebue sound, and we may suppose
would also at more southern stations; it furnishes good, nutritive food, of which
cattle are very fond. Water spear-grass ( Glyceria aquatica) has been sent us from
Sitka, and if cut early makes a hay well relished by cattle. Blue joint-grass
( Calamagrostis Canadensis) erows as far north as Kotzebue sound, and may be
fairly considered a valuable grass. Its yield is often enormous; I have seen it
in northern British Columbia growing three feet high, and covering the open
grounds there to the exclusion of ev erything else; its luxuriance was perfectly
astonishing. Doubtless scme of the sedges and rushes (Junci) could be made
available in times of scarcity.

I have enumerated within the limits of Alaska 732 species of plants, includ-
ing the cryptogamia; of these 560 species are phenogams, which represent 57
orders. Of oxogens there are 419 species; of endogens, 141 species.

Without going into minute proportions I find the following table gives the
relative developement of each of the important orders in comparison “with the
entire phenogamic flora:

Order. Genus.

Composties Ge Hosc= 5: - 2c ened

Giraimiain come ee eet ia cea aot erecta oS mveyean del

Cyperacese .....-.---------------- 1-14 | Carex...--. 2... --- 22. eee noes ou 32
VOTH Olea ees eine os cee sce yy

Saxtfrapatess su. sete c= s oo oo ae SRA MBean ge Cos e 2 soe en tate mle wien 24
PTicaceme: pee ees eeee ee eeeese ces SLi Vaccinium: ase Je wetats He eters tied
Rosacea see Be ae etec oes: psl= 9 ‘
Ranunewlaces eee eee reser. ko) , i _
gerophulanincem << aere----=-5 1-22 |}. ee

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA. 441

Order. Genus.
Caryophyllacese a2 -455e5, sees eo
Salicatersrecs css ee ee eceines el soen | Salix ccc cco deacon cnceee conseeeen ld
Gentianaceset= =. aeceeeere-acebeeee) -d—405) \Gentiana: see E eanieteseene pS Se oh eo AKG
Orchidacese yee a ee ees Seen mld O
JUNCACEE Ma Seciae es ioles saisecs co LAS le JUNCUSE wcccjscleeee cemaccleewesiccecoe nes
Weguminoss) ae esrsaae see sectee acs to
Ondgracewese sep aseecenesec ses RAZ
Poly monacere-eacweeeeeeeeaet ates 70
@onileusstaney S25 Sse ese eee el 20
imlbellifenssys = pen serecercra ie isoisave 1-80
Primulacesocce oo) seaeceran ce ewicmes 1-80
Borracinacese. :-<......- ee eeaeaoe S 1-80
Liliacese> =-.etees eats se eee CRO
Betulacesssecseccncecenecses nessa 1-93
GrossulRcessseiee cise niciein sivickeclsigce 1-140
Caprifoliacese=sssoce.c--26 sas0 tounw 1-140
Rubiacesrrscce cee os eee paciosewe - 1-140
abliateeectrcssccoces dcscecs --. 1-187

The area of Alaska, as computed by the United States Coast Survey, is 570.000
square miles, including the islands. Chester ¢ county, of the State of Pennsylvania,
has but 738 square miles, yet it has just about double the number of indigenous
flowering plants that Alaska has. ‘This, however, enly implies poverty of

specific forms and not necessarily of flora; for we find Alaska covered during
its short summer with a luxuriant growth of vegetation, but not of so diversified
a character as that of more favored regions.

The proportion of ferns is quite large in Alaska. This is accounted for, doubt-
less, by the saturated condition of the atmosphere, combined with the deep shade
of its more southern forests.

I would here gratefully acknowledge the assistance I have received in pre-
paring this paper from Professor Gray and Dr. George Thurber. ‘To Messrs.
James and Mann my thanks are also due ; their names appear over their respective
communications. Messrs. Bannister, Dall, and Bischoff have each added to the
plants hitherto known from Norton sound, Sitka, and the Youkon River district.

I have depended chiefly on the following works: Flora of North America,
vols. 1 and 2, Torrey and Gray ; Hooker’s F lora Boreali Americana; Ledebour’s
Flora Rossica; Bongard’s Vegetation of Sitka; Hooker and Arnott’s Botany of
Beechey’s Voy age ; ‘Seemann’s Report on the Botany of the Voyage of the Her-
ald; J.D. Hooker on the Distribution of Arctic Plants; and Dr. Lyall’s Report
on the Botany of Northwestern North America. In the main I have adopted
the order of arrangement and the nomenclature of the Flora Rossica. When
the complete flora of Alaska is to be published it will be early enough to cease
following a guide so satisfactory as Ledebour is, on the whole. However, when
a manifest improvement has been suggested by later authorities I have not hesi-
tated to adopt it.

It is hardly necessary to remark that, irrespective of further discoveries, the
varied views of different authorities as to what constitutes a species, might sen-
sibly affect the absolute number recorded in this list. So far as the plan upon
which it is formed afforded the opportunity, | have adopted the wider view of
species as best according with modern philosophic botanical teaching, and as
by far the least likely to involve absolute error.

The field which is here merely outlined will offer a rich harvest to the botanist
who can devote to the subject the time it demands for thoroughly scientilic treat-
ment. ‘The proximity of the two continents and their islands would lead us to
think Alaska might prove a good ground for clearing up some doubtful points

442 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

concerning the migrations of plants. The well known tendency of Arctic plants
to vary almost indefinitely makes the subject important to the botanists inter-
ested in settling that vexed question, what is a species and what its formula.

RANUNCULACES.

Thalictrum alpinum, L., Kotzebue sound, and Port Clarence.

Anemone alpina, L., Kotzebue sound.

A. patens, L.; Fort Youkon, Antoine Houle.

A. parviflora, Michx., Kotzebue sound.

A. Richardsoni, Hook., Island of Ounalashka, Kotzebue sound; Youkon river,
Dall.

A. narcissiflora, L., is the A. multifida of Hooker and Arnott in Bot. Beechey ;
fide Seemann in Bot. Herald; from Kotzebue sound to Cape Lisburne, and
between Point Barrow and Mackenzie river; island of Ounalashka.

Hepatica triloba, Chaix, Sitka.

Ranunculus Pallasii, Schlecht., Kotzebue sound.

R. hyperboreus, Rottb., Norton sound to Wainwright inlet.

R. Purshii, Richards., Kotzebue sound.

R. Lapponicus, L., Kotzebue sound.

R. pygmeus, Wahl., Kotzebue sound.

R. nivalis, R. Br., Kotzebue sound.

R. Eschscholtzii, Schlecht., Kotzebue sound to Cape Lisburne.

R. occidentalis, Nutt., (R. recurvatus, Bongard in Vegetation of Sitka, but
mot of Poir.,) Sitka.

Caltha palustris, L., var. asarifolia, Ounalashka.

C. leptosepala, DC., Sitka.

(Still a third species, C. arctica, R. Br., may yet be added, as it has been found
on Richard’s island, in the mouth of the Mackenzie river.)

Coptis trifolia, Salisb., Sitka.

C. asplenifolia, Salisb., Sitka.

Aguilegia formosa, Fisch., A. Canadensis, Bong. 1. c., Sitka.

Delphinium Menziesii, DC., Kotzebue sound to Cape Lisburne.

Aconitum Napellus, L., var. delphinifolium, Sitka, Kotzebue sound, Chamisso
island, Norton sound, and between Point Barrow and Mackenzie river.

NYMPHZECEX.
Nuphar luteum, Smith, Sitka.

PAPAVERACE.

Papaver alpinum, L.; P. nudicaule, Norton sound, H. M. Bannister; Kotzebue
sound, and from Point Barrow to Mackenzie river.

FUMARIACE.

Corydalis pauciflora, Pers., Norton sound, H. M. Bannister, Island of St.
Lawrence, Bot. Herald.
C. glauca, Pursh., Point Barrow to Mackenzie river, Captain Pullen.

CRUCIFERZ.

Barbarea vulgaris, R. Br., Sitka and Norton sound.
Arabis hirsuta, Scop., Sitka and Ounalashka.
A. ambigua, DC., Sitka and Ounalashka.
2 Nasturtium palustre, DC., Eschscholtz bay, Ounalashka; and Youkon river,
ali.

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA. 443

Cardamine Lenensis, Andre, Island of St. Lawrence, Ounalashka and Sitka,

ide Ledebour, Flora Rossica.

C. pratensis, L., Kotzebue sound, and between Point Barrow and Mackenzie
river; Norton sound, H. M. Bannister.

C. hirsuta, L., Ounalashka and Sitka.

C. purpurea, Cham., Kotzebue sound, Wainwright inlet, and Island of Ouna-
lash ka.

G. digitata, Richards., (possibly only a form of C. pratensis ; fide J. D. Hooker
in “Outlines of the Distribution of Arctic Plants,”) Wainwright inlet, between
Point Barrow and Mackenzie river; Island of St. Lawrence.

Alyssum hyperboreum, L.—A doubtful native of North America. Ledebour
in Flora Rossica simply tells us (on the authority of Steller and Krasch) that it
is “in ora occidentali Americe borealis.”

Parrya macrocarpa, R. Br., Kotzebue sound, Cape Lisburne, between Point
Barrow and Mackenzie river, and Island of St. Lawrence.

Draba algida, DC., Island of St. Lawrence.

D. alpina, L., Kotzebue sound.

D. glacialis, Adams, Cape Lisburne, Assistance bay, and Garry island.

D. stellata, Jacq., var. hebecarpa, Kotzebue sound, Ounalashka; and ide
Ledebour, Flora Rossica in Island of St. Lawrence.

D. hirta, L., Kotzebue sound.

D. incana, L., Garry, St. Lawrence, and Ounalashka islands.

D. gracilis, Ledeb., Ounalashka.

D. borealis, DC., islands of Ounalashka and St. Lawrence. Perhaps only a
leafy form of D. incana, according to J. D. Hooker.

D. Unalaschkiana, DC.,‘‘an var. D. borealis?” Ledebour, op. citat., OQuna-
lashka.

D. stenoloba, Ledeb., Island of Ounalashka.

D. muricella, Wahl. ; D. nivalis, Liljebl., Wainwright inlet.

D. grandis, Langsdorff, in DC., Systema, vol. ii, p. 355; var. siliquosa, Coch-
learia grandiflora, DC., Systema, vol. ii, p. 368; Cochlearia spathulata,
Schlecht. See Torrey and Gray, Flora of North America, vol. i, p. 110.
Draba grandis is figured in Del. Icon., 2, tab. 47. One specimen differs from
the figure mainly in having longer and less turgid pods, and the leaves being
rather more entire; but it is without doubt the same plant. A foot-note in Lin-
nea, vol. ii, p. 27, throws much light on its otherwise rather complicated synon-
ymy. This plant had not been found in Sitka previous to its recent discovery
there by Mr. Bischoff, the nearest known approach hitherto being Ounalashka.

Cochlearia fenestrata, R. Br., Norton sound to Point Barrow and Assistance
bay.

C. oblongifolia, DC., Sitka, Kotzebue sound, Wainwright inlet, and between
Point Barrow and Mackenzie river; also found at Norton sound by Mr. Ban-
nister.

C. Anglica, L., Kotzebue sound and Assistance bay.

Tetrapoma pyriforme, Seemann, tab. 2, Botany of Voyage of the Herald. Col-
lected both in the voyage of the Herald and later by Mr. Bannister at Fort St.
Michaels, at Norton sound. Seemann regards it as introduced from Asia by the
Russians. He is probably correct, as it has not been found elsewhere in North
America.

Hesperis Pallasii, T. and G., Kotzebue sound and Cape Lisburne.

Sisymbrium Sophia, L., var. sophioides, Kotzebue sound, and between Point
Barrow and Mackenzie river.

Erysimum lanceolatum, R. Br.; Arctic coast, Pullen.

Eutrema Edwardsii, R. Br., island of St. Lawrence.

Aphragmus Eschscholtzianus, Andrz.,OQunalashka.

Hutchinsia calycina, Desv., Kotzebue sound and Cape Kruzenstern

444 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

VIOLACEZX,

Viola biflora, L.; var. Sitchensis, Regel; V. Canadensis, in Bongard’s Vegeta-
tion of Sitka, where it is also cited as V. Scouleri, Dougl. The Sitkan plant
is certainly very variable; one form is without doubt Vv. glabella, Nutt; yet
after carefully comparing a ‘full suite of specimens I think Regel has correctly
assigned it to V. biflora, L. .

V. blanda, ?, Kotzebue sound; Botany Beechey’s Voyage. '

V. Langsdorfiii, Fisch. ; Kodiak and Ounalashka, Kellogg.

DROSERACE.

Drosera rotundifolia, L.3 Sitka.

Parnassia palustris, L.; Norton sound, H. M. Bannister; Fort Youkon, W.
H. Dall.

P. Kotzebuei, Cham. ; Port Clarence to Cape Lisburne, Bot. Herald.

CARYOPHYLLACEZ.

Dianthus repens, Willd.; Norton sound, Kotzebue sound, Cape Lisburne, and
Youkon River banks

Silene acaulis, L.; Kotzebue sound, Cape Lishurne, and between Point Bar-
row and Mackenzie river.

Melandryum apetalum, Fenzl, Kotzebue sound and on the northern coast ;
noted by Seemann as being quite common throughout western Esquimaux land.

Spergula saginoides, ne Sitka, Ounalashka, and Kotzebue sound.

S. rubra, T. and G., Sitka.

S. arvensis, L. ; Sitka, Ferd. Bischoff.

Arenaria verna, L., (var. hirta,) along the western shore of northern Alaska.

A. arctica, Fenzl, Kotzebue sound to Cape Lisburne.

A. macrocarpa, Fenzl, island of St. Lawrence and northwest coast.

Honkeneya peploides, Ehr., northern shores.

H. peploides, var. oblongifolia, Sitka and Kotzebue sound.

Merkia physodes, Fisch., Norton sound to Point Barrow.

Moehringia lateriflora, Fenzl, Sitka and Ounalashka; Fort Youkon, Rev. Mc-
Donald.

Stellaria media, Smith, Sitka and Ounalashka.

S. borealis, Bigelow, Sitka and Ounalashka.

S. borealis, var. crispa, Sitka and Ounalashka.

S. crassifolia, Ehr.; Sitka, Mertens.

S. humifusa, Rottbl. , Sitka; Norton sound, H. M. Bannister; Kotzebue sound.

Ss. longifolia, Muhl., Sitka and Kotzebue spate

S. longipes, Goldie; Kotzebue sound and Youkon river, W. H. Dall.

Cerastium vuleatum, L.; ©. alpinum, in Bongard’s Vegetation of Sitka.

C. vulgatum, L.; var. erandiflorum, Ledeb., in Flora Rossica ; ; Norton sound,
H. M. Bannister.

C. vulgatum, L., var. Behringianum, Ledeb., Flora Rossica; Kotzebue sound
to Cape Lisburne.

I am quite unable to separate by clear lines the numberless forms of C. vul-
gatum. Almost impossible extremes graduate into each other.

LINACER.
Linum perenne, L.; Fort Youkon, Antoine Houle.
GERANIACE.

Geranium erianthum, DC., Sitka and Ounalashka.

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA. 445

LEGUMINOS#.

Lupinus perennis, L., Kotzebue sound.

1. Nootkatensis, Donn, Ounalashka; Fort Youkon, Antoine Houle.

Trifolium repens, L., Sitka; fide Dr. A. Kellogg, in manuscript report.

Asiragalus frigidus, Gray, Phaca frigidus, L., Kotzebue sound.

A. alpinus, L., Kotzebue sound to Point Barrow; and Fort Youkon, W. H.
Dall.

A. polaris, Benth.; rediscovered by Seemann at Eschscholtz bay, in Kotze-
bue sound, during the voyage of the Herald. See Hooker, J. D., on Distribu-
tion of Arctic Plants.

A. hypoglottis, L.; Point Barrow and eastward, Pullen; Fort Youkon, W. H.
Dall.

Oxytropis campestris, D. C., including O. borealis, DC., Kotzebue sound.

O. Uralensis, L., Kotzebue sound and west coast of Alaska.

Vicia gigantea, Hook., V. Americana, Muhl.; Sitka, Kelloge; Arctic coast,
Pullen.

Lathyrus maritimus, Bigel., Sitka and western coast of Alaska.

Hedysarum boreale, Nutt, Kotzebue sound and Cape Lisburne.

H. Mackenzii, Richards., Youkon river, 50 miles west of Fort Youkon; ‘“sweet-
ish root, eaten by the Indians,—Dall.

ROSACEZX.

Spirea betuleefolia, Pall., Kotzebue sound.

S. Aruncus, L., Sitka.

S. salicifolia, L.; Point Barrow to Mackenzie river, Pullen.

S. pectinata, T. and G., Sitka and about Behring’s strait.

Dryas octopetala, L., Kotzebue sound to Port Clarence and northern shore.
I cannot do otherwise than unite D. integrifolia, Vahl., with this species; J.D.
Hooker has already done so in his paper above quoted.

-Geum macrophyllum, Willd., Sitka and Ounalashka.

G. calthifolium, Smith, Ounalashka and Sitka.

G. g@laciale, Adams, Cape Lisburne and Kotzebue sound; also found on
northern shore west of Mackenzie river.

G. Rossii, Sermge Ounalashka.

Sanguisorba Canadensis, L., banks of Buckland river, Ounalashka, Sitka,
Fort Youkon, and Youkon River banks.

Sibbaldia procumbens, L., Ounalashka.

Potentilla Norvegica, L.; Sitka and Point Barrow to Mackenzie river, Pullen.

P. Pennsylvanica, L., Kotzebue sound.

P. Anserina, L.; Sitka, Kotzebue sound, Point Barrow, northern coast; Fort
Youkon, Mr. Dall.

P. nana, Lehm., Kotzebue sound.

P. emarginata, Pursh, Kotzebue sound, and between Point Barrow and Mac-
kenzie river.

P. nivea, L., Kotzebue sound and coast west of Cape Bathurst; fide Botany
of the Herald.

P. villosa, Pall., Kotzebue sound, Ounalashka, and Sitka.

P. biflora, Lehm., Kotzebue sound and Cape Lisburne.

P. fruticosa, L., Kotzebue sound and banks of Buckland river.

P. palustris, Scop., Sitka and island of St. Lawrence.

Rubus spectabilis, Pursh, Sitka, Kodiak, and Cape St. Elias.

R. arcticus, L., Kotzebue sound.

R. pedatus, Smith, Sitka.

R. Chamemorus, L., Sitka and northern and western coast of Alaska.

446 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

R. Nutkanus, Mog.; Sitka, Ferd. Bischoff.

Rosa cinnamomea, L.; Point Barrow to Mackenzie river, Pullen; Fort Yonkon,
Dall.

Pyrus rivularis, Dougl., Sitka.

P. sambuu.folia, Chain. and Schlecht., Sitka.

ONAGRACEZ.

Epilobium angustifolium, L., Sitka, Ounalashka, northern and western shores
of Alaska, Fort Youkon, and banks of Youkon river.
‘ latifolium, L., Norton sound to Point Barrow, Sitka, and Ounalashka.
. luteum, Drege Sitka and Ounalashka.
: palustre, L., Kotzebue sound; fide Ledebour, in Flora Rossica.
. tetragonum, L., given as a native of this region.
. roseum, Schreb., Sitka.
. alpinum, L., Sitka.
. afline, Bongard, Sitka.
Circzea alpina, L., Sitka.
Hippuris v ulgaris, L., Sitka and Bay of Good Hope.
H. montana, Ledeb., Ounalashka.
H. maritima, Hellen., Kotzebue sound and delta of river Buckland.

fees cee ee

PORTULACACES.

Claytonia Virginica, L., Kotzebue sound.

C. sarmentosa, C. A. Meyer, Cape Lisburne and Kotzebue sound.

C. flagellaris, Bong., Sitka.

C. Sibirica, L., Sitka and Cape St. Elias.

C. Chamissonis, Eschscholtz, (C. aquatica, Nutt. in Flora North America,
Torrey and Gray ; fide Ledebour,) Ounalashka.

Montia fontana, L., Sitka, Ounalashka, Norton sound, and Kotzebue sound.

CRASSULACE.
Sedum Rhodiola, DC., Norton and Kotzebue sounds.

GROSSULACE.,

Ribes rubrum, L., Port Clarence and Kotzebue sound; Youkon river, Dall
R. Hudsonianum, Richards. ; Youkon river, Dall.

R. laxiflorum, Pursh, Cape St. Elias and Sitka.

R. bracteosum, Dougl., Sitka.

R. lacustre, Pursh; Point Barrow to Mackenzie river, Pullen.

SAXIFRAGACEZ.

Saxifraga oppositifolia, L., Ounalashkka, Cape Lisburne, Kotzebue sound, and
northern coast.

S. bronchialis, L., Kotzebue sound, Wainwright inlet, and Ounalashka.

S. nitida, Schreb., Ounalashka; fide Ledebour, Flora Rossica.

8. Eschscholtzii, Sternb., Cape Lisburne and Kotzebue sound.

S. flagellaris, Willd., Cape Lisburne, Kotzebue sound, and Assistance bay.

8. Hireulus, L., Norton sound to Point Barrow, and on northern coast.

S. tricuspidata, Retz, Kotzebue sound and Ounalashka; Fort Youkon, Mr.
Dall.

S. serpyllifolia, Pursh, Cape Lisburne, Ounalashka, and Island of St. Law-
rence.

8. leucanthemifolia, Lap., (S. stellaris, L., var. Brunoniana, Bongard, Veg.
Sitka,) Sitka and Cape Prince of Wales.

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA. 4497

S. Davurica, Pall., (Seemann has united with this species S. flabellifolia, and
apparently on good grounds,) Cape Lisburne, Kotzebue sound and Ounalashka.
8. nivalis, L., Ounalashka, Cape Lisburne, and other stations on the coast.

S. cernua, L., Point Barrow to Mackenzie river, Pullen.

S. hieracifolia, W. and K., island of St. Lawrence and Kotzebue sound.

S. Nelsoniana, Don, (not of Hooker and Arnott, in botany of Beechey’s Voy-
age,) Norton sound, H. M. Bannister.

S. spicata, Don, Sledge island and Cape Prince of Wales.

S. punctata, L., S. estivalis, Fischer, Sitka, Ounalashka, and Kotzebue
sound.

8. arguta, Don, “northwest coast.” Where?

8. nudicaulis, Don, between Norton and Kotzebue sounds; jide Ledebour,
FI. Ross.

S. heteranthera, ee S. Mertensiana, Bong., Veg., Sitka; fide Lede-
bour, S. estivalis, var. T. T. and G., Sitka.

8. ’exilis, Steph., bays of Schischmareff and Eschscholtz; most likely, as sug-
gested by J.D. Hooker, only a weedy state of S. cernua, ie

S. Sibirica, L., Kotzebue sound.

S. rivularis, is Kotzebue sound.

S. cespitosa, ite Kotzebue sound.

S. exarata, Vill., Ounalashka, and Kotzebue sound.

S. sileniflora, Sternb., Kotzebue sound, and Ounalashka.

S. androsacea, L., is hardly likely to be identical with the plant said by
Pursh to inhabit the northwest coast ; I do not therefore include it in this list.

Boykinia Richardsonii, Saxifraga Richardsonii, Hook.; S. Nelsoniana, Hook.
and Arnott, in Botany of Beechey’s Voyage, tab. 29.

Leptarrhena pyrifolia, R. Br., Ounalashka and Cape Prince of Wales?

Chrysosplenium alternifolium, L., Kotzebue sound to Cape Lisburne.

Tellima grandiflora, Douel., Sitka and the islands adjacent the coast.

Tiarella trifoliata, L., Sitka and Alaskan coast.

Heuchera glabra, Willd.; H. divaricata, Fisch., Sitka.

UMBELLIFER.

Bupleurum ranunculoides, L., Port Clarence to Cape Lisburne; Norton
sound, H. M. Bannister.

Ligusticum Scoticum, L., Sitka, Kodiak, Kotzebue sound, and Norton sound.

Ose acer F ischeri, Win: Grab., ‘Sitka, Ounalashka, Kotzebue sound,
and Arctic coast.

Heracleum lanatum, Michx., Sitka.

Osmorrhiza nuda, Torr. ; O. brevistylus, Bongard, Vegetation of Sitka, Ouna-
lashka, and Sitka.

Archangelica officinalis, Hoffm., Ounalashka and Kotzebue sound; Sitka,
Kelloge.

A. Gmnelini, DC., Sitka, Ounalashka, and Kotzebue.

ARALIACE.

Panax horridum, Smith, Sitka and Kodiak.
Adoxa Moschatellina, L., Russian America, fide Ledebour ; what part?

CORNACEZ.

Cornus Suecica, L., common on western coast of Alaska.
C. Unalaschkensis, Ledebour, Ounalashka.

C. Canadensis, L., Sitka.

C. stolonifera, Michx.; Fort Youkon, Dall.

448 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

CAPRIFOLIACEX.

Sambucus pubens, Michx., Sitka.

Viburnum acerifolinm, L.; Fort Youkon, Dall.

V. pauciflorum, Pylaie; V. acerifolium, Bongard’s Veg. Sitka. The stipuli-
form appendages appear to be the only constant difference between these two
species in my specimens. They are quite variable in length of stamens and
shape of corolla.

Linnea borealis, Gronov., Norton and Kotzebue sounds, and Sitka and Ouna-
lashka.

RUBIACEX.,

Galium trifidum, L., Ounalashka and Sitka.

G. boreale, L.; G. rubioides, Hook. and Arnott, Bot. Beechey, fide Seemann,
Koizebue sound, River Buckland, Fort Youkon, and banks of the Youkon river.

G. triflorum, Michx., Sitka and Ounalashka.

G. aparine, L., Sitka and Ounalashka.

VALERIANACER.

Valeriana dioica, L., Norton sound.
V. capitata, Willd., Kotzebue sound to Cape Lisburne, Sitka; Point Barrow
to Mackenzie river, Pullen.

COMPOSITZ,

Nardosmia frigida, Hook., includes N. corymbosa, Hook.; Ounalashka, Nor-
ton sound; and the northern coast, Pullen.

Aster multiflorus, Ait. Perhaps we may include under this A. ramulosis,
Lindl., and A. falcatus, Lindl. If this be done, we have one polymorphic
species, ranging from Georgia to Point Barrow and Mackenzie river, and from
Massachusetts to the Rocky mountains; northern coast, Pullen.

A. peregrinus, Pursh, Ounalashka and Norfolk sound.

A. foliaceus, Lindl.; Ounalashka, Fischer.

A. salsuginosus, Richards., Sitka, Ounalashka, and Kotzebue sound.

A. alpinus, L., Ounalashka, 2,000 feet above the sea, fide Kelloge.

A. Sibiricus, L. ; including, after J. D. Hooker and Fries, A. montanus, Rich-

ards, and A. Richardsonii, Spr.; Kotzebue sound, Ounalashka, and Point Barrow,
Pullen.

Erigeron uniflorum, L. Followi ing Fries, I include under this species E. pul-
chellum, DC., as a variety. There is S unquestionably good ground for the union;
Ounalashka and Cape Lisburne.

E. glabellum, Nutt-;Wainwright inlet to Mackenzie river; var. asperum, Fort
Youkon, Dall., Rev. McDonald, and Antoine Houle.

Solidago Virga- -aurea, L., Ounalashka to Kotzebue sound, Cape Lisburne,
and on northern « coast; var. ‘multiradiata, Fort Youkon, Dall.

S. confertiflora, DC, Ounalashka and Cape Mulgrave; Kodiak, Dr. A. Kel-
logg.

Bec borealis, DC., Sitka.

P. Sibirica, Ounalashka and Eschscholtz bay.

P. speciosa, DC.; given by Ledebour on the authority of J. G. Gmelin as
a native of this 1 region. :

Achillea Millefolium, L., Norton sound, Ounalashka, Sitka, and Fort Youkon.

Leucanthemum integrifolium, DC; Kotzebue sound, island of St. Lawrence,
and from Point Barrow to Mackenzie river, Pullen.

L. arcticum, DC., Norton sound to Washington inlet.

Matricaria discoidea, DC., Sitka and Ounalashka.

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA 449

M. inodora, L., Kotzebue sound. M. inodora var. eligulata was also collected
both by Bannister and Seemann at Norton sound. This is not only destitute of
rays, but is also stouter, and may, as Mr. Seemann suggests, be entitled to spe-
cific rank.

Tanacetium Kotzebuense, Bess., Cape Espenberg, fide Ledebour ex Escholtz.

T. Huronense, Nutt, Fort Youkon, Dall.

Artemisia borealis, Pallas, Kotzebue sound and Arctic coast, and what seems
to be a variety with glomerate, almost capitate, inflorescence, from Sitka.

A vulgaris, L.; var. Tilesii, Fort St. Michaels and western and northern coasts.

A. glomerata, Ledeb.? Kotzebue sound.

A. androsacea, Seem,. Bot. Herald, tab. 6; A. glomerata of Hooker and
Arnott, Bot. Beechey, but not of Ledebour, fide Seemann. This, it is thought
by Dr. Hooker, may prove “an arctic tufted variety of some better known
plant.”

A. globularia, Cham., Ounalashka and island of St. Lawrence.

A. arctica, Less., Cape Lisburne and Point Hope, and possibly Sitka.

A. Chamissonis, Bess. Seemann states that though A. arctica and A. Chamis-
sonis are by some authors united, they may at once be distinguished by their
different habits. ;

A. Absinthium, L. Given by Ledebour, (Flora Rossica,) on the authority
of J. G. Gmelin, as a doubtful native of Russian America.

Gnaphalium sylvaticum, L., Russian America, fide Ledebour ex J. G..
Gmelin.

Antennaria alpina, Gaert.; including A., monocephala, DC., Kotzebue sound,
island of St. Lawrence and Ounalashka.

A. dioica, Gaert., islands adjacent to the American coast, Ledebour ex J. G.
Gmelin.

A. margaritacea, R. Br., Sitka, (Ferd. Bischoff,) and Ounalashka.

Arnica angustifolia, Vahl, Kotzebue sound and Fort Youkon, Dall.

A. Chamissonis, Less., Ounalashka.

A. obtusifolia, Less., Ounalashka.

A. Uunalaschkensis, Less., Ounalashka.

A. latifolia, Bong., Sitka.

Senecio resedifolius, Less., Cape Lisburne and Kotzebue sound.

S. frigidus, Less., Kotzebue sound, Cape Lisburne and island of St. Lawrence.

S. triangularis, Hooker, Sitka, Eschscholtz.

S. Pseudo-arnica, Less., common on western shore of Alaska; also on Cha-
misso island.

S. aureus, L., Fort Youkon, Antoine Houle.

S. lugens, Richards. Kotzebue sound and Cape of Good Hope; Fort Youkon,
Mr. Dall.

S. palustris, DC., Norton sound, Kotzebue sound, Wainwright inlet, and on
the northern shore.

8. Hookeri, IT’. and G., Kotzebue sound.

Saussurea alpina, L., Kotzebue sound. I here include §. monticola, which
Pullen found on the northern shore from Point Barrow to Mackenzie river.

S. subsinuata, Ledeb., Kotzebue sound, Bot. Herald, tab. 7.

Taraxacum Dens Leonis, Desf., Kotzebue sound to Point Hope and northern
coast, Ounalashka ; var. ceratophorum, Ounalashka and Norton sound.

T. palustre, DC., Kotzebue sound.

T. lyratum, DC., Ounalashka.

Mulgedium pulchellum, Nutt. Point Barrow to Mackenzie river, Pullen.

Nabalus alatus, Hooker, Ounalashka and Sitka.

Apargidium boreale, T’. and G., Sitka.

Hieracium triste, Willd., Ounalashka and Norfolk sound.

29 s 67

450 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA

CAMPANULACES.

Campanula dasyantha, M. a Bieb., Ounalashka and Cape Prince of Wales.
C. rotundifolia, L., C. heterodoxa, Vest., Sitka.

GC. uniflora, L., Kotzebue sound, Cape Lisburne, and Ounalashka.

C. lasiocarpa, Cham., Kotzebue sound and Ounalashka.

ERICACE.

Vaccinium Vitis-Idea, L., Ounalashka, St. Lawrence, Sitka; from Norton
sound to Point Barrow and on the northern coast.

V. myrtilloides, Hooker; Sitka, Ferd. Bischoff.

V. Myrtillus, L.; Sitka, Ferd. Bischoff.

V. Chamissonis, Bong., Sitka and Ounalashka.

V. ovalifolium, Smith; Sitka, Ferd. Bischoff.

V. parvifolinm, Smith; Sitka, Ferd. Bischoff.

V. salicinum, Cham. and Schlecht., Ounalashka.

V. ceespitosum, Michx., Sitka.

V. uliginosum, L., Sitka, Ounalashka, Kotzebue sound, and the northern coast.

Oxycoceus vulgaris, Pursh, Sitka, Ounalashka, and Kotzebue sound.

Arctostaphylos alpina, Spreng., Ounalashka ; Norton sound to Point Barrow ;
also on the Arctic coast.

A. Uva-ursi, Spreng., Ounalashka and Cape Prince of Wales, Arctic coast,
Pullen.

Andromeda polifolia, L., Sitka and Kotzebue sound.

Cassandra calyculata, Don, Kotzebue sound.

Cassiope lycopodioides, Don, Ounalashka.

C. tetragona, Don, Island of St. Lawrence, Kotzebue sound to Point Barrow,
and on the Arctic coast.

©. Mertensiana, Don, Sitka.

C. Stelleriana, DC., Sitka.

Phyllodoce Pallasiana, Don, Sitka and Ounalashka.

Menziesia ferruginea, Smith, Sitka, and Ounalashka.

Loiseleuria procumbens, Desy., Cape Lisburne and islands of Ounalashka and
Chamisso.

Rhododendron Lapponicum, Wahl., Port Clarence.

R. amtschaticum, Pall., Ounalashka.

Kalmia glauca, Ait., Sitka.

Ledum latifolium, Ait., Sitka.

L. palustre, L., Norton sound to Point Barrow and northern coast. This and
the preceding species should probably be united.

Cladothamnus pyroleeflorus, Bong., Sitka.

Pyrola rotundifolia, L., Ounalashka, Kotzebue sound, and northern coast.

P. minor, L., Ounalashka.

P. secunda, L., Sitka and Kotzebue sound.

Moneses grandiflora, Salisb., Sitka.

LENTIBULACEZ.

Pineuicula vulgaris, L., Sitka.

P. microceras, Willd., Ounalashka.

P- macroceras, Cham., Ounalashka.

P. villosa, L., islands of Chamisso and Ounalashka; also, Norton sound, H.
M. Bannister.

PRIMULACE.

Primula nivalis, Pall., islands of Ounalashka and St. Lawrence, and Kotze-

bue sound.

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA. 451

P. stricta, Hornem., after J. D. Hooker, 1. ¢., I include under this species
P. Hornemanniana and P. Mistassinica, both of C. and S. and of Michx.,
Kotzebue sound.

Androsace Chamejasme, Willd., Kotzebue sound to Wainwright inlet.

A. septentrionalis, L., Kotzebue sound and Chamisso island, Fort Youkon,
Antoine Houle.

A. villosa is stated by Ledebour to have been found at Kotzebue sound, in
Beechey’s Voyage. I see no record of it in Hooker and Arnott’s list of plants
collected there. Possibly it may be an oversight on Ledebour’s part.

Dodecatheon Meadia, L., Sitka, Kotzebue sound, and Cape Lisburne. I can
find no valid grounds "for keeping up the distinction between D. Meadia, D.
integrifolinm, and D. frigidum. The last is probably the most marked variety
of the number; but after a careful comparison of the forms comprising the genus
I think it safest to regard them as varieties of a widely distributed polymor-
phic species.

Glaux maritima, L., Sitka.

Trientalis Europea, L., Sitka, Norton sound; H. M. Bannister.

GENTIANACEZ.

Gentiana Amarella, L., Sitka.

G. acuta, Michx., Ounalashka.

G. tenella, Rottb., Kotzebue sound.

G. detonsa, Fries; Poimt Barrow to Mackenzie river, Pullen; Fort Youkon,
Antoine Houle.

G. propinqua, Richards.; G. Rurickiana, Kotzebue sound, Port Clarence, and
Norton sound, H. M. Bannister.

G. Aleutica, Cham., Ounalashka.

G. prostrata, Henke, Ounalashka and Kotzebue sound.

G. glauca, Pall., Kotzebue sound and Wainwright inlet.

G. platypetala, Griesb.; Sitka, Eschscholtz.

G. Douglasiana, Bong., Sitka.

Pleurogyne rotata, Griesb., Kotzebue sound, river Buckland and Arctic
coast.

Swertia perennis, L., Kodiak, Dr. A. Kellogg; §. perennis, L., var. obtusa,
Kodiak, Dr. A. Kellogg.

Villarsia Crista-galli, Griesb., Sitka.

Menyanthes trifoliata, L., Ounalashka and Sitka.

POLEMONTACEZ.

Phlox Sibirica, L., Kotzebue sound.

Polemonium ceruleum, L., Norton sound to Point Barrow; islands of St.
George, Ounalashka, and Chamisso; Fort Youkon, Dall. I recognize but two
species of this genus belonging to northern North America—the one, P. reptans,
L., which is w ell marked, and the other P. ceruleum, L., as nade up of all the
others. Numerous as the forms and wide as the extremes of the latter aggregate
species are, they can easily be connected. Even P. pulchellum, Bunge, which
is perhaps the best marked variety, shades off by insensible evadations into the
others.

“)iapensia Lapponica, L., island of St. Lawrence.

BORRAGINACEA.

Mertensia maritima, Don, Sitka, Norton sound to Point Barrow and Cape
Bathurst.

M. paniculata, Don, M. pilosa, DC.; Kotzebue sound; Fort Youkon, Antoine
Houle and Mr. Dall.

M. Sibirica, Don; M. denticulata, Don, Kotzebue sound.

452 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

Myosotis sylvatica, Hoffm., Cape Lisburne and Arctic coast.

Echinospermum Redow ski, Lehm.? Fort Youkon, Rev. McDonald.

Eritrichium villosum, Bunge. I include here, after J. D. Hooker, 1. ¢.. E,
aretioides A. DC., which form is found at Cape Lisbure and island of St. Law-
rence, Tab. viii, Bot. Herald.

E. plebejum, Alph. DC., Ounalashka.

HYDROPHYLLACER,

Romanzoffia Unalaschkensis, Cham., Ounalashka.
R. Sitchensis, Cham., Sitka.

SCROPHULARIACEZ.

Pentstemon frutescens, Lamb., Ounalashka. Not found since Pallas is said
to have discovered it in Kamtschatka and in the island of Ounalashka.

Mimulus luteus, L., M. guttatus, DC., Cape St. Elias, Ounalashka, Kodiak,
and Sitka.

Veronica Anagallis, L., Sitka.

V. Americana, Schweinitz, Sitka, Ferd. Bischoff.

V. Beccabunga, L., Ounalashka.

V. Stelleri, Pall., Ounalashka.

V. alpina, L., Sitka and Ounalashka.

V. serpyllifolia, L., Sitka and Ounalashka.

Castilleja pallida, Kunth, Sitka, Kotzebue sound, Chamisso island and Arctio
coast; Fort Youkon, Dall. J.D. Hooker has included, and I think justly,
under this species C. septentrionalis, Lindl. Professor Gray has also united
them, in the last edition of his Manual of Botany; also, in his revision of the
genus, (see Am. Jour. Sci., second series, vol. xxxiv, p. 44.)

C. parviflora, Bong., Sitka. ‘This is apparently the commonest species and
of widest range west of the Rocky mountains, extending from Russian America
to southern California.”—Gray, 1. ¢.

Rhinanthus Crista-galli, L., Ounalashka.

Pedicularis verticillata, L., Sitka and the islands generally; also, Kotzebue
sound,

P. Chamissonis, Stev., Ounalashka.

P. pedicellata, Bunge, P. nasuta, Bong., in Veg. Sitka, non M. a Bieb. fide
Ledeb. Fl. Rossica, Sitka.

P. subnuda, Benth., Sitka, Barclay.

P. palustris, L., Arctic America, at Bay of Good Hope, fide Ledebour in FI.
Ross.

P. euphrasioides, Steph., Norton and Kotzebue sounds; islands of Chamisso
and Kodiak.

P. Sudetica, L., Cape Lisburne, Kotzebue sound, Arctic coast and island of
St. Lawrence. J.D. Hooker suggests uniting with this P. Langsdorfhi. On
his authority I admit the reduction.

P. hirsuta, L., including here P. lanata, Willd., as done by Bentham, fide J.
D. Hooker; islands of St. “George and St. Lawrence, Kotzebue sound and Arctic
coast.

P. versicolor, Wahlenb., Kotzebue sound and island of St. Lawrence.

P. capitata, Adams, Kotzebue sound, Arctic coast and Ounalashka.

OROBANCHACES.
Boschniakia glabra, C. A. Meyer, Sitka and Kotzebue sound.
SELAGINACES.

Gymnandra Gmelini, Cham. et Schlecht., Ounalashka, St. Lawrence island ?
G. Stelleri, Cham. et Schlecht., Kotzebue sound, island of St. Lawrence?

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA. 453

LABIATZ.

Dracocephalum payiflorum, L., Fort Youkon, Antoine Houle.

Brunella vulgaris, L., Sitka and Ounalashka.

Galeopsis Tetrahitl.; Sitka, Kellogg. Introduced, most likely. It is, however,
found in Kamtschatka, but not being known to exist elsewhere between these
two points we can hardly account for its presence in Sitka by strictly natural
agencies.

PLUMBAGINACE.

Statice Armeria, L., Ounalashka, Kotzebue sound, and northern coast.

PLANTAGINACEZ.

Plantago major, L., Sitka, banks of Youkon river, Dall.

P. macrocarpa, Cham. et Schlecht., Sitka and Ounalashka.

P. maritima, L., Sitka and Ounalashka.

P. media, L., Russian America, fide J. G. Gmelin. What part ?

POLYGONACEX.

Oxyria reniformis, Hook., islands of Sitka, Ounalashka and St. Lawrence,
Kotzebue sound, Cape Lisburne and Arctic coast.

Rumex salicifolius, Weinm., Sitka.

R. Acetosa, L., Kotzebue sound.

R. domesticus, Hartm., Sitka, Ounalashka, and Kotzebue sound to Wain-
wright inlet.

Polygonum Bistorfa, L., Kotzebue sound to Point Barrow and northern
coast.

P. viviparum, L., Sitka, Ounalashka, and along the coast generally.

P. polymorphum, Ledeb., var. lapathifolium, Ledeb., Kotzebue sound. P.
alpinum, Hook. et Arnott in Beechey’s voyage, fide Ledebour, Kotzebue sound.
Professor Gray informs me that one of the doubtful forms I have sent him
from Mr. Dall’s Fort Youkon collection is exactly P. alpinum as found at Kotze-
bue sound. It has an exserted broadly winged achenium. The lower leaves,
however, are not so reduced as in P. tripterocarpum, the description of which I
append in a foot-note. I have, however, some older fruit of it than he had, and
am led to think it may yet prove P. tripterocarpum.—Gray. The description
of which I insert below.*

P. aviculare, L., Sitka.

*“ Polygonum tripterocarpum, Gray, n. sp., caule erecto vel assurgente simplici vel
parce ramoso, longitudinaliter striato glabro vel ad nodos deorsumque breviter retrorso
pubescente ; foliis (inferioribus ad ochream reductis) patentibus lineari-lanceolatis acumi-
natis basi angustatis breviter petiolatis glabris vel subtus ad nervum puberulis margine
ciliatis undulatisque inferioribus supra basim tertia parte superioribus ime basi insertis ;
ochreis laxis nervoso—striatis rufis glabris vel basi pubescentibus ; panicula angusta foliata ;
bracteis latis 1-2 flores; pedicellis exsertis florum sequantibus supra medium articulatis
sepalis ovalibus vel obovatis obtusis; staminibus ovarii dimidium eequantibus ; achenio
exserto calyce 3-4—plo longiore obovato late trialato stylis 3 recurvatis coronato stigmatibus
capitatis ; semine (immaturo) valde stipitato.”’

Coal bay, J. Small; Arakamtchetchene island, C. Wright. The specimens from two or
three rather remote localities are 8-15 inches high, erect or slightly assurgent at the base ;
the short lower joints two or three times as long as the rather inflated leafless sheaths.
Some of the specimens are clothed at and below the nodes of the middle of the stem witha
more or less dense retrorse pubescence, while the lower and upper parts are nearly or quite
smooth. The points, however, in which they seem to differ most from P. polymorphum,
P. divaricatum, and other allied species, are in their conspicuously exserted and broadly
winged achenium as well as in their rather strict, nearly unbranched habit.” Professor
Gray’s MSS. (Mr. Dall found the same species at Plover bay, and if the form P. polymor-
phum var. lapathifolium does not prove P. tripterocarpum it is likely the latter may yet be
found on the American side. ) ;

454 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

EMPETRACEZ.

Empetrum nigrum, L., Sitka, St. Lawrence, Ounalashka, Norton sound to
Point Barrow and Arctic coast.

SALICACE.+

Salix myrtilloides, L., Kotzebue sound.

S. Lapponum, L., Kotzebue sound.

S. glauca, L., Cape Espenberg and Chamisso island.

S. arctica, Pall., Ounalashka and Kotzebue sound.

S. myrsinites, L., island of St. Lawrence, fide Ledebour.

8. ovalifolia, Trautvett.; S. Uva-ursi, Seemann, Bot. Herald, (fide Ander-
son,) Kotzebue sound, Cape Espenberg, and Island of Ounalashka.

S. rhamnifolia, (Pall?) Ounalashka.

S. glacialis, Anders., between Cape Barrow and Mackenzie river, “ Captain
Pullen.” :

S. reticulata, L., Ounalashka, Kotzebue sound, Cape Lisburne, and Arctic
coast.

S. phlebophyla, Anders., Ounalashka, island of St. Lawrence, and Kotzebue
sound.
. polaris, Wahl., Wainwright inlet.
. speciosa, Hook. et Arn., in Bot. Beechey, Kotzebue sound.
. Richardsoni, Hook., Kotzebue sound to Cape Lisburne.
. Barclayi, Anders., Kodiak.
. phyllicoides, Anders., western Arctic America, (Avatscha bay, Seemann.)
. cordata, Muhl., var. Mackenziana, Point Barrow, and along Arctic coast.
This form Anderson regards as a hybrid between 8. cordata and S. vagante.

S. Sitchensis, Ledeb., Sitka.

Populus balsamifera, L., Chilcaht, Kellogg; Youkon river, Dall.

TR NN TR

URTICACEA.
Urtica dioica, L., Sitka, fide Bongard.
BETULACE.

Betula glandulosa, Michx., Youkon river, Dall.

B. nana, L., Norton sound, Chamisso island, and Point Barrow.

B. Ermani, Cham., Ounalashka.

Alnus viridis, DC., Sitka, Ounalashka, Norton sound, Kotzebue sound, and
northern coast, Youkon river, Dall.

A. rubra, Bong., Sitka.

A. ineana, Willd., Kotzebue sound.

MYRICACES.
Myrica Cale, L., Sitka.
CONIFER Z.*

Abies Canadensis, Michx., Sitka.
A. Mertensiana, Bong., Sitka.

t Mr. Dall collected, in the spring of 1867, a large number of willows, but owing to his
short stay in a given locality was of course unable to match the sexes or to obtain the
leaves. For want of material I am therefore compelled to pass them by.

* For want of material I am obliged to accept the determination of Ledebour’s Flora Ros-
sica in regard to this order almost ‘‘in toto.” I have, however, kept up the distinction
between Abies and Pinus for manifest reasons.

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA. 455

A. Sitchensis, Bong., Sitka.

A. alba, Michx. , northwestern Alaska, where, according to Seemann, it grows
from twenty to tw enty- five feet high.

Pinus Cembra, iby , Kotzebue sound , fide Bongard and Hooker and Arnott.

P. contorta, Dougl., Sitka. I can ‘hardly think this is P. inops of Ait., as is
alleged by some authors.

Thuja excelsa, Bong., Sitka and southern Russian America.

Juniperus nana, Willd,, Sitka.

SALSOLACE.

Teloxys aristata, Moquin-Tandon ; Russian America, Pallas.

Atriplex littoralis, L., Kotzebue and Norton sound.

A. Gmelini, C. A. Meyer, Bong., Veg. Sitka, Kotzebue sound and Sitka.
Corispermum hyssopifolium, Stee , Point Barrow to Mackenzie river, Pullen.
Blitum capitatum, L., Fort Youkon, Rev. McDonald.

TYPHACEA.

Sparganium natans, L., Kotzebue sound and Ounalashka.

AROIDEZ.

Lysichiton Kamtschatcense, Schott ; Draconticum Kamtschatcense, L.; Sym-
plocarpus Kamtschaticus, Bongard ; Arctiodracon Kamtschaticum, Gray on
the Botany of Japan, in Nominee of American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
new series, vol. 2, pp. 408-9; Sitka, Bischoff. I give the description and
some remarks on the affinities of this plant, by Professor Gray, 1. c.

Lysichiton Schott. ‘“Spadix nudus, scapum terminans, cylindricus. Flores
hermaphroditi, Perigynium tetraphy dines basi ovaril adnatum, phyllis obovatis
membranaceissubconcavis. Stamina, 4; filamenta plana ; antherze extrorse, bilo-
culares, loculis ovalibus rima longitudinali ex apice fere ad basim dehiscentibus.
Ovarium biloculare, rarius abortu uniloculare; stylus conicus, stigmate depresso
simplici terminatus. Ovula in loculis solitaria, disseipmento paulo supra basim
inserta, horizontalia, orthotropa. Pericarpia carnosa, 1-2 sperma, in recepata-
culum commune spongiosum coalescentia, stylo crasso-conico acuto apiculata,
Semine haud visa.*—Herbe paludose, boreali-Pacifice, acaules; foliis magnis
Symplocarpi cum scapo elongato coétaneis e rhizomate crasso horizontali ortis ;
spatha vaginante superne in limbum lanceolatum seu ellipticum coloratum
explanatum.

From our skunk cabbage the new genus is distinguished by the elongated
scape, the membranaceous spatha or sheath, the spiciform spadix, the membra-
naceous perianth, the horizontal orthotropous ovules, and probably by the nature
of the fruit, which I have not seen mature. [ lay little stress upon the bilocular
ovary, because one of the cells is occasionally abortive or wanting in the Japan-
ese plant, and because the ovary of Symplocarpus itself not rarely exhibits ves-
tiges of a second cell.” Gray, 1. .

NAIDACE,

Zostera marina, L., Ounalashka.

Potamogeton natans, L., Sitka.

P. rufescens, Besser, Ounalashka.

* « Semen ventre planum, dorso convexum, ambitu ellipticum. Embryo macropodus.”—
Prodromus Systematis Aroideum, p. 420, H. G. Schott.

456 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

JUNCAGINACE.

Triglochin maritimum, L., Sitka.
T, palustre, L., Ounalashka.

ORCHIDACEA.

Corallorhiza Mertensiana, Lindl., Sitka.

C. innata, R. Br., Kotzebue sound and Ounalashka.
Microstylis diphyllos, Lindl, Ounalashka.
Calypso borealis, Salisb., Sitka; Ferd. Bischoff.
Orchis latifolia, L., Ounalashka.

Platanthera obtusata, Lindl., Kotzebue sound.
P. Schischmareffiana, Lindl., Ounalashka.

P. Koenigii, Lindl., Ounalashka.

P. dilatata, Lindl, Sitka and Ounalashka.
Peristylus Chorisianus, Lindl., Ounalashka.

P. bracteatus, Lindl., Ounalashka.

Listera cordata, R. Br. Sitka and Ounalashka.
L. Eschscholtziana, Cham., Ounalashka.
Spiranthes Romanzoffiana, Cham., Ounalashka.
Cypripedium guttatum, Swartz, Ounalashka.

IRIDACEZ.

Sisyrinchium Bermudiana, L., var. anceps., Sitka.
Iris Sibirica, L., Norton and ‘Kotzebue sounds.

SMILACEA.

Streptopus amplexifolius, DC., Sitka and Ounalashka.

S. roseus, Michx., Sitka.

Smilacina bifolia, Ker., Sitka. The large-leaved form appears most common
by far, if we may judge "from the proportion of it in the collections made at
Sitka.

LILIACEZ.

Lloydia serotina, Reichenb., St. Lawrence and Ounalashka islands, Cape Lis-
burne and Kotzebue sound.

Fritillaria Kamtschatcensis, Fisch., Sitka, and Ounalashka, and Cape Prince
of Wales.

Allium Scheenoprasum, L., Port Clarence, Norton and Kotzebue sounds,
and rapids of Youkon river, Dall.

Zygadenus glaucus, Nutt., Kotzebue sound; Port Clarence, Arctic coast, and
Fort Youkon, Dall.

Veratrum Eschscholtzii, Gray, Sitka.

Tofieldia coccinea, Richards., Kotzebue sound, Chamisso island, and Cape
Lisburne.

T. glutinosa, Pursh, Sitka.

JUNCACEZ.

Luzula pilosa, Willd., Sitka and Kotzebue sound.

. spadicea, DC., Sitka, Ounalashka, and Kotzebue sound.

arcuata, Wahl., Kotzebue sound, islands of St. Lawrence and Ounalashka.
campestris,, DC., Ounalashka, Sitka, and Kotzebue sound.

. spicata, DC., island of St. Latvrence and Kotzebue sound.

alls alls

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA, 457

Juncus Balticus, Dethard, Cape Espenberg, Norton sound, and Ounalashka.
. arcticus, Willd., Sitka.

. ensifolius, Wickstrém, Ounalashka.

. faleatus, E. Meyer, Ounalashka and Sitka.

. castanens, Smith, Sitka, Ounalashka, and Kotzebue sound.

. biglumis, L., Kotzebue sound.

. Drummondi, Ledeb., Ounalashka.

. paradoxus, Meyer, is given by Ledebour as a doubtful native of Sitka.

Sy eS

CYPERACEZ.

Scirpus czspitosus, L., Ounalashka and Sitka.

S. sylvaticus, L., Sitka.

Eriophorum vaginatum, L., Sitka.

E. Scheuchzeri, Hoppe, Kotzebue sound, and Sitka, fide Mertens.

E. Chamissonis, C. A. Meyer, Sitka and Ounalashka.

E. callitrix, Cham., Island of St. Lawrence.

E. latifolium, L., including E. polystachyum, E. angustifolium, and E. gra-
cile, Sitka, Norton sound to Point Barrow and the Arctic coast. “'The silky
hair of the cotton grasses is used by the Esquimaux as a substitute for tinder,”
Seemann.

Rhynchospora alba, Vahl., Sitka.

Elyna spicata, Schrad., Arctic coast, Pullen.

Carex leiocarpa, C. A. Meyer, Sitka and Ounalashka.

. micropoda, C. A. Meyer, Ounalashka.

. cireinata, C. A. Meyer, Sitka and Ounalashka.

. nigricans, C. A. Meyer, Sitka and Ounalashka.

. pauciflora, Lightf., Sitka.

. elongata, L., Sitka.

. leporina, L., Ounalashka.

. lagopina, Wahl., Kotzebue sound.

Norvegica, Willd., Sitka and Kotzebue sound

. canescens, L., Sitka.

. stellulata, Good., Sitka and Ounalashka.

. remota, L., Sitka.

. Buxbaumii, Wahl, Sitka.

. Mertensii, Prescott, Ounalashka and Sitka.

. atrata, L., Kotzebue sound.

. Gmelini, Hook., Sitka, Ounalashka, and Kotzebue sound.
. livida, Wahl., Sitka.

. capillaris, L.; Ounalashka, Eschscholtz.

. variflora, Smith, Ounalashka; and Bay of Schischmareff, Eschscholtz.
. rotundata, Wahl., Kotzebue sound.

. macrocheta, C. A. Meyer, Ounalashka and Sitka.

. melanocarpa, Cham., Island of St. Lawrence.
stylosa, C. A. Meyer, Sitka and Ounalashka.
limosa, L., Sitka.

. saxatilis, Wahl., Kotzebue sound and Norton sound.
. eespitosa, L., Sitka and Kotzebue sound.

. stricta, Good., Kotzebue sound.

. aquatilis, Wahl., Ounalashka and Kotzebue sound.

. eryptocarpa, C. A. Meyer, Sitka, Ounalashka, and Kotzebue sound.
. acuta, L., Sitka.

. vesicaria, L., Sitka and Kotzebue sound.

. fuliginosa, Sternb., Kotzebue and Norton sound.*

Co |G 2 @ 2 Gee Ce Oe Ce Ge ee 22 OO eee eee @

* Not having access to Boott’s great work on Carex I have followed Ledebour as the
latest available authority. Most likely some modification of this list will yet be needed.

A588 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

GRAMINEZ.

Hordeum pratense, L., Sitka and Ounalashka.

H. jubatum, L.; Fort Youkon, Antoine Houle.

Elymus Sibiricus, L., Sitka.

E. arenarius, L., Norton sound to Point Barrow.

E. mollis, Trin., Sitka, Norton and Kotzebue sounds.

Triticum repens, L., Kotzebue sound.

Festuca ovina, L., Kotzebue sound.

I. rubra, L., Sitka and Kotzebue sound ; united by Messrs. Hooker and Gray
with I. ovina.

F. subulata, Bong., Sitka.

Bromus ciliatus, L., Kotzebue sound.

B. subulatus, Ledeb., Ounalashka.

B. Aleutensis, Trin., Ounalashka.

B. Sitchensis, Bong., Sitka.

Poa stenantha, Trin., Ounalashka, Sitka, and in America Arctica ad Fretum
Senjawin, Ledebour Flora Rossica, vol. iv, p. 372.1

P. flavicans, Ledeb., Ounalashka.

P. arctica, R. Br., Kotzebue sound, Ounalashka, and Sitka.

P. cenisia, All., Ounalashka, Cape Lisburne, and Kotzebue sound. I here
include P. abbreviata, Br.

P. rotundata, Trin., Ounalashka.

P. nemoralis, L., Kotzebue sound.

P. annua, L., Sitka.

P. pratensis, L., Kotzebue sound and Ounalashka.

Colpodium fulvum, Ledeb., Kotzebue sound.

Dupontia psilosantha, Rupr., Kotzebue sound.

Catabrosa aquatica, Beauv., Sitka; fide Ledebour

C. algida, Fries, Kotzebue sound.

Atropis maritima, Ledeb., Sitka.

A. angustata, Ledeb., Kotzebue sound.

Glyceria aquatica, Smith, Sitka.

G. glumaris, Ledeb., islands of St. Lawrence and Sitka, peninsula of Alaska,
and Jotzebue sound.

Hierochloa borealis, R. and Schult., Ounalashka and Kotzebue sound.

H. alpina, R. and Schult., Ounalashka, Kotzebue sound, and Arctic coast.

Trisetum subspicatum, Trin., Ounalashka and Kotzebue sound; and from
Point Barrow to Mackenzie river, Pullen.

T. sesquifloram, Trin., Ounalashka.

T. cernuum, Trin., Sitka.

Aira ceespitosa, Trin., Ounalashka, and main land.

A. cespitosa, Trin., var. Bottnica; Sitka, Bischoff and Kellogg. In looking
over the specimens of A. ceespitosa in Herb., Gray, I find one from the Sandwich
islands and another from Fort Vancouver, both of which appear identical with
our forms from Sitka. ‘They having been authentically named by Colonel Munro
as Aira ceespitosa, var. Bottnica, I have labelled the Sitkan specimens in accord-
anco with his determination. ‘Trinius, in Icones Graminum, in the text fronting
his A. flexuosa, var. Bottnica, speaks of an Aira very similar to A. Bottnica

+ Not being able to find fretum Senjawin in Arctic American maps, I applied to Prof.
S. F. Baird for a solution of the difficulty. He informs me it is on the Asiatic side, latitude
64° 45’ north, longitude 172° 35' west, between Kayne island and the Asiatic shore. Misled
by Ledebour placing the strait on the American siJe, I concluded it must be the Sezuam pass
in the Aleutian island chain. However, as Professor Baird is positive, we may regard the
locality as settled. Dr. J. D. Hooker seems te have experienced a similar difficulty in
regard to the same locality. ~

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA. A59

being found at Sitka by Mertens. Bongard is silent on the subject in “ Vegeta-
tion of Sitka,” though I find in Herb., Gray, a specimen similar to the Sitkan
ones marked (but from Ounalashka) as A. ceespitosa, var. longiflora. ‘Trinius,
l. c., vol. iii, writes of the same plant from Sitka, " ceeterum hac varietate tran-
situs quidam sistitur ab A. ceespitosa ad flexuosam ;” which statement seems pro-
bable enough.

A. arctica, Trin., Kotzebue sound, Ounalashka, Sitka, and interior of the
country.

A. atropurpurea, Scheele, Sitka, Ounalashka, and from Point Barrow to Mac-
kenzie river.

Calamagrostis Aleutica, ‘Trin., Ounalashka and Sitka.

C. purpurascens, R. Br., Fort Youkon. Rev. McDonald. Gray and Torrey
regard this as a form of C. ’ sylvatica, DC.

© strigosa, Wahl., Sitka. Munro unites with this C. Aleutica, Bong.

C. neglecta, Geertner, Kotzebue sound.

C. Lapponica, Trin., Ounalashka.

C. Canadensis, Beauv., Kotzebue sound.

C. Langsdorflii, Trin., Kotzebue sound, Eschscholtz.

Arctagrostis latifolia, Ledeb., Kotzebue sound and Arctic coast.

Cinna latifolia, Ledeb., Sitka.

Agrostis equivalvis, Trin., Sitka and Ounalashka.

A. exarata, Trin., Ounalashka, Sitka, and Kodiak.

A. geminata, Trin., Ounalashka.

A. laxiflora, R. Br.; Ounal ashka, Mertens.

Phleum pratense, i Alaska, where it thrives well, according to Kellogg
but in what part of Alaska?

P. alpinum, L., Sitka and Ounalashka, Kotzebue sound, island of St. Law-
rence, (and Arctic coast ?)

Alopecurus alpinus, Sm., island of St. Lawrence, Kotzebue sound, (and Arctic
coast ?)

EQUISETACE.

Equisetum arvense, L., Sitka and Ounalashka.
E. sylvaticum, L., Kotzebue sound.

LYCOPODIACE. :

Lycopodium Selago, L., Sitka, Ounalashka, and Kotzebue sound.
L. annotinum, L., Sitka, Ounalashka, and Kotzebue sound.

L. Sitchense, Ruprecht, Sitka.

L. complanatum, Sitka; fide Ledebour, Flora Rossica.

L. alpinum, L., Ounalashka.

L. dendroideum, Michx., Sitka; fide Ledebour, Flora Rossica.

L. clavatum, L., Sitka and Ounalashka.

Selaginella spinosa, Beauv., Ounalashka, Eschscholtz.

FILICES.

Ophioglossum vulgatum, L., Ounalashka, Eschscholtz.

Botrychium Lunaria, Sw artz : Ounalashka, Chamisso.

B. rutaceum, Willd.; Ounalashka, Chamisso and Eschscholtz.

Poly podium vulgare, L., Sitka and Ounalashke

P. Phegopteris, L.; Ounalashka, Mertens.

P. Dryopteris, L. Ounalashka and Kodiak.

Aspidium Lonchitis, Swartz; Ounalashka, Chamisso and Eschscholtz.
A. aculeatum, Swartz, Sitka.

460 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

A. spinnlosum, Swartz, Sitka, Kotzebue sound, and Ounalashka.

A. fragrans, Swartz, Sitks ka, Kotzebue and Norton sounds.
Cystopteris fragilis, "Bernh., Ounalashka and Kotzebue sound.
Asplenium Felix-foemina, Bemnh., Ounalashka, and Sitka. Kodiak ?
Blechnum Spicant, Roth., Sitka; (Lomaria Spicant, Desv.)

Pteris aquilina, L., Sitka.

P. argentea, 8. G. Gmelin, (America-Rossica, Steller ex Pallas.)
Allosorus Sitchensis, Ruprecht, Sitka. (Mihi ignota, Ledebour.)

A. foveolatus, Ruprecht, Ounalashka and Kodiak.

Adiantum pedatum, L., var., Ounalashka.

A.N'O PSE Y I ES:.
[DETERMINED AND COMPILED LY THOMAS P. JAMES.]

MUSCI.

Sphagnum cymbifolium, Ehrh.; Sitka, Bischoff.

S. teres, Wahl. Nulato, W. H. Dall.

S. cuspidatum, var. recurvum, Beauv., Sitka.

S. acntifolium, Ehrh., Sitka and Alaska.

S. fimbriatum, Wilson; Kotzebue sound, B. Seemann.

S. fimbriatum, var. ramis denso compactis, foliis brevioribus subellipticis ;
Norton sound.

Weisia serrulata, Funk, Nulato.

Dicranum crispum, Hedw., Kotzebue sound.

D. polycarpum, Ehrh., Alaska.

D. heteromallum, Hedw., Alaska.

D. congestum, Brid., Sitka.

D. scoparium, Hedw., Kotzebue sound and Alaska.

D. elongatum, Schweg., Kotzebue sound.

D. palustre, Brid., var. fohis planis nec undulatis, Sitka and Nulato.

D. majus, Smith, Sitka.

D. Schraderi, Schw ee@., Kotzebue sound.

Barbula Milleri, Br. and Sch.; Alaska, Kellogg.

Ceratodon purpureus, Brid., Kotzebue sound, Sitka, and Nulato.

Distichium capillaceum, Br. and Sch., Kotzebue sound and Nulato.

Tetraphis pellucida, Hedw., Sitka.

Ulota Barclayi, Mitten ; Sitka, Barclay.

Racomitrium aciculare, Brid., Sitka.

R. fasciculare, Brid., Alaska.

R. canescens, var. ericoides, Brid., Sitka.

R. lanuginosum, Br. and Sch., Kotzebue sound.

Tayloria serrata, Br. and Sch., Sitka.

Tetraplodon mnioides, Hedw., Kotzebue sound and Sitka.

Splachnum sphericum, Hedw. ., Norton sound.

S. vasculosum, Linn., Sitka.

T. urceolatus, Br. and Sch., Kotzebue sound.

Encalypta rhabdocarpa, Schweeg., Nulato.

Funaria hygrometrica, Hedw., Iktigalik.

Bartramia Menziesii, Hook., Western Russian America.

Conostomum boreale, Swartz, Kotzebue sound.

Bryum polymorphum, Br. and Sch., Sitka.

B. nutans, Schreb., Kotzebue sound, Sitka and Iktigalik.

B. erndum, Schreb., Iktigalik.

B. pyriforme, Hedw. 5 Iktiealik.

B. lacustre, Brid., Kotzebue sound.

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA. A4G1

B. inclinatum, Br. and Sch., Kotzebue sound.
B. capillare, Hedw., Sitka.
B. argenteum, Linn., Iktigalik.
Mnium punctatum, Hedw., Sitka.
M. rostratum, Schweeg., Kotzebue sound.
M. aftine, var. Zelatum, Br. and Sch., Sitka.
M. Menziesii, Hook., Sitka.
Aulacomnion turgidum, Schweee., Kotzebue sound.
A. palustre, Schweg., Kotzebue sound, Sitka and Nulato.
Pogonatum capillare, Michx. and Brid., Kotzebue sound and Sitka, Alaska.
P. alpinum, Linn., var. foliis capsulis longioribus, Kotzebue sound and Sitka.*
. alpinum, var. furcatum, Brid., Schischimareff bay, (Chamisso.)
. alpinum, var. campanulatum, Brid., Ounalashka, (Chamisso.)
. atrovirens, Mitten, Sitka, (Barclay.)
- contortum, Menz., northwestern coast of Russian America, (Menzies.)
. dentatum, Menz., northwestern coast of Russian America.
Polytrichum gracile, Menz., Kotzebue sound.
P. formosum, Hedw., Alaska, (Kelloge.)
P. cavifolium, Wilson in Bot. Herald, (Seeman,) Kotzebue sound.
P. piliferum, Schreb., Alaska.
P. juniperinum, Willd., Kotzebue sound and Nulato.
P. juniperinum, var. strictum, Br. and Sch., Kotzebue sound and Sitka.
P. juniperinum, var. foliis distantibus, angustioribus patulis, Kotzebue sound,
Bitka, and Nulato.
P. commune, Linn., Sitka.
Antitrichia curtipendula, Brid., Sitka.
A. Californica, Lesqx., Alaska.
Neckera Douglassii, Hook., Steekine, Alaska.
N. Menziesii, Hook., Alaska.
Alsia Californica, Lesqx., Alaska.
Hypnum triquetrum, Linn., Nulato and Alaska.
. loreum, Linn., Sitka and Alaska.
. Squarrosum, Linn., Sitka.
. crispifolium, Hook., Northwestern Russian America, (Menzies.)
. laxifolium, Hook., Northwestern Russian America.
. splendens, Hedw., Nulato and Alaska.
. strigosum, Hoffm, Nulato.
. undulatum, Linn., Sitka.
. lutescens, Huds., Kotzebue sound and Alaska.
. myosuroides, var. stoloniferum, Hook., Northwestern Russian America,
Sitka, and Alaska.

*Mr. W. H. Dall, in 1865-66, collected a number of mosses in Eastern Siberia, on the
western side of Behrings’ straits, and opposite to Norton sound, among which was a new
species of Pogonatum, which no doubt will be detected in Alaska, when explored. The
species being interesting, it is deemed appropriate to introduce it by the following description :

Pogonatum lamellosum, sp. nov., dioicum, caule simplici vel ramoso, foliis solidis rigidis
incurvis cauli appressis ; e basi pellucida latiore amplexicaule, concavis lanceolato-acumina-
tis margine integra aut denticulata, lamellis numerosis margine subito tumidis, folii paginam
e basi ad apicem totam occupante : perichzetialibus e basi longioribus vaginantibus erectis
angusto-lanceolatis, tenui costatis; perigonalibus externis angusto-lanceolatis, externis |
obcordato-apiculatis ; capsula in pedicello flexuosa unciali, globosa vel ovato-cylindrica
obliqua aut cernua, operculo e basi depresso-convexo rostellato incurvo conico, peristomii
dentibus aqualibus ; calyptra non visa.

This beautiful Pogonatum is more slender than P. urnigerum, the lamillze of the leaves
occupy the entire upper surface from the sheathing base to the apex; the leaves most readily
separate from the translucent clasping base; the margins of the leaves are mostly entire,
occasionally more or less denticulate at the apex. The capsule is globosely oval in form
and curved, the operculum appears to be shortly rostrate.

ae} o) ne) aoa!

an fjeogee§ sey anges gesiseyes

462 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA.

H. Ruthenicum, Weinm., Sitka.

H. Schreberi, Willd., Sitka.

H. Stokesii, Turner, Alaska.

H. uncinatum, Hedw., Kotzebue sound.

H. uncinatum, var. majus, Wilson, twice as large as the ordinary form, Kot-
zebue sound and Alaska.

H. revolvens, Swartz, Kotzebue sound.

H. circinale, Hook., Kotzebue sound, Nulato, and Alaska.

H. rugosum, Hedw., Kotzebue sound.

Ef. illecebram, Schwee., var. caulis divisionibus subdendroidus foliis subinte-
perrimis, Alaska.

H. rivulare, Br. and Sch., var. foliis minus acutis, Kotzebue sound.

H. salebrosum ? Hoffm., Kotzebue sound,

H. nitens, Schreb., Kotzebue sound.

Hi. denticulatum, Linn., Sitka.

H. serpens, Linn., Alaska.

HEPATIC.

Marchantia polymorpha, Linn., Alaska.
Fegatella conica Corda, Sitka and Iktigalik.
Fimbraria tenella, Nees? Alaska.
Jungermannia albicans, Linn., Alaska.

J. trichophylla, Linn., Alaska.

Scapania numerosa, Nees, Alaska.

LICHENES.

[LIST COMPILED BY H. MANN.]

Spheerophoron fragile, Pers.

8. coralloides, Pers.

Beomyces icmadophilus, Nyl., Biatora iemadophylla, Auct.

Cladonia gracilis, Hoffin., Sitka and Kotzebue sound.

Cc pyxidata, Ach., Kotzebue sound.

C. deformis, Hoffm., Kotzebue sound.

C. uncialis, Hoffin., ’Sitka and Kotzebue sound.

C. rangiferina, Hoffm., all Russian America.

C. sylvatica, Ach., all Russian America.

Pilophoron robustum, Nyl., islands of Behring’s straits.

P. aciculare, Tuck., (Sect. ‘of Stereo saulon,) Russian America.

Stereocaulon paschale, Laur., Kotzebue sound.

S. tomentosum? Fries, Kotzebue sound and other localities. Absence of
ttuit renders the determination doubtful.

Thamnolia vermiculare, common.

Alectoria ochroleuca, Fries, Kotzebue sound; on the ground the normal form :
also, var. sarmentoso pendant from trees.

A. divergens, Nyl., various localities.

Cetraria Isle andica, Ach., common.

Platysma cucullatum, Hoffm., common.

BP; septentrion: ale, Nyl., Kotzebue sound.

P. glaucum, Nyl., Kotzebue sound,

Nephrom: a arcticumn, Fries, Kotzebue sound.

Peltigera venosa, Hoffm., Kotzebue sound.

P. canina, Hoflm., Kotzebue sound.

P. polydactyla, Hoffm., Kotzebue sound, Sitka, &e.

P. apthosa, Hoffm., Kotzebue sound, Sitka, &e.

SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA. 463

Sticta pulmonacea, Ach., Kotzebue sound, Sitka, &c.

S. scrobiculata, Ach., Kotzebue sound.

Parmelia perforata, Ach., Kotzebue sound.

P. perlata, Ach., Kotzebue sound.

P. saxatilis, Ach., Kotzebue sound.

P. tiliacea, Ach., Kotzebue sound.

Physcia parietina, D. N., Kotzebue sound.

P. stellaris, Fries.

P. obscura, Fries, Kotzebue sound.

Lecanora pallescens, var. Upsalensis, Fries, Kotzebue sound.

L. tartarica, var. frigida, Ach., Kotzebue sound.

Placodium elegans, Fries.

Psoroma hypnorum, DC.*

The list ot Fungi and Alge I have taken from Mr. Seemann’s Report on
the Botany of Western Esquimaux Land.

FUNGI.

Dothidea betulina, var. Betule nan, Fries, Kotzebue sound.
Erineum roseum, Schultz.

Ate (Auctore W. H. Harvey *

Fucus vesiculosus, L., plentiful in Kotzebue sound.

Alaria esculenta, Grev., Arctic coast.

Chorda Filum, Stack.

Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus, Grev.

Cheetopteris plumosa, Kutz.

Odonthalia dentata, var. angusta, Harv., Arctic coast.

Rhodomela Larix, Ag.

Delesseria sinuosa, Ag., Arctic ocean.

Phyllophora Brodizi, J. Ag., Arctic coast, (single specimen of broad-leaved
variety.)

Ahnfeldtia (Gymnogongrus) plicata, J. Ag., Arctic coast.

Nostoc verrucosum? Tresh water pools at Port Clarence.

* All the lichens here enumerated, excepting the species Pilophoron, are of wide northern
distribution, which the localities here indicated exhibit nothing of. Many other boreal
species will reward search, and from some indications seen, we may expect the lichens of
the southern part of Russian America to show some special affinities to the interesting lichen
flora of California. - H. M.

METEOROLOGY.

THE HURRICANE IN THE ISLAND OF ST. THOMAS, OCTOBER 29, 1867.

[ Translated from ‘‘ The Diario de la Marina,’ Habana, January 5, 1868. ]

Public attention has been so much attracted to the hurricane which occasioned,
October 29-30 last, such deplorable devastations in the islands of Porto Rico,
St. Thomas, and other Antilles, that the following essay, embodying the reflec-
tions of an intelligent member of the Spanish marine on the law of these dis-
turbances, and especially on the course pursued by the storm in question, will
be read, we doubt not, with general interest :

‘“‘The late tempest, like other events of this kind, but to an extent rarely
witnessed, has marked its path with incalculable disasters both on land and sea ;
especially the last, where the irresistible fury of the wind and waves seemed to
threaten everything which they encountered with annihilation. God, however,
in his infinite goodness, has given man intelligence, and placed in his hands
the means of contending with difficulties and overcoming them; inspiring him
with faith, the virtue which begets and sustains hope.

“The theor y respecting the law of storms proves to us that however fearful
these phenomena may be for navigators, they become imuch less formidable
when science has once taught us the nature of our elemental foe, and conse-
quently the means of avoiding its destructive violence, in as far at least as is
humanly possible. Towards the end of the 16th centur y, a knowledge already
existed of the circular form of these tornadoes ; but, as happens with many
things of importance which sleep in oblivion and again reappear as novelties,
the know ledge of the above fact bore no fruits, until ‘Mx. W. C. Redfield, of New
York, from 1831 to 183 35, brought to light, by force of investigation, ine defi-
nite law of the movement of rotation of hurricanes, as well as that of their
translation, with other circumstances attending them, conformable in all points
to the observations of other authors of accredited reputation.

“The storm of the 29th of October, which inundated Tortola, devastated St.
Thomas, ravaged many parts of Porto Rico, and made itself felt in the capital
of St. Domingo and the adjacent villages, affords one datum more to be col-
lated with others for continuing the study of the movement of hurricanes. It
results from the notices we have been able to collect, though these are not so
precise as to enable us to judge with entire certainty, that the hurricane in ques-
tion took its rise in 50° to 55° west longitude, and 18° to 20° north latitude, a
space comprised in the region of their usual origin. ‘The mail steamer Principe
Alfonso encountered it in “her course two days before reaching this port, and her
skilful commander avoided it by suitably t tacking ship until he thought that he
might pursue his voyage without risk, thus arriving safely in the rear of the
hurricane without experiencing any oreat inconvenience. Sr. Lastra assured
me that he had steered in conformity with the prescribed rules as soon as he
suspected that he was in the neighborhood of a tornado.

“ Knowing very nearly the point of its formation, it will be seen that the
course of the tornado was about W. 4 SW. until having passed St. Thomas it
took a direction W. 5° N., adv ancing at the rate of 13 to 15 miles an how,
the vortex or focus passing by the centre of the island of Porto Rico, as would
appear from the fact of Naguabo, Humacao, and Caguas, with certain other
places, having been most severely visited, The calm which was experienced
in Cayey, at the veering of the wind, is a convincing proof that the centre of
the storm passed at that point, for it is a characteristic circumstance of such

METEOROLOGY. 465

meteors that they rotate around an area of calm of variable extension. The
central calm in question might be from three to four miles in diameter, judging
from the interval between the subsidence of the wind from the north and the
commencing violence of that from the west ; of which precise moment the gal-
lant and sagacious commander of the steamship Vasco Nunez de Balboa knew
how to avail himself in order to pass from the shore to that vessel, at the risk
of perishing if this centre of calm had been of two minutes less duration.
The diameter of the hurricane I take to have been from 40 to 50 miles, and
that of its greatest force some 20, since in this port and that of Arroyo it was
felt with less intensity than at other points more inland and distant from those
places 15 to 20 miles. That the disturbance is of a circular form, or of a cur-
vature approaching that figure, is once more shown by the circumstance of the
wind’s blowing at the same time in two distinct points, which may be considered
as diametrically opposed in regard to the centre or focus of opposite rhombs ;
for example, at the same hour when, at Porto Rico, the direction was from NE.
to E.NE., at Arroyo it was from W. to SW., at Salinas from W. to S., and at
Naguabo to the 8.

““ We have at present no notices of the passage of the hurricane beyond the
western part of St. Domingo, which leads us to think that it terminated in that
island or pursued a course more to the north, leaving the south of Cuba for-
tunately unvisited, and arriving at the coasts of Florida; a route which these
storms generally follow as far as the eastern part of the New World, where they
subside.

“ Barometers fell, at St. Thomas to 28.20; in this port (at the Captainship)
to 29.60; on board the schooner Andaluza to 29.60; at Arroyo to 29.40. We
have not been able to verify the state of the atmosphere at other points of this
island; the instruments, it would seem, not having acted with the promptness
usually observed, and the descent having only commenced when the tempest
was near at hand; which may have happened from their having been, for some
days, lower than ordinary under normal circumstances, and from the influence
of the north winds which had been prevailing before the hurricane, so that the
latter exerted not a mediate, but an immediate influence. As regards exten-
sion, I consider this hurricane to have been one of the narrowest kind, as in
general such disturbances have a larger diameter by some miles and embrace a
proportionably wider zone.

OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THE EARTHQUAKES WHICH OCCURRED IN ST.
THOMAS AND NEIGHBORING ISLANDS, COMMENCING NOY. 15, 1867.

By GrEorGE A. LATIMER.

The earthquakes which began on 18th November, 1867, and havé since been fre-
quent, seem to have had their origin by the bursting out of a submarine volcano
in the sea somewhere about or between the Danish islands of St. Thomas and
St. Croix. The reasons for this opinion are:

1. The great wave which soon followed the first heavy shocks was seen for
some time rolling on towards St. Thomas and Porto Rico, from the south to
the north, while at the same moment another similar wave (perhaps even larger
than the first) rolled on towards St. Croix, from the north to the south; thus
showing that the voleanic eruption which caused them had occurred in the sea
somewhere between those two islands, and that the foree sent the water in both
directions.

2. It is histotical that some 75 years ago the small island of Saba, (Little
Saba, as it is called,) just west of the harbor of St. ‘Thomas, was an active
volcano, and on the 18th and 19th November last emitted smoke; thus showing

the volcanic action was not distant.
30 S67

466 METEOROLOGY.

3. Previous to November 18, 1867, earthquakes had not been felt in St.
Croix; on that day they were, and subsequently they have been simultaneously
with the shocks felt in St. Thomas; showing thereby that a communication had
and has been opened between the two islands. The shocks extended to Porto
Rico, and were felt throughout most of it; but the force of, and damage done
by them to buildings, sugar estate works, and chimneys, was chiefly at the east
end, the north side as far down as Arecibo, and the south side as far down
as Ponce. Below those places, neither on the north nor the south side was any
damage done to the buildings. ‘The greater rolling wave passed into the harbor
and over the beaches at the east end, and down the south side of the island,
(Porto Rico,} but it did not extend to the north side or west end.

AN OPINION ON THE MARITIME DISASTERS OF THE ANTILLES.

Under the above title, D. Aristides Rojas has published, in the Federalista
of Caracas, the interesting remarks which ensue, chiefly for the service of those
among us who are occupied with analogous studies :

“ Having had inqriries addressed to me respecting the catastrophe which is
reported to have taken place in the island of St. Thomas, 18th of the present
month, I hastily reduced to writing the following propositions, which have since
appeared in the Federalista of Thursday, November 28.

“1. A series of concussions of the earth during four consecutive days may
have produced displacements at profound depths, and to this would be attri-
butable the inundation of the lower part of the island and the irruption of the
ocean ; in this case the phenomenon was merely local and the hurricane of the
13th must have contributed in great part to produce it.

“2. it may have had its origin in remote regions; and, in that case, as well
the concussions of the earth as the irruptions of the ocean ’ would have extended
over the adjacent coasts of Porto Rico and St. Domingo to the west, and the
Virgin islands and lesser Antilles to the east, occasioning ravages in all those
places. Supposing the concussions of the earth end the subterranean noises to
have been continuous, (as the captain of the Cacique represents was the case in
San Pedro de Martinica,) should the phenomenon be attributed to local causes,
or to scismi¢ causes operating at a distance? Were the series of concussions
which have been felt of late in the regions of Ecuador, New Granada, and
Venezuela connected with the catastrophe of St. Thomas?

“ Pounding my opinion on the movements which have occurred in various
sections of the continent, I have come to the conclusion that the event in St.
Thomas was not local, but, on the contrary, that it bore a relation to general
causes which had been in operation beforehand and under vast surfaces of the
American continent. ‘The notices just received tend to confirm this view of the
phenomenon. As our readers know, it was on the 18th that the series of earth-
quakes which desolated St. Thomas began, and that they continued till the 22d.
The same day concussions occurred in ‘Guadaloupe and repeated shocks com-
menced in Porto Rico, continuing until the 24th, and driving the population of
the capital, in aflricht, from their tottering houses and fortresses. On the 18th,
also, the ocean invaded the capital of St. Thomas, devastating all the lower
part, while in Guadaloupe and Martinique, to the east, the water retired 15
metres in the former island and little less in the second. On the 19th the island
of Margarita, east of Caracas, was repeatedly shaken, vast waves dashed upon
the coast, attaining in some places six fathoms in height. Caupano, on the
main land, had a portion of its pier demolished.

“So far the notices received; but from these it may be inferred, I think,
without the least risk of error, that concussions must have been experienced in

METEOROLOGY. 467

the regions lving east of Venezuela, attended by the same marine phenomena.
As regards the Antilles, I doubt not that the convulsion which ravaged St.
Thomas must have visited Porto Rico, St. Domingo, and some of the lesser
Antilles. If the oscillations in Porto Rico were, as I presume, east and west.
they will have held on in the direction of the Cordilleras of the Antilles, and,
in that case, the concussions, instead of being limited to St. Thomas and Porto
Rico, will have extended to the whole archipelago.

e How, now, is this phenomenon to be explained? TI stand in need of data
and details on the direction of the movements, as well at St. Thomas and Porto
Rico as at the remaining islands ; but, confiding in the above data and a study
of this branch of ceology, I venture to assume that, beneath the American con-
tinent, there had been formed a scismic tempest, (when I say tempest, I mean a
series of movements within the crust of the earth,) which, after manifesting
itself by repeated shocks in Ecuador, New Granada, and Venezuela, was dis-
char eed over the whole Antillan continent. Let us recapitulate the facts, taking
as a “point of departure the strong concussion of Guayaquil :

“September 11. Earthquake in Guayaquil and volcanic detonations on the
preceding days.

“15. Strong concussions in the Venezuelan Andes (Canache and other places)
at 2 p.m.

“20. Repeated commotions in the central Cordillera of New Granada, on
this day as well as those which preceded and followed it.

22. Slight coneussion at Caracas, about 12 at night. Direction SW.

“28. Strong shocks in the Venezuelan Andes between 7 and 8 at night.

“ October 10. Strong concussions in the Venezuelan Andes at 5 a.m. A
slight shock at Caracas at 2 p. m. the same day, attended with reports.

“24. Strong concussion at Petare (little felt at Caracas) at 6 minutes before
2 p.m.

26. Slight concussion at Caracas at 10 p. m.

“November 2. Idem at Caracas at 5 minutes to 4a. m., and again on the
10th at 10.50 p. m. and another some minutes afterwards. Again on the 15th
at 4.50 p. m.

“The southeast direction of the slight concussions which were felt in Caracas
a few months ago show that the movement came from the Andes, and in sup-
port of this opinion I would remind my readers of the strong shocks which
were felt in April in the city of Mérida, and which continued uniformly to the
west, attaining Maracaibo, while to the north they reached Caracas intermit-
tently, together with the neighboring towns.

“'Phe direction which this scismic tempest has pursued and still pursues is
indicated by an orbit which, starting from the Chilian and Peruvian Andes,
proceeds to Ecuador, passes to the east of the Andes of Granada, traverses
Venezuela by the bay of Barcelona, and advances to the east of Porto Rico,
between that island and St. Thomas. The tempest is discharging itself, at the
present moment, on the great and lesser Antilles, and its shock in that region
is in turn acting upon the eastern part of Venezuela, producing the earthquakes
of Margarita and Carupano and the elevation of their seas.”

ACCOUNT OF AN ERUPTION OF A VOLCANO IN NICARAGUA, NOV, 14, 1867.
By A. B. DickINSON, UNITED STATES MINISTER, NICARAGUA.

On the 14th of November last, a new volcano broke out in Nicaragua, about
eight leagues to the east of the city of Leon, on a crowded line of volcanoes
running through the State, parallel with the Pacific coast.

It commenced about 1 o’elock in the morning, with a succession of explosions

468 METEOROLOGY.

which were very distinctly felt and heard at Leon. These explosions opened a
fissure through the earth’s crust, about half a mile in length, running from the old
fissure in a southwest direction, about midway between the extinct volcanoes of
Las Pilas and Orota, which are two of the numerous cones studding the ancient
fissure.

Before daylight on the morning of the 14th, fire was seen issuing from the
new voleano in various places. ‘The explosions continued irregularly during
the whole time that the voleano was in a state of eruption, sometimes in rapid
suecession and at other times at intervals of half an hour. Low, rumbling
sounds were heard almost ineessantly. In the course of a few days two craters
were opened on the new fissure, about 1,000 feet apart, the one at the sonth-
western extremity discharging perpendicularly, and the other shooting out towards
the northeast at an angle of 45 degrees. The flames from these two craters
steadily increased in height and size, while jets of flame and slighter discharges
were emitted from two or three other side fissures.

On the morning of November 22d, I went out to the new volcano for the purpose
of observing it more closely, though I had seen and heard it very plainly each
day and night from Leon. The best view which I obtained of it on that occa-
sion was before daylight, from a mountain summit, abont one mile to the north-
west of the fissure and at right angles with it. The main crater, at the right,
was actively at work, throwing out flames and half-melted cinders through a cir-
cular orifice about 60 feet in diameter, which was constantly filled to its utmost
capacity with the ascending masses. A regular cone, built up entirely by the
falling cinders to the height of about 200 feet, had already formed around the
crater. ‘The rim of the cone was white with heat and the outside red hot half
way down, while the remainder of its black groundwork was glittering with
innumerable glowing sparks. It was puffing quite regularly about once a
second, with a strong, constant blast, which kept up a column of flame, filled -
with flying cinders, to the height of about 500 feet above the mouth of the
orifice. Irregular explosions occurred at intervals, varying from 10 to 30 min-
utes, increasing the force and volume of the discharges, and sending them far
up into the rolling clouds above. The cinders went up in half-fased, blazing
masses, from one to three feet in diameter, and came down upon the cone har-
dened, striking with a clinking, metallic sound. After daylight the red appear-
ance of the cone changed to a bluish black. The left hand crater was shooting
out oblique discharges of flame and cinders of a similar character, at an angle
of 45 degrees from the other, and evidently communicated with it about 1,000
feet below the surface—the two craters being that distance apart, and both dis-
charging simultaneously. This half-horizontal crater was about 20 feet in
diameter.

The afternoon of the 27th, after a series of explosions which seemed to shake
the earth to its centre, the volcano commenced discharging vast quantities of
black sand and heavier rocks. The column of flame at night was considerably
increased in height, and bright, meteor-like spots were seen ascending in the
flames to the height of not less than 3,000 feet. These were large, spherical
stones, four and five feet in diameter. The next morning the house-tops and
streets of Leon were covered with fine black sand from the volcano, and a vast
luminous cloud of raining sand overspread the whole surrounding country. This
rain of sand continued until the morning of the 30th, when the volcano died
away, apparently smothered by its accumulated eruptions. The sand now covers
the whole surrounding country, from the voleano to the Pacific, a distance of
more than 50 miles from it. At Leon it is from an eighth to a quarter of an
nch in depth. As we approach the volcano it gradually grows deeper and
coarser. Tor a mile around the crater it lies in particles from three-eighths to
one-half an inch in diameter, and about a foot in depth, and the particles grad-
ually increase in size until they become small, broken rocks.

METEOROLOGY. 469

Around the base of the cone, round, heavy rocks lie thickly scattered, from
four to five feet in diameter, but much the lar ger portion of them have broken
into fragments. ‘The cone ‘itself is 200 feet high, with a crater in the top of
200 feet in diameter and about the same in depth. The inside of the crater, the
same as the outside, is covered with hard, broken rocks, generally less than a
foot in diameter. A long ridge of black scoria leads out from the branch crater
in a northeasterly direction. ‘The slagey, lava-like scoria which first issued from
the main crater is now principally covered up with the hard plutonic rocks which
came out from profound depths with the last discharges. The forest, for leagues
around, is scarred and maimed with the sharp cutting storms of sand, and near
the volcano the trees lie, cut into numerous fragments, half buried beneath the
sand and rocks.

The volcano was an active and interesting sight for 16 days, and now in its
repose affords an ample and instructive field for the geologist. Indeed, no
country in the world presents a more interesting study than the plain of Leon.
Twenty volcanic cones are seen rising from it at a single view. Its soil is inex-
haustible in fertility, as finely pulverized and as evenly distributed as that of
the valley of the Nile or the Mississippi, not however by water, but by fire. It
has literally rained down from the volcanoes, richly freighted with ‘fertilizing
materials.

Humboldt regretted, before his death, that men of science had not more fully
investigated this remarkable region of country, and it is sincerely to be hoped
that it may not much longer remain neglected by them.

The recent fall of sand has been followed by a shower of rain, and though
but a few days have since elapsed, corn, cotton, and grass have grown more
rapidly under its fertilizing influence than I have ever seen plants grow before.
Some weeds and plants it ‘kills; others it starts forth with renewed life and vigor.

I send herewith a specimen. of the sand, gathered at Leon before the rain,
hoping that it may be analyzed.

Jt may be proper in this connection to call attention to the recent destructive
storms, earthquakes and eruptions which occurred on and around the island of
St. Thomas during the same period of time which I have been describing, and
which undoubtedly sprang from the same general cause, as those earthquakes
were distinctly felt at Leon.

SECOND COMMUNICATION.

I have the pleasure to acknowledge the receipt of a letter from the Smith-
sonian Institution, containing a number of questions in regard to the recent vol-
cano in Nicaragua, which I will endeavor to answer as accurately as possible.

The latitude of the volcano is 12° 30’ north, the longitude 86° 45’ west from
Greenwich, according to the government map of Nicaragua. Its distance from
the Pacific ocean is 40 miles.

The strong east wind prevailing here at this season of the year, and particu-
larly during the late volcanic eruption, brought the sand mostly to the west-
ward, but as fine sand was also carried in lesser quantities many leagues to the
eastws vard, it probably also partially entered the upper and counter current of air.
It is known to have extended 100 miles to the westward, covering a belt about
100 miles in width. At the commencement of the rain of sand the wind ear-
ried it in a northwest direction; but for the last 24 hours of the sand storm the
wind carried it to the southwest.

Over an area of about 100 miles in diameter the sand averages at least one-

eighth of an inch in thickness.

The rainy season usually commences here about the middle of May and ends
the middle of November; ‘the remainder of the year being the dry season. ‘The

rainy season is without wind, but during the dry season high winds sweep over

470 METEOROLOGY.

the country to the westward. This wind usually commences about the 1st of
December, but this last year it commenced about two weeks earlier, which was
about the time the voleano broke out. ‘The rainy season closed also the 1st of
November last. The usual appearance of the sun and sky in November is
remarkably bright, spotted over with white, fleecy clouds. But during the latter
part of the volcanic eruption, and for two weeks after its close, the atmosphere
was greatly disturbed, and for several days in succession scarcely a patch of
clear sky was visible; dark gray clouds were constantly whirling in heavy
masses to the westward, alarming the inhabitants with their sombre ‘and threat-
ening appearance. The explosions and the crackling roar of the volcano were
heard for a distance of over 100 miles, to the west, northwest and southwest.

On the evening of November 22, while the voleano was in an active state, I
started from Leon a little after midnight, to make a visit to the voicano before
daylight, and on that occasion, at 2 o’clock in the morning, abont 10 miles to
the west of the voleano, I encountered, very much to my surprise, a heavy
shower of rain, accompanied by thunder and lightning. The thunder, however,
was not easily distinguished from the roar of the volcano.

My attention was then particularly called to the fact that the storm came out
of the dense black cloud which ascended in a vast column from the crater, and
overhung the surrounding country for several leagues in extent. It was bright
starlight when I started from Leon, and no other cloud was visible. I could
also still see the clear, star-lit horizon on every side of me, except that of the
black cloud from the crater. During this evidently volcanic shower I was first
struck with the peculiar, offensive odor of the volcano, which I afterwards became
familiar with. After approaching nearer to the volcano, and far enough to the
eastward to see throngh the cloud, I saw that the horizon was also cloudless in
that direction. I passed the limits of the shower to the north and west, and
also to the east. The shower was confined entirely to the west side of the vol-
cano, extending fifteen miles to the westward, and covering a belt about 10
miles in width, which showed from standing water and muddy ground that this
was by no means the first shower.

I have since ascertained from natives of the country that during the eruption
showers in that vicinity were almost daily, and that on one occasion it rained
hot water. But a single shower, however, reached as far as Leon. Brilliant
flashes of red and white were constantly darting from the crater into the cloud
above, and the lightning struck out in every direction from the jet of eruption
where it came in contact with the cloud.

With regard to the earthquakes I am unable to answer your questions satis-
factorily. “It was distinctly felt here, and several others have also occurred
since that time, but they have all been so slight and little noticed that the direc-
tion or extent of the earth-wave has not been observed. It is reported to me,
also, that shocks of earthquake have been quite frequent of late in San Salvador.

arta me to thank you for your account of the examination of the volcanic
sand which I had the pleasure to receive by last mail.

[The following is an account of the examination of the specimens by Profes-
sor George J. Brush, of Yale College—J. H.]

The voleanic sand appears to consist mainly, if not entirely, of three minerals:
1st. An olive-green mineral, in angular fraginents, which is evidently chrysolite,
(olivine). 2d. A colorless, transparent mineral, also in angular fragments, 1 is
probably a feldspar, but w hat particular species I am unable to say. 3d. A
grayish black to black substance, in many cases with the edges rounded from
semi-fusion ; appears to be an iron angite, (or hornblende.) It is magnetic, as 1s
the case with the fused iron angites. These minerals are constantly found in
the ejections from volcanoes and are constants of many lavas.

METEOROLOGY. 471

CLOUD-BURSTS.
COMMUNICATED BY WILLIAM J. YOUNG, OF BOISE CiTy, IDAHO TERRITORY.

You are probably aware that in the Great Basin, between the Rocky and
Sierra Nevada range of mountains, but little rain “falls durmg the summer
months. I wish to call attention to a singular phenomenon that is observed in
that region during the dry season.

An old mountaineer and prospecter told me that one night in the summer of
1862, he, with several others, camped in a caiion near Black Rock. Some time
during the night he was awakened by a roaring as of a storm in the mountains ;
yet the night was clear—no cloud was in sivht. But soon the water came rush-
ing in ‘canine down the cation, and drove the party to higher ground. He said
such floods were not uncommon in that region, and were occasioned by water-
spouts.

J. H. Neale, esq., a very intelligent merchant, who has spent the last two
years in that region, says:

“Tn August, 1864, I was travelling from Humboldt mines to Reese river.
The whole country was dry and parched, as is usual at that season of the year,
and the weather was even warmer than common. About 2 o’clock p. m. I saw
what appeared to be a whirlwind. It appeared to be about 25 miles distant,
and the spiral column extended from the earth to a very dense cloud, which was
nearly as high as the scattered mountains in that vicinity. Soon this column
seemed to break, the upper third of it being detached from the rest and bent
over to the eastward. I then perceived that this spiral column was not of dust,
as I had at first supposed, but was water. ‘The next day I crossed a cation
leading from the place where the phenomenon had occurred. Water was still
running in it, and there was evidence of a recent flood.”

5 Inquiring further, I consulted the Hon. William R. Harrison, a gentleman of
) scientific attainments who had spent several years in the Humboldt mountains.
He told me that such phenomena were of not unfrequent occurrence in the Hum-
boldt mountains, and were called “ cloud-bursts.” He had witnessed several of
them—had once been in the edge of one, and once had stood on the top of a
mountain and witnessed the terrific scene in the cation beneath him. He says:

“The first sign of them is the sudden gathering of a small, dense, black
cloud on the mountain side, about one-third ‘of the way from the ‘top, and gen-
erally at the head of a cation. Soon this cloud seems to dash itself to the earth,
taking a circular motion. It appeared as if an inverted whirlwind was dr awing
from the cloud immense quantities of water, which is dashed in floods against
the mountain side.”

By these floods, he said, he had known trees uprooted, and rocks, tons in
weight, carried by the torrent the eighth of a mile. On one occasion the water
in the cafion leading from the “ cloud-burst” was 30 feet deep. The area that
receives this immense body of water from the cloud is not generally more than
one hundred yards in diameter, and sometimes is much less. Star City (Hum-
boldt mines) was once damaged by such a flood. I have heard (on this my
information is not direct) that in 1862 several persons lost their lives by one of
these “cloud-bursts,” somewhere in the Washoe region. ‘These storms are
entirely different from anything I ever heard of occurring in any other part of
the world. They occur where the sky is elsewhere clear and cloudless. From
the first gathering of the cloud until the storm has passed and the sky is again
clondless: is seldom more than an hour, and does not generally exceed forty
minutes.

The cause of these phenomena may be familiar to scientific men, but to the
uninitiated it is a mystery how such quantities of water can be so suddenly col-
lected from the burning air of these desert plains.

472 METEOROLOGY.

Professor Espy collected a number of cases in Pennsylvania and other parts
of the eastern States, of examples of this remarkxble phenomenon. ‘The only
explanation which appears to be sufficient to account for it, and particularly the
ai of water which falls, is that of a water-spout or rotatory motion of the

r, produced by the disturbance of the ordinary stable condition of the atmo-
sohawe by the abnormal heating of the stratum next the’earth, and the subse-
quent bursting of this upward, in the form of an ascending vortex, carrying with
it all the vapor which the air may contain from a surrounding space of several
miles.

The quantity of water which falls will depend upon the amount of vapor in
the atmosphere which has been drawn into the vortex. It should be recollected
that although the air may be very dry at a high temperature, yet it may con-
tain a much greater quantity of water in the form of vapor than a damper
atmosphere at a lower temperature. ‘Thus, at 70° of temperature the air, when
perfectly saturated, contains about eight grains of vapor to the cubic foot; at
90° it is capable of containing about 15 grains. From this it appears that the
capacity for vapor increases very rapidly with the temperature; in the case
above cited an increase of 20° of temperature nearly doubles the capacity for
moisture, and consequently produces a character of extreme dryness.

Although, at the same time, the air may contain a very large amount of vapor
which, condensed by a diminution of temperature due to its increased elevation,
or perhaps by a colder stratum immediately above, may be precipitated on a
single spot, and thus give rise to the extraordinary effects above described.

ACCOUNT OF A METEORITE.
By ABNER WoopwortTH, CoUNCIL GRovE, Kansas, Marcu, 1866.

On the 7th of March, 1843, I left Paral, a town situated on the river Allende
Mexico, State of Chihuahua, and, travelling some 25 miles, course 15° east of
south, passed a lump of solid malleable iron, shape or fioure resembling two
inverted saucers, one-third or more buried in the ground, supposed to weigh
five or six thousand pounds. It is softer than bar iron. The blacksmith at
Rio Florido cuts off pieces with his cold chisel for horseshoes. It lies upon a
level plain, 20 miles from any mountain.

ACCOUNT OF A METEORITE.
By ROBERT SIMSON.

Shortly before arriving at El] Valle, on the road from Rio Florido, we encoun-
ter first streaks of iron—grateful to the lips and hands, cracked and sore with
the lime through which we have for some time been travelling, (going north-
ward.) The hill-sides, where bare, now show a reddish color; and vegetation
is not so luxuriant as heretofore.

Abont half-way between El Valle and Parral, on a bend of the Rio Florido,
at a place called Concepcion, is a most splendid specimen of meteoric iron. Tt
is four feet above ground, and almost pure in quality. It is from two to three
feet one way, by, probably, two to five feet the other, very regular in shape,
and, where worn by the rubbing of hands, &c., of passers by, is s bright, and, to
all ¢ appearance, is nearly pure metal. The steel hatchet cuts into it t easily, but
with our means at hand we found it impossible to detach any part of it. It
stood at the corner of the house, apparently to guard it from collisions of wagons

METEOROLOGY. 473

and the like. The majordomo said this meteorite had, as he had heard, fallen
from the heavens, and had been brought from a distance, froin a place where
other specimens also existed. Such we found to be the prevailing account of
this mass among the people of the place.

I would state that from La Concepcion to the Rio Grande there is an excel-
lent road leading through Saltillo and Monterey, and, save in respect to its
weight, there would be no difficulty in conveying this meteorite. I think, also,
that, being cautiously approached, the Mexicans would sell it for a reasonable
sum. ‘The common carts of the country, with solid wooden wheels, could well
convey it.

1 extract the foregoing partly from my own memoranda and partly from mem-
oranda of John W. Audubon, esquire, now deceased, who examined the speci-
men with me.

At Parral are large works for reducing the silver ores, which are in great .quan-
tity in its neighborhood.

[It would appear, from all the accounts we have had from this region, that a
shower of immense meteorites had occurred there at some remote period.—J. H.}

THE METEOROLOGY OF CARACAS, VENEZUELA, SOUTH AMERICA.

By G. A. ERNST.

The town of Caracas is situated in a small valley of the northern coast chain
of Venezuela, in latitude 10° 30’ 50” north, and in longitude 66° 54’ 51” west
of Greenwich.

Its altitude above the level of the Caribbean sea, at Laguayra, was determined
August 23, 1866, from the following observations :

At lower station, (wharf at Laguayra,) barometer 760™™, attached thermometer
26°.0 C., thermometer in open air 26°.7 C.; latitude of Laguayra 10° 36/ 157
north ; at upper station, (Plaza Bolivar,) barometer 686.2™™, attached ther-
mometer 21°.7 C., thermometer in open air 21°.7 C. Converting the above data
into English measure, we have

Inch. 2 2
Pf =29.031* t =80.06 F. 7 =78.8 F.
('=27.025 t'=71.06 7=71.06

and by means of Baily’s tables, (see Manual of Scientific Enquiry, London, 1859,
p- 168,) we find the difference of elevation 2923.5 English feet.

As far as [ know there is no one at present engaged in this place in meteoro-
logical observations. Dr. Alexander Ibarra kept a journal for several years,
but it is now discontinued. With proper instruments, it would give me pleasure
to register the meteorological facts. My instruments were unfortunately broken
in an ascent to the Silla de Caracas, and I have not yet been able to replace
them with new and better ones.

I copy from the “ Annuario de Observaciones de la Officina Central del Colegio
de Ingenieros de Venezuela para el ano de 1862,” the following meteorological
table for 1860, constructed from the observations of Dr. Ibarra. The original
record of the temperature is given in degrees of the Centigrade scale, and of the
atmospheric pressure in units of the French scale; both were reduced to English
units, which are commonly used in the United States. For the reduction of the
barometric observations I would again refer to Appendix A.

* See Appendix A.

AT4 METEOROLOGY.

SS EE

Humidity,

Mean tem-| Mean at- ¥?|Amount of

Month: perature. | mos. pres. ee El rai

ys:

) Inches. 2 Inches.
Janarys.< oe. aoe vaaece ee aeeniae sea etee 69. 28 26. 960 71.64 0. 158
Pebruary, --- = 6-2 se esis eas ee 68. 36 26.971 66. 00 0. 000
March's 2 onace soon eee one earn aeee eet 69. 44 26. 954 72.70 0. 670
April toc oss sconce ceemas eae oa eater 75. 01 26. 964 73.10 3. 349
May oicsedsccee ceceree es -see ace eee eee 73. 88 26. 984 68. 00 0. 473
Afr: wee ee A OSES Sect ne a Soas 72.4) 26. 975 68. 65 3. 664
DULY: cnc cen hee mee eee ames pe ean el maaaee 72.32 26. 980 72. 80 4, 452
ATI SORE <a eae peices = marie ai ines 72. 62 26. 964 75.90 4. 373
September eecsaneees oer ore eas 75. 50 26. 956 76. 40 8.116
October ee sore oer en sce ore ee ee wemaice 72.10 26. 946 76. 90 5, 595
Novembersse. pao eee eee eee ee eee 70.19 26. 938 76.50 3. 791
Mecemberace as-wee se ieee eee eee eee 70. 37 26. 959 73. 85 | 0. 083

* In French inches,

The correct mean annual temperaturef is therefore 71°.71, and the mean
annual barometric pressure 26'".963; the average degree of humidity 72°.70, and
the total amount of rain in 1860, 34.724 inches. The following diagrams show
the annual march of the temperature and barometric pressure, as observed in
1860:

Monthly mean temperature at Caracas in 1860.

14
aay
73
72 iia
va
70
—-
69 | \
\ .
68 ww |
———
a6 gee BD Soe we ES g
2 Goel eS 2 ea lO ea apie

Monthly mean barometer pressure at Caracas in 1860.

Inches.
26. 990
C85

28)
» 975
. 970
. 965
. 860
«955
- 950
. 945
. 940
+935

eee
ie est eZ)

Oct
Nov
Dec.
Jan

t See Appendix B.

METEOROLOGY. AW

Determination of the height of the Silla de Caracas, at noon March 26, 1867.

At lower station (wharf at Laguayra) :
Barometer 759"™.32, or 29.904 English inches.
Attached thermometer 24°.2 C., or 75°.56 Fah.
Thermometer in open air 24°.2 on or 75°.56 Fah.
At upper station, (top of the Silla de Gugsean i in latitude 10° 31’ 15” north:
Barometer 557mm, 5, or 21.956 English inches.
Attached barometer 13°.8 C. or 54°.84 Fah.
Thermometer in open air 13° "8 C. . or 64°.84 Fah.
Hence by Baily’s tables, elevation of the Silla de Caracas 8,658 English feet,
or 5734.5 feet above Caracas.

APPENDIX A.

[From the Reader, Dec. 10, 1864, p. 740. ]

It appears to be the ordinary practice of instrument makers, when construct-
ing a barometer with the English and French scales, to turn to the tables for
the conversion of inches into “millimetres, or vice versa, and to assume that the
equivalents there found are to be implicitly adopted. Iam far from blaming
them for this assumption, but merely wish to show that it should in future cease
to be acted upon. An examination into the data on which these tables are con-
structed shows that they merely profess to give the equivalent of English inches
at the standard temperature of the yard (62° F.) in millimetres at the standard
temperature of the metre (0° C., or 32° ¥.) Hence the reading of the metrical
scale of a barometer corresponding to any given number of inches should be the
tabular equivalent less a correction for the expansion of the scale between the
respective standard temperatures (0° C., 62° F.,) or for a range of 30° F. (16°.67
C.) It will be at once apparent that, at the same pressure, the amount of this
correction will be constant, whatever be the temperature common to the two scales.

An example will render my meaning clearer. Let the barometric reading on
the English scale be 31 inches, the equivalent of which in the tables is 787.37
millimetres, based on the assumption that the temperatures of the scales are respect-
ively 62° and 32° F. If the attached thermometer indicates 62° it is clear that
the requisite condition is not realized in the case of the metric scale, which must
therefore be corrected. Let A be the linear expansion of brass for 1° C. =
0.000018782; B the metrical reading = 787.39™™, and ¢ the temperature = 62°
E., or (6".67 ©. ;: then

A Bt = 0.000018782 times 787.39 times 16.67 = 0.247™™, the amount to
be deducted from the reading of the metrical scale equivalent to 31 inches, as
given in the table, in order to reduce it to the same temperature as the English
scale.

Unless this be done a discrepancy must always become apparent in the
reduced readings of the two scales. For instance, in the case of a mountain
barometer, by one of our leading makers, and now in my possession, I find
761.99™™ are made to correspond (following the authority of the tables) to 30
inches. If the temperature of the attached thermometer be 62° F., the respect-
ive readings reduced to the freezing point become 30 — 0.090 = 29.910 inches
at the standard temperature, (62° F.,) 761.99 — 2.05 = 759.94™™ at the stand-
ard temperature 0° C., (82° F.) Turning to the tables for the comparison of the
scales, we find that 29.910™ at 62° F. are equivalent to 759.70™™ at 0° C.,
instead of 759.94 as above. If the barometer was properly constructed we
ought to have now 761.75"™, as corresponding to 30 inches, and the figures

A776 METEOROLOGY.

reduced to the freezing point would be 30 — 0.090 + 29.910 standard inches,
761.75 — 2.04 = 759.70 standard mm, a result which corresponds with the
figures of the tables.

For particular purposes the case may be put briefly as follows: At the
respective standard temperatures 1 inch = 25.39954™™ or 25.4™™ nearly. At
62° I’., and therefore at any other temperature common to the two scales, 1 inch
== 25.4 (1 — 30a)™™, where a@ equals the coefficient of dilatation of brass for 1°
FF, = 0.0000104344, 1 inch = 25.4™™ — 0.008 = 25.392™™. Therefore, at
the standard temperatures 30 inches = 25.4"™ x 30 == 762™™ as in the tables.
At a common temperature 30 inches = 762.0"™ — 0.008 x 30 = 761.760". In
practice this is sufficiently near, but if greater accuracy be required, the follow-
ing figures may be adopted as the respective equivalents of an inch and a milli-
metre at all common temperatures: 1 inch = 25.3916™™ and 1™™ = 0.0393831
inches. ‘he following tables are constructed on this basis:

TABLE I.

Inches. Millimetres. |Inches. Millimetres. |Inches. Millimetres |Inches. Millimetres.
32 = 812.5312 Jie— Geos p ioe 10 = 253. 9160 5 = 126.9580
31 787. 1396 26 660. 1816 9 228. 5244 4 101. 5664
30 761 7480 25 634. 7900 8 203. 1328 3 76, 1748
29 736, 3564 20 507. 8320 7 177. 7412 2 50. 7832
28 710. 9648 15 380. 8740 6 152. 3496 1 25. 3916

TABLE II.

mm. Inches. mm. Inches. mm. Inches. mm. Inches.
800 = 31.50648 100 = 3. 93831 30 = 1.181493 5 = 0. 1969155
700 27. 56817 90 3.544479 20 0. 787662 4 0. 1575324
600 23, 62986 80 3. 150648 10 0. 393831 3 0. 1181493
500 19, 69155 70 2.756817 9 0. 3544479 2 0. 0787662
400 15. 75324 60 2, 362986 8 0. 3150648 1 0. 0393831
300 11. 81493 50 1. 969155 7 0. 2756817

200 7. 87662 40 1. 575324 6 0. 2362986

The tables to which I have throughout referred are those published by the
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, among their Miscellaneous Collections
and under the able editorship of Professor A. Guyot. (Second edition, Wash-
ington, 1858.)

Fr. F. TUCKETT.

APPENDIX B.

The common method of calculating the annual means of the temperature and
atmospheric pressure from the monthly means is not quite exact. I presented a
paper on this subject to the Silesian Society for the Progress of the Country,
(“ Schlesische Gesellschaft fiir vaterlandische Kultur,”) of which I beg leave to
give here an abstract.

The monthly means being the quotient of the sum of the daily means by the
number of days in the month, it is clear that we obtain that sum by multiplying
the given monthly mean by the corresponding number of days. This being
done with all the months composing the year, the sum of these twelve products
will be equal to the total sum of all the daily means in the year, which divided
by 365 (or by 366 in a leap year) gives the true annual mean. ‘The difference
of the true mean and the common mean increases with the divergencies of the
monthly means.

The ordinary mean temperature of Caracas would be, taking the numbers
given in the foregoing table, 71°.707, while the true mean is 71°.711; the ordi-

METEOROLOGY. AQT

nary mean barometric pressure from the same source is 26'".962517, the true
mean 26'.962515; the first shows a difference of +0°.004, the second of
0.000002 inches.

It is easy to prove that this difference (4) for a common year is represented
by the followi ing equation :

43804 = 7 (my +imgtims+ in; mig + 49+ M2) —29 M22—5 (M+ Mg++ 29+ M11)
and for a leap year:

324 = (my + 23+ M54 27+ Mg + My 9+ M2) — (M+ Me + M9+ 11241) —3 Mz
where mm 2 M3, etc, are the monthly means corresponding to the first, second,
third, ete., month.

Taking again the case of Caracas as an example, we find a differenee for the
be att) 2. 89 ?
thermometric means of =55 — 0°.0038 as stated above, and for the barometric
?

732
0.0016
means of 739° = 0.0000022 as before.

AN ACCOUNT OF A CYCLONE, JANUARY 6 AND 7, 1867, ENCOUNTERED BY THE
UNITED STATES STEAMER MONOCACY, WHILE ON HER PASSAGE FROM
SIMON’S BAY TO MAURITIUS, IN THE INDIAN OCEAN.

By NICHOLAS PIKE, UNITED STATES ConsuL, PorT Louts.

The United States steamer Monocacy, bound from Simon’s bay, South Africa,
towards Mauritius, met, during the passage to the last- mentioned port, one of
those dreaded tornadoes or hurricanes that swept over the vast expanse of the
South Indian ocean. Being myself on board of the Monocacy, and deeply inter-
ested in the science of the laws of storms, I succeeded, by careful observations
of barometer and thermometer, by noticing the changes of wind and tempera-
ture, and the rising and setting of the stort m wave, to: ascertain pretty correctly
the centre of the hurricane, and deduce all the aforesaid changes of wind and
weather to the rules laid down by Messrs. Piddington and Redfield, in their
admirable treatise on the law of stor ms; the officers of the vessel kindly supply-
ing me with a copy of the log, which, if even not very correct, greatly aided
me in tracing the cyclone home to its vortex.

As my object i in writing this is not a description of the storm, but especially
facts and dates, and arranging such in tables to prove the correctness of the
theory of cyclones, I shall previously insert a short description of the tempest.
The whole of our passage, since leaving Simon’s bay, had been a succession of
bad weather, and the few sunny days which we in reality had were both to
officers and men a veritable blessing ; sails were repaired, hammocks and bed-
ding aired, clothes dried and mended, and the decks, for the first time quite dry,
resounded in ever y direction with the j joyous laughter of the crew, carelessly for-
getting the past troubles, living only for the present, regardless for the future.
But their joy was of short duration. On the evening of the 6th of January, the
sky became gloomy, dark threatening clouds passed swiftly to the northward,
the sea rose fast, and the vessel commenced to roll heavily ; bedding and clothes
were quickly rea below, and everything secured for the bad weather again.
The night, from January 6 to 7, fully justified our anticipations; heavy blasts of
wind, rain, "and lightning, the rolling of the vessel, the cracking of her timbers, and
the thundering noise of a wave breaking under the vessel’s counter , made, I may
safely say, even the oldest seamen on board uncomfortable, especially as the
vessel being new, and her sea-worthiness to all, even to the captain, unknown, we
had not that confidence in her which her gallant behavior afterwards during the

478 METEOROLOGY.

following gale inspired us all; sails were reduced, or partly so, by the aid of
the storm, the flapping of the canvas, torn to ribbons by the rage of the tempest,
the loud thunder, the occasional flashes of lightning, the rising of a tremendous
wave, showing first its white foaming crest far off on the horizon, and then
drawing nearer and nearer, till you might almost fancy it would instantly engulf
us, but our gallant craft rose nobly to the crest of the surge. All this was a
spectacle wild and fearful to behold, but in its very wildness, grand and sublime.
Then, I may say, the metal of our crew was tried, and the true sailors, both
among officers and men, were found; but alas! how few, out of that great
number! /I hey worked hard, sending down masts and yards, repairing or bend-
ing the storm-sails, or standing at the pumps, knee-deep in water, that washed
unceasingly over the decks. Daylight showed us at last the extent of the dam-
ages the vessel had sustained ; the paddle-boxes, the roundhouses were smashed
in and washed away, the rail forward was stove in, and the heavy one-inch iron
plates were bent double, the ring-bolts to which the heavy pivot guns were
secured started from the deck, and the guns threatened with each roll to break
adrift from their lashings; a temporary tall in the gale gave us time to secure
them, and repair damages a little. Everybody hoped for good weather, as the
heavy rain which fell during four or five hours beat the sea down considerably,
but on the evening of the 7th the storm commenced again. <A red lurid light
spread all over the sky, and shortly after the setting of the sun the ocean became
furious once more. A tremendous sea breaking over the starboard bow swept
everything before it, tearing away the gratings of the hatches, breaking the
after sky-lights, and ‘rushing down into the ward-room and cabin, floating and
drenching everything and everybody. The tiller ropes having ‘been carried
away, the ship, paying off before the wind, became unmanageable ; the guys of
the smoke-stack having broken, it was oneal that the heavy mass of iron would
descend upon us, smashing everything; the ship then coming to again filled her
decks with water, and leaning over to port, remained so long i in that position
that even the stoutest heart quailed, and anxiously counted the seconds till at
last the ship rose gallantly again on the crest of the next wave; luckily the sea
having stove in the lower ports, the immense quantity of water found a ready
egress from her decks, and the vessel, lightened of her weight, rolled less heavily;
new wheel-ropes were rove, and the storm having spent its fury abated oreatly.
In the morning a heavy shower of rain smoothed down the sea considerably,
and a little before six o’clock the sun rose red and gloriously in the east, in a
fair and cloudless sky. The danger passed, the heavy putting and snorting of
the powerful engine showed that the good ship was once more speeding onw vard,
gracefully throwing the splashing, glittering spray from her bow back into the
conquered ocean.

nea a scientific view of huricanes and cyclones, and the management of
vessels therein, it is clear that there are three ways of managing a ship in or at
the approach of a cyclone: First, in order to avoid the same, (in case there is
plenty of sea room,) the vessel should be hove to on the proper tack. Second,
if a ship is caught inside of a storm disk, the only chances to be adopted are,
running before the wind, or heaving the ship to, and the latter, when on account
of the ‘high or cross seas the safety of the ship is endangered, the only course
left is to run before the wind in a tangent direction toward the inner storm disk,
and then gradually to edge off to the outer limits of the cyclone; and lastly, by
running on the outside of the wind’s circle, and even profit by it. But the ques-
tion is - how to know the approach of a cyclone, how to find the proper bearings
of its coutne: Considering then every cyclone as a great whirlwind, the diree-
tion of every wind as a rotary, of which the outer part is a common close-reefed
topsail breeze, such as seamen do not care for, and by which no seaworthy ship
is injured, but the violence of the wind increases with great rapidity as the centre

is approached, till close or in it, when it becomes of a destructive fury, and even

METEOROLOGY. 479

if this centre should have a diameter of 50 or 60 miles, round which the storm ig
revolving, our first care must be to ascertain how this point or centre bears from
us, in order to eae our future manwuvres. Now, as the Monocacy on the 5th
of J anuary was, according to her log, in latitude 32° 15/ south, and longitude
47° 45/ east, tie wind marked as E.SE., the centre of every common wind would
lay, according to proved and established rules of storms, to the E. by N. or
E‘NE. In the remarks on January 5th it is said, clouds accumulating, cloudy
and damp, moderate breeze from SE. by E., sent up foretopmast ; from 4 to 6,
squally and damp, heavy swell from SE. by E. , light winds; 6 p. m., a drizzling
rain, but with all these clouds and dampness we find the state of the barometer
as show n in the diagram, the lowest stand being 30.1; in the diagram stating
the position of the ship and centre e bearings, the storm disk with its hourly chang-
ing tangent angles is named a moderate gale; the outside circle of a hurricane,
accompanied with a surrounding atmosphere slightly disturbed ; the greatest signs
of an approaching cyclone are the oscillations in barometer and sy ‘mpiesometer,
more especially a high barometer with gloomy threatening weather ; ; in the track
of the trades and monsoons this is almost always a sure sign of an approaching
tempest.

Looking at the table we must naturally be surprised to see that, regardless of
all these signs, the vessel was still kept on her course, that is to say between
E.NE. and NE. by E. The question naturally arises, can the barometer assist us
in forming an approximative estimation of the ship’s distance from the centre?
And on first consideration, it is evident that there are very great differences in
the fall and rise of a pee erer and sympiesometer, in various storms, though
they may be all true cyclones. Consequently the variations of these instruments
may very often mislead us; but the shortness of the time in which these changes
happened, the number of barometers which underwent the same changes, was
enough to make even the most careless seaman comprehend the danger “and the
close | approximation of the destructive centre. But looking again at ‘the barom-
eter and sympiesometer stand of January 5th, we find that it ought to have been
considered, first, the previous height of the barometer : second, the exact time for
a given fall or rise; and third, the change of the observ er’s 3 position, especially
when running or steaming. The diagram here then shows the height and the

fw)
hourly change of a barometer and sympiesometer, and the dienes from the

centre is worked out accor ding to Mr, Piddington’s rule. Certainly these calcula-
tions are only to be made approximatively, Dut coming so near to the truth that
we may consider the result to be the true centre. Now, as in the Southern
Indian ocean, the rate of travelling of a hurricane may be stated to be little
more than nine or ten miles per hour, and especially in the meridian between
Mauritius and Madagascar, the rate generally does not exceed eight miles per
hour, it is evident that with even the little progress the Monocacy ‘made against
a head wind and sea, the course to the northward and eastward brouglit her
without question nearer to the focus. ‘The weather during the following days
showed no material alteration; the same dark cloudy sky, the same height of
barometer, slightly varying as by the ship’s progress we neared the centre.
The table shows the indications of barometer and sympiesometer for the 6th,
7th, and Sth, in her log-book. I find the oscillations of one barometer and the
vibrations of an aneroid barometer very strongly marked; both are common
signs during a cyclone. On January 7th, states the log, the water changed its
appearance to a dark brown color, the sea was running furiously, and in various
directions; the vessel was at thee time under storm mainsail, double-reefed fore
trysail, and storm fore topsail, the topsail yard and fore yar don deck, and fore
and main topmasts housed; everything was secured about her decks, and the
vessel kept under just enough steam 6 hold her own, but still heading to the
nerthward and eastward. During the night from the 7th to the 8th the storm

S .
had reached its climax; it blew the storm staysail out of the bolt ropes, and the

A80 METEOROLOGY.

ship having lost her starboard bulwarks, shipped a tremendous quantity of water,
which flooded her decks; this and the tiller carrying away, her helm shifted
thereby over to starboard, and made the vessel pay off before the wind; with
the greatest difficulty a new tiller was shipped, and the vessel again was kept
up to the eastward. In the storm chart it will be seen that the vessel, during
this night, was nearest to the vortex. On the following day, the 8th, the storm
having passed the vessel, no material danger threatened us longer; the barom-
eter still kept unusually high, and the whole day the sky wore an unusually
bright appearance; the air likewise was charged with a great amount of elec-
tricity; incessant thunder and lightning were the consequences. In the afternoon
it was calm, but the sea still ran high, which made the vessel labor heavily;
barometer at 30.14, the thermometer 74.5 Fahrenheit. At 6 p.m. a heavy rain
smoothed the sea down, and the vessel, after having undergone the necessary
repairs, steamed towards her destination.

But before I conclude this description I can hardly omit a word about the
origin of cyclones. It appears to me that a simply flattened spiral stream of
electric fluid generates above, and expanding im a broad disk, may amply account
for the commencement of a cyclone. By its descending to the surface of the
earth, and that likewise its onward motion, in such a direction as the law of
force and gravity drives it, may simply account for its continuance, and the
oppression and exhaustion of its force for its termination. ‘The unequal motion
is naturally the consequence of one side of the disk being more flattened, and
causing the cyclone to advance more rapidly ; the descent or settling down of the
cyclones has in numerous cases been proved ; the appearance of the vortexes of
violent tornadoes within the body of great storms is not unfrequent or new.

A curious phenomenon was the brightness of the sky at sunset on the 7th of
January. The whole horizon became suddenly suffused with a bright scarlet
color; I do not remember ever it happening before, and even the very zenith and
all the horizon round was affected by it. All these signs combined were strong
proofs of a cyclone, and the management of the ship should have been acted upon
accordingly. Commanders and officers of men-of-war should strictly consider
the competence of junior officers before intrusting them with s watch, whether or
not they are able to take charge of one, as courage and daring have during the
late war elevated many a person to a position which is far above his experience.
Courage and daring are in war two main virtues, and most desirable, but expe-
rience and cool judgment in peaceful times, and during the raging of a tempest,
are the most wished-for qualities in an officer, whether in the merchant service
or navy.

But still, looking calmly on the past dangers, I cannot omit to render, next to
God, to the commander and to some of the officers and crew of the Monocacy
my thanks for a safe delivery out of one of those terrible cyclones that occur in
the South Indian ocean.

METEOROLOGY. 481

Table showing the hourly change of wind, the course steered, the height of
barometer, thermometer and sympiesometer, and temperature of water during
the cyclone.

- ;
2 | Wind. Course. Barometer. ieee Sy eee a eS Remarks.
_—
|
1 30. 2 72.5 0. 026 74.3
2 30. 1 72.6 0. 027 74.3 Cloudy.
3 30. 1 72.6 0. 027 74.3 Do.
4 30. 2 72.5 0. 028 74.8 Rain.
5 30. 1 M2u0 0. 027 74.8 Do.
6 30. 1 72.5 0. C26 74.8 Do.
id 30, 1 72.5 0. 020 74.2 Cloudy
8 30. 14 75. 0 0. C18 74.3 Do.
9 30.15 75.3 0. 016 74.3 Do.
10 30.17 75. 0 0. 016 74.3 Do.
11 30. 17 75.0 0. 016 74.1 Do.
12 30.15 75. 0 0.015 74.3 Do.
i 30. 15 75.0 0. 015 74.3 Do.
2 30. 14 75. 0 0.015 74.3 Rainy.
3 30. 14 75. 0 0. 015 74,3 Do.
4 30. 13 75. 0 0.012 74.5 Do.
5 30. 6 (0303 0.10 74.5 Do.
6 30. 15 79. 1 0. 08 74.5 Strong gale.
7 30. 15 15. 1 0. 08 74.5 Do.
8 30. 15 75.2 0. 08 74,12 Do.
9 30.15 76.2 0. 08 74.12 Do
10 30. 20 76. 2 0. OF 74. 12 Do
11 30, 21 76. 2 0. 07 74. 12 Do
12 30, 21 76.2 0. 07 75.0 Do
Rhee Te atent Mele it Ol) DALOUIOL CL steele else telat elaine stale lala ae tel ole tet olalm (ee als eieiteiete eta 30. 21
cRG Mlowestistan ails barometers) am /aen(tacioetan a se leten a oie iota eintele bl -)afetare =, =talelaintcialaiatelelsiatemeia = 30.1
Me wowest sand! Of Sy Mpls OMEN els aio = oat sles ieeinisiole we tmle see cree eis elsiscal oleate piste <ale)=) === 0. 07

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE GREAT HURRICANE OF OCTOBER 29, 1867, AT
TORTOLA, (OR PETER’S ISLAND,) ST. THOMAS, AND PART OF PORTO RICO.

By GrorGE A. LATIMER.

What is usually called the great hurricane of 29th October, 1867, should, it
seems to me, rather be called a tornado, or a number of tornadoes, almost joined
and moving nearly together, for the following reasons: Hurricanes extend far
and are wide; this occurrence on the 29th October was short in extent and
narrow. It appears to have begun at Tortola, (Peter’s island,) at 9 a. m., with
wind at northeast, and lasted until 1.20 p. m., wind going all round the compass,
the hardest being from northwest.

At St. Thomas it began at 10a. m., with wind from northeast, and a heavy
rain; at 11.15 a. m. calm until 12.15 p. m., when wind came furious from west,
and blew until 2 p. m.; then a dead calm until 2.30 p. m., when the wind came
with fury from the east, accompanied by a heavy rain and a white atmosphere.
This, the second and most terrific part, lasted until 4.15 p. m., when it fell calm,
and the night following was clear, with a bright sky. While the wind was
blowing so hard from the east, the barometer fell 14 lines, and remained so tor
30 minutes.

At east end of Porto Rico, say Fajardo, Naguabo, and Humacao, it began at
11 am., with wind from northeast, shifting to southeast and south until 1.15 p.
m., then calm until 2 p. m., when the wind came from northwest, and at 4 p. m.
it entirely ceased, and the evening and night following were calm. During the
violence of the wind, (but the hour is not given,) the sea rose in Fajardo and
Huinacao about four feet, overflowing the beaches and all the store yards for a
very great distance.

3h 5 67

A892 METEOROLOGY.

At Loiza (going down the north side) it began at 4 p. m., with wind at north,
shifting to northeast, and lasted until 10 p. m., when the ‘wind abated, but it
rained he: avily all the night.

At the city of St. John’s, (going down the north side,) it commenced at 4 p.
m., with wind from north, and lasted until 10 p. m. Here it was not severe, and
no damage done ; neither was there any done further down the north side of the
island, but there was a heavy rain, causing floods in the rivers, &c.

At ‘Arroyo, on the south side, it began at 4 p. m., with wind from east, barom-
eter 29.09; at 7 p. m. barometer at 29.15, and wind changed to south, and blew
very hard until 9.30 p. m., when it was all over; and it does not appear to have
gone further down the south side of Porto Rico.

Thus, the course of it seems to have been striking:

1. Tortola, (or Peter’s island,) at 9 a. m., wind from northeast ;

2. St. Thomas, 30 miles to leeward, at 10 a. m., wind northeast ;

3. Porto Rico, east end, 28 miles to leeward, at 11 a. m., wind northeast ;
north side, Loisa, 20 miles to leeward, at 5 p. m., wind north ; city of St. John’s,
20 miles to leeward, at 4 p. m., wind north; south side, Arroyo, 64 miles to lee-
ward, at 4 p. m., wind east, and not going further westward than St. John’s on
the north and Arroyo on the south side; so that it cut across Porto Rico from
north-northeast to south-southwest in about one-third of its length, making great
destruction in the trees on the mountains and in the tops of those on the plains
and low hills, as is to be seen and traced throughout its whole course; and as
the lower two-thirds of the island were not injured by the winds, only by heavy
rains, it shows the tornado passed off to south-southwest, or disappeared upwards.
That it did not extend further to the eastward is proved by the arrival of vessels
at St. Thomas the next day without their having felt it; whereas, had it been a
hurricane, from their position they should have felt it. So, also, a vessel bound
into Arroyo, and another from Arroyo to Humacao, seeing the weather look
threatening, stood to the south, and only had a strong northeast wind all night,
going into their respective ports of destination the next morning, to find there
had been a tornado passing over both places.

PRIZE QUESTIONS.

QUESTIONS PROPOSED FOR COMPETITION BY THE ROYAL DANISH SOCI
ETY OF SCIENCES, 1867.

Crass oF NATURAL History anp MATHEMATICS.—Question of natural
history—Although the lichens have been the object, in late years, of very pro-
found researches, (especially on the part of MM. Tulasne, Nylander, Th. Fries,
and Speerschneider,) there are still many points of great interest in their life and
development, respecting which our knowledge remains very incomplete.

Although M. Tulasne had demonstrated in 1852 that all the lichens are fur-
nished with a special organ, (spermagorie with the spermatiz,) and his researches
render it more than probable that this organ must serve for fecundation and cor-
respond to the male reproductive organ, there has, thus far, been no observation
made, nor experiment, which might establish conclusively that the organ in
question fulfils that function. We have, moreover, recent observations (of
MM. Hicks and Bary) which prove that there are certain species of colimaceze
which stand in generic relation to plants which have been heretofore considered
as types of alge, (Nostochacez, Chroococcacez ;) but the true nature of that
relation is still completely unknown. It results, lastly, from recent researches,
that there are reproductive organs (apothecize) without a thallus, which appear
to subsist as parasites on the thallus of other species. They have been classed
as distinct species or genera in a family apart, (the pseudolichens,) or considered

‘as champignons or special organs of the plants on which they live. The true

nature of these organisms or organs is therefore still very enigmatical. The
society proposes its gold medal as a recompense for the solution, in a satisfactory
manner, of one or more of these three points.

Question of mathematics—The potential may be reduced to a more general

form, when the variable, », in the function ¥“,is considered as a function of
r

t— ey ¢ being a new variable and aa constant. As the potential thus gen-
a

eralized may receive applications much more ¢ xtended, the society desires that,
besides a recital of the principal propositions heretofore known in relation to this
function, an investigation of the same function should be submitted to it under
the form above indicated.

CuaAss oF History AND PuILosopHy.— Question of history and philology.—
How have the classical Latin authors been appreciated and how far have they
veen made use of by the grammarians of the time of the empire and by their
schools? What influence was exerted by this appreciation and this use on the
preservation or disappearance of literature, and how much of the literature of
antiquity may be estimated to have remained in circulation or to have been
accessible, about 500 years after Jesus Christ?

The answers to these questions may be written in Latin, French, English,
German, Swedish, or Danish. The memoirs should not bear the name of the
author, but a motto, and be accompanied by a sealed note distinguished by the
same motto and enclosing the name, profession, and address, of the author. The
members of the society who reside in Denmark will take no part in the compe-
tition. The recompense accorded for a satisfactory reply to one of the proposed
questions, will be the gold medal of the society, of the value of 50 Danish ducats.
The replies must be addressed, before the end of October, 1868, to the secretary
of the society, Professor J. Japetus Sm. Steenstrup.

484 PRIZE QUESTIONS.

PONTIFICAL ACADEMY OF THE NUOVI LINCEI.—PROGRAMME FOR THE
CARPI PRIZE.—ROME, JUNE 12, 1868.

The academy, with the view of conferring the annual prize founded by the
gencrous testamentary provision of its late associate doctor, Pierre Carpi, proposes
the development of the following theme:

To compare with one another the tides of the principal ports of all the Italian
coasts, and to appreciate and explain their differences.

EXPLANATION.—Galileo had occupied himself with the flow and ebb of the
sea.* But in his time, that is to say in 1616, neither the true doctrine of univer-
sal attraction nor the higher analysis was known; it was not possible, therefore,
to indicate the principal causes of the phenomenon in question. Notwithstanding
this, that illustrious Lincean sought,t two and a half centuries ago, to investigate
the probable reasons which cause the flow and ebb of the sea to be more sensi-
ble in the Adriatic, and especially at Venice, than on the coasts of the Mediter-
ranean. It thus appears that our subject was, in part, considered by the glorious
reformer of the doctrines of Aristotle.

In its discussion the proposed theme should be well developed, yet all that
does not strictly pertain to the question should be avoided, without, however,
going so far as to suppress anything which may contribute to give clearness and
foree to the demonstrations. It will be of great service to the author to be
acquainted with the researches respecting the tides already executed by physical
geographers, such, for instance, as Humboldt, Whewell, Lubbock, Berghaus,
Germar, Thomson, Manry, Dession, Chezallon, &c., and also by the modern
geometers, Laplace, Delaunay, and others.

The author should have recourse to sources, either official or entirely worthy
of credit, for the observations which have been made on the cotemporaneousness
of tides, on their differences in point of time, and should indicate whence he has
collected those observations. He should also state the intervals which separate
high tide from the lunar culmination, and likewise its maximum, minimum, and
mean ordinary or extraordinary height, at the syzygies and at the equinoxes,
under the influence of certain winds and on occasion of considerable changes of
atmospheric pressure, &c. All the physical or geographical circumstances which
modify the usual course of the tides should be generally stated, and explana-
tions furnished. Above all it is requisite to indicate the causes of the differences
observed between the tides of the principal ports of all the coasts of Italy.
Finally, it is recommended that the argument should be developed also in its
relations to mathematical analysis, taking as a guide chiefly what has been pub-
lished on this subject by the illustrious Laplace in his Mécanique celeste. But
if the author finds that our theme does not, from its nature, permit the applica-
tion of analysis, he should clearly set forth the difficulties which oppose them-
selves to the attempt.

Although in strictness the theme simply demands a scientific study and explana-
tion of the tides in the principal ports of Italy, by reason that these offer a
greater interest, yet the academy will receive with thankfulness, observations
and researches on the tides at every other point of the Italian coasts, whether in
the islands or on the continent.

Connirions.—1. The memoirs on the proposed theme should be drawn up
either in Italian, Latin, or French; no other language is admissible. 2. Each
memoir will be preceded by an epigraph, which shall be repeated on the outside
of a sealed envelope, containing the name and address of the author. 3. Only
the envelope corresponding to the memoir which shall obtain the prize will be

*A manuscript treatise on this physico-geographical phenomena may be found in the library
of the Vatican; it contains a highly interesting autographic frontispiece of Galileo.
ka Le opere di Galileo Galilei; t. 19, Florence, 1842, p. 498, and t, 11°, Florence, 1843, p.
0.

PRIZE QUESTIONS. A85

opened. 4. If the authors who shall have obtained an honorable mention desire
that the academy should publish their names, they must make a request to that
effect within the four months following the day on which the prize shall have
been decreed; at the end of that term the envelopes will be burned without
being unsealed. 5. With the exception of its thirty members in ordinary, the
academy invites the competition of all persons, whatsoever their nationality.
6. Each memoir, with its corresponding envelope, must be sent, free of postage,
to the academy before the last day of October, 1869, the date at which the com-
petition closes. 7. The prize will be awarded by the academy in the month of
January, 1870, and will consist of a gold medal of the value of a thousand
livres. 8. The successful memoir will be published whole, or in extracts, in the
acts of the academy, and the author will receive fifty copies.

B. VIALE PRELA, President.

P. VOLPICELLI, Secretary.

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN ENGLAND IN 1867.

COMPILED BY W. DE LA RUE.

A.—Associate.

A. B.—Artium Baccalaureus. Bachelor of Arts.
Abp.—Archbishop.

. © —Anno Christi. In the year of Christ.
D.—<Anno Domini. In the year of our Lord.
.1.C.E., or A. Inst. C. E.—Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers
. M.—Anno Mundi. In the year of the world.

. M.—Artium Magister. aster of Arts.

. M.—Ante Meridiem. J orenoon.

. R. A.—Associate of the Royal Academy.

_R. S. A.—Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy.
art., or Bt.—Baronet.

B. A.—Bachelor of Arts.

B. C.—Before Christ.

B. C. L.—Bachelor of Civil Law.

B. D.—Bachelor of Divinity.

B. L.—Bachelor of Law.

Bp.—Bishop.

B. Sc.—Bachelor of Science.

C., or Cent.—Centum. A hundred; or Chap.—Chapter.
Cam., or Cantab.—Cambridge.

C. B.—Companion of the Bath.

C. E.—Civil Engineer.

Coll. Reg. Chir—Royal College of Surgeons.

Coll. Reg. Med.—Royal College of Physicians.

C. P. S8.—Custos Privati Sigilli. Keeper of the Privy Seal.
Cr.—Creditor.

C. 8.—Custos Sigilli. Keeper of the Seal.
Cwt.—Hundredweight.

D.—Five hundred.

d.—Denarius. A penny.

D. C. L—Doctor of Civil Law.

D. D.—Docetor of Divinity.

D. G.—Dei Gratiad By the Grace of God.

Do.—Ditto. The same.

Dr.—Doctor, or Debtor.

D. Se—Doctor of Science.

D. V.—Deo volente. God willing.
Dwt.—Pennyweight.

E. C. P.—Evangelii Christi Praedicator. Preacher of the Gospel of Christ.
e. g—Exempli gratia. For example.

Kq., or Eques.—Knight.

Esq.—Esquire.

Ex.—Example.

Ex., or Exr—Executor.

>> bb bb b>

es)

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN ENGLAND. A87

C. P.—Fellow of the College of Preceptors.

. C. P. S—Fellow of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
C. S.—Fellow of the Chemical Society.

D.—Fidei Defensor. Defender of the Faith.

G. S.—Fellow of the Geological Society.

H. S.—Fellow of the Horticultural Society.

I. A.—Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries.

L. S.—Fellow of the Linnean Society.

R. A. S., or F. R. Astron. S.—Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.
. B. S.—F ellow of the Royal Botanic Society.

. C. S.— Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons,

. I. B. A.—Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects.
. S.—Fellow of the Royal Society.

. S. E.—Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

. C. P—Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.

. G. 8.—Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.

S. A.—Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries.

S. S.—Fellow of the Statistical Society.

Z. S.—Fellow of the Zoological Society.

C. B.—Knight Grand Cross of the Bath.

. KE. 1. ©. 8 —The Honorable the East India Company’s Service.
on.—Honorary, Honorable.

Hon. Mem.—Honorary Member.

H. M. 8.—Her Majesty’s ship.

H. M. 8. S—Her Majesty’s steam ship.

H. R. H.—His or Her Royal Highness.

Ib., or Ibid—Ibidem. Jn the same place.

Id—Idem. The same.

i.e—lId est. That is.

I. C. S.—Indian Civil Service.

J. H. S.—Iesus Hominum Salvator. Jesus, the Saviour of mankind.
I. H. + S.—In hac eruce salus. Safety in this Cross.

I. P. D.—In presentiad Dominorum. In presence of the Lords.
J. P.—Justice of the Peace.

K. B.—Knight of the Bath.

K. C.—Knight of the Crescent.

K. C. B.—Knight Commander of the Bath.

Ke @; G.—Knight Commander of the Guelphs [of Hanover. |
K. G.—Knight of the Garter.

Ke G € —Knight Grand Cross.

K. H.—Knight [of the order of the Guelphs] of Hanover.

Ke P.—Knight of St. Patrick.

Ke —Knicht of the Thistle.

Kt., or Knt —Knight.

A ‘or Libi—Libra, @ pound; or Liber, Le

L: ©. J—Lord Chief Justice.

L. D.—Lady Day.

Ldp.—Lordship.

LL. B.—Legum Bacealaureus. Bachelor of Laws.

LL. D.—Legum Doctor. Doctor of Laws.

L. S—Locus sigilli. The place of the seal.

M.—Mille. A thousand.

M. A.—Master of Arts.

M. B., (Latin,) or B. M., (English.)—Bachelor of Medicine.
M. B. M. S.—Member of the British Meteorological Society.
M. C.—Member of Congress.

pofls=hieP nee eco ne heheh eect ake ke berks hee uer ae Beka ae
DORA:

488 ABBREVIATIONS USED IN ENGLAND.

M. D.—Medicinz Doctor. Doctor of Medicine.
Mem. Corr. or Corresp.—Corresponding Member.
M. I. ©. E., or M. Inst. C. E.—Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
M. L. A—Member of the Legislative Assembly.
M. L. C.—Member of the Legislative Council.
M. P.—Member of Parliament.
M. R. A. S., or M. R. Asiat. S—Member of the Royal Asiatic Society.
M. R. I. A—Member of the Royal Irish Academy.
M. R. S. L—Member of the Royal Society of Literature.
M. S—Memoriz Sacrum. Sacred to the memory.
MS.—Manuscript. MSS.—Manuscripts.
Mus. D —Doctor of Musie.
M. W. 8.—Member of the Wernerian Society.
N. B.—Nota bene. ark well.
M. R. I.—Member of the Royal Institution.
Nem. con., or Nem. diss—Nemine contradicente, or Nemine dissentiente.
Without opposition, unanimously.
No.—Number.
N. P.—Notary Pubke.
N.S.—New Style.
Oxon.—Oxford.
Oz.—Ounce.
P., or Pres. President.
Parl._—Parliament.
P. C.—Privy Councillor.
Ph. D.—Doctor of Philosophy.
P. M.—Post meridem. <A/fternoon.
P. S.— Postscript.
(. C.—Queen’s Counsel.
. d.—Quasi dicat. As if he should say.
q. d.—Quasi dictum. <As if it were said.
(). E. D.—Quod erat demonstrandum. Which was to be demonstrated.
Q. E. F.—Quod erat faciendum. Which was to be done.
Q. S.—Quantum sufficit. A sufficient quantity.
(). V.—Quod vide. Which see.
Rp.—Recipe. Take.
R. I. A.—Royal Irish Academy.
R. A.—Royal Academician.
R. A—Royal Artillery.
R. E.—Royal Engineers.
R, H. A~—Royal Hibernian Academy.
Reg. Prof—Regius Professor.
Rev.—Reverend.
R. M.—Royal Marines.
R. N.—Royal Navy
Rt. Hon —Right Honorable.
Rt. Wpful.—Right Worshipful.
Se., or Soc.—Fellow.
8. 8. C.—Solicitor of the Supreme Court.
S. T. P —Sacro-Sanctz Theologize Professor. Professor of Diviiity.
Ult.—Ultimo. Last month.
T. D—Theologie Doctor. Doctor of Theology.
Trust. Brit. Mus.—Trustee of the British Museum.
V. D. M.—Verbi Dei Minister. Minister of God’s word.
V. P.—Vice-President.
W.S.—Writer to the Signet.

+2

CONTENTS.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Page.

Resolutions of Congress ordering report to be printed. --...---..----..--+-+------ 2
Letieriots the Secretarystor@ onoressi-esaeor eck aes sen oo oe enema sacl one a cjevecies 3
Letter of the Chancellor and Secretary, submitting Report for 1867...--....--..--- 4
Officers and) Regents or the Institution. ~~ 2-2-5552 ca5 sede Gane cans 4 sen = 29 5
Members ex-officio and honorary members of the Institution......-...-.-.---.----- 6
Programme, On Or aMiannOlne soc. os s ster fon a0 has oa eee «onic = 5, beled baeis Eo a
REPORT Ob THE SECRETARY, PROF. EENRY. FOR, [867ec2e5-\.2eees scocleeeock oe 13
Remarks on character of Smithson bequest .......----.-.-----+------------ 13
Mransieror smithson fandesssssc.cas5 sss scene ee ote eeclaeie as nea 14
Action of Congress relative to the Institution.......-..2- 5<. --2<s--+-2------ 15
Adoption of systems of organization for the Institution......---.--...--.--- 15
Hocal-operations’..-< = 367 dese each eancisie m cursos os) gute sine see Seas) sels 16
Active: operations): <2 .- severe ce sis ett eae wae ose cele eis ae bereeisia(oeiemieeo 16
Interests of elty of- Washingtoms cee ss-s 3-65.52 55 500. -oeewaye= sa aeer 17
Corcoran’ Gallery: of JArt ccc cociace seo ctaciemics ba saoeeint Aen aen oe ele 17
Relief desired from support of a national museum ..---..----...-..------ 3 18
Public* museums) sc. Sss ss os eager ae cists sles nis sesikuecets aes lena ee 18
Enereasovotscmithson, fund seeees ete sates oe ieee ee ac cece anes ee eee er 20
Reconstruction of the building..........-.- BORER SEP ane S-5 Se Ae eo ee 20
Aidefrom! Coneress required sass osclsoe = =\senis <oee a oeloe nee ee aece tesco cers 21
Publications of the Institution during 18675-2 ~~ < +222). 2-2 somes 225 so 21
ules of distribution, of publications -22.;252* 4.54325 7. cee asses se ssn sss 20
Schoolvarchitecture)-sasc-es eae eee sae eee oe cee eee elec ee oe ee eee enes 24
Report tor (S66; ,account Of sameeren peacisoee tise ccetice 6 ccle cieeaiine ieee 24
Meteorolopicaloperations) during, 1807 -ose. ee ayaa ee eae See eee 26
Medical department of the army: 6. -/5. <2 2ssisjsiayns ore one lcd Saeeleed- ase s 27
Mepartmenthor Aericulture)o-sssoss oo als sos occ, ea alSake -ee ames ae eee 27
Cleaveland’s meteorological observations at Brunswick, Me-.-..-...---.----- 28
Hildreth’s meteorological observations at Marietta, O.........--------2----- 32

BHM OO Y Sot oe wa cise sence aon agence se ob ieae we sajgecieas E<iksiceus 34
IBIXCHAN POS eee nian sree aiefoeee ee coe eee tas Pia ees ro tee Taare ewe ase 37
Freight facilities by steamships and railroads ...........--.2--+------------ 39
IbeGEson education ‘sent to Mrance:.5< 5.0 -2 = Se eeese son eeses dee eases 40
mxplorations and collections. = c1:<=s cos a=, s4)s,oe1si8 eee ay sem see eee 41
Inyestigabionss fo 25 ce Saeed echoed amiss nace cana caaaunaae = seen stasis 52
Damonal MaseWiibas «foci n ce cares ano clowe eats cance ae eeu aes haves 55
Nationaltibraryrcs 3 2-0. 0aanielaand ace em sea Obes enreaetiaagae ate aber et 56
Societies sending publications to the Institution..............-.------------ 59
Donations! tothevlibrary ens sera c'-pseee see eisee en cca eas seems = a6 oe : 60
Wpathinat Wenge ba Chonenarn tfoscciste sane st eeeaa cco ce seesee ne anaes «6 «2 62

Report of the Assistant Secretary, Prof. Baird, for 1867.-..---.-.........-..------ 64
A. Statistics of Smithsonian exchanges...--. .... .-.2 200 ence cess enseeceee 64
B. Packages received for foreign distribution
€. Packapes received for home distribution)... ---. ---2-. . 2 .-,scnc2 -5 «cisene 67
D. Circular relative to exchanges of government documents..........------ 71

A490 CONTENTS.

Report of the Assistant Secretary—Continued. oy
E. Entries in museum record books, 1865-66-67 ...--. ----++ ---- --------<- 72

F. Distribution of duplicate Specimens Seco 2-2 t 3 ==-- --o- cnc noe oe emeee 5 72

G. Additions ‘toithe collectionsmmulS67eeee- cree === - soc eel ee ee eee eee 72

LisT OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS.....------------------- US)
METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL RECEIVED DURING 1867.-..--..----.-------------- 89
REPORT OFTHE AXE OCULIVE © OMIMEDT NE (ese eerste ment. - cite leaila siesta ees 98
REPORT OF ‘THE ‘BUILDING /COMMNTTER 225+ S222. ce men. 2. - sconce tenieaee n= 102
ESWBORT (OR) (DEE VAGR CRED HG Wee le eee eee eee ee lao oie eee 105
JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.....----.------------ 108
Reportof Prof Acassiz on"useof the large hall’ 2-225--~-2-- 2-2 -es oes eee 109
Memorial; to‘Conpress 2 See eon Denese, css case eee 114
EXTRACTS -FROM GENERAL ‘CORRESPONDENCE... 220-02 sce0ccc cos 06 sce eae e ose 116
American: AGCadeMmyAOLPATIS dU0 / SCIONCES ee acee er es-e eine sae s\3 oe eieio nie 116
George Hs -Kmiphtieieessnct 3 cc cee recen hee coe ce ee ee conto tai~ Sins no ess, See Ee 116

E. C. Bolles, Portland Society of Natural History .-......--.....--.-.----- 116
Josiah Goodwin, Bath Society for Agriculture, Arts, &c......---..--------- 117

Dr. Brehm, -Zoolopical-‘Gardens, Hamburg. -=-- 3-2-0 steam ane eee once 3 118
Chicago. Academy of Sciences .2.82 22. ewes coco scide see ee meee Sten es 118
WieabMavlote<2¢ 2 fectee eee eee Sans = se Cone eee eee eee eee 119
Count de Lulk, St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences...-....---.-.--------- 120

LB 1g CATS) Oy) NOt so sos ig So Se gasses aS Sone a benac soos: 235 121

Wi Alfred Wiloy@a2:~ss2sctcztscett .sbstcecktose tncccouecieeeeameeeeee 121, 122
Museumiof Naturalebustony, (Greece: 2*s-sesecece ss eer eae a eee rere 124

Prot uaboulaye-<<<s2cece: 16 RPS ee oe nice oom een eee etee aes 124

Dr. Lindhagen, Academy of Sciences, Stockholm..-........----.-----...-- 125

Jonn Gould..2: <3 ose ce secs se see Shek etet Pest ete nee eee eee eee eee 125

S.gk. Mayberry: 2s cccmeseccecame SA 3225 8gab Bosca neceaheems se aeeeae 125

ib. Pratt, University, of Costa nicaascs-s222 sec sm= see one eae eee 126
BioGRAPHICAL NOTICE OF CHARLES COFFIN JEWETT, by R. A. Guild.-.---.--.. 128
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE OF WILLIAM HENRY Harvey, by Asa Gray..---..----- 131

GENERAL APPENDIX.
MEMOIR ‘OF LEGENDRE, by M. Blié:de Beaumont: ..---.-----..---2.-- 2-22 --oseee 137
MEMOIRY OF -RELUIER; by <P: tA* Woeltiotess-cnesss nose shee <a oe cere siese eee eee 158
Goer e x uG ABT IO Eee NIMCTs cree om cere a es i tee ie ee 173
ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, HisTorRY OF, by Ed. Mailly...-...--- 203
MICHAEL Farapay, his Life and Works, by Prof. De la Rive-.....---..----.---- 297
THE JUSSIEUS AND THE NATURAL METHOD, by M. Flourens...--..----......-- 246
NATURAL HISTORY OF ORGANIZED Bopies, by M. Marey....---.--.---.-.----- 217
y ON THE ELECTRICAL CURRENTS OF THE EartTHu, by Charles Matteucci--.-.-.--- 305
\/ CONSIDERA TIONS ON JULECTRICITY’ 05202. [2 522. -cae eeceeencerer- = --—ceee nee 313
of ELectrriciry—Account of lightning discharges :

General -GoWy “Dodge wrist 22. Sasces seen senesee eels eiseieecesie aaa eee 318
General:@; Mi Poencrse Sec ecc cate ds jaciceelastecicee acl wcisieaene cere eae 319
Professor JohniCz:Cressoms =. -.a2 ase cou ec lseeoenieh sec es cesta eee eee 319
Penty Ma aged fo cee sels pian own sic mS eee aie a aie er iterate eee 310

186 id MORO Temes hic ee Ee SUA cig deo Se SOMME ooo Soda GaseScoe 319
Ppa 6 5200 22 beets occ ce pee yo eae ieee os ene ae ee ee 320
NewstiaventJournal em ct eters More: seein eciesaeseiees eeeee eee ee 320
DriSamuekwD Martins 3255 [2S obo oe eee eae eee eee eae 320
GaaWitloaiieane a £5 SRS SSS aioe cee a ieee emai see ee eee eee ee 321
(Chaves WeceBpemer: 2525222 2 oo loco acs ncena eecee eee eee ees 321

Wis onliman see2ee sheet... oc cre wee scenic eins te ae ae eee Ee eee 322
QUERIES ABOUT EXPRESSION FOR ANTHROPOLOGICAL INQuiIRY, by Charles Darwin. 324

CONTENTS. 491

Page.

Vox THE Various MODES OF FLIGHT IN RELATION TO AERONAUTICS, by Dr. J.
185 [PRION ADs bona cust oe cosbuoBoocer cocoes ceerees cosmonoecescee 325

Man AS THE COTEMPORARY OF THE MAMMOTH AND THE REINDEER IN MIDDLE
ISUR ORE aeee oies oleeie eases eae Cea ca ae Gas cise Sen Sema as Actinen aes 335
dé Puoro-CHemistry, by M. Jamin ....'...-.----..--.---.--<-+- Mose hecmetnicaeece 363
DORPAT AND: POULKOYVA, by, Cleveland Abbow- 2. 22-255 <oc- jascee wcna-eoseeice 370

N TRACES OF THE EARLY MENTAL CONDITION OF MAN, ward B. Taylor.
On T E M € M by Ed 1 B. Tayl 391
WVETHNOLOGY:

Indian remains, Red river settlement, Hudson’s Bay territory, by D. Gunn... 399
Ancient mound near Chattanooga, Tenn., by M. C. Read......--...----.--- 401
Ancient burial mound in Indiana, by William Pidgeon ..---..--------..---. 403
Ancient remains in Colorado, by E. L. Berthoud..---...-<-.-.---.-------.. 403
Mounds in Mississippi, by Samuel A. Agnew..----.----.---.-------------- 404
Cave in Calaveras county, California, by J. D. Whitney...--...---....----- 406
Ethnological department of the French Exposition, 1867.----...-..--.------ 407
Notes on Indian history, by Dr. F. V. Hayden -..-.---..-.-.----...------.--- All
Description of a human skull from Rock Bluff, Ill., by Dr. J. A. Meigs..---. 412
Introduction to the study of the Coptic language, by M. Kabis.----..-..-.-- 415
Notes on the Tonto Apaches, by Captain Charles Smart......---..-..------- 417
EXPLORATIONS IN CENTRAL AMERICA, by Dr. C. H. Berendt........---.-..---- 420

NOTES OF AN EGGING EXPEDITION TO SHOAL LAKE, LAKE WINNIPEG, i Don-
tLe Granny sso rola rata else teislclayetate ear ete asin tae im ansoaieaey aise elof aim ciate iareferais lore 427
& SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF ALASKA, by Dr. J. T. Rothrock....-.-----.-.--.---- 433

w METEOROLOGY:
iimmcanopnithedslandiote st.) MAOMas sae me teeta ele aa le leis 464
Earthquakes in St. Thomas, by George A. Latimer. ......---.---.---------- 465
Manrtimerdisasters ofthe Amtil ese seaieneetcise = elena ais senioeeisiacise aio aeta= en O00
Eruption of a volcano in Nicaragua, by A. B. Dickinson........--....----. 467
Clomelewisis, ly AMallliermnd |, Wanye 46 oo6 Bea soccoodoces coe Seo bees cece 471
Meteorite in Mexico, by A. Woodworth....-..----.---.------.----- sarsisers.s A72
Meteorite im) Mexico; by Robert) Simson .2. . 26-2. © -s- aase eeeeee eel slo 472
Meteorology of Caracas, South America, by G. A. Ernst ...--...-----.----- 473
Cycloncun the Indian! Oceans by Nee tke) oe see acisie winlaaoein elnino == aloe 477
PRIZE QUESTIONS:

ovale Danish: Society of sciences, 1804... - 1. < o~ cer acinnin\eecelm= eee == 48]
Pontifical Academy of the Nuovi Lincei, 1868 .......-.........-...-------- 482
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN ENGLAND, 1867, by W. De la Rue .....-..---.-------- 484

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Experiment of Peltier, on contact of two metals...-..-..--- noooconocepdeccoduase 183
Experiments of Marey:
Meehamcnyor respiration, Pig. V2.2 2... --c0 =. wen cee coos coeees cana sina == 293
Megami smmOmenes pirablOM, (hic 2 ojala a ccletesi\scie/aaisisicies eles sieicioseinice/ secret 294
Mechamian! Om TcspilgylOl bie. dos essen one paas woceeelesceen|s>ssaaae 295
Mee rarity Coates pilaiOnvitie 4. 2220). aucaeicnc mee suceeie cose cess! eeideess 296
Mechanisin Gh Tespiraniony Bigs. O. snc aciatecscl sees cob ow4 wawees caacdeestece 298
Skaisiomy hocks lotiplllinoispmiverisce imecismetemecesceecc -ce scctesceeees coc cce 412
Monthly mean temperature at Caracas in 1860...... 2.2.2. ..---2 eee eee eee eee -ees 474

Monthly mean barometer at Caracas in 1860 ...-..........0- Saceueeeescses = sccee AVa

odo
:*

, re oy!
cht ara

4 wiht

INDEX

Page
Abbreviations used in bnpland in 1867 <2. 66 cock on ciap ascmincm nt somaesmet specu 484
Abbe, Cleveland, account of Dorpat and Poulkova observatories ................-. 370
Acknowledgments for donations to library .......--. ..---- s20--- 202+ coe eee eee oe 60
TOE Conatonsete COMCCHONS —o..25 soe seme eem ae ee fae minics' = (<= = ee ele 72
{Ot ITeCMPOIGELS)= <i> 3,42 anc ops eels af be mincnice ante) ae ee woe seek of 39, 112
fo publishers tor SCHOO! DOOKS <<<). -crtaa cok | ote ee eu eee soak e 41
for illustrations of school architecture :...<-.. ~0.wessiese sevicccccs cous 24
INGINID GTO Eon Be GER r ES SEED BO UEC OE SOC RGe Se fen. ees Teen so car aaa aer ss 16, 109
Adams Express Company. Acknowledgments to........-....-----.----..---+-0= 39
Aeronautics... sodes of flight in relation tO. 22. £226 2. csmesemenwes sowsisee = ae 325
Arassizsebrotslne sACtS) Of; aS TEMeNt co cnle ojscin o> + mi esee ae eal eeeee etek sees 108, 109, 112
Wiews:of policy of Institution... scceqison= cos cleemeaaeesitas 0 > = 110
Report on museum and use of new hall ..-.... ..esecwecss wows eccces 109
EPeOnIA OL Une INS tMtON sac a:amraaye ain alalaisin faire oieie! sain /otniainie cla) an oaeb ee a ere 39, 64
APneW, Samuel A. ACCOUNE. Of MOUNAS, 2-2-2566 Leck os meemeReaeie oath eene-ae 404
Agriculture. Department of: Monthly Bulletin ..-....-. 02. .cceceeeecen-s ee-ee 27
WORST PSE Sos Ger op eoeep adceenees seo e eS Soe oe ee eases 19
CASE Shetek LOR OL ante ler a le melon ea ciatel tains ee pede ee ee ek 433
Information respecting as... Soe cee m-lome ance emoaelaeeee eee at 3
Allgee: | HALVGYS TOSCAT CHES) «010 daw lation win aieinies)- eeoehie te ae emai eee ASascs 132
Alen; ae Dl COUCCHONS DY cea qc sn ccc ool acot mbes tetocmeatwir~kmente se ee oe 46
Allen uDrvik.s (batsoreN Oortn Ameria =a ico ccisicinis. os cin ooisieinie ae emn ee eee aoe ee 22
Allen eZejeraCCOUnt OL limhinin PiGIsChAarre as ceee re seee eee cee eee coe ee 321
Alexander, Chas. A. ‘Translations by..26, 137, 173, 203, 227, 246, 277, 305, 313, 335, 363, 464
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, . Thanks for exchanges .......-.---.---- 116
ANaLly sis.) | Marey.S 1CCHUTCS: OD) ceaieiete = celaain atin ee) cle\ an orn cRee aes cabs es ce 277, 284
AL HTOMOLO PICA: QUCTION cc conama cocmecinsaeneltcs sof asic eeaeataneuennese on Meee 324
apaches.;. Notesion, Dy ©. Siatt sq. 2- cece o= cee = 2222-4 eUNENes ae ae arse. eee 417
Aquarium animals. Method of transportation..........22 soccescecees eee ee cenes 121
Archesological collections and researches. --= ices. ew Ssanis gee soselona beste 35, 335
Archwolopy. ‘SeesMan and Mammoth <.-.- 2.6... -2cmtetpouw jeckuensoce--/ 5-7. 335
Architect. Estimate for completion of new hall~.~ 05.2000 snsiccide cocci ceceucce 113
RG WORE Ole ean te a taren oan ie) a ee ae ee ea 8 ae 105
Arehitectare Of Schoolediices :q 52-5055 <jninea « siesin'g gs See eMUUGD RE RTONIS oc ce 24
Axctictohservations, by Dr. To Ts Hayes, acu wisceiseos tej boon uesee neuen been oacce 22
Axt callony;stoundeduby, W.. Wi. Corcoran’: <<. <<:4c5.-)-/-,-,4 ete eo naee So nee cee eee 17
Astor WillismyS wblection| as rerents oo sers se os locnepsiemimicent Seeeenee che Sek eee 108
Astronomy. See; ADDO ac sae oot an ooacacis «canes ee eRe rcs Ob ke See 370
Bache, Prof. A. D. Discussion of magnetic and meteorologicai observations of. ...- 21
MemOIt! OF patsy seen Perel aie ea, Hat arnial! ee Boeke. GAN Sd . 62
Notice: of death Of ais 5 ooo oiajoan cose oop eee RE EIS, 6s wc = 62
Bailey; Mir “Explorations sn aso oo coder stia- ooo) last ins SEMPER cite. da oe 45
Baird pero S.h.eeAccountomAlaska-esoaaecesee este e eee eeeeeeeceue eee 43
Investizations relative! tosbirds)5. ..<./-.--<--cqseu sabes sen k oth ebew 53
Orzanization lof explorations: 252.5 55-2 sas sass aecsnuUes sakes 4l
Niadisties from report Obs << <aen 2 oan c sa gue ementoeaeis sok weeded 64

Balances; torsion. »o EF eltien's) <<is-01-cneiiocnacj cence euleememeek oes wae Sdeceeae 179

496 INDEX.

Pago

Craig; Dr. B..F. Meteorological instrumentssss ce. 2 5.ci5-6.--- 2. He sfeceeee enn en 27
Cresson, John C. Account of lightning discharge....-..-----.-c0-+ essen --e2--- 319
Cretaceous reptiles of United States. By Dr. Jos. Leidy........---.-------.----- Q2
@rockey,Dr.9* Collections sbya-reee emer ee eee eases tact eae = sere ee eer eet ~~ we
Cunard Steamship Company. Acknowledgments to -...-..-------- siSusejetes Soe 39, 112
Cyano-polarimetry, Peltier’s researches --..-.....---2 ------ ------ eee Besse 188
Cyclone; account of inelndianloceanes. == -eeeeesele= sane = aoe eee A477
Dall, W:.. 4. - Explorations :c2-ecere ape -nsenaacee gee eees'<s eee eee sihere hoc bs eae
Dalton, John. + Memoitots-cecencecreosiet erine et emerwise sees 22> Sones eae semcar a 218
Darwin,-Charles.. Queries about expression-o-— tee eetea ete <== = ao aefen = eee ae 324
Davidson; Geos: X pl oratlonse. see es ame see eee a= ene foe eet 43
Davidson, Whos:, HMossils. a. as2sn cael a Oa ee eater ete ioc - Jeera ee 52
Davis; don. iGarretss wActs Of eas rep enh -eclee acca aala= seettea = = = = ae fetal 108, 112
ID WAG lebiyaa ye WON ie Soo eas4 neectn ono cob Donn Bon seooeeCoCe aecoe 208
Dean, ©. W,. Eftectofselectncityson telegraph -o2> sa. lose ei mee e == o)- = = ee 322
ID Iba, AL (Oilers lye 5552555 355050 sco sonccosdso cancun gag 00sS0ns0c6 50
Delafield, General Richard. Acts of, as regent ..---. ....-----..------ 108, 109, #12, 113
Annnalaccounts presented iyi esccsriae eee eee eee eee ee te 109

Reportiof Executivel@ommitite ras mesee seem eee alee 101,112

Report of. Building: Committee. <<a - cen mem aamemalesmomics eee lanae 102, 112

Rieportiof (Committeeion iC anal fae. oe eae ee eee ee eer ame 113

Deda, Rive. wMemoimot Paraday. by s--ssece-eeemweesee eee ee eee eee eae 227
Deja Rue, W. Abbreviations used in England..... .--5<..2- oc: 2-22 ce - conman 484
Desiderata of Hamburg zoological gardens........--..---..--------------- LIS 223
Dickinson; A. B.. V.olcanonn) Nicatacu asa -eele eee meee ose ei - 467
‘Diptera. Loew, and Osten sackent pe eceis cee. -eseee reas seen eee eae eee Be
Distribution’ of Spablications yes ~ ace tae ewe ieee eee eer ere ae eee 23
RES) co Gos cade S537 2608S BosSns beamesocen Jon sad toon congmede anor 24

SPECIMENS 2 oe 5 seis so (es seco (a erie eile losisineen eae eei=iee seer Lye Cf 1 |

Dodge; General G.. W._ Account of dightning) discharge: - 2 — 2c-e = sae oe oe 318
Donations toccollechions in S67 soe - 2 «tse tomatoes ae eb sie eae eee 7
Wonations.to Mibraty os - si occa esac. oe occ esta eet er 34-meeeeeeeeaeceeeees 60, 61
Dorpat and Poulkova. Account of observatories, by C. Abbe-.-.--.------.------- 370
Dow, Captain. J.M.- Collections byjrermasj-ter erate tom tate oe hs eee eee =e 49
Acknowledoments £0). = <jo-'s =o) ttumiejoeayye aera ocie eee eeieae ee aise 49

Downing’s services improving grounds .- - 22. sccc ce econ saeco ee asisennce==ee~ = 17
Draper, Prof. Henry, on silvered glass telescope... - --)i0 ccc o~ secie se wane «<0 ooo =k 21
Barthquakes in Westiindies. 2 oar eee oe ces ene esis coves se eee se Reema eeiee - 465
Education; booksion; presented to Waboulaye---- a. -2.ve ses) a= eee eee 40, 124
Bdwards; Milne... Hulogysony Peltier nace err see cele tae emesis Wer seein Salad
Hidwards; WV. ddl. Hlepidoptera ca. -)eesiecl- ass eee -e eee eh eee eee 52
Hogs.. Expedition for, toShoall Wake eas. o-ce.- cera eaecie-seeeeeeeee sre eeeeener 427
Peleston;. E... Catalopne. of minerals... on os oi. 20 pece ooeeree ese c= == Usenet e ee 22
Mineralsiccc eee diGnce o-cceeo cs swtocteh aan cok Be se eioae me o> oe eee eee 52, 54

HE oyptas -SClentincunsiiilte IN. se ccs se eee e eos Sa ee ee eeE see sle eee ee aeeeee 59, 113
Egyptian Institute. Paper from, on Coptic language ......-.....---..----------- 415
Blecticalicurrents of theearth, jbyiC. Matteuccia. .2sseies- ees eeeee ee aeeeeeeeae 305
iBlectricitycconsiderations, ON a2 2 <nss ace sa< sogndceeeesc a oe eee eee eee 313
facts Telative tO.ce 2% f2 oS oc eee ee ee.c Leona nce Pee CORE CCR aaee 318

memoit, of Peltier: .-2 access wera coe ee eee aco eee ee ee LS alsepse

Memoinof J araday, +. .'..<5).5\osa\ssee, cee sos eee atone aeons 227

Royal Mnstitution 0-2 <cecke we cies boc Sete see ioe oe eee eerie ocee 203
Mlectrometer: Meltiierighs se oc.scc~ cc che em Gacemesn, cere eee ee Ee eee 130
‘Electro-motive force, of, different metals... --- <= 2-5 suk sinemaieicinasecidite secre ace 314

INDEX. 497

Page

BN Gti Ge Nbirdsyacates gaeecievawic so acre aneieeae Nae bel cGeetoee ciaecanntieee een ae 2
Endres; Mrevcollectionsibypsaaas sesso c= Saat sesc~ semosece Season oees eae neoe esac 48
Entomological Society; Philadelphia, insects... -<.22--:, 22 fe stsn.-22- ess ceeaee 53
Hirst, GC. Asaneteorology of CAaTacas\.sss-.252 so scta=s Sos Jo os ee ees Sobiel- Ben ae 47.
Estimates for finishing, new: halos, js2e2 so 7s saci eb a Ste se eecee bec costes 5 ee 113
fOLY CATEKOLMMUSEUNA = eis stele sel Sacral Sevee ere see ee le cetera 113

On neceipts and expenditures, [S68i.13..)565 seas a aenees coeclncee se 101

Ethnology, account of collections in French Exposition -.---...---.---------.---- 407
collectionsitelative to: s22ssas2 3 scsessse = cs sass eee ates see eee eace 3d
MsStrAchGngetor Tesearchis 25 se eae ee ONT ee cee eee ae asses 22

Manvandem am Moth seas ases jas tse seas oS ASN oR eta ete ese nsee 305

earlynnentaly condition of mane s- sass 5 onic 2s see eels oes coo e eee oo
TEeMainsphec@niversettlement= sacs teas oelewo eects eee cae tea eee 399

remains; Chattanoora, Mennesse@. sass5-: = ee sentence sone eee 401

Telia s-aVANCENMES WN dian ayes se sa xeon a oss Sale ae Steere loses See ee 403

Keniains Golden @inyeColoradonessaes sees scc oss ateee ease ee cae 403

remains, ‘Stateor Mississippl=t oo=csss2h teasers: vehe sSHeueee. eee 404

remains, Calaveras; countyss Calttonnl ges seie eee sees as ae = 406
Schlagintwait’s collection, prices of...---. See eS Sea SOC Opus see ee 121

Pixchanees, ACCOuUNt Os ass daas aes sta aso nc ae hor eRe I SM na 37, 109
Bath; Society; -thanksfor.s asco ter sae. 2 Bape attend ese 118

Nuniber of societies: making: 5. a seas's J. eae see ete vase sane 959

of povernment publicatious = 2c. s ve JS a pe eects se oe ane See 39, 71
Repulations Telativet0sece)swst~.cc 2 woe ec eases eee. 38

Resolution of American Academy relative to -....--.---.------------ 116

Siatistiesof; during 186 7ise. sees 35-0 Ss 4 the otk Seas eas eee cases 64

Pxecutive committee., Antiual?reportiofs-5i2s2 - 2b: 22. - 5 2 aa eee 98
Increase of salary of secretary recommended by.--..-..-.-------.---.- 115
Subject: Of. salanies referred £0222. crocs Sao ee ee Saeis sees 115
TLE PORMOOMNCRNE joacioer owe isnls wees SE ee saee eee eecec nee eee tS
Vaearcy in; filled’ by Board’ of Regents... .00220-sc.2ses sae. sods. 108
Expeditions of the covermment: i ssess. 22s 9b4 se J aee.2 Soy he Pas ee 76
Expendifures'‘and receipts of the Institution...2. 2.2... 2.0. Sots doses leet ee eaee 98, 103
Explorations and collections. General account ...-..---. 2-2-2222 coe eee eee eee 4]
in’ CentralAmeries by Drs Berendt/.22 2 sc-~ - Sasser ieee as aaeel- on 420
ob government ist @fys2sins feces cdasewssetles ce owes weneue eee ee 76
ofishoaltlake by Ws Gunn s-sarct occ Aue es cases occ seee noes 427

Pacpression, + Gieries woouln==s 2 Senet ts Chie kee’ GUUS lee Sees oe Bose aes 324
Haraday,Michael.- « Membit dfs eee oe 2 ales on ele boceisocewastees sos t 5.8 2221997
Ferrel, William. Investigations relative to tides..----....... Pond ESEE oboe aESoSo 54
Pmances Ole sommnshtuulOn. =z 4% - eos ee Ses ake ees ks Sees coe les che eee 19, 98
PUIBUt, (ele CoN ump enep lOTALONS chek tater rant Lh wrat tetce eS talc Ue soca tne wes see ee 44
Pilienie, “wWodestar ur relation to serouautics 2. 2. < een coe oes Seca ugeeee 325
Blovaroren laskasbya rtd erl nivOLnroCkes sees aaee cere ene cies sesceonee eee ene 433
Hlourensss MeO neihematuralsmerhoderes seers) ple ee yee ee 246
Blagek Pelix. sAventtouexchanves: 7.122 +\sn- ose tee es. eee ee I? 39, 64
Moree; Peter. * be urchasc oreiorary Of. )2sssf ese s 8-222. o-2 oe eee ees ace 57
Foreman, Dr. E. Ethnologicai specimens arranged by....-----.----.. ---------- 54
blossils ;checkslisty eel sAn@onrad= sae sare epee ee oe Sra ee ec odes ook 29
SA Meckttemencet sean eee kk eee ase Meet os eweelsceaes 22

Hox, Hone iGe Vie sVeludblerdonationmromsc eee oe eee Rein eee. ee en due cee 55, 60
Wreight facilities. y~ acknowledgements for sss-22 2s odes lee esie ses con ss cs ce cede 39, 112
. French Exposition. Eihnological collections. :.<2. 2-202. 2.-02occc0ceecee cess oooe 407

Galvanometersiase goss tose see nae ee eee See may eeu te aE 2h hagas

32 s67

498 INDEX.

Page

Garfield, Hon. J. A... Appointment as) Regentooactectsl= ose ve one mi wienle ee eee 108

Actsiotvas (Rerentoe eee cee eerie seine (= sleisce ee \felerererete 108, 109, 112, 113

‘Clmtaty Aree ch WUE Ot S55 55 55 55,55e6 sas oso hess cede cogaso SoasanSase doce 206

Gandet, (Cabs 2 Expl OTahlO0 Se eee eee er ee meee nies aetre alata eee etait ee 44

General Transatlantic Steamship Company. Acknowledgments to..-.-...---..--. 39, 112

Geometry. Seememoir of Lependtetere--- ccente oes slae cee ous ee ieee eee 137
Grae Wraclsowe, Idmloe\y Onl Telleeies oSos65 ados escisse cHogesed cass coon Beso Ssecce 169 .

Gibbs, (George. Acknowled omentt0 meses = seme mere = one ee ete eee 55

Whinbole jaugGn ee ee eeere ter see ere ener ate ane ae eee 22

iB thmolo ei calls MUCH OS ee eer ee eee eae eal tee la 22

Indian vocabulariess ce ncpecccecesces een cemee.'s Soe emeeneeee 54

Enlorsnn Wolk, Jkedlommans o65555 cs56 ce05 sate cae 5 Seog 5255 29Seoo SRS sos sos ec08 49

Gilman; Wes: Exfiectior telectricityjonrtelesraph=senr ere esaabee\y-- 2s eee eee ae 322

Goodwint Josiah) alettersroml estes ercrec so hiaseiemineeitemn seer ecie oe cae eee 117

Gould, John. Humming birds.- 222 2-2-- 6a 2 cede nema lense cece ale senna 52

ILRWIGI WON 0.5 Soda base Goes concord asa uoeprosa, ‘Soatonsso doogdgHSHe 125

Government exchanses of dOCUMENtS 5. 2-— nc ne shear eam ete earn eee = acing 40,71

Gray, Prof; Asa. Acknowledgment to .----. ----.----- 2-20 == Se Sects banner een 55

Biopraphical notice of Prot. Wiel anveyiess=--teseeeeeeet eae 131

Grayson, Colonel. . Explorations. -.--.------- ---- e----- = 22 nies ea ee nares eens 43, 48

Greece. . Museum! of University of. Wetter fromi-aa-2-ssee-ee esses] e eee eens 124

Green) James) | NeteorolocicallainsinmmentS2-c-== ieee orale eee eee Q7

Guild, Reuben A. Biographical notice of Prof. C. C. Jewett ..---.------..-.-- Ata IS

Gunn, Donald. Egging expedition -.... .----- Soe S56 Bele ene Sarena aaa eee 427

Explorations <2 22. 22-25 -seeeeece ome eee alent se eee ee 44

indiansremains) tvedgriver Sciilement)-ea=—=l == =e = Pelee ee eee a 399

Guyot’s tables for barometers -------.- .--------------- 22-22-2222 coon ee ee eee 476

Haas, Henry... Account of lightning discharge ..-------------------- Se ae Ne 319

Hague, Henry. Collections by.----------- -------- +2222 ee -e 2 eee e eee eee eee 48

Haliday, Mr. Acknowledgment to .--------..------------- ---- -oee-2 02 --- oe 43

Hamburg, American Steamship Company. Acknowledgments to .--.-.------.--- 39, 112

Hamburg Zoological Gardens. Letter from ..--..-----.-----. ------------ 1185121; 122

Telamoinmn, Wie, (CONGGMOMS lyon cso creas codec o5 255000 cons Doegas booneS soesee 49

Harknesss:crot aWieACKnOWledomentiiOje====-\eee emer e <== =e eae eee eee 55

Harnden Express Company. Acknowledgments to ---...------------------------ 39

Islami diam Sh tsvelevovall mynG aie nINey oo so ooes Gone cosSes Sos0e5 So sesSoasoooes sone 24

Harvey, Wm. Henry. Biographical notice of, by Asa Gray ..-----------..------- 131

Hayden, Dr. F. V. Notes on Indians ..-.--..----.---------- -+-- 2-22 2--- eee 411

Palseontology of the upper Missouri river .-----.----. -.---.---..... 21

Hayes, Dr. Isaac I. Arctic observations .--.-.------------------+-++------------ 22

Hehitzopoulos. Letter from .----------------------------+ -------0--+--------- 124

Heisen, A. W. Exploration -.-. ------ -- <5. 3-8 - ooo ence eee = clone 44

iBiebshenool, Woe Gla, IUGR 255255545 666000 555595505590 s4oSss bodEes SasonaSs 124

Henry, Prof. Joseph. Acts of as Secretary ..-------- ---------------- 108, 109, 112, 113

Account ofexchanpes) <2 ==. eee. = 1 <=) mime aa ee le 109

Letter to Congress. ---- ~~. ---- s2- 2 = on ews wn ene en = oe 3

Annual Report for 1867 .-.--.----.- 2.250 <n -2- eerie ene cene if5}

Proposed index to scientific papers <...------- ----2- <secie- =e eee === 58

inivestigations relative to sSOUn di seje\e seme mies a alee alee ele ee lee al 54

Memoimonp rot Wa Chesca sates alee meee ete ete eee ee ae eet 62

Circular relative to exchange of government documents .-.--..--.---- 71

Portland Society of Natural History ~ 292 222- = --)oe em ene ene 117

Books presented to Laboulaye-.------.-----.--------------+-------- 125

Movement in strata of the earth ........---..- waibowcieeetencnceer wea 126

INDEX. 499

‘ Page
Henry, Prof. Joseph. Jewett’s plan of library realized .......--.. ------ -------- 129
ography, of Wan, denty, Harvey 2 22o2es....acacdecw nae ao eeeseas see 131
Objecttyreneray Appendix, | so oq oan) sania eee re a oecitore See 136
Memos ol@lelileresaasaa secre sons aise pala oa ce aie oreo eee eee ee 158
Circuiistotwelecineityarersye isp see ase alas cates je ave eels ey Sees 309
DDI Se Her rear fe ONES <7. 5 ike mais oicin nm anioadaas deste ose 320, 321, 322
Bileciiciiygandstheteleprap hye en salsceeatee ce Saker a eee 323
PAG CLERM TS CMM e antag yc ae eiayetanee alia obae gia Saree eee ya . 407
Batanygaigniagia)-<ioo.cq.coci.scsacie sal sraseclees pee Soced seas wie sees 433
MoGleanic Spe Cimens na aiae ice ac etenins cen seeiaa as Se oan eee, ear
Otel Seen Sin leila neko = Sata orcie Seal PS wT ICN et Oi 472
Ve Gri Berit ates a aya fae epee ors ae oe Sled te A te tS 473
Hildretinns Ps Meteorslory of Marictia,; Ohio.s.. <..cscccsca asscdios Ge oe oe Jeet QaNee
SER ereue Cee Es uN fee Mea EAI QUIS sammie), pain wirwlimie sa sino o) a3 6 aS a eae: eI eter 46
Hilliersiecorrowe ncenowledpments to...5.- 555.24 <<< lSececiedz doo tac den seboc eee 39
History of observatories at Dorpat and Poulkova .............----...---2---.---- 370
hoyaleinsttuvonmofGreaty britain. . =e ase sees oye o me eee ae 203
EBs Comme tIZGy (UORONS care orn A aaa) oem clon Sain eee e Ree eee 8. Loe 481
iHochstetie:, Dr. Acknowledenient/to t22- tte cden-Sssace Saemeeasaseo este sce - 60
howard. Capt. Wi. Ats | Waxploridonse. i .45~ een + sa pene sees eee oe 43
EMD Paid. Os, PACK OWlEd SMentStO: seeeleoes aa cc aaa ents as se wee eee 39
iudson’s| Bay; Company. -Eoxplorations) by, officers: ---- -css--1--+ 24-Se-cecesenceee 44
PUGS On, EVs tay Ex plOorationsibyaasosac aims jaca ncisaaaaterceo satis seats no a ceincietee 60
Ehuricane intisland of et. hhomas October 299867 - 22 saesee cess eae eee eeieeee 464
IBTiyeirO PRIEICE » set VNl oh SO UNDR SOM = arte enemies sate me aeeratctals sie) — ciel staat Seals oroeere roe 22
exe Gt SEER tHG) HANEES sae meine seem et laa ala = Ahan 58
inidiane Risto nyu NOLS GMa tee atom lee aia ctajemyam = atlas aa sean sil Seootas -do0 kesoeeec 41]
ied aieremaing a wee eLHnO OP ye aalaatasee aceeten as 6 Se an aise plo ssiica se eee okie es 399
Indiangvocabulanessuu WwW, Once Olee asic cee acces sree cis se wan beta ciew acs aute aa Sareea 54
litt atioe Obes GAT APBCHO 8. Se eac cease ae Onn caine cmiemaueleso ea eet aes 417
Inman Steamship Company. Acknowledgments to ......-..--------.-..--.---- 39, 112
oyvesitzatiousiior the Mnshitution,as— 22s. c.ccocn an Seine sewn s-edeee cee e mca ates 52
MEME SHEN ES te noes eas a aetna arene hai atce as cece cel ee ste SN ee 19, 98
Tiare ce omits sone ae alana ane aaa ag ha acicie’s wi actos a asa eee sea se See 37
menmini Ma, On Enoto-Chemisphy acces ccc 2 aanc ccs hauls ete ee eons's week Ss 363
Jewett, Charles Coffin. Biographical notice of, by R. A. Guild........--.....--.- 128
OMES p SULA CHAM. OE kl OTALIONG:. Saloon sinc ae alse ee sas ster osadenemasanceteecoucame 44
JussieutpA dian desea MemouyOleee tease one coms at cao a iee eee cares neice ccisee eens 271
Antomie dea Memo Off ons) n5 ce tensed one Moe Zeke Po 248
Berard dey >) Memory Of sis. csaccasuss Cao ett cee ashe couse eee 253
Bamrentides)))Memoin Of,52 Sai 25 212k. cea omnes ony cen sone Se 266
DUABICUS. anid thamagTal MetOd) 25 2's e20<\2 2202 scm oe alee wicisieiedsciee ined outcome 246
Kabis, M. Introduction to study of Coptic language ....-.-....----..-....---.-- 415
ali sawalcin, Maren 1 rams lafions, byes ss5 522k. obs etoe of ebe e soe ceetocscu eee. bees 61
MenmiGdirs obetia: PED plerAuONs | o.os52 ce cln emcinan Seis Shia enice wloabeweeeeek ose 42
Rane Clvence. Esp Ora tlONe). o.:/.2 5a .wawenc enue soles s esta ue cot meeee eos. 45
Eisele eC ollecitan sh yewasra= 4 sn)ecinjm gaan ey ci-ais «2 = oacle SSeS < he cea 49
Renee Ged-phlas lection urontrsa eo asa ccometerian sae oko ae ee els oc wien 3 116
iron He J, “Account ou nohtnine djischarre. s2.ssseeeeose- a6 deacon. tok as 319
ihapoulaye,: ProfsWoye Metter mann a4 Jo acts see ed eM eso o/oae Qalaw soe 124
School hooks presented to 2:1) -.-cc.sasdecetieesehe eS amas 2 er Sa 40
edi ees ae Nien ere peraias her ee eae Se ae SSS oo 55 ewe oe eee 19
WatimerniGeo, As Onjeartihquakes im) West indies ssenecacess 2 4.058 --ee sees cee 465
Wmayrence’G com N pepsi Ld Seem saan s yom = apse ere pee abies oe oY 49, 52

oO
Mena sane mm sno lla =a sei ey eens teen te. Sl ca ae 52

500 INDEX.

Page.
WeGonte, Dr. Jno.) Coleopteras2b2ee ee se eee nese iacee coe cece seen eeeeieees 22
Legendre. Memoir of, by Elie de: Beaumontate cer onic esas oc can Reena 137
iiehmann:. B.. (Collectionsibye eee ceer seer eeeceereciceseecise = Soesee See eeeeeee 48
Leidy, Prof. Jos. Cretaceous reptiles of United States.............----+--.------ 29
IBUREWES cos bsscee codecs S565 dkteosones casa ho socdnogeses cscsensacnse 52
IPG a lonee OS ede ss soos 2eea sss 5225452 s 4525+ 3345 Se 4b eedss 3, 116, 318, 399, 411, 464
Ti HYATICS see CWELi SESE MVICES mi O teal] atetete terete ate a relate ee ete ale oa sole ai ae 128
Paibrany. aC Natagtoriets err mer eee alee eee eee ee = 6 Aa te eee 110
Number! oi books; dc.;addedsnuS6smecae een ons ooo see eee eee See 60
Reasons tortransteroftoiConoress..-scesosceemie= == =a ae eee 56
Valuerottranstermo © oneness yeeeeates se aaseetee ease eee ae 115
light, Researches;on, see Faraday. = --mi-ncenpee mame ae eee ee == eee 240
Ip bimine Ge Cis Of eee eene eee eet ee ane ee ene mice ieee 318, 319, 320, 321, 322
Ippo oayeen, IDI (Cm IDR ION 252566 Goer oseboSS Sood rend oes cone cpesesesso Dene 125
Tannseus and Juissienconrespan@ences;... e-em cme eme eae a= = ae ees = = ace 253
List of expeditions and other sources from which specimens in government museum
Wits GemiCl esc sono ese dood s cose tone. caceus soon booncegsagoosaIe soscadoag segs 76
of meteorological stations and observers. ....-----------. ------------ 79
of works published by the Institution....-..---.----...--..--------- 22
Lloyd, W. Alfred. Letter from..---.-.-.------------------ +--+ -----2 +--+ ---- 121, 122
Lockhart, James. Explorations -.------------.------+----0 ------+--+------------ 44
Loew, H. Monograph of Diptera.....------------- ----+----- +--+ -------------- 22
Thanlle, (Choanans Gey Mlyshivere sbyaye 626 6 S555 oso es eccs coos cecotscnes osen Seco sce cases 120
Maclean) never r-..onn) Mlechioniasme rg en tome em sie eriee el lee tee 108
ACiSiOf, AS RGR ON tice cma eta ee metate eile lam ofa eee = 108, 113, 115
Magnetic observations of Prof. A. D. Bache --...--.---.--+--+--++-+---+-----+---- 21
Magnetism, see Faraday ---------- -------------+ -- ++ e202 eens eee eee eee eee eee 227
Mailly, Ed. History of Royal Institution of Great Britain..--..-...-.-.----.----- 203
Mammoth. Cotemporary with man ----.----------- +--+ +--+ ---+ + 2-202 +--+ +e 335
Man. Cotemporary of the mammoth... .-........-0-2-s000 c-0- 2 2-ee ecccen-s~--s 335
Wanlyementalicon ditions 0 fer seeriae ee ele eee etae mete elena
March, W. T. Explorations....---.-------------------+ ------ +022 2-22 eo eee ee 46
Marey, M. On natural history of organized bodies...----.-..------+--++---+------ 277
Marietta,/O. Meteorology-of, Hildreth, 5.2.0 ate minima tee ol tiem = eel 23, 32
Marsh, Hon. G. P. Acknowledgments to-...---.---------------+ +--+ ------------ 39
Martin, Samuel D. Account of lightning discharge....---.--.-----------.----.-- 320
Mathematics. Prize questions-....------------------+---+ +--+ -2--0+ -e2- ee eee ee 481
Se) Miler ay IDE NCH) 5 555 S555 Gono ocoo oes soso ocee caSScs5Scs 137
See Taylor, E. B...-.- eno --20---ecnseeeceee cane cone cannes -ner cane 391
Storey DiS ora WMS We eee ee eee aero ye SS eciee oon 119
Matteucci, Charles. Electrical currents of the earth -...-...---.----.------------ 305
Mayberry, S.P. Letter from....---------- ---- 2222 cone eee eee eee ee eens eee e ee 125
McDonald, R. Explorations -.-.------------------ giv nals biemisid wasteisie sain nm elemiom als 44
McDougall, J. Explorations..-..----- ------ ---- 02-0 e002 eee 2 eee eee eee eee eee 44
McFarlane, Robert. Explorations...--..----..----- ---- +--+ +--+ ---- ++ ---- ---- 44
Medical department. Museum..-.--.---- +--+ ---- ---- e+ eee eee eee eee eee eee 19
Meek, F. B. Check list of fossils..-------------+-----------+ +022 -----+ +2 -e- 22
Fossils ..-- .--- -0-- ---- e+ 2-20 22 22 20 0 ee ee ee oe oe ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 52
Palseontology of upper Missouri --.---. 22-25 --2-.. (222 ee ee 21
Meigs, Dr. J. Aitken. Description ofskulliy cc ycc-miwe cote ae awesome ene eee 412
Members, ez officio, of the Institution..---.--..-------------------- Geieeiee oe cee 6
Wi@aaanie tne (Ol OL WOE 65 Feneee Bo ego- Be eS oe OngO8 5555 soso es IS so besg Hoss os oS 128 ~

We BL BRI ee snes ence ep eadaas ceeces Sabo besdcoSeo soos econ ceo ese 131
Legendre. ... .-2 22+ e222 ne cone cece cone mene cee ne nen eee enn none 137

Memoir of

INDEX. 501

Page
IR a6 556 35 S6 Goss SSS Ssdcecboseeeses bodene doses smbessedSs65¢ 158
Benjamin Thompson, or ‘‘ Count Rumford” ....-..---..--- Shu Sec Nee 203
Anemes Cems. as tecs oces DoSCED boo GobDeo oLcccosneehe Hacsoe nese 206
EiumphreynWAaviya ss sats s steels clos eteisis arasstatae cial iaia aan s wajciee el cleleere 208
AURORE MOINES 66555 52565 56500S0 6555005 555 Ob sb 005500 sob4 dAbeSS se 211
Aina ID AIG nob toc nbisge]e o856e5 boos6e Soba Cooo no Sougedau GosOoSuODOr 218
phlei? Rite eon secace poses; ebeGod Leecob beLcpobe bu GoEESOocSosdae 220
Vols IBM, oes Abbe bbocso bead once nebo opoS deood Goan caeseaacbc 221
Ma Parad aygeme savas Sever mala eaten seietatemtaioite ete iataia sins clase eee eters 222, 227
Vom Wyanololll Poe Soon coecne souccs sESbSeoS UA CoonodEdED eopcuodEccue 22

BernandaderJussietres sss waseesicsceresniea seclese eee aeia ae semana) aes 253
Panrenttd er) USSleUbas= eave secs asc 2 aeaclewslcaee Jaeee Neerissaas 266
Ndnianik ders USSICUbe =e eiays eitsiaioncinins cin oe ey noe Setsiresia aa aaa ve cent 271
Memorial to Congress asking appropriations for collections and finishing large hall... 114
Mentaliconditioniotemanits 4s" sascee o=s22c 2es a eeciese eae sees eee spe Lane Nee 391
Metals. Table of comparative electro-motive force of --..---..--------.---------- 314
Meteorites. Account of....--- Ren aineess ste eR Cee a eae sense ee emiac eal siatatate 472
Meteoxolorical’material received im A867 22. s.2-eseesa eee clewi-ane dane celsscios=eens 89
observations!of Professor A. D> Bache .5.-ssss 2 22s eso els ss cocci 21
Ke misters Tecelvjed GULIN Pw Cds ae ece: sees oataoseetelsleloeai ieee clea ciate 97
Stationsand: observers 0-52 assce sae sacs cco siento sess sccssoocosee 79
Metcorolomys » Operationsimelalivet@s. occ tacts mloateciais swine gee cranes sade aeiceeeee = 26
Eburmicane, mist. Lhomas: October 2918672 Sosa oc ale see esses esas 464
Earthquakes in St. Thomas, November 18, 1867-...--.....-.-.-..--- 465
Maritime:disasters,of the Antilles: 32s--jsscco- eo cewcassse essa ae ese 466
\WONGIO Ti NICD NTD. soccte nes cesecd codée0 cosecr case coos Goon sors 467
Cloud-bursisantheckymountainsio. so0.cec ==> 9 dace ces acis saa) sse= 471
Meteorites ee meerseeie aialalne sent saiereinisiala sista dala ela sia'a So eiata Salsas a eae 472
on Caracas), southeAmenca<ss-saeee cane soe anes coe eneceme cee eee 473
Wsevofbarometricaliiablesmeeojssr-eet= a> ace ae eree sine linen jayne = oat 475
Methodvotcalemahinosmednspaser cas csepememeteieeelee 1s aaa aac iene = 476
Account of a cyclone, January 6, 1867, in the Indian ocean-.-....--.. 477
List of Smithsonian observerts..---- .-...--+s.22c0 sseccesecces- aoe 27
of Manietiase Ohio Sw bs bull dre tine asses sreeelceseeere alee eaters 23h a2
of Marietta, Ohio; Joseph Weed. -2-.-- J2ssesocoes tacos Jacinta sees 23
of Brunswick, Maine, BP. Cleaveland) -.2-<\<)-meatonsielsioatoeisicivis sees 23, 28
Melesrap hic repovtstases et soon ieloie aici niece laeiainiciaiscla heat tole 28
Mem oiniOteReltiens spears ieee es acetate oie eae Sine orate Oe ieee eee 158, 193
Researches! of- Peltier tables! &e S22kiL.s oaceei ate eine science leans 198
Mar eye sleChures)-a1jociefalniniwiapetuic eile ve loerelnioPelaistnistehai-eiciney sicioacielolt-toratc 277, 283
Mucroseopiciresearches. . “Memoiniot Peltier i222. asiesincesle Se so=)oaeene eminence 173
Milan. “Royal Institute-of, agent for exchange... 2-20 ince<tiowcteissccen -ncnee 39
Pirncralas «Catalogue: of. Te Melestons <3.4.55 2sc soccer aeisciite dantiakisie/ Satomi hates 22
Minor Dress Collections biyp-t-ecen iat ataiamie cates imncininsetsaererestorcoeieiss oeeeyeeeisies 45
Morcans dy. Hem Sk ullerat 9225 225355. 25.5 sbateae catwatcioncmiac. os deans oo baci 52
Mndse, Avan,: \ Collections) bya. picne secu oaitel acetic acicicee ce Boob coos tcte thre 45
Mudge, 6. B.. Account of lightning discharge... 2.0.20. 266 Saeirass wee sens cme 320
Mallon, red.,jagent: forvexehanres: . 4.4235 <4> nasser ote cds eee sieee = sedan Sac 39
Muscum. , Appropriations sequined... 25 2 -s2.os22s0ss ected aces ns -ce eee eke \eces 56
DGnatIORS OM Rr) ariel Sind Salsas we Se Meee eae «wed we caw eicece 72
Entries in record books, 1865, 1866, and 1867..........---.---.------ 72
Nationale scan cesses eeonam sence te eiaarsnloene 18, 55, 72, 76, 101, 115

Of natural history of National University of Greece, letter from......-- 124

502 INDEX.

Page

Museums... Raquisites Of. 2225 *6o55 ose eo ones es pee eee 18
National Academy sof Sciences vec. es cectees scence als pos cost eee eee eee 54, 109
Wetional Library is catine Senses Sempan nee eden oe et sem naiseen ee cere ee ees 56
jeNaconal Muse. oss cesae eee eee eee eerie eae 18, 55, 72, 76, 101, 115
Natural history of organized bodies by M. Marey --_. --....---- «--20- sseoncae ---- 77
prize: questions) sacce case cree omens see ieee isnae 2 -Cesee eee eee 481

Newcomb; Professors. -Acknowledamentito-=-seeeeeeee snes o- eeee eee eee 55
Investigations\of planet Neptine se-—--s-es-------eeeiscer soe ae 54

New Haven Journal. Account of lightning discharge....------..---------------- 320
North German Lloyd Steamship Company. Acknowledgments to .-.------------- 39, 112
Numeration:: Attiofsceo2. s-clgeScce ee etiediaiseec eee icineinstewnes <4 cis Selassie 391
Repartion mew: Systemes sc -\so = es dee ena Sees - so cleeeaeee 119
ProposedimewssySienl =. -oecer nos meee anton eee ee t= oie eeeeece 116

Nystrom.) seWiea elo nistandunessutes sae eecloemcne ceases nse epee == ee eee ee 119
Obseryatonesiat Dorpat and iPoulkcova seins alae eine elem ein le = = = eee 70
Officers othornstitmtion Miya COS. nesacsee serene smaee melee eer siece a eceaee 5
Olen, ibeash) lemannyae Ot eos becctcoc coesas cond abs ohnb OpnEss Sec0 bo00 oeeaC 22
Onemivarmion, JIS Ooo 6h6 Gans enon noph coooen nbecagcesecd Boone ss éasecsoesses 7,15
Orton weromamesss eh xplOraiions' ares ae else leone eae ee oie etetae eee 49
Osbormery Ag Eiect of, electricityjonteleoraphe - seer ne eee aetna se eee 322
OIE Se Ren, leita In, IDO 95554 556 sce Sosass cee ssonoocsa aabese Sansooess- 22, 52
Pacific Mail Steamship Company. Acknowledgements to....---..-----.----. 39, 42, 112
Pacific Steam Navigation Company. Acknowledgements to.-.--.------.-.----.-- 39, 112
Palzontology of the upper Missouri. Meek and Hayden..-.--.....-...-.--..----- 21
1zalbeaae, IDs 335 (Cfolleven@s) yy sas os soce cscs Sober soSounSbe0es seeaconsesoQescs 45
Panama Railroad Company. Acknowledgements to .-...--..--.-.-------------- 39, 112
Ranker, whlon= beter ED lechonjasiece mtn seme mmcsmcele me = taete fee meee ia ta ee 108
INGHS Ol, BS INGEN so ocop atocen cecess osones ce 3008s BoSseC 108, 109, 112, 113

Elected member of Executive Committee.........--.-----.---------- 108

Action proposed relative) to Canale rece eel=- eee ale eee l=te ieee le 113
IReporiotexecutivercommitteem ce ssasesaee eee eect eee eerie aaa = 101

Patterson, Hon. J. W. Resolutions of, relative to Prof. Bache.----..----...-.-.--- 62
Peltier, Jean Charles Athanase. Memoir of, by his son, F. A. Peltier ......-..---- 158
Pethigrews ore Jamessbell, onyecronauics)= ses. esse = alee em nie eee sea 325
PhilbrickJ.D-. Sschoolvarchitectnressocos =e Selec else anes see eee eee eee. 24
Php pie tomeAe le. eeC OLLOC ONS OY ee seer eee eee) eee ee eee eee eee eee 50
imosophiy, » derizewguestonse. pect neem eee eee eee eee ee ae 481
SS) Lon all Movs tno 4 a5 So sesh ooosctesssh6 oooses cocsst yansscess 203
Photo-chemisinyas ebysMly daminy snes cee eee eee ieee sel eee aeeeee 363
Photoorap hy celestialme by bots mel gta ne yen ee aes ee aie ate tet aeieele tele eee 21
Sead Jena 455 ConbaaaadaandoneasGelnodseegdu opsoc0 caesooUpaons Sus 363

ISK SD) IM eey SOM Soon sees Sagas Soo ood noseos SnoSon sass a ogses Se 277, 284
SEE) MONE OF Jee Nee Gooomo oddone Bae eot os S505 995nc0 6 Sodoaa boone se 158

See Royal Institution ..---. So50S00 CoSon a ASH S06 SeoEnOaesoUg Ss. Soonse 203

Mle) MEROEN? 545505 Shocdo gaabod spas ose6oo nd8s snot DEDa Hee SaSOSs 227

iPawsiolosa Srey We nens Wevetbbt 65 conan Se oSonGSos opednS boggSS Sa deca Sanden 6 77
Rickard apes. School architecture s..2 2-2 =esce pocies ee ee eee cee eee. 24
Fideeon awalliam... Account Onmounds essential eae nieieee sae ee eee 408
ike Nucholas me Account Oficycl ONO} e==seiesasnseaeee ee eee eeee ae eeeeeeaeener 477
Piants:: ;(Clugaitication of cei e38 secede alee Sop eee cee nee eee ees 246, 275
ofAlaska-, Sketch of. 9ac.52. 4 cccieneumecameeeee tee ceases 433

Poe nGenwO- ol. Account on jichininodischarore sac ame stele eae iecitseteleser sate 319

LLIN GST ER ONY {soGoq6eon cooS06 GSOboo Scones Baocad sete CaSg ooobesd oF 54

INDEX. 503

Page.
Poland, Hon. Luke P) Appomtment as’ Regent... .. oo... ced otc. ac a dee eneces oc 108
ANGiS Ci, OS INSEE toch opamp See onsen cecemaooreasscaore Eeagtose 108, 109, 113
LeOlimmensign: IPGiWer Ss —coo coceee eee One se reoo eros daporsenoeu Sean presog Seesec.cndc 189
Policy.ef the Insmtouon. Prot. Henry's views of... .-4:-.20¢-sshacssaccemon see 13
Teli i JESSIE EUS Cm ae De Ga eric Sao eE Os enoere mae ate 5-46 110
Pontifical Academy of the Nuovi Lincei. Prize questions ......---...-.-.-2.----. 482
Portland Society of Natural History... Letter from..----..250. 0), 20cc5 cide) soc oae 116
Brahe lun crensy eiiettetthollenas sale sista cisic ss ele sinls erasiat\ociaiaie Srocwal eee lon see eames 12
ree ely tir ioe Ae OH TERRIERS = otal etc a| <a, mile minnie 2 ime i wi aro cise nya sel eee ea 22
Printing of report.ordered by Congress.----- .--, ------ ---<--s--cles soenee sccweaten 2
Programme of organization --------------- ------ -- <2 ~ mene ne eae Roeioele v/
Proyny Hon. Jove Appointment as Regent: ..- 2.2.) sega c's sanice sects esa ses 108
JoGis OV 8 INGORE oo Sbor eee Beer Senora 5 ososee5sc 5 108, 109, 112, 113
Bubucnnonussesecountot,. durine 1867-2. 2-5 lo-ces. 5. SsesGe eet ce siesee teense QI
IRIS HO GWE Al HNC TH Oe 5 soe pacoon as bade HEDSSA ER CoodososeoReasune 23
Queries about expression, by Charles Darwin.-...-...---....--..----.---- TLE eae 324
Qesiens, IMM consed soscse sone ase docs o09s so pe osSe Coes sous Sesensscosoosson =~ Hill
rads lie Sa soe School architeciuneeer seems eeies= sae oniasalecticanis raise eiocis seers 24
Rem eill, Gh aly SyaG ARAN HRN. -oooo peosoS Sodase S65 560 Saceco dances coscouSEadse 51
[depermee, Mia) Waimea fuln (Crees) Coos poonce apemno Coote eonao soc coca ees seer See
IPiavinc Eb Gye Bie MCA A, COMME 0 Conca eden ce SdosaS secEee eon seceeeooueea cece 26
nm Tene, WAU Olio oosececoenosecee ceca esaseo noon ccececoososce 199

Rain-gauge. Form recommended.-...-..----- SOneesod cosa casess scoSse sesshoasac 27
Ree Glee, ALelsnon aes eanveit (0) ooo 552opeseco Gens oeeeoe recta ssoeoenecebe ce 59
IR@niGy MISO. WAGeaoninn@ne mene 5546 sho 5d5 cnoeronoaed Cooecy AasecobneooS sale A40L
Intelsinti, GinyOm, IDG MISCO) -o5sec cecbes Sone pose SesSee S Sen Seco Sees oSSead osene 52
Receipts and expenditures cf the Institution.....----..----.---.----. SSS SOR Ase 98
Ome OHilnlD ons, UR Ols 6 3456 coseas -o0G cobs coco pecoes popEeSs cosaBoos 5
PLeEHOnyar dl appomit Me Mh Olas ere ae ermalalal= = alesalwiel=la ee) =e aif ala ele = 108
Soames GF PEOCCeM IN Ss) Olle ete ea = sem wien alee apie a in, lai mien 108
S@O POSOIMMOMS ..55 coseco s2sa55 coS0be Spence cceaes scomsu Baas me sece aaah
Remeecr and mammoth cotew porarys with Mans. 5-53 vsece sane ofteo acseeae 335
eport, annual, forteoe., “Account of -- = <<< -:--~ cise, Sanna caste ae welt cceessasee 24
OH ANG MIG i oot ondsc ogdeas Sens Skee Bode HoESeS Geoniccbe peel pancEo oe 105
Ole Bull dineieommaticorermeec tase aa ees en ese eea eae sea aanse ea —rae 102
Of Executive cOmMMIPlee= == eres 5 <2 os So —jee ae saciee= = on Hedvseise 98
OH (Gosia Ora leners) WEN eon 6 S45 oc bose Coenes Gane coos seeess deans 109
Gi Seong, toe loin? —-o6 Se Secnocos sone eee ecesca see sooSerceac 13
accepied: and sent) to) COneress)_ os. seelsons a= = ose 115
ordered to be printed by Congress. ..-.-.-.-------.----- 2
Resolutions of Congress electing Regents ......-.-------.---------- Pee See ar 108
fa pout the Report. =< << <== sce emadae ee seein ps ioe 2
of American Academy of Arts and Sciences relative to exchanges ..-.-. 116
Resolutions of the Board of Regents:

on account of dcatl of rot. AD, Bache. oo... -22=254-2ee 2 qe-~ ~~ -'- 62
Secretary to prepare eulogy of Prof. Bache ....---..----------------- 62
fille vacancy in Executive committee. ..--.. .----.-...---.-------- 108

accepting report of Prof. Agassiz on large hall..--..-.-..-.---------- 109
ordering report of Professor Agassiz to be printed.....--------------- 109
distribution of specimens and returns to be required .-.--..---------- 112
expenses of distribution and collection -....:--.....--.-------------- 1i2
great hall to be devoted to scientific collections ....--...------------- 112
appointing committee to report cost of museum and fitting up great hall. 112

approving report of Executive committee ....-.-. ------------------- 112
approving report of Building committee ........ .-.--- SGan podaseuare 112

504 INDEX.

Page.
Resolutions of the Board of Regents:

thanks to transportation companies for favors.-----.----..--.-------- 112

instructing Executive committee to act in regard to the Washington
CANAL Par eisai aineneiainyslare ya mela aioe ate ele eye ore Ree are eee 113
directing a memorial to Congress asking appropriations. ...--...----.- 113
approving action of Chancellor and Secretary as to memorial....-.----- 115
accepting annual report of the Secretary ..---.-----.---------------- 115

annual report to be transmitted to Congress---..-..------.---.22---.- Jd
referring subject of compensation of officers to the Executive committee. 115

Resweill. ,. Remarkable discharge of lightning at ...22 222 =2-c- ee - See) see ee meee ems 318
ICANN INO PGES 558 ooepceonooESs aouS oced soos Soeuaeeseos seo4oLs0 45
Riotte, Cs IN. sCollections. bys ssc <c-sce=osces See cee ee eReeee cin sa oe eee 49
Rochester Wmiversity.ie Explorations yacetseycater= manson ati g sata eee eae aloo ee 49
Rojas, D. Aristides, on marit’me disasters of the Antilles...-....--.-.....------.-- 465
INOS, Jo5 It a MeOMS c. cee ecoconcescsd sooses sH9oce Hadces oSaseo cece sadecH 44
Rothrock; "Dred. Ls, ploraof Alaska 2532 osad cease ncein eis os See ee eee nee eee 433

JOBNDS cee ogee Shoooen hod Copeed cosa neod seas heck Gos tes ncseotsece 2
oval sD AanishwsOCletye a Ue TZeLQUCSDLOTS ele r alters area tert atte tele 481
Royal Institution of Great Britain. History of, by E. Mailly........-........-..- 203
Royal Society of Loudon. Classified index of scientific papers..---..-------..---- 58

Memoicof Prot. Bache vases senses sarees s-see lece eee senna eee 63
hmlestotdistibutionof publications. se- sais eisai ae eee a ee ee ee 23

OL Teporis 5 2422S sss Jews sess he Ss aso see e eee eee eee eee 24
Fuumitord, Counts, Memoiriefi:s2 2 s02-cecscses-seoas cease a aemalee Sesoesio9o 203
Bush, Hon. Richard: -Smithsonfand procured by..-22: =. s322(22-- ---e=s-one ee eee 14
dtussia, “Observatories IM ~.2200522sss3es5s.ce sacsies ose nea stese ees sea eee 370
Rye Beach, New Hampshire. Approach of sea on land at...--..----..----------- 125
Salaries. Subject of, referred to Executive committee ..--...-...-----------+----- 115
Salazar, Governor. “Explorations: -c/5:2 sss ss s201- sod-mtecee sees oe ee eee es 48
Balt island in> Gulf of Mexico, « ixploration) ofc... 222s sees Seer ome eee 46
Salvin; Osbert. 4Collectionsiby2 ses ese sssasaecs eeon sect cee. ae eee ae 49
San José, University of ‘Costa Rica.) ‘Letter tromes>2 2 2seeee ace eee eee cee eee 126
Sartorius; Dr.- Uxplorations:( 2202. 2st ec scee csacicdweeeemeat seas ceee See eee 48
Sauler, HdweeoAcknowledomentstosco-ccssseeehesese es Seren one eee eee eeoEe 60
Sea. “Approach: ofvonland s $23 ssi: vaccesenavigce cap eci= els ewe cee Seer creer 125
pecretary,) salary, of. » Increase proposed eaes-s\ace ee ae ence aes ee eeiaseere yee eee 115
Schaeffer, (Prof.iG.-C. Acknowledgement /to 22.5: eeee seer ee eee see ease eee eens 55
Schlagintwait. Collection of ethnographic heads....---..----.------ ---.-------- 121
Schoolvarchitecture. « ieport one. Yaek wero. Oe ee eee: (Oe oe eee 24
School-books presented by publishers to Prof. Laboulaye.--..----.----.---------- Al
echott, Arthur, -:Collections by 2 -2.c.ce. acc arene tee oa a eee ee pee ners See 48
schott, ©. A..--Meteorolopical investigations..-2.-¢=.<t.s.eoscee teem: - se Selene 23, 28, 54
seience; » = Distineiionsio! {a2 52s 5-2 eee eee oe tees coe eee sees Sess tet eee ee 14
Sclatern “br. Pause ABindssscscoce coc cc ee ees Ste Se eee En ee 52
scudder.S: H.: sOrthoptera ss. 182 Sic 2 0k See ee eee ee ee ee ee 52
Shelljbanks:. =Seeimanvandsmammothtssesce cece ce Senet eee ee eee 335, 348
Shelitheays:1» Collections from <2. .20. 22 eet ie oa ce eee ee eee 30
Shellssof North America, W..G. Binney 02 ene bases Se be eee 22
Shippen; Wdw.; (School architecture\-. 25 ts 25i0- Soe tet eee asa ee eee eee 24
Sibbisions Jide: aeexplorations sse= sea = oe ete ecaisenelemeaee sees Sates Ss oer 44
Sigel, ry Wek wsparrows from\ss54-so2ee ces eee seem eee te eee ee eee 51
Simson?ehoberts Account of meteoritesece ese s oe eee ee ee re 472
Daullsy “Deseriptionyonsesse i so. SPS SeU SA ee See eee ce a eee 407, 412
smart, Captain Chass » Notesion Lonto Apaches -s-seses ee eee ee eee eee aeeeee eee 417
Smithson. Bequest of and present condition..........2.ceceee ences Wewaie esa ulca, 9 eees

INDEX. 505

Page.
Smithson. Character of bequest of .....-..---------------. SE OEE nee 13
NGG, HOCKIPND Olsoo nected Hee COO REC ED Ee BEECH OEEE BOCRDD EC SSB SHEE. 100
MPU Gee oS) SSeS oSGO REE S55 ASC ESA ee ee ee eae a aie cae 7
SIMU Sith UCIT Ch Gi cose ocSee i i a ae ane S 220
Sparrows. Presented by Zoological Garden, Hamburg..---..-....-.....---. BOL Nee
Spodardae.. Hea ela omenr EO a OROTORS 9 cane wean mee Pewee bebe ches eecet 57
Stanton, Colonelpehinesss Meath Of 2 ea-)a-c54 cece esos ca6 eenose cuore meres 49
Simpson; Dr. Wint: ghlydrobinae.. 25. 05 s-62iss45.cbsse se oe Seepereroer eos oe se 22
Wermenrercrremratar es a5 oS he ate sok the chs oi 52

Stockholm Academy of Sciences. Letter’ from. .......---. 2-2. s.o2-0-- eens eteeeoe 12
Stocks. «Sale fesse esas o- = = = Fc cic JA Se OO te Or eae 2 5 99, 100
SMEG, SUVS eS. ece eubyeseeeeth aeee Seee ee 35
St. Petersbare Academy or Sciences.. Letter from-..--.2-.2-2. 222 coc a-oes'os ee 120
SUMIChiasi EUG mp EOP lOTATIONS a= 2c sees dana on sow ss a nnd meee icna dene ocebe ncete 48
Sur ceom Generale Meteorological system .5.....--.---~--.--so-s2-oiecesceceseuee 27
SWAP as meno wMledrments tO caja tose, cone deeeesecc< cs 4s tenon chee esce 39
Sil Hee ee ELITE IOUS |. o.2 29 5 oo yes = tafe aie sean Ae Malia cn ecient 221 de eee 44
PumcraminmO CHOCO! ATChiteCture. = 252.0 s0o25% <<a So sce eve see eekiwecnsloecke loses 24
Taylor, Edw. Burnet. Early mental condition of man_........---.------------,- 391
ete Wal. tAcknowled@ment 40 fc. bo0 sn cee ance pases caaeee eo aes 55
Reporion! system) of NUMeTatlOnia-—3- =<) os eeiseeeiewie = seal 119
delescopes Sitvered: glass}/by Prof. Henry Draper <..5.221,-cssct-2 eas dence en 21
Pep tatiow nite Ch) Of, SlOCUICILY: ONE cer: eae Sha ceca ae o setiade, eae eae SE eee ee 322
Hemperature,, (Condition.of, January 9, 1868: .222---.-2255 22ass2-5 ese. ccc astyae 323
APS oS iasnEehashay APbeUe Cob oe Boa aeood care oCoe SOI e tr oceocsae bane ates 198
ablesstoubesprepared mac seeetya asm ateescsta sere cise ate aen sete eee tate 27
hhompson.s benjamin. Memon Ofesass ee eee vatssioe sate ain cies erase lee eset a 203
MMId ese ETiZerqUeStlON = saiciaesine) cnsees cos cicinie Sesine casas seem aoe ce ctecseestaeets 482
TORIO ANCE. INGIES @lessadctbcauc seekeo us osesobEsad cddnbe dsedoudass o6a5e¢ 417
Romevar Or Ino lants aacce nacevectese sles Seicisere-<oeicscrsisneiesiciens seetecsene seas 52
ransaehions orleaened societies.) Indexof-| sos. ss seine oe le oes ise seniesee tees 58
Eran SHOFAON. Paclities, PLANLOM <4 202-0 oe 2-2 a)eciocieis Nae qaetaises eats nety waa aioe 39
rumbull elon wlymane eeActsiof asiherenty | soece) coe sseeee om lee see 108, 112, 113
IGEN UOWI, IWS ehP Che aeed Hane ene OCH OTIObES CSEcibe cucu DSOHBE araconoecodc 223
Winker, 12 dite © 1B NNER e pesced case ccodeo espa UO RSb ac UbeeE seenoumege coedauedes 52
Wen bokkelens elie SCHOOlmAnCHILECLUTG sa saa slots soles ceils niente aemernee cineeee 24
Wonk ali Pies (ORIG GIG IS th 76 pepe sctee cee beCeeonbnc on barecooSeeeEccESer cso. 48
Wan ite Cosi Otay pea see ae area = Slaclatata ania sala eaie’ainio lain m= clereialsiiein ate 100
WO ening 110 INGOT GUE. oedbn8 coneeas sunnS bncaas Soothe GodonD Eton doconUeseeeniecsS 467
iV oluaicspilenmebeltien sg researches = scence eie-12 os sasfoatn aie soistee ise ele niet ates 182
Von iranizirs ii © olectons | byscs screens cl siccins isso ---locsiete ae eee 48, 49
Winders ail wmeAcisl Ol, aS me Cem basa == ne aeasae ene emcinte mere sectaae = 108, 109, 112, 113
Wallach ehichardteActs of as herent a. se. 7sene ee selec oe 108, 109, 112, 113, 115
INGOT Ol Apc Te), CHIT SNERY Ao Sono hep ocodconos Goda Gens cenbtaccec 101
INGiOO ME LayRN Chie? GOTTTTNIEE Someo coon cand cede chan Hsoaooeecs coocer 102
Wrashinetonese interests oncitys ot -eaase sees eee e seen ease a eeteeeineenatesi< = 17
Weights and measures. New system proposed....-.--...-----.----------------- 116
JRE DOE CN WEN? RAAB lS Poocou goodes Soe due Sead eaeecoouss sesc0 Hed05o 119
Weils & Fargo Express Company. Acknowledgments to..---...+.-------------- 39
\W erates, 1Die, (Cs “(Crolecinans loxmacaac cabe aaah es cebuieaencboons cobs eBe SEO BSESS 45
Wiesleyon Wie er Avent onex changes) = ac ertas = emia tain oan ania ao ease om imoctel seis sae 39
Western Union Telegraph Company. Explorations..........------ SqbadeSoeD ssee 41
Wylie, Ceyemnd AWe | DEqnlomis@nsyss 2586 G56 cdaa cede cocond coouuS SoEuoSa caeace 43
Whitney, J. D. Account of cave and skulls in California ...........------------ 406

506 INDEX.

Page,

Wilkes... xplorme, expedition. cms a remteseer reiterate ic sie tee eee eee ee 34
Willams college.” Exployahions 2 -yec— mime tetetelne minal eee nie elle eee 49
Wines Of insects nnd PINUS =~ se —aeeme rete ek eee eels eee aan eee 322, 330
Widod,9r;,-Dr, ie. Cyr pou a cece tae eee eee eos eo aise a ae eee 52
Wood: vos: Meteorolocysot Marietta, Obiom= seeete ee see eee eee eee eee 93,32
Wood, Ma Iie niranslation@by..-c----.Geeere seek eee tens o> Coe ie eee ee 158
Wioodward> Dr, J..~ Acknowledementsstoeeeeeeee sete ye snc eee eee eens 55
Woodworth, Abner 7Accountonmeteontess-a-eeeee eee ees. ee eee eee eee eee 472
Woolsey, Lheodore .D. + “Election ofj-as/Rerent se serce= Aeon) = <a ca\ene oem eee 108
Wintghi, (Chauncey. » deen trom eee rete aren ene ener eo <> - a eee eee ae 116
WirightG. “Account/of dightnine discharge >--—-- te ocee eee == - -- ee eee eee 32]
WiymanyJetities= heporonancientys culls) co ostee eee eee = os ae ee) eee 407
Skulls. 2h ieee ee eee ence acts staan see's 2a 3c rec ammetniete 53

Younglove;. Mi. Collections: byce-eeen eee w--eeee cote sss c= -- ses eeesee 46
Young; Uhomas:->Memoirsofo-ce re 2en ct oceneic ce cee seer a clem as coe Seer nes 211
MechuresOtemap-eek ese eee ee wanieeln eae seo eeeriemeiee = 6 niece 212

Nouns Wand. sAccountioncloud-burstsceeemceee ees eer eeeer eae Seen uel
Zeledon; José. ‘Collections by=s.2= iste ee oe Sete cnc soe cee eerie eseee sceae es 48
Pier AS, al; LUSH IIRES Co icoosboose soon esc onnD S5opIO5 sO55.Sas0 55560505 121
Zoolocicalveardens; Hamburg. - Wetter ftom ise ee. ceiacee eee =e eee 118, 121, 122
SOPRMON WE JOO Sead Sooecissandoena eas Sood bHoo\soue Dood opSnsd socces 51

Zoology. See Marey’s lectures.....-. HASSE Ooo Booa SSO Bodo oNde SH00 Se Seaiseoteaas 277

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