See ae ee ee % xe te ae A Ale Highs " ; pe Ane nha ii As ns 42p CONGRESS, 1 HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. ee Doc. 3d Session. i No. 107. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Boda) OW REG HN is OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR 1872. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 18738. IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES, February 3, 1873. The following resolution, originating in the Senate December 20, 1872, was agreed to by the House of Representatives January 31, 1873. Resolved, (the House of Representatives concurring,) That twelve thousand five hun- dred additional copies of the report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1872, be printed ; twenty-five hundred of which shall be for the use of the Senate, five thousand for the use of the House, and five thousand for the use of the Institution: Provided, That the aggregate number of pages of said report shall not exceed four hundred and fifty, and that there shall be no illustrations except those furnished by the Smithsonian Institution. Attest : GEORGE C. GORHAM, Secretary. LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, TRANSMITTING The annual report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1872. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, February 20, 1873. Sir: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to submit to the Congress of the United States the annual report of the opera- tions, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1872. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary Smithsonian Institution. Hon. 8. COLFAX, President of the Senate. Hon. J. G. BLAINE, Speaker of the House of Representatives. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR 1872. This document contains: 1. The programme of organization of the Smithsonian Institution. 2. The annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the operations and condition of the establishment for the year 1872, with the statistics of collections, exchanges, meteorology, &c. 3. The report of the executive committee, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, the re- ceipts and expenditures for the year 1872, and the estimates for 1873. 4, The proceedings of the Board of Regents. 5. A general appendix, consisting principally of reports of lectures, translations from foreign journals of articles not generally accessible, but of interest to meteor- ologists, correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others inter- ested in the promotion of knowledge. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. ULYSSES S. GRANT...--- President of the United States, ex-officio Presiding Officer of the Institution. SALMON P. CHASE...--- Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor of the Insti- tution, President of the Board of Regents. TOSHEEGENE NE Yes = aay see Secretary (or Director) of the Institution. REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION. SP wOEASH at peeser ssc Chief Justice of the United States, President of the Board. S. COLFAX ..........-.--. Vice-President of the United States. HENRY D. COOKE -....--Governor of the District of Columbia. 1b, MU RONMU RWI 5 Sos6 cooode Member of the Senate of the United States. JEWS LEMVNSON Ese Member of the Senate of the United States. 181, JEUNINOUIUN| Sen eeaecesoes Member of the Senate of the United States. Je AtnG ATED) ee a. .2 Member of the House of Representatives. lee POlWAND sacs se, a= 3= Member of the House of Representatives. SR ok CONN ec teemicusien cial orators Member of the House of Representatives. Wiese cA ou Olhuuesieise en cmecmee Citizen of New York. TT DINVOOMSHY mae o acta eee Citizen of Connecticut. L. AGASSIZ. ...........--.Citizen of Massachusetts. JOHN MACLEAN. ....-.--- Citizen of New Jersey. PR-EDER PARKER, ~ oo. 3... Citizen of Washington. WILLIAM T. SHERMAN..Citizen of Washington. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. PETER PARKER. JOHN MACLEAN. WILLIAM T. SHERMAN, MEMBERS EX-OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION. Wo Sb Grewal! 2 oes— pemeeieer President of the United States. Sip C OTH ANG ees eeeia acc Vice-President of the United States. Sab CEASHEaetsccsecce re - Chief Justice of the United States. eS IS Se Sectrcnciclecisiscec= Secretary of State. Goes OWT Wi in pe enres Secretary of the Treasury. WED Wie ENIIKONUAES eee eeee Secretary of War. GayCSROBE SONG aseeceee= Secretary of the Navy. dls JN dis COlrd OS\y A Bib) Desens Postmaster-General. C2 DELANO 22225 fesse 52 Secretary of the Interior. GEO. H. WILLIAMS..---- Attorney-General. WE ID), IDC CI BMl eS seoccoc Commissioner of Patents. EEO DE COOKE aasccesccees Governor of the District of Columbia. OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION, JOSEPH HENRY, SECRETARY, Director of the Institution. SPENCER F. BAIRD, Assistant Secretary. WILLIAM J. RHEES, Chief Clerk. DANIEL LEECH, Corresponding Clerk. ” CLARENCE B. YOUNG, Book-keeper. HERMANN DIEBITSCH, Meteorological Clerk. HENRY M. BANNISTER, Museum Clerk. JANE A. TURNER, Exchange Clerk. SOLOMON G. BROWN, Transportation Clerk. JOSEPH HERRON, Janitor. PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. [PRESENTED IN THE FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, AND ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF REGENTS, DECEMBER 13, 1847.] INTRODUCTION. General considerations which should serve as a guide in adopting a Plan of Organization. 1. WILL oF SmitHson. The property is bequeathed to the United States of America, ‘to found at Washington, under the name of the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, an establishment for the increase and dif- fusion of knowledge among men.” 2. The bequest is for the benefit of mankind. The Government of the United States is merely a trustee to carry out the design of the testator. 3. The Institution is not a national establishment, as is frequently supposed, but the establishment of an individual, and is to bear and, perpetuate his name. 4, The objects of the Institution are, 1st, to increase, and 2d, to dif- fuse knowledge among men. 5. These two objects should not be confounded with one another. The first is to enlarge the existing stock of knowledge by the addition of new truths; and the second, to disseminate knowledge, thus increased, among men. 6. The will makes no restriction in favor of any particular kind of knowledge; hence all branches are entitled to a share of attention. 7. Knowledge ean be increased by different methods of facilitating and promoting the discovery of new truths; and can be most exten- sively diffused among men by means of the press. 8. To effect the greatest amount of good, the organization should be such as to enable the Institution to produce results, in the way of in- creasing and diffusing knowledge, which cannot be produced either at all or so efficiently by the existing institutions in our country. 8 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 9. The organization should also be such as can be adopted provis- ionally ; can be easily reduced to practice; receive modifications, or be abandoned, in whole or in part, without a sacrifice of the funds. 10. In order to compensate in some measure for the loss of time occa- sioned by the delay of eight years in establishing the Institution, a considerable portion of the interest which has accrued should be added to the principal. 11. In proportion to the wide field of knowledge to be cultivated, the funds are small. Economy should, therefore, be consulted in the con- struction of the building; and not only the first cost of the edifice should be considered, bnt also the continual expense of keeping it in repair, and of the support of the establishment necessarily connected with it. There should also be but few individuals permanently sup- ported by the Institution. 12. The plan and dimensions of the building should be determined by the plan of organization, and not the converse. 13. It should be recollected that mankind in general are to be bene- fited by the bequest, and that, therefore, all unnecessary expenditure on local objects would be a perversion of the trust. 14. Besides the foregoing considerations, deduced immediately from the will of Smithson, regard must be had to certain requirements of the act of Congress establishing the Institution. These are, a library, a museum, and a gallery of art, with a building on a liberal scale to con- tain them. SECTION I. Plan of organization of the Institution in accordance with the foregoing deductions from the will of Smithson. To INCREASE KNOWLEDGE. It is proposed— J. To stimulate men of talent to make original researches, by offering suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths; and, 2. To appropriate annually a portion of the income for particular re- searches, under the direction of suitable persons. To DIFFUSE KNOWLEDGE. It is proposed— 1. To publish a series of periodical reports on the progress of the dif- ferent branches of knowledge; and, 2. Lo publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general interest. DETAILS OF THE PLAN TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE. I. By stimulating researches. 1. Facilities afforded for the production of original memoirs on all branches of knowledge. PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 9 2. The memoirs thus obtained to be published in a series of volumes, in a quarto form, and entitled Smithsonian Contributions to iifpanries 3. No memoir on subjects of physical science to be accepted for pub- lication which does not furnish a positive addition to human knowledge, resting on original research; and all unverified speculations to be re- jected. 4. Each memoir presented to the Institution to be submitted for ex- amination to a commission of persons of reputation for learning in the branch to which the memoir pertains; and to be accepted for publica- tion only in case the report of this commission is favorable. 5. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the Institution, and the name of the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless a favorable decision is made. _6. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the transactions of literary and scientific societies, and copies to be given to all the col- leges and principal libraries in this country. One part of the remaining copies may be offered for sale, and the other carefully preserved, to form complete sets of the work, to supply the demand from new institu- tions. 7. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of these memoirs to be given to aie public through the annual report of the Regents to Congress. OST K 6 : ; II. By appropriating a part of the income, annually, to special objects of research, under the direction of suitable persons. 1. The objects, and the amount appropriated, to be recommended by counselors of the Institution. 2. Appropriations in different years to different objects; so that in course of time each branch of knowledge may receive a share. 3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published, with the memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smithsonian Contribetens to Knowledge. 4, Examples of objects for which appropriations may be made: '(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving the problem of American storms. (2.) Explorations in Teele I natural history, and geological, mag- netical, and topographical surveys, to collect materials for the formation of a physical atlas of the United ahi (3.) Solution of experimental problems, such as a new determina- tion of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and of light ; chemical analysis of soils and plants ; collection and publication of scientific facts accumulated in the offices of Government. (4.) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical, moral, and political subjects. (5.) Historical researches, and accurate surveys of places celebrated in American history. 10 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. (6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the differ- ent races of men in North America; also, explorations and accurate surveys of the mounds and other remains of the ancient people of our country. DETAILS OF THE PLAN FOR DIFFUSING KNOWLEDGE. I. By the publication of a series of reports, giving an account of the new discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year in alt branches of knowledge not strictly professional. 1. These reports will diffuse a kind of knowledge generally interest- ing, but which, at present, is inaccessible to the public. Some of the reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals, as the income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of knowledge may indicate. 2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators eminent in the dif- ferent branches of knowledge. 3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publica- tions, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his report; to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on the title- page of the report. 4. The reports to be published in separate parts, so that persons in- terested in a particular branch can procure the parts relating to it with- out purchasing the whole. 5. These reports may be presented to Congress, for partial distribu- tion, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific institu- tions, and sold to individnals for a moderate price. Il. By the publication of separate treatises on subjects of general interest. 1. These treatises may occasionally consist of valuable memoirs, translated from foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the direction of the Institution, or procured by offering premiums for the best exposition of a given subject. ‘ 2. The treatises should, in all cases, be submitted to a commission of competent judges, previous to their publication. 3. AS examples of these treatises, expositions may be obtained of the present state of the several branches of knowledge mentioned in the table of reports. SECTION IL. Plan of organization in accordance with the terms of the resolution of the Board of Regents providing for the two modes of increasing and diffusing knowledge. 1. The act of Congress establishing the Institution contemplated the formation of a library and a museum; and the Board of Regents, in- PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. da | cluding these objects in the plan of organization, resolved to divide the income into two equal parts. 2. One part to be appropriated to increase and diffuse knowledge by means of publications and researches, agreeably to the scheme before given. The other part to be appropriated to the formation of a library and a collection of objects of nature and art. 3. These two plans are not incompatible with one another. 4, To carry out the plan before described, a library will be required, consisting, 1st, of a complete collection of the transactions and pro- ceedings of all the learned societies in the world; 2d, of the more im- portant current periodical publications, and other works necessary in preparing the periodical reports. 5. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of ob- jects to illustrate and verify its own publications. 6. Also, a collection of instruments of research in all branches of ex- perimental science. 7. With reference to the collection of books other than those men- tioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in the United States should be procured, in order that the valuable books first pur- chased may be such as are not to be found in the United States. 8. Also, catalogues of memoirs, and of books and other materials, should be collected for rendering the Institution a center of bibliograph- ical knowledge, whence the student may be directed to any work which he may require. 9. Itis believed that the collections in natural history will increase by donation as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make pro- vision for their reception, and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary to purchase articles of this kind. 10. Attempts should be made to secure for the gallery of art casts of the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture. 11. The arts may be encouraged by providing a room, free of expense, for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union and other similar societies. 12. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of an- tiquities, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &e. 13. For the present, or until the building is fully completed, besides the Secretary, no permanent assistant will be required, except one, to act as librarian. 14. The Seeretary, by the law of Congress, is alone responsible to the Regents. He shall take charge of the building and property, keep a record of proceedings, discharge the duties of librarian and keeper of the museum, and may, with the consent of the Regents, employ assist- ants. 15. The Secretary and his assistants, during the session of Congress, will be required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and to exhibit 12 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. new objects of art. Distinguished individuals should also be invited to give lectures on subjects of general interest. The foregoing programme was that of the general policy of the In- stitution until 1866, when Congress took charge of the library; and since an appropriation has been made by Government for the maintenance of the museum the provisions of Section II are no longer fully observed. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY FOR THE YEAR 1872. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution : GENTLEMEN: The report which I have the honor to present at this time completes the history of the operations of the Smithsonian Institu- tion for the first quarter of a century of its active existence; and as it is important to recapitulate, from time to time, the policy which has been adopted for the management of the funds intrusted to the United States for the good of men by James Smithson, it may be well on this occasion to recall the essential features of the trust, and to briefly state such salient points connected with its administration as may be of especial importance in the future. At the time the funds were received by the General Government, the distinction between education and original scientific research was not so fully recognized as it is at the present day, and therefore it is not surprising that the brief though comprehensive language in which the will of Smithson was expressed should not have been generally under- stood, or that the words “I bequeath the whole of my property to the United States of America, to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffu- sion of knowledge among men,” should have been so interpreted as to induce Congress to direct the expenditure of the income of the fund principally to objects which, though important in themselves, did not comport with the strict interpretation of the will, being of a local char- acter instead of affecting the interests of humanity in general. Smithson devoted his life to abstract science and original research, and there cannot be a reasonable doubt that he used the terms ‘“ increase and diffusion of knowledge among men”* to imply that the income of his bequest should be devoted to original research in all branches of knowledge susceptible of increase, and the diffusion of the result of this through the press for the benefit of mankind generally. *The terms increase and diffusion of knowledge were used, in the specific sense here indicated, by men of science of the time of Smithson. As an illustration of this we may cite the following remark of William Swainson, a celebrated naturalist. Speaking of the Zoological Society of London, he says: “It is more calculated to diffuse than to inerease the actual stock of scientific knowledge.” The author further remarks that, “while we may truly exult in this awakening of the national intellect, we must remem- ber that diffusion and advancement are two very different processes ; and cach may exist independent of the other. It is very essential, therefore, to our present purpose, when we speak of the diffusion or extension of science, that we do not confound these stages of development with discovery or advancement ; since the latter may be as different from the former as depth is from shallowness.” (See Cabinet Cyclopedia, Natural History, p. 314, London, 1834.) 14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The terms of the will, when critically analyzed in their scientific signi- fication, will admit of no other interpretation, and the fitness of the policy which has been adopted after much discussion, and, as far as the original restrictions of Congress would allow, has met with general approval by men of science of all countries. After having devoted assiduously twenty-five of the best years of my life to the administration of the affairs of the Institution, I may be par- ° doned for making some personal allusions to the past, and expressing my earnest desire that the same policy which was inaugurated and has been continually observed under my direction may be continued in the future, when I shall have ended my connection with the establishment, with only such modifications as the ever-changing conditions of the world may render necessary. Immediately after the organization of the Institution, in 1846, I was requested by personal friends in the Board of Regents to give my views as to what the Institution ought to be, in order to realize the intention of the founder as expressed in his will. Having been long impressed with the importance of special provision for original research, and believing it was the intention of the founder of the Smithsonian Institu- tion to offer facilities for this purpose, I suggested the essential features of the programme published in my first report to the Board of Regents in 1847; and, on account of this suggestion I presume, I was informed that if I would accept the position of Secretary, or rather director, of the establishment, I would receive the appointment. Being at the time engaged in a series of original researches, I did not at first entertain the proposition ; but afterward, on the expression of the opinion of the more prominent members of the American Philo- sophical Society that it was my duty, as the only scientific candidate that had been proposed, to accept the appointment, I accordingly con- sented, was elected, and entered upon my duty; not, however, without much anxiety and great solicitude as to my ability in the line of admin- istration, but with the hope that the policy which I wished to inaugu- rate would be readily understood and properly appreciated ; that my plans would be immediately adopted; and that, after seeing the Insti- tution fully under way in the direction proposed, I might retire from its charge, return to my former position in the College of New Jersey, and resume my scientific investigations. In this, however, I was sadly dis- appointed. The plan proposed was too much in advance of the popular intelli- gence of the day, both in this country and in England, to be immedi- ately adopted. The value of scientific research had not then received that high appreciation which it enjoys at the present time; and, indeed, no distinction was then made between the popular expounder of scien- tific principles and the original investigator, to whose labors the world was indebted for important additions to human knowledge. Opposed to the views of establishing an institution the great feature of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15 which should be the facilitating of original research, was the organization which had been directed by Congress, namely, that provision should be made on a liberal scale for a museum, a library, a gallery of art, lec- tures, and an arboretum, involving the construction of a large building, whereas the plan for original research required a building of compara- tively small dimensions, the cost of which need not to have exceeded $50,000; while the estimated cost of the one proposed was $250,000, and it has actually cost more than double that sum. It was in vain to urge that the law of Congress might be altered, although the willof Smithson could never be changed. Public opinion apparently was generally in favor of the erection of a large building, and the establishment of a library, museum, gallery of art, and lectures. Still a majority of the Board of Regents were in favor of the plan of original research and publication, and, after much discussion, it was finally agreed, as an experiment, to divide the income into two equal parts, giving one part to what has been called the “active operations,” and the other to the library, museum, and other local objects. In the attempt to carry out thisdivision, difficulties occurred which led to its final abandonment, and to the adoption of another arrangement, that of making such pro- vision from time to time for the museum and library and gallery of art as might be thought necessary under existing conditions. As might have been anticipated, the cost of the building far exceeded the origi- nal estimate, and the multiplicity of objects was far too great to be sus- tained by the comparatively small income of the establishment. The increase of the library, by exchanges for the publications of the Institu- tion, itself was so rapid that the care and binding of the books alone absorbed a considerable part of the income. The collections of natural history and ethnology belonging to the Gov- ernment were transferred to the care of the Institution, and an allow- ance of only $4,000 annually made for their support, while, as the num- ber of specimens was continually increasing, the sum allowed by Con- gress finally scarcely paid more than one-fourth the actual expenses, without estimating the rent and cost of repair of the building. Besides this, Congress had presented to the Institution a portion of the public reservation on which the building is situated. In the planting of this with trees, nearly $10,000 of the Smithson income were expended. It is readily seen from this statement that with the inerease of the library and museum, the formation of a gallery of art, and the sustain- ing of a public park, all theincome would be absorbed, and the cherished plan of an institution to facilitate original research, and the publication of its results, must be abandoned. To prevent so undesirable a result, advantage was teken of the expo- sure of the books after the fire, to urge the plan of uniting the library of the Institution with that of Congress, and of the two to form a collec- tion worthy thename of National Library. The proposition was adopted, and the results have proved eminently successful. The Library of Con- 16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. gress is now the largest in the United States, the scientific part of which is rapidly becoming, through the Smithsonian exchanges, one of the best of the kind in the world. Furthermore, Congress is now about to erect a separate building for its accommodation. Previous to this union of the libraries, however, an appropriation had been made by Congress for improving the public ground between the Potomac and the Capitol. Advantage was taken of this to include the Smithsonian portion of these grounds in the general plan, and thus to relieve the Institution from the cost of its maintenance. The remaining drains upon the income, which continued to diminish the active operations, were the care of the building and the maintenance of the museum; and the next step, therefore, was to induce Congess to relieve the Institution from these. ‘The results, in the mean time, of the active operations having signally demonstrated the importance of original research and publications, together with the general system of exchanges which had been adopted, Congress finally lent a favorable ear to the petition for appropriations sufficient to support the museum, and now annually appropriates $15,000 to this purpose. In justice to the trust, however, the Government ought to do much more than this. It should repay at least a portion of the $600,000 which have been expended on the building, erected in accordance with the instruction of Congress, and far exceeding in cost an edifice wanted for the legitimate objects of the Institution. The proper course to adopt would be tor Congress to take entire possession of the building for the National Museum, repay the Smithson fund, say $300,000, adding $200,000 of this to the principal of the trust-fund, and applying the remainder to the erection of a separate building, consisting of offices, laboratories, store-rooms, &ec., required for the present use of the Institution. The only other requirement of Congress which has not been fully met is that of a gallery of art. It is true the Institution owns a very .valu- able collection of specimens of the early masters to illustrate the prog- ress of the art of engraving, and some articles of painting and seculp- ture, which may be considered as forming the commencement of a gal- lery of art; but the expense of supporting a collection of this kind has been obviated by the establishment in this city of a gallery of art by the liberality of Mr. W. W. Corcoran, with an income larger than all of that from the Smithson fund. Notwithstanding the various burdens which have interfered with the full development of the plan of active operations, it is through this plan that the Institution has made itself known throughout every part of the civilized world. The publications which result from the facilities it has afforded to original research are to be found in all the principal libraries, and its specimens in all the great public museums of the world. And it is hoped that in future, with the appropriations of Con- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17 gress for the support of the museum, still more important results will be obtained. The success of the plan for realizing the intentions of Smithson for increasing and diffusing knowledge among men has been due to its simplicity and efficiency. Under a Board of Regents, which holds its sessions once a year, the operations of the establishment are directed by a single individual, called the Secretary, who, with the consent of the Regents, employs assistants and disburses the income of the fund. In determining the appropriations to different objects of research, the advice of persons of established reputation in different branches of science is obtained, and in all cases, before an article is accepted for publication, it is submitted to a commission of experts, who report upon its fitness for adoption by the Institution. In order to obtain a free and unbiased judgment, the name of the author, as far as possible, is concealed from the examiners, and the names of the latter are unknown to the former. By adopting this course the Institution secures the co-opera- tion of the best minds of the country, and in some cases has called in the aid of foreign savans. It is gratifying to be able to state that in no instance has aid of this kind been declined. In this way the greatest amount of mental labor is secured witha given expenditure of funds. It is true the plan might have been adopted of electing men of original research in the various branches of science, and supporting them entirely on the funds of the establishment; but the income was not sufiicient for this purpose, as will be evident when the fact is considered that the will includes all branches of knowledge, and that every subject susceptible of increase is entitled to the benefit of the funds. At the beginning, however, since Congress directed the formation of a library anda museum, it was necessary that the Secretary should have assistants to take especial charge of these two branches of the establishment. With the transfer of the library to the care of the Government, a librarian of the Institution has been dispensed with; but since the museum is still under the care of the Institution, an assistant in charge of this is still re- quired, and Professor Baird, who has acted as assistant secretary, has had charge of the museum, and has rendered important service, not only in the line of natural history, but in that of the general operations of the establishment. . The greatest opposition to the plan of active operations was made by the friends of the establishment of a library, but they have finally acqul- esced in the propriety of the course which has been pursued. The num- ber of books of the first class which the Institution is bringing into the country through its system of exchange, and which are distributed to all the large cities of the United States, more than compensates for the support of a restricted library in the city of Washington by the funds of the Institution. The plan in regard to the museum was also at first misunderstood. It was supposed that because the Secretary opposed the establishment 28 18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. of a museum at the expense of the Institution that he was not well dis- posed toward the advance of natural history. But this misapprehension can readily be removed by the consideration that natural history could be much more effectually advanced by expending less than a moiety of the cost of the building for the museum and the support of the collec- tions, in original explorations, in collecting specimens not to be pre- served, but to be distributed to all who might have the desire and ability to investigate special problems in this branch of knowledge. The policy in regard to natural history is that of making collections of large num- bers of duplicate specimens to illustrate the natural productions of North America, to make these up into sets, reserving one for the National Museum, and distributing all the others for scientific and educational purposes to the museums of the world. In every case in which appli- cation has been made to the Institution by an original investigator from any part of the world for specimens connected with his researches, they have been sent to him as far as possible, assurance being given fia the specimens would be properly used and full credit given to the name of Smithson. As the specimens are collected, as a general rule, they are submitted to specialists in the various branches of natural history, who, without charge, classify, arrange, and label them for distribution. In this way the Institution has done much for natural history; but it is evident that it could have done much more had it not been obliged to support a public museum at the expense of several hundred thousand dollars for an edifice for this purpose. One prominent maxim of the Institution has been “ co-operation not monopoly,” and another, “in all cases, as far as possible, not to occupy ground especially cultivated by other establishments,” or, in other words, pot to expend the money of the bequest in doing that for which provis- ion could be obtained through other means. To gratify men of litera- ture as well as to advanee an important branch of knowledge, from the first much attention has been given to anthropology, including linguis- tics, antiquities, and everything which tends to reconstruct the history of man in the past; this being a common ground on which the man of letters and of science could meet as harmonious collaborators. From the foregoing sketch it will be evident that the theory of the In- stitution is that of an ideal establishment for the collection of facts, the elaboration of these into general principles, and a diffusion of the re- sults among men of every race and of every clime. That an institution of this character, in which the accumulation of ideas and not merely of material objects is the great end, should not have been properly appre- ciated at first in a country so eminently practical as ours is not surpris- ing. But we are happy in knowing it has been from year to year growing in public estimation, and we are encouraged to cherish the belief that it will not only realize the ideas of the benevolent founder of the Institution, but also serve as an example of imitation, while the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 errors which may have been committed will also be of service in an opposite way. There is one feature of the establishment ordained by Congress which is worthy of imitation in the conduct of all endowments for benevolent objects, namely, the restriction of all expenditures to the annual interest. This rule has been rigorously adhered to in the conduct of the Institu- tion, and after expending, in accordance with the act of Congress, up- ward of $600,000 on the buildings, the original fund remains intaet with an addition made to it of upward of $150,000 by savings, judicious investments, We. FINANCES. The following is a general statement of the condition of the funds at the beginning of the year 18738: The amount originally received as the bequest of James Smithson, of Hngland, deposited in the Treasury of the United States, in accordance with the act of Congress of A COSHH TGEO Ss. 2-26: ehfyousy bs safeties 4h ye esea aioe: $515,169 00 The residuary legacy of Smithson, received in 1865, depos- ited in the Treasury of the United pee) in accord- ance with the act of Congress of February 8, 1867... .- 26, 210 63 Gea MequUest Oks MMUESON 22... e514). 8 tej cin satel a, abe 541,379 63 Amount deposited in the Treasury of the United States, as authorized by act of Congress of February 8, 1867, as derived from savings of income and increase in value of ITER ES TTO STI AS an yes BNW A eles gemh el e bait Ra eel os ten Rae 108, 620 3 4 Total permanent Smithson fund in the Treasury of the United States, bearing interest at 6 per cent., payable SOMM emmy ime leet rees Lite 1TS 58s Cie A re 650,000 00 In addition, there remains of the extra fund from savings, &c., in Virginia bonds, at par, $85,125.20, now valued at.. 37, 000 00 The balance in First National Bank 1st of January, 1873... 17, 811 30 Total Smithson funds 1st January, 1873._.............. 704, 511 30 The income of the Smithson fand during the year, including to} v ; > PECINAUENE GR AOMen Wale ns). cont vertea cnet) LS ae 46,916 45 PE Ne PORE NIP Hn ERE CE WET Ow fs.2 es Os. aamre eter cee 45,420 11 Teanga balameeobs- hej opel aad Gi gal Ay 1,496 34 To be added to the balance at the beginning of the year 1872 Included in the income was $3,004.90 derived from back interest on the Virginia bonds. The value of these bonds has appreciated during the year. 20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. PUBLICATIONS. The publications of the Institution are of three classes—the Con- tributions to Knowledge, the Miscellaneous Collections, and the Annual Reports. The first consist of memoirs containing positive additions to science resting on original research, and which are generally the result of investigations to which the Institution has in some way rendered as sistance, or of such an expensive character as cannot otherwise be pub- lished. The Miscellaneous Collections are composed of works intended to facilitate the study of branches of natural history, meteorology, &c., and are designed especially to induce individuals to engage in studies as specialties. The Annual Reports, beside an account of the opera- tions, expenditures, and condition of the Institution, contain translations from works not generally accessible to American students, reports of lectures, extracts from correspondence, &e. The following are the rules which have been adopted for the distribu- tion of these publications : 1st. They are presented to learned societies of the first class which in return give complete series of their publications to the Institution. 2d. To libraries of the first class which give in exchange their cata- logues and other publications, or an equivalent, from their duplicate volumes. 3d. To colleges of the first class which furnish meteorological observa- tions, catalogues of their libraries and of their students, and all other publications relative to their organization and history. 4th. To States and Territories, provided they give in return copies of all documents published under their authority. 5th. To public libraries in this country, not included in any of the foregoing classes, containing 15,000 volumes, especially if no other copies are given in the same place, and to smaller libraries where a large dis- trict would be otherwise unsupplied. 6th. To institutions devoted exclusively to the promotion of particular branches of knowledge are given such of the publications as relate to their respective objects. 7th. The Reports are presented to the meteorological observers, to con- tributors of valuable material to the library or collections, and to per- sons engaged in special scientific research. The distribution of the publications of the Institution is a matter which requires much eare and a judicious selection of recipients, the great object being to make known to the world the truths which may result from the expenditure of the Smithson fund. For this purpose, the principal class of publications, namely, the Contributions, are so dis- tributed as to be accessible to the greatest number of readers, and this is evidently to principal libraries. The volumes of Contributions are presented on the express condition that while they are to be carefully preserved they are to be accessible to REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. yi students and others who may desire to consult them. These works, it must be recollected, are not of a popular character, but require profound study to fully understand them. They are, however, of immense impor- tance to the teacher and the popular expounder of science. They con- tain the materials from which general treatises on special subjects are elaborated. Full sets of the publications cannot be given to all who apply for them, since this will be impossible with the limited income of the Institution ; and, indeed, if care be not exercised in the distribution, so large a portion of the income will be annually expended on the distribution of what has already been printed that nothing further can be done in the way of new publications. It must be recollected that every addition to the list of distribution not only involves the giving of publications which have already been made but also of those which are to be made hereafter. At the commencement of the operations of the Institution the publi- cations were not stereotyped, and consequently the earlier volumes have now become scarce, especially the first, of which there are no copies for distribution, although it can occasionally be obtained at a second-hand book-store in some of the larger cities, the authors having been allowed to strike off an edition to sell on their own account. No copyright has ever been taken for any of the publications of the Institution. They are left free to be used by the compiler of books without any restrictions except the one that full credit shall be given to the name of Smithson for any extracts which may be made from them. The printing of the publications of the Institution almost since the organization has been principally done at Philadelphia, by the house of T. K. Collins, under the superintendence of Mr. J. W. Huff, whose accu- racy and typographical skill leave us nothing to desire in this line. The stereotype plates are all deposited in the fire-proof vault of the basement of the Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia; and to this society the Institution has been indebted many years for the cour- tesy of storing, free of cost, this valuable property. Publications in 1872.—During the past year the volume of Tables and Results of the Precipitation in Rain and Snow in the United States and at some stations 1n adjacent parts of North America, Central and South America, has been printed and partly distributed. It consists of 178 quarto pages, with five plates and three charts. It contains the abstracts of all the records of observations of the rain-fall which have been made from the early settlement of this country down to the close of the year 1866, so far as they could be obtained. These records are from about twelve hundred stations, and consist of the observations made under the direction of the Institution, assisted since 1854 by the Patent-Office and Department of Agriculture, of those of the Medical Department of the United States Army, of those by the United States Survey of the North and Northwest Lakes, of those made by the New York University system, by the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, and also of those by Ay REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. other scientific institutions and individuals. During the past year the compilers have completed the tables of rain for 600 Smithsonian stations for the years 1868, 1869, and 1870, and of 220 military posts from Decem- ber, 1864, to November, 1871. The result of all the observations has been incorporated in the charts published in 1872, but the tables will be combined with those already published at some future time. It is proper here to express our obligations for the valuable co-opera- tion of the Medical Department of the Army, under Surgeon-General Barnes, who has given us free access to all the unpublished records; and also for that of the Department of Agriculture, under its former commis- sioner, General Capron. These tables furnish the means for important deductions intimately connected with the agriculture, commerce, and mechanical industry of the country, while they constitute a valuable con- tribution to the physical geography of the globe. This memoir is one of a series embodying the results of all the labors of the Smithsonian Institution in regard to the meteorology ef the United States. These will include not only all the observations which have been made under its own direction, but also the discussion of all that has been made by other parties. The whole series will embrace the tabulation and discussion of observations on the temperature, atmospheric pressure, direction and force of the wind, moisture of the air, and miscellaneous phenomena. Another work, that of Dr. Horatio C. Wood, jr., of Philadelphia, on the fresh-water alga, was briefly noticed in the report for 1870. It forms a complement to the great work on the marine alge by Dr. Harvey, published in 1858 by the Smithsonian Jnstitution. It is illustrated by numerous drawings, made principally under the microscope, and will serve to illustrate an obscure department of botany, and also to furnish the means by which investigators of minute microscopical organisms may compare recent and fossil forms. The work was presented to the Amer- ican Philesophical Society and also to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, but the expense of the engravings prevented either of these societies from undertaking its publication, although it was consid- ered entirely worthy of their adoption. It was referred by the Institu- tion to Dr. Torrey and Professor Barnard for critical examination, and published on their recommendation. A large part of the material for this work was gathered by Dr. Wood himself, although he was indebted to several persons for aid, especially to Dr. J. S. Billings, of the United States Army, for col- leections made near Washington; to Professor Ravenel, of South Car- olina, for collections in Texas, South Carolina, and Georgia; to Mr. ©. J. Austin for specimens gathered in Northern New Jersey; to Mr. William Canby for collections obtained in Florida; to Professor Sereno Watson for others from the Rocky Mountains; and to Dr. Lewis for specimens from the White Mountains. The work embraces all families REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AG of the fresh-water algze except the diatomacez, which are so numerous as to constitute in themselves a special object of study. The synonomy of Professor Rabenhorst has been generally followed, this nataralist having gone over the subject most thoroughly, with full access to all its literature. ‘‘To attempt to differ from him,” says Dr. Wood, “would cause endless confusion. Ihave therefore nearly always contented myself with his dictum, and have referred to him as authority for the names adopted.” The memoir in question consists of 272 pages, and is illustrated by 21 quarto-plates of a very expensive character, since they required in most cases a number of printings to produce the differ- ent colors. Another investigation to the prosecution of which the Institution has contributed is that by Mr. William Ferrel relative to the tides. To this subject the author has given much attention, and has completed a me- moir in regard to it, which is now in the press. This memoir does not purport to be a regular treatise on the tidal theory, but is for the most part supplementary to what has already been done. It does not, there- fore, include elementary principles, but pertains principally to those parts of the generai theory in which new results are attainable or old ones susceptible of being presented in a more concise and simple manner. For the author’s purpose, however, it was necessary to go over much of the ground which had been investigated; but all those parts of the sub- ject which had already been well treated are passed over with a mere reference as to where they might be found. At the time when this subject was treated by La Place, Young, and Airy, but few observations had been made and little attention had been given to the accurate compari- son of the results of observation with those of theory, or to the forma- tion of tables for the purpose of predicting the time of the phases of the tides. For accomplishing the result it is necessary to obtain not only an accurate development of the solar and lunar disturbing forces, but also to determine the expressions which shall represent most accurately the tidal relations to any one part of the whole of these disturbing forces. ‘“Hvery investigator of the tides,” says the author, ‘must frequently have felt the great need of formule of this kind prepared to his hand, which he could use and thus save the labor of diificult developments and ae- curate determinations of co-eflicients in special cases.” This great need the author has attempted to supply. Believing that most of the hitherto unexplained apparent anomalies in the tides are due to the friction of the water on the surface of the earth, the author has given special attention to the effects of this in all the various cases, not only on the hypothesis of its being in direct proportion to the velocity but also as the square of the velocity. The results obtained in this part of the investigation are regarded as being interesting and important in relation to some of the phenomena of the tides which have not hitherto been explained, especially to the occurrence 24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. of the greatest tides in the Atlantic one or two days after the time of the greatest force. A correct tidal theory should furnish the data for a determination of the moon’s mass; and this determination should be the same for every port. Considering this as one of the best tests of any tidal theory, the author has given much attention to framing various equations from theory for this purpose, and to their application to the results of tidal observations at various ports. The comparisons are made with the extended series of observations of the United States Coast Survey and with the results obtained by the Tidal Committee of the British Association from the analysis of tidal observations of various ports by means of the harmonic method of analysis. The memoir also contains the discussion of the published series of observations of the French government at Brest, with a comparison of the results with theory, and a chapter on the retardation of the earth’s rotation on account of the tides, and its effect upon the apparent secular variation of the moon’s motion in its orbit. Beside the labor expended on this memoir in the line of higher mathe- matics, it involves arithmetical computations of a very laborious charac- ter, the expense of which will be defrayed by the Institution. The investigation of the orbit of Uranus, by Prof. 8S. Newcomb, of the National Observatory, was substantially completed in October last, and has since been entirely prepared for the press, with the exception of some final revision. Considerable additions and alterations are, however, still required in the appended tables, to be used for comput- ing ephemerides of the planet; but these the author hopes to complete in a few months, so that the work may be put in the hands of the printer early in 1873. This work, on which the author has been engaged for thirteen years, has absorbed the greater part of his leisure time from his duties in the National Observatory during the last five years. Its preparation not only involved abstruse mathematical discussions, but also arithmetical calculations of very great extent. The’ latter were made at the expense of the Institution; and through the assistance thus rendered, Protessor Newcomb has been enabled to complete his important investigations without devoting his energies to labors which could be well performed by intelligence of a less valuable character. The following remarks by the author of this work may here be con- sidered in place: ‘Tt will perhaps surprise those not especially devoted to astronomy to learn that, although the planet Neptune has been known for a quarter of a century, the positions of Uranus in all the astronomical ephemerides of Europe are still computed, without regard to the action of that body, from the old tables of Bouvard, dating back as far as 1520, the errors of which led to the discovery of Neptune in 1846. 51,,,almost exactly the same as that found by Professor Peirce more than twenty years ago. 26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. “The representation of the observations by the concluded theory will probably be regarded as good. The mean outstanding difference dur- ing each five years since the discovery of the planet only exceeds a second of are in a single instance, namely, during the years 1822~26, when it amounts to 1.4. This agreement is very much better than any obtained before. Still the vast number of observations used, and the eare taken to reduce them to a uniform standard, led me to believe a better representation possible; and the outstanding differences, minute though they be, follow a regular law, thus showing that they do not arise from the purely accidental errors of observation. How far they arise from errors in 1:y own theoretical computations, how far from the reductions of the observations themselves, and how far from the una- voidable errors of the instruments, Iam unable to say without further investigation. It would be desirable to learn whether they may be due to the action of a trans-Neptunian planet, but to do this would require an entire re-reduction of all the older observations. Such a work is on mmany accounts an astronomical desideratum, but it could not be under- taken except under the auspices of the Government. ‘‘Tn the eighth chapter the general formulz and elements are collected and expressed in the form most convenient for permanent use. “The ninth and coneluding chapter gives tables by which the position of the planet may be computed for any time between the Christian era and the year 2300.” It has been mentioned in several of the reports that. the Institution has collected large numbers of vocabularies of the several Indian lan- guages of North America, including those of the Indian tribes of Wash- ington Territory, California, northwest coast, New Mexico, Arizona, and the prairies; that these had been placed in the hands of Mr. George Gibbs for critical study and revision; and that, after consultation with some of the principal philologists of the country, it had been concluded to publish them, as it were provisionally, as material for ethnological and linguistic investigations. During the past year Mr. Gibbs has devoted considerable time to the arrangement of these vocabularies, and has completed the preparation for the press of one of the sets, namely, that of the Selish language, which is now in the hands of the printer.* In order to facilitate the re-arrangement of the collections of the National Museum, the Institution has requested experts in the various branches of zoology to prepare catalogues exhibiting the best arrange- ments of the several classes of the animal kingdom; the families, in each case, to be numbered in successive order, and the subfamilies to be indicated by letters, thus: 15, Canidee; (15) a, Canine; (15) b, Mega- lotine,” &c. It is intended that these numbers and letters shall be "s Since the presentation of this report, the work in question has been stopped by the death of Mr. Gibbs, one of the most esteemed collaborators of the Institution. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ai attached to the specimens or receptacles containing them, and thus the agency of an ordinary laborer, or one unconversant with the animals, can be utilized in sending for specimens, replacing them, and revising the collections. In accordance with the requests made, Professor Gill has prepared three catalogues, one on the arrangement of the families of mollusks, referred to in previous reports; another on the arrangement of the families of mammals; and a third on the arrangement of the families of fishes. The last two were published in November, 1872. The “arrangement of the families of mammals” embraces a list of the recent as well as extinct families and subfamilies of the class. Of these, 136 are recognized. These are combined under fourteen orders and three subclasses, the subclasses being those almost universally recog- nized at the present time—monodelphia, didelphia, and ornithodelphia. The orders of monodelphia have been segregated into two higher divi- sions, or ‘“‘super-orders,” equivalent to the educabilia and ineducabilia of Prince Bonaparte, but with other characters derived from the interior structure of the brain; the educabilia correspond with the archencephala and gyrencephala of Owen combined, and the ineducabilia to the lissen- cephala. ‘““Synoptical tables of characters of the subdivisions of mammals, with a catalogue of the genera,” have been in part published in connec. ° tion with and under cover of the arrangement of .the families of mam- mals, embracing pages 43 to 98 of that work; only that portion em- bracing the orders of educabilia has been completed, the remaining portion having been necessarily deferred. In contrasted dichotomous tables are given characters successively of the (1) subclasses, (2) the or- ders of monodelphia, and (3) the suborders, (4) families, and (5) sub- families of each group of the educabilian monodelphia. The “ arrange- ment of the families of fishes” is limited to an enumeration of the sur- viving families of the class, and was especially prepared for imme- diate use. The group of “ fishes” is considered as an artificial combi- nation, and is divided into three classes—fishes proper, marsipobranchi- ates, and leptocardians. The three classes contain 244 families, of which the true fishes embrace 240; the marsipobranchiates, 3; and the leptocardians, only 1. The families of the fishes proper are combined under eighteen orders and three subclasses ; the teleostein ganoidei and elasmobranchii differing in this last respect from Miiller’s—the most gener- ally accepted—classification simply in the union of the ganoids and dip- noans. The greatest deviation from the current classifications is the constitution of the order teleocephali. In an extended introduction the reasons are given for the modifications suggested. A large demand has been made for these catalogues for the arrange- ment of other museums and collections. It wa3 mentioned in the last report that a new edition of the List of 28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Foreign Correspondents of the Institution was in press. This work, con- taining all the later additions to the list, has been published, and is now in use by the Institution and its correspondents. It was also stated that a List of the Scientific, Educational, and Liter- ary Establishments in the United States was in press. This work, which was prepared by Mr. W. J. Rhees, the chief clerk of the Institution, has been published, and is of much service in the distribution of the publi- cations of the Institution, as well as those of the different Departments of Government, and of educational establishments, and will be of assist- anee to members of Congress in the distribution of documents. It ineludes 8,575 titles of societies, libraries, k&c., as follows: Colleges, male and female, (so-called). -...-.-...------- 758 Academies, normal and high-schools.......-...---.--- 2,850 ayy, schools; and Jibrartes. 2: ic (epee) ee ere sae 53 Medical jschoolstand libearies-.cs.5 tees. ee eee Soa Theological schools and libraries... .......---.---.---- 127 Observatoriesa lice Jee Vee bt eSgeehie habe Sher se 23 Scientific societies and libraries. .e- ~esec!- g2i4- -\esiete 94 Aorniculturalisoeietiest: - hiciiheeeciye. -B-Saae- tee 1,082 Libraries, general. ..---.---- ap Lodee ede 12 ee ebanie? 2,692 Asylums and hospitals... ..- ‘ateitolen dt. gage tl? - byt ae 491 Asylums for insanenicetsA- Leek? =) aseee-taa- caer ae 65 Asylumsfor deaf andidumbe-e-te sick! ces alee eee 38 Asylumsitor«blinds-2:02 ack 32 ide see eee ee cee 30 Prisons saavaNe gibrarlesanee io. eee reer ee eee dL For the purpose of forming a general hypsometrical map of the North American continent and for collecting together, for permanent record and publication, the data on which such a map should be based, letters of request have been sent out in every direction likely to be available for such information, while the printed reports of the various govern- mental, military, and geological expeditions and of railroad and canal surveys have been consulted and made to render tribute. The whole of this work has been placed in charge of the topographer of the Post- Office Department, Mr. Walter L. Nicholson, who reports in regard to it as follows: ‘‘ Contributions, in manuscript, have been received from 312 engineers and other officers of railroad companies, furnishing a large body of valua- ble facts, which, with the heights shown on upward of 70 graphie pro- files collected, give upward of 16,000 points more or less accurately determined, over the several States and Territories. But great labor and perplexity have arisen from the discrepancies found to exist among many of the statements given, owing, chiefly, to the various planes of reference used in the surveys, and to the indefi- niteness in their references; and great difficulty has been experienced REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29 in co-ordinating the items so as to refer them all to a common base, the mean level of the sea, while another source of incoherence remains from the non-return of answers from numerous railroad corporations, which have been applied to with all possible courtesy and with expression as to the value of the results sought. Unfortunately, many corporations and engineers have lost or taken no pains to preserve the record of their surveys. These collections of heights have been copied in twenty-five quarto- volumes, for preservation and convenience in collation. The heights are arranged under the names of places alphabetically, under the headings of the individual States, &c., for convenience of reference when published—giving county, specification of locality, and authority, with notes where required. This large mass of material is, in greater part, copied in manuscript directly from the returns—the individual names to be finally eut off in slips and arranged alphabetically for printing. While this is being pro- ceeded with, a map has been projected, to represent the mean results of these data, ona scale of five-millionth, size of map 52 inches by 39 inches, which will embrace the large area from 15° to 58° latitude, and, from east to west will take in Newfoundland, the Bermudas, the larger West India Islands, (to St. Thomas,) and on the northwest coast, Van- couver’s Island and Queen Charlotte’s Island, extending thus well up into Hudson’s Bay and down to Central America.” . This work will form the basis of a physical map, and will be useful for many purposes of reference other than that of hypsometry. The report of the Institution for the year 1871 was presented to Con- gress, and ordered to be printed. A resolution was offered as usual order- ing an extra number of copies ; and the House of Representatives directed an edition of 20,000 copies. This number was reduced in the Senate to 12,500, and unfortunately, before an arrangement satisfactory to both branches of Congress could be made, the adjournment took place. Up to this time, however, no further action has been taken, and the Insti- tution is still without extra copies for distribution. As an offset to this disappointment, we are gratified to be able to state that a resolution passed Congress at the last session, directing that an edition of 2,000 copies of all the reports of which there were stereotype plates be printed for the use of the Institution for distribution to public libraries and especially to colleges and higher academies. The series of eight. volumes thus reproduced includes the reports from the years 1863 to 1870, inclusive. We doubt not that Congress before the close of the present session will order the Public Printer to strike off the usual number of copies from the stereotype plates of the report of 1871, and that we shall thus be enabled to gratify in some measure the increasing calls upon the In- stitution for copies of this document. 30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. In addition to the report of the Secretary, giving an account of the operations, expenditures, &c., of the Institution, and the proceedings of the Board of Regents to the 4th of April, 1872, the report for 1871 containsa memoir of Sir John Frederic William Herschel, by N.S. Dodge, esq.; a eulogy on Joseph Fourier, by Arago; an account of Prof. Thomas Graham’s scientific work, by William Odling; translations from the German of a lecture on the relation of the physical sciences to science in general, by Dr. Helmholtz; a lecture on alternate generation and par- thenogenesis in the animal kingdom, by Dr. G. A. Kornhuber; a lecture on the present state of our knowledge of cryptogamous plants, by Henry William Reichardt; an original paper on the secular variations of the planetary orbits, by John N. Stockwell, being an abstract of the elabor- ate memoir published by the Institution in the Contributions to Knowl- edge; an original article on methods of interpolation applicable to the graduation of irregular series, such as tables of mortality, &ec., by E. L. DeForest; a translation of the transactions of the Society of Physics and Natural History of Geneva from June, 1870, to June, 1871; the scien- tifie instructions to Captain Hall’s north polar expedition; together with a large number of articles on ethnology and meteorology. EXCHANGES. The labors of the Institution in promoting literary and scientific inter- eourse between this country and other parts of the world have been continued during the past year. The system of international exchanges includes not only all the principal libraries and important societies, but also a considerable number of the minor institutions of Europe. The following table exhibits the number of establishments in each country with which the Smithsonian is at present in correspondence: NO WGGLO IN. ets ic ee Rn SE A ey ea ee ee en ee 20 ENG SIR HEL ERE AEE EETAG. Slo CURSE Ret no ent ne aete ete teey-Petecere en eelandle 2: oh PRR 53 Ia Ah ae iene ae Sete et eae ere 2 POST aE AE SRE RE TN arte ee ae Se a chan pe ne 27 HERA SEV le 2h ea EROS Rao. ERR RE EE ed Stage a cat en Nee eT 155 J ARGV NESE EVs MPR ral ee) RA ARI DS Aiea a apes aly apie a 6 Sal Ne ge aa LE Sid ary) 62 CEng: ANE ES IE ere alee ate Olea Reape eS ate fete aves 588 SV TEZSTL AT eh SSN Pea) Sen aes ese ic amore ee deeve ee 63 COU ef eee ic a SA oe eee ae hea eee 105 HR (23 8 0 0) a ln ae eh aa aia Sle Der a eG a inte Rane ps 3 ts 229 De Ld of 2S SS ei Seah inh apiscrt alien Aphenaeeay mae a. nec ares CfA hue eas 156 EEG) G]UESSIE |, hes ri gm onen Seger dances eo 5) 0a 5 orton pen 20 oy iyi 1 dk ba a reaped ee ap ni) ard ARRAS 2 6 eg AR ts LE 5 iol Great britain-and trelandtea- se: | 42> sees eer eee 336 (aS) oY 6, WN a IR cee ie Rk cheaper C3 lb Ue ask ei leg a iG RN: 5) ae det ls ee em aa na endgame isa Le Sy bn STP OL aye Heh AST CANS AIAG. BREE ORES epee Sie ne cee ee ey oe ae 19 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Sit 5 CEE te Ee en er, Oe et ORIG oy SEU SET pms 36 WAC Tillage ret Syay src eng a ags Seay res iks! Foy sl sepals) paeA Mer ce Sra 26 Nie wie Zeailenines a 2 het ha a yf 0 ake SRR eye 2h 13 IRahwieslaieeet eae seie-eriaete Aa dsiswield 28h de A. Yee 1 Sombie Americano aaeces Aad eked See ee Be 36 NO Ste MMelbOC ee eed) ik ee ensh tet )s Sides NRE fooed 8 1p arate i Dee gags if IMG R OE set metre tas eels Sai eitciees See ee RIEI ee 9 Germinal MMemear ys aaa Sst: ers Serra ie kel sic tts ed 2 rit AN Sneak. ek ey Saget. ny ob byes sete! a Rpepsiepter n+ spe! 18 Greme nal aaasiee see ete yt cepa | Ala Bh Seah tent doe ule yl eons 4. PRO Gaile en tp seats sr erg =) Seae sy pte ee Selah ep thd 1,985 As in previous years, the Institution has received important aid from various steamer and railroad lines in the way of free freights, without which the expense of carrying on the system would be far beyond the means at command. Acknowledgment is again due for the liberality of the following ¢ompanies: Pacific Mail Steamship Company. Panama Railroad Company. Pacific Steam Navigation Company. New York and Mexico Steamship Company. New York and Brazil Steamship Company. North German Lloyd’s Steamship Company. Hamburg American Packet Company. French Transatlantic Company. North Baltic Lloyd’s Steamship Company. Inman Steamship Company. Cunard Steamship Company. Anchor Steamship Company. The Adams Express Company also continues its liberal policy in re- gard to freight for the Institution. During the year 2,561 packages, containing many thousand different articles, were transmitted to foreign countries. These packages filled 159 large boxes, having a cubical content of 954 feet, and weighing 26,850 pounds. The parcels received at the Institution for parties in this country, in addition to those for the Smithsonian library, num- bered 4,635. It was mentioned in the last report that the advantages which result from the system of international exchanges had become so apparent that arrangements similar to those adopted by the Smithsonian Insti- tution are beginning to be introduced into different parts of Europe, and that a central scientific bureau for the Netherlands had been estab- lished at Amsterdam to receive and transmit packages for different parts of the world, and in the United States to co-operate with the Smithsonian Institution. A similar arrangement has been proposed in 2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Qo Brussels, by which-the Belgian Academy will become a center of scientific exchanges. During the past year we have received as usual, from persons abroad, copies of works to be distributed gratuitously to institutions and in- dividuals in this country. Tne following are the regulations which are to be observed by parties availing themselves of the privilege of the Smithsonian system of ex- change: “The Smithsonian Institution receives parcels at any time with assurance of speedy delivery, at least to the more important addresses, upon the following conditions, which must be strictly observed : “1, Every package without exception must be enveloped in strong paper, and secured so as to bear separate transportation by express or otherwise. ‘62, The address of the institution or individual for whom the parcel is intended must be written legibly on the package, and the name of the sender must be written in one corner. ‘<3. No single package must exceed the half of a eubic foot in bulk. “64, A detailed list of addresses of all the parcels sent, with their contents, must accompany them. . “5. No letter or other communication can be allowed in the parcel, excepting such as relates exclusively to the contents of the package. ‘6, All packages must be, delivered in Washington free of freight and other expenses. “Unless all these conditions are complied with, the parcels will not be forwarded from the Institution, and, on the failure to comply with the first and second conditions, will be returned to the sender for cor- rection. ‘The Institution recommends that every parcel shall contain a blank ac- knowledgment, to be signed by the recipient and returned, either through the agent of the Institution, or, what is still better, direct by mail, to the sender. Should exchanges be desired for what is sent, the fact should also be explicitly stated on the accompanying circular. Much disappointment has often been expressed at the absence of any return in kind for trans- missions; but unless these are specifically asked for they will fre- quently fail to be made. It will facilitate the labors of the Institution greatly if the number corresponding to the several addresses in the Smithsonian printed catalogue be marked on the face of each parcel; and for this purpose a copy of the work will be forwarded to all who apply for it. ‘‘Specimens of natural history will not be received for transmission, unless with a previous understanding as to their character and bulk.” LIBRARY. It was stated in the last report that the accessions to the library dur- ing 1871 had not been as large as they were the year before, on account REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3a of the war in Europe. In1870 the whole number of books, &e., received was 5,182; in 1871, 4,597; while during 1872 it has been 5,962, as will be seen from the following detailed statement of the books, maps, and charts received by exchange in 1872: Volumes: @etaNvOsOr LESS ose i o.5 2 feta rer= a2. Sepe oe the Capea eee 975 PATER ROMO) Bd ES Oe ee ee Spt eee ete 287 1,262 Parts of volumes: (OCH CRISS Se SBE BP Ee Sree es Oe aie ie ere ifsial Quarto or larger......... Be eis eee aera qeeMa 3 a laiar 1,250 ; 2,621 Pamphlets: WCLAN OxOn CSS ema ies soar, oh tert ei aaa e ee ane 1,557 OY) WAG OR Ol pA OCK etcee cro) ois ayes peice o = Bi noa Stas avalal ayeravakaian ape 24 ——1,881 TY AAIPOISY GUTS IAC! CEH ot SI ey eateg Ie ate ae ene Nl a A an med 198 SS OSES Lee CENT eT a Peel SEC IE TE ele 5,962 The following are some of the principal donations received in 1872: From the Commission européenne du Danube, Galatz— Mémoire sur les travaux Vamélioration exécutés aux embouchures du Danube,” with an atlas of 40 plates. From A. W. Franks, esq., London—‘ Catalogue of the Collection of Glass,” formed by Felix Slade. London, 1871. Folio. Beautifully illus- trated. - From the Observatorio do Infante D. Luiz, Lisbon—“ Annals.” Vols. Hi-vill, 1866-1870. Folio. From the Institut de France, Paris—‘ Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences.” Vols. xxxvi, xxxvii. 4to. ‘‘Comptes-rendus.” Vols. [xviii-Ixx. “Tables Générale,” 1851-1865. 4to. From Dr. K. Keck, Berlin, 203 pamphlets—University Theses. From the University of Tiibingen— Repertorium morale.” Vols. i-iti. 1489. Folio. ‘“ Universititsschriften,” 1870; and 18 pamphlets. From the Universities of Bonn, Erlangen, Giessen, Gdttingen, Greifs- wald, Halle, Heidelberg, Jena, Leipzig, Marburg, Pesth, Bern, Ziirich, and Havana—Inaugural Dissertations for 1871. From the Royal Veterinary Academy, Utrecht—47 pamphlets. From the University and Government of Chili, Santiago—i0 vol- umes and 2 pamphlets. From the Public Library of Buenos Ayres—151 volumes, 334 parts of volumes and pamphlets, and 7 charts. From the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Pesth—9 volumes and dd parts of volumes. rom the Royal Public Library, Stuttgart—26 volumes and 11 parts. 38 34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. From the Hydrographic Department of the Ministry of Marine, St. Petersburg—57 charts, 16 volumes, and 9 parts. From the Royal Academy of Sciences, &c., Rouen—“ Mémoire sur le Commission maritime de Rouen,” vols. i and ii; and “ Précis ana- lytique,” 1804-1870, 14 volumes. \ From the Ohio State Library, Columbus—15 volumes and 5 charts. Among the donations there are two which deserve especial notice, namely, the memoir upon the works which have been executed for the improvement of the mouth of the Danube, and the fac-similes of the Egyptian papyrus. The first consists of an account, with a large atlas of plates, of the investigations which have been made in regard to the obstruction in the way of navigation of the outlet of the Danube, through several channels along the delta of the river. This subject appears to have been of so much importance that a commission was instituted in accord- axce with the provisions of the treaty of Paris of 30th March, 1856, including the representatives of seven different powers. The body of the memoir in question gives an extended account of the following sub- jects: 1. Preliminary investigations and preparatory works; 2. The choice of the mouth to be improved, and an elaboration of a definite project; 3. The provisional work. An appendix presents the report of the chief engineer, Sir Charles Hartley, containing: 1. A general de- scription of the delta of the Danube; 2. The formation of the bars; 3. The means of improving the entrance to the river; 4. A comparison ef the different branches; 5. The result of meteorological and technical observations from 1859 to 1865; 6. Statisties relative to commerce and navigation. The memoir is accompanied by a large atlas of 40 double- folio colored plates. The work is one of great value to the engineers of this country, in reference to the improvements which will doubtless be undertaken in regard to the rivers and water-courses of the United States. To this subject publie attention has not been directed with an intensity com- mensurate with its importance. If we cast an eye on the map of the United States and view the rela- tion which exists between the vast body of water in the northern lakes and the branches of the Mississippi and the Ohio, we must be struck with the means which nature has placed within the power of man for improving the navigation of the great water-courses which form the channels of communication between the interior of the country and the sea-board. We have, in a previous report, mentioned the interesting fact that among our correspondents was the Institute of Egypt, founded at Alexandria in 1859. Since then our correspondence with that coun- try has been kept up,and more especially increased during the last year by the visit to that country of one of the members of the Board of Regents, General Sherman. We have received from General Stone, of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3D the Egyptian army, an interesting chart of the fluctuations of the Nile, and from the author, Auguste Mariette Bey, the fac-similes of the Egyp- tian papyrus in the museum of Boulaq, prepared under the auspices of S. A. Ismail Pacha, Khédive of Egypt. These fac-similes occupy forty - four folio-plates, on tinted paper, representing in color and form the pres- ent appearance of the papyrus. Among the donations to the library should also be mentioned a col- lection of two thousand drawings of fishes, including copies of all known engravings of fishes published up to 1834, made by Dr. A. Reuss, for- merly of Germany, but now of Belleville, [linois. WORK DONE IN THE INSTITUTION AND IN CONNECTION WITH OTHER ESTABLISHMENTS. The Secretary, from the first organization of the Light-House Board, has been one of its members, and has acted as chairman of the com- mittee on experiments. In this capacity he has made in past years an extended series of investigations relative to different materials of illu- mination, also investigations relative to different instruments proposed for fog-sigrals, besides reporting on a large number of propositions made to the board with the idea of improving the aids to navigation. During the last year he continued the investigations in regard to fog-signals, and for this purpose spent his last summer’s vacation on the coast of Maine. For these services he receives no other compensation than ten cents amile as traveling expenses. The work is one, however, in which he takes great interest, and it has been to him a source of diversity of employment and a means of improved health. He has, during the past year, upon the retirement of Admiral Shu- brick, been elected chairman of the board. The Secretary is also one of the visitors to the Government Hospital for the Insane, and as President of the National Academy of Sciences directed the preparation of the instructions for scientific observations for Captain Halls arctic exploration. In addition to the foregoing, the Government placed the direction of the exploration of Major Powell in charge of the Smithsonian Institution. Appropriations have been made at the last two sessions of Congress for investigations, under the direction of Professor Baird, of this Institu- tion, relative to thealleged decrease of food-tishes on our coasts. Tothis at the last session was added an appropriation for stocking the rivers and lakes in the United States with useful fishes. These investigations have occupied all the time and attention he could spare from his duties in connection with the Smithsonian Institution. Besides the prominent subjects of immediate inquiry, there were quite a number of collateral matters bearing on the general questions, which were prosecuted at the same time, and which have in themselves much scientific interest. His headquarters for the season were fixed at Hast- port, on the Bay of Fundy; and,with Professor Verrill to take charge of the 36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. invertebrate fauna, he was enabled to gather, both at Eastport and Grand Manan, immense numbers of specimens, which, when fully elaborated, will be distributed to various scientific establishments throughout the world. With the facilities furnished by the Government in authorizing the use of the revenue-cutter Mosswood whenever necessary, the party was enabled to carry on these researches in every branch of the inquiry, including dredging and temperature-observations at great depths in the Bay of Fundy. Every facility was heartily rendered in this work by Captain Hodgdon and his officers. For a portion of the time a detail of the party, consisting of Professor Webster and Mr. C. H. Pond, was oc- cupied at Cape Porpoise, south of Portland, as also at the island of Grand Manan. By permission of Professor Peirce, the Superintendent of the Coast-Sur- vey, Professor Baird also placed a party on board the Coast-Survey steamer Bache while surveying the Georges Banks and other shoals off the coast of New England; this detail consisting for a time of Mr. 8. J. Smith, and Mr. Oscar Harger, of Yale College, and afterward of Dr. A. S. Packard, jr., and Mr. Cook, of Salem. The additions to our knowledge of the natural history of the Ameri- can seas made by all these parties has been very great, and the results will be published in detail in the report of the commissioner to be made to Congress. While engaged at Eastport himself, Professor Baird had a party also at Wood’s Hole, the scene of his labors during the year 1871; and several iiteresting additions to the known fauna of the Vineyard Sound region were made, among them, two genera and species of the sword-fish family, previously unknown on the coast of the United States; and other specimens of marine animals, especially of fishes, were contributed by Mr. Samuel Powell, of Newport. The following is an account of the work done by Mr. F. B. Meek, who still retains his apartments in the building, and examines and reports to the Institution all specimens of paleontology and geology submitted to it for examination. Most of his attention during the year 1872 has been devoted to the invertebrate paleontological department of the Ohio State geological survey. The collections have been sent to him at the Smithsonian Institution. He has, from time to time, published preliminary papers on these fossils in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia and the American Journal of Science and Arts, and sub- sequently prepared more elaborate descriptions for the first volume of the Final Report of the Ohio Geological Survey, in charge of Dr. J. S. Newberry. He has also had the drawings, illustrating his part of this volume of the Report, and a part of those for the second volume, made in the Institution, under his immediate direction; and has likewise ar- ranged the plates and superintended the engraving of the same, so far as completed. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37 In the early part of the year he prepared for publication some notes on the geology of the country immediately about the White Sulphur Springs, of Greenbrier County, West Virginia, with figures and descriptions of a few new fossils. He has likewise superintended the engraving of the quarto-pletes of fossils from the Upper Missouri coun- try, illustrating a report on the region, to be published by the Government in connection with the results of the United States Geological Survey of the Territories, in charge of Dr. Hayden. On account of failing health he was induced to avail himself of an opportunity to spend the summer in the Rocky Mountains and along the Union Pacific Railroad through to the Pacific, during which jour- ney he collected specimens and made observations at the expense of the Government survey. Since his return he has prepared descriptions of some forty or fifty new species of fossils collected during liis journey, to be published in Dr. Hayden’s report. METEOROLOGY. Among the first acts of the Institution was the establishment of a system of meteorology, intended especially to gather trustworthy infor- mation as to the character of American storms and the general clima- tology of the United States. To assist in this enterprise, Mr. James P. Espy was for several years previous to his death associated with the Institution. Lieutenant Maury, then in charge of the Observatory, had previously established a system of meteorology for the sea, and for sev- eral years another system had been carried on by the War Department at the various military posts of the United States, besides subordinate systems in the States of New York, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. It was the intention of the Institution to harmonize these different sys- tems, and, as far as possible, to reduce and discuss the results on one general plan. For this purpose it had prepared at its expense, by Pro- fessor Guyot, a volume of meteorological tables, also a series of instruc- tions, and introduced a set of trustworthy instruments, constructed by Mr. James Green, of New York. The Institution was the first to employ the telegraph in the prediction of the weather; but as its income was not sufficient to carry on this oper- ation to its full extent, and owing to the interference of the war, the project was for a while abandoned. The proposition was, however, aiterward brought before Congress by other parties, and a system of weather-forecasts established under the direction of the War Depart- ment, in the especial charge of Chief Signal-Ofticer General A. J. Myer. The placing of this system of forecasts underthe War Department gave it special advantages not otherwise to be secured by it. The observers are all enlisted in the Army and paid out of the Army appropriations. The whole being under military discipline gives the system a regularity and efficiency which leaves nothing in this respect to be desired. The 38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. appropriation for the support of the system has thus tar been very lib- eral, and I do not doubt it will continue to be so from year to year. Since the establishment of the Government system of weather-fore- casts [have proposed, on the part of the Smithsonian Institution, toaban- don the field of meteorology to General Myer, preserving to the Institu- tion only the labor of discussing and reducing all the observations which it has collected from its own observers and from all others in the coun- try up to, say, the year 1872. To this proposition I have not as yet received a reply. The Smithsonian system includes at present about five hundred obser- vers, who give their services voluntarily. They are of two classes: those who report upon the barometer, thermometer, psvchrometer, rain and wind gauges, and those who report upon only the temperature, the wind, the face of the sky, and the rain. Of the first class there are about one hundred and fifty, and these serve as standards to which the observations of the second class are referred. Most of the instruments of the first class have been constructed by Mr. Green. The rain-gauges are of a very simple form, consisting of merely a cylinder of tinned iron, two and a half inches in diameter and twelve inches deep, in which the rain is measured to within half a tenth of an inch by the insertion of a graduated slip of wood. If the system just described were incorporated with that of the Gov- ernment, and an agent sent from time to time throughout the country to instruct the observers, the whole would form a more extended and perfect system than any now in existence. The voluntary observers would render good service in supplementing the more precise observa- tions of the Army in marking the extent and boundary of special con- ditions of the atmosphere and in noting casual phenomena, such as thunder-storms, auroras, tornadoes, &ce. The Smithsonian system has now been in operation more than twenty years, and the Institution is at present occupied in reducing and dis- cussing the observations up to 1870 for publication. The only part of the results as yet published is that relating to the rain-fall. The part relative to the winds will be put to press in the course of a few months. All the observations on the winds which the Institution has been able to collect from unpublished and published records were placed in the hands of Professor J. H. Cofiin, of Easton, Pa., who has nearly com- pleted their discussion. Of this discussion of the “ winds of the globe,” which has been made at the expense of the Institution, excepting as far as the labors of Professor Coffin were concerned, the tables have nearly all been completed, and the preparation of the maps and descriptions alone remains to be done previous to putting the work to press. All the temperature-observations have been for several years placed in charge of Mr. Charles A. Schott, of the Coast Survey, and are being reduced as rapidly as the appropriation for the purpose from the Smith- sonian income will allow. The first division of this work has been com- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39 pleted, and will be sent to press during the coming year. This section consists of tables and discussions necessary to reduce observations taken at different times of the day to the true mean of the day, and other general corrections of irregular observations, and hence it was necessary that this should be prepared first. It includes— 1. General remarks on the explanation and extreme cases of the daily fluctuations of the temperature; investigation of the corrections to the mean temperature from certain, hours of the day to refer it to the true mean of the day. 2. Tables of times of sunrise and sunset for every tenth day of the year, and between latitudes 23° and 60°. 3. Applications of Bessel’s circular function to represent the daily fluctuation, (yearly average ;) the results for twenty stations are given. 4, Classification of the daily fluctuation into six typical forms; epochs of maximum and minimmn, and of mean values and daily range, (with two diagrams.) 5. Annual variation in the range of the daily fluctuation, (with two diagrams ;) and extremes of daily fluctuation in December and June, (with three diagrams;) also table of recorded daily range of tempera- ture for every month and for certain stations. 6. Variability of the temperature at any hour from the normal value of that hour, specially investigated for Toronto, Mohawk, Philadel- phia, and Sitka. 7. Table of the mean values of the hourly, bi-hourly, or semi-hourly observations of temperature, for every month, at nineteen stations. 8. Table of the daily fluctuations of temperature derived from the preceding table, and showing, for every hour and for each month and the year, the difference from the respective daily mean temperature. Self-registering instruments are absolutely necessary for this kind of investigation, and when their readings are applied will place the results on a more satisfactory footing, and one commensurate with the import- ance of the subject. The following is the condition of the work, which has been continued during the past year with the labor of two computers: 1. Consolidated tables, giving the mean temperature for each month, season, and the year, have been prepared for the following States, &e.: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Dakota, Idaho, Nebraska, West Virginia, Greenland, Iceland, British North America, and part of New York. 2. A large number of observations made at Havana, Cuba, have been computed and added to the general tables. Various other additions have been made and many deficiencies supplied. 3. About three-fourths of the annual means at the different stations have been calculated, embracing about 7,000. 4, The maxima and minima tables have been nearly completed. 40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. MISCELLANEOUS. At a meeting of the British Association in 1868 a committee was appointed for the purpose of obtaining observations in various localities on the rate of increase of underground temperature downward. This committee (through its secretary, Prof. J. D. Everett) has requested the Institution to furnish observations on this subject from the United States. i These observations are generally made by noting the temperature in artesian wells; and although a large number of these borings for water have been made in this country, the precautions to be taken, and the skill required, in obtaining the true increase of temperature in relation to the depth are of a character not to be intrusted to ordinary obser- vers; and, therefore, to meet the requirements of the committee, a special agent will be necessary to visit the different localities. The income of the Institution, up to this time, has not permitted the incurring of the cost of such an agency, although we hope in the future to be able to make an appropriation for the purpose. In the mean while we have intrusted a set of four standard thermometers, furnished by Professor Everett, and compared at the Kew Observatory, to Mr. B. D. Frost, engineer of the Hoosac Tunnel, Massachusetts. The investigation is one of great interest to the geologist, being inti- mately connected with the hypotheses concerning the geological changes to which the globe, has been subjected. The fact has been fully estab- lished that, in every part of the world where observations have been made, after descending a few feet below the surface or beyond the depth at which the temperature of the ground is affected by variations in the solar heat, there is a gradual increase of temperature varying in the rate of increase at different places, but on an average not far from one degree in every sixty feet, or a rate which, if continued, would indi- cate the fusing-point of iron at a depth of about twenty-eight miles. At the last meeting of the Board the subject of the desirability of the franking privilege to the Institution was discussed, as it had fre- quently been at previous meetings. Hon. Mr. Hamlin, who is a member of the Post-Office Committee of the Senate, offered to endeavor to pro- eure action of Congress in regard to this object, and accordingly at the last session the following law was enacted. ‘¢ All publications sent or received by the Smithsonian Institution, marked on each package ‘Smithsonian Exchange,’ shall be allowed to pass free in the mail.” (New Postal Code, 6th subdiv., 183d sec.) It will be seen from the above that the franking privilege is confined to printed matter, and does not relieve the Institution from the burden ef its large letter-correspondence, and, above all, from a new and unex- pected source of expense in the mineral specimens which, since the transfer of the collection of the Land-Office to the museum of the Insti- tution, are sent by mail from the different Government surveyors. We REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 41 have before us a lot of specimens from one Government officer on which postage of upward of, thirty dollars is charged. Unless provision is made for the transmission of these to the Institution through the mails free of cost, as it was in the case of the Land-Office, we shall be obliged to decline receiving them. By the will of Henrietta Jane Bedford, of Wilmington, Del., dangh- ter of Hon. Gunning Bedford, jr., one of the framers of the Constitu- tion of the United States, aid-de-camp to General Washington, and first district judge of the United States for the district of Delaware under the Constitution, a bequest was made to the Smithsonian Institu- tion of a pair of pocket-pistols, presented to her father by General Washington; also a silver punch-strainer, said to have been made out of a silver dollar earned by Benjamin Franklin on the first day news- papers were carried round the city of Boston for sale. In case these bequests should not be accepted by the Institution, they were to be given to the Historica] Society of Delaware. While the motive which induced this bequest is fully appreciated, the objects, not being of a kind now in its collections, which relate more especially to natural history and anthropology, the Institution preferred that they should be presented to the Historical Society of Delaware. At the request of the ladies in charge at Mount Vernon it has been thought proper to deposit with them the model of the Bastile of Paris, presented to General Washington; an iron stirrup of a saddle used by Mrs. Washington; and a small picture of Mount Vernon. These articles came into the possession of the Institution from the effects of the National Institute, and can be reclaimed for the National Museum at any time it may be thought important to obtain possession of them. It was mentioned in the last report that a portion of the large room in the second story of the building was used for the exhibition of the cartoons or original sketches of Indian life, made by the celebrated Indian student, George Catlin. Mr. Catlin continued his exhibition of these pictures during the summer, and devoted all his time not occupied in explaining his pictures to visitors, to finishing the sketches. Unfor- tunately, in passing between the Institution and his boarding-place, which were separated by the distance of more than a mile, he exposed himself to the heat of the unusually warm summer, and was seized with a malady which terminated his eventful life on the 23d of December, 1872, in the seventy-seventh year of his age. Since the subject will again come before Congress, I may here repeat what was said in my report last year relative to the purchase by Con- gress of the Catlin collection: “The entire collection, which comprises about twelve hundred paintings and sketches, was offered by Mr. Catlin to the Government in 1846, and its purchase was advocated by Mr. Web- ster, Mr. Poinsett, General Cass, and other statesmen, as well as by the principal artists and scholars of the country. A report recommending 42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. its purchase was made by the Joint Committee on the Library of Con- gress, but, owing to the absorption of public attention by the Mexican war, no appropriation was made for the purpose. Mr. Catlin made no further efforts at the time, but exhibited his pictures in Kurope, where, on account of an unfortunate speculation into which he was led in Lon- don, claims were brought against them which he had not the means to satisfy. At this erisis, fortunately, Mr. Joseph Harrison, of Philadel- phia, a gentleman of wealth and patriotism, desiring to save the collec- tion for our country, advanced the means for paying off the claims against the pictures, and shipped them to Philadelphia, where they have since remained unredeemed. Mr. Catlin, however, retained possession of the cartoons, and has since enriched them with a large number of illustrations of the ethnology of South America. Whatever may be thought of these paintings from an artistic point of view, they are cer- tainly of great value as faithful representations of the person, features, manners, customs, implements, superstitions, festivals, and everything which relates to the ethnological characteristics of the primitive inhabit- ants of our country. We think that there isa general public sentiment in favor of granting the moderate appropriation asked for by Mr. Catlin, and we trust that Congress will not fail to act In accordance with this feeling.” It is the only general collection of the kind in existence, and any one who has given thought to the subject could scarcely fail to sym- pathize with the last anxious feelings of Mr. Catlin that, after a life of devotion to Indian ethnology, these results of his labors might be pur- chased by the Government. To insure the permanent preservation of the collection, Mr. Catlin would have gladly presented the pictures to the Government as a gift had he not expended all his worldly possessions in the formation of the collection, and therefore had nothing wherewith to redeem the portion of the general collection pledged tor debt or to be- stow upon his three orphan daughters. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Until the year 1870 the support of the National Museum princi- pally devolved on the Smithson fund, only $4,000 having been annually appropriated by Congress for this purpose. Since that date, however, Congress has indicated an intention of providing for the full support of the museum. In 1870 and 1871 it appropriated $10,000, and in 1872, $15,000. This last sum, however, is scarcely yet sufiicient to defray the expenses. The cost of the reconstruction of the building, exclusive of furniture, after the fire of 1865, was $136,000, the whole of which was paid from the Smithson income. This expenditure was for restoring the main building and not for fitting up rooms wanted for the further extension of the museum. For the latter purpose, Congress has made appro- priations, since 1870, amounting in all to $35,000. Of these appropria- tions $20,000 have been expended in ceiling, flooring, plastering, and REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43 finishing the great hall, occupying the entire second story of the main building, intended for the extension of the museum; and, with the remainder of the appropriation, arrangements have been made for fur- nishing with cases this room, and also the room formerly occupied by the library, and now devoted to mineralogy and geology. With a view to the entire separation of the affairs of the museum from those of the Smithsonian proper, all the operations of the latter, with the exception of those in the Regents’ room, are carried on in the east wing and range of the building, leaving all the other parts, includ- ing the main edifice, towers, west wing, and west range, to the museum The following is Professor Baird’s account of the additions to the Museum, and the various operations connected with it during 1872: Additions to the National Museum in 1872, in geographical sequence.— The additions to the National Museum, in charge of the Smithsonian ‘Institution, during the year have shown a gratifying increase over those of 1871, and have been decidedly equal in value to those of any previ- ous year. The great bulk, as might be expected, has been derived from the collections of the various Government expeditions, especially those under the charge of Professor Hayden, Professor Powell, and Lieuten- ant Wheeler, supplemented, however, by others, contributed by private effort, especially on the part of Mr. Henry W. Elliot and Mr. William H. Dall. A great addition to the magnitude of a portion of the cabinet, namely, that of mineralogy and geology, has been the result of the transfer to the Institution, under the order of the Secretary of the Interior, of the extensive museum of the Land-Oftice. In the appendix to this report will be found a detailed list of the donors of the various specimens, together with the general indication of their nature; but with a view of calling attention more particularly to the different regions represented therein, I beg leave to present some remarks, both in regard to the auspices under which they were secured and their general character. As in previous years, the principal regions of America are more or less represented among the additions in 1872, and these, as usual, will be mentioned in systematic order. Beginning, therefore, with the Northwest Coast, we have, in the first place, from the Island of Saint Paul, one of the fur-seal group in Behr- ing Sea, a very extensive collection, presented by Mr. Henry W. Elliot, for a long time connected with the Institution. This gentleman visited the two seal-islands, Saint Paul and Saint George, as an assistant agent of the Treasury Department, to attend to the interests of the Govern- ment with the Alaska Commercial Company, and to look after the wel- fare of the native tribes. The collection embraces a large number of Skeletons of many species of water-fowl, as well as their skins and eggs, quite a number of which are new to the national collection ; also various 44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. fish, mollusea, and other marine objects, together with minerals, rocks, and plants. Mr. William H. Dall also contributed largely from the region a little to the south of that occupied by Mr. Elliot, namely, Unalaska and some adjacent islands. The most marked feature of Mr. Dall’s contribution consists in the rich collections of pre-historic objects, some of them found in localities of which the native Aleuts have no tradi- tion as being the site of ancient settlements. The series is of interest, as showing the state of civilization among the progenitors of these people. Other objects collected by Mr. Dall consist of marine invertebrates, fishes, and numerous birds, eggs, &ec. Among the eggs are several new kinds, which, with the contributions by Mr. Elliot, nearly complete the desiderata of the National Museum in regard to the water-birds of the North Pacific. Some contributions have also been obtained from Professor Harring- ton, the companion of Mr. Dall. It should be stated that Mr. Dall has been engaged since July, 1871, in the service of the Coast Survey, in surveying the Aleutian Islands, and that the collections made by him, like those of Mr. Elliot, were gathered entirely at his own ex- pense, at such periods as could not be occupied by any regular official work. In addition to the specimens just named, skulls of rare species of cetaceans were supplied by Captain Scammon, who has also added to them others from Southern California. From Oregon have been received several series of Indian relics, and a number of human and other crania, presented by Mr. Bissell. California has furnished some curious remains of fossil vertebrates from Point Conception, presented by Mr. Sceva, and collectigns of Sacramento salmonide from Mr. Stone. Dr. L. G. Yates has continued his contributions of ancient relies, as also of minerals and fossil remains. Some rare birds’ eggs and nests have been furnished by Mr. William A. Cooper, of Santa Cruz. From the States and Territories in the interior of North America, especially those of the Great Basin and of the Rocky Mountain region, the collections have been principally made on the part of the Govern- ment expeditions, nearly all of which have had the center of their opera- tions within these boundaries. Among these we may mention, first, the parties of Professor Hayden, who renewed in 1872 his explorations of 1871 in the Geyser basins of the Upper Yellowstone, as also farther to ~ the west, in the regions between Fort Hall and the Three Tétons. In addition to the researches prosecuted by his own immediate party, and its division under charge of Mr. Stevenson, with Professor F. H. Bradley as geologist, there were several subsidiary explorations prose- euted in connection with Dr. Hayden’s labors, by Professor Joseph Leidy in Wyoming, and by Professors Meek and Bannister, Professor Lesquereux, and Professor E. D. Cope, all of whom added largely to the general collections, the total number of boxes of specimens re- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. A5 ceived from Professor Hayden’s expedition amounting to very nearly one hundred. The labors of Lieutenant Wheeler in the more southern portions of the region referred to were continued throughout the season, with Messrs. Gilbert and Howell as geologists, Dr. Yarrow as surgeon and chief naturalist, Mr. Henshaw as assistant naturalist, and Mr. Sever- ance as ethnologist. The investigations of these gentlemen were prose- cuted in Southern Utah and in Hastern Nevada, and resulted in the acquisition of rich collections of geological specimens, as also of a large series of animals, especiaily of the vertebrates. The ethnological con- tributions of the party were also of much interest. Professor Powell also, in continuation of preceding explorations along the Colorado River, devoted himself more particularly to the collection of Indian remains, and succeeded in procuring a very extensive series of everything illustrating the habits and manners of the interesting tribes that now occupy that region. From. Governor Arny, of New Mexico, the museum has received some valuable minerals, and numerous articles ef dress and ornament of the Apaches and other modern tribes. He has also contributed the re- mains of what Dr. Leidy considers to be a new species of American fossil elephant, and other bones of the same species were supplied by General J. H. Carleton. Some interesting reptiles of New Mexico were contributed by Dr. Bailey. Other collections of less extent will be found mentioned in the table of list of contributions. From the valley of the Mississippi have been received human remain: from the mounds of Dakota, contributed by General Thomas; from Louisiana and Mississippi, casts of some very remarkable stone imple- ments, furnished by Professor Joseph Jones, of New Orleans; and also original flint objects, together with insects, from Mr. Keenan. Mr. J. G. Henderson has lent us the rarities of his fine ethnological collection, gathered principally in [linois, with permission to duplicate them by means of casts; while from Mr. Peters, of Kentucky, Mr. Anderson, of Ohio, and other gentlemen, additions have also been made to the ethnological department. From the chain of lakes extensive contributions in the way of food- fishes have been furnished by various parties. Among them may be mentioned, as the most important contributor, Mr. J. W. Milner, deputy commissioner of fish and fisheries for the lakes. His transmissions em- brace the different species of trout and white-fish in great variety. In obedience to the instructions of the minister of marine and fish- eries of Canada, the fish-wardens on the lakes have also supplied speci- mens of trout and white-fish from Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, Lake Cham- plain, the Saint John’s River, &e. These have been' received from Messrs. Kerr, Kiel, Macfie, and others. The Svate of Maine is very amply represented in the collections of A6 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. the year by means of the specimens of marine animals collected by Professor Baird as United States commissioner of fish and fisheries, and his assistants and associates. In addition to the collections made on the coast of Maine, the Institution has received, through the commis- sioner of fish and fisheries, a valuable series of the salmon of the Penob- scot River from Mr. Atkins; of the blue-backed trout of the Rangely Lakes from Mr. Stanley; and lake-trout and land-locked salmon of the Saint Croix from Senator Edmunds. Marine animals in great variety and of much interest were also collected for the fishery commission at Fort Macon, North Carolina, by Dr. H. C. Yarrow, assistant surgeon of the United States Army, supplemented by others from Dr. Mackie. The donations from the interior of the Atlantic coast States consisted of Indian relics from Mr. Kellogg, of Connecticut; minerals and rocks of South Carolina from Mr. Waldo; and various specimens of birds from Florida from Mr. George A. Boardman. The trustees of the Charleston College have been kind enough to lend to the Smithsonian Institution, to be copied in plaster, several unique objects of ethnology. Proceeding to the regions south of the United States, we may men- tion, first, contributions from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, furnished by Professor Sumichrast, these consisting of numerous birds and reptiles, in continuation of similar collections previously transmitted. Mr. Flor entin Sartorius, of Vera Cruz, also furnished specimens of the rare and curious wax-producing insects first described as Lystra cerifera. From Guatemala have been received collections of insects, presented by Mr. I’. Sarg, and from Nicaragua a collection of rare pottery, by Dr. Earl Flint. Certain collections made several years ago by Dr. Berendt near Belize were received during the year, consisting principally of rep- tiles and shells. As these were gathered at the expense of the several contributors to a common fand, they were assigned for distribution to Mr. Thomas Bland and Professor Cope. Of South American regions, New Granada is represented by a col- lection of birds presented by the American minister at Bogota, Mr. Hurlbut; Southern Brazil by the skeleton of a tapir from Mr, Albu- querque; and Chili by a very valuable collection of native minerals from the University of Santiago, through Professor Domeyko, and a collection of Chilian eggs of great interest from the national museum, through Dr. Philippi. Perhaps the most interesting South American object is a human head prepared by the Jivaro Indians of the province of Chimborazo, Peru, and presented to the Smithsonian Institution by Don Edward de Feiger, through the honorable Rumsey Wing, United States minister to Heua- dor. This head belongs to a very rare series of ethnological objects, of which a very few only have been brought to Kurope and America. They are held by their owners in much veneration, and jealously guarded as household divinities. They are believed to be trophies of victories; the head of an enemy being thus prepared for permanent preservation. The REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AQ precise method of manipulation is unknown, but is supposed to consist in the careful extraction of the bones, flesh, and brains of the head, and the subsequent contracting of the skin by some astringent. The result is a well formed and quite symmetrical head, about four inches in diame- ter; all parts contracted in equal proportion, and with long flowing black hair; a braid of strings is passed through the lips, and there are several other artificial appendages. Prof. William M. Gabb has kindly presented to the National Museum some extremely rare and remarkable stone implements and pottery from San Domingo, while Professor Poey, the eminent and veteran naturalist of Havana, has supplied a series of fishes from Cuba as types of his species. Fishes of Bermuda were also received from Mr. J. Brown Goode. The collections from other parts of the world, as might naturally have been expected, have not been so great, either in number or value, as those already referred to, although some of them are very important, as tending to complete the series already in the museum. The most interesting of these objects are certain pre-historic stone implements, especially of the drift-period, presented by Mr. William Blackmore, ot England, and a similar collection furnished by Mr. Baker. Professor Holst, of Christiania, has supplied a series of minerals from Konigsberg, a mining-region near that city, while Dr. Sars and Dr. Boeck have furnished specimens of the crustacea, Mr. Robert Collett of the fishes, and Dr. William Boeck a skeleton of Hyperoodon. Dr. Mobius, of Kiel, has also sent us a series of the food-fishes and erusta- ceans from the vicinity of Kiel. No collections are recorded from Africa, with the exception of a superb skull of the Koodoo antelope, from Captain Holmes. From Japan, however, have been received some remarkable stone and bronze implements of pre-historic times, presented by the Japanese minister, Mr. Mori. The Sandwich Islands are represented by collections of skulls and ethnology, from Mr. Valdemar Knudsen. Systematic summary. The preceding enumeration expresses the geo- graphical relations of the collections received during the year; and it may be well, in addition, to make a brief systematic reference to the principal objects received, so far as this has not already been done, especially as some general collections, covering a wide range of country, have not yet been referred to. : The department of ethnology has been especially enriched, not only by the collections of Professor Powell, Mr. Dall, Professor Hayden, and others, but very largely by a contribution from Mr. Vincent Colyer. This gentleman, while connected with the Board of Indian Commissioners, took cecasion during his official visits in various parts of the Indian country to collect, at his own expense, large numbers of objects, all of which are now in possession of the Institution. 48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The head of the mummy, presented by Don Edward de Feiger, already referred to, is perhaps the most important of the ethnological Series; but there are other objects of very great interest worthy of note. Among them, one of special interest, is an Indian pipe of black slate, carved in a very striking likeness of a loon, found in West Virginia and presented by Rev. J. N. Davis. In the department of mineralogy and geology, the additions brought in by the parties of Lieutenant Wheeler and Professor Hayden have been especially rich; the donation of Chilian minerals by Professor Domeyko, and of Norwegian by Dr. Holst, will do much to increase the value of this portion of the collection. The most important addition, however, is that of the Land-Ofiice collection of minerals, embracing many thousands of specimens, and especially rich in series of ores trom Nevada, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and California. These collections will shortly be arranged with others of the same character in the new mineralogical hall. In the department of zoology, a contribution from the Imperial Zoolog- ical Museum of Vienna, of skeletons of large mammals, such as those of the lion, tiger, giraffe, brown bear, &c., may be Aaa ore as chief in value. The skeleton of the Brazilian tapir, from Mr. Albuquerque, is also of much moment, as rendering the collection of American ae nearly complete. We previously possessed skeletons of the tapir of the Andes from Mr. Hurlbut, the Panama tapir from Captain Dow, and the Guatemala tapir from Mc. Henry Hague; the last additions making skeletons of four perfectly distinct species or varieties of this animal. The skeletons and skulls of the cetaceans of the west coast from Captain Seammon, a skeleton of hyperoodon whale from Dr. Boeck, and skeletons of many hundreds of birds from Henry W. Etliot may also be enumerated. Among mammals, the chief accessions have been that of a Rocky Mountain goat, from W. J. Wheeler, since mounted and placed in the collection; that of a gnu from an unknown source, and the restoration in full size of the Irish elk, deposited by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins. The Royal College of Surgeons of London has contributed a col- lection of casts of the brains of mammals. Of birds, a valued addition is that of the rare Labrador duck from the Museum of Natural History of New York; and the extensive col- lections of Professor Hayden, of Lieutenant Wheeler, of Mr. Dall, and of Mr. Henry Elliot embrace many important specimens. The eggs from Messrs. Dall and Elliot, taken in Alaska, and those from Chili, are of principal value. The collection of fishes has been very large, made principally by or in behalf of the commission of fish and fisheries. It embraces spect- mens of the Salmonide of the Sacramento River, received from Mr REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49 Livingston Stone, and of various localities on the great lakes, and in the States of Maine and New Hampshire. The marine collections from the coast of Maine, Vineyard Sound, Rhode Island, Fort Macon, Cuba, and the Bermudas have already been referred to. The European collection presented by Messrs. Sars, Boeck, and Collett, as also those of Dr. Mobius, of Kiel, will also be of much value for purposes of comparison. The invertebrates gathered under similar auspices have also been very numerous, and will furnish ample means for distribution to other museums. In accordance with the policy of the Institution, all the specimens of human anatomy, including crania and skeletons from the ancient mounds, have been turned over as soon as received to the Army Medical Museum, while the insects and the plants have, in like manner, been deposited with the Agricultural Department. The total number of distinct donations received during the year 1872 amounted to 315 entries, comprising 544 separate packages and coming from 203 different donors. The corresponding figures for the year 1871, consist of 271 donations, comprising 400 packages. Work done in the museum.—The addition of so large a stock of ma- terial to the collections already in charge of the Institution, of course, involved a great deal of labor, such as the unpacking and classifying of the objects; the labeling of all, at least as to localities; the entering in their respective record-books; the putting such of them in order as required it; placing such as were ready for immediate exhibition on their respective shelves; and storing the rest away where they could most readily be referred to on ceccasion. All dry objects of an animal nature generally need prompt attention to prevent their being affected by mold or by the attacks of insects ; ethnological objects usually requiring to be thoroughly cleaned and poisoned, while skins of animals, furs, Indian robes, dresses, &c., must be immersed in some poisonous solution before they can be considered as permanently secure. All this has been etfected with as much thor- oughness as the time and force at the command of the Institution would permit. In addition to this, it was found that the immense collection of objects of dresses and ornaments belonging to the ethnological galleries, were more or less infected by moths, and it became necessary to subject the entire series to a process of renovation, embracing many thousands of specimens. The transfer of the mounted birds and mammals from the old stands to those of a neater form has also been prosecuted to +) considerable ex- tent during the year, several thousands having been so treated, to the a improvement of the general appearance. Ss 50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Perhaps the most important labors in the museum have been that connected with the renovation of the extensive alcoholic collections. These were in a very unsatisfactory condition, in consequence of the fire of 1865, and the unavoidable confusion during the process of recon- struction of the various apartments of the Institution. The bottles were necessarily stored in a damp cellar, where the labels became obliterated to a greater or less degree; and although the pre- caution had been taken to introduce within the jars numbers corre- sponding to those of the external label, yet both in many cases were found to have become illegible. It was necessary, therefore, to use every effort to remedy the difficulty by re-labeling such specimens as had not lost their history beyond recovery; and this work has occupied a considerable portion of the force the entire year. All the bottles, however, have been cleaned and placed in a dry cellar, and during the coming year this part of the collection will be put in as good order as can be desired. i A considerable portion of the time of the employés of the museum was occupied in the transfer of the extensive collection of rocks and minerals from the Land-Office, which has necessarily required great care to prevent the misplacement of the labels. This was, however, satis- factorily accomplished, and the specimens are now safely in the posses- sion of the Institution, and, it is hoped, will be placed on their shelves in the course of the year 1873. Quite a number of the skeletons of the larger animals, such as the Irish elk, severai species of tapir, the American moose, the buffalo, American and European bisons, the elk, camel, &c., have been mounted during the year and placed in the general collection. There is yet much to be done in this direction, the museum fortunately possessing very complete series of the bones of most of the American mammalia and many foreign species. Several large mammals have also been mounted, such as the bison, the moose, walrus, and a considerable number of the larger fish found on the Atlantic coast. Distribution of specitmens.—In accordance with the policy adopted by the Smithsonian Institution in the administration of the collections of the National Museum, much has been done in the way of transmission of specimens to other museums at home and abroad. Many of the rare and more choice stone implements in different mu- seums throughout the country have been borrowed and duplicated by means of casts, and enough of these prepared to permit quite an exten- sive distribution. The collections brought in by Professor Hayden during his different expeditions of several years past were all unpacked and arranged; and after reserving a series for the Museum of the Institution, the remainder were nade up into some fifteen or twenty sets, which were distributed to different colleges and academies throughout the country. This branch REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51 of the work of the Institution, it is hoped, can be greatly extended during the coming year, in view of the immense number of duplicates which will be found in the Land-Office collection and in the collections just received from the various Government expeditions. A large number of specimens in mineralogy and geology were also boxed upand transmitted to Professor Egleston and Professor Newberry, of the School of Mines in New York, under the existing arrangement with those gentlemen to select and label a perfect single series for the National Museum and to exchange the duplicate specimens in its interest. Numerous returns have already been received of valuable material, adding greatly to the richness of the lithological department. Dr. Coues, assistant surgeon in the Army, having volunteered to pre- pare a monograph of the smaller rodents of North America for publi- cation by the Institution, received at Baltimore the entire collection of specimens, both in alcohol and in skins. Having subjected these to a careful criticism, he made the duplicates into thirty sets, which will be distributed in the course of the coming year to the different museums in this country and Europe, in return for which we shall doubtless receive some valuable additions to the cabinet. A few of the small number remaining on hand of sets of minerals, geo- logical specimens, shells, &c., have been sent out to various addresses, and as also several series of birds, &c., mammals, skeletons, eggs, &c. The entire number of specimens thus sent forth will be found in an accompanying table. The museum may now be considered as in much better condition than it has ever been before. The process of renovation is progressing as rapidly as possible, and will, before long, be completed. The establish- ment of better store-rooms in which to keep the unmounted skins of animals, and the alcoholic collections, has enabled us to work to much better advantage. As fast as each department can be re-organized and placed in a satisfactory condition, pains will be taken to eliminate the duplicates, and distribute them as authorized. The result will be to greatly reduce the bulk of crude material to be cared for by the Insti- tution, and to render a great service to the cause of scientific instruc- tion by disseminating authentically-labeled types of the various species. Returns of great value may be expected also for these specimens. There is, however, a great deal to be done before the collections at present in the National Museum may be considered as finally arranged, to say nothing of those yet to be received. The greater portion of the ethnological museum will need to be properly mounted on tablets, or otherwise prepared for permanent exhibition, and labeled. As soon as the cases in the large hall of the Institution can be completed, these specimens will be placed in position. It is intended to prepare a large number of effigies representing accurately the lineaments, dress, and form of the tribes of Indians, and to place upon these their correspond- 52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ing ornaments, weapons, &c.; and to introduce them, either singly or in groups, into suitable cases, where they can most readily be seen. The approach to completion of the new cases for the mineralogical hall, formerly occupied by the library, makes it necessary to re-arrange all the mineralogical and geological specimens, these including not only such as have been for a long time in the Institution, but the newly-ac- quired treasures from the Land-Ofiice, and the Government expeditions of 1872. These transfers will vacate a portion of the present exhibition- room, amounting, perhaps, to nearly one-third its present capacity; and it is proposed to occupy the gaps thus made by specimens of mammals, birds, and skeletons. Of these there are ample series in the building, enough, indeed, to fill several large rooms. Such a selection will be made from these as will make up the most important deficiencies in the mounted series at present on exhibition. Mineralogical collection.—Under the authorization of the Secretary of the Interior, the Commissioner of the Land-Oflice transferred to the.care of the Institution, as a part of the National Museum, the collection of minerals which had been formed by Mr. Joseph Wilson, the previous Commissioner. This collection, intended to illustrate the mineral resources of the country, consisted of samples of ores and geological specimens from every State and Territory in the Union. Though a very valuable addi- tion to the Museum, it is formed in some degree of duplicates of specimens already in the Institution. Thisfact, however, will enable us to make up sets of duplicates for distribution to collegesand academies. It is proposed to continue the plan inaugurated by Mr. Wilson, of illustrating the mineral products of all parts of the United States in addition to a gen- eral systematic mineralogical cabinet. For the exhibition of the latter the large room formerly occupied by the library will be devoted, while the connecting range, by a few changes, will serve as the receptacle for the specimens to illustrate the former. In coneluding the history of the Institution up to the year 1872, it will be evident that the establishment has had, on the whole, a successful career, although it has not been free from mishaps, and the appropriation of the fund was not at first as conformable to the strict interpretation of the will of the founder as could have been wished, yet continued improvement has been made in this respect from year to year. Not only the state of the funds, but the character which the Institution has established over the world, will enable it to compare favorably with the management of any endowment with which we are at present acquainted. respectfully submitted. JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary Smithsonian Institution. WASHINGTON, February, 187? NOTES RELATIVE TO GEORGE CATLIN. George Catlin was born in Wilkesbarre, in the valley of Wyoming, Pennsylvania, in the year 1796. His father was a lawyer of considera- ble reputation, and designed his son to practice the same profession, which he did for a short time; but bis natural inclination for art was so strong that after two or three years he abandoned the idea of becoming a lawyer and removed to Philadelphia, where he pursued his occupation principally as a portrait-painter. It was here that an incident occurred which determined that future career which has made his life and labors famous. A party of roving Indians visiting Philadelphia, decorated with the barbaric splendor of their native dresses, by their bold and martial bearing, and by their unconstrained attitudes and gestures, so impressed him that he determined to become the historian of this remarkable race, which was rapidly becoming extinct, and to devote himself to the illustration of their arts, types, manners, and customs. With this purpose in view, in 1830 and 1851, he accompanied Governor Clarke, of Saint Louis, then superintendent of Indian Affairs, who was engaged in making treaties with the Winnebagoes, Monomonees, Shaw- nees, and Sacs and Foxes. In 1832 he ascended the Missouri, on the steamer Yellowstone, to Fort Union, and afterward returned, in a canoe, with two companions, a distance of 2,000 miles, visiting and painting all the tribes, so numerous at that time, on the whole length of the river. The next year he went up the Platte as far as Fort Laramie, and extended his journey to Great Salt Lake. In 1834 he explored the Mississippi as far as the Falls of Saint Anthony, and visited the Ojibbeways and other tribes, and returned to Saint Louis, a distance of 900 miles, in a bark canoe. In 1835 he made a second visit to the Falls of Saint Anthony, and thence proceeded to the Red Pipestone region on the Couteau des Prairies, and then, returning to the Falls of Saint Anthony, descended the river a second time in a canoe to Saint Louis. In 1836 he accompanied Colonel Dodge on an expedition to the Comanches and other southwestern tribes ; and in 1837 visited Florida for the purpose of painting the Seminoles and Euchees. During these eight years he visited fifty different tribes of North American Indians, taking sketches all the time. Having thus accumulated a large number of paintings representing the portraits of the principal men and the tribes and the pictures of savage life, he exhibited them in various parts of the United States, especially in Washington, Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, with such suecess that, in 1859, he went to London and Paris, where the artist and his collections attracted general attention. From this time until 1852 he remained in Europe, being everywhere treated 5A REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. with marked distinction. In 1852, when fifty-six years old, his enthusi- asm undiminished by his advancing age, and with a vigor and endurance rarely found even in the young men of our day, he explored, with the same object, the forests of South America. He went to Venezuela, and visited the Oronoco, Amazon, and Essequibo, taking a great number of pictures on his route. He afterward crossed the continent to Lima, and going northward visited the mouth of the Columbia River, Nootka Sound, Alaska, and to The Dalles, and up the Columbia River to Walla- Walla, thence up to the Salmon River Valley, and across the mountains into Snake River Valley at Fort Hall, thence to .the Great Falls of the Snake River, and returning to Portland proceeded to San Francisco and San Diego. From San Diego he crossed the Colorado of the West and the Rocky Mountains, and descended the Rio Grande del Norte in a canoe to Matamoras. From Matamoras he set out for Sisal, in Yucatan, and thence proceeded to Havre. Starting again from that place in the fall of the same year, 1855, he went to Rio Janeiro and Buenos Ayres. Ascending the Paraguay and Parana, he crossed the Entre Rios Mountains to the head-waters of the Uruguay, which he descended to the mouth of the Rio Negro and returned to Buenos Ayres. From this place, in 1856, he took passage in a sailing-vessel coasting the whole length of Patagonia, and then north to Panama; thence to Chagres, to Caracas in Venezuela, to Santa Martha and Maraéaibo. In these six years, completing his Indian studies, he retired to Brussels, and, with pen and brush, again set himself to recording the results of his travels, adding to his history of the North American Indians that of the Indians of South America. He remained at Brussels until “his return to thie country in 1871. During his life, and in periods of rest from his travels, he wrote and published the following works: 1. Catlin’s Notes of Eight Years’ Travels among the North American Indians, 2 vols., 1851. 2. Catlin’s Notes of Eight Years’ Residence in Europe, 2 vols, 1848. 3. Catlin’s North American Portfolio, 1844. 4, Okee-pa, a Religious ** Mandan” Ceremony. 5. Life among the Indians, (book for youth,) 1867. 6. Last Rambles among the Indians of the Rocky Mountains and Andes, 1867. 7. Shut Your Mouth, 1869. 8. Uplifted and Subsided Rocks of America, 1870. APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, Table showing the number of entries in the record-books of the Smithsonian Museum at the close of the years 1871 and 1872, _ Class: Reptiles Fishes HOO SLODILOS seeped 5 PN ida toi tee ee caf Crustaceans Mollusks Increase for 1872, 8,527. 72, respectively. 1871. 1872 12, 059 | 12, 450 9, 849 | 11, 195 61, 250 62, 718 7,53 8,729 7,983 | 9,758 15, 986 16, 322 1, 287 2, 187 24,792 24, 792 2,730 3, 107 100 100 7, 697 7,715 7, 160 7, 167 10, 931 11, 607 169,360 | 177,747 Approximate table of distribution of duplicate specimens to the end of 1872. Class. Skeletons and skulls .-.--- Mens soese scouneontus ind StS dats eet SPS: IP eastor PILdsa-—- ee eeee Shelilsiyeey sph elo Crustaceans srere eee ee Radiates ....-. eis See eere Other marine invertebrates Plants & packages of seeds IOSSULS ponents Aomeeeeiee a ece Ethnological specimens - -- Insects i rs Distribution to the Distribution Total to end of end of 1871. during 1872. 1872. ) Speci- Speci- Speci- Species. mens. | SPecies. isha! Species. Hr { 325 827 19 37 344 864 941 1, 22 22 68 963 1, 890 22, 940 30, 428 | 1,129 | 1,667 24,069 | 37, 095 1, 841 Qy OO! lseeppscentcpeseeree 1, 841 2, 970 2,477 5, 311 40 87 2, 517 5, 398 6, 606 16, 698 21 22 6, 627 | 16,720 83,712 | 186, 157 905 ; 1,035 84, 617 | 187, 192 1, 078 NOOO Neeerereelleee eo aracis 1, 078 2, 650 583 MO eeesegs ee lee ao ees. 583 778 1, 838 5, 152 6 8 1,844 5, 160 18, 503 25,063 | 1,867 | 4,642 20,370 | 29,705 4,109 10, 135 3 6 4,112} 10,141 4, 630 9, 974 683 728 5,313 | 10,702 1, 295 1, 342 381 397 1, 676 1, 739 1, 836 3, 150 412 | 1,144 2, 248 4, 294 29 623 29 29 58 662 152, 743 5,517 | 9,880 | 158, 260 | 317, 960 308, 080 56 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1872. Abell, J. Ralls. Indian relics, insects, &c., from Virginia. Akhurst, J. Specimens from Nerthwest Coast. | Albuquerque, F. Skeleton of Tapir and head of Deer from Brazil. Allen, J. A., for Mus. of Comp. Zool., Cambridge, Mass. Specimen of Lagomys in alcohol, and nest and egg of Plectrophanes ornatus. Two specimens Leucosticte tephrocotis from Colorado. Aman, S. Specimen of Spider-crab from Chesapeake Bay. American Museum of Nat. Ifistory, New York. Mounted specimen of Labrador Duck, (Camptolaemus labradorius.) Anderson, Wm. Ethnological specimens and fossils from Ohio. Arny, Hon. W. F. M. Bundle of arrows of White Mountain Apaches, Arizona, and many other specimens of Ethnology, Mineralogy, and Natural History. Atkins, C. G. Two specimens of Salmon, from Bucksport, Me. Aubin, N. Copper-ores from Lake Superior. Babcock, Gen. O. EF. Specimens of silicified wood from excavations of public works, Washington, D. C. Bailey, Dr G. W. One bottle alcoholic reptiles, insects, &c., from New Mexico.: Baird, Prof. 8. F., U. 8. Commiss’r of Fisheries. Forty-four boxes general collections from Eastport, Me. HEmbryonie chicken in alcohol, Washington, D. C. Baker, W. A. Collection of prehistoric flint implements from Great Britain. Barnes, Thos., through Col. EH. Jewett. Copper chisel from Niagara Co., NS Ys Bendire, Lt. U. 8. A. Birds dried in the flesh, nests, and eggs, from Arizona. Berendi, Dr. H. Three boxes and one package general collections from Honduras. ; Binckley, J. M. Indian stone implement from Virginia. Bissell, Geo. P. Stone implements, and antler imbedded in wood, from Creswell, Oregon. Biackmore, W. Prehistoric stone relics from Europe. Blakeslee, D. Yndian stone relics from Ohio. Bloom, F. J. Fossils and Indian relics from Mississippi. Boeck, Axel. Crustaceans from Norway. Boles, Hon. T. S. Specimens of iron-ore from Arkansas. Brevoort, J. Carson. Specimen of Ring-tailed Monkey from the Amazon, (fresh). Brown, Dr. Ryland T. Specimens of rock-salt from Arizona. Brown, Hon. 8S. G. Quartz arrow-head from Anacostia, D. C. Brush, A. P. Indian stone implements from Quincy, Pa. ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. BT Bryan, O. N. Skull of a mound-builder, from mound near Dubuque, lowa. Carletor, Rev. Hiram. Specimens of wheat prepared against rust. Carleton, Gen. J. H. One box fossil bones from Sonora, Mex. Choate, J. B. One box fossils from Towa and Illinois. Clarke, Geo. Fishes from Lake Erie and Detroit River. Clarke, S. C. Ethnological specimens from Spruce Creek, Fla. Cleburne, Wm. Three boxes fossils from along the line of Union Pacific Railroad. Clements, C. C., Surveyor-General of Utah. Specimens of silver-ores. Cochrane, J. Ancient pottery, &e., from Illinois. Cogswell, Mrs. W. F. Specimens of iron-ores from Lake Superior. Collett, Robert. Collection of Norwegian fishes. Colyer, Vincent. Indian clothing, implements, &c., from Alaska and the western Territories. Comstock, Gen., U. S. A. Specimens of dredgings made under the lake survey in Lake Superior. Cooper, W. A. Birds’ eggs from Santa Cruz, Cal. Coues, Dr. Hlliott, U. S. A. Skeleton and odd bones of Didelphys vir- ginianus, (types of his monograph of the species.) Curtis, R. C. Fossils from Genesee Co., N. Y. Curtis, W. W. Specimens of quartz from Wisconsin. Cusick, C. C. Ethnologicai specimens from Dakota Territory. Dall, W. H. General collections from Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, part of the collections by M. W. Harrington. Davis, Rev. J. H. Indian stone pipe, (loon shape,) from West Virginia. Dennis, Joel M. Ancient pottery from Newark, Ohio. Dobson, J. Rk. Specimens of iron and iron-ores from Pennsylvania. Domeyko, Dr. Ignacio, University of Chili. Hight boxes of Chilian min erals. Duvall, Geo. W. Specimen of Cormorant, (Graculus dilophus.) Sucking- fish, and woodchuck, from Annapolis, Md. Dyer, C. B. Box of fossiis from Cincinnati, Ohio. Edwards, Amory. Fossils from Kansas. Edwards, Vinal H. Fishes, &e., from Vineyard Sound, Mass. Elias, Mr. Medal issued in commemoration of the introduction of water into the city of Buenos Ayres, South America. Elliott, Henry W. Ten boxes general collections from Saint Paul’s Island, Alaska. Faulkner, J. Collection of birds’ eggs from Northern [llinois. Feiger, Don Ramon. Prepared head of Indian from Ecuador, South Awmerica, (through Hon. Rumsey Wing, United States minister.) Fithie, Jas. 8S. Insects, &c., from Mississippi. Flint, Dr. Earl. One box of ancient pottery from Nicaragua. Gabb, Prof. W. M. One box stone implements and pottery from Santo Domingo. 58 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. Gibbon, Lardner. Arrow-heads and Indian relics from South Carolina. Giles, Norwood. Birds’ eggs and nests from North Carolina. Gilpin, Dr. J. B. Specimens of Sea-Trout from Labrador and fishes from Nova Scotia. Goldsmith, Dr. through P. S. Phelps. One box fish from Ticonderoga, Lake Champlain. Goode, G. Brown. One box fishes from Bermuda. Greene, A. &. One package minerals and one can fish from Maine. Grifith, T. D. Cotton raised by Indians of Chickasaw Nation, Indian Territory. Hamilton, Hon. C. L. Specimen of white Coral from Key West, Fla. Hansen, F. Walter. One ancient implement of polished iron-ore from Texas. Harenbergh, J. k., U. S. Surveyr-Gevl. Specimens of ores from Calave- ras Co., Cal. Harford, G. One box of birds from San Miguel Island, California. Harris, Wyatt. Fossil univalve from Mt. Vernon, Mo. Hawkins, B. Waterhouse. Model of Irish Elk (restored) on deposit. Hayden, Dr. F. V. General collections of minerals, fossils, and speci- mens of Natural History from Wyoming, Utah, and Montana. - Hatch, Dr. Four specimens of Silver Trout, from Centre Pond, Dublin, iigelels Henderson, Jno. G. Indian stone implements from mound near Naples, Ill., (loaned.) Hicks, W. Rk. One package Indian relies from North Carolina. Hilgert, H. Specimens of silicified wood from New Mexico. Hobbs, Maj. T. J. Specimen of Potomac Black Bass. Hoffman, Dr. A. H. Indian relics from Angel Island, Cala., (through Surgeon-General’s office. ) Hoffman, Dr. W. J. Tortoise from Colorado Desert. Holmes, G. G. Skull and horns of African Antelope ‘ Koodoo.” Holst, Dr. Chr., University of Christiania, Norway. Collection of min- erals from Norway. Hoover, Jno. T. Nest of small Fly-Catcher from Dansville, N. Y. Hough, Rk. B. Nests and eggs of birds from Northern New York. Hovey, Geo. Specimen of Gordius in alcohol. Howell, R. Indian relics and fossils from Tioga Co., N. Y. Hurlburt, Geo. H. One box of birds from New Granada. Imp. Mus. Vienna. See Pelzeln, A. von. Jewett, Col. H. Stone disk from mound at Cedar Key, Fla. Jones, Dr. Jos. Casts of ancient stone implements from Louisiana. Jordan, H. C. Alcoholic collections from Brazil and Paraguay. Junghuuns, Dr. Two human skulls from Japan. Kalteyer, Geo. H. Fossil tooth (Ptychodus) from Texas. Keenan, T. J. k. Ethnological and other specimens from Mississippi and. Louisiana. ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 59 Kellogg, B. B. Indian stone implements from New Fairfield, Ct. Kercheval, A. Minerals and fossils from West Virginia. Kerr, Jno. W. Hight specimens of Lake White-fish from Lakes Erie and Ontario. Kiel, Peter. One box White-fish from Wolf Island, Ontario. Knudsen, Valdemar. Ethnological and zoological collections from the Sandwich Islands. Kron, F. J. Sndian antiquities from North Carolina. Lee, Col. J. G. C. Specimens of Indian pottery and other relics from Arizona. Lehane, Jas., Hospital Steward U. 8S. A. Specimen of Mountain Rat, (Neotoma,) and skin of Horned Owl from Camp Douglas, Utah. Leidy, Dr. Jos. One box ethnological specimens from Wyoming Terr. Ince, Capt. S. B. Specimens of ancient Roman mosaic pavement from Italy. Indjngton, C. Fresh fish, shells, &c., from lower Potomac. Macfie, R. One box White-fish from Alburgh Springs, Vt. Mackenzie, Jas. Specimens of corals and shells imbedded in asphalt, from Cuba. Mackin, Dr. C. One jar alcoholic collections from Beaufort, N. C. Marquardt, H. Specimens of Guaco, and Nopal, from Mexico. Maynard, C. J. One box birds, (lent for examination.) McCallum, D. Specimen of Glow-worm. Me Williams, Dr. Specimen of rose-breasted Grosbeak from Washing- ton, D. C. Meigs, Gen. M. C. One jar alcoholic collections from Arizona, shells, &e., from Lower California. Merritt, Jno. F. Arrow-heads from Northern New York. Metcalf, W. Birds, &c., from Michigan. Miller, J. De Witt. Indian stone implements from New York. Miller, S. A. Collections of fossils from Ohio. Milner, James W. Collections of fishes, reptiles, &c., dry and in alcohol. from the great lakes. Mobius, Dr. Karl, University of Kiel, Prussia. Fishes from the Baltic Sea. Moore, A. B. Birds’ nests and eggs from Florida. Moore, Carleton k. Indian stone relics from the Eastern Shore of Mary- land. Mori, Hon. Arinori. Set of Japanese gold and silver coins, and ethno- logical specimens from Japan. Morris, Jordan, through Z. b. Sturgis. Fragment of fossil Coral (avo- sites) from Salem, Ind. Mullet, A. GB. Two boxes of minerals. Munson, Chas. Specimens of gray copper-ore. Mus. Comp. Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. Casts of fossils; two boxes general collections. : 60 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. Nelson, W. J. Specimen of rock from Virginia. Nichols, Dr. C. H. Specimens of Jaguar and Monkey from S. America, (died in captivity at Government Hospital for the Insane.) Nugent, Ff. Ff. Birds’ nests and eggs from Utah. Oler, H. D. Indian flint implements from Illinois. Palmer, Jos. Casts of skulls and alcoholic specimens. Papineau, EL. A. Insects from Kansas. Peabody Mus. See Wyman, Dr. Jeffries. Pelzeln, Dr. A. von, Imperial Mus. Vienna. One large box skeletons. Poey, Prof. F. Two casks and one box Cuban fishes, labeled. Powell, Maj. J. W. General collections from Utah and Arizona. Powell, Capt. S. One box fishes from Rhode Island. Prentiss, Dr. D. W. Birds collected in the vicinity of Washiloton’ Propper, Geo. H. Fossils and ethnological specimens from Dakota Ter. Putnam, Geo. D. One box insects from Iowa. Read, Rev. D. One box fresh-water shells from Minnesota. . Reinsch, Dr. Paul. Herbarium of mosses (2 vols.) from Central Europe. Ricksecker, E. One box of eggs from Nazareth, Pa. Ting, Lt. F. M. General collections from Alaska. Robinson, Miss Agnes C. Nest of Vireo from vicinity of Washington. Roessler, A. Rk. Specimen of copper-glance from Archie Co., Tex. Rouckendorff, W. Cluster of barnacles. Royal College of Surgeons, London, Prof. W. H. Flower. Casts of brains and osteological specimens. Rutter, H. Fresh fish (Coregoni) from Fredericton, N. B Salt Lake Museum. One box minerals, fossils, &e. Sarg, Francis. Collections of insects and shells from Guatemala. Sars, G. O. Embryonic Cod fish from Norway. Sartorius, Florentin. Four specimens of the wax- producing insect (Lystra cerifera) from Mirador, Mex. Sayre, W. Marine invertebrata a South Carolina. Scammon, Capt.C. M. Specimens of bones of Cetaceans, &c., from N. W. Coast. Sceva, Geo. Five boxes of fossils from Pt. Conception, Cal. Schacht, Bros., Sandusky, O. One box fish-produets. Schoolcraft, Mrs. H. &. Indian flint knife. Schrock, J. Ethnological specimens from Ohio. Sherman, Isaac C. Stuffed specimen of Bill-fish, (Histiophorus gladius.) Sinclair, Thos. Specimen of young Sucking-fish from George’s Bank. Spencer, J. W. Fossils from Sullivan Co., Ind. Stanley, H. O., through H. T. Richgrdson. Six jars Blue Trout from Rangely Lake, Me. Stearns, k. H. 0. One box birds’ nests and general collections from California. Stimpson, Dr. W. ‘Two cases general collections from Florida. Stone, Livingston. Salmon-eggs from Sacramento River, Cal. ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 61 Street, W. Eggs of Hawks from Easthampton, Mass. Sumichrast, Dr. #. General collections from Tehuantepec, Mex. Surgeon-General U. S. Army. See Hoffman, Dr. A. H. Swan, J. G., through Geo. Gibbs. Indian implements from Washington Territory. ‘ Thomas, Ger. 7. . One box bones of mound-builders from Dak ta. Thompson, D. \ncian stone relics from Ohio. Thompson, J. H. One jar fishes from New Bedford, Mass. University of Chili, Santiago, Chili. See Domeyko. University of Christiania. See Holst, Dr. Chr. University of Kiel. See Mobius, Dr. K. Unknown. Fossils from Onondaga Co., N. Y. Box of living plants from Washington Ter. Fresh skin of African Gull. One Moth from Erie, Pa. One box specimens from Pa. One box alcoholic specimens and insects. One box fossil bones from North Carolina. One living serpent (Abastor erythrogrammus) from Georgia. Ores from Amador Co., Cal. Bones of Mastodon from Mississippi. Silver-ores from Montana. One earthen pipe. Voorhees, P. W. Specimen of bog-iron ore from New Jersey. Waldo, Rev. Milton. One box minerals and fossils from South Carolina. Walker, Dr. Rk. Z. Indian stone hammers and arrow-heads from Penn- sylvania. Wallace, Jno. Skeletons of Flamingo and Swan. Ward, Prof. H. A. Skeleton of Buffalo. Wasson, Jno., Surveyor-General Arizona. Specimens of silver-ores from various mines in Arizona. Watson, S. Sets of plants made up for distribution. Watters, Dr. W. Fragment of skin of a Plagiostome from Searsport, Me. Webber, Mrs. Specimens of shells in alcohol from Florida. Westcott, O. S. ‘Specimen of Bald Eagle from Illinois. Wheeler, Lt. G. M. General collections from Utah and Arizona. Wheeler, W. F., U.S. Marshal. Skin of Rocky Mountain Goat from Montana Territory. Whitman, G. P. Beak of a Cuttle-fish from Rockport, Me. Williams, H.C. Stone arrows and ax from [Fairfax Co., Va. Wilson, Dr. J. N. Copper quiver from near Newark, O. Wood, Dr. W. M. One box general collections. Woodworth, O. H. Specimens of Horned Toad and insects from New Mexico. Wright, Chas. D. Brick from the wall of Pekin, China, (on deposit.) Wyman, Dr. Jeffries, Peabody Mus., Cambridge, Mass. Three boxes of European prehistoric relics. Yarrow, Dr. H. C. General collections from Ft. Macon, N. C. Yates, Dr. L. G. Minerals and stone relics from California. Yonge, Wm. Penn. Specimen of Shad from Alabama River. Zaremba, Dr. C. W. Fruit and leaves of Chilian Boldo-tree, (Prunus Sragrans.) : 2 ad 6 EXCHANGES. TABLE SHOWING THE STATISTICS OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES IN 1872. A Ep . B43 a + © S ee wo ad Agent and country. = = ish ieee © 5 a oa oH or a o >) io) bd 5 EDS S) S Sai 2 A Zz Za | 8 = Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stock- holm : Swed ena saat 2/2 noice cet re mettre tere 27 73 Al | habe eae os are Royal University of Norway, Christiania: INGEN Bist. 3 sao a See nee tle. seis © 22 58 Boel ies ge sale colts Royal Danish Society of Sciences, Copenha- ty rs gen: Wenmarhkis. = 282 ioe eee cee ee emersian = 25 OY dhesie sail esata as ae Vcelandy.2/-)s cis. eceaie = SSIs Lis cedyses = 2 2 Delsccme al Sees Mota pao eae ee eee ee eos 27 59 35s nema eects Watkins & Co., St. Petersburg : im a ey INDE) eb sonncbodds Basooso Shs sbOboD cede 89 189 Oe React alle cmek el Frederic Miller, Amsterdam : Fe olan Gk..5. coc mais ecto ee eee ee a eeseusieee 56 125 48 eset Pie Bel iim waists as seats ees cae etae= 95 140 Zales Shee | meshaete c NOW cakeadocses Badseobscees sondc 151 265 Bt ks 8 sacneee Dr. Felix Fliigel, Leipsic: - oT Genmianiyen sass eens Semone ee See 435 626 A()aliiies 2.3) openers Swabzerland jo. cle eece eee eels eee. 56 148 AW eejec| ee GLEECO Ba etic ears Va eae ee rere aie 3 3 ts. 2 86 ale ee OLAIS Joenneccrecece cae antts.lae bes 494 777 AD Gl serra Meee Gustave Bossange, Paris: | re ESTANICO ese cise ee cecteis Dclsieteee-necelehe eee 187 349 Beas alleen sete R. Istituto Lomb. di Scienze e Lettere, Milan: i Gay a= erad selec cere seers Wee seo re 131 232 el es ieee bs Semonioese Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon: ays Portugal. soso -esee cee need sect aee 19 19 Dee ect lh ee Royal Academy of Sciences of Madrid : aan i SAMMI, fo) Suess see area ee Ae eh) es 8 8 ToS e. eaeoeaee William Wesley, London : Great Britain and Ireland Asia i University of Melbourne : Australia Parliamentary Library, Wellington : New Zealand i ee es wet eee ee wee te meee ee ee 299 432 27 20 22 43 4 4 3 323 458 73 19 20 1 5 5 1 42 AQIS ga eel ee 1,544 | 2,561] 179| 954 | 26,850 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS OF SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Instruments used: B, barometer ; T, thermometer; P, psychrometer; R, rain-gauge. Name. ALABAMA. ‘Alison; Heel. .MiwDY 2... sscecs Anthony, DislicEaci=esoseceste Hudson, De lek PlapocemooscaEees Hurley Rees eee M Tutwiler, Henry Wilson, W.W ARKANSAS. Bishop, Harmon Borden, J. E McClung, Charles L.........-.. Russell, 0. F Wellborn, William T CALIFORNIA, AND DOLU POT mia Koreas seeies geen Ames, M. FE. Pulsifer........... Asher, J. M iBAMeEswOTr GeaowWes- dese cece Cheney, Dr. W. Fitch Compton, Dr HAs, Dass feacs csock @hornton yD ress ease See United States Naval Hospital. . COLORADO. Byers yi wWalliamp Nines -eeesete ae Croft) Clayton) Wess sense eee ae Lakes, Arthur Nettleton, E.S. and Copley E. -- CONNECTICUT. Alcott, Rev. William P......... ‘Andrews, Luman DAKOTA, ATM DTOSE WEEN yaere eae oe ae Baylis, A. fad Black, D.S..- Greene iis Css sso DELAWARE. Botrh(syii LN else ial s Urbs sol ere el ih GilmansR: A= ee FLORIDA. Baldwin, Dr. A. S Barker widward ssoc.sececcsenn aie Seese Town. County. 2 mite Be & A nD Seale Carlowvaille'-2=--2222-4---% Wallasey sy sses see TR 1256 Huntsville i TR 1871 Selmaeae. ase-sheeaeeece BTPR | 1872 POV ges eeisese scriceeeessi-ne TR 1872 Monitor BIR | 1866 Havana TR 1853 Bluff Springs R 1872 Mineral Springs .--....--- Elempsteadseeesecs acres TR 1870 WWashinotom) ssmscetssso se | meee COM EaE Sess: ease TR 1872 Clarksyilleses. ates sso en JOMNsone eee e esse eee ee TPR |} 1871 (Helenaice sas sc aes ene. ase IBNIMipS!bessen noses soecee TR 1872 Pocahontas ---2:.-.--- Socal PUG NNR co adoesosoconce TR 1871 Mineral Springs ...-...--.- INEM ocriscbsenan dooeoe TR 1872 Hayettiewille:- 2. hs. s= 2 Washington. oss... scces== TR 1870 TaN Nenonsoeaaeaassoos IPH pS ees ease eee TR 1865 Honest Ciliypecaneeaecmeeee Sant TAN C1S) soe =nisle see TR 1872 Moun, Ud alee sects aisle. Montgomery. -2-----2---- TR | 1872 Salinas|City-s-cise- 5-0 eer Monterey en eiach- si acts He 1872 indianyVialleyesssceenscect PlUM ag ees eee ee HIQEG 1870 National City...-..--..... Sane Dievo: sa.ces5-s sete Au 1872 SaneDieco, S24 sass. alee see COE = sence sees BIPR | 1871 IMOnTOn Gye seeinceeeiise sae IMOMTCL OY seems ater = BTPR | 1864 Chicols. ss ensmacnonosee: Butte sate fet on iteceieeeeee TR 1869 Watsonville 5.2255 2-222..2 Santa Orazeeosce sce tsseee: TR 1869 IMendOCInOssso- eso. eee IMGndOCINOs sess cete eee TR 1869 Marenlislan dy ivt econ sci|scriastecaacs sete ce eee ateees BTR | 1868 IORI CIN c boonceouanotnosAK- Arapahoe). ()2i-)5 Soe sheen TR 1869 Moumtainee sen hesesessene MVP AS0)s . =. eee IR eDIyee eiee aaa) eee BrR 1872 BEUelic, 18h Uioaseoeeeesbe seoeoS North Liberty -..---.----- Saint UOS2) lose, Geasoscoce TR 1872 iHelmes,: Dis Rev. Lhomas: =< 5 | Meromlrc ce -)-i<-1-.-,-- ee Sulllivarieessseeisss sae TR 1866 LEO nds leds Nie Se Se Bee aeee ses ae MIVOMIgy esece em --cceee iWashinotontsesss-]-peeeee TR 1371 ip win PAUbent) Ceesece msc cccse Sweeisensenssessse-c seer Granbeeteees geo tee eee Vike 1868 Isa yerdis(ek Jeb ss aon osnponoseese Hort WiayMe ss. os.ceee ee NS SA ae ee Re orice TR 1870 State University.-...--..--..--- Bloomingtonias- =----- 2-5 MonTOG cere saence a eeeee eee BTPR | 1868 Sutton, Georpe=-—---.---..-.2..- AATINOV A PE) = ils wl=yselasessianstontere Meambomniss asses eee BIPR | 1859 Walliams sry a Cameo cian ainiac Steam Comets. =... s5 Mount Buia a= == ois e TR 1869 IOWA. [ TASbT ey SMI Vite meen es ee eei VAThOnieetnt a'satoea5 Moraes saasse ea aoes soe Talbot, Benjaminkys 222 2-s552-- Couneil Blufisyss...- 22-222 Downsends Nathan, s=-....=-%: Towarallsiaasoa5 sso Wiad ey, eles sed saeesanesS See Roekford 52.2. sassoseske8 Walton sauces sae oe ence Muscatine \o.=.556) ness Warne; Dr) George: sss seas see | Independence ......+-.-2-. Warren James H ...........--- Algona Ja2scsc-ccseesces Wwihes tonyWirs) DB 28s 5-.-6 Independence..-.-...-....-. Witter) Diet sss se cesses cor CouncilsBlutis: =-- 5525222 KANSAS. BOG WA GHW) oe eetrecr ne nocet= Olathewe secant easton Cotton, Win. H. and John M...| Ruralis. ....--sc0esec002--- Eagle, SRE ed eae et Gye Buffalo Creek... ....-=----: Fozle, 10) 1G Se kere ee eee Williamsburgh ........-- Henry, AG UO ae ae Imdspendence.,s..--->- 225: Horn, Dr. H. B. and Miss ...... JAtCHISON © e-8ccrce erro Hoskinson, HRA Give Meee reece ner Burlineamese--enease eee IS tigiate NAN 04 Se ee See meee Mintehinsone esac ee eee Hy land, William. ...........-.. Baxter Springs) ..----=-2-- Wamb, Mist We Mi oo0..csene WDOUCIASS=: =p sscereteeee Neiswender, William N.....--.. ROP kan jes: sae eeeteseoe Raynolds, J.W.andCarr, Austin) Belleville ................. michardsont AiG s.cssecicc-me Plum Groveresee ee scens a Shoemaker! Si. Ge. -222-cct cosa: |PLCSR OVA rete eercer er State Agricultural College ..--. | Manhattan: <222..2:...-22: Sette Universtiy 222.25 secccs0. WANVECNC OM << onesie /eejsaees Sita aiee yi] Ded igeecasacesocs tee Meavenworth) 2222. c.csssce ANU DG ad CR ID ee ee ee ee eee PRY bb Leis Se ea eee Walters: Dri James. -22-- 2.5. HOMO ME hae eeeaeccaseeee Woodworth, Dr. Abner .....-.. GounciliGrove.:...:.22---=- KENTUCKY. Beattve Odds tense s- > eae | Opn Ae Coeeee seen ccceee [LOL E MHC WW seaoae sanesieeaes BlaMUVAlle joss ke asses Letton, GVA ORME csc nasccaence Harrodspure hl eee cesses Mar tin, IDEs SEA IO Se ose Chilesburmhissreeeereeece Orden) James Mie +2- 2255-52505 Wranch ester -ciejectececmer SlinphyGie ele waa se eee ee PACA OTRO ME yoann opie Young, Mrs, Lawrence -.-...... Springdale)... ..552422.096 LOUISIANA. OkSleind RE Wee Leelee seins Tp REE so sere. roreaeto Comins HACE Seas aaetaccore IpBonchatoul ayaa .ccaserecteoe Hester; Mobert: Wins--..--s2--- 1 News@rleans. oonemeecees te POM | GeOree Ni sae aces ooecocwe ING WHEDOII Si = 5-1 tarsoreeeres Mconey Orr dis) Micearee esses SHR eMeNOrts. WAN CRSLOLeee seen = eee ese BIR | 1865 Stocker, Jas. D. and Jerome T.-; Salem. ...--.--2----:-1--:- Wiaryney aaseese5s 8 ce. eee TR 1869 Stumpy Gees I a jesse os Greensbureh -<--..-) .-55-- Westmoreland .......----- TR 187 Maylar\ Sohn sy. 2s cs s2nee ones Connellsville....-.......-. HMayeuteosss se seseeae seca: TR 1849 TavyloreRevaRVlxsensesaseccce IBGaVODs. 2+: seater ea enaee Beavers: ess 2284 5st Sere a 1867 70 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. Name. Town. PENNSYLVANIA—Continued. Tolman, Rev. M. A United States Naval Hospital... Wilken SiC seen eee cere eer Weaver, W.D RHODE ISLAND. Barber, W. A SOUTH CAROLINA. ‘BusbyeDebenjamine=-— esse Cornish, Rev. John H Gibbon, Lardner Pearsall, E. D Petty, Charles TENNESSEE. Amsden, E. W iBamcrotiwKevs Cel. PB ae--2 cre Bluhm, P. C CalhountRYBesaec eee ee eene ae Doak, W.S. and 8.8 Franklin. Dr. Grigsby, Lewis, Miss Blanche Lewis, Charles H Payne, Professor J. K Stewart, Professor William. ... Wiaterbuny, Rev. .C.5--5---22. Wil Oh bw Pee ea cecice cs csiicce TEXAS. oe Maiies SAME os Glasco, J. M Martin, Allen Melchert, William Pettersen, Fred tunge, C SOoiin, ABW eee Spee goaqsomaoas Simpson, Fr WanlyNostrand!| Je see-oseeeee = Wade, F.S White, Dr. A. C Woodruti, L UTAH. Bullock, Thomas Harrison, E. L. T Lewis, James VERMONT. Barto, D. C. and M. E @assinowhdsoMmisseeeteee essere Cutting, Dr. Kennedy, Jame sC Normal School Paine, Charles S Phelps, Samuel B....---.----- Wild, Rev. E. ie SUES sa aeeabe ac VIRGINIA. Bowman, George A Brown, Rev. James A........- Chamberlin, Mrs. 8. E........- Clarke, Dr. and Miss Belle -.-.-. Niel heetenpeorete WallltamDSsecec ose es TERMINED TS ghee) ecicisice Kennedy, Dr. Thomas J.--.-..-- | New Ulm : Highland . rank Vinee esses cece Philadelpkea Fountain Dale Greensburgh.--..--....-.. Newport Pomaria Aiken Hacienda Saluda...--..... Grahamsville Gowdysville J ackson Lookout Mountain Je) Sere Smithville Goes ee a Rotherwood Clearmont Clanksvilloie nero eer Houston Gulmensas tere seeeer snare Clarkville Oakland Clintons es eee Panton South Troy . Castleton Mastybethelssssasceneeseee Norwich North Craftsbury. .-.....-- West Charlotte........... Woodstock Wytheville Waterford Mount Solon County. Venango Philadelphia = Srejaisisiasioeiaraee Adams is:t ter a ee ee | Newport Newberry Barnwell Greenville Beaufort Union Madison Hamilton DeKalb ‘Wilson Greene Fayette Gibson McINaaty 2) sccm cee e eee Sumner WiattOn 5-2 anincooceseaces Carter Knox 1-Montoomery,.-.-.-.------- IFlgiwisins secenaceociaseecwa Warren Upshur Red River Kendalyisss 42s e=5 eee Davis. ssssssssoscisceesee IBurlesone see eee eee De Witt Caldwell Gricunsy eee es Rutland Windsor Orleans Chittenden Windsor Instruments. TR Brn PTR BIPh TR When com- menced. | 13867 1857 1868 1872 1870 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. ak sl a g | 53 Name. Town. County. 3) a | =} oe | D aa See mas fee = = } Virer1i—Continued. Covell WRC ne. s eect sec tees Staunton eecoeecieece sees Aosta cemseceecneee ners BTPR | 1868 Gillingham, Chalkley .....-..-. Wroodlanymny sccm aes co oy Maintax..- eee eee neces BIR | 1870 isle ChynRIN IDS) eS) Sasenogsases Cedar ee eenccecee sce Ailbemarlelsss: sossouoeceee TR 1871 Martin, William A. ...-...-.. -- Mechanicsville............ TENG PUG) See eoodeeesodans UR 1269 Merriwether, Charles I ...--... eynehburg haces seen Bedtondesseeeeeer es eee TR 1868 WIG WTOS Od ie es eeesoes Seeareee Johnson Town .......----- Northamptonia..--=ose2eer BTR | 1868 IPG) IW anastonopsecescaocoses Markham Station..-....-. AUC UL GIs see se cinisiceee TR 1271 Shriver loward .2222-..2 5-222! Waybheville ssa. = eeiee AWavitGh@ sige steciesis occ cine BTPR | 1872 Shuman, JaAMestME weak sass ee Hampton ceneeesnnee see: Mlizabetheaeccacsaceecccacs TR 1869 Tayloe, Wawandyls otek tn se Chase COMOLNNe eer eeeer ee ae Keinoy Georg ereaeee ee eee ee TR 1849 Townsend, Emma C ......-..-- Capaville cn. 25 se stecinct- 2 Northampton’.-.22222..2.. TR 1871 United States EOS pitalijeeceese INonEioles cet emcicecnecccians INORLOMKE ae sae eee cece BTR | 1868 sWimncenitin GalCer eon nesses soa e LCHMON Opes sn se ece pie sec L@nnicO:t2nsieceesceececes TR 1872 Williams, Bien: ito) See eeemerer Néan Picdmont).---2552--- OHO TNP es SS opoceasucsone TR 1869 Williams, 15 fel Oe eee cerca aeons INGALSV LOND Asan cece eer HAP arene eee eters mate eee TR 1869 WASHINGTON. Mc@alliCharlestassssnesccee ce. Gathlametviesecese ane ce eee Wiatikiaicuminee ee eeeeece TR 1870 Sampson, Alexander M ........ IRonbepAmPOlOs) se seeee ee ee Clallameess- sass nose AUR 1869 Whitcomb, Thomas M......--. WimionPRid oe see eceeesceeee Clark 22 cctcectestsecceere TR 1871 WEST VIRGINIA. Rofte, Charles emcee acess - =e PAtshlan dip eemmen css circ oot Cabellpeeseceer one eee ee AUR 1865 Stevens, Professor 8. G.-.-...--. IMorgantoyymes ess -2 Monongalia): =. -5---.--- = BTR | 1872 WISCONSIN. HeloitiCalle ge. aan. eei-meteysce ce IBN oosencqaeodsesq0eEe Raclk:722 see wescatensenis- ces BTR | 1871 Benton, wlliott El... --.------- WO yROYien2 sce sees oee sees MOM Pea. jeeeaee onan TR 1872 Breed, ARE Terott, <..0-s2s-ceee MDATTASS eee esos ee eeee Wiallpacatt ij s-ceceseeenone TR 1864 Curis WewWes asc. cece cases Rocky Runes eee Colombiajsss-ees-eeeeee TR 1859 IDI Byyslees diel shal Sanne Pesees sao in oN asso serie eee Sheboygan. s- 22-1 --5- TR 1868 Dunegan, ‘John | ph A Rea | ING Wwe bis bOneoeeeeeoeeeeer RUIN CBU Cree eee ‘a 1867 MaphamaierACey Mls ete! a sae Milyyauke@e)-o--- -se2s45 sr - Milwankeesccnccen-s2-20 BTPR | 1849 Lups, Jacob and Miss Clarina..| Manitowoc ........-.-.--. WV TOWOS. «2256 soa scnonce BIR | 1857 Maruire Helix’ 25. ca-cecincccl= Mosinee Oy-eaeei as-is 5 se IMarathon=.s-scc- cscs seee= TR 1870 Mead WHO sc2 0 eh ashe: WANG EYCH « Sceonscessecases Wik PAC a) eeivjesiocins seeeiete ay 1863 Binney.w Mrs On Cpssesesivaes = 5: Sturgeon Bay TR 1870 SHINTS Een Inv. Jeet eeeneeeeese ING orton sesosceeasceeeace TR 1867 State WiniVersit yee secs ee eer Madison: ee eras seers BIPR | 1869 ptaite AMONG Wreeemie seen see Baviel Us secs acess see TR 1867 IWidlite nM Ore. wan nesece cece ace IBarapoolns cree aecese cee a. TR 1864 AN Asthn hoya ied Pees a peeeeee ae (CYNE) cons seassaqeborscs TR 1863 WYOMING. Tewis George Hi. -- 2-2-5. 5.=- At anti Giisee acer Sweet Water ..-. .-..-... Tt 1872 (> METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. : z me y : : : iH 5 : ey hen ale Se ake eae Bae Aa oa |e | pre oe roe ee et | ae ey OFISR(HSI|HS lH 2 S2i\Skl|wS (H+ O]n2 eae 3 Sor !|OCO|}S8 5 Pl os los | oe State. me | & RE| HE] se SY State. Bel HO;AoS laa] & ze 8 ee Sire Si hrenet eto See Nee ee ec i= =I SEs |/eaia I Bare lag |eaq a 5 = 5 22 | 8 2 5 e BO) 5 Pa re Nee Ne WP Zain ase PAN apa ase aceecesee 7 2 6 1 al |e onitan alesse sesee 3 1 3 0 3 INEM ERT ys tse pooaocse 10 0 | 10 1 10))|| eNiebraskarecs-ece esse: 7 0 7 0 7 @aliformint==.—seeeeeeee 9 3 9 2 7 || New Hampshire .....- 8 1 7 0 U Coloradoeesee coon eee 4 0 45a 0 4-\| New; diersey:--- == --1-\--- 14 6| 14 3 14 Gonnecticut.-225-.--.- 6 3 (Heh ret 67) NGwaxviorkeus sae sose a: 44 17 41 8 38 Wakotalj cence eee eee 3 2 2 0 0 | North Carolina.-.---.. 21 Bi] Gal 0 18 Melawanrela--eesesacee. 2 2) 2 0 QT |MOOIORS bateseeers ser acietae SOn| ela eeco 8 35 Wloridap sss Le eee 12 iy) 3a ly SLO One gone semeer serene 4 2 3 0 3 Georgiay.-)--ee- 2 es lL Oy) Al) 0s) 0s eRennsylvania seen = =-— 44) 13} 44 6 41 Tinoisae eee eee Qa al ot on leeconelvnodenlslanduss==e = =e 1 0 il 0 1 Indianageesses reese. 17 8} 17 5 | 17 | South Carolina.-....--. 5 1 5 0 5 TOW assem eset 28 6 | 28 Sly shill AUeiobeeCey aaodeaecdane 15 hii) tls} 2 15 Man Sasizeeeeeeeeee eee 20 20) Do} 200 }eMexas oo. cece see ac ms 15 ty 14 2 14 iKKentielavemern-jocscieo = 7 4 7 2 GW Witwer sosceretseee ale tS 0 2 0 3 HOWISIaN de ease eee ae 7 5 Gu 3} (|| MAS eNO Ke So sececoas LON 31 On 2 10 EVicn Owens cece crsciacr 7 a ERS ea Lee Mh, Wb Rete ssoecseSaar 19 6 | 19 2 19 Wipianeivil asses seconde 13 (|) 118} 2 | 13 || Washington Ter....-- 3 0 3s) 3 Massachusetts ....--...- 19) 10:| 19) 4) 18 || West Virginia ------.. 2 1 2 0 g Michigany ses c-enesscse. 13 OMe LS I) eo MAVWELS CONS U0 eerste ere ee 16 24] AGS 14 IMINMNESOUM ye-i--o <5) 1 i Sh) als ak if alk | Way O00 Oem eietae eter 1 0 1 0 0 MISSissippl 222-225 2522- 7 2 ta a 7 || — = a MaASSOULIS= = eee Eee Lo: 6 14 3 14 || Total esscs%2s==% 536 | 148 | 524 | 79 504 , ! | Besides the observers making monthly reports upon Smithsonian blank forms, the institution receives regular returns from— The Chief Signal Officer, United States Army, daily records, including weather maps. From the Central Park observatory, New York, weekly. From Chas. G. Ewing, San Francisco, newspaper slips from the Alta California, containing meteorological observations, monthly. Some of the observers furnish, in addition to their reports, more detailed descriptions of various meteorological phenomena. Miller, Dr. R., Theological Seminary, Carthagena, Ohio, monthly. Williams, Rev. hk. G., Castleton, Vermont, hourly meteorological ob- servations, observations on magnetic variations, &e. Wing, Miss M. E., West Charlotte, Vermont, manuscript notes on the winds and the weather in general, record of periodical phenomena, &e. Printed summaries or abstracts from newspapers or agricultural pub- lications are mentioned in the list of additional meteorological mate- rial. BRITISH AMERICA. Nova SCOTIA: Acadia College, Wolfville, King’s Province, BTR; D. I’. Higgins, the present observer. The college has sent observations since 1854. NEW BRUNSWICK: : Murdock, Gilbert, St. John, BTPH ; since 1890. CANADA : Stewart, James, Province Manitoba, Selkirk County, BTPR; since 1869. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. ~~! c NEWFOUNDLAND : Delaney, John, Saint John’s, BTR, 1871. Clift, Henry A., Harbor Grace, remarks on aurora, &e., in MS., 1872. Munn, Archibald, Harbor Grace, TR; 1872. QUEBEC: Gilmour, Arthur H. I., Stanbridge, Missisquoi County, TR; since 1868. ONTARIO : Wylie, Wm., Mount Forest, Wellington, and Grey Counties, BTPR. Reports of Mount Forest Grammar School, weekly, 1872. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. The Executive Committee of the Board of Regents respectfully sub- mit the following report in relation to the funds of the Institution, the receipts and expenditures for the year 1872, and the estimates for the year 1873: STATEMENT OF THE FUND AT THE BEGINNING OF THE YEAR 1873. Amount originally received as the bequest of James Smith- son, of England, deposited in the Treasury of the United States, in accordance with the act of Congress of August TOP TSAG set ei es SSeS se GEER oie src keene eee $515, 169 00 Residuary legacy of Smithson, received in 1865, depos- ited in the Treasury of the United States, in accordance with the act of Congress of February 8, 1867.......... 26, 210 63 Motalsbequest of Smithsonk= sass ease ee ee 541, 379 63 Amount deposited in the Treasury of the United States as authorized by act of Congress of Kebruary 8, 1867, derived from savings of income and increase in value of MINVESTIMOMES so. 15) 5 raksifec ve loka oe apis fovey oud cic, akc ieucheve tenet et ee ae 108, 620 37 Total permanent Smithson fund in the Treasury of the United States, bearing interest at 6 per cent., payable Semi-annually amy sold 2 Foyer eerste ereerraen eee 650, 000 00 In addition to the above there remains of the extra fund from savings, &c¢., in Virginia bonds, at par iba $88,125.20) mowayalueds abot a: te mee eens cee re 37, 000 00 Cash balance in First National Bank, Ist January, 1873. Ba lacodti ta \6) Total Smithson funds Ist January, 1873...-......- 704, 811 356 The Virginia stock has risen in value during the past year, and as the prospect is that the legislature of the State will make provision for the regular payment of the interest, the probability is that this stock will continue to rise. During the past year, the Institution has received from its agents, Messrs. Riggs & Co., on account of back interest on Virginia bonds, after deducting expenses, $3,004.90, in regard to which a detailed account is given in a communication of the Secretary to the Board at its meet- ing of January 16th. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 75 © The balance at the beginning of the year, $17,811.36, as given in the foregoing statement as a part of the Smithson fund, has not been invested because it is required to pay bills as they become due, previous to receiv- jing the semi-annual income at the end of June, 1873, or, in other words, to support the Institution during the accumulation of the first half year’s semi-annual interest. STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS FROM THE SMITHSON FUND FOR 1872. Interest on $650,000, at 6 per cent. in gold.............. $39, 000 00 Premium on gold June and December, (133 and 113)..... 4,911 55 Interest on Virginia stock, less commissions.....-...-..-- 3,004 90 Motal Mecenpise 7-6 = thas Sees enh 46,916 45 Total expenditures from the Smithson income during 1872, as Shown by the detailed statement given below.....-.. 45, 420 11 Balance unexpendetians. 9254-2 sa). Se Sosa a5. 1,496 54 The above balance is added to the uninvested savings from previous years, viz, $16,315.02, making the $17,811.36 found in the preceding general statement of the condition of the funds. EXPENDITURES FROM THE SMI''HSON FUND FOR 1872. Building. Reconstruction and repairs..........--..-- $6, 672 35 Burniture and A xtures sa 405). AS eee 15625, 87 22 9OR 99 aa $8, 298 22 General expenses. Meetings of tthesboard) 5A. .2212.3-26 29-4 i: $155 50 Lighting the building, exclusive of Museum. 217 67 Heating the building, exclusive of Museum. 754 00 Postage, exclusive of Museum:.........--- 320 73 Stationery, exclusive of Museum.......... 541 62 Incidentals, exclusive of Museum........-.. 525 62 Salaries, clerk-hire, and labor............. 11,153 83 — 13, 668 97 Publications and researches. Smithsonian Contributions, quarto. ......-. $6, 394 17 Miscellaneous Collections, octavo........-- 1, 661 99 ANAL LEPOLUS, ,OCtAVOns <6. 21: See AG e 527 50 nVeGeOrolO given ae ese ats oe Garey es fc: 2,550 00 Aparabus ci eee Aes SE 12 0" 645 OO aboratoryeteee ae neers cE 169 87 | DSP erie ae CP oie d a a Oe 8 Ue RR 600 00 eee 12, 548 53 16 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Exchanges. Literary and scientific exchanges through agencies in London, Paris, Leipsic, Amsterdam, Stockholm, &c. -. $5,870 32 Museum. Salaries, preservation of collections, &c., paid from the Smithsonian income in addition to the sums drawn from the appropriations by Congress...-.- 22255852. secee. 5, 054 07 Total expenditure from the Smithson fund in 1872, als; IRMEWM NOONE) Saaae acco sss) « hh iene BS alee 45,420 11 During the past year the Institution has advanced money for the payment of freight on specimens, the purchase of apparatus for Govern- ment expeditions, &e., the repayments of which, together with the amount received for sales of publications and old material, have been deducted from the several items of the foregoing expenditures, as follows: From museum, for repayments for freight.......-.. ..-... _ 8610 03 From exchanges, for repayments for freight...... -...--... 462 81 From apparatus, for instruments for expeditions... .....-. 1,506 23 From lectures, for advance for scientific course............ - 382 20 From Smithsonian Contributions and Miscellaneous Collec- tions; for copies sold: 2 2.))) 555. oases ee here eee 307 36 From building and incidentals, for sale of old material... ... 44 68 Total repayments and miscellaneous credits in 1872... 3,118 32 The estimates for the year 1873 are as follows: ESTIMATES. Receipts. From interest on the permanent fund, in gold, to be re- CRIVEM UME OMS TBs a ehh sae, See eee pe ee een $19,500 00 Roibewecerved=Mecembeniols WS 132s eneee see see eee 19, 500 00 Probable premium on goldiatl0 per cents22..5..2.:255-- 3, 900 00 rom interest on, Virgintay.stocle Noe eens) sects 1, 700 00 Motal receipts ees eee ae sas Sa ees ba cs oars ones 44, 600 00 Appropriations. Borsbuil dima 2...)0\ 95. ees a5 0 a eee ee ee $3, 000 00 Horieneraltexpenses): 3s 2e eae s 125 eee eee ss Nee 15, 000 60 For publications and researcheSi.22 25.2 e2-2-- 2555.65: 20, 000 00 Morexchangese 222.56. S Hees Jace See Ee eee ee 7, 000 00 For contingencies’... ......:2.-: SERRE OLAS Am Sei eae A 1, 600 00 44, 600 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTE®S. (i NATIONAL MUSEUM. Until the year 1870, the support of the National Museum had princi- pally devolved on the Smithsonian Institution, only $4,000 having been annually appropriated by Congress for this purpose. Since that date, however, Congress has indicated the intention of providing for the full support of the Museum, as is evident from the following extracts from the annual appropriation acts: Smithsonian Institution: For preservation of the collec- tions of the surveying and exploring expeditions of the Government, ten thousand dollars......-...-....-..-. $10, 000 00 41st Cong., Sess. II, Chap. 292, Stat. at Large 1869- "71, p. 295. Act (July 15, 1870) making appropria- tions for sundry civil expenses, &ce., for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1871. Smithsonian Institution: For preservation of the collec- tions of the surveying and exploring expeditions of the Government, ten thousand dollars......-........-.-+- 10, 000 00 41st Cong., Sess. IIT, Ch. 114, Stat. at Large 1869-71, p. 500. Act (March 3, 1871) making appropriations for sundry civil expenses of the Government, We., for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1872. Smithsonian Institution: For preservation of the collec- tions of the surveying and exploring expeditions of the Government, fifteen thousand dollars..........-..--.. 15, 000 00 49d Cong., Sess. I, Ch. 415 Stat. at Large 1871-72, p.361. Act (June 10, 1872) making appropriations for sundry civil expenses, &e., for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1873. It should be noted in regard to the above appropriations that the fiscal year of Government is not the same as that of the Institution, the former ending on the 50th of June, and the latter on the 31st of Decem- ber. From this fact it follows that although the last appropriation of Congress is $15,000 for the care of the Museum, yet the amount available from this appropriation, in 1872, was only $7,500, or the first half of the appropriation for the fiscal year ending 50th June, 18738. Besides this, however, there was drawn the whole appropriation for the fiscal year ending 30th of June, 1872, viz, $10,600, the first half of which should have been drawn the previous year, and thus have dimin- ished the expenditure from the Smithson income for the Museum in 1871. 78 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. The following is theretore a statement of the receipts and expenditures for the care of the National Museum in 1872: Appropriation by Congress for the first half of the fiscal year ending 30th June, 1872, viz, July to December, 1871. $5, 000 00 Appropriation by Congress for the first half of the fiscal year ending 30th June, 1872, viz, January to June, 1872......- 5,000 00 Total for fiscal year ending 30th June, 1872.......... 10, 000 00 Appropriation by Congress for tbe first half of the fiscal year ending 30th June, 1873, viz, July to December, 1872... .- 7,500 00 Total from congressional appropriation. ...... ...... 17,500 00 Also from Smithson income for 1872, as shown in the preced- INS StATEMEMbs «, .5)cje(ha 12s = Fe ace hs eye Epes ee late a ele 5, 0384 O07 Making a total for the care of the Museum.......... 22, 534 O07 This large expenditure was necessary for the preservation of a num- ber of perishable specimens, the mounting of the large casts of fossils presented by Professor Henry A. Ward, of Rochester, N. Y., the prepa- ration of numerous skeletons, the transfer of the Mineralogical and Geo- logical Museum of the Government from the General Land-Office to the Smithsonian building, and the preliminary examination of the speci- mens of which it consisted. The cost of the reconstruction of the building after the fire of 1865, exclusive of furniture, was $136,000, the whole of which was paid from the funds of the Institution for restoring the main building, and not for fitting up the rooms wanted for the further extension of the Museum. For the latter purpose Congress has made provisions in the following acts: Smithsonian Institution: Toward the completion of the hall required for the Government collections, ten thou- hs. Senet $10, 000 00 41st Cong., Sess. IT, Ch. 292, Stat. at Large 1869~71, p. 295. Act (July 15, 1870) making appropriations for sundry civil expenses, &c., for the fiscal year end- ing June 30, i871. Smithsonian Institution: For the completion of the hall required for the Government collections, ten thousand CONAN S ter 2-.9 rs.2'4 ieee ees 228) oo SRR het nae cet. 10,000 00 41st Cong., Sess. III, Chap. 114, Stat. at Large 1869-71, p. 501. Act (May 3, 1871) making appro- priations tor sundry civil expenses of the Government for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1872. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. (03, Smithsonian Institution: To commence the proper fitting up, in a fire proof manner, of the vacant apartments in the Smithsonian Institution building, for the proper dis- tribution and exhibition of the Government collections of natural history, geology, and mineralogy, five thou- SEAM! C0 O'S ASV PS a Seer Cea ge en a $5, 000 00 2d Cong., Sess. II, Ch. 172, Stat. at Large 1871~2, p. 131. Act (May 18, 1872) making appropriations to supply deficiencies in the appropriations for the service of the Government for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1872, and for former years. Smithsonian Institution: For the completion of the hall required for the Government collections, ten thousand CONAN HEE ey teriiate ca aes sie) orale. yatta sicva areas ai dicishate, lad ofe' 10, 000 00 42d Cong., Sess. II, Chap. 415, Stat. at Large, p. 361. Act (June 10, 1872) making appropriations for sundry civil expenses of the Government for the fiscal year lor AD) ending June 30, 1873. Of these appropriations, $20,000 were expended in 1871 on account of ceiling, flooring, plastering, and finishing halls for the extension of the Museum; and in 1872, $2,962.50 for cases for the geological hall, leaving available for the first half of 1873, for finishing these cases, and for commencing those for the large hall in the second story of the main building, $12,037.50. The foregoing expenditures for fitting up rooms for the Museum, $2,962.50, as well as those for the care and preservation of the collec- tions, $17,500, have been accounted for to the Secretary of the Interior, as in previous years. The Executive Committee have examined thirteen hundred and ninety- five receipted vouchers for payments made during the four quarters of the year 1872, both trom the Smithson fund and the appropriations from Congress. In every voucher the approval of the Secretary of the Institution is given, and the certificate of an authorized agent of the Institution is appended, setting forth that the materials and property and services rendered were for the Institution, and to be applied to the purposes stated. The quarterly accounts-current, bank-book, check-book, and ledger have also been examined and found correct, showing a balance in the First National Bank, 1st of January, 1873, of $17,811.36. Respectfully submitted. PETER PARKER, JOHN MACLEAN, W. T. SHERMAN, Bxecutive Committee. JANUARY 20, 1873. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. THURSDAY, January 16, 1873. A meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution was held this day, at 6 o’clock p.m. Present: The Chancellor Chief Justice Chase, Hon. 8. Colfax, Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon. L. Trumbull, Hon. J. W. Stevenson, Hon. J. A. Garfield, Hon. L. P. Poland, General Sherman, Professor Agassiz, Hon. Peter Parker, Rev. Dr. John Maclean, and Pro- fessor Henry, the Secretary. The Chancellor being unable to be present at the beginning of the meeting, Hon. Mr. Hamlin was called to the chair. The Chancellor arriving at 7 o'clock, assumed his official position as presiding officer of the Board. The Secretary informed the Board that since its last meeting the death of Hon. Garrett Davis of the United States Senate had occurred, and that the vacancy thus created in the Board of Regents had been filled by the appointment of Hon. J. W. Stevenson, a Senator from the State of Kentucky; whereupon, on motion of General Garfield, the following resolutions were adopted: Resolved, That the Board of Regents have heard the announcement of the death of their highly esteemed colleague, Hon. Garrett Davis, of Kentucky, with deep and sincere regret. Resolved, That in the death of Mr. Davis the Smithsonian Institution has lost a warm friend, an efficient supporter, and judicious adviser ; and the country a patriotic, virtuous, and influential citizen. Resolved, That these resolutions be entered upon the journal, and a copy of them be transmitted to the family of the deceased. The Secretary presented to the Board an exhibit on a large diagram of the condition of the funds on the Ist of January, 1873, and of the | receipts and expenditures during 1872. P On motion of Mr. Hamlin, these exhibits were referred to the Execu- tive Committee. Hon. Peter Parker, in behali of the Executive Committee, made sub- stantially the following preliminary report: “The Secretary, who by law is the custodian of the Smithsonian funds, has presented to the Regents an ocular exhibit of the present condition of these funds, and the Executive Committee have, at the present time, to state that they have been laboriously engaged for several days in exam- ining 1,395 vouchers for the expenditures of the Institution for the past year; and comparing these with the bank account, as well as the appro- JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 81 priations from Congress, find the whole in accordance with the statement in the diagram submitted by the Secretary, there being a balance now on hand in the First National Bank of $17,811.36. At the next meeting the committee will present a detailed statement of all the accounts, with estimates of the receipts and appropriations for the year 1873.” The Secretary presented the following statement relative to the inter- est on the Virginia stock held by the Institution, as furnished by Riggs & Co.: 1870. Jan. 16. 2 per cent. interest on $53,500, less $5.35 ..-.-...--. $1,064 65 1872. June 21. gof $1,761 coupons, $1,174, less 4, $4.40......-.-- 1,169 60 Aug.2. % of $1,761 coupons, $1.174, less } and tax, $77.77... 1,096 23 —— $3330 48 1871. Dec. 23. To $ per cent. commission on funding, $88,125 20.... $220 31 1872. Jan. 12. To 4 per cent. commission on $58,700, conversion of NECISuELEd uO) COUPON DOMAS Hassel see ae ee neal 73 37 June 21. To express charge on $58,700, bonds sent to Richmond for affixing State seal, inadvertently omitted ..-. 29 20 Aug. 2. To express on $1,761 coupons to Richmond -..-..----- 1 20 Aug. 2. Toexpress on $1,761 coupons to Richmond......---. 1 50 SS = 329 58 1872. Nov. 9. Baiance paid by Riggs & Co. to the Institution -.-..-.....---.3,004 99 This communication was referred to the Executive Committee. The subject of the deposit of the articles of fine art belonging to the Institution in the Corcoran Art Gallery was presented by the Secretary ; and, on motion of General Garfield, it was Resolved, That the Executive Committee and the Secretary report as to the character and organization of the Corcoran Art Gallery, and the plan to be adopted by the Smithsonian Institution in co-operating with that establishment and in depositing articles with it. Dr. Maclean presented a statement relative to the claim for the por- trait of Washington, and stated that a report would be presented on the subject by the Executive Committee at the next meeting. The Secretary presented the part of his annual report of the BpeenONe of the Institution during 1872 relative to original researches, viz : the planet Uranus; the tides; altitudes of over 16,000 different places in the United States; isothermal map; rain tables; winds and under- ground temperatures. On motion, the Board adjourned to meet on Monday, January 20, at 7 o'clock p. m. MonpbaAy, January 20, 1873 A meeting of the Board was held this day at 7 o’clock p. m. Present: The Chancellor Chief Justice Chase, Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon. J. W. Stevenson, Hon. L. Trumbull, Hon. J. A. Garfield, Hon. L. P. 6S 82 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. Poland, General Sherman, Hon. Peter Parker, Professor L. Agassiz, Rey. Dr. John Maclean, and the Secretary, Prefessor Henry. The Chancellor took the chair. The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved. Excuses for non-attendance were received from Messrs. Colfax, Cox, and Cooke. Hon. Peter Parker submitted the report of the Executive Committee, which was read, and, on motion of Mr. Poland, was accepted. Dr. Maclean, from the Executive Committee, presented a report ad- verse to the claim for a portrait of Washington painted by C. W. Peale. ; On motion of Mr. Hamlin, the report was accepted, ordered to be filed, and a copy to be furnished to the claimant. The Secretary stated that during the last session of Congress, mainly through the efforts of Mr. Hamlin, the following provision had been adopted in regard to postage facilities : “All publications sent or received by the Smithsonian Institution, marked on each package “Smithsonian Exchange,” shall be allowed to pass FREE IN THE MAIL.” [New Postal Code, 6th Sub-div., 184ih Sec., June, 1872. This does not provide for letters, nor specimens of natural history; and since the transfer of the museum of the Land-Ofiice to the Institu- tion, the postage on minerals sent by the United States surveyors had become a considerable item of expense. The Secretary of the Interior, however, had offered to receive for the Institution all such specimens, if sent by mail to that Department. Mr. Hamlin stated that a bill had passed the House of Representa- tives abolishing the franking privilege, and if it passed the Senate the Institution would again have to pay postage.* The Secretary stated that the New York, Newfoundland, and London Cable Telegraph Company, and the Western Union Telegraph Company had liberally granted the privilege the Institution had requested, to transmit without charge between Europe and America announcements of astronomical discoveries, such as planets, comets, &c. On motion of Mr. Hamlin, the following resolution was adopted: Resolved, That the thanks of the Board of Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution be tendered to the New York, Newfoundland, and London Telegraph Company, and to the Western Union Telegraph Company, for their grant of the free transmission of telegrams relative to astronomical discoveries. The Secretary stated that Mr. George Catlin, the Indian traveler and student of ethnology, who had exhibited his sketches of Indian life in the Institution, died in December last, and as it was very desirable that his valuable ethnological collection should be preserved, and, if possi- ble, secured by Congress, it was proper that the Board of Regents should take some action in regard to the matter. * This bill has since become a law. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 83 Professor Agassiz commended the collection as of great ethnological value, and expressed the opinion unhesitatingly that it ought to be purchased by the Government. On motion of General Garfield, it was resolved that the Executive Committee ascertain from the heirs of Mr. Catlin the terms on which his Indian paintings, sketches, specimens, &ec., can be procured, and furnish the information, with such recommendation as they think pro- per, to the Library Committee of Congress. General Garfield presented the subject of the proposed endowment of agricultural colleges in a bill which had passed the Senate and was now before the House, and expressed the hope that some action could be taken to secure the benefit of the act to the Smithsonian Institution. Professor Agassiz remarked that there were other institutions in the country that were well worthy to share with this Institution any ben- efits which might be derived from the distribution of the proceeds of the sales of the public lands; especially the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge. This museum now contains the largest collec- tion of specimens for the illustration of some departments of zoology of any in the world, and has been supported at an annual expense of from fifty to sixty thousand dollars, principally raised from donations of the friends of the establishment. Professor Agassiz also observed that he thought Professor Henry, inthe distribution of specimens abroad, ought in all cases to ask for a return of an equivalent in kind. By not doing so he interfered with the growth of other establishments of a similar character in this country, and especially with the museum at Cam- bridge. In reply Professor Henry stated that the policy of the Institution from the beginning had been of a most liberal character; that its motto was ‘‘ co-operation, not monopoly ;” that it had endeavored to co-operate with all institutions in this country and abroad; that the bequest was for the benefit of men, not for men of this country alone, butof every coun- try. Whenever specimens have been wanted for scientific research, these specimens have been sent as far as the means of the Institution would allow, and in cases where specimens were required for special investiga- tion in this country, the Institution has endeavored to procure them for the object required. It is true a return in kind has not been asked for because the appropriation from Congress for the support of the museum has not been more than one-fourth of the actual cost, and the Institu- tion has not had the means to pay for transportation of the specimens and the care of those not immediately wanted for research. It has, however, in all cases distinctly announced, in presenting specimens to foreign institutions, that suitable returns would be expected from the duplicates in their collections whenever the Institution might desire to obtain them.* The Institution has in this way a large accumulation of credit abroad, and now that the Government has commenced to make *See Appendix “G” to the Journal of the Board. 84 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. more liberal provision for the support of the National Museum, it may begin to ask for specimens in return, and in doing so may harmoniously co-operate with the Museum of Comparative Zoology by procuring speci- mens for it, and in receiving from the latter others in return. At the request of the Board, Professor Agassiz then gave an account* of his late expedition from Boston through the Straits of Magellan to San Francisco, in the steamer Hassler, of the United States Coast Survey, after which the Board adjourned to meet at the call of the Secretary. WEDNESDAY, February 13, 1873. A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day, at 7 o’clock p. m. Present: Chief Justice Chase, Chancellor, Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon. L. Trumbull, Hon. J. A. Garfield, Hon. L. P. Poland, Hon. Peter Parker, Hon. H. D. Cooke, and the Secretary, Professor Henry. The Chancellor took the chair. The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved. Dr. Parker presented the following report of the committee relative to the Coreoran Art Gallery : The committee to whom was referred the subject of inquiry into the character and organization of the Corcoran Art Gallery,t and the pian (if any) to be adopted by the Smithsonian Institution in co-operating with that establishment and in depositing articles with it, and report thereon, have to state: They learn that the Corcoran Art Gallery was incorporated by act of Congress on the 24th of May, 1870, [as appears from Statutes at Large, Forty-tirst Congress, second Session, chapter 3, page 139,] and is in no way connected with the District or territorial government of Washington. Your committee have conferred with Mr. W. W. Corcoran, and learn from him his desire 1n relation to the art gallery bearing his name is to make it one of very high order of art, and, with some exceptions which he specified, he is of the opinion the specimens of the Smithsonian will not come within the scope of his design. The proffer of the aid of the Smithsonian Institution, through its extensive foreign correspondents and agencies, in collecting valuable works of art from abroad, will be highly appreciated by Mr. Corcoran and the Directors of the Corcoran Art Gallery. PETER PARKER, W.T. SHERMAN, Committee. FEBRUARY 13, 1873. On motion of Mr. Hamlin, the following resolution was adopted : Resolved, That the report of the committee be accepted, and, in view of the facts stated, no further action in the premises is required, except *See Appendix “A” to Journal of the Board. +See Appendix “C” to Journal of the Board. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 85 so far as relates to co-operation of the Smithsonian Institution in obtain- ing for the Corcoran Art Gallery contributions from abroad when re- quested by the directors and at the expense of the corporation. The Secretary announced the death of Professor James H. Coffin, who had for many years been associated with the Institution in its meteor- ological work, and had nearly finished a very elaborate paper on the winds of the globe, prepared from material furnished by the Institution, and to be published as a Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge. He spoke in the highest terms of the character of Professor Coffin as a scien- tific investigator, an able ‘eacher, and exemplary Christian. On motion of Hon. Mr. Trumbull, the following resolutions were adopted : Resolved, That the Board of Regents have heard with profound sor- row of the death of Professor James H. Coffin, of Lafayette Coilege, Easton, Pennsylvania. Resolved, That in the death of Professor Coffin the Smithsonian Insti- tution has lost a valuable collaborator who has assiduously labored in connection with it in the cause of science for more than twenty years; the country has lost an efficient teacher, an honest, truthful, and indus- trious man, and the world an original contributor to the science of the day. Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to the fam- ily of the deceased. The Secretary stated that since the last meeting he had received a telegram from Dr. C. H. Peters, of Clinton, New York, announcing the discovery of a new planet, and that he had availed himself of the facili- ties offered by the Cable and Western Union Companies, and had sent a dispatch in regard to the discovery to the European observatories. The Secretary informed the Board that JAMES HAMILTON, of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, recently deceased, had left a legacy of one thousand dollars to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, the interest to be ‘‘appropriated biennially, either in money or a medal, for such contribution, paper, or lecture on any scientific or useful subject as the secretaries may approve.” Action on this subject was postponed until more definite information had been received.* The Secretary stated that an amendment had been offered in the House of Representatives, but not at the instance of the Institution, to Senate bill 693, ‘‘to provide for the further endowment and support of colleges for the benefit of agriculture, &c., &c.,” as follows: “And it is further provided, that the share allotted to the said District of Columbia shall be apprepriated to the Smithsonian Institution, to be expended under the direction of the Board of Regents of said Insti- tution, for the support of the National Museum, and in distributing specimens and publications to the colleges named in this act and to other institutions.” * See Will in Appendix “IF” to Journal of Board. 86 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. By this bill the Secretary of the Treasury is to invest annually one- fourth of the net amount of sales of the public lands for each year, in United States bonds, bearing five per cent. interest, and is to give to each State and to the District of Columbia au equal share of this interest, pro- vided that the appropriation for any one share shall not exceed in a single year the sum of $50,000. The opinion was expressed by the Regents that the bill might pass, although it was believed that the income to be derived from the sales of the public lands would be inconsiderable for many years.* The Secretary stated that the plan of the Smithsonian Institution for increasing knowledge had met with such favor, that other persons, in imitation of James Smithson, had established foundations to advance science, and gave an account of the bequest of the late Professor ALEX- ANDER DALLAS BACHE; the foundation for lectures by Dr. J. M. TONER, of Washington, and the gift of Professor TYNDALL of the proceeds of his recent lectures in this country. In each of these cases, Professor Henry had been made the chairman of the boards of trustees appointed to carry out the wishes of the donors. On motion of General Garfield, it was Resolved, That a full account of the Bache, Toner, and Tyndall sci- entific foundations, or trusts, be published in the annual report of this Institution, together with a letter from Professor Tyndall to Professor Henry.t The Secretary stated that he had transmitted to Congress the annual report of Professor J. W. Powell, relative to his geological and trigono- metrical survey of the Colorado of the West and its tributaries. The Secretary presented his annual report for the year 1872, which was read in part, when, on motion of Dr. Parker, it was Resolved, That the further reading of the report of Professor Henry be dispensed with, and that it be submitted by the Secretary to Congress. On motion, the Board then adjourned sine die. * This bill did not pass the House of Representatives. tSee Appendix ‘“B,” “D,” “E” to the Proceedings of the Board. APPENDIX TO THE JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. zAG PROFESSOR AGASSIZ’S NARRATIVE. ‘“T was invited by Professor Peirce to take passage in the Hassler, while she was going to the field of her duty on the coast of California, as surveying vessel, provided that my expenses were borne by other par- ties so that the Coast Survey should not be put to any additional outlay. In consideration of this proposition, my friends in Boston liberally sub- scribed $20,000 to enable me to make as thorough a series of investiga- tions of-animal life and other physical objects as possible, and a little more tlran this sum was expended. “We left Boston on the 4th of December, 1871. Our first observations of much interest were upon the Gulf weed, with its well-marked varieties distinguished by differences of stem and leaves. We made large col- lections of the hydroid communities inhabiting the sargossum, and also of the small fishes, crustacea and other animals finding shelter within its branches. I saw no reason to suppose that the sargossum originates as a floating-plant. On the contrary, all the masses we found, however large, bore marks of having been torn from some attachment. I have already given an account of the nest of the chironectes built of gulf weed, and picked up by us. “Our first port was Saint Thomas, where we aichored on the 15th of December. Here we made very large collections both of marine and land animals, fish, corals, sea-urchins, star-fishes, and ophiurans, crus- tacea, shells, lizards, snakes, toads, and frogs, insects and birds. We shipped from Saint Thomas alone eleven barrels and boxes of speci- mens. Barbadoes was our next collecting-ground. There we made our first cast of the dredge and with remarkable success. The collections forwarded from this port were not so large, but were perhaps more in- teresting than those of Saint Thomas. The fauna upon the shoals off the Island of Barbadoes strangely resembles that of a past geological time. The comatule, pedunculated crinoids, pleurotomarie, sipho- nie, and cnemidia found upon these shoals recall forms which belonged especially to the Mezozoic ages. This dredging was also rich in corals, sea-urchins, starfish, and ophiurans, and in a great variety of beautiful andrare shells. Insome notes handed to me by Count Pourtalés, he saysof thissame dredging, December 29th and 30th off Barbadoes, about six miles north of Bridgetown, numerous casts of the dredge were taken in depths varying from 17 to 120 fathoms with very richreturns in mollusea, crusta- 88 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL cea, echinoderms, polyps, and sponges ; many of them were new to science, Aon either very rare or of inuch rbenest on account of their geograph- ical distribution. Pleurotomaria is an example of the former; asthen- osoma, ceraiophozus, rhizocrinus, and other echinoderms, of the latter. Deep sea-corals were obtained in considerable quantity, but none appear to be identical with those of the North Atlantic; they also seem to differ more from those of Florida than would have been expected. ‘* Between Barbadoes and Brazil we had little opportunity for observ: tion, except upon the motions of the flying-fish, the habits and appear- ance of the physalia, &c. But we had an interesting dredging about a day’s sail south of Pernambuco in 500 fathoms, from which we obtained, besides other specimens, a living shell, closely allied to the Pecten para- doxus, as described by Goldfuss. Another cast, about 40 miles east of Cape Frio, in 45 fathoms, gave us a new crustacean, singularly like the ancient trilobites. With reference to temperature off the coast of Brazil, Count Pourtalés’ notes give the following details: ‘ Off Maceio, Beal January 17, in latitude 9° 45’58., longitude 352 0’ west, the surface- temperature was 80°.5. At 100 fathoms it was 67°; at 485 fathoms, 449.5; at 556 fathoms, (a few miles farther west,) 429.5; in datitude 11° 49’ south, longitude 37° 10’ west, surface, 809.5; at 613 fathoms, 399°. A number of dredgings were taken on the same parallel, but nearer shore, with moderate success.” He adds that subsequent casts of the dredge were taken at various points along the east coast of South America, and in the Strait of Magellan, but almost always in depths less than 50 fathoms where temperature presented no particular interest. ‘A delay of three weeks at Rio de Janeiro interrupted our work at sea, but I made use of it to collect largely in the market of Rio de Janeiro and in the neighboring rivers and brooks. The most valuable contribution to science made there, however, consisted in preparations of large numbers of fish-brains, both marine and fresh-water. “Our next port was Montevideo. Here, however, the quarantine pre- vented us from entering the city, but 1 had an opportunity of studying glacial phenomena on a hill in the harbor, where I was allowed to land and where I found erratic material of an unquestionably glacial char- acter, and other evidences of glacial action. Indeed, the most striking fact of all is that the hill itself is a true ‘roche moutonnée.” On leaving Rio de la Plate, February 22, we dropped the dredge in some seven fathoms, and it came up laden with valuable specimens. Among other things this cast gave us a large voluta and the egg of a voluta, (of which we found many afterward belonging to different kinds of volutas,) many olivas, serulas, renillas, crustaceans and echinoderms. It is not worth while to record all our dredgings; they were frequent, sometimes very remunerative, and sometimes not at all so. One dredging, of especial value for its rare mollusks and echinoderms, was taken off the mouth of the Rio Negro. “The next point of great interest was the gulf of San Mathias, at the APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 89 head of which is the so-called Port San Antonio. In this region our collections were very large and various. Among our treasures was a very interesting collection of tertiary fossils in this bay. The cliffs were largely composed of them. My original programme had included a reconnoissance of the rivers Negro and Santa Cruz, and a visit to the Falkland Islands, where I was especially anxious to have a look at the so-called “rivers of stone,” believing, as I do, that they are of glacial origin. But the circumstances of the vessel and the lateness of the season made it important to hurry on, and I reluctantly relin- quished this part of my scheme. We touched, therefore, at no other point between the gulf of San Mathias and the strait of Magellan, though we paused for a cast of the dredge off the gulf of St. Georges, and were rewarded by some superb star-fishes of immense size, (astro- phyton or basket-fish,) besides other valuable specimens. “We rounded Cape Virgins on the 135th of March, and made our first anchorage at Possession Bay. My published reports have already given some account of our work in this region. The most important results obtained in this locality were Count Pourtalés’ discovery that Mount Aymon is an extinct voleano, with a very perfect crater, and forming the nucleus, as it were, of a cluster of smaller volcanoes; beside some less striking geological observations of my own. In the strait of Magellan, and in Sinythe’s Channel, we passed three weeks, anchoring every night. The zoological results throughout this region were very satisfactory. We made large collections; chiefly marine, of course. But the glacial phenomena here interested me more deeply than the fauna. Irom the character of the drift, and the constant presence of erratic materials, evidently quite foreign to the soil, and. recurring along the Patagonian coast throughout the strait of Magellan, and, as I afterward found, high up on the Chilian coast; from the glacier-worn surfaces on the two sides of the strait, as compared with each other, and on the walls of Smythe’s Channel, I satisfied myself that there has been a move- ment of ice from south northward, preceding all local glacial phenom- ena, the latter being indeed only the remnant of the former. “Leaving Smythe’s Channel we kept along the coast to the southern end of Chiloe Island, making a run up the gulf of Corcovado in the hope of passing through the archipelago of Chiloe. As we had no charts, however, the captain feared to attempt the inside passage, and after making some collections in Port San Pedro we returned to the open sea, and reached San Carlos de Ancud, at the northern end of the island, on the 8th of March. Here I found again the erratic of the straits and of the Patagonian coast resting upon the breccia of Ancud, showing the chronological relation of the volcanic formations of this region to the glacial phenomena. From San Carlos we proceeded with no pause (except at Lota for coal) to the bay of Concepcion. Here we remained a fortnight, and at no point did I make more full and valuable collections. From Concepcion Bay the Hassler went to Juan Fernandez, 90) APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. but as I wished to see something of the geology between the coast and the Andes, I proceeded by land to Santiago. My observations here con- firmed my previous impressions as to the glacial phenomena. There is very littie evidence of local action proceeding from the Andes, but the whole Chilian valley lying between the coast-range and the Andes proper has been modeled in a south-northerly direction by ice. The valley is, in short, a glacier bottom. “At Valparaiso we joined the vessel again, andI add some notes from Count Pourtalés concerning temperatures based upon soundings, &c., taken on their voyage to and from Juan Fernandez: ‘In the Pacific Ocean soundings were taken between Talcahuana, Chili, and Juan Fer- nandez. The hundred-fathoms line was found to be about 35 miles off shore. At a distance of 52 miles the depth was 1,006 fathoms. In lati- tude 35° 30’ south and longitude 75° 11’ west the depth was 2,410 fath- oms, temperature 35°. Mud and fragments of a delicate sponge were obtained by the lead; but the dredge-line having been damaged by dampness, parted when hauling up. About two miles north of Juan Fernandez, surface temperature 61°; at 377 fathoms, 419.5; at 656 fathoms, bottom temperature 61°. The dredge brought up only a tew small stones. About three miles off the northwest corner of the same island the depth was 1,144 fathoms, bottom temperature 36°. The dredge brought up nodules of clay, pebbles, worm-tubes, and a small isis. About 25 miles north of the island a depth of 2,214 fathoms was found, with a bottom temperature of 36°; bottom of reddish mud. The dredge was lost again, with a large quantity of line. On the way from Juan Fernandez to Valparaiso a cast of the lead was taken in latitude 33° 33/ south, longitude 77° 2’ west; depth, 1,585 fathoms, bottom tem- perature 36°; fine white globigerina mud. The hauling up of the line took more than six hours, on account of the constant precautions needed to prevent it from parting. Further attempts were thereafter given up.’ “From Valparaiso we proceeded up the coast, touching at all the prin- cipal points, and collecting everywhere. One of our richest collecting- grounds was Parraca Bay, where the fauna was of astonishing richness and variety. The geology was also exceedingly interesting, and I was indebted to Lieutenant Murray Day for a very detailed map of the drift- formation in that region. “Trom Payta we struck off to the Galapagos, where we arrived on the 10th of June, and remained till the 19th, touching at Charles Island, Albe- marle, Saint James, Jarvis, and Indefatigable Islands. The zoology of these islands is intensely interesting, not only from the peculiar character of the fauna, but also from the physical conditions in which it occurs, all these islands being of such recent volcanic formation as to preclude the idea of a migration of animals from the mainland, and their subsequent adaptation to new cireumstances. Our collections in the Galapagos were exceptionally large. Iguanas, both marine and terrestrial, (the APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 91 two species of amblyrhynchus, first made known by Darwin,) lizards, birds, seals, turtles, besides a great variety of fishes, crustacea, mol- lusks, and radiates. “From the Galapagos we proceeded to Panama, where we arrived on the 25th of June. We were detained here for three weeks, but they were very profitable weeks for the collections. The loss of the greater part of our dredging-apparatus between Juan Fernandez and Valparaiso had indeed made dredging in deep waters impossible, but we were the more industrious in collecting iu shoal waters along shore and on land. Our next port was Acapulco, where we arrived on the 4th of August, and remained for some days. There, also, we were successful in col- lecting, and not less so in Magdalena Bay, where we passed two days in drawing the seine. We made no pause between Magdalena Bay and San Diego, where we arrived on the 18th of August. In the Bay of San Diego we added very considerably to our collections, Here, and in- deed all along the coast from Valparaiso northward, we found many specimens of cetaceans and selachians. We gathered a large number of cestracions alone. “ Leaving San Diego on the 28th of August, we reached San Francisco on the 31st. Here our voyage ended, but I remained in San Francisco for some weeks for the sake of completing collections formerly made for me in this region. Both there and in Sacramento, with the aid of friends, I sueceeded completely in my object. ‘Tt would be impossible for me now to give you more than a very vague and imperfect idea of the extent and value of the collections derived from this voyage. Indeed, I do not fully know it as yet myself, the unpack- ing being but just begun. The number of barrels and cases, however, forwarded to Cambridge during the ten months of our absence was 265—almost a barrel a day. It would have been simply impossible for me to colleet on this scale, but for the cordial assistance I received from the captain and ofiicers of our ship, and, under their direction, from the men, who were always cheerfully ready for the work of the seine and dredge. I was also greatly indebted to Dr. Hill and Dr. White, the physicists of the expedition, who, whenever not engaged in their own duties, were ready to aid me in every way. I should not forget to men- tion that Dr. Hill made, also, a most valuable and admirably preserved collection of marine plants, gathered at every anchorage where time was allowed for landing. As to the special work of the chemical and phys- ical departments, under the charge of Dr. Hill, ex-president of Harvard, and Dr. White, of Philadelphia, I can give you little information. You could, no doubt, learn all details respecting this part of the work by application to these gentlemen, or to the Superintendent of the Coast Survey. “My own special party for zoological work consisted of Count Pourtalés, Dr. Steindachner, and Mr. Blake. Count Pourtalés, while sharing in all the general work of the expedition, had special charge of the dredging 9% APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. operations. Dr. Steindachner, although an admirable collector in all departments, was especially engaged in the care of the ichthyological collections. His great knowledge and untiring industry made his assistance invaluable. Indeed, without him I could not have carried out the comprehensive scheme for collecting which I had laid out. Mr. Blake had special charge of the mollusks, and his time was chiefly em- ployed in the drawing of perishable specimens. As I cannot give you an accurate summary of the zoological collections, I will give youa slight sketch of my general scheme, alluded to above, that you may understand their significance as a whole. ‘‘T have endeavored, in the first place, to collect as many specimens of the same species as possible, in every stage of growth and every con- dition of development, in order to ascertain the range of variation in each species. My second object was to learn the boundaries of the dif- ferent faune, especially along the Pacific coast from the strait of Magellan to California. In this I have included, wherever it was pos- sible. the fishes from the rivers on the western slope of the continent, for comparison with those on the eastern; but this part of my plan was difficult of execution, because I had not the means of collecting in land. ‘During our whole journey I was careful to make, or to have made, large numbers of anatomical preparations of such parts of marine ani- mals as can rarely be well studied from alcoholic specimens. The most valuable of these preparations are those of fish brains. “J need hardly add that we owed the great opportunity for scientific investigation afforded by the voyage of the Hassler to the liberal policy of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, who is ever ready to com- bine the larger interests of science with the special work of the survey, when it can be done without detriment to the latter. I should add, however, that the means for making the zoological collections were con- tributed by gentlemen of Boston, who raised nearly $20,000 for the pur- chase of alcohol, jars, and other apparatus for collecting on a large scale, and tor charges of freight in forwarding the specimens from foreign ports. The latter charges were, however, comparatively small, owing to the liberality of both railroad and steamship companies, of the com- manders of our naval forces in various ports, to whom I had special recommendations from the Secretary of the Navy, and of the captains of vessels employed upon whaling voyages or in private mercantile enter- prises.” APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 93 B. BACHE FUND. Extracts from the will of Alexander Dallas Bache. Dated March 18, 1862. Item. As to all the rest and residue of my estate, including the sum of five thousand dollars placed at the disposal of my wife, in case she should not desire to make any disposition of the same, I direct my ex- ecutors, hereinafter named, to apply the income thereof, after the death of my wife, according to and under the directions of Joseph Henry, of Washington, Louis Agassiz and Benjamin Peirce, of Harvard College, Massachusetts, to the prosecution of researches in physical and natural science, by assisting experimentalists and observers in such manner and in such sums as shall be agreed upon by the three above-named gen- tlemen, or any two of them, whom I constitute a beard of direction for the application of the income of my residuary estate, for the above ob- jects, after the death of my said wife. The class of subjects to be se- lected by this board, and the results of such observations and experi- ments, to be published at the expense of my trust estate, under their directions, out of the income thereof, but without encroaching on the principal. In case of the death or inability to act of all or any of the three gen- tlemen I have named, in my wife’s lifetime, my will is that she shall supply their places in the board of direction by an instrument of writ- ing, either testamentary or otherwise, desiring that in the selection of the persons to administer the income of the trust funds hereby created, she will have regard to the selection of persons whose attention has been directed to the same branches of science as those I have named, and so that each of the departments of physics, mathematics, and natural his- tory shall be represented in the board. In case of any vacancy oceur- ring in the board of direction after its organization, and after the death of my wife, by reason of the death, inability, or refusal to act, or resig- nation of any of the members, my will is that the surviving er remain- ing member or members for the time being shall have power to fill va- cancies so occurring in the board by the selection of other person or persons to fill such vacancies, and so on, from time to time, as vacancies shall occur, My intention being that the board of direction shall have power to continue its existence, and to filling all vacancies occurring in their body from time to time. I direct that a minute of their proceedings be kept, and that the ap- pointment of any member by the board shall be notified in writing to the trustees for the time being of my residuary estate. In the event of any failure of the board for the time being to direct the application of the income of my said residuary estate, or to continue its existence by filling vacancies occurring in their body, my will is that 94 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. the application of the income thereof, for the purposes and objects de- elared in this clause of my will shall be made by the trustees, under the direction of the American Philosophical Society, of Philadelphia. Extract from the codicil to the will of Alerander Dallas Bache, dated July 15, 1863. Item. My will is that upon the death of my wife all the rest and resi- due of my estate shall be paid over to and rest in the corporation of ‘The National Academy of Sciences,” incorporated by act of Congress passed the third day of March, A. D. 1863, whom I hereby appoint trustees in the place of my said executors, under the fourth clause of my said will, to apply the income according. to the directions in the said clause contained, to the prosecution of researches in physical and natural science by assisting experimentalists and observers in such manner and in such sums as shall be agreed upon by the board of di- rection in the said clause named. My will further is that in case of any failure of the board for the time being to direct the application of the income of my residuary estate, or to continue its existence by filling vacancies occurring in their body, the application of the income thereof for the purposes and objects de- clared in the said clause shall be made under the directions of the Na- tional Academy of Sciences, instead of the American Philosophical So- ciety, of Philadelphia. In all other respects the said application of the income to the purposes aforesaid to be made by the same persons, and. under the same rules as I have prescribed in the said clause of my will. C. CORCORAN ART GALLERY. Letier from Mr. Corcoran to the Trustees. WASHINGTON, May 10, 1869. GENTLEMEN: It is known to you that the building at the northeast corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and Seventeenth street was designed by me for the encouragement of the fine arts, as is indicated by the dedi- cation upon its front. The work was begun in the year 1859, and was prosecuted with the heartiness naturally incident to such an undertaking, until it was inter- rupted by the breaking out of the late civil war, when the public exi- gencies led to the immediate occupation of the building for military purposes ; and to these uses it has been devoted ever since, until, being no longer required by the War Department, it is about to be restored to my possession. It was my cherished hope to have placed the proposed establishment, . APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 95 complete in allits appointments, in successful operation before divesting myself of the title by any formal instrument, but the years which have thus passed away, and the accumulation of other cares and duties, warn me no longer to indulge the pleasing anticipation. I have, therefore, not doubting your general interest in the subject, taken the liberty of executing to you, as trustees, a deed, which I here- with deliver, sufficiently defining the trusts which I ask you to accept. In addition to the title to the property itself, you will observe that the instrument vests in you, for the purposes of the trust, the right to receive the rents, wholly unpaid, for the period during which it has been occupied by the Government, now nearly eight years, whieh will doubtless be adjusted with you, in the absence of any special agreement, upon fair and, perhaps, liberal terms. As soon as the interior of the building shall have been completed ac- cording to the original plans, (which will be placed at your disposal,) for which the rents in arrears will more than suffice, I shall ask you to receive as anucleus my own gallery of art, which has been collected at no inconsiderable pains, and I have assurances from friends in other cities, whose tastes and liberality have taken this direction, that they will contribute fine works of art from their respective collections. I may add, that it is my intention to provide further endowment of the institution in such manner and to such extent as may consist with other objects which claim my attention ; and I venture to hope that, with your kind co-operation and judicious management, we shall have provided, at no distant day, not only a pure and refined pleasure for res- idepts and visitors at the national metropolis, but have accomplished something useful in the development of American genius. Iam, gentlemen, with great respect and regard, your obedient ser- vant, WwW. W. CORCORAN. To JAMES M. CARLISLE, JAMES C. HALL, GEORGE W. Rigas, AN- THONY HYDE, JAMES G. BERRET, JAMES C. KENNEDY, HENRY D. Cookk, JAMES C. MCGUIRE, WILLIAM T. WALTERS. Reply of the Trustees. WASHINGTON, May 10, 1869. DEAR Sir: We have accepted the trusts confided to us by your deed of this date, in the formal manner indicated by the deed itself. But we desire, individually and collectively, to add the expression of our personal appreciation of the privilege of endeavoring efficiently to administer such an institution, projected spontaneously by your liberal mind and securely founded by your sole munificence. While we cannot doubt that, at least in the time of our successors, all your anticipations will be realized, we sincerely hope that you may 96 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. yourself live to enjoy the high and pure gratification of witnessing the complete success of your generous intentions. With great respect and warm regard, we remain, very truly, yours, J. M. CARLISLE. J.C. HALL. GEO. W. RIGGs. A. HYDE. JAMES G. BERRET.* JAMES C,. KENNEDY.t HENRY D. COOKE. J. C. McGUIRE. W. T. WALTERS. WILLIAM W. CoRcoRAN, LHsq. Deed of gift and trust of the Corcoran Art Gallery. This indenture, made this tenth day of May, in the year of our Lora eighteen hundred and sixty-nine, by and between William W. Corcoran, of the city of Washington, District of Columbia, of the first part, and James M. Carlisle, James C. Hall, George W. Riggs, Anthony Hyde, James G. Berret, James C. Kennedy, Henry D. Cooke, and James C. Me- Guire, of the city of Washington, and William T. Walters, of the city of Baltimore, State of Maryland, of the second part, witnesseth: Whereas the said William W. Corcoran, in the execution of a long- cherished desire to establish an institution in Washington City to be ‘dedicated to art,” and used solely for the purpose of encouraging American genius, in the production and preservation of works pertain- ing to the “ fine arts,” and kindred objects, has determined to convey to a hoard of trustees the property hereinafter described, to which he may hereafter make other gifts and donations, to be held by said board, and used for the purposes aforesaid: Now, therefore, the said William W. Corcoran, in consideration of the premises, and of the sum of $1, current money of the United States, to him in hand paid by the said parties of the second part, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, hath granted, bargained, and sold, aliened, enfoefied, and conveyed, and by these presents doth grant, bargain, and sell, alien, enfeoff, and convey unto the said parties of the second part, and the survivors of them, and the heirs and assignees of such survivor— Lots numbered 5, (five,) 6, (six,) 7, (Seven,) and 8, (eight,) in square - numbered 167, (one hundred and sixty-seven.) in the city of Washington, and District of Columbia, as the same is laid down and distinguished upon the public plat of said city, fronting 196 feet 9 inches, more or less, on President’s Square, and 160.17 feet, more or less, on Seventeenth Street west, together with, all and singular, the buildings, improvements, *H. C. Matthews has been elected a trustee vice J. G. Berret. t Prot. Joseph Henry has been elected a trustee vice J.C. Kennedy. APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. RE hereditaments, and appurtenances thereto appertaining, or in any wise belonging, and all the estate, right, title, and interest of the said party of the first part in and to the same: To have and to hold, all and singular, the lots and parcels of ground, and premises aforesaid, with the appurtenances, unto and to the use of them, the said parties of the second part, and the survivors and sur- vivor of them, and the heirs and assigns of such survivor, in trust, nevertheless, and to and for the intents and purposes hereinafter ex- pressed and described, that is to say: First. That the said parties of the second part shall, without unnec- essary delay, after their acceptance of this trust, to be signified by their signing and sealing the memorandum to that effect hereunder written, organize themselves into a permanent board of trustees, with such officers to be selected from their own number as to them may seem nec- essary or convenient for the orderly management of this trust, and the more efficient attainment of the ends and objects designed by the said party of the first part, as indicated by his general intent, to be gathered from this instrument in all its parts and provisions, and with the same in- tent and for the same ends and objects, shall make, and as often as may be necessary from time to time, make, alter, amend, repeal, and re-enact, in whole or in part, all necessary by-laws, rules, and regulations in the premises, in execution of, and not inconsistent with the provisions and true intent of this instrument ; in all which they shall act by the con- currence of a majority of the whole number of trustees. Secondly. That when the number of the said original board of trus- tees, being the said parties of the second part, shall, by death, resigna- tion, or inability, to be ascertained by a resolution of the said board acting by a majority of the whole number, shall have been reduced below the number of nine members, the remaining members shall elect suitable persons, in their discretion, from time to time, as often as may be necessary, so that the board shall always be composed of nine mem- bers. Thirdly. That all the property, real, personal, and mixed, rights, credits, choses in action, or other valuable thing whatsoever hereby conveyed or intended to be conveyed, or which may hereafter be con- veyed, given, or transferred and assigned and delivered to the said board of trustees, whether composed of the said parties of the second part or of their successors, chosen and elected as hereinbefore provided, whether in whole or in part, shall be held, managed, limited, used, and devoted to executing the trusts, and giving effect, according to the best judgment of the said board of trustees, from time to time; and all legal rights and titles in the premises shall be taken and held in such manner, and with such legal forms, as shall serve the trusts, intents, uses, and purposes declared or plainly indicated or implied in and by the terms of this instrument. Fourthly. The property as received and held, or which may be received and held by the said board of trustees, shall be held, used, managed, 7s 98 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. and. disposed of by them and®their successors and assigns, whether under this instrument alone or under any act of incorporation hereafter to be procured, for the perpetual establishment and maintenance of a publie gallery and museum for the promotion and encouragement of the arts of painting and sculpture, and the fine arts generally, upon such system and with such regulations and limitations as the board of trustees may, from time to time, whether corporate or incorporate, prescribe, limit, and ordain: Provided always, That the gallery and museum shall be open to visitors, without any pecuniary charge whatever, at least two days in each week, for such convenient and customary hours as shall be, from time to time, prescribed and made public, and at such other times, not being such public days as aforesaid, such moderate and reasonable fees for admission may be prescribed and received, to be applied to the current expenses of preserving and keeping in proper order the building and its contents. Fifthly. While the officers necessary or appropriate to the organization of the board of trustees shall be elected from their own number, it is understood that the board shall and may, at its discretion, at all times, employ other persons to be the ofiicers, agents, and servants of the board, for the orderly and efficient management and conduct of the institution. Sixthly. The system and the appropriate measures for increasing the collection of paintings, statues, and kindred works of art, of which the private gallery of the party of the first part will form the nucleus, and such other voluntary donations as the trustees may from time to time receive, are confided to the direction and judgment of the trustees, as is also the management generally of the institution. Seventhly. The general intent of the said party of the first part be- ing expressed in general terms in the premises and recitals of this in- strument, and further indicated, with certain specifications, in the afore- going articles, numbered from one to six, inclusive, it is hereby declared that, all and singular, the gifts, grants, conveyances, and assignments herein expressed and set forth are, to and for the trusts, intents, and purposes so as aforesaid expressed, implied, set forth, or indicated, and to none other whatsoever; and that, while it is the intention of the grantor and donor herein that no unruly, technical, or formal breach of, or departure from, the terms and conditions of this trust shall operate as any forfeiture or defeasance in favor of his heirs, or of any claiming in his right, it is hereby declared, and these presents are upon the express and strict condition, that these presents, and every matter and thing hereinbefore contained, and every estate, right, title, interest, and power thereby given, granted, conveyed, and limited, shall cease and determine, and become utterly void and of no effect, whensoever it shall be decreed, adjudged, or declared, by the highest judicial authority having jurisdiction, upon a proper proceed- ing, in-law or in equity, to be instituted by the heirs, devisees, or assigns, APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 99 of the said party of the first part, that the real estate hereinbefore con- veyed shall have been diverted from the purposes of this trust, to be gathered from this instrument in all its parts and provisions, so as substantially to defeat or plainly to be inconsistent with and repugnant to this trust, construed and interpreted in a liberal and sensible spirit ; and thereupon, as in case of a breach of a strict condition-subsequent, the heirs, devisees, assigns, or other proper legal representatives in the premises of the said William W. Corcoran, shall be entitled to re-enter upon the said real estate as of his, the said Willim W. Corcoran’s,.1ight and title prior to the execution of these presents, and as if the same had never been executed ; and in like manner all and every other estate, property, chattel, or valuable thing, the title to which shall have pro- ceeded in the premises from the said William W. Corcoran to the said trustees or their successors and assigns, shail, as far as may be consist- ent with the rules and principles of law and equity, revert and be re- vested in right of the said Corcoran or his proper legal representatives therein. Eighthly. That the said board of trustees may at any time hereafter, in its discretion, apply for and accept an act of Congress incorporating them and their successors, so as to facilitate the execution of this trust, by vesting the same in a perpetual body-corporate, with the like pow- ers and for the same trusts, intents, and purposes herein declared, ex- pressed, or indicated, but-for no other trusts, intents, or purposes what- soever; such act of incorporation to refer to this deed, and to be expressed to be in execution of the trusts thereof; and thereupon the said parties of the second part, and the survivors and survivor of them, or the heirs and assigns of such survivor, shall execute such conveyances as may be necessary to transfer the whole property of this trust to such corpora- tion, upon the trusts of this deed. And whereas the lots of ground and improvements hereinbefore de- scribed and referred to have, by reason of the exigencies of the public service of the United States, been rented and occupied for the public use, without any special contract, but subject to the constitutional pro- vision that “ private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation,” which just compensation for the whole period of such occupation by the United States now remains to be paid; and considering the same properly to belong to this trust, as being of the rents, issues, and profits of the ground and buildings which he had here- tofore, and as early as the year 1859, devoted and dedicated to the trusts and purposes hereinbefore formally declared : Now, therefore, in consid- eration of the premises, and of the sum of $1 by the said parties of the second part to him in hand paid, he, the said party of the first part, hath assigned, transferred, and set over, and by these presents doth assign, transfer, and set over unto the said parties of the second part and the sur- vivors and survivor of them, and the executors, administrators, and assigns of such survivor, all and singular the rents, issues, and profits of the lots of ground and improvements hereinbefore described, for and 100 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. during the whole period of the occupation and possession of the same by the Government of the United States, and all the just compensation which may be due from the United States for the public use of the same, hereby authorizing and empowering the said parties of the second part, or a majority of them, either by themselves or by any substituted attorney or attorneys, to be named and appointed by them, or a majerity of them, to acquit and release and receipt for the same in any sufiicient legal form of acquittance which may be according to law, as fully as he, the said party of the first part, could personally release and acquit the same. Which rents, issues, and profits, and just compensation for the public use of the said property shall be received and held by the said parties of the second part for the same uses, intents, and purposes hereinbefore declared; but shall, as far as may be necessary, be applied, before all other objects, to the completion of the interior of said building, and to putting it in a condition to be immediately applied to the primary in- tents and purposes of this trust, as expressed in the recital in the premises of this deed. In testimony whereof the said party of the first part hath hereunto set his hand and afiixed his sealy the day and year first hereinbefore written. W. W. CORCORAN. Signed, sealed, and delivered in the presence of— JOHN HUNTER. A. T. BRICE. We jointly and severally accept the trusts of the aforegoing deed. Witness our hands and seals the said tenth day of May, eighteen hundred and sixty-nine. JAMES M. CARLISLE. 7 Gro. W. RIGGS. JAMES G. BERRET. HENRY D. COOKE. W. T. WALTERS. J. CALE: ANTHONY HYDE. JAS. C. KENNEDY. JAS. C. McGuIRE. ee District of Columbia, County of Washington : I, Whitman C. Bestor, a notary publicin and for Washington County aforesaid, do hereby certify that William W. Corcoran, the party of the first part to a certain deed, bearing date the tenth day of May, A. D. eighteen hundred and sixty-nine, and hereto annexed, personally appeared before me, in the county aforesaid, on the day of the date hereof, the said William W. Corcoran being personally well known to me to be the person who executed the said deed, and acknowledged the same to be his act. Given under my hand and notarial seal this tenth day of May, eighteen hundred and sixty-nine. WHITMAN C. BESTOR, Notary Public. v APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 101 iD; TONER LECTURES. Deed of conveyance from Dr. J. M. Toner to five trustees, instituting the Toner lectures at the city of Washington, and establishing a permanent and increasing fund for their support and continuance annually. This indenture, made this thirteenth day of April, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-two, between Dr. Joseph M. Toner, of the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia, of the first part, and the Secretary or chief scientific officer of the Smithsonian Institution, (for the time being Professor Joseph Henry;) the Surgeon- General of the United States Army, (for the time being J. K. Barnes, M. D.;) the Surgeon-General of the United States Navy, (for the time being J. M. Foltz, M. D.;) the president of the Medical Society of the District of Columbia, (for the time being Grafton Tyler, M. D.;) of the second part, ali at present residing in said District of Columbia: Whereas the said party of the first part, believing that the advancement of science—that is, a knowledge of the laws of nature in any part of her domain, and particularly such discoveries as contribute to the ad- vancement of medicine—tends to ameliorate the condition of mankind, hath determined to convey and transfer to the said parties of the see- ond part, and their successors forever, in their several oificial positions as aforesaid, the hereinafter described real and personal property, amounting in value to about $3,000, ninety per cent. of the interest of which is to be applied for at least two annual memoirs or essays by different individuals, and, as the fund increases, as many more as the interest of the trust and revenue will in the judgment of the trustees justify, rela- tive to some branch of medical science, to be read at the city of Wash- ington at such time and place as the said parties of the second part and their successors as trustees may designate, under the name of “The Toner Lectures ;” each of these memoirs or lectures to contain some new truth fully established by experiment or observation, and no such memoir or lecture to be given to the world under the name of “The Toner Lectures” without having first been critically examined and ap- proved by competent persons selected by said trustees for that purpose. It is further provided, that such of the said memoirs or lectures as may be approved shall be published in such manner and through such channels as said trustees may determine. And, in order to carry out the intentions hereinbefore expressed, the said party of the first part hath associated with himself the said other parties of the second part, each in his official character as hereinbefore named, with this provision: that upon removal from official position of any one of said parties of the second part, by death or otherwise, his successor in said position shall sueceed him as one of the trustees of “The Toner Lectures;” and that upon the death, resignation, or removal of said party of the first part, or his successors, the other trustees 102 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. surviving shall, within a reasonable time thereafter, elect to sueceed him an active and energetic member of the regular medical profession in good standing and practice in the city of Washington, who shall upon his acceptance thereof be and become one of the trustees of “The Toner Lectures.” And if the Medical Society of the District of Colum- bia shall at any time hereafter be dissolved, so that there would no longer be a president thereof, then and within a reasonable time there- after the other trustees shall elect to sueceed the said president, as trus- tee in this behalt, an active and energetic member of the regular medi- cal profession in this District, in good practice and standing, who shall upon acceptance thereof be and become one of the trustees of ‘“ The Toner Lectures ;” and so on from time to time, soas to continue to have five trustees, who shall serve without compensation. And to carry out the hereinbefore-expressed intentions these presents are made. Now, therefore, this indenture witnesseth that the said party of the first part, for and in consideration of the premises aforesaid, and, fur- ther, the sum of one dollar, lawful money of the United States, to him in hand paid by the said parties of the second part, at and before the sealing and delivery of these presents, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, hath granted, bargained, sold, aliened, enfeoffed, and conveyed, and doth by these presents grant, bargain, sell, alien, enfeoff, and convey unto the said parties of the second part, the survivor or survivors of them, (and their associates duly elected,) and to their heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns, according to the quality of the estate granted, the following described real estate in the said city of Washington, known and described as being lots numbered six (6) and seven (7) in Clark’s recorded subdivision of square north of square num- bered three hundred and thirty-four, (354,) and also money and private securities amounting to the sum of $1,100; together with all the im- provements, ways, easements, rights, privileges. and appurtenances to the said real estate belonging, or in any wise appertaining, and all the remainders, reversions, rents, issues, and profits thereof: To have and to hold the said real and personal estate or private seeuri- ties unto and to the use of the said parties of the second part, together with the said party of the first part, their heirs, executors, administra- tors, and assigns, in and upon the trusts, nevertheless, hereinafter men- tioned and declared—that is, whenever it seems to them that the pro- ductiveness of the fund will be increased thereby, to Sell the said real estate, and the same to convey in fee simple to the purchaser thereof; and to convert the said personal estate or private securities into money, and the proceeds of said sale and conversion to invest, re-invest, from time to time, and to keep invested in some safe public or private securi- tiesin the name and for tle use of the trustees of “ The Toner Lectures,” who shall apply ninety per cent. of the interest thereof annually to de- fraying the expenses of said “ Toner Lectures,” and the publication thereof whenever the publication thereof is deemed advisable. The remaining APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 103 ten per cent. of the said annual interest from the whole fund, as well as any additional gift or unexpended balance at the end of each year, they shall from time to time invest, and the same shall be and become a part of the principal, for the steady increase of the permanent and producing fund of said ‘‘Toner Lectures.” It is hereby provided that the said trustees shall hold at least one regular meeting annually ; keep a cor- rect record, in a book for the purpose, of all proceedings and actions as trustees, with a statement of the expenditures of the revenue, and the condition of the fund, where and how invested ; all of which they may, from time to time, at het pleasure make ainlnlhe and be governed in all matters relating to the general execution of the trusts and intentions herein expressed and declared, and in the investing and disbursing of all trust-moneys, by such rulesand regulations as may from time to time be adopted by them for their own government, with this express con- ‘lition, however: that for the election of any new trustee to fill a va- caney, for the sale of any property or stocks or securities, or the invest- ment of any funds, the approval of a majority of said trustees, in writing or by their votes at a meeting of the trustees, shall be absolutely neces- ary. And it is further provided, that in case of the failure at any time of the purposes for which this trust is created, or in case of the failure of the trustees to act for three successive years, or in case of the total fail- ure of the trustees to give effect to this trust, then, and in any such contingency, the fund hereby provided for and created shall revert to the said party of the first part and his heirs or personal representatives. In testimony whereof, the said party of the first part hath hereunto set his hand and seal on the day and year first hereinbefore written. J. M. TONER. Signed, sealed and delivered before Edward Clark, justice of the peace, in the presence oft— S. H. KAUFFMAN, G. B. Gorr. We hereby accept the foregoing trust. JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary Smithsonian Institution. J. K. BARNES, Surgeon-General United States Army. J.M. FOLTZ, Surgeon-General United States sate GRAFTON TYLER, M. D., Biaiaens Medical Society of the District of Columbia. JOSEPH MEREDITH TONER, J. D. 104 APPENDIX TO JOWRNAL. i. THE TYNDALL TRUST FOR THE PROMOTION OF SCIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES. Letter from Professor Tyndall to Professor Henry. NEw York, February 7, 1873. My DEAR PROFESSOR HENRY: I have made my “will” in due form, and signed it in the presence of witnesses. My desire and intention in accepting the invitation of my friends were, as you know, to hand over the proceeds to Chicago. But the re- covery from calamity is quick in this country, so that Chicago not only does not need my feeble aid, but would be willing of her abundance to add to my wealth. My disbursements, as I told you, are heavy. Living I have found to be exceedingly expensive in the United States; hence the balance which I am able to hand over to the board of trustees is not so large as I could wish it to be. It, however, amounts to a little more than thirteen thousand dollars. I have bestowed some care on the accounts, and do not think I carry home with me a single cent of American money. But I carry home what is to me incomparably more precious, and that is the assured good- will of the American people. The instruments that I take home with me I intend to present to the Royal Institution, where they will be turned to good account. My hands will be then entirely clean, and no foreign element will mingle with the bright memory of the time I spent here. * * * * * * *. Ever yours, faithfully, JOHN TYNDALL. Professor JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. THE TRUST. I, John Tyndall, professor of natural philosophy in the Royal Institu tion of Great Britain, having, at the solicitation of my friends, lectured in various cities of the United States, find the receipts and disburse- ments on account of these lectures to be as follows: I.—Receipts. FLOM OShON, AOPSIX leC tue Sires tener eine ety ae $1,500 00 From ¢Philadelphia, for* six "lectures? 22222 228 — Pee 2 cae 3, 000 00 Promebaltimore tor three Lectures tees teeiee ee 1, 000 00 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. — : 105 Brom Washington, dor Six@ectures <7... 2 5-\. 5-95. 5.-5- $2,000 00 rou New, Work sOrisix I6EClUTES!s. 22) =.2)\/ ns ech e ees 8, 500 00 Hromebrookdyneror six lecturess. EU. re lo8 Si BA 6, 100 00 From New Haven, for two lectures ..-.-..--+...-.......-. 1, 600 00 Potalerecem ts eee a elle rit yaectariel= qne-'- 44st) ZO, 100) 00 IL.— Disbursements. Before leaving England: Wages of assistants during the preparation of the lectures; work of philosophical instru- ment maker; new apparatus; sundry items for outfit; traveling expenses of myself and two assistants from London to New York, make a total of £671 6s. 8d., which, at the rate of $5.50 per pound, amounts to.......--..... $3, 692 31 In the United States: Hotel and traveling expenses for myself and two assistants; other expenses incidental to lectures in Boston, Philadelphia,* Baltimore, Washington, New York, ' Brooklyn, and New Haven, covering a period of four months, plus traveling expenses of myself and my assist- ant from New York to London, make a total of......-..- 4,749 35 Bresentito Vales: Scientific Club tess be Jinn. ofsaie -c 2un 250 00 Salaries to assistants for four months, £250, which, at $5.50 PEE POUNE Fa MOUNESHtOa- cars --naloiel6= ies eee at eo 1,375 00 Making the total disbursements .............-.-...- 10, 066 66 LT, DivegtonaleLe Coles s AVC a slam 31 sata oe aro, o/s heinsencre is else ea ciale $23, 100 00 Whe total disbursements): o 2.5 0cs cms ose teases SAI OS 10, 066 66 Making the net proceeds of lectures ............... 13, 033 34 As an evidence of my good-will toward the people of the United States, I desire to devote this sum of thirteen thousand and thirty-three dollars to the advancement of theoretic science and the promotion of original research, especially in the department of physics, in the United States. To accomplish this object I hereby appoint Professor Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington City, D. C., Dr. i. L. Youmans, of New York, and General Hector Tyndale, of Philadel- phia, to act as a board of trustees to take charge of the above sum—to carefully invest it in permanent securities; and I further direct that the said board shall, for the present, appropriate the interest of the fund “At Philadelphia I had no hotel expenses, but was most comfortably lodged at the house of my kinsman, General Hector Tyndale. He, I may add, paid his own hotel expenses wherever he accompanied me. 106 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. in supporting, or in assisting to support, at such European universities as they may consider most desirable, two American pupils, who may evince decided talents in physics, and who may express a determination to devote their lives to this work. My desire would be that each pupil should spend four years at a German university—three of those years to be devoted to the acquisition of knowledge, and the fourth to original investigation. If, however, in the progress of science in the United States, it should at any time appear to the said board that the end herein proposed would be better subserved by granting aid to students, or for some special researches in this country, the board is authorized to make the appropriations from the income of the fund for such purposes. I further direct that vacancies which may occur in said board of trustees, by death or otherwise, shall be filled by the president of the National Academy of Sciences. If in the course of any year the whole amount of the interest which aecrues from the fund be not expended in the manner before mentioned, the surplus may be added to the principal, or may be expended in addi- tion to the annual interest of another year. If at any time any organization shall be established, and money pro- vided by other persons for the promotion of such original research as I have in view, I authorize the said board of trustees to exercise their discretion as to co operating in such work from the income of this fund. In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal this 7th of February, 1873, in the city of New York. - JOHN TYNDALL. [SEAL.| In presence of— C. BuRRITT WAITE L. KE. FULLER. iT. BEQUEST OF JAMES HAMILTON. Letter from the executors. CARLISLE, PENNSYLVANIA, April 17, 1875. DEAR Str: Inelosed please find printed copy of the last will and tes- tament, and codicil thereto, of James Hamilton, esq., late of this place, deceased. by which we notify you of the bequest made to. your board by said last will and testament. As certain legal questions will have to be decided by the courts betore we will feel justified in paying over eleemosynary bequests, it would be well for your board to be represented by counsel. One of the religious associations have employed Henderson and Hays, who, we understand, are making preparations for a case. APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 107 We give you early notice that you may act accordingly, and all legal difficulties be removed at as early a day as practicable. Our post-office address is Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Yours, respectfully, JOSEPH H. STUART, ABRAM BOSLER, Executors of James Hamilion, deceased. Professor JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Butract from the will of James Hamilton, dated November 20, 1871. ‘In the name of God, amen. I, James Hamilton, declare this to be my last will and testament, with respect to my personal property : * * * * # * * 8. I give one thousand dollars to the Board of Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution, located at Washington, D. C., to be invested by said regents in some safe fund, and the interest to be appropriated bienni- ally by the secretaries, either in money or a medal, for such contribu- tion, paper, or lecture on any scientific or useful subject as said secre- taries may approve.” G. CIRCULAR SENT WITH SPECIMENS PRESENTED TO INSTI- TUTIONS. The following is a copy of the circular sent to foreign museums on the presentation to them of specimens from the collections of the insti- tution; which was alluded to by the secretary in his remarks at the meeting of the Board on the 20th January, 1873: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, D. C., ———, 187-. DEAR Sir: In behalf of the Smithsonian Institution, we have this day forwarded by the specimens mentioned in the accompanying receipt—a present from the Institution, upon the following conditions: 1. That an acknowledgment be made to the Secretary of the Institu- tion immediately on receipt of the specimens, by signing and returning the accompanying blank. 2. That full credit be given the Institution for the donation, on the labels of the specimens, in published reports, and under all other cir- cumstances. 3. That free access to and use of these specimens be allowed, under the proper restrictions, to all persons engaged in original investigations requiring such material. 108 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 4, That suitable returns be made from the duplicates in the collee- tions under your charge, whenever the Institution may desire and call for them. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary S. I. ~ [To be signed and returned prepaid to the “ Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington.” | 187- ’ ’ 3 TY have received from the Smithsonian Institution, through , in behalf of , the following collections, subject to the conditions mentioned in the accompanying circular-letter. 2 GENERAL APPENDIX TO THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1872. The object of this appendix is to illustrate the operations of the Institution by reports of lectures and extracts from correspondence, as well as to furnish information of a character suited especially to the meteorological observers and other persons interested in the promotion of knowledge. EULOGY ON AMPERE. [Translated for the Smithsonian Institution. ] GENTLEMEN: It is my duty to-day, in accordance with an article of the academic regulations dating back to 1666, and which during this long interval of time has always been faithfully executed, to bring be- fore you the labors of one of our most illustrious associates, and at the same time to cursorily glance at his life. These biographical sketches have not always preserved the same characteristics. Before the judges of the eighteenth century, Fonte- nelle himself, the ingenious Fontenelle, ventured to refer so briefly to technical points that his eulogy on Newton oceupies only about thirty pages inoctavo. If you will open this master-piece of delicacy, elegance, und atticism, you will find the celebrated “Treatise on Optics” confined to a few lines, and the title of the ‘‘ Universal Arithmetic” not even mentioned. In proportion as the sciences progress the ancient bounda- ries of the academic eulogies should be enlarged, and, in fact, we having atlastreached a period when the crowds are largely pressing to expositions of the mathematical and natural sciences with which our vast lecture rooms daily resound, the secretaries of the academy have begun to feel that it is time to rid themselves of the restraints which their illustrious predecessors had imposed upon themselves, that henceforth they might here, at the public sittings, speak of the labors of their associates in the terms hereafter to be used by the historians of the sciences. This new course has already several times received your kind approbation. The idea of departing from it has never even suggested itself to my mind, as indeed, a little reflection would have reminded me, when M. Ampere was removed from our midst, of the impossibility of examining his works, and of making the analysis of his complete encyclopedia, with- out departing from theusual limitsof oureulogies. I must acknowledge, too, that a close intimacy, an intimacy without a cloud for more than thirty years, has also contributed to extend this biography, and to ena- ble me to give importance to certain details that one indifferent to him would have passed by unnoticed. If an excuse be necessary, gentlemen, I will give it to you in a line in which a great poet has defined friendship “The only passion of the soul in which excess is tolerated.” TU EULOGY ON AMPERE. INFANCY OF AMPERE, HIS EXTRAORDINARY MEMORY, HIS PRECO- CIOUS TALENTS, HIS FAVORITE BOOKS—HE WRITES ON THE PRIMI- TIVE LANGUAGE. Andre Marie Ampére, the son of Jean Jacques Ampere and Jeanne Antoinette Sarcey de Sutiéres, was born at Lyons, in the parish of Saint Nizier, on the 22d of January, 1775. Jean Jacques Ampére was well educated, and highly esteemed. His wife was also generally beloved for the uniform sweetness of her dispo- sition and a beneficence, ever on the watch for occasion upon which to exercise itself. A short time after the birth of their son, M. Ampere abandoned commerce and retired with his wife to a small estate in Poley- mieux-lez-Mont-d’Or, near Lyons, and here in an obscure village, without the assistance of a teacher, began to dawn, or,as I should say, to be de- veloped that wonderful intellect, the brilliant phases of which I am about to unfold. The first talent shown by Ampére was that for arithmetic. Before even understanding figures, or knowing how to form them, he made long calculations with the aid of a limited number of pebbles or beans. It may be he had fallen upon the ingenious method of the Hindoos, or, perhaps, his pebbles were combined like the corn strung upon parallel lines by the Brahmin mathematicians of Pondichéry, Calcutta, and Benares, and handled by them with such rapidity, precision and accur- acy. As we advance in the life of Ampere we shall find this supposi- tion gradually losing its apparent improbability. To illustrate to what an extraordinary degree the love of calculation had seized upon the young student, being deprived, by the tenderness of his mother, during a serious illness, of his dear little pebbles, he supplied their places with pieces of biscuit which had been allowed him after three days strict diet. I shall not dwell longer on this illustration, as I am far from wishing to give it as an unanswerable or incontestible indication of the future vocation of Ampére. There are children, I know, whose apathy nothing seems able to arouse, and others, again, who take an interest in every thing, amuse themselves with even mathematical calculations without an object. You object to this assertion, charge it, perhaps, with exaggeration, and class numerical calculation with those distasteful tasks which duty and necessity alone can induce one to undertake. My answer is ready, and I will cite, not mere school-boys, but a distinguished savant, who, perceiving my astonishment at seeing him, during a public meeting of the academy, undertake the multiplication of two long lines of figures, said to me at once, “‘ You forget the pleasure it will give me directly to prove this calculation by division.” Young Ampere soon learned to read, and devoured every book that fell into his hand. History, travels, poetry, romances and philosophy inter- ested him almost equally. If he showed any preference, it was for Homer, Lucian, Tasso, I’énélon, Corneille, Voltaire, and for Thomas, EULOGY ON AMPERE. 113 whom it is surprising to find, notwithstanding his unquestionable talent in so brilliant acompany. The principal study of the young student of Poleymieux was the encyclopedia in alphabetical order, in twenty vol- umes in folio. Each one of these twenty volumes had separately its turn, the second after the first, the third after the second, and so on to the end, without once interrupting the arithmetical order. Nature had endowed Ampére, to an extraordinary degree, with the faculty Plato so aptly, and not too extravagantly, describes as ‘a great and powerful goddess.” Thus this colossal work was completely and deeply engraved on the mind of our friend. Each one of us has heard this member of the Academy of Sciences, at a somewhat advanced age, repeat, with perfect accuracy, long passages from the encyclopedia, relating to blazonry, falconry, ete., which a half century before he had read amidst the rocks of Poleymieux. His mysterious and wonderful memory, however, astonishes me a thousand times less than that force united to flexibility, which enables the mind to assimilate, without con- fusion, after reading in alphabetical order, matter so astonishingly va- ried as that in the large dictionary of d’Alembert and Diderot. I will ask you to glance with me over the first pages of the encyclopedia. I mention the first pages as I prefer not to choose, that our admiration may be spontaneous. ’ To begin: The preposition a fills the reader’s mind with nice gram- matical distinctions; ab transports him to the Hebrew calendar; adadir to the midst of the mythological histories of Cybele and Saturn. The word abaissement (depression) carries him at times into algebra, to the reduction of the degrees of equations; into one of the most difficult problems of geodesy and the nautical art, when required to determine the depression of the horizon at sea; and to heraldry, when abatement desig- nates the peculiar signs added to the arms of families when necessary to debase their bravery and dignity. Turning the page the article abbé will enlighten you as to all that is fickle and capricious in the ecclesias- tical discipline. The next word, abscess, carries you into surgery. To the description of the anatomical organization of bees, (alcelles,) of their mode of living and reproduction, of their habits, of the hierarchical or- ganization of the hive, succeeds almost immediately the explanation of the immortal and subtile discovery of Bradley; of those annual move- ments of the stars, which, under the name of aberration, demonstrate that the earth is a planet. Some lines further on you fall into the abyss of cosmogony. Abacadabra plunges you into necromancy. This, then, is the kind of reading that a child of thirteen or fourteen undertook, or rather planned, for himself without finding it too severe a task. I shall have more than one example to give of the strength of Ampere’s mind. None, however, more remarkable than the one I am about to relate. As the modest library of a retired merchant could no longer satisfy the young student, his father took him from time to time to Lyons, where 8 114 EULOGY ON AMPERE: he had access to the rarest books, among others the works of Bernoulli and Euler. When the puny and delicate child first asked the librarian for these works the good M. Daburon exclaimed, “Do you understand the works of Bernoulli and Euler? Reflect, my little friend. These works rank among the most abstruse the human mind has ever pro- duced.” ‘J hope, nevertheless, to be able to understand them,” replied the child. ‘ Youare aware, I presume, they are written in Latin,” added the librarian. This revelation for a moment disheartened our young and future associate; he had not yet studied the Latin language. It is unnecessary to tell you now that at the end of a few weeks this obsta- cle was removed. What Ampere sought above all things were ques- tions to fathom and problems to solve, even in his earlier studies. The word tongue or language (langue) in the ninth volume of the encyclo- pedia transported him to the banks of the EKuphrates and to the Tower of Babel of biblical celebrity. There he found men speaking all the same language. A miracle related by Moses suddenly produced the confusion. Hach tribe spoke from that time a distinct language. These languages mingled and became corrupt, and lost by degrees that char- acter for simplicity, regularity, and grandeur which distinguished the common stock. To discover this original language, or at least to recon- struct it with its ancient attributes, was a problem certainly very diffi. cult, but the young student did not consider it beyond his powers. Great philosophers had already been engaged in this work. In order to give a complete history of their attempts, it would be necessary to go back to that King of Egypt, who, if we can believe Herodotus, caused two children to be brought up in absolute seclusion with only a goat as nurse, and who then had the simplicity to be astonished that these chil. dren should bleat. The word bécos proceeding more or less distinctly from their mouths, he considered the Phrygeans, in whose language is found the word beck, (bread,) best qualified to be thought the most ancient race of the world. Among the modern philosophers who have interested themselves in the primitive language, and in the means of restoring it, Descartes and Leibnitz occupy, incontestably, the first places. The problem, as these men of genius treated it, was not merely to improve the musical qualities of modern languages, to simplify their grammar and to banish from them all irregularities and exceptions. They supposed it to consist especially of a kind of analysis of the human mind, of the classification of ideas, and of the complete and exact enumeration of those which should be con- sidered elementary. By means of a language built upon such a founda- ion, ‘the peasants,” said Descartes, ‘“ would be better judges of the truth of things than are the philosophers now.” Leibnitz expressed the same idea in different terms, when he wrote that “the universal language would add more to the powers of reasoning than the telescope to the eye, or the magnetic needle to the progress of navigation.” No one would be so presuming as to affirmthat young Ampére treated EULOGY ON AMPERE. 115 the question of the universal language with the same comprehensiveness and the same research as Descartes and Leibnitz, but it can be said, at least, that he did not banish its solution, as the first of these philoso- phers did to the land of romance. Nor did he confine himself as the second did, to dissertations on the marvellous fitness of the future in- strument. This instrument he created! Several of Ampere’s friends have had in their, hands a grammar and dictionary, the fruits of his indefatigable perseverance, containing the almost finished rules of the new language. Some have heard him recite fragments of a poem composed in this new tongue, and can testify to its harmony, the only thing, to tell the truth, of which they could judge, as the meaning of the words was unintelligible to them. Who, besides, among us does not remember the joy experienced by our associate, when, in glancing over the work of a modern traveler, he discovered in the vocabulary of a certain African tribe several combinations, which he had himself formed. It will be remembered that a similar discovery was the chief cause of Ampére’s warm admiration for the Sanscrit. A work which has reached such a degree of advancement, should not be condemned to oblivion. The carrying out by Ampére of an idea of Descartes and Leibnitz will always interest philosophers and philologists in the highest degree. The manuscripts of our brother are fortunately in hands eminently qualified to bring out all that could contribute to the advancement of science and letters. AMPERE’S AFFLICTION DURING THE TERRIBLE REVOLUTION—SUSPEN- SION OF HIS INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL FACULTIES—RECOVERY— BOTANICAL STUDIES—HIS MEETING WITH THE LADY WHO AFTER- WARDS BECOMES HIS WIFE. The revolutionary tempest in 1793, during one of its most violent con- vulsions, penetrated as far as the mountains of Poleymieux, and Jean- Jacques Ampére becoming alarmed, in order to escape a danger which his parental and marital solicitude had, perhaps, greatly magnified was guilty of the fatal steps of Jeaving the country and taking refuge in the city of Lyons, and of there accepting the office of justice of the peace. You will remember, gentlemen, that after the seige of that city, Collot- de Herbois and Fouché perpetrated there, under the unfortunately spe- cious name of reprisals, the most execrable butcheries. Jean-Jacques Ampere was one of the first of their numerous victims, less on account of holding the position of magistrate during the trial of Chalier, than on account of the hackneyed charge of aristocrat with which he was branded, in the writ of arrest, by the very man, who, a few years later, had engraved on the panels of his carriage, the most brilliant coat of arms, and who signed with the title of duke, the conspiracies he was plotting against his country and his benefactor. 116 EULOGY ON AMPERE. The day he was to ascend the scaffold, Jean-Jacques wrote to his ‘wife a letter full of the most sublime simplicity, resignation and heroic tenderness, in which you willfind these words: “Say nothing to Josephine (the name of his daughter) of the unhappy fate of her father; try to keep her ever in ignorance of it. As to my son, J expect everything of him.” Alas! the victim deluded himself. The blow was too severe, it was beyond the strength of a young man of eighteen; Ampére was com- pletely paralyzed by it. His intellectual faculties, so active, so ardent and well developed, seemed suddenly to degenerate into a complete idiocy. He would pass whole days mechanically contemplating the skies and the earth, or in heaping up little piles of sand. His anxious friends, fearing his symptoms gave indication of a fatal and rapid de- cline, tried to entice him into the neighboring woods of Poleymieux, to arouse him, if possible, from this lethargy, where ‘he was,” (I use the very words of our associate,) a mute witness, “an observer without eyes or thought.” This torpor of all feeling, mental and moral, lasted for more than a year, when the botanical letters of J. J. Rousseau falling into his hands, their clear, harmonious language seemed to penetrate into the very soul of the afflicted youth, and in some degree to restore tone to his mind, as the rays of the rising-sun pierce the thick fogs of the morning and bear life into the bosom of the plant that the “numb cold night” had rendered torpid. About the same time a volume, accidentally opened, brought to his notice some lines from the ode of Horace to Lucinius. These lines seemed to convey no meaning to our friend, to him who had merely learned Latin with sufficient accuracy to enable him to read essays on mathematics ; but their cadence charmed him, and from this time, contrary to the principles of the moralist who declares the human mind incapable of entertaining at the same time more than one ardent pas- sion, Ampere gave himself up with unrestrained zeal to the simulta- neous studies of plants and the poets of the Augustan age. A volume of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum accompanied him in his herboraza- tions, as well as the works of Linnus, and the meadows and hills of Poleymieux resounded daily with declamations from Horace, Virgil, Lucretius, and especially from Lucian, in the intervals of his dissections of a corolla or the examination of a petal. The quantity of the Latin words became so familiar to Ampere, that forty years after, he com- posed one hundred and fifty eight technical lines ina post-chaise dur- ing a tour of inspection of the universities, without once referring to the Gradus. The botanical knowledge he acquired in these solitary studies was as protound as it was lasting. It is my good fortune to be able to cite on this point the unexceptionable and striking testimony of our colleague, M. Auguste de Saint-Hilaire. he genus Begonia was among the number of those classed by the illustrious de Jussieu under the head of incertu sedis, because he EULOGY ON AMPERE. 117 had not succeeded in discovering their natural relations. On reaching Brazil, where a large number of the species of this genus is found, M. de Saint-Hilaire examined them with the serupulous care which gives so much value to all his labors, and discovered their true affinities. Some time after his return to France, M. de Saint-Hilaire, meeting M. Ampére in society, after the usual interchange of civilities was addressed by him in the following terms: “I found yesterday, while walking in a garden, a begonia, and amused myself examining it. With what family do you classify it?” “Since you have examined it, permit me to ask you how you would classify it?” “I would place it in the adjoining group of onagraires,” replied M. Ampere. And, in fact, this was precisely the idea a thorough examination, made on the very spot where the plant grew naturally and in the open air, had suggested to M. de Saint-Hi- laire. But our two colleagues were guilty of the error of not publish- ing to the world the solution of a problem whose difficulty is de- monstrated by the hesitation concerning it shown by de Jussieu. Ten years later, after his own investigations, Lindley assigned to the genns Begonia the place it should properly occupy—the -place first indicated by Ampere and M. Auguste de Saint-Hilaire. Does it not surprise you, gentlemen, to find the name of a geometer thus associated with those of distinguished botanists ? f Before the bloody catastrophe of Lyons, Ampere, then but eighteen years of age, made a careful examination of his past life, and discov- ered, he said, but three prominent points, but three circumstances, whose influence on his future life was important and decided; these were, his first communion, the reading of the eulogy of Descartes by Thomas, and finally—I foresee your surprise—the fall of the Bastile. From his first communion, our associate dates the existence of fixed religious feeling; from the reading of the eulogy of Descartes, his taste, or rather his enthusiastic love for the study of mathematics, physics, and philosophy; and from the fall of the Bastile, the first exultation of his soul at the names of liberty, human dignity, and phi- lanthropy. The terrible death that snatched from the worthy family of Poleymieux its venerated head was calculated to deaden for a time the faculties of our associate, but there was no change wrought in his convictions. From the moment his intellect was aroused from its slum- ber, that devotion of mind and heart to the cause of civilization resumed itssway. Hescornfully rejected the idea that the fury of a few demons— that crimes—from which he had so cruelly suffered could arrest the pro- gressive march of the world. The fertile mind with which nature had endowed the student of Poley- mieux had been active from his earliest infancy; but such, however, had not been the case with his senses. Those powerful instruments of pleasure and of study were revealed to Ampére at a much later date— at least in all the fullness of their power—and then by akind of sudden reve- lation; which, on this account, seems not unworthy of being classed with 118 EULOGY ON AMPERE. Chesselden’s history of the man blind from his birth and suddenly restored to sight by the removal of acataract. Ampere was extremely near-sight- ed; objects only slightly distant seemed to him but confused and undetined masses. He could form no idea of the pleasure manifested in his pres- ence by the bundreds of people at various times descending the river Saodne between Laneuville and Lyons. One day there chanced to be on the boat a traveler as near-sighted as himself, and with glasses which proved to be of anumbertosuithiseyes. He triedthem, and as if by magic all nature assumed a different aspect, the smiling woods, picturesque country, graceful, gently undulating hills, rich, warm, harmoniously blended tints, spoke for the first time to his imagination, and a torrent of tears proclaimed his deep emotion. Our associate was then but eighteen, and from that time was keenly alive to all the beauties of nature, I have been told that, in 1812, while traveling along the Mediterranean shore of Italy, a view from certain points of the celebrated Corniche on the coast of Genoa threw our friend into such an ecstacy of admiration that instant death in the presence of that sublime picture was all he desired. Were it needful to show how profound were these impressions, and to what extent Ampere could make them available in coloring the most common-place scenery he ‘desired to embellish, a striking proof may be found ina letter dated January 24, 1819. At this time our friend was living in a modest house he had pur- chased at the corner of the streets Fossés-Saint- Victor and Boulangers. The garden, more unpretending still, contained not more than ten super- ficial meters of unproductive land, recently spaded. Several terraces were succeeded by a steep and tortuous trench, crossed by two or three narrow planks over the deepest parts, the whole surrounded by a very high wall. But, you exclaim, you are describing the damp, gloomy yard of a prison. No, gentlemen; I am describing the plan and appearance of a garden where Ampere, in the middle of January, in the street des Boulangers, was already dreaming of—I had almost said was absolutely seeing—green grass, trees in full leaf, and beautiful flowers, filling the air with their delicious perfumes; and clumps of shrubbery beneath whose shade he could revel in the delightful task of reading letters from his Lyonnese friends, where a bridge thrown over the valley formed a picturesque object. Pardon me, gentlemen, for having anticipated the order of time—for having selected from the life of our friend the only circumstance, per- haps, where his imagination has not been a source of sorrow to him. It was not only the emotions of beauty, grandeur, and sublimity with which the hearts of most men are inspired by the view of rural and mountainous scenery to which Ampére had been suddenly awakened. The musical sense was also of sudden birth. In his youth Ampére had given very serious attention to acoustics. He had taken great delight in studying the manner in which waves of air are created EULOGY ON AMPERE. 119 and propagated; the different vibrations of a stretched cord; the curious periodic changes of intensity, designated as beats, Xe. But music, properly so-called, was to him a sealed book. The day finally came, however, when certain combinations of sounds were to Ampére something more than mathematical problems—some- thing more than the monotonous tinkling of bells. In the thirtieth year of his age he accompanied some friends to a con- cert on one occasion, where, in the beginning, the scientific, animated, and expressive music of Gliick was alone performed. The discomfort of Ampére was apparent to all; he yawned, twisted himself, arose, walked about, halted, walked again, without aim or end. From time to time (and this with him was the last stage of nervous impatience) he would place himself in one of the corners of the room, turning his back on the whole assembly. Finally, ennui, that terrible enemy our acade- mician bad never learned to control, from not having been, as he said, at school in his childhood, seemed to ooze from every pore. Now, the scientific music of the celebrated German composer was succeeded un- expectedly by some sweet, simple melodies; and our associate suddenly felt himself transported into a new world, and his emotions betrayed themselves again by copious tears; the chord uniting the ear and heart of Ampere was struck, and made for the first time to vibrate in unison. Time made no change in this peculiar taste. During his whole life Ampére showed the same fondness for simple, unaffected songs; the same distaste for scientific, noisy, labored music. Can it be true that in the beautiful art of such masters as Mozart, Chérubini, Berton, Auber, Rossini, and Meyerbeer there are no fixed rules by which to distinguish the very good from the very bad; the beautiful from the hideous? At all events, may the example of the learned academician render us indulgent to the champions of the ruthless war between the Gluckists and Pieccinists witnessed by our fathers; and may it induce us to pardon the famous mot of Fontenelle, ‘Sonate, que me veux tu?”— (“Sonata, what have you to do with me?”) As we have just seen, Ampere was almost blind to one of the fine arts until eighteen, and almost deaf to ahother until thirty. It was during this interval—that is, when about twenty-one—that his heart suddenly opened toa new passion, that of love. Ampére, who wrote so little, has left some papers, entitled Amorwm, to which he confided, day by day, the touching, artless, and truly beau- tiful history of his feelings. The first page begins thus; “One day while strolling, after sunset, along the banks of a solitary stream,”—— The phrase remains unfinished. I will finish it with the aid of the memory of some of the early friends of the learned academician. The day was the 10th of August, 1796. The solitary stream was not far from the little village of Saint Ger- main, a short distance from Poleymieux. Ampere was botanizing. His eyes, in perfect condition to see since the adventure on the barge of the Sadne, were not now so exclusively 120 EULOGY ON AMPERE. fixed on pistils, stamens, and nerves of leaves that he was unable to observe at some distance two young and pretty girls, of modest de- meanor, who were gathering flowers in a vast meadow. This accidental meeting decided the fate of our associate. Until then the idea of marriage had never even presented itself to his mind. You faney, perhaps, the idea will quietly take root there, and germinate by degrees; but romantic imaginations do not proceed in this way. Am- peére would have been married that very day. The woman of his choice —the only one he ever would have married—was one of those two young girls seen in the distance, with whose family he was not acquainted, of whose name he was ignorant, and whose voice had never reached his ear. But the affair was not so speedily disposed of. It was not until three years afterward that the young girl of the solitary stream and meadow, Mademoiselle Julie Carron, became Madame Ampere. But Ampere was without fortune, and before’ giving their daughter to him the parents of Mademoiselle Carron prudently exacted that he should consider the expenses entailed by marriage, and, as is commonly said in the world, establish himself in some business. You will smile, I am sure, to hear that, entirely engrossed by his passion, Ampére allowed them seriously to propose his applying for a position in some shop, where, from morning until night, he would unfold and fold and unfold again the beautiful Lyonnese silks; where his duty would con- sist principally in detaining the purchasers by engaging them in agree- able conversation, in adhering strictly to a fixed price, but without impatience; in descanting at large on the quality of the fabrics, the taste of the trimmings, and the fastness of the colors. Ampere, without having taken any part in the discussion, escaped this great danger. Science winning the day in a family council, he left his beloved mountains and proceeded to Lyons to give private lessons in mathematics. AMPERE, PRIVATH PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS AT LYONS—CHEM- ICAL STUDIES—MARRIAGE—A CHOSEN PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS AT THE CENTRAL SCHOOL OF BOURG. The period now reached in the life of Ampétre is marked by more than one memorable event. In this he formed those intimate friend- ships which stood the test of, without being shaken by, the political crises and disorders of more than half a century. The new friends, animated by the same tastes, met every morning, at an early hour, at the house of one of the number, M. Lenoir, who cannot be described more clearly than as one of the best, gentlest, and most benevolent men who has ever honored the human race. There, in the Place des Cordeliers, before sunrise, in the fifth story of the house, seven or eight young men compensated themselves, in advance, for the weariness of the day de- voted to business, by reading aloud the chemistry of Lavoisier; a work EULOGY ON AMPERE. 21 in which the severity of the method and the clearness of the exposition seemed to vie with the importance of the results, and, which excited in the mind of Ampére the most genuine enthusiasm. The public, a few years later, were surprised to find a very profound chemist in the pro- fessor of transcendental analysis in the Polytechnic School; but at that time nothing was known of the private readings in the Place des Corde- liers in Lyons. On examining the matter closely, you will find it rare, not to be able to discover in the lives of all men the thread, sometimes highly attenuated, connecting the excellences and tastes of a riper age with the impressions of youth. The marriage of Ampére took place the 15th Thermidor, in the year VII, (the 2d of August, 1799.) The family of Mademoiselle Carron having no faith in the sworn priests, the only ones then recognized by the civil law, considered it necessary to have the religious ceremony performed secretly. This circumstance, as will be readily understood, made a pro- found impression on the mind of the learned geometer. Ampére, now enjoying the fullness of a happiness which alas was destined soon to end, quietly divided his time between the pleasures of tamily and friendly intercourse and the direction of the mathematical studies of his private pupils. The 24th Thermidor, in the year VIII, (8th of August 1800,) his happiness was increased by the birth of a son, who, though still young, ranks high among the élite of French literary writers, and bears with distinction an illustrious name.* Our friend, now feeling the responsibilities of paternity, could no longer remain satisfied with the precarious living derived from the position of a private teacher; and, obtaining the chair of physics in the central school of the department of Aix, in the month of December, 1801, he repaired to Bourg, with asad and sorrowful heart at the separation from his family, being forced to leave his wife, then seriously ill, at Lyons. AMPERE’S MEMOIR ON PROBABILITIES. The studies, plans, and investigations of M. Ampere up to this time had never been given to the public, but remained confined to the limited circle of a few friends. It seems unnecessary to make any especial exception of the two man- uscript memoirs addressed to the Academy of Lyons. Now, however, the young savant began to reveal himself to the public, and, as might be expected, the first occasion was the discussion of a complicated and controverted question of most difficult solution. The vast field of mathematics embraces on one side abstract theories, and on the other their numerous applications. In the last form they interest the generality of men in the highest degree; whom we see, in all ages, seeking, suggesting, and proposing new applications, founded on observations of natural phenomena or the necessities of every-day life, thus giving the mere amateur the privilege of having his name hon- orably inscribed on the records of science. * Since dead, 122 EULOGY ON AMPERE. Hiero, King of Syracuse, suspecting the honesty of a goldsmith, and desiring, without injuring his crown, to determine the purity of the gold, applied to Archimedes, who thus, through his instrumentality, discovered the fundamental principle of hydrostatics, one of the most brilliant discoveries of antiquity. The curioso who asked, after having observed the seven bridges be- tween the two branches of the river Pregel and the island of Kneiphof, whether it were possible to cross them successively without passing twice over the same, and he who wished to know how the knight could move over the sixty-four squares of the chess-board without returning twice to the same square, became involved in that geometry of position, (glanced at by Leibnitz,) which never makes use of the magnitudes of quantities. Finally, the speculations of a gambler, belonging to the aristocratic circles, the Chevalier de Méré, first aS RL in the reign of Louis _ XIV, the calculation of probabilities, or at least directed toward it the attention of Pascal and Fermat, two of the most esa geniuses of whom France is so ARoeeil proud. This last branch of applied mathematics, although called, by an illus- trious geometer, ‘ common sense Feduced to calculation,” was not received without: opposition. Even now public opinion will scarcely admit that analytical formulas ° are capable of determining the secret of judiciary decisions; or of giv- ing the comparative values of judgments pronounced by tribunals dif- ferently constituted ; it unwillingly adopts, also, the numerical limits in which have been included the mean result of several series of distinct and more or less concordant observations. When there is a question of an order of problems less subtile, all understanding play require but the most ordinary intelligence to see at a glance that the aid of algebra can here be satisfactorily called in, but even here are met, in the details and applications, real difficulties, requiring the skill of professional men. Every one readily understands the danger, the stakes being equal, of playing when the conditions of the game give to one greater chances of winning; every one sees, too, at the first glance, that if the chances of the two players are unequal, the stakes should be so too; that if the chances of one, for example, are tenfold those of his adversary, the respective stakes, the sums risked upon the game, should be in the proportion of ten toone; that this exact proportionality of the stakes to the chances is the necessary and characteristic rule, sufficient for all fair play. There are cases, however, where, in spite of the observance of these mathematical conditions, a prudent man would decline to play. Who, for instance, with a million of chances against one in his favor, would risk a million to gain one franc? In order to explain this anomaly, this disagreement between the re- sults of calculation and the inspirations of common sense, Buffon found EULOGY ON AMPERE. 123 it would be necessary to add a new condition to the principles which had seemed to satisfy all but himself. He referred to moral considera- tions. He remarked that we could not, unless by instinct, prevent our- selves from acknowledging the effects, the loss or profit attached to the proposed games would have on our social position and habits; he ob- served that an advantage derived from a benefit could not be measured by the absolute value of that benefit, separated from the fortune to which it was about to be added. The geometrical relation of the increase of fortune to the primitive fortune seemed to him to lead to considera- tions much more in accordance with our mode of life. By adopting this rule you understand at once, for example, that with a million of favor- able chances against one single adverse chance, no man, in the full possession of his senses, would consent to play a million franes against one. The introduction of moral considerations into the mathematical theory of play has undoubtedly detracted from its importance, its clearness, and vigor. It should be regretted, then, that Buffon has used them to reach the conclusion, given in these words: “A long series of chances, is a fatal chain: whose prolongation leads to misery,” in less poetical terms, a professional player ends in certain ruin? This proposition is of the highest social importance, and Ampére was anxious to demonstrate it without borrowing the conditions used by the distinguished naturalist, and the not less celebrated Daniel Bernoulli. Such was the principal object of the work, which appeared in Lyons in 1802, with the modest title of ‘Considérations sur la théorie mathémati- que du jeu” — Reflections on the mathematical theory of chances,” in which the author proves himself an ingenious and practiced calculator. His formulas, full of elegance, lead to purely algebraic demonstrations of theorems, seeming to require the application of the differential analysis. The principal question, moreover, is found completely solved. The course followed by Ampére is clear, methodical, and faultless. He first established that, between two persons, equally rich, the mathe- matical principle of Pascal and Fermat, the proportionality of the stakes to the favorable chances should inevitably be the rule of the game; that inequality of fortunes should give rise to no change in this general rule when the players have decided to play but a limited num- ber of games, so few that neither shall be exposed to the total loss of all his fortune; that the question is changed if there should be an in- definite number of games, and a possibility of continuing the play a longer time, thus giving to the richer player an incontestable advant- age, which rapidly increases, in proportion to the difference of fortunes. The disadvantage of one of the players becomes immense if his ad- versary be very much richer than he, which is always, and very evi- dently, the case of the professional player, who plays with every one. The whole number of players against whom he plays is to be considered as one single individual endowed with an immense fortune. In games 124 EULOGY ON AMPERE. where the chances are equal, and where skill is not required, the pro- fessional player may be sure, in due time, of certain ruin—a fact estab- lished beyond dispute by the formulas of Ampere. The empty words “ good luck,” “chance,” “lucky star,” “lucky run,” ean neither hasten nor retard the execution of a sentence pronounced in the name of algebraic authority. There is a school, calling itself the utilitarian, which has inscribed on its banners three formidable words, A quoi bon? “Of what use ?” and which, in its bitter warfare against what it calls material and intel- lectual superfluities, would commit to the flames our fine libraries and splendid museums, and reduce us to the necessity of eating acorns as our fathers did. These adepts would now ask me, How many gamblers have Ampére’s calculations reclaimed? I confess now, in advance, with all humility, and without intending to reflect upon the memory of our colleague, that the work just analyzed in detail has not, perhaps, reclaimed one single individual infected with the inveterate mania for play. The remedy has not taken effect; but can it be proved it has often been applied? Have there ever been professional players sufficiently versed in algebra to understand the formulas of M. Ampére, and to appreciate their perfect accuracy? You would be sadly mistaken, too, if you fancied that the certainty of losing would deter every one from gambling. My doubt seems paradoxical, certainly; I will endeavor to justify it. Some y nik since in Paris, I made the acquaintance of a distinguished foreigner, of great wealth, but in wretched health, whose life, save a few hours given to repose, was regularly divided between the most interest- ing scientific researches and gambling. It was a source of great regret to me that this learned experimentalist should devote the half of so -aluable a life to a course so little in harmony with an intellect whose wonderful powers called forth the admiration of the world around him. Unfortunately there occurred fluctuations of loss and gain, momentarily balancing each other, which led him to conclude that the advantages enjoyed by the bank were neither so assured nor considerable as to pre- elude his winning largely through a run of luck. The analytical formu- las of probabilities offering a radical means, the only one perhaps of dissipating this illusion, I proposed, the number of the games and the stakes being given, todetermine in advance, in my study, the amount, not merely of the loss of a day, nor that of a week, but of each quarter. The calculation was found so regularly to agree with the corresponding diminution of the bank-notes in the foreigner’s pocket-book that a doubt could no longer be entertained. Did the learned gentleman renounce gambling forever? No, gentlemen; for a fortnight only. He declared that my calculations had completely convinced him; that he would no longer be the ignorant tributary of the gaming-houses of Paris; that he would continue the same kind of life, but without the mad excitement of hope and fear that led EULOGY ON AMPERE. 125 him-on before. ‘TI shall no longer,” he added, “ be in ignorance of the fact that the 50,000 frances of my fortune consecrated to play will pass into other hands. I am resigned to it perfectly; but I shall no longer be, in the eyes of the world, the dupe of an absurd delusion. I shall continue to play, because the superfluous 50,000 frances expended in any other way would be unable to excite in my feeble frame, undermined by suffering, the lively sensations alone aroused by the various combina- tions, fortunate and adverse, displayed every night on the green carpet!” A little reflection will prove that these words are not a mere para- phrase of the well-known witticism of a celebrated statesman: “After the pleasure of winning, I know none so great as that of losing.” It would be doing injustice to mathematical science if I attempted to defend its formulas against the reproach of not having foreseen that the passionate storms, resulting from play, which sweep the bosom would not always prevail over the soft and touching gratification men of means might daily enjoy in applying their wealth to the alleviation of human misery. The passions, although of divine institution, as a woman of the world once said, are so protean that it would be a vain effort on the part of mathematics to entwine them in their regular and methodical meshes. But, again, if science has failed in such a task, the misfortune is shared by the dialectics of the moralist, the eloquence of the pulpit, and even by the sweet persuasions of the poet. I have read somewhere that Colbert on one occasion wished to dissuade the monarch whom he had never failed to serve with devotion and ability from undertaking a certain war. Boileau, promising to aid him in his effort, addressed to Louis XIV that beautiful letter containing a seductive picture of the delights of peace, and, among other remarkable passages, the lines on the Emperor Titus, that live in the memory of every one: Qui rendit de son joug univers amoureux ; Quw’on n’alla jamais voir sans revenir heureux ; Qui soupirait, le Soir, si sa main fortunée N’avait par ses bienfaits signalé sa journée. Who led the world captive, yet charmed with its chain, From whom no one could part without joy in his breast, Whose evenings were saddened and shadowed with pain, When closing a day that his hand had not blest. These lines touched the heart of the king. He caused them to be read aloud to him three times, then ordered his horse to be saddled, and straightway joined the army. AMPERE’S POETICAL COMPOSITIONS. Ampere composed, in his early youth a tragedy on the death of Han- nibal, in which are to be found some excellent poetry and the noblest sentiments. I must add here, that during his sojourn in the principal town of the department of Ain, his mind was not so completely ab- sorbed in science, that he could give no time to the study of literature 126 EULOGY ON AMPERE. and the higher kinds of poetry. Take for example a letter handed to me recently, by our learned colleague M. Isidore Geoffroy, from Bourg, and read by him, the 26th germinal, year XI, before the Emulation Seciety of Ain, beginning thus: Vous voulez, done, belle Emilie, Que de Gresset ou d’ Hamilton Dérobant le leger crayon, J’ailie chercher dans ma folie, Sur les rosiers de ’Hélicon, Sil reste encor quelque bouton De tant de fleurs qu’ils ont cueillies; Souvent mes tendres réveries, ete. Then, wouldst thou, fairest Emily, Have me steal the pencil free Of Gresset or of Hamilton; And wend my way to Helicon, To see if on the rose trees there Some buds remain, they well could spare From all the flowers they have culled To glean some bud they well could spare To be for thy soft bosom pulled. I am not sure that the beautiful Emily was not one of those imagi- nary beings so lavishly invested by poets with perfections of their own creation; but the friends of Ampere will remember that the eminently good, beautiful and distinguished woman, who had united her destiny with his, had often inspired his muse; many will recall some lines, whose first appearance excited no little sensation ; Que j’aime 4 m’égarer dans ces routes fleuries, Ou je t’ai vue errer sous un dais de Lilas; Que jaime a répéter aux nymphes attendries, Sur Vherbe ot tu t’assis, les vers que tu chantas. * * * * * * * Les voila ces jasmins dont je t’avais parée, Ce bouquet de troéne a touché tes cheveux, etc. ’Tis sweet my wandering steps to lose Along the path of flowers, Where lighter feet were wont to choose, Their way mid lilac bowers: And on the turf that thou hast prest, To breathe forth once again, The song that made the wood nymphs blest, Thine own enchanting strain. They lie around, those jasmins fair With which I deck’d thy brow; That privet, it hath touched thy hair, To me ’tis sacred now. A certain mathematician once made the sad mistake of publishing some verses, faultless as to measure and rhyme, but without other merit. A witty lady, hearing them read, remarked that the author of the lines, after the example of M. Jourdain, wrote prose without knowing it. Many writers, called poets, though never having passed through a course of geometry, have fallen into the same error. A satirical remark, however, cannot revive the so often silenced question of the chilling influences of scientific studies. Such names as those of EULOGY ON AMPERE. 5 bya 7 Plato, Lucretius, Descartes, Pascal, Haller, Voltaire, and of J. J. Rous- seau, effectually settle it; and should the discussion be ever renewed, Ampére’s letter, several lines of which I have just quoted, could be cited with advantage, and his name added to the distinguished list. You may think, perhaps, gentlemen, and not without reason, that I have lingered too long over the poetical works of Ampere. I would like to remind you of the four lines, not more, addressed to the cele- brated Ninon de V’Enclos by the great geometer Huygens, and so uncharitably revived by literary writers. The law of retaliation authorizes me to contrast, with this unlucky quatrain, the scientific errors of different poets. Boileau might figure in our polemics, if we thought it advisable, as but a sorry votary of the learned Urania, proved by these two lines from his Satire on Women: Que Vastrolabe en main, une autre aille chercher, Si le soliel est fixe ow tourne sur SON AXE— *‘ Let another try to discover, with the astrolabe in hand, whether the sun is fixed or whether it turns on its axis.” The worthy Abbé Delille did not prove himself more orthodox, when he attributes, in a passage in his inaugural, the more brilliant coloring, rapid growth, and greater fragrance of the tropical productions to the fact that the Sun warms them from a nearer point. This remarkable instance of scientific knowledge is worthy of being ranked with that conveyed in the line of a man, who surely had never doubled Cape Horn, nor even read Cook’s voyages ; a line which should have suggested to the writer to knock from beneath him the Parnas- sian ladder — From the frozen to the burning pole! But it seems to me, gentlemen, that within these walls instead of looking for poets who are not savants, it would be better to cite savants who have been something of poets. AMPERE, SUMMONED TO PARIS, BECOMES TUTOR, AND AFTERWARDS PROFESSOR OF ANALYSIS, AT THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. Lalande and Delambre were delighted with the analytical work of the young professor of Bourg on the calculation of probabilities ; they summoned him to Paris, and gave him the position of tutorin the Poly- technic School, where he acquitted himself with great credit, but not without encountering many trials, results of the retired life he had pre- viously led. Badly advised by friends ignorant of the customs of the place, Ampere made his appearance before his classes, in a school almost military, dressed in a fashionable black coat, miserably made by one of the most unskillful tailors of the capital; and for several weeks this unlucky garment was a source of such distraction to more than a hundred young men that they were unable to attend to the treasures of science falling from the lips of the savant. 128 EULOGY ON AMPERE. Tne tutor, fearing the characters on the black-board are not sufficient- ly distinct to be seen by the more distant members of the class, very naturally endeavors to remedy the evil by increasing their size. In the discussion which usually follows the lesson, with the young men gathered around him, several of them, in a spirit of mischief, exagger- ating their want of sight, induce the benevolent professor to increase the size of the figures by degrees, until the immense black-board, far from affording room for intricate calculations, can scarcely give place to a few figures. Absorbed finally in the elucidation of a difficult theory, in the heat of demonstration he mistakes the rubber covered with chalk for his hand- kerchief. The.account of this certainly very innocent mistake, amplified and magnified, passes from rank to rank, until, when he appeared again before them, he was no longer the learned analyst of their admiration, but the innocent object of their mirth; his moments of abstraction, so eagerly watched for, being but signals for ridicule too long anticipated to be willingly relinquished. et You now know, gentlemen, the rocks upon which the knowledge and zeal of the worthy professor were so often wrecked. PSYCHOLOGY, METAPHYSICS, AMPERE’S PASSION FOR THEM. At the same time as geometrician and metaphysician, Ampere, from his first arrival in Paris, moved in two distinct societies; the only feature of resemblance being the celebrity of their members. In one. were to be found the first-class of the ancient Institute, the professors and examiners of the Polytechnic school, and the professors of tbe col- lege of France. In the other, Cabanis, Destutt de Tracy, Maine de Biran, Degérando, Xe. Here the effort was to fathom and analyze the mysteries of the mind. There this mind, in such measure as nature has bestowed it, and as edu- cation has improved and enlarged it, was each day producing new marvels. The psychologists sought the paths that lead to discovery ; the geometers, chemists, and physicists were actually making discover- ies. Without devoting too much time to the manner in which it was done, they discovered sometimes the analytical formule now actually including the laws of the movements of the stars; sometimes the sub- tilerules of molecular actions, which, while giving‘us the clue to the causes of a great number of natural phenomena, throw light upon the operations of art, and developed national wealth. They made themselves mas- ters finally, ofthe new properties of light, electricity and magnetism, which have given so much brilliancy to the first years of this century. Vibrat- ing between these two schools, ifthe term may be allowed, Ampére’s ar- dent imagination daily endured the severest trials. I am not able to say, with any certainty, how the exact sciences were regarded by meta- physicians; but I know that geometers and chemists held in very slight esteem, investigations purely psychological. EULOGY ON AMPERE. 129 This error, for [ am very much inclined to believe this was an error, will be somewhat lessened in the eyes of those who will take into con- sideration that in metaphysics every thing is connected, linked and bound together like the meshes of the most delicate tissue, in such a manner that a principal cannot be detached from the whole number of definitions, observations, and hypotheses from which it emanates, with- out losing most of its apparent importance and perspicuity. When Ampére, still warmly excited by the conferences he had just held with the psychologists, strove madly, I mean without preparation, to hurl Pémesthese, for example, into the midst of a reunion of geometers, phy- sicists, and naturalists, when still under the influence of his enthusiasm, he maintained that an obscure word, or at least one not understood, con- tained the most beautiful discovery of the century, was it not natural he should encounter skeptics? This would have been of no conse- quence if the extreme amiability of our associate had not allowed the skeptics whose role is to ridicule, to usurp the place of those whose doubts were serious, I find in the manuscript correspondence, to which I have access through M. Bredin, that Ampére had contemplated while in Paris the publication of a book which he intended to call “ Introduction io Phil- osophy.” The famous anathema of Napoleon against ideology did not disceur- age him; it seemed to him rather to contribute to the propagation of this kind of studies than to its suppression. Our associate continued to elaborate his Theory of Relations, his Theory of Existence, of Subjec- tive and Objective Knowledge, and of Absolute Morality. He considered himself incapable of throwing sufficient light on sub- jects so difficult to treat without submitting them to animated verba discussions. Unfortunately the so ardently desired opportunities were not to be found in Paris at that time. Maine de Biron had returned to Berjerac, and among the remaining inhabitants of that immense capital, not one seemed to feel any interest, from a metaphysical point of view, in subjective, objective, and absolute morality. Ampére then turned his eyes in the direction of the friends of his youth, and resolved to re- turn for a short time to Lyons. The terms of the visit were strictly arranged; a certainty of at least four afternoons a week devoted to dis- cussions on ideology, a formal promise that each day should be read and examined with a view to correction in composition and perspicuity, the subjects of each day’s study. Although I have not at hand the text of the repliesreceived by Ampére I haveevery reason to believe they were far from giving him satisfaction. ‘‘ How wonderful is the science of psy- chology !” he wrote to M. Bredin, ‘‘ and most unhappily for me, you no longer feel an interest in it, is it necessary, besides to deprive me of ail earthly consolation, he said, to know we no longer sympathize on meta- physical subjects. * * * About the only thing which interests me, Is Le EULOGY ON. AMPERE. you no longer think as Ido. * * * This creates a frightful void in my soul.” Ampére’s friends in Lyons had found his psychology somewhat dry and minute. They tried to induce bim to return to the exact sciences, but our associate replied to them in a lyrical strain, “‘ How can I abandon a country full of flowers and fresh, running waters; how give up streams and groves for deserts scorched by the rays of a mathematical sun, which, diffusing over all surrounding objects the most brilliant light, withers and dries them down to the very roots? * * * How much more agreeable to wander under flitting shades than walk in straight paths, where the eye embraces ail at a glance, and where nothing seems to fly before us to incite us to pursue !” It was my desire to seek the fresh groves discovered by Ampere and to try to persuade you to enter them with me; but, alas! accustomed by your advice and example to prize above all things in matters of sci- ence, straight and well-lighted paths, my dazzled eyes found but pro- found darkness where the piercing eyes of our ingenious friend were privileged to see brilliant semi-tints. Without the guide of Ariadne’s clue it would be in vain to attempt Ampere’s manuscripts, I should be afraid, I must acknowledge, of being forced, as Voltaire was formerly, to place atthe end of each metaphysical proposition the two letters N. L., traced by the style of the Roman magistrate, when the cases seemed too obscure to allow a well-grounded judgment. But non liquet, (it is not clear,) too fre- quently repeated, in spite of perfect sincerity, would have worn an air of affected modesty to be avoided at any price. Is my extreme diffidence to be condemned? It would not be difficult to justify it by pointing alone to the arrogant contempt each psychologi- cal school casts upon its rival, and that through the organ of its most eloquent propagandists. Listen to what I will read to you from the lectures of one of its most celebrated teachers, Laromiguiere, ‘* What is a science which has neither fixed nor invariable methods; which changes its nature and its form at the will of those who profess it? What is a science which is no longer to-day what it was yesterday; which by turns boasts as its oracles Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Locke, Leibnitz, and so many others Whose doctrines and methods seem to have nothing in common? Ina word, what is a science, not only whose existence, but whose possibility is questioned ?” But Ampere bespoke in advance all my reserve when he exclaimed, These last have only uttered what is eminently just and true, when in comparing the true metaphysicians of the schools of Kant and Schel- ling with the followers of Reid and Dugald Stewart, they said, the last are to the first what good cooks are to chemists. I will leave to the most competent judges of future times to assign to Ampére a place amongst psychologists. Nevertheless, I may now affirm that the wonderful powers of penetration and the rare faculty of reach- EULOGY ON AMPERE. St ing wide generalizations from minute detail must have distinguished his metaphysical researches, since it shone with such brillianey in works on physical mathematics the most solid, or, if you prefer, the most generally recognized and the most indisputable foundation of his scientific fame at the present day. Ampere, in metaphysics, as nearly as the subject would permit, approximated to the experimental method. It certainly is not from his mouth that proceeded those incredible words attributed to a psychologist, *‘ I despise you as I do a fact.” He, on the contrary, held facts in the highest favor. Heshowed great fertility in combining them with his theories. When, though rarely his efforts in this line were fruitless, theories were immediately changed or abandoned. Amongst my hearers there are probably some to whom these words will recall both the first ideas of our associate on the instinct of animals and the manner in which he modified them. The circum- stances of this sudden change seem to merit being preserved. Among the most prominent of the many vexed metaphysical ques- tions is, whether animals possess the powers of reasoning. or are solely guided by instinet—a question which will, perhaps, be better understood by presenting it in these terms: Must we, with Aristotle, concede only feeling and memory to the brute creation? Is it true they are without the faculty of comparing their actions and drawing conclusions? Am- pere, avowing himself on this point a decided peripatetic, in the pres- ence of several of his friends, one of them related, in opposition to his views, the following anecdote: | “ Being overtaken one night, not far from Montpelier, by a violent storm, I took refuge in an inn, in the first village I found on my road. The death of a lean chicken was the immediate result of this unex- pected visit. The cook, placing the almost fleshless fowl on the spit immediately tried to seize a terrier, which, when introduced into a rotatory drum of quite large dimensions, under the mantel-piece, was to perform the office of moving the combinations of weights, springs, and cogged wheels now found in the humblest kitchen, but then, in the center of France, a great rarity. The terrier absolutely refused to per- form the duty assigned him; he would yield neither to blows, threats, nor caresses. So much firmness, resolution, and courage attracting my attention, I inquired if the poor beast were making his first trial. Poor beast! some one replied, ill-naturedly and roughly, he does not _ deserve your pity, on my faith; for such scenes take place every day. Do you know why this jine gentleman refuses to turn the spit? Because he has decided, in his head, that he and his comrade must divide the labors of roasting exactly regularly between them. I now remem- ber he was the last to turn the spit, and he now concludes this is not his turn to work. “The words, tt is not his turn now, seemed to me to include a world of meaning. At my request the stable-boy was sent into the street to fetch the second dog. This one showed the most exemplary docility ; 1352 EULOGY ON AMPERE. the rotatory drum received him, and he would soon have finished the task if, wishing to complete the experiment, I had not caused him to be removed in order to give the refractory dog a new trial. The refractory dog, whose turn had now come, obeyed the first signal of the cook, entered the rustic turn-spit without resistance, and went to work like a squirrel in its cage. ‘Does it not follow from this, my dear Ampere, that dogs can have the consciousness of the just and the unjust, leading them to lay out a rule for themselves, and to endure corporal punishment rather than allow any violation of it?” Ampére’s features so keenly expressed the interest he took in the recital that you might have fancied he was about to exclaim with Lae- tance, ‘“‘ Except in matters of religion, the brute creation share all the advantages of the human race.” However, our associate did not press the matter as far as the Christian Cicero. While modifying his former views on instinct, he merely admitted that animated beings, taken in the aggregate, exhibit every possible degree of intelligence, from the lowest up to that which, to adopt the expression of Voltaire, might in- spire with jealousy the familiars of Jove himself. I shall not leave this subject without giving another example to show, in spite of his extreme animation in discussion in the inain, how true and tolerant Ampere was, and how free from the malevolent pas- sions that unconceived ideas and conceit usually bring in their train. In some manuscript notes of a professor of Lyons, M. Bredin, with whom Ampére studied the metaphysical doctrine of the absolute, I find these exact words: ‘Very animated discussions daily arose between us, and in them originated that holy and indissoluble friendship which hus so jirmly united us.” A writer of romance would fancy he was doing violence to proba- bility by placing friendship among the possible consequences of heated discussions. A presumption so unparalleled could only be tolerated in the land of fable. MATHEMATICAL LABORS OF AMPERE. Such a man as Ampére often puts the self-love of his biographer to a severe trial. I was obliged just now to shrink from psychological researches whose importance and depth I could not reach; and here again I am forced to confess that an intelligible analysis, in common language, of the works of our associate on pure mathematics, is beyond ~ my powers. Nevertheless, as in these works figure the memoirs which, after the death of Lagrange in 1813, opened the doors of the Academy to our friend, they ought tg be mentioned, if only by their titles. The adventurous mind of Ampére was always fond of questions that the fruitless efforts of twenty centuries had pronounced insoluble; he was never happier, if I may be allowed the expression, than when EULOGY ON AMPERE. 133 upturning the principles of science. I must acknowledge I was not a little astonished not to find him struggling with the quadrature of the circle. This inexplicable hiatus, in the youth of our associate, has just been filled. A manuscript note from the secretary of the Academy of Lyons apprises me that, on the 8th of July, 1788, Ampére, then thir- teen years of age, addressed to that learned body a paper relating to the celebrated problem just mentioned. Later during the same year he submitted to the examination of his compatriots an analogous memoir, entitled “ The rectification of any are of a circle less than the semi-circum- ference.” These memoirs have not reached us. If the manuscript note sent to me can be relied upon, young Ampere, not only did not think the problem insoluble, but flattered himself he had almost solved it. Scruples, respected by me without being shared, demanded the sacri- fice of this anecdote. It certainly would have been a very small sacri- fice, but I did not consider it consistent with my duty to make it. The scientific weaknesses of men of a very high order of intellect are lessons quite as useful and profitable as their successes, and the biographer has no right to cover them with a vail. Is it quite certain, too, that there is anything here to excuse or conceal; that a geometer need biush for efforts made in his childhood, or even at a riper age, to square the cir- cle geometrically ?. To sustain, however, such a proposition, we have only to recall the fact that antiquity presents to us, as deeply engaged in this problem, Anaxagoras, Meton, Hippocrates, Archimedes, and Apollonius; and to these we may add the modern names of Snellius, Huygens, Gregory, Wallis and Newton; and, finally, that amongst those whose sagacity the quadrature of the circle has set at defiance—I mean who have been involved by it in palpable errors there are many who have, in other respects, rendered genuine service to science ; for example J. B. Porta, the inventor of the camera-obscura; then Grégoire de Saint Vincent, the Jesuit, to whom we owe the discovery of the won- derful properties of hyperbolic spaces terminated by asymptotes; Lon- gomontanus, the astronomer, &ce., &e. If your mind is engrossed with the idea that, in order to justify their efforts to square the circle, others will cite hereafter, to their advan- tage, the attempts of a child of thirteen, I reply unhesitatingly—for my academic duties bring me frequently in and personal relations with the squarers of the circle—that authorities have absolutely.no weightin their eyes; that they have long since entirely separated themselves from every- thing that bears or has borne the nameof geometer; that Euclid himself, in his principal theorems—for example, that of the square of the hypothe- neuse—seems to them scarcely worthy of trust. If a mania—I was on the point of saying a furor which manifests itself especially in spring, as proved by experience—could@ ever be amenable to logic, it would be necessary, in order to battle it successfully, to distinguish more carefully than has ever yet been done the various aspects under which the prob- lem of the quadrature of the circle ought to be considered. An example 134 EULOGY ON AMPERE. of cure under my own eyes might give me some confidence in this mode of treatment. The first, according to date, of all the mathematical memoirs of Am- pere, printed after his arrival in Paris, relates to a question of elemen- tary geometry. This memoir, presented to the Academy of Lyons in 1801, appeared in the publication of the correspondence of the Polytech- nic School in the month of July, 1806. A few words will saffice to de- scribe the end Ampére proposed to himself. There is in elementary geometry a proposition so evident that it may properly be regarded as an axiom. It is this: If two lines situated in the same plane are parallel, or, in other words, if, prolonged indefinitely, can never meet ; and if a third line, forming an angle at any point with the first of the two parallels, be indefinitely ex- tended from the point of intersection, it will cut the second. No one can feel a doubt about this theorem, although all the efforts of the most cele- brated geometers, the Euclids, the Lagranges, the Legendres, We., toadd to its natural evidence by way of demonstration, properly so-called, have been fruitless. The geometry of solid bodies, had offered, up to the present time, a proposition whose truth was quite as evident, and that, nevertheless, had never been demonstrated. I refer to the equality of volume of sym- metrical polyhedrons. Two oblique polyhedrons have the same base situated on a horizontal plane; one is entirely above the plane, the other entirely below. Their faces are similar and of the same length ; moveover, their inclinations correspond exactly to a common base. To give the same idea in different words—one of the two polyhedrons being considered as an object, the other would be its image reflected on the plane of the common base, if that plane were a mirror. The object of Ampére’s treatise is to demonstrate the equality of these two polyhedrons; and it can be affirmed that, on this point, in the sci- ence of geometry there is nothing more to desire. In 1803 M. Ampere addressed to the institute a very finished worls, which, however, was not given to the public until much later, (1808,) entitled “ Treatise on the advantages to be derived, in the theory of curves, From due consideration of osculatcry parabolas.” We also find a treatise by Ampere dated the 26th florial year 11 which was published in the first volume of the collection of the foreign savants of the Academy of Sciences. This is its title ‘ Investigations on the application of the gen- eral formulas of the valculus of variations to problems in mechanics.” The formulas of equilibrium, given by the immortal author of ana- lytical mechanics, have a form analogous to that of the equations that the calculus of variations furnishes for the determination of the max- imaand minima of integral formulas. Ampere thought that this simili- tude of form, previously noticed by Lagrange, would afford him the means of avoiding, in the solution of questions in statics, the trouble- some integration by parts. The analogy is not as complete as-might be EULOGY ON AMPERE. 135 thought at first sight. The ordinary formulas require to, be changed in order to be used in the solution of problems of méchanics. Ampére - gives these transformations and applies them to the ancient problem of the catenary. This problem, which consisted in determining the curve formed by an inextensible chain of uniform weight when attached to two fixed points, is famous under more than one name. Galileo tried, ineffectually, to solve it. His conjecture that the curve sought might be a parabola, was found false, in spite of all the paralogisms accumulated by Péres Pardies, and de Lamis to prove its accuracy to the singular adver- sary who brought to oppose them proofs from mechanics. In 1691 Jaques Bernoulli challenged the scientific world with the same problem. Only three geometers had the courage to take up the gauntlet—Leib- nitz, Huygens, and Jean Bernoulli, who, we may remark in passing, at this time, evinced the first symptoms of his jealousy of his master, bene- factor, and brother; thus demonstrating that the love of fame is capa- ble of becoming the most ungovernable, most unjust, and blindest of the passions. The four illustrious geometers were not content to give the true differential equation of the curve; they also pointed out the consequences deduced from it. Everything now seemed to authorize the belief that the subject was exhausted; but this was a mistake. The treatise of Ampére contaius, in fact, new and very remarkable properties of the catenary and its development. There is no small merit, gentlemen, in discovering hiatuses in subjects explored by such men as Leibnitz, Huggens, and the two Bernoullis. I must not forget to add that the analysis of our associate unites elegance with simplicity. Ampere gave, moreover, 2 new demonstration of the celebrated mathematical relation known as Taylovr’s theorem, and calculated the finite expression, neglected when the series are arrested at any term whatsoever. Called to the chair of mathematics at the polytechnic school, Ampere could not fail to seek a demonstration of the principle of virtual veloci- ties, disengaged from the consideration of infinitesimals. Such is the object of a treatise published in 1806, in the thirteenth number of the journal of the school. Whilst candidate for the position left vacant by the death of La- grange in 1813, Ampere presented to the academy, first: General con- siderations on the integrals of equations of partial differences; and afterwards, an application of these considerations to the integration of dif- ferential equations of the first and second order. These two treatises give superabundant proof that analysis, in its most difficult form, was per- fectly familiar to him. Ampere was not inactive after becoming a member of the academy ; he busied himself with the application of analysis to the physical sciences. Amongst these productions we may cite: 1. Demonstration of the laws of mariotre, read at the academy Jan- uary 24, 1814. 136 EULOGY ON AMPERE. 2. Demonstrations of a new theory, from which can be deduced all the laws of refraction, ordinary and extraordinary ; read at the academy March 27, 1815. 3. A memoir on the determination of the curved surfaces of luminous avaves in a medium whose elasticity differs in three dimensions ; read at the Academy of Sciences August 26, 1828. AMPERE’S RESEARCHES IN THE SCIENCE OF ELECTRO-DYNAMICS. Amongst the works of our friend there is one which excels all the oth- ers ; it constitutes, in itself, a beautiful science, and its name, ‘“ Electro- dynamics,” will ever be inseparably linked with that of Ampére. Instead of presenting to your thoughts twenty different subjects in succession, permit me to concentrate them for a time on the vast and teeming con- ception of our friend, happy if I succeed in disengaging it from any appearance of obscurity and ambiguity it may have presented up to this time, and thus show the elevated rank which will entitle it, with the most beautiful discoveries of the age, to the gratitude of pos- terity. While so many of the ancient and modern sciences were making rapid and momentous progress, the science of magnetism had remained almost stationary. We have known that, for centuries at least, bars ot iron, and more especially of steel, freely supported, turn toward the north. This curious property has given us the two Americas, Austra- lia, the numerous archepelagoes, and the hundreds of isolated islands of Oceanica, &e.; it is to it this, in cloudy and foggy weather, the mariner, plowing the mighty oceans, has recourse, to guide and direct his ship; no truth in physics has had results so colossal. Nevertheless, until the present time, nothing had been discovered regarding the nature of the peculiar modification undergone by a bar of neutral steel during the mysterious—I had almost said, cabalistic—operations which transform it into a magnet. The whole phenomena of magnetism, the diminution, the destruction, the inversion of the polarity of the needle of the compass, occasioned sometimes on ships by violent discharges of lightning, seemed to estab- lish some intimate connection between magnetism and electricity. Nev- ertheless, the labors, ad hoc, undertaken at the request of several acad- emies inorder to develop and strengthen this analogy, led to so few decisive results that we read, in a programme by Ampére himself, printed in 1802: “The professor will demonstrate that the electrical and magnetic phe- nomena are owing to two different fluids, which act independently of each other.” Sciences had reached this point when, in 1819, the Danish physicist, (Ersted, announced to the learned world a fact, wonderful in itself, but— more so especially from the consequences deduced from it; a fact the memory of which will be transmitted from age to age, as long as science is EULOGY ON AMPERE. aS o7/ honored amongstmen. I will try to give a clear and exact idea of this most important discovery. The voltaic pile is terminated at its extremities, or, if you prefer as an expression more suitable, at its two poles by two dissimilar metals. Let us suppose, for example, the elements of this wonderful apparatus to be copper and zinc; if the copper is at one of the poles the zine will inevitably be at the other. The battery, with the exception of some slight traces of tension, is, or at least seems to be, completely inert as long as the extreme poles are not put into communication by means of a sub- stance conductive of electricity. A metallic wire is generally used to connect the two poles of the battery, or, which amounts to the same thing, to put the app aratus in action. This wire is then called the con- junctive wire. A current of electricity passes along the whole length of the con- ductor, and circulates uninterruptedly through the closed circuit, result- ing from the union of the wire and the battery. If the battery is very powerful, the current will be equally so. Physicists had for a long time known how to impart to an insulated metallic wire a large quantity of electricity in repose, or electricity of ten- sion, as it is calledin treatises on physics; they also know how to trans- mit electricity along wires not insulated in very large quantities ; but in this case the passage was sudden and instantaneous. The first means of combining intensity with duration in currents of electricity is fur- nished by the galvanic battery, with which a discharge, more powerful than could be produced by the largest ancient machines for the millionth part of a second, is here given for hours together. Does the con- junctive wire, the wire along which a quantity of electricity passes un- interruptedly, acquire, in consequence of this movement, any new prop- erties? To this question the experiment of Cirsted replies affirmatively in the most striking manner. Let us place a wire of a certain length, of copper, silver, platina, or any other metal without appreciable magnetic action, above a horizontal compass, and parallel to its needle. The presence of the wire will have no effect. Make no change in the first arrangement, but join, either directly or by intermediary long or short wires, the two extremities of the parallel wire to the two poles of a voltaic pile; or in this way let us transform the insulated wire into a conjunctive wire, along which a permanent current of electricity passes, and at that very instant the needle of the compass will change its direction; if the battery be feeble the deviation will be inconsiderable; but if the battery be very strong, notwithstanding the action of the earth, the magnetic needle will form an angle of nearly 90° with its natural position. I have supposed the conducting wire above the magnetic needle, placed below the phenomenon would be the same with regard to quantity, qut exactly opposite as to the direction of the deviation. The conjunce- tive wire above would impel the north pole of the needle toward the 138 EULOGY ON AMPERE. west; the deviation would be toward the east when, the conditions being the same, the wire is below. It is necessary to remark here that the wire preserves absolntely none of that deviating power the moment it ceases to be a conducting wire, or to join the two poles of the battery. It would indicate a total want of scientific perception not to understand how extraordinary and important are the results I have just announced; not to observe with surprise an imponderable fluid imparting for the moment to the slender wire along which it passes, properties so powerful. These properties, studied in their specific characters, are not less wonderful. ‘ Even a child knows it would be useless to try to turn a horizontal lever around a pivot on which its center rests by pushing or pulling it lengthways—I mean, following the line leading to the center of rota. tion. The force must necessarily be transverse. The perpendicular to the length of the lever is, no matter in what direction, that which requires the least force to create a given movement. The experiment of M. Girsted is directly opposed so these elementary rules of mechanies. Please then to remember, when the forces developed by the passage of the electrical current in each point of the conducting wire are found to correspond vertically with the axis of the needle itself, either above or below, the deviation is at its maximum. The needle remains at rest, on the contrary, when the wire is presented to it in a direction nearly perpendicular. Such is the strangeness of these facts that, in order to explain them, various physicists have had recourse to a continued flow of electrical matter circulating round the conducting wire at right angles to it, and producing the deviations of the needle by way of impulse. This was nothing less, on a small scale, than the famous. vortices contrived by Descartes to account for the general movement of tke planets around the sun. Thus a physical theory which had been abandoned for more than two centuries was recalled by the discovery of Cirsted. We have already mentioned the important remark of the celebrated Danish physicist, that the deviations of the needle of a horizontal compass approach nearer and nearer 90 degrees in proportion to the increase of the power of the battery during the connection of the two poles by the wire. Feeble batteries, on the contrary, produce only scarcely sensible movements. What is the part played by that myste- rious power, seeming to reside in the arctic regions of the globe, to at- tract magnetic bodies in a certain way, and repel others?) What part does it pefform in lessening the deviations when the battery has little power? Ampere perceived the importance of this question at the very first glance ; he saw it was not a mere nice and subtle refinement without bearing; he understood that the solution of the problem would stamp with characteristic features the forces brought into play by the experi- ment of Girsted; but how getrid of the attraction of the earth; how EULOGY ON AMPERE. 139 eliminate it; how intercept it? I see some smile at my question, and hear them exclaim, Do not mariners cover with pieces of canvas or pea- jackets the iron cannon in the neighborhood of the compass, when- ever they wish to obtain exactness in their bearings? Screens, then, ought effectually to furnish the means of protecting the needle from terrestrial magnetism. As to that, a glass sphere, inclosing the com- pass, would answer. A single word will dispel this illusion. No substance, thick or thin, has yet been discovered through which magnetic action, like that of gravity, does not exert its full force, without any abatement. The custom of covering cannon, balls, and anchors, with sails, tarred or un- tarred, or with anything else, to prevent their action on the compass, belongs to the thousand and one usages recorded in treatises on naviga- tion before science had diffused its light around it. Even when ex- posed, such usages diffuse and perpetuate themselves, and are the blind powers which govern the world. The researches of Ampere did not abso utely require (which, in fact, would have been an impossibility) that his apparatus should be completely free from the attraction of the earth; it was sufficient that this attraction should not counteract the movement of the needle; and this simple reflection became the ray of light that guided the illustrious physicist, and gave rise to a kind of compass never before thought of. To understand the invention of Ampere by which a magnetic needle could be so arranged as to be free to obey the action of a galvanic cur- rent, and undisturbed by the magnetism of the earth, suppose an ordi- nary dipping-needle apparatus so placed that its graduated circle shall be perpendicular to the magnetic meridian of the place, and then so inclined to the horizon that the graduated circle and the needle within it shall be at right angles to the direction of the magnetic dip of the place where the experiment is made. In this condition the magnetism of the earth will act perpe ndicular to the direction of the needle and be opposed by the pivot on which the lower point of the axis rests. It will therefore be free to take any position in the plane of the divided circle which an extraneous force may give it. Ampere was therefore quite right in calling his new instrument an astatic compass. Ampére’s astatic needle, placed before a conducting wire, takes a direction exactly perpendicular to that wire, neither one second more nor less; and, a very remarkable circumstance, avery feeble electricity pro- duces as much effect as a current of sufficient intensity to reduce metals to a state of incandescence. Here, then, is one of those simple laws that science loves to record, and the mind receives with confidence, and be- fore which false theories will inevitably disappear. The discovery of Girsted reached Paris through Switzerland. At our weekly meeting on Monday, September 11, 1820, a member of the academy from Geneva repeated before you the experiment of the Dan- ish savant. Seven days later, on the 18th of September, Ampére pre- 140 EULOGY ON AMPERE. sented to you a much more general fact than that of the physicist of Copenhagen. In that short interval of time he had conjectured that two connecting wires, two wires traversed by electrical currents, would act on each other; he had devised extremely ingenious arrangements to make these wires movable without the necessity of detaching the extremities of each from the respective poles of their batteries. He had embodied these conceptions in instruments capable of acting; he had, in fact, reduced his wonderful idea to a decisive experiment. I do not know whether the vast field of physics ever exhibited so beautiful a dis- covery conceived and consummated with so much rapidity. This brilliant discovery of Ampere may be summed up in these words: Two parallel connecting wires attract each other when the electricity traverses them in the same direction ; on the contrary, they repel each other when the electric currents move in opposite directions. The connecting wires of two batteries similarly placed, of two bat- teries whose copper and zine poles respectively correspond always, then attract each other. There is in the same way always repulsion be- tween the connecting wires of two batteries when the zine pole of one is opposite the copper pole of the other. It is not a necessary condition of these singular attractions and re- pulsions that the wires in operation should belong to two different bat- teries.’ By bending and rebending a single connecting wire such an arrangement may be made that two of its portions, opposite to each other, may be traversed by the electrical current either in the same or in opposite directions. The phenomena, then, are absolutely identical with those which result from currents proceeding from two distinct sources. The phenomena of Cirsted, from their origin, had been called, very appropriately, electro-magnetic. To those of Ampere, in which the magnet plays no distinct part, the more general name of electro-dyna- mics has been applied. The experiments of the French savant did not escape at first those criticisms which envy reserves for all things possessing novelty, im- portance, and a future. Men were unwilling to see in the attractions and repulsions of these currents anything more than a hardly appre- ciable modification of the ordinary electrical attractions and repulsions known since the time of Dufay. On this point the replies of our friend were prompt and decisive. Bodies similarly electrified repel each other; similar currents attract each other. Bodies in an opposite condition of electricity attract each other; unlike currents repel each other. Two bodies similarly electrified repel each other from the moment of contact ; two wires traversed by similar currents remain together like two magnets, if brought into contact. No subterfuge in the world could resist this close argumentation. EULOGY ON AMPERE. 14t Another class of critics embarrassed our associate more seriously. These last acted apparently in a charitable spirit. To believe them, they jnvoked with all their hearts, but without hope, the solution of a great difficulty ; it pained them deeply, they said, to see the glory with which these new discoveries would have surrounded the name of Ampére vanish so rapidly. This is somewhat the manner in which the insur- mountable difficulty was formulated. Two bodies which separately have the property of acting on a third cannot fail to act on each other. The connecting wires, according to the discovery of Cirsted, act upon the magnetic needle, then two connecting wires ought to influence each other reciprocally ; hence, the movements of attraction and repulsion, when brought together, are deductions, necessary consequences, of the experiment of the Danish physicist; hence, it would be wrong to rank the observations of Ampere among the primordial facts which open to science entirely new paths. Action and reaction are equal. There was in the phraseology just cited a false air of that incontestible principle of mechanics which misled many minds. Ampére replied by challenging his adversaries to deduce with any degree of plausibility the resultant direction (le sens) of the mu- tual action of two electrical currents ; although he made the demand with much spirit, no one acknowledged himself defeated. The infallible means of reducing this violent opposition to silence, of sapping its objections to their foundation, was to cite an example where two bodies which would act separately on a third would, nevertheless, not act on each other. A friend of Ampére remarked, that magnetism exhibited a phenomenon of this kind. He said to the benevolent an- tagonist of the great geometer: ‘ Here are two keys of soft iron; each of them attracts this compass; if you cannot show that, placed near each ther, these keys attract and repel each other, the point of departure of all your objections is false.” From that moment the objections were abandoned and the reciprocal actions of electrical currents took definitely the place belonging to them among the most beautiful discoveries of modern physics. Once disembarrassed of the charges of originality and priority, always more painful when implied than when openly made, Ampére sought with zeal a clear, vigorous, and mathematical theory, which would embrace, under a common head, not only all the phenomenaof ordinary magnetism, but also those of electro-dynamic phenomena. The investigation bristled with all kinds of difficulties. Ampere overcame them with methods on which the genius of invention shone at every step. These methods will remain as one of the most precious models in the art of investigating nature; of seizing in the midst of the complex forms of phenomena the simple laws which govern them. Dazzled by the éclat, grandeur, and fertility of the law cf universa: attraction—thatimmortal discovery of Newton—persons little conversant with mathematics imagine .that, in order to introduce the planetary 142 EULOGY ON AMPERE. movements into the domain of analysis, it would be necessary to sur- mount obstacles a thousand times greater than those met by the modern geometer, when he wishes, with the assistance of mathematics, to follow in all their ramifications the various phenomena discovered and studied by physicists. However general this opinion may be, it is not the less an error. The smallness of the planets, when compared to the sun; the immensity of the distances; the almost spherical form of the celestial bodies; the absence of all matter capable of offering any sensible resist- ance in the vast regions where the elliptical orbits are described, are so many circumstances extremely simplifying the problem, and bringing it within the abstractions of rational mechanics. If, instead of the movements of the planets—I mean of distant bodies capable of being considered reduced to simple points—the only guide had been the phenomena of attraction of irregular polyhedrons, acting on each other at short distances, the laws of universal gravity would remain yet to be discovered. These words will suffice to give an idea of the real obstacles which render the progress of mathematical physics so slow. No one need, therefore, be surprised to learn that the propagation of sound, or of luminous vibrations; that the movement of the light waves ruffling the surface of liquids; that the atmospheric currents caused by irregu- larities of pressure and temperature, etc., are much more difficult to calculate than the majestic course of Jupiter, Saturn, or Uranus. The phenomena of terrestrial physics Ampere proposed to unravel were certainly among the most complex. The attractions and repul. sions observed between conducting wires resulted from the attraction and repulsion of all their parts. Now, to pass from the whole to the determination of the numerous and different elements which compose it, or in other words to the investigation into the manner in which the mutual actions of two infinitely small parts of two currents vary, when their relative distances and inclinations are changing, offered unwonted difficulties. All these difficulties have been overcome. The four conditions of equilibrium, which have rendered so much assistance to the author in developing phenomena, will be called the laws of Ampere, as the three great consequences, deduced by that celebrated genius from the obser- vations of Tycho, are called the laws of Kepler. The oscillations, turned to so great profit by Coulomb in the measure- ment of small magnetic or electrical forces, imperatively exact that the bodies for experiment should be suspended by a single film without tor- sion. The conducting wire cannot be placed in such a position, as it would be in danger of losing its virtue unless in permanent communi- cation with the two poles of the battery. Oscillations give very exact measurement, but coupled with the express condition of being numerous. The conducting wires of Ampere never fail to be at rest after a very small number of oscillations. EULOGY ON AMPERE. 143 The problem appeared truly insoluble, when our associate perceived he could reach his object by observing different conditions of equilib- rium between conducting wires of certain forms placed one before the other. The choice of these forms was the essential point; and itis bere the genius of Ampére displayed itself in the most marked manner. He first enveloped with silk two equal portions of the same conduct- ing wire; he bent this wire so that its two covered portions shouid be in juxtaposition, and traversed from opposite sides by a current from the same battery; he was satisfied then that this system of two equal but opposite currents exercised no power over the delicately sus- pended conducting wire, and thus proved that the attractive force of a given electrical current is perfectly equal to the force of repulsion it exercised when the direction of its course is mathematically inverted. Ampere then suspended a very moveable conducting wire, exactly between two fixed conducting wires, which being traversed from the same side by one and the same current ought to repel the intermediate wire; one of these fixed wires is straight, the other bent and twisted, presenting a hundred small sinuosities. The communication necessary to give play to the currents being established, the moveable intermediate wire will stop exactly between the two fixed wires, and if moved from its position willreturn itself to the same place. From this it follows that if a straight connecting wire and a sinuous connecting wire, though their unfolded lengths may be very different, exercise powers exactly equal if they have extremities common to both. In a third experiment Ampere established undeniably that no closed eurrent whatever could cause a circular portion of connecting wire to turn round an axis perpendicular to that one are passing through its center. The fourth and last fundamental experiment of our associate is an instance of equilibrium, involving three suspended circular circuits whose centers are in a straight line, and whose radii are in a continuous geometrical proportion. Our associate made use of those four laws to settle what he had al- lowed to remain arbitrary in his analytical formula, conceived in the most general terms imaginable to explain the mutual action of two in- finitely small elements of two electrical currents. A skillful comparison of the general formula with the observation of the four cases of equilibrium shows that the reciprocal action of the elements of two currents is exercised in the direction of the line uniting their centers; that it depends on the mutual inclination of these ele- ments, and that it varies in intensity in the inverse proportion of the squares of the distances. Thanks to the profound researches of Ampere, the law, which governs celestial movements, the law, extended by Coulomb to the phenomena of electricity at rest or in tension, and then though with less certainty, to magnetic phenomena, becomes one of the characteristic features of 144 EULOGY ON AMPERE. the powers exercised by electricity in motion. The general formula, which gives the value of the mutual actions of the infinitely small ele- ments of currents, once understood, the determination of the combined actions of limited currents of different forms becomes a simple problem of integral analysis. Ampere did not fail to follow out these applica- tions of his discoveries. He first tried to discover how a rectilinear current acts on a system of circular closed currents, contained in planes perpendicular to the rectilinear current. The result of the calculation, confirmed by experiment was, that the planes of the circular currents, would, supposing them movable, arrange themselves paraliel to the rec- tilinear current. If like transversal currents pass over the whole length of a magnetic needle, the cross direction which, in the experiment of (Ersted, completed by Ampére, seemed an inexplicable anomaly, would become a natural and necessary fact. Is it not evident, then, to ail how memorable would that discovery be that would rigorously establish the fact that to magnetize a needle is to excite, to put in motion around each molecule of the steel, a small, circular, electrical vortex? Ampére fully realized the wide reach of the ingenious generalization that had taken possession of his mind; and he hastened to submit it to experi- mental proofs and numerical verifications, which, in our day, are the only processes considered entirely demonstrative. It seemed very difficult to create an assemblage of closed cireular eurrents capable of great mobility. Ampere confined himself to an imitation of this composition and form, by causing a single electrical current to circulate through a wire enveloped in silk, and coiled like a helix in very compact spires. The resemblance between the effects of this apparatus and those of a magnet was very striking, and encouraged the illustrious academician to devote himself to a difficult and minute calculation of the actions of closed circuits perfectly circular. Starting from the hypothesis that like currents exist around the par- ticles of magnetic bodies, Ampere, recognized, in elementary actions, the laws of Coulomb. These laws treated with the most consummate skill by an illustrious geometer have explained all the known facts of the science of magnetism; the hypothesis of Ampere represents them with equal accuracy. The same hypothesis, finally applied to the investigation of the action which a rectilinear connecting wire exercises over a magnetic needle, leads analytically to the law that M. Biot has deduced from extremely nice experiments. If, with the almost entire body of ancient physicists, it is thought ad- visable to consider steel as composed of solid molecules, in each of which exist two fluids of opposite properties, fluids combined, and neu- tralizing each other when the metal is not magnetic, fluids move or less separated when the steel is more or less magnetized, the theory will cover all that is known at present, even in the most subtle numerical particularities of ordinary yagnetism. ‘This theory is silent, however, EULOGY ON AMPERE. 145 with reference to the action of a magnet on a connecting wire, and still more silent, were it possible, as to the action that two of those wires ex- ercise upon each other. If, on the contrary, we take, with Ampére, the action of two cur- rents for the primordial fact, the three classes of phenomena will depend on one principle, one single clause. The ingenious conception of our associate possesses thus two of the most salient characteristics of a true laws of nature, simplicity and fertility. In all the magnetic experiments attempted before the discovery of Cirsted the earth had acted like a largeloadstone. It was tobe presumed, then, like a magnet, it would act on electrical currents. Experiments, however, had not justified the conjecture. Calling to his aid the electro- dynamie theory and the talent for inventing apparatus, so brilliantly displayed by him, Ampere had the honor of filling the inexplicable hiatus. For several weeks native and foreign physicists crowded the humble study in the street Fossée-Saint- Victor to witness with amazement a con- necting wire of platina take a definite direction through the action of the terrestrial globe. What would Newton, Halley, Dufay, Awpinus, Franklin, and Cou- lomb have said if it had been announced to them that a day would come when, in default of a magnetic needle, navigators would be able to guide their vessels by observing electrical currents, electrified wires ? The action of the earth on a conducting wire is identical in all the cir- cumstances presented by it, with that which would proceed from an as- semblage of currents, having its seat in the depths of the earth, south of Europe, aud whose movements would be like the diurnal revolutions of the globe from west to east. Let it not be said, then, that, the laws of magnetic action being the same in the two theories, it is a matter of indifference which to adopt. Suppose the theory of Ampere true, and the earth, as a whole, inev- itably a vast voltaic pile, creating currents moving in the direction of the diurnal revolution ; and the memoir in which is found this magnifi- cent result will take rank, without disadvantage, with the immortal works which have made of our globe a simple planet, an ellipsoid flat tened at the poles, a body formerly incandeseent in all its parts; incan- descent still down in its depths, but retaining on its surface no appre- ciable trace of this original heat. It has been asserted that the beautiful conceptions of Ampére, os which I have just given a detailed analysis, were coldly received ; it has been said that the French geometers and physicists showed themselves little inclined either to recognize or study them; that the academy, with the exception of one single member, swayed by its prejudices, refused for a long time to yield itself to unexceptionable proof. These charges reached the public through an eloquent and eminently Rouoraire organ. I cannot, therefore, pass them by without notice. S , . 146 EULOGY ON AMPERE. The experiments of Ampére, from their first appearance, were the ob- ject of the severe criticism just cited, and, soon after, of universal ad- miration. The only competent and capable judges of intricate and scientific calculations of niee theoretical deductions of whose almost boundless range I have just tried to give you an idea, were of necessity geometers. Nowis it just to say the French geometers found fault with our distinguished associate, when, a short time before the discovery of electro-dynamics, M. Savary was found completing a very important point of that theory; when M. Lionville was trying to simplify its bases and render them more rigorous; when, in the compilation of the most difficult parts of his grand memoir Ampere found in M. Duhamel an earnest collaborator ? Is it true that Ampére’s formula displayed no features likely to occasion astonishment amongst geometers ? Would not the curiosity of those most familiar with Newtonian theories be awakened by observing the introdaction of general expressions of the mutual action of these elements, trigonometrical quantities relative to the respective inclina- tions of the infinitisimal elements of the electrical currents? Was not some hesitation natural when new theories seemed to depart so com- pletely from beaten paths? There was nothing extraordinary, excep- tional, nor extravagant on the part of the savants who experienced this hesitation. A few years before the transversal waves of light of Fresnel had created the same doubts, the same uncertainty, and in the minds of the same individuals, although they seemed a still more evident conse- quence, a more direct and immediate translation and one easier to verity, of the facts of interference exhibited by polarized rays. Let us not complain in general terms of the worship rendered usually by men to the ideas under whose influence their minds have been devel- oped. In such cases it is just, natural, and proper to make no change of views without a thorough investigation. From a scientific point of view, the criticisms and difficulties, so frequently overwhelming innova- tors, are substantially useful. They arouse the idle to triumph over indolence; even jealousy, with its cruel and hideous acuteness, becomes an incentive to progress. It can be relied upon to discover gaps, blem- ishes, and imperfections that even the most careful author allows un- avoidably to escape him. The control it exercises over him who dis- dains not to profit by it, is worth ten-fold that of the best friend. It commands no gratitude either, for its services are involuntarily rendered ; and on the other hand it would be a weakness to sympathize too warmly with the vexations it causes in men of genius; for fame and peace of mind rarely bear each other company. He who is ambitious of high place in the world of matter or of ideas, must expect to find as adver- Saries those already occupying the highest places. Small minds aim at trivial objects, and alone are privileged to reach, at will, insignificant points, whose possession no one dreams of dis, uting with them. EULOGY ON AMPERE. 147 AMPERE TAKES PART IN A CELEBRATED DISCUSSION BETWEEN GEORGE CUYVIER, AND GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE ON THE UNITY OF STRUC- TURE IN ORGANIZED BEINGS. This discussion rested on some very nice considerations. If it were desired, for instance, to trace the resemblance between the arrange- ments of the viscera of a cephalopodic mollusk and those of man, it would be necessary to fancy the latter bent backwards from the line of the navel, so that the pelvis and lower limbs should be joined to the nape of the neck; it would be necessary, moreover, to imagine man walking on his head. Other comparisons required that one of the two animals should be reversed like a glove; that the bony structure should pass from within to without, that the enveloped should become the en- velope, ete., ete. The members of the mathematical department of the college could take no part in this subtle debate; they were satisfied to be attentive listeners. Ampere alone threw himself headlong into the arena. But it was found that the views so warmly opposed by Cuvier, and so decidedly sustained by our honorable colleague, Geoffroy Saint- Hilaire, were those entertained by Ampére in 1803. Cuvier, the learned secretary of the academy, when concluding his course on the history of the sciences of the nineteenth century, was naturally led to allude to the German school known under the name of Philosophers of Nature. The principles of the philosophers of nature, at least those referring to the unity of structure in animals, appearing to him erroneous, he undertook to oppose them. Ampere was one of the auditors of our illus- trious colleague. If, as at the Normal Convential School, the students had the right to challenge the professors, each lecture of Cuvier’s course would assuredly have ended in an animated and instructive debate ; but the regulations imperiously forbade such an innovation. Ampere was not the man to be discouraged by difficulties. Custom denying him permission to speak in the arena where Cuvier was unfolding his views, openly without leaving the precinets of the college founded by Francis the First, if not on the same day, at least during the same week, when delivering his course onMathésiologie, Ampére broadly announced himself, with reference to the chief point of philosophic zoology, the declared adversary of the first naturalist of Europe. In each of his lec- tures he gave a minute and detailed criticism of the preceding lecture of Cuvier. Butin return, Cuvier regularly used an analysis of Ampére’s argument, made by his brother Frederic, who attended the course on Mathésiologie, as the text for each succeeding one of those lectures, “whose glorious memory will long be preserved by the College of France, and in which shone in the same high degree, his talent for explaining, his knowledge of facts in detail, and must it be avowed, his art of ren- dering sarcasm cutting without overstepping the limits of a well-bred critic. Hach week Ampére would seem felled by the blows of the new 148 EULOGY ON AMPERE. Hercules, and each succeeding week, like Anteus in the fable, he would be found prepared to sustain a new contest, not, however, without having changed ground, though very slightly and skillfully between the successive assaults. In order to assume that Ampére considered this contest an ostenta- tious tourney without consequences, it would be necessary to admit, contrary to all reason and probability, that voluntarily closing his eyes, he did not perceive that even blunted weapons in Cuvier’s hands could inflict painful wounds. We will hasten to announce that Ampere was fully conscious of how formidable was his adversary ; and if in spite of this, he continued his course, it was to fulfill what he considered a con- scientious duty. In July, 1824, our associate sent to the press, but with- out giving his name to the publication, atheory of the organization of articulated animals. In this work, after making himself master of a single type, he followed it up amidst a thousand 4isguises, through the multitude of species of which the animal kingdom is composed. He sought, for example, how the fragile butterfly could be traced to the clumsy toad, the toad to the colossal whale. The criticisms of Cuvier were then addressd as well to Ampere as to the philosophers of nature or Geoffroy Saint Hilaire; and our friend decided to sacrifice all personal feelings to the interests of science and surrender the privileges of anonym- ity. He fullfilled this obligation without bitterness, but with firmness; he utterly disregarded the many annoyances incident to the position forced upon him by circumstances, and allowed nothing to turn him from his purpose, not even what Frenchmen dread the most, ridicule. i still remember a dialogue that took place on one occasion, in my presence, between M. Ampere and an academician, who was the declared adversary of the unity of structure, and whose witty sallies were not only dreaded by his antagonists but often by his friends also. I will reiate the beginning: ‘Well, M. Ampére, do you hold, from an anatomical point of view, that Master Crow perched on a tree, did not differ from the crafty, cun- ning animal who carried off his cheese ; and do you believe that ‘The heron with the long beak set upon the long neck,’ is but a simple modification of the gossip carp he so foolishly disdained to eat for his dinner? And again, do you think the fabler was guilty of a heresy in natural history when he said: ‘A rat to prove he was no elephant, Came out of his cage in less than an instant?” “Yes, sir; yes,” said Ampére, ‘I admit as facts all you have just enumerated as impossibilities. Further details on the subject would be superfluous. After the most conscientious study, I shall remain firm to a principle, apparently singular, but which time will establish; to the principle that man is formed after a model found in all the animal cre- ation, without one single exception.” “Wonderful, MW. Ampére, your theory has one rare and incontestable EULOGY ON AMPERE. 149 merit ; it is clear and categorical. Je vous attends a Vescargot,” (I shall wait to see you a modified snail.) Ampére entered, for a few moments very good naturedly into the gaiety provoked in all present by this sally; but he soon began to treat seriously the laughable question just proposed to him; his manner of handling it showed the most profound research, and the most compre- hensive knowledge of anatomy and natural history, and where the first step seemed to lead to absurdities, he pointed out resemblances and analogies so ingenious that we were surprised to find ourselves not regretting that the term of comparison offered to Ampére had been se- lected so far down in the scale of animal life. ESSAY ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES. The literary life of Ampere began by the study of the Encyclopedia of the Highteenth Century, and was closed by the compilation of a plan for anew encyclopedia. The most essential feature of this vast scheme was 2 Classification of all human knowledge. Moliéere formerly, through the medium of one of the characters of his immortal comedies, asked whether it were more correct to speak of the figure or the shape of a hat; which was equivalent to asking whether hats should be classed as to shapes or figures. The abuse of classification could not possibly be described at the same time more profoundly and more ludicrously. ‘To go back to the time of Moliére, or even to the early part of the eighteenth century, you will see the great poet was not attacking a vain phantom, and you will be struck with the strangest association of ideas; you will find the classifiers yielding to the most truly absurd analyses and comparisons; for ex- ample, in the Society of Arts, created by a prince of the blood, Comte de Clermont, a society embracing the sciences, belles-lettres, and the mechanical arts, the historian is classed, in all seriousness, with the em- broiderer, the poet with the dyer, ete., ete. In all things abuse is not use. Let us see, then, whether Ampere paused at the use, in the work, still only partly published, which he composed at the close of his life, and entitled, Hssay on the Philosophy of the Sciences ; or Analytical Exposition of a Natural Classification of all Human Knowledge. Ampere proposed to undertake the vast and celebrated problem whose solution had already been attempted by Aristotle, Plato, Bacon, Leib- nitz, Locke, D’Alembert, &e. The unsuccessful efforts of so many men of genius are a convincing proof of the difficulty of the question; do they also completely prove its utility ? Aristotle claimed that all subjects could be included im ten categories. If I should recall the number of times they have been rearranged, the reply would very reasonably be, these were the necessary and foreseen consequences of the progress of the human mind. I should then, un- E50 EULOGY ON AMPERE. doubtedly, propose a still more embarrassing question, by asking, of what use have the categories been ? It has already been shown what Moliére thought of them. Here is the opinion of the celebrated author of the Logic of Port Royal: ‘The study of the categories cannot but be dangerous, as it accustoms men to be satisfied with words, and to believe they know everything, when they are only acquainted with arbitrary names.” + To this extravagant criticism, if it had fallen under his eyes, Am- pere would have replied: That a natural classification of the sciences would be the model on which the sections of an institute claiming to represent the universality of human knowledge, should be serupulously formed: That a natural classification of the sciences would indicate the proper omissions in the subjects of a well-arranged methodical encyclopedia. That a natural classification would control a rational distribution of the books in large libraries, a matter of so much im- portance that Liebnitz devoted to it much thought and labor: That a natural classification of the sciences would create a desirable revolution -in the art of teaching. Ail this is just and true. But, unfortunately, the principles which a priort seemed to lead to natural classifications, have assimilated, grouped, and united the most incongruous subjects. If you take the encyclopedical tree of Bacon and D’Alembert, which is founded on the hypothesis, against which no objections have ever been raised, that the human mind can be reduced to three faculties— memory, reason, and imagination,—you will be led in the large division of knowledge depending on memory to classify the history of minerals and vegetables with civil history; and in sciences belonging to the do- main of reason metaphysics will be associated with astronomy, ethics, and chemistry. Follow Locke, or rather Plato, and theology and optics will be found side by side. Divide, as the schools of Rome do now, all knowledge into three kingdoms, the sciences of authority, of reason, and of obser- vation, and anomalies almost laughable will arise at every step. These serious defects are not found in the classifications of Ampere. All analogous subjects are classed together ; all that differ are separated. The author does not create at the will of his imagination pretended fun- damental faculties for the basis of a system without solidity. His two chief points, his two kingdoms, are the study of the world—cosmology ; and the study of the mind—ontology. The cosmological sciences are divided, in their turn, into two sub-king- doms, namely, the sciences which treat of inanimase objects; and those which consider only animate objects. The first sub-kingdom of the cosmological sciences is divided again into two branches—the mathe- matical and physical sciences. By always following out this division by twos, Ampere succeeded in forming a table in which the whole range of sciences and arts is found divided— EULOGY ON AMPERE. eat Into two kingdoms; Into four sub-kingdoms ; Into eight branches; Into sixteen sub-branches ; auto thirty-two sciences of the first order; Into sixty-four of the second order ; Into one hundred and twenty-eight of the third order. This is what it would be necessary to study in order to be perfectly familiar with the whole range of human knowledge. Ought not this large number to be at the same time a subject of discouragement to individuals taken separately, and a just cause of pride to the human race? Neither one nor the other. Ampere only succeeded in finding one hundred and twenty-eight distinet sciences in the accumulated labors of forty centuries by dividing and separating what had until then been united; by changing into distinct sciences the simple divisions of the complete sciences, and by applying to them names which might well be objected to, such as canolbology cybernitics, ter- pnognosy, technesthetics, etc., ete. Tt now remains to examine whether the new divisions are not too numerous; whether they would add to clearness—a quality to be sought at any price—and whether they would introduce any facilities into the art of teaching. There is scarcely a professor who does not understand now that the most elementary course of astronomy should first present to the student a description of the apparent motions of the heavenly bodies ; that, on a second division, it is necessary to leave the apparent for the real; and that a third division, finally, should be devoted to the investigation and study of the physical causes of these movements. Here are three parts of one and the same whole. I do not see, I must confess, what would be gained by making, of the first section of the first course of the subject or treatise, a distinct science, wranography, and by dividing the second subject into two other sciences heliostatics and astronomy. Our illustrious associate banished from the course of general physics the comparative study of the modifications experienced by phenomena in different places and at different times. If this referred to profounder study the thesis could be sustained. But on a contrary supposition, it would be difficult to conceive how, after having announced that to-day, at Paris, the north point of the magnetic needle declined 22° from the north to the west, the professor could stop suddenly and leave to his colleague, the professor of physical geography, the office of declaring, the year after, perhaps, that at Paris, before 1666, the observers found no declination ; that it is not the same at all places, and that at each place, considered apart, it exhibits a diurnal oscillation around its mean posi- tion. | Ampere found the union of the materia-medica and therapeutics in the medical course inadmissible. It is very true that a knowledge of the 152 EULOGY ON AMPERE. properties of .medicine is quite different from knowing how to apply them; but when you consider that the properties in question would be but little studied but for the purpose of relieving human suffering; that their union under both points of view, abstract and practical, sustains the interest and saves time, you return to what at first seemed defect- ive. ‘ Life is short, and art is long.” These memorable words of Hip- pocrates, let me add, whose truth has not been impaired by the mate- ria-medica or therapeutics, unitedly or separately, deserve to be remem- bered in the distribution of the studies of youth. Aimpére thought he had sueceeded in avoiding entirely all repetitions ; he flattered himself that henceforth each science could be studied with- out any trace of syllogistic circles; that, while engaged in one study, it would never be necessary to refer to the science coming after on the synoptical table. An illustrious metaphysician did not believe this methodical course possible unless in the science of abstract mathematics. Readers, he said, must trust; they must be willing to give credit for a time, if they wish to be satisfied; for geometers alone always pay cash. Could Ampére always pay cash, as Malebranche expresses it, even in applied mathematics? If time permitted I could easily prove, I believe, that on this point our iilustrious colleague deceived himself. In his table I see, for example, astronomy before physics; and, conse- quently, before optics. How, then, in the first lessons of uranography and the first study of the diurnal movements of the heavens, could the professor explain the use of the telescopes, of the lines placed in the com- mon focus between the object and eye glasses? What could he say, without asking for credit of the atmospheric refractions which so percep- tibly deform the circular diurnal orbits of the stars? AJl astronomers would agree with me that it is very unnatural that heliostatics, or the demonstration of the Copernican system, should precede the exposition of the laws of Kepler, considered as simple results of observation. I could multiply these remarks, but they would not prevent Ampére’s classification from being very superior to all those preceding it; it would require but afew suppressions and some rearrangement of points of slight importance to make it as perfect as would be compatible with the nature of the subject. It can be unhesitatingly affirmed that its various parts bear the indelible stamp of an erudition as remarkable for its extent as its profoundness. Ampere had not only essayed the vast problem of a general classifi- cation of the sciences, but had also been engaged in introducing classi- fications into the physical and natural sciences separately. The chemical classifications proposed by the learned academician could even now be published with profit. They would prove—and how strange the fact—that, during one of the last revolutions in the science, Ampeére, the geometer Ampére, was always in the right, even when his opinions were opposed to those of nearly all the chemists of the world. EULOGY ON AMPERE. 153 THE INFLUENCE EXERCISED BY A PRIVATE EDUCATION ON AMPERE’S MIND AND MANNERS. Ampeére, enjoying the wide reputation we have indicated, suggests in himself too striking a comparison between the advantages of a private education and one acquired in the tumult of public schools not to excite eager discussion. I only refer to this discussion, however, to deny its utility. At the time of his departure from the mountains of Poleymeux, our future associate possessed an immense amount of infor- mation, an extraordinary memory, a strong intellect, and a rare aptitude in mastering all subjects ; but who would dare affirm that these qualities would not have been as well developed at a public school? An isolated fact could lead to no positive conclusion on so nice a point. The adversaries of private education remembered that Ampére con- tracted in his secluded life habits which they tax with singularity. Amongst others is cited the impossibility he found in giving a clear ex- planation, when professor, of subjects with which he was perfectly familiar; without calling, as it were, to his aid peculiar movements of. the body. This is undeniably true. There was always, intellectually speaking, a great difference between Ampére in repose and Ampeére in action. I, especially, have always sincerely regretted that the illustrious savant, in his riper years, should have felt his eminent powers and all enthusiasm decline as soon as seated at his desk, without having, how- ever, the temerity to ascribe it to the solitude in which his youth had been passed. What is known, in fact, of the mental struggle accompanying the birth and development of an idea? Like the first uncertain glimmer- ings of a star, an idea begins its dawn on the very verge of the intel- lectual horizon, at first so small and faint that its unsteady, wavering light seems to reach us through an almost impenetrable mist. It in- creases in size, until sufficiently developed to display a delicate outline; and finally, its contour clearly defined, it stands sharply out from all around—from all that is not itself. At this last stage language seizes it, clothes and stamps it with the definite, the impressive form which will engrave it indelibly upon the memory of future generations. The causes accelerating or retarding the birth of a thonght, and its various transformations, are numerous and evanescent; and there is, moreover, neither regularity nor consistency in their mode of action. Paésiello composed wrapped up in his bed-covers. Cimerosa, on the contrary, received the inspirations that gave to the world the beautiful themes with which his operas abound in the midst of the mirth and bustle of a crowd. The historian Mezérai wrote, even at mid-day in the month of July, by the light of wax candles. Rousseau, on the other hand, gave himself up to his most profound meditations in the full light of the sun, while engaged in herborizing. If Ampere were only inspired while standing and in motion, Descartes 154 EULOGY ON AMPERE. required to be lying down immovable, and Cujas studied satisfactorily only when stretched at full length on his face on the floor. We have all, in our youth, had occasion to smile at the sight of lazy school-boys gazing fixedly at the ceiling of the school-room, as if looking for the lesson they no longer remembered. This was the position in which Milton, his head thrown far back, always composed. These facts seem singular; but what will you say of Guido Reni, who was ineapable of inspiration unless magnificently dressed ; of the mu- sician Haydn, who declared himselfutterly unable to compose his grand choruses without having on his finger the costly ring given him by Frederick IL; of the poet Mathurin, who would stick a wafer on his forehead between his eye-brows, as much to excite his imagination as a signal to his servants not to interrupt him by questions. The eyes, it has been said, are the windows of the soul. I am con- vinced that it would be a mistake to generalize this remark too much by extending it to gesticulations, or, if you please, to nervous action. The arms of Napoleon’s chair were not hacked by a penknife in moments of anger or deep preoccupation only ; joy and mirth also gave employment to his instrument of destruction. If the questors of our legislative as- semblies did not place discretion in the front rank of the good qualities which distinguish them, they could tellus that some members do not less actively destroy the mahogany of their desks on the days of stormy debate than during the monotonous and drowsy operation of the call and recall. Does any one, while reading Glover’s ballad entitled the Shade of Admiral Hosier, divine for a moment that the poet com- posed it while unconsciously destroying with his cane a bed of tulips, the especial delight of his friend, Lady Temple. Uncomfortable and painfal attitudes, so necessary to some, are not the only conditions indispensable to the development of the higher in- tellectual faculties. Addison mentions a lawyer who could never plead without passing the thumb of his left hand through a loop of twine, which he would tighten to spur the thought or expression. One of our most eloquent prose writers, who spoke as well as he wrote, was only able to do so, however, when his right leg was twisted around the left, like the serpent of Troy around the arms of the Laocodén. Let us re- member all these facts. Their very singularity should induce us to do so. Butlet us be careful not to draw from them any premature conclu- sions against any particular mode of education ; for amongst the dis- tinguished personages whose names I have just cited there are no two who in their childhood were placed in exactly similar circumstances. If necessary to enter more into detail, I should be less reserved about other habits of our associate which have more or less influenced his career. Had Ampere. been sent to school in his childhood to the hum- blest village school, his disposition and habits would possibly have been somewhat modified. He would have learned that scissors were not in- tended for making pens; that writing in large characters was not the EULOGY ON AMPERE. 155 ultimate object of calligraphy. He would not have received from a for- eign scientist, full of wit and waggery, after he became a member of the academy, an invitation to dinner written in the first letter of his signature. He would have known that to write a running hand rapidly and easily, a movement of the fingers, and not the arm, is required— a knowledge which would have saved him, during his whole life, much bodily exertion and intolerable annoyance. Ampere’s school-fellows, much less forbearing than father or mother, would have roughly checked his incessant restlessness. He would have learned to control those par- oxysms of rage which, later in life, rendered him so unhappy—called by his friends lamb-like wrath ; and which to excite was rather a subject of congratulation, so spontaneous, candid, and unreserved was his repent- ance. He would have known how to confine himself to regular work. The necessity of performing his tasks at fixed hours would have taught him, as an author very clever in such matters said, to make his thoughts flow rapidly from the nib of his pen, and not to drown them afterwards inan ink-stand. Borrowing the beautiful image of Cleanthe, preserved by Seneca, Ampere’s thoughts, once repressed, would re- semble the voice, which, confined to the narrow channel of a trumpet, bursts forth at length the more clear and the more powerful. Compo- sition would then have been of secondary importance to him, and he could have exclaimed triumphantly with Racine, ‘‘ My work is finished ; nothing now remains but to write it out.” The success of this mode of investigation would have induced him to give up handling a thousand different subjects at once and yielding to the nervous excitement pro- voked by it. If he had considered the time lost in useless discussions, he would not now sadly exclaim with the poet cited not long since— Je ne fais pas le bien que j’aime, Et je fais le mal que je hais. (“I do not do the good I love, but the evil that I hate.”) Here I must stop; for instead of maintaining an even balance between the two contrary systems, as I had intended, I find myself almost plead- ing in favor of public education. AMPERE AN ADEPT IN ANIMAL MAGNETISM. Ampere often lent the aid of his imposing authority to the adepts of animal magnetism. His imperfect vision, his want of bodily dexterity, and his great credulity, rendered him a fitting subject for the tricks and legerdemains which ought to have induced him to consider magnetism a branch of the art of jugglery. At certain reunions, where the love of the marvelous, a desire to fathom the mysteries of animal organization, and especially the hope of discovering some new means of alleviating human suffering, brought many estimable people together, Ampere was often fascinated by legerdemains only suitable for the amusement of children, such as the sudden increase of little balls, multiplied almost 156 EULOGY ON AMPERE. infinitely, and passing successively into different boxes, at the will of one of those individuals now called prestidigitators. It was in this way, doubtless, that Ampere had been led to admit that, under certain conditions of nervous excitement, a man might be able to see even at great distances without the aid of his eyes; that he might, with his knee, see stars ; follow the movements of actors on a stage with his back turned, and read a note with his elbow. Is it not possible that we, who even now have no faith in such marvels ; we, who formerly opposed the convic- tions of our friend with all kinds of arguments, even resorting to raillery, might have carried this opposition too far on other points of animal magnetism? Is an extravagant skepticism more philosophical than an unlimited credulity? Have we any right, for example, to sweepingly affirm that no man ever has or ever will be able to read, with his eyes, in the profound darkness which reigns under a depth of twenty-nine meters of earth and rocks—I mean at the bottom of the vaults of the Paris observatory ? Has it been well established that opaque bodies— that is, those impermeable to light—allow nothing to pass through them which could supply and produce vision? Do systematical ideas au- thorize us to disdain any reference to experiment, the only competent judge in such matters? I present all these doubts as a kind of repara- tion aud expiation offered to the manes of Ampere. Pardon this digression, gentlemen, rendered necessary by circumstances. Your indulgence will be the more precious to me for having possibly— nay, I will say more, probably—displeased both the advocates and antagonists of magnetism. The latter will blame the extent of my con- cessions ; the former, on the contrary, find me too skeptical. But, such reproaches would not be very alarming; for has magnetism, unless in some few isolated points, any real foundation? All that its advocates can desire, all they can rightfully claim at present, are unprejudiced judges, who will refuse neither to see nor to hear. Is it necessary, on the other hand, to side with those who, fanatically devoted to the experimental method, proceed exclusively by means of direct corollaries, and who regard an idea unworthy of being followed up which does not flow logically from a previous idea? I will also remark that to deny, a priori, belongs to theory ; that negative theories are even more to be condemned, as they provoke no trial, no attempt, and there- fore reduce the mind to a state of quietude and somnolence from which science would have much to suffer. I cannot, besides, admit that there would be less pride in saying, not only to the sea but to all nature, “ thow shalt go no farther.” AMPERE’S CHARACTER. The traits of character which, in the course of this sketch, are found scattered here and there through the scientific analyses, would amply suffice in the eulogies of a large number of the academicians. But this would not answer in Ampére’s case. From an early period a EULOGY ON AMPERE. 157 singular concourse of circumstances had initiated the public into all the details of his private life. They interested themselves almost as much in what they called his credulity, his eccentricities, his absence of mind, and his very frequent alternations of wonderful activity and profound apathy, to which he was subject, as in his brilliant discoveries. Ourfriend gradually became the principal actor in a multitude of fantastic adven- tures, creations of the imaginations of a few idle people. Calumny, always on the watch for such opportunities, began early to exercise its detestable role; and thus it is that I would not attain my end were I to neglect to give a faithful sketch of the character and habits of Ampére. I have just spoken of calumny, but am far from wishing to apply so severe a term to those who do not share the estimate I have formed of Ampere’s character. Philopamin once “ paid the fine of his deformity.” said Plutarch. Ampere also paid the penalty of certain manners and habits which it is not my intention to extol. I freely acknowledge that, with the kindest feelings in the world, no one could help admitting a want of dignity in his too profound salutations. We have passed over times in which a man of letters, a man of science, such as Ampere, had any reason to fear that he would be stripped of his office if not orthodox in matters of religion and a parti- san of the political systems of the day. Perhaps, under such cireum- stances, our associate recalled too vividly his responsibilities as the father of a family; perhaps an ardent imagination painted in exagger- ated colors the brutal condition to which such a deprivation would reduce him; and he thus stooped to measures, such as visits and pre- sentations, which can be legitimately and justly condemned. The right of doing so, however, can only be conceded to those who have never been guilty of like faults, and which I refuse unhesitatingly to those functionaries, infinitely more numerous, whose only advantage over Ampere is that of having discovered the secret of diverting atten- tion. Besides, do not believe that the judgments and opinions whose organ I shall be, and which it would give me so much pleasure to have prevail here, rest on so unsound a foundation as rumor or the chit-chat of society—but on acts misunderstood and susceptible of different inter- pretations. I have formed an estimate and judgment of Ampere’s char- racter from a private correspondence not destined to see the light—which, indeed, in strict accordance with the express wish of our friend, should have been destroyed. In such documents I-could hope to find Ampére’s thoughts free from all delusive alloy. It was while reading this precious -cerrespondence I learned more and more to love our associate. Are there many men who would thus gain by being stripped of the mask so generally worn in public? These reflections have occupied much time, gentlemen. You will pardon me if Isay itis a mistake to consider them a mere preamble; they are a direct refutation, and by way of anticipa- tion, of the objections with which the last portion of this notice is threatened, even before being given to the public. 158 EULOGY ON AMPERE. Like Lafontaine, between whom there was more than one point’ of resemblance, Ampére would remain sometimes unconscious of all around him in the midst of a crowd; and from this proceeded certain eccentricities, certain aberrations of language, of carriage, and dress, difficult to be understood by those who have never known what it is to be swayed by the tyrannical domination of an idea or of a sentiment. Abstraction offends, where it does not excite laughter. Ampere’s obliv- iousness was of the latter kind, and yet it must have offended some, since it has been fancied, and even seriously maintained, that the many instances of which we have all been witnesses were the result of affec- tition. This serious charge has been too widely spread to allow me to give a kind of assent by silence. I will refer, then, boldly to the con- temptible circumstances which gave rise to it. Teli us, for example, what advantage could Ampére expect the day when, seated at the table of persons whom all his interest required him to treat with deference, he exclaimed in a fretful tone, fancying himself at home, “‘ What a vile dinner; will my sister ever understand that, before engaging cooks, it is necessary to inquire into their skill ?” Tam almost ashamed to have to stoop to such a justification; for, after all, Ampére is not the only distinguished man subject to absence of mind. Would you like to generalize the charge? I can at once cite the instance of the celebrated astronomer, who, on being asked by his hovse-keeper the exact number of minutes required to boil an egg, foand with despair that his watch, of great value, and on which depended the accuracy of all his labors, had been in the boiling water for a whole minute, while the egg was in his hand. I can mention, too, the case of the pious Father Becearia, who, his mind filled with an electrical experi- ment even while celebrating mass, shouted in his loudest tones, ‘Z7éspe- rienza @ fatta,” when he should have chanted the Dominus Vobiscum; an obliviousness, by the way, which, being reported to the ecclesiastical authorities, resulted in the suspension of the illustrious physicist. To transform an absent-minded man, bythe system just alluded to, into a sort of mixture of the impostor and the hypocrite, would be to force us to destroy some of the clever pages of La Bruyére, and to condemn to the flames an agreeable comedy of Regnard. There is still another consequence, which creates yet more disgust: the inimitable fabler would no longer be the worthy man, as Moliére baptized him. While admiring his immortal works, we should be forced to deprive him of that halo of respect and esteem—in fact, almost tender attachment— with which so many successive generations have surrounded him. The cause is lost, gentlemen, when it leads to consequences so violently irri- tating to public feeling. Ampeére’s credulity had become in a measure proverbial. It induced him to believe one after another the most extraordinary facts in the political world and the most chimerical events in the intellectual. Still this avowal can create no prejudice against the wide reputation of the EULOGY ON AMPERE. 159 celebrated academician for perspicuity. Credulity usually implies a want of intelligence. This, of course, was not the case in this instance It often arises, too, from a general sluggishness of mind, and is well described by a popular adage: “ I would rather believe than examine for myself.” | Indifference, in order to escape the importunities and contentions it so much dreads, sometimes wears the mask of credulity. But indif- ference cannot be general. Though felt towards certain subjects, it admits in others a wide field for active interest. Such was the case with the grammarian to whom some one was describing the fancied symptoms of a general conflagration in Europe. He admitted all, ac- cepted all, without a frown or a word; and was about being set down as one of the most credulous men of the age, when he broke the silence by exclaiming, ‘“‘ Happen what will, I have not less than three thousand verbs well conjugated in my lists.” Ampére belonged to another class, infinitely more rare, with whom credulity was the result of imagination and genius. When he heard an extraordinary statement related, his first feeling was that of sur- prise, undoubtedly ; but his penetrating and prolific mind, discerning possibilities where ordinary minds discovered only chaos, would, with- out interval or rest, persevere until he connected the strange phenom- ena, by links more or less solid, to the principles of established science. Should I fear being accused of misunderstanding the human heart if I add that the merit of overcoming difficulties had its influence on the tenacity of our learned associate in defending certain theories ? On leaving Lyons, in 1805, Ampere had not weighed well all he was relinquishing in the associations and friends of that city. Soon after his arrival in Paris he was seized with an attack of genuine nostalgia— home-sickness—from which he never entirely recovered. In letters of 1813 and 1820, and even of a later date, his acceptance of the situation connecting him with the Polytechnic School is described as an act of egregious folly. His favorite dreams were combinations, always impracticable, to restore him to the haunts of his childhood. His griefs of all kinds always found expression in, ‘‘O, had I never left Lyons!” This, then, gentlemen, gives the key to many circum- stances in the life of our friend until now inexplicable. Metaphysics, to which I have already referred, were constantly inter- fering with the works on mathematics, physics, and chemistry, on which our associate was engaged. They were suspended, but at short inter- vals, in 1820, 1821, and 1822, during his electro-dynamic researches, the results of which have already been shown. In 1813 Ampere consulted his friends in Lyons as to a plan, (I give his own words,) “to devote himself exclusively to psychology.” He fancied himself called “to lay the foundation of that science for all ages.” He did not reply to a letter from Sir Humphry Davy on chem- LGO EULOGY ON AMPERE. istry. “No longer having,” he said, ‘the courage to fix his thoughts on that tedious subject.” I will say no more, gentlemen, as I would be afraid by dwelling longer on the harm done to physics by psychology, of exciting against the lat- ter too violent an opposition. Among the writers conspicuous in literary history for their invaluable and indefatigable zeal, we shall find some profoundly pious, some in- different, and others skeptical. Those, on the contrary, who all their lives have been harassed by internal religious struggles, have rarely suc- ceeded in accomplishing works of great magnitude. Ampére belonged much more than we had suspected to the last class of savants. Madame Ampére had early begun to instil into the heart of her son the pious sentiments animating her own. A diligent study of the Bible and the fathers of the church was the unfailing expedient of the young geometer when his faith was wavering. Later in life this talisman lost somewhat of its early efficacy, a fact revealed to me by some scraps of manuscript, for during his life Ampere never allowed me to perceive the cruel doubts which from time to time disturbed his mind. In glancing over to-day his letters to the friend whom he had selected as the confi- dant of all his mental struggles, the reader is surprised to find that he has really before him an account of the excessive tortures experienced by the author of the Provincials. “If this were true, however,” he wrote on the 2d cf June, 1815, ‘miserable creature that lam. * * * Former views have not the power to make me believe; but they still have the power to strike terror into my soul. If I had only preserved them intact, I would not now be pkunged into this gulf.” By comparing dates, it is evident to me that these vicissitudes of feeling were not unconnected with the political revolutions of France, or with family efilictions. How readily it can be believed that the tears filling the unhappy eyes do not alone change the appearance of the external world! In moments of religious excitement there was no literary sacrifice, Ampere would not have considered light. While at the central school of Bourg, the young professor composed a treatise on the future of chemistry. In it were some bold predictions, which at the time did not alarm his conscience. The work was seareely published, however, when various cireumstances threw Ampere into an extraordinary mystical exultation. From that moment he fancied himself in the highest degree culpable for having attempted to unveil prematurely a muititude of secrets that future ages bore and still bear in their bosom; and seeing in his work only the suggestions of Satan, he committed it to the flames. The illustrious academican has since deeply deplored this loss in common with all interested in the progress of science and the glory of the coun- try. Religious doubts were not the only ones which perplexed Ampere. Doubt, whatever the object, always disturbed his mind in the same degree. ‘ Doubt,” he wrote to a Lyonnese friend, “is the greatest EULOGY ON AMPERE. 161 torment endured by man on earth.” Here is, among a thousand others, a question assuredly of doubtful solution, some would say quite insolu- ble, which exercised the ingenuity of our friend, and permit me the expression, almost transported him with enthusiasm. The study of fossil animals shows that our globe was once the theater of several successive creations, which by gradual progression at last reached the condition of man. The earth, at first, presented no living thing, no organized matter. Then were found traces of vegetation; then invertebrated ani- mals, worms, and mollusks; later, fishes and sea-reptiles; later still, birds; and finally mammifers. “Do you not see,” wrote Ampere to one of his friends in Lyons, “do you not see the palwotheriums, and the anoplotheriums replaced by man. I hope for my part, that after a new cataclysm, men, in their turn, will be replaced by beings more perfect, more noble and more sincerely devoted to truth. I would give the half of my life for the certainty that this transformation will take place. Would you believe it? there are peo- ple stupid enough, (his own words,) to ask what I would gain by that. Have I not just cause to be indignant at such a question ?” It would not surprise me that any one, at the first glance, should evince astonishment at my enumerating political events and passions amongst the causes so frequently saddening and discouraging Ampére’s heart, and interfering with his scientific labors. Was not I, his friend, for thirty years, obliged to read his most private correspondence in or- der to discover a trace of those political griefs hidden under an appar- ent serenity, an outward show of gentle resignation. The year 1815 was marked by events cruelly stamped on the life of our associate. The Emperor had returned from the island of Elba; and the clash of arms resounded throughout Europe; nations were hur- rying to encounter each other on unknown battle-fields, and this terrible shock might result in the subjugation of France and the world for many long years. These thoughts threw the mind of Ampere into the wildest state of confusion, and he then had the incredible misfortune to become associated with those, and God grant. I may never discover any traces of them, with whom all he most dreaded was an object of hope, in whom the most disastrous news excited transports of joy ; who thought that the death of half a million of our countrymen would not weigh in the balance against the preservation of their rotten institu- tions. These hideous sentiments inspired our associate with a well-founded and profound antipathy. Again, he found on the other hand, among the Parisian populace many so violent that, without waiting for provo- cation on the part of their antagonists, proposed putting all mercilessly to the sword. It was at this time that Ampére wrote, (I have the letter at hand) to his friends in Lyons: ‘I am like a grain between two mill-stones. No words can describe the anguish I feel; I have no longer strength to Gs 162 EULOGY ON AMPERE. sustain life-here, I must, at any cost, return to you, flee from those who say to me, ‘you will suffer no personal inconvenience; as if I could think of myself in the midst of such catastrophes.” Would you not, gentlemen, have a bad opinion of a man who, under circumstances so sad, could command sufficient tranquility of mind to be able to combine formulas, invent apparatus, and make new experi- ments ? Ampere, from diffidence, carefully concealed the painful feelings in- spired by public events. Twice, however, the measure of his grief was full to overflowing, too full to be restrained. I can cite but one in- stance of such despair as that experienced by our associate when in- formed of the fall of Prague, and later of that of Warsaw, to be found, too, among the former members of the Academy. It was that of Ruello, who entering the room with his clothes in disorder, his face pale, his features distorted, began a lecture on chemistry in these words, which I prize as highly as the most beautiful experiment: “TI fear I shall fail to- day in clearness and method; I have scarcely strength to collect and connect two ideas; but you will pardon me when you learn the Prussian cavalry were passing and repassing over my body all night.” The news of the battle of Rosback had reached Paris the evening be- fore. Once surrender yourself to the influences of mind, temperament and heart in the contemplation of political events and the calculation of their importance and weight and you will find it difficult to confine your- self to those of one period, even were it as fruitful in terrible catastrophe as the close of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries. Biographers relate that Lamothe-Levayer died, demanding in a faint voice, ‘‘ What news of the Grand Mogul?” With Ampere the Grand Mogul was the whole world, time, past, present and to come. ‘The sut- ferings of the subjects of Sesostris, Xerxes, and Tamerlane touched in his heart as tender a chord as did those of the poor peasants of La Bresse, among whom his youth was passed. To use his own words, he took the same strong interest in what might take place centuries hence, as in what was passing under his own eyes. We still recognize in this the horror of the doubt not long since alluded to, but now supported by philanthropic sentiments. ‘“‘ Friends,” exclaimed Lord Byron, in a moment of ill-humor, “are rob- bers of time.” 192 SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS, for each laborer. He saw at ence the possibility of performing this pro- cess by machinery, and constructed a rude and imperfect model, worked by hand, which turned out fifty pounds of the cleansed staple per day. But he found in Georgia neither the workmen nor the materials for per- fecting his invention or for multiplying his machines. It took him years to get the manufacture well under way. Meanwhile, in the eager- ness for the use of this wealth-yielding process, his patent-rights were ignored ; cotton-gins embodying his principle, with trivial variations, were multiplied; the interest of intrusive manufacturers and that of the planters who adopted their contrivances, and thus laid themselves open to legal prosecution, were arrayed against him, and elicited a strong public sentiment to his prejudice; sixty suits were instituted before he obtained a single legal decision in his favor; and his invention, which at once raised the whole southern section of the country from thriftless poverty to abounding opulence, was to him never worth the parchment on which his patent was engrossed. Now the effect of institutes like yours is to replace the dicecious by moneecious trees—to have the pollen and the fruit-buds grow on the same stalk. You have here, students and graduates, all that careful training can do for you to make you discoverers and inventors—to en- able you both to initiate and to actualize industrial improvements, and to reap, without hinderance or rivalry, your merited honor and recom- pense. Moreover, nothing less than this training can put you on the arena with the promise of success. No accurate practical results can be reached without the most exact calculations ; for, whether man know, or be ignorant of, the laws of number and proportion, all sub- stances and forces in nature obey them, and man masters nature only by making them his rule and measure. . Your literary education here tends in the same direction. Especially is this true of the command you acquire of the French language. He who would contribute to the industrial advancement of mankind must know what others have thought and done, how far each separate art and science has advanced, what unsuccessful experiments have been made and therefore need not be repeated, and in what directions men of learning and skill are looking for the new light of which they may uncon- sciously be the harbingers; and the French has been for more than a century the mother-tongue of science and the useful arts, abounding equally in encyclopedic works and in monographs, and presenting the most advanced views in every department of physical philosophy and of practical technology. With these exercises of the school-room you have the education of the workshop, far more systematic, comprehensive, and exact than could fall to your lot under the best private auspices. You thus will be prepared to execute or direct your own plans, to embody your new thought in wood, steel, or brass, and to insure for yourselves a fair trial of whatever process or agency may seem to you an improvement on the past. : SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS. 193 Think not that the canon of inventive genius is closed. It is but just opening. Agents may be slumbering unrecognized that shall supplant those now in the ascendant. Steam—the sovereign of our time—may yield the sceptre to a mightier energy. The power now obtained by the holocaust of forests and the disemboweling of the solid earth may be replaced by some one of those elementary forces which ‘spread undivided, operate unspent.” The general use of condensed air for pur- poses of locomotion by land and water is now as probable as that of steam was a century ago; and Ericsson has advanced as far in the former as all the predecessors of Fulton had done in the latter. How know we that the electro-magnetic force which we have harnessed to our thought may not one day be yoked to our railway trains? Who can say that the pretended generation of light and heat for common uses by the decomposition of water (the rumor of which, if I mistake not, emanated from this very city,) while an audacious imposture, may not have been an unintended prophecy? Who knows but that the still deficient directing and impelling force may yet be so applied as to give certainty and calculable utility to aerial navigation? Then, too, in many of our established processes, machines, and modes of locomotion there are still limitations, liabilities to accident, possibilities of added speed or efiicacy, in fine, a thousand directions in which inventive talent may be fruitfully busy. Nor is there any invention, however insignifi- cant it may seem, which multiplied, as it may be, by thousands or mil- lions, and extending into an indefinite future, may not carry with it an untold saving of cost and labor, and in many cases, even of life. The invention which in the least degree facilitates industry, and increases and cheapens its products, is a benefaction to society which will im- measurably outweigh and outlast the most munificent gifts that wealth can bestow. It is by such charities that many of you, I trust, will co honor to your calling as liberally-educated artisans. Permit me now briefly to advert to the need which our country has of institutions like yours. Nothing is more evident than the over- crowding, at the present time, of every department of commerce. Up to a certain point commerce is, like the mechanic arts, a creative pro- fession. A commodity is not a finished product till it is brought within easy reach of its consumer, and the merchants—wholesale and retail— who are needed for the successive stages between the producer and the consumer are to that extent co-agents in the production, as are also the bankers and brokers who supply the necessary funds and facilitate the essential pecuniary arrangements. But when members of the mercan- tile profession are so needlessly multiplied that they create supernu- merary stages in the passage of goods from the producer to the con- sumer, interpose to arrest instead of facilitating their transfer, levy black-mail on every commodity in the market, and get for themselves the lion’s share in its ultimate price, they then inflict a grievous wrong on both parties—they make their supertluous profit on the spoils of 138 e 194 SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS. both; on the one hand scanting the wages of productive industry, on the other hand cramping the consumers’ purchasing power. That this is the condition of things in our country at the present time, there can be no doubt. The reason, too, is obvious. Our schools edu- cate our young men to a point at which they feel that they sacrifice their self-respect and sink beneath their proper level by becoming mere laborers, or mere routine-mechanies, especially when they are thus placed by the side of, or brought into competition with, the hordes of unedueated and rude immigrants that crowd our labor-market. Those who were themselves content with hand-labor are ambitious of a higher destiny for their sons. Hence the rush into commerce. Hence the scores of applicants for every vacant clerkship. Hence the spec- tacle—equally ludicrous and sad—of hands that could wield the sledge- hammer, measuring tape, drawing soda-water, and weighing sugar- plums. Everything that can by the broadest construction call itself trade or commerce deems itself respectable ; and therefore our towns and cities are supporting twice the number of shopkeepers that they need, and sustaining able-bodied men, too, in paltry commercial in- dustries, which yet would give a competence to our thousands of starv- ing women and girls. To restore the deranged balance of society, its old honor must be rendered baek to labor. Industrial pursuits must be raised in respecta- bility and dignity above the lower walks of commerce, and fully toa level with its higher departments and functions. Both agriculture and handicraft must be made liberal professions. This can be effected only by stocking them with men of liberal culture; for it is not the profes- sion that gives character and standing to the man, but the man to the profession. Our agricultural colleges and our industrial institutes are supplying the needed culture, and are going to replenish the field and the workshop with a new order of large and high-minded operatives, men of liberal tastes, pursuits, and aims, who will do honor to their respect- ive callings, and make them seem worthy the noblest ambition of the aspiring youth of the coming generation. The successful impulse has been already given. It is already no uncommon thing for the graduates of our best colleges to pass at onee into the machine-shop or the factory, and to go through the entire novitiate as a raw apprentice might. It has, indeed, been demonstrated, and it will soon be made apparent to the whole world, that there is no departinent of productive industry in which genius, talent, science, and learning may not find fit investment, ample room to grow, and adequate social position and honor. There are other points to which I would gladly ask your attention had Lnot taxed it solong. But I cannot close without reminding the students and graduates of this institute that education has, or ought to have, a higher use than what we call its use. We are too apt to think of the course of early study and discipline, chiefly as a specifie prepara- tion for one’s business or calling in after-life, as the means of becoming SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS. 195 a good lawyer or physician, merchant, mechanic, or farmer. This, how- ever important, is but a secondary purpose. You might better be, my young friend, a beaver or a sparrow, if skill as an artisan or a fabricator seems to you the great aim and end of life. Over and above your pro- fession, exceeding it, mastering it, should be your selfhood, your man- hood, your being as a thinker, a knower, a member of human society, a child of God, an immortal soul. Your course of instruction here has its highest value in giving you real knowledge, materials for thought, stimulants to mental activity, and, withal, food for your moral, spiritual nature. In the laws of the material universe, and especially in the necessary and eternal laws that underlie all meron itical science, you enter into close contact—I would that you might ever know and feel it—with the Infinite mind; you become conversant with forces which are but the multiform, yet undivided, Omnipotence. In the study of physical science you are within fomplele gates and on holy ground. Let then these pursuits into which you are here initiated for a life-long self- training, vindicate their claim to be regarded as liberal studies by the breadth and depth of thought, sentiment, and character which they inspire and cherish, by the high type of manhood which they foster, by the noble lives to sane they give the impulse. Remember, above all, that your ultimate success depends on charac- ter. Genius and skill, unsustained by character, will but glitter and vanish. Industry, probity, chastity, sober habits, a quick and healthy conscience, are worth fully as much in the mere material interests of a life of average duration as they are in the judgment of God and in the esteem of good men. Young persons are very apt to discriminate be- tween preparation for this world and preparation for the world to come. To one who has lived as long as [ have, the two seem identical. Could I start at your age with the fruits of my three score years of observation and experience, I should take precisely the same route to the surest and highest earthly success, emolument, and honor, which I would take as the nearest way to heaven. ORGANIC BASES. LECTURE DELIVERED BY PROFESSOR A. BAUER BEFORE THE VIENNA SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE. [ Translated for the Smithsonian Institution. ] Although bodies having the properties of acids, as, for instance, tar- taric, citric, and malie acids, had long been known to exist in certain vegetable and animal substances, it was reserved for our century to dis- cover bodies of alkaline or basic properties in the organic world. A chemist, Sertiirner by name, first succeeded in isolating morphine from opium, the long-known juice of the poppy, obtained by making incisions into the capsules, and afterwards drying the product in the air. Little attention was at first paid to this discovery, because all the energies of chemists had been turned to the study of inorganic chem- istry; it was out of the regular line of research at the time, and, therefore, remained isolated and unappreciated. When, however, sev- eral years later, Gay Lussac showed the importance of Sertiirner’s dis- covery, and proved himself, in a dissertation published in 1816, that morphine acted like an alkali in regard to vegetable colors and acids, his work became the incentive to a search for similar bodies in such plants as were known for their sanative or poisonous effects. In many cases their active principle was found to consist in an alkaline substance, combined with an organic acid, and hence called an alkaloid. Pelletier and Caventon found alkaloids in Peruvian bark and in the strychneacee, and in 1826 Unverdorben succeeded in artificially preparing several alkaloids or organic bases by the dry distillation of horn, bones, and other animal substances. These discoveries gained for organic bases a place among the most important and interesting bodies in chemistry, and many chemists devoted themselves exclusively to their study. Theoretical considerations concerning the nature of organic bases saused their more extended investigation. These theoretical considera- tion were founded upon the interesting fact of the similarity of all these bases to ammonia. In the natural alkaloids the similarity consists chiefly in the chemical equivalents, but in the artificial bases lately dis- covered it is also exhibited in their physical properties. These facts have led to the supposition that there exists an intimate relation between the organic bases and ammonia. Berzelius, indeed, suggested the probability of the pre-existence of ammonia in all these bases ; while Liebig, in the first volume of his Dictionary of Chemistry, (Handworterbuch der Chemie,) developed a theory concerning their con- ORGANIC BASES. 197 stitution, which forms the basis of our present views as to this interest- ing branch of chemistry. He assumed that ammonia was the type of all organic bases, and that it was itself such a base, of the simplest composition. Ammonia consists of only two elements, containing one atom of nitrogen and three of hydrogen in one molecule.* Liebig as- sumed that, in the organic bases, a part of the hydrogen was replaced by other radicals, composed of several elements; these bases might therefore be considered as made up of a compound radical and a combi- nation of one atom of nitrogen with only two of hydrogen, the other atom of hydrogen being replaced by the new radical. The compound thus formed is called amid.t Such a base is called an amid base.t Liebig developed this idea in the clear and ingenious manner peculiar to himself, and expressed his views concerning the probable nature of compounds which could be formed from amid and the alcohol radicals. Ten years later his ideas were verified by experiment. Ethylamine, and a whole series of similar bases, were produced by Wurtz in Paris in 1849. These discoveries of the celebrated French scientist justly excited un- usual attention, which was still increased when A. W. Hofmann and Wurtz demonstrated that not only one atom of hydrogen in ammonia could be replaced by an alcohol radical to form amid bases, but that compound radicals could be substituted for two, and even for all three, atoms of hydrogen. These bases might be designated as primary, sec- ondary, and tertiary amid bases, according as one, two, or three atoms of hydrogen of the ammonia have been replaced by compound radicals. (in English treatises on chemistry they are usually designated as amid, imid, and nitril bases.— The Translator.) ‘Their chemical formule are rep- resented by the following table, in which A, B, C, stand for the compound radicals. Ammonia base. Amid base. Imid base, Nitril base. HH A A ) A ? 15 Mon H >n 3 >n Bon HY H HS C As Hofmann has shown later that there is a series of compound rad- icals which may replace two atoms of hydrogen in the doubled formula of ammonia, producing a second extensive series of bases, whose com- position is expressed in the following table, where A! B! and C! repre- sent the compound radicals. H, AY) aviit Ati Al Hi, rg Hy, Ng B! 7 le B' > Ng H, H, § H, § o§ If we suppose only 52 such compound radicals capable of replacing one atom, and 32 of replacing two atoms of hydrogen,-we obtain 39,000 millions of possible compound organic bases. * The symbol N, (nitrogen,) in chemical formule, means one atom of nitrogen, and H one atom of hydrogen. The formula for ammonia is therefore: H-+-H-++-H-+N= H3N. +t The chemical formula of amid is therefore : Hy» N. ¢ The formula for an amidogen base is: A+H,N, in which A stands for a compound radical. 198 ORGANIC BASES. This enormous number shows how impossible it is, in spite of the most persevering labors, to become acquainted with more than a very small proportion of these compounds. This very number urges us to study only the prominent representatives of whole series, and to give to them our whole time and energies. From what has been said in regard to the composition of organic bases, it was thought evident that nitrogen would appear to be the component on which their properties depend, for they all contain nitrogen. But we know now whole series of analogous bases containing, instead of nitrogen, some other element of similar properties. These also have the charac- teristics of ammonia. As early as 1846, Paul Thenard had made phos- phorus bases, which were more thoroughly investigated in 1855 by Hofmann and Cahours. Analogous arsenic bases have been known much longer. In 1760 Cadet prepared one, the composition of which he could not, of course,explain. The investigations of Bunsen, from 1837 to 1843, shed more light on this remarkable class of organic bodies, and the constitution of the arsenic bases was finally completely made clear by the researches of Cahours, Kolbe, Riche, and especially Baeyer, in Berlin. In 1850 Loéwig discovered antimony and bismuth bases, so that we now have four other elements capable of forming whole series of basic combinations like those of nitrogen. Compare these with the above-mentioned number of possible nitrogen bases, and we will be con- vinced that the chemist as well as the astronomer is able to astonish us with magnificent numbers, and to call up before the mind’s eye endless series of possible combinations, all producing bodies having special qualities. However much these researches have extended our knowledge, they have but slightly improved our acquaintance with the bases and alka- loids spontaneously formed in nature. The constitution and the rela- tions of these natural alkaloids to the other bases and to other chem- ical compounds are much less understood than the foregoing statement would lead us to suppose. The causes of this are that the natural al- kaloids are mostly very complex bodies, and that they suffer such com- plete changes in most reactions, that it is difficult to study them, or to form any conclusion as to the constitution they had before they were decomposed. It must be left to the future to shed more light on the nature of these bodies. Let us hope that it will be possible to make those alkaloids synthetically which have hitherto been found only in nature. We must not forget in this connection that most of the natural bases contain oxygen, which is not found inthe ammonia bases. Although the discovery of the so-called ammonium bases, and Wurtz’s beautiful discovery of the behavior of oxide of ethylene to ammonia, have indi- cated the way of preparing such oxygen bases artificially, there is nev- ertheless a difficulty, which seems almost insurmountable. It is the fact that most of the natural bases have optical properties, while we cannot succeed with the aid of the above processes in preparing com- pounds possessing similar properties from substances not originally ORGANIC BASES. 199 possessing them. The discovery of methods for the artificial or syn- thetic preparation of the alkaloids would not only be of high scientific interest, but it would also greatly advance our material interests, for there is scarcely another group of bodies of such manifold uses as the organic bases. Many of these alkaloids play an important part in the arts, others are known as the active principles of stimulating articles of food, while the great number of them are valuable as medicines. Many of them are ex- tremely violent poisons, and have acquired an unenviable reputation from cases in which they have been employed. Poisoning by means of vegetable bases is rendered doubly dangerous, because it is often difficult to prove with certainty the presence of the poison in the corpse or the secretions by chemical analysis, while the presence of mineral poisons can generally be detected with ready cer- tainty. The reason of this is not difficult to understand. Weare but imperfectly acquainted with the properties of the natural alkaloids. They resemble each other very much. In cases of poisoning, they are mixed up in the stomach or other parts of the body with many other or- ganic substanees, all containing carbon and having certain properties in common with them. These organic substances are of course more akin to the vegetable bases than to inorganic substances, such as the com- pounds of arsenic, which are not found in any part of the human body. Metals are present only in insignificant quantities, and those which are present are not at all similar to arsenic. Now the organic bodies pres- ent all contain nitrogen and may have basic properties, both character- istics of alkaloids. It is obvious that the detection and separation of very similar bodies are much more difficult than the separation of dis- similar ones, where the detection of a single property often sufiices to prove their presence with certainty. If we consider furthermore that the alkaloids are very easily decom- posed, and that in legal chemical investigations the bodies in which they are to be sought forare generally in a state of putrefaction, ¢. ¢., of contin- ual active change, we will understand how impossible it is frequently for chemists to separate the poisons in a state of purity from parts of the body and to prove their presence with certainty. It is indeed some- times possible to inject the substances which in cases of poisoning must contain the vegetable base, into the blood of living animals or to mix it with their food, and then to judge, from the physiological effects on the animals, which poison was present. The changes produced by certain alkaloids on the beating of the heart, on the general action of the muscles, and on the nervous system, are frequently so characteristic that we can judge of the presence of one or other alkaloid with as much cer- tainty from these effects as from pure chemical reactions. Such proofs, however, have not the full force of evidence in court, for in such cases the separation of the pure poison must always be the chief aim of the chemist. Dangerous as our organic bases may become in the hands of the 200 ORGANIC BASES. murderer, they are highly salutary in the prescriptions of the physician, who employs them with great success in the treatment of severe and otherwise unyielding diseases. Peruvian bark owes its efficacy to the alkaloid quinine which it contains together with cinchonine and chinidine in varying proportions. Formerly, before these facts were known, there was no standand by which the value of different specimens of Peru- vian bark could be correctly judged. Sometimes a certain kind of bark, whose dose had been fixed by experience, acquired a much greater value than others whose efficacy far surpassed it. Now the value depends on the amount of bases contained in the bark and not on the color, shape, or Other external signs. Not the smallest piece of the bark is now al- lowed to be lost on gathering it, because processes are known by which even the smallest quantity of quinine contained in it can be obtained. The same is true of different kinds of opium. Their medicinal value depends on the amount of alkaloids they contain. These are morphine, codeine, and narcotine, three beautiful crystallizable bodies, the latter of which is distinguished by the peculiar property of furnishing another base, trimethylamine, when mixed with soda-lime and subjected to dry dis- tillation. Chemists have proved the presence of trimethylamine in the pickle of herrings. It is the cause of their peculiar odor. Urine con- tains it also in small quantities, hence its smell of herrings when much of it is evaporated down. The belladonna and the datura strammonium contain the alkaloid atropine, whose terribly poisonous properties are generally known, but which plays a very important part in treating diseases of the eye. Applied to the eye in a dilute state, or rubbed into the skin near the eye, it powerfully dilates the pupil and greatly facili- tates certain operations on that organ. Irom all parts of the hemlock, a colorless, transparent oil of penetrating odor can be obtained, which is known under the name of coniine, and is one of the most poisonous alkaloids. Hither this or cicutine contained in the water-hemlock was the cause of the tragical death of Socrates. In the St. Ignatius bean and the nux vomica, strychnine is found along with brucine; it forms a beautiful, crystallizable alkaloid, distinguished by its extremely bitter taste and by its producing tetanic spasms when injected into the blood. To this class of organic bases belong also those poisons which savages use for steeping the points of their arrows. There are undoubtedly several such poisons. It seems that the one used by the savages of In- dia and Africa is essentially different from that used by the natives in the northern part of South America. The former, called antia, imme- diately stops the beating of the heart, while the latter, called curare, first palsies the general muscular action and then stops the heart. Curare is the better known of the two; it was first brought to Europe by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595. According to Humboldt, the preparation of this poison resembles our vintage feast. The savages collect poisonous vines in the forest, while the women prepare an intoxicating fermented liquor, of which they all partake. When all are intoxicated and lie in deep sleep, the master of the art prepares the poison by extracting the juice ORGANIC BASES. 204 of the vines and evaporating it down. Different travelers agree that they also add poisonous ants and fangs of snakes. It would seem therefore that curarin, the active principle of the arrow-poison or curare, was a constituent of the juice of vines; but there is no certainty on this subject, since travelers do not agree in their accounts of the preparation of this interesting substance. Curare can be taken into the alimentary canal without the slightest danger, and even the meat of _ animals poisoned by it is innocuous, while it is certainly and often sud- denly fatal when injected into the blood even in small quantity. When introduced into a wound, this poison occasions no pain whatever. The symptoms preceding death are very remarkable, as can be seen when a very small quantity is introduced into the blood of alarge animal. There is an immediate relaxation of the muscles, all voluntary motion ceases, the animal sinks down powerless, but with its consciousness unimpaired, and finally the respiration ceases and death ensues, without the presence of any symptoms which would indicate excitement or a death-struggle. It is a progressive palsy, ending in the brain. A whole series of organic bases is esteemed on account of the pleasant stimulating effect they exert on the body when in small quantities and diluted with other substances. They belong to the category of luxuries. Among them, nicotine, the active principle of tobacco, takes the fore- most rank. Pure nicotine is a liquid, which becomes brown in the light, has a to- baeco-like smell and possesses very poisonous properties. The amount of nicotine contained in different kinds of tobacco varies. Although it is not exactly in the inverse, it is by no means in direct proportion to the excellence of the tobacco. Fine brands, such as Havana and Mary- land tobaccos, contain but very little; the former not quite two and the latter from two to four per cent. Kentucky and Virginia brands con- tain as much as from six to seven per cent., and some of the domestic brands of Germany contain considerable quantities. Besides nicotine, there are some other bitter principles contained in tobacco, which are the chief cause of nausea in young smokers. These are kept back by smoking pipes with long stems, which only allow the gaseous bodies to reach the mouth. Besides carbonic acid and carbonic oxide, tobacco smoke often contains as much as 5 per cent. of carbonate of. ammonia, (which causes the increased secretion of saliva,) and also butyric acid, empyreumatic oils and resins, traces of sulphuretted hy- drogen and even prussic¢ acid, but no creosote. Pepper owes its pungent taste to piperine, a crystallizable alkaloid. Tea and coffee both contain the same organic base, theine or caffeine, which are easily obtained from them in silky needles. A solution of this alkaloid neither has the taste nor the pleasant stimulating effect of an infusion of tea or coffee. In these beverages, as in tobacco, the value of the article used depends on other substances, which accompany the alkaloid. 202 ORGANIC BASES. Chocolate owes its value to theobromine, an alkaloid contained in eacao. It has been lately found that iodide of methyl digested with theobromine for some time in a sealed tube, at the temperature of boil- ing water, will convert it into theine. The excellent effect of pure meat broth on the system is due to krea- tine and kreatinine, two bases contained in meat. Broth, therefore, belongs to the same class as tea, coffee, and chocolate, and it certainly deserves the preference when the system of the sick person requires a stimulating and strengthening beverage. Some organic bases have obtained a prominent place in the chemical arts. It is only necessary to mention kyanole or aniline, which is ob- tained in large quantities from coal-tar, and is used in the manufacture of the finest colors. Aniline red is the chloride or acetate of rosaniline, a colorless base obtained from aniline. Aniline violet must also be con- sidered as an aniline base. Two artificial bases, the amid bases of ethyl and methyl, which but lately had merely been preserved in chemical collections as interesting and rare substances, are now used instead of ammonia, in Carré’s ice apparatus, in the artificial production of ice. The description of the individual members of this extensive series of organic bases or alkaloids could be considerably extended if our time permitted, and if I did not fear to fatigue my hearers. As I mentioned in my introduction, organic bases were a terra incog- nita to chemists half a century ago. As you probably have gleaned from my remarks, chemists have since diligently labored to explore this region; but whenever they had succeeded in sealing a height, from which they hoped to obtain a general view of what they had investigat- ed, new and ever greater fields opened to their astonished eyes—fields whose exploration will require the most diligent efforts of chemists for many years. Just asin the discovery of a new country the value of which the people realize only when the plowshare has turned the new soil and when its treas- ures have begun to circulate in the great commercial veins and arteries of the world, it happens with our organic bases, which are generally appreciated only as far as they are useful to commerce, the arts, or medicine. Let us not forget, however, gentlemen, that as the treasures of the mountains of California and the products of India would never have en- riched our country if it had not been for indefatigable travelers, who wandered through unknown countries, impelled by a pure love of knowl- edge. So we also owe our acquaintance with the organic bases to purely unselfish and scientific investigations, which have taught us that nothing is useless in science—a truth written in conspicuous letters on every page of the book of nature, and which can only fail to be read by the grossest ignorance. THE NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY, A LECTURE BY PROFESSOR KLETZINSKY. Delivered December 15, 1870. [Translated from Aus der Natur for the Smithsonian Institution. ] T have the honor to direct your attention this morning to a group of compound bodies which are of the highest importance, whether we consider them from a theoretrical or a practical point of view. They are all the artificial products of the laboratory, and while the study of them has led to the most interesting views of the constitution of matter, some of them have found a widely-extended industrial application, and others give promise of a brilliant future. They are what is called the nitrogen compounds of modern chemistry : Volume substitution is now accepted as the ruling principle of chemi- cal combinations. All substances may be considered as combining in certain definite volumes, and the unit adopted by science in this respect is hydrogen. This atom, which in respect to weight and volume is the chemical standard, we denote as unity, and all other atoms which enter into the composition of bodies, and which require the same space as the atom of hydrogen, can be substituted in the place of this unit. Chemists have succeeded in substituting for the hydrogen in organic substances radicals of hyponitric acid; that radical which is denoted by the formula NO». This radical called nitryl, whose introduction into organic chemistry led to the conception of the nitrogen compounds, is formed when we unite one equivalent, of nitrogen having a combining power of 3 with the weight 14, and two atoms of oxygen which is bivalent, that is, having a combining power of 2 with the weight 16. This body is therefore represented by the formula /”N/’’O:, in which the dashes ( “) represent the combining volumes. Since the nitrogen is trivalent and the oxygen bivalent, and since there are two atoms of oxygen the combining power of which is four, there evidently remains one unappro- priated equivalent volume; and this free equivalent volume determines the equivalence of the radical. On this ground we designate this radical as univalent, or having a combining power of one; and as such it ean be in all cases substituted for the hydrogen monad. Now, if this substitution of nitryl for hydrogen in organic bodies be extended as far as the actual relations admit, we arrive at the formation of the nitrogen compounds. For a complete exposition of our subject 204 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. we have still to mention the quadrivalent atom of carbon. The carbon atom requires four times the space of the hydrogen atom, and fills that space with the weight 12. It bears the symbol “’C, The elements, then, with which we, have to deal and effect our ex- changes are represented as follows: Fig. 1. 1. Hydrogen, O Bie b 2. Oxvgen ur @) 3 Nitrogen, «(xo = a ween: 4, Carbon, CS-e-® HUG, The equivalence of the elements, 7. e., the proportion of their volumes compared with hydrogen as a standard, is not an invariable quantity. Expansion and contraction may take place in the atoms; within certain limits these can increase or decrease in volume. But it is important to observe that this expansion and contraction will always be bi-polar; that is, if a univalent atom expand it will do this in both directions and become, not bivalent, but necessarily trivalent. The trivalent nitrogen atom may become quinquivalent, but not quadrivalent. Hence, we have the simple rule that the character of the equivalence cannot change ; if. it is expressed by an even number it must still, though the atom con- tract or expand, be expressed by aneven number ; and reversely, if the equivalence is expressed by an odd number it must in all cases be so expressed. This will readily be understood if we suppose a unit volume to be added to each side of the symbol oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen, as given in Fig. 1. In this case the oxygen will become four, the nitrogen five, &c. The trivalent nitrogen atom in some circumstances may become quinquivalent. This expansion of atoms takes place when they are subjected to peculiar chemical actions. I now call your attention to a salt which is produced from acetic acid and ammonia, and which is introduced into the pharmacopeeia as the so- called spirit of Mindererus, the acetate of ammonia, or acetate of oxide of ammonium. In the delineation of the formule of chemical compounds, without which a clear understanding of the processes is impossible, this acetate of ammonia is represented in Fig. 4: NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. 205 Tt is necessary to state that in all acetic acid salts a radical called acetyl is common. This radical is represented as follows, in Fig. 2: Bhiow2: mC, AH, /O —> or In order to form the salt from this radical we need a link of oxygen, which shall unite the radical of the base ammonium (/”N ‘H,,) whose equivalence is one, there being four atoms of hydrogen and one of pente- valent of expanded nitrogen. This uniting oxygen is represented in Fig. 3. Fig. 3. CO Fig. 4. mO, ‘A; “O,+"0,4+"N 'Hy=""C, A, "O, “'N3. or The oxygen, which is here (Fig. 4) somewhat more distinctly marked, holds together the radical of the acid and the radical of the base, and thus forms acetate of the oxide of ammonium. Now, when, by chemical agency, we force the water from this salt, as by a high degree of heat, by the action of chloride of phosphorus, or an anhydrous acid, (chemists have many expedients for separating water from organic compounds, forming it anew, and eliminating it again,) when, therefore, we take from this compound two molecules of water, 2 (‘H, ”O,) the nitrogen contracts from five to threefold equiv: aeR ce and we have the following formation : Vil ——s Fig. 5. Fig. 6. N COOCsce OOOO M1 which represents the compound acetonitryl. We obtain the same result if we saturate acetic acid with carbonate of ammonia; evaporate the liquid and distill the salt with chloride of 206 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. phosphorus. The product thus obtained, the acetonitryl, furnishes a starting-point for further transformations. Suppose, now, that for one hydrogen atom we substitute the radical of unit equivalence, (”N “O..) Fig 7. COLO OOCCCO 33 Here we have a perfectly-linked atomic-chain, where everything fits, a nitrogen body, NM! Ou Hs, NY“ O,/’ the nitro-acetonitryl. If we substitute for the two remaining atoms of hydrogen one _ biva- lent atom of mercury, (represented by the shaded circles in Fig. 8,) we shall obtain common fulminate of mercury. Fig. 8. COCAEC® 38 This latter substance cannot, in fact, be obtained from acetate of am- monia; our means are not yet adequate for that. We have another and quite different way, which is not less interesting; it is the action of ni- trate of mercury on alcohol. When strong spirits of wine and strong nitric acid are mixed and metallic mercury is added to the mixture, in a short time nitrous acid vapor is developed, the mass begins as it were to seethe, and on cooling yields a deposit in the form of fine needle- crystals, and this is the fulminate of mercury. Alcohol has the radical so often occurring in chemistry, C, H;, and has the formula C, Hg O, or Fig. 9. COLD OOCD OCOOCCCOO Ti nitryl mercury ‘represented in Fig. 10) acts upon this— NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. 207 We shall have the compound represented in Fig. 11— Fig. 11. Fig. 12. COCO) CO Gx) ; CSCCCO CG O18: COQ OO Fig. 12 represents the molecules of water extracted. (in this again) we have fulminate of mercury and water. Finally, if in the above nitro-acetonitryl (N’” ©,” H,/ N’” O,/’) we substitute nitryl for the two hydrogen atoms, we obtain tri-nitro-acetonitryl— Fig. 13. a substance which forms crystals transparent as water, resembling naphthaline, and which on exposure to air emits a disagreeable odor, a body which liquifies at 45° and at 120° explodes with violence, rend- ing its way through all obstacles. Now, whence arises this explosive force of the nitrogen bodies ? Tt comes in this wise: from the substitution of oxygen for hydrogen there oceurs so intimate a blending of combustibles and supporters of combustion that on contact with a spark, on the signal given for decom- position, the whole mass with tempest swiftness, so to speak, burns up at once. At the instant of combustion this solid substance is resolved into elastic fluids tending to expand, and, moreover, by reason of the ugmented temperature attendant on the process of decomposition already expanded to a remarkable degree, and therefore filling a space many hundred times greater than before. If, by raising its temperature to 120° I should cause the decomposition of this body in the glass tube, in which, to prevent accidents, it is usually liquefied, there would result in place of this small quantity a volume hundreds of times larger than the tube; its cohesion being overcome, the glass would be shattered, and, with a report like that of fire-arms, the gas would escape into the air. The effect of the common explosive gas depends on the intimate blending of the inflammatory oxygen with the combustible hydrogen. 208 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. Liquids do not blend thus unless they are soluble in each other; unless they have a peculiar mutual affinity. Oil and water placed in the same flask, and thoroughly shaken, will present a uniform appearance, but if left standing a short time they separate again, the oil gradually rising to the surface, and the heavier water sinking below. The case is different with aeriform bodies. Two gases possessing no mutual affinity, if introduced into the same space, will each be diffused throughout the whole space precisely as if the other were not present, and the result will be their perfect uniform blending. Suppose we admit into the flask two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen, the atoms will group themselves as follows: Fig, 14. OO es H, Oz, Hy. GO This, a million times repeated, affords an idea of detonating gas. The hydrogen iscombustible, the oxygen is inflammatory, (the kindler,) there is needed only an electric spark, a glimmering splinter of wood, the presenee of catalytic platinum sponge, or any other inconsiderable source of heat, and the hydrogen burns in the oxygen; an immense volume of watery vapor is suddenly produced, extremely elastic, at a temperature of 1000° R., and this forces its way through every obstacle. Mary nitrogen compounds act in accordance with this principle. By the introduction of nitryl, that radical abounding in oxygen, in the place of hydrogen, a more intimate combination of combustible and in- flammatory substances is effected, even in solid bodies, than is possible in the most successful fabrication of gunpowder. What is the operation of the manufacturer of gunpowder? He has two combustible substances, carbon and sulphur, and one inflammatory substance, saltpeter. Each of these three materials he reduces sepa- rately to the finest powder. He then mingles them, moistened, to avoid explosion through friction, and then with the utmost care rubs them to- gether for hours, yes, days, till the blending is as intimate as it ean pos- sibly be made. He must still force the compound through sieves to grain it; he must smooth and glaze these grains, &c., but with the in- corporation of these three ingredients his chemical labor is finished. Thus it consisted in producing the most uniform possible commixture of combustible and inflammatory substances, so that the carbon and sul- phur, which are combustible, are throughout in contact with the salt- peter, which is the source of the oxygen. A spark coming in contact NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. 209 with a single grain the combustion is transferred from grain to grain, and the whole quantity of carbon and sulphur isconsumed in the oxygen. Nevertheless, gunpowder, though compounded with all possible care, though triturated and incorporated with the most scrupulous attention, can never acquire that perfect blending -which may be attained by the introduction of combinations of atoms into the structure of organic for- mule. As intimate and uniform an incorporation of the atoms as occurs in the nitrogen bodies can never be effected by the mechanism of powder- mills; and this alone indicates the importance of the nitrogen com- pounds. Not among the earliest of those bodies, it is true, but a very recent descendant from them, and first brought into notice by the celebrated chemist Schénbein, is gun-cotton. Gun-cotton is ordinary cotton ni- trogenized. Cotton is chemically called cellulose, vegetable cellulin, vegetable fibrin. Vegetable fibrin. has the formula— | Fig. 15. C,; H; O: i, f O OOO In the middle we see the union of the carbon atoms to be firm; at the ends comparatively weak. Now if,, step by step, we replace the hydrogen with nitrogen compounds, with nitryl, we have trinitrocel- lulose, wherein these atoms of hydrogen are replaced by nitryl, and we have before us gun-cotton, whose formation was effected by this substitution of nitryl radicals N O, for hydrogen. The manufacture of gun-cotton is extremely simple. We require only the so-called nitro-sulphurie acid, which isin commonuse. Thereare two limits in compounding this acid. We may mix equal parts of good Nordhausen acid, or Saxon or Bohemian oil of vitriol, and of good fuming nitric acid, or three parts of Nordhausen acid and two parts of nitric acid; or two parts of Nordhausen acid and three of red fuming nitric acid. A mixture with either of these proportions produces a, serviceable nitro-sulphuric acid, which has received the trivial name of ifulminic acid from its use in the manufacture of fulminating compounds. In mixing the brown oil of vitriol with red nitric acid there occurs ¢ moment when the mixture of the two acids is nearly colorless. This is the state in which the compound ismost available. It must be effect- ually cooled, if possible in a freezing mixture composed of three parts snow eee part epsom salts or common cooking-salt; or, at all events, Ss) 21C NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. in cold water, often changed; for the acid must be ice-cold to insure success. In this perfectly cold mixture immerse now, flake by flake, strand by strand, the cellulose, the pure vegetable fibrin. The purer the fibrin the drier and the freer from all mechanical soiling, the better of course will be the result. The cotton is immersed in the liquid by pressing it down with a glass rod; we wait till all the air-bubbles escape, till the cotton is fully saturated with the acid; moreover, we are careful to immerse no more cotton than ean be contained without pressure and will be entirely covered by the acid. Half an hour,as [haverepeatedly satisfied myself, is sufficient for the process; still there is no harm in leaving the cotton in the acid for an hour or several hours; thirty or forty minutes, however, are amply sufficient for the required effect. This done, with the glass rod take out the wet cotton, press it between thick plates of glass to remove the superfluous acid, throw it into an abundance of cold water to reduce the temperature, and immediately pick it apart, for if youlet the compressed cotton fall into the water and lie there in a mass, you will find that, with a perceptible increase of temperature and the escape of reddish brown vapor, it gradually dis- solves and disappears. After the cotton is thus pulled apart, and, as it were, drowned and quenched in cold water, it must be carefully washed, in a running stream if possible, for you will accomplish as much in six hours with running water, which easily penetrates among the fibers, as in two or three days with standing water. If all has been done as directed, you have first-class gun-cotton. It has now only to be dried, in a temperature not exceeding 100°, to expel all the water, and then it may be kept for years without the slighest deterioration. We know what wonderful changesof opinion have taken place in ourown time in respect to gun-cotton. The Austrian minister of war has really played with it the poetical gamé of the daisy: ‘Thou lovest me well, through good and ill,a little,ornot atall” A largeamountof money was expended on gun-cotton. At first, it was glorified ; later, doubts were entertained ; and then, when suddenly the tower of Simmering flew into the air, gun-cotton fell into disrepute. And yet England has recently made it the subject of a thorough investigation, and opinions in regard to itnow seem very favorable. I have here some gun-cotton in the form of skeins and lamp-wick. This specimen is fully eleven years old, and in that time has not changed in the least, absolutely not in the least. It is just as effective to-day as when first made. It isa property of gun- cotton that in a moist condition,and notably when it has been imperfectly washed, it is deeomposed ina way whichmay result in a partial dissolution and eventually in explosion. A spontaneous conbustion of clean, well washed and dried gun-cotton is nexplieable on scientific principles and is not known to have occurred. On being ignited gun-cotton explodes with- out smoke or vapor, and with no residue of ashes. We perceive only a weak odor of nitrous acid. It is a great advantage in the use of gun- cotton in blasting, that it does not leave that stifling atmosphere, that NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. 211 sulphurous smoke which renders approach impossible, as for example in mines. Particularly when common gunpowder is used for fracturing rocks, when experimental blastings are made with closed shafts, after the ex- plosion the air is irrespirable, the ventilating shaft must act for a long time before the place can be entered, This inconvenience is avoided by the use of gun-cotton. I take this opportunity to indicate how we may easily and infallibly recognize a nitrogen body. It is merely necessary to produce its explosion in a partially closed space ; the space becomes filled with weak nitrous acid vapor. For nitrous acid we have a very reliable reagent, the sulphate of iron. Ofcourse the experiment should be made with a very small quantity of the cotton, as otherwise the ex- plosion would be too violent; it would act in all directions, and prove its fracturing force on the vessel. I beg here to repeat that the explo- sion of such bodies consists in the sudden liberation of confined gases. There is an instantaneous production of gas occupying a hundred-fold the space of the cotton, a gas of high temperature and great elasticity. Such gases in a spherical space act in all directions ; therefore they act not merely lengthwise of the tube but against the sides of it also. Now, if the action is on a seale not large enough to overcome the cohesion of the sides of the vessel, the gas has time to escape upwards; but if the action is so intense that its lateral components are sufficient to overcome the cohesion of the containing vessel, the fracturing force takes efiect, the vessel. is shattered. We must therefore use only a very small quantity in our experiment. Nitrous acid changes the color of sulphate of iron to brown. We are not to expect a conspicuous change of color, observe, because most of the vapor escapes, only a small proportion remaining. Still there is enough to prove that we have to do with a nitrogen compound. The slowly burning form of gun-cotton is called collodion-cotton. This modification of gun-cotton, which is not so rapidly consumed, but gradually burns out, is not used to propel projectiles, but it has other and very valuable uses. This allotropic form of gun-cotton is obtained by mixing English sulphuric acid with nitrate of potash and heating the mixture to 50°, The nitrate of potash is decomposed, and the result is bi-sulphate of potash and concentrated monohydrous nitric acid. When it is all dissolved we immerse in this liquid at 50° eotton well separated and dried, just as much as will lie in the liquid without pres- sure and be entirely covered, and we let it remain at this temperature, carefully watching it, from half an hour to an hour. The heat must rise no higher, for if it does the mass begins to develop red vapors, the cot- ton is in a tumuk, and presently nothing is left but oxalic acid. The red vapor is a signal to lower the temperature. When this is all done the cotton must be picked apart, rinsed in cold water, and dried; and thus we have cotton which does not explode well, but which dissolves in alechol and ether, while good gun-cotton will not so dissolve. Cot- ton prepared at freezing temperature is insoluble in alcohol and ether, a5 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. or, at most, only slightly soluble in acetic ether. On the other hand, cotton prepared at a higher temperature, which explodes imperfectly, has just this property of dissolving in alcoholized ether. In pure alcohol, entirely free from water and ether, collodion-cotton dissolves imperfectly or not at all. . If the cotton be wet with pure aleo- hol the superfluous alcohol may be poured off and ether added; the cot- ton will now dissolve in common ether. The cotton wet ai alcohol begins to dissolve in the ether, and the liquid thus obtained is usually filtered through cotton in its natural state to remove any fibers which may remain undissolved, and the filtered liquid is the so-called collo- dion, adhesive ether, @. ¢., the solution of tri-nitrocelluline in alcoholized ether. This collodion may be saturated with gun-cotton to a somewhat thick liquid. Allowed to evaporate on glass, it leaves a film of collo- dion. This solution of collodion is applied to burns when there is no blood or moisture. In sealds, if not very severe, it does good service. ' In order to avoid painful contractions of the skin, it is best applied with a solution of castor-oil in alcohol. This imparts to it a degree of pli- aney which causes it to yield to the motions of the skin without causing pain. There is a whole series of bodies besides gun-cotton belonging to the same class; ¢é. g., uitro-mannite, obtained from mannite, from manna. ‘If manna, such as is procured from the ash-tree, is dissolved in nitro-sul- phuric acid, and left standing a while until red vapors appear, and then poured into cold water, a white, powdery, crystalline mass is precipitated ; this is nitro-mannite. This substance explodes tolerably well. An attempt was made to substitute it for fulminate of mercury, but the at- tempt was abandoned. Nevertheless, it is destined to important uses in the industrial arts. _Ordinary cane-sugar treated in the same manner, dissolved in nitro- sulphuric acid, 7. ¢., a mixture of red fuming nitricacid and Nordhausen oil of vitriol, one ice-cold, and when the red fumes appear, poured into cold water solidifies, and when it softens can be drawn into threads of almost silken luster. It is certain that the solutions of it in alcohol and ether, even in the water, in which it is preserved, taste. extremely bitter. This body is called nitro-saccharine. By the mere substitution of nitryl for one atom of the hydrogen, the sweet taste of the sugar is changed to one thus intensc!y bitter. How complete a transformation takes place is shown by this, that nitro-saccharine is incapable of the vinous fermentation, is no ee a means of nourishment, but has be- come a poison, a eaes substance, which bids defiance to ecunladen and digestion as well as ese aoue When starch is treated in the same manner, the purest starch, from potatoes, rice, or wheat, when it is stirred into the mixture of ane it cannot be said to dissolve, but a glutinous swelling takes place, and when on the appearance of the red vapor the mass is poured into cold water, a Shining white substance is deposited, which is called xyloidine. NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. 213 These are bodies less explosive, certainly, than gun-cotton, but which belong to the same class, ge hydrogens, in which the hy ee is re- placed by nitryl. There are still other and very different nitrogen compounds, and, in- deed, the first known, the oldest, belongs to a different chapter. This compound eomes from phenyl acid, a radical which in many respects excites the interest of chemists. The main source of phenyl is benzol, WO, ‘Hg, or Fig. 16. Pure benzol is a colorless liquid, somewhat refractive, as evaporable as ether, of penetrating odor, but not unpleasant when much diluted. It is the well-known scouring drops. This most volatile of the coal-oils, called, eupion, is an exceedingly mobile and refractive medium, possess- ing the property of dissolving all oily substances without AD ay: any color or injuring any material; it can therefore be used to extract spots of grease and oil from all fabrics, even from the most delicate’ rose- colored silk. Spots from acids, fruits, or lve are not removed by it. It produces no effect whatever on discolored spots; it can merely remove the grease and with that the dust; for every spot of grease on a garment is naturally a place on which the dust floating in the air is deposited. This benzine or benzol is, in a scientific view, phenyl- hydrogen. By replacing the hydrogen with hydroxyl, HO, we obtain from ben- zine earbolic acid, or phenyl acid, which in a pure state forms colorless crystals, but, however carefully protected froin the air, it changes grad- ually to dull red, and finally to brown. Carbolie or phenyl acid is found in coal-tar, and is obtained from it in the form of carbolate of lime. The carbolate of natron, prepared by precipitating this salt of lime by means of a natron lye, is of inestimable value to the physicians as a means of obviating the fatal effects of hospital gangrene, of cleans- ing wounds, and exciting healthy action which has been suspended. By substituting for oneatom of the hydrogenin benzine— not hydroxyl, but nitryl—we obtain a new substance, nitrobenzol, mirbanol, and this brings us to ordinary perfumery. Thus, from the benzol of coal-tar is produced the artificial oil of bitter almonds, employed as a perfume in common pomades, in many cleaning mixtures, and substances contain- ing strongly-scented mineral matter, and in common soaps. This mir- banol is obtained by mixing car erally drop by drop, at a low tempera- ’ ture, benzol and nitric acid. It would be unsafe to mix at once the whole mass of benzol and nitrie acid, since it would produce intense heat and lead to explosion. In mingling benzol and red fuming nitric acid there is need of the greatest foresight, carefulness, and subdivision of the process. In spite of refrigeration, the benzol dissolving in the 214 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. nitric acid develops heat and gases, and when the masses have for a time acted on each other, they are poured into an abundance of cold water. Then, while the benzol, being lighter than water, floats on the surface, the mirbanol, which is heavier, sinks underneath ; thus the ni- trobenzol is prepared from the mixture of benzol with red fuming nitric acid. This crude mirbanol, which has still an unpleasant odor, is washed with weak carbonate of nitrogen, and then distilled off with ex- treme care. It is unsafe, after washing it, to place this compound ina retort over a fire, for, in case it approached the boiling temperature, there would be a flash, a fearful explosion, and the retort would be shat- tered. It must not be forgotten that, although this compound is not used for explosive purposes, if isa nitrogen body; you have admitted a wolf into the sheepfold; you have introduced the element of inflamma- bility—oxygen—among the atoms of hydrogen, and when once the kindling takes place the hydrogen burns throughout the whole mass. And yet the crude mirbanol is distilled, because the consumption of it depends entirely on its freedom from color. This is accomplished by a chemical process, whereby the crude mirbanol is placed in a retort and the vapor of water introduced. At first, the water is condensed in the retort, but the vapor being constantly renewed, the water at length at- tains the boiling-point, is again vaporized, and escapes into the receiver at a temperature, however, below the boiling-point of mirbanol, and the latter is carried along by the watery vapor into the receiver. Of this device much use has been made, because this method of distillation ata low temperature greatly improves the odor and discharges the color of the substance distilled. I beg you not to suppose that the artificial mirbanol thus obtained from the crude nitrobenzol can be a substitute for the genuine oil of bitter almonds—a costly, natural ethereal oil. If you compare the two, you will find it absurd to give the same name to the former, so delicate and fresh is the genuine hydro-benzole, rela- tively to the crude and harsh nitrobenzol. They are indistinguishable, however, in a diluted state, and in alkaline fluids, particularly in lye compounds; in soaps the artificial oil is altogether preferable. Of these common products, for overcoming strong odors, the genuine, fine bitter-almond oil would be wasted—it would be lost—overpowered entirely by the rancid odor of the soap, for example, and would be less effective than its more powerful companion. But this is not its only use. When mirbanol is exposed to hydrogen in a nascent state, a nitrogenous compound is formed, aniline, which is merely phenylamin: OC, H; N He This is a substance whose synonyms bewilder the beginner in our science. Amidophenas, benzidam, krystalline, kyanol, aniline, phenyla- min, they are all the same, but, singularly enough, their production was accompanied by wonderful misapprehensions. A chemist separating it from coal-tar, supposing it an oil, and observing that it gave a blue color NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. 2S to chloride of lime, called it kyanol, blue oil. Others have obtained it from phenyl acid, from the benzoate of ammonia; others again from indigo, and these called it aniline, from the Indian name of indigo, Anil Indi- gofera; no one suspected that all these different bodies, produced in dif. ferent ways, were identical, until their composition was studied, and after numerous and varied experiments it was found that they were one and the same phenylamin. This base is obtained when we subject mirbanol to the action of iron filings. The mirbanol is placed in a covered kettle containing iron filings and water. The iron rusts; thus by attracting the oxygen, decomposing the water, and the nascent hydrogen from the decomposed water, produces aniline from the mirbanol. This process completed, the contents of the kettle are distilled, and crude aniline passes over. This requires repeated cleansing, and changes to manifold colors. Now, therefore, we find ourselves among the coloring substances. When aniline and arsenic acid are subjected for some hours to intense heat, they are changed into a pitch-like, dark purple mass, which, on being purified, yields crystallized fuchsin ; and if this red dye is dissolved in an excess of aniline and the solution heated again in the same man- ner, without suffering it to evaporate, it becomes a blue mass with a coppery luster, (azuline.) If we add nitric acid to rose aniline, we obtain aniline yellow and orange. If aniline is oxygenized with chromic acid, chlorie acid, and the salts of copper, we have gray and black ; if the sul- phate of rose aniline is added to hyponitrite of natron, we obtain aniline green. There is scarcely a color of the spectrum or of art which cannot be produced from aniline. Aniline is the root of innumerable shades of eclor, which are all of marvelous beauty, but extremely perishable, not subject to chemical influences, but whose chief enemy is the light; hence the exceeding tendency to fade, of fabrics dyed with aniline. For this reason they are suitable for those materials only which are soon worn out or soon out of fashion; while durable fabrics ought never to be dyed with these colors, since the light destroys them under all circumstances in a fabu- lously short time. Aniline dyes have competitors. From the naphthaline of coal-tar— this coal-champion—have similar bodies been produced, and nitro-naph- thaline furnishes a whole series of colors, which, however, are of no practical interest. As the consumption of aniline dyes is enormous, efforts are now in progress to produce such modifications of them as will be soluble in water or diluted nitric acid; because the original solvent, alcohol, or wood-spirit, not only is too expensive, but also involves this evil, that constant inhalation of alcoholic vapor produces injurious, sometimes fatal, effects on those who are subjected to it. When carbolic or phenic acid is mixed with fulminic acid, all three of the hydrogen atoms at the other extreme of the chain are replaced by nitry], and thus is produced tri-nitrophenyl acid. This is probably the 216 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. oldest of the nitrogen compounds, the all prevailing bitter, picric acid. This substance is of a pale-yellow color; by day a beautiful yellow, at night white. Picric acid dyes animal fabrics yellow, without the use of a mordant ; itis almost poisonous, and particularly hostile to insects. Itis proved by experience that animal fabrics impregnated with pierie acid, with which we must always accept the yellow tint, are never attacked by moths or insects of any kind. When it is admissible, viz., when the coloris not an objection and there is question merely of the preservation of the material, the use of picric acid may be warmly recommended. It is not so poisonous as to involve any danger in its use. Picric acid may. be fixed in vegetable fabrics when these are impregnated with a solu- tion of caseine in borax. Still the acid can never be made perfeetly fast in these textures, while for animal fabrics it furnishes one of the most durable of yellow dyes. This acid was formerly obtained from different substances—from indigo, for example. Common Bengal indigo, evap- ‘orated with nitric acid, leaves a deposit, which on the application of heat decrepitates feebly. This is picric acid. Aloes, which is unfortunately inso common use as a drastic purga- tive, digested with nitric acid also yields picrie acid. Recently the most abundant source of picric acid is gum acaroid, from an Australian tree, (Xanthrehoca hastilis.) This resin, acted on by nitric acid, affords the highest percentage of picric acid. I must mention one more substance; and this is obtained by the action of nitrogen from gly- cerine, the so-called oleo-saccharum, a widely-diffased article, which has the formula : ©; H; H; O3 We may suppose it a three-fold water, in which three atoms of hydro- gen are replaced by the bivalent radical glyceryl, TF C H; We can substitute nitryl for three atoms of the hydrogen in the glycerine and then we have trinitroglycerine, glonoin, or gloncidin, the Swedish explosive oil, a body first produced and examined by Sobrero, and which is heavier than water, (1.06.) To prepare this we add a de- ciliter of the purest glycerine, free from water, to Nordhausen sulphuric acid and red fuming nitric acid, mixed in the proportions of 6:4; thus, e. g., one liter to 600 cubic centimeters and 400 cubie centimeters, which mixture must be kept ice-cold ; it should stand in the cold several hours. Then this liter is poured into at least ten liters of ice-cold water, and the heavy, colorless oil, trinitroglycerine, sinks to the bottom; it should be well washed in water, in which itis nearly insoluble. In watery alcohol it dissolves with difficulty, but readily in absolute alcohol, ether, and pyroxylic spirit. It has a sweet but unpleasant taste, and induces protracted headache, so that the homeopathists have seized upon it as a specific against headache. This Swedish explosive oil is apparently the most formidable of the nitrogen bodies; while one gram of gun- NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. Zit powder affords 300 eubic centimeters of gas, one gram of nitro-glycer- jne developes 720 cubic centimeters. Moreover, the gunpowder leaves, theoretically, 43 per cent. of residuum, while nitro-glycerine leaves none at all, for the large proportion of oxygen is so perfect a kindler for the mass that it is changed altogether into gas. This gas contains 58 per cent. carbonic acid, 20 per cent. watery vapor, 34 per cent. oxygen, 183 per cent. nitrogen. ~ Oxygen is seldom observed among the gases resulting from explosion, and I do not think the oxygen found in this case is free; it is probably present as nitroxyd gas, and still a compound which supports combus- tion. The tremendous force of nitro glycerinerenders it the most energetic servant in our mines, it divides our rocks, does all the work of blasting, it is the Polyphemus of modern civilization—goes parallel with fearful accidents. The slightest imprudence may provoke a terrible reaction 5 and, moreover, itis a very capricious substance, which does not explode as readily as gunpowder or gun-cotton; occasionally it burns away quietly ; on this account, ignorant people who have to do with it grow more and more fearless, more and more careless, they disregard the warnings of their overseers until at length they become foolhardy and do something which arouses it from its indifference, when it explodes, rending and destroying everything in its vicinity. The fact that the liquid state of nitro-glycerine causes it to leak and spread everywhere led to attempts to produce it in a solid form, and the result of these attempts is dynamite. This is merely a combination of nitro-glycerine with siliceous earth, containing a small quantity of oxide of iron; which tingesit yellow. This siliceous earth is the product of algee of infusoria, and of microphytes, and’ has a peculiar tubular structure. The tubules, by reason of their capillarity, absorb the nitro-glycerine, and hold it so firmly that it never becomes moist nor does it yield to light pressure or friction; therefore this form, dynamite, is comparatively harmless, and has in some degree superseded the formidable explosive oil. Dynamite explodes at 180°. An explosion in unconfined space is very different from one that takes place under pressure. If I burn gun-cotton in the open air the explosion is attended by no remarkable effect, because the air- waves equalize and convey away the shock; but in a confined space the explosion exerts its fracturing force on whatever is nearest. This, of course, holds good of dynamite, and hence the numerous accidents re- sulting from. careless handling ef the charges—I might say from the utterly reckless use of dynamite. At first the untaught laborer is cow- arly, too careful and fearful, when warned of danger by the experienced overseer; by degrees he grows less vigilant, he begins to imagine that the matter is not quite so serious, and finally, in some way, arouses this malicious substance, and then the catastrophe takes place. It isto be hoped that this explosivecompound willbe in all cases manu- factured at the place where it is to be used. The production of it is so easy, success is So certain, that I do not comprehend why the hazard of 218 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. its transportation and the innumerable consequent accidents should be encountered. It is possible that this dangerous, untamed laborer, who performs the compulsory service of cleaving our rocks and mountains, will yet be- come civilized; it may be that, through progress in mechanics, in chemistry, and in general science, it will become possible to subdivide and control the explosion, and to use it, thus controlled and modified, as the most convenient source of power to move our pistons and propel our machinery. SCHEME FOR THE QUALITATIVE DETERMINATION OF SUB- STANCES BY THE BLOW-PIPE. By T. EGiEston, E. M. In the course of my instruction in blow-pipe analysis, I formerly found great difficulty in teaching the students how to distinguish with certainty, and within a limited time, the substances contained in a mix- ture of four or five ingredients. The old routine method of examination in the closed and open tube, and then on charcoal, &c., answered very well when not more than one or two substances were present, but did not answer in the hands of beginners when they came to examine alloys. For a long time [ was convinced that it was useless to expect of a stu- dent that he should be able, without extended practice, to determine, qualitatively, the composition of a very complex substance. It finally suggested itself to me, however, that a plan similar in some respects to the one used in certain quantitative assays would answer for the gen- eral outline of qualitative work. I therefore prepared a provisional scheme, which, in order to test, I gave to the students to work with. The result of a few weeks’ use of this scheme convinced me that it was possible so to arrange one as to make it applicable to almost any com- pound, whether it was natural or artificial. I therefore drew up a carefully-prepared scheme, which was modified from time to time, as changes were suggested by its use in the blow-pipe laboratory. The re- sult was such that I felt no hesitancy in giving to students who had had only a tew weeks’ practice, complex mixtures, feeling certain that they would work systematically, and consequently with confidence and pleas. ure, where they were formerly in doubt. This scheme has been in con- stant use for four years, and has effected an entire revolution in the working of the blow-pipe laboratory. Much of the success which has attended its use is owing to the publication of a translation of Platt- ner’s Manual of Blow-pipe Analysis, by Professor Cornwall,* to which constant reference is made in the scheme. I have to acknowledge in its preparation the valuable suggestions of my two former assistants, Mr. J. H. Caswell and Professor H. B. Cornwall. With regard to the use of the scheme, the routine to be followed may be varied according to circumstances. If sulphides, arsenides, &c., are — *Plattner’s Manual of Qualitative and Quantitative Analyses with the Blow-Pipe. Translated by Professor Cornwall. 2d edition, D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1873. 220 SCHEME FOR THE QUALITATIVE DETERMINATION OF being treated, the substances must be carefully roasted. If test 1 fails to show As, Sb, 8, or Se, as sulphides, &c., the substance is either an oxide or an alloy. If it is an oxide, the roasting, 2, is omitted. If it is an alloy, itis subjected to the test 1, a, for Pb, &c., and then the test 2 A is performed by fusing it on coal with borax in the R. F., thus combining 2 A and 2 A ain one operation. Some sulphides during the roasting, 2 A, will become reduced to the metallic state, and then, after thorough roasting, may be treated as alloys. A metal, or a raw sulphide, &e., must never be treated on platinum wire, but the metal is fused on coal, with a flux. Thisis done in R. F. if it is desired to get only non-redu- cible metals in the flux, such as Fe, Co, &e. If Cu, Ni, and other re- ducible metals are to be fluxed, it is performed in the O. F. The flux so prepared is then transferred to the wire. Sulphides, etc., must always be roasted before testing with borax, or S. Ph. The word bead always refers to the flux, and button to the metal. In regard to 2H, Sn and Zn are rarely found together, except in alloys. The presence of the one generally implies the absence of the other. If they are together as oxides, Sn can, however, always be found in the presence Zn by reducing them with soda and a little borax, and tritu- rating the mass with water, p.90.* In alloysthe Zn can be detected by treating for a short time in the R. F.; the Zn, if present, will volatilize first, and the coating may be tested with the cobalt solution. SCHEMHE. The substance may contain As—Sb—S—Se—Fe—Mn—Cu—Co—Ni—Pb— Bi—Ag—Au—Ng—Zu—Ca—Sm—Cl—Br—I-Co’_Si—N—H, ec. 1. Treat on Ch. in the O. F. to find volatile substances such as AS—Sb—S—Se— Pb—Bi—Cd., &c., p. 66 et seq. Test in an open tube to see whether As, Sb, S, are present as arsenides, &c., or in an oxidized state, p. 63 et seq. a. If there are volatile substances present, form a coating, and test it with S. Ph. and tin on Ch. for Sb, p. 99, or to distinguish between PB and Ba, p. 280. a. Yellow coat, yielding with S. Ph. a black bead; disappearing with blue flame, no part of it yielding greenish Sb flame. Pb and Bi. b. Yellow coat, generally with white border, yielding black or gray bead with 8. Ph, disappearing with blue flame; also the border disappearing with green flame; Pb and Sb. c. Yellow coat, very similar to b, but yielding no blue flame; Ki and Sb. d. Make a special test for Bi, p. 521. Pb in presence of Bi, if not in too small a quantity, is detected by the blue flame yielded by the coat, or by the reduced metal itself, p. 521. b. If there are no volatile substances present, divide a part of the substance into three portions, and proceed as in A. 2. If As—Sbh—S—Se are present, roast a large quantity thoroughly on Ch., p. 77. Divide the substance into three portions, and proceed asin A. PP. xv, note. A. TREATMENT OF THE First PorTION.—Dissolve a very small quantity in borax on platinum wire in the O. F., and observe the color produced, Various colors will be formed by the combination of the oxides. Saturate the bead and shake it off into the porcelain dish ; repeat this once or twice, p. 79. a. Treat these beads on Ch. with a small piece of lead, silver, or gold, in a strong Reap ubs: *These numbers refer to the pages of Plattner’s Manual, translated by H. B. Cornwall, 2d edition. D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1873. SUBSTANCES BY THE BLOW-PIPE. Dean b. Fe—Mn—Co—&c., remain in the bead, p. 115. If the bead spreads out on the Ch, it must be collected to a globule by continued blowing. Make « borax bead on platinum wire, and dissolve in it some of the fragments of the bead, reserving the rest for accidents. ce. Ni—Cu—Ag—Au—Smn—Pb—Ei are reduced and collected by the lead but- ton. Sn, Pb, Bi, if present, will be partly volatilized, p. 115. Remove the lead button from the bead while hot, or by breaking the latter, when cold, on the anvil between paper, carefully preserving all the fragments. d. If €@ is present, the bead will be blue. If a large amount of Fe is present, add a little Morax to prove the presence or abseace of Coe, p. ie If Mm is present, the bead, when treated on platinum wire in the O. F., will become dark violet or black. e. If only Fe and Mn with no €o@ are present, the bead will be almost colorless. Look here for Cx, Ti, Mo, U, W, V, We by the wet way. A considerable amount of Ti may be detected with S. Ph, and tin in the original oxides, in absence of other non-reducible coloring oxides, p. 323. Mo will be shown by the cloudy brown or black appear- ance of the borax bead in the R. F. on platinum wire, p. 105. . f. Treat the button ¢ on Ch, in the O. F. until all the lead, &e. is driven off; Ni, Cu, Ag, Aw remaining behind ; or separate the lead with boracie acid, p. 442. g. Treat the residue g on Ch, in O. F. with 8. Ph bead, removing the button while the bead is hot. h. If Na and Cw are present, the bead will be green when cold, p. 292. If Ni only, yellow. If Cua only, blue. Prove Cui by treating with tin on Ch in the R. F., p. 293. i. For Ag and Aw make the special test No. 8. %. TREATMENT OF THE SECOND PORTION.—Drive off the volatile substances in the O. F. on Ch. Treat with the R. F., or mix with soda, and then treat with the R. F., for Za, Ca, Sm. If a white coating is formed, test with cobalt solution, pp. 251, 256, 276. Note, p. XV. €. TREATMENT OF THE THIRD PORTION.—Dissolve some of the substance in 8. Ph on platinum wire in O. F., observing whether Si O? is present or not, and test for Waa with nitrate of potassa, p. 210. 3. Test for As with soda on Ch, in the R. F., or with dry soda in a closed tube, p. 245 et seq. 4. Dissolve in S. Ph on platinum wire in the O. F., (if the substance is not metallic and does not contain any S.,) and test for Sf on Ch with tin in the R. F., p. 99. To detect small amounts of Sb with Cu or Sn, see p, 331. 5. Test for Se on Ch, p. 368. 6. In absence of Se fuse with soda in the R. F., and test for & on silver foil, p. 365. In presence of Se, test for $ in open tube, p. 566. To distinguish between § and SO, see p. 368. 7. Test for Hig with dry soda in a closed tube, p. 304. 8. Mix some of the substance with assay lead and borax glass, and fuse on Ch in the R. F., p. 401. Cupel the lead button for Ag., p. 407. Test with nitric acid for Aw, p. 320. 9. Test for Cl, Br, and B with a bead of S. Ph saturated with oxide of copper, pp. 373, 374, 375. 10. Test for Cl or Br with bisulphate of potassa, p. 374. 11. Test for E1® in a closed tube, p. 353. 12. Test on platinum wire, or in platinum pointed forceps, for coloration of the flame, p. 72 et seq. 13. Test for CO? with hydrochloric acid, p. 360. 14. Test for NO® with bisulphate of potassa, p. 354. 15. Test for We in an open tube, p. 351. 222 BLOW-PIPE APPARATUS. BLOW-PIPE APPARATUS, MANUFACTURED BY HAWKINS AND WALE, STEVENS IN- STITUTE, HOBOKEN, NEW JERSEY. FOR QUALITATIVE DETERMINATIONS, Blom-pipe; withitworplatinum! jCtSoosss6) <5 shia ce sess eee ee cee neae ees $3 00 Extra eLsmeaChivio COMUSee ny acese = pei teens inl ava wioleiae SA Ieee eee ieee asa Blow-pipemlampsecs22--s=—2 1-2-2) Sine Sete eon oe ee eee eee sees th Pe 4 50 PlahmulmMeapombed! TOLCE PS sea aatee oe sete are ee eerste seer DSR ds SARE AEE ib 75) BRASS ONCE P Siig + sri) gees Cha a's Sedat <* Pa hie emtiecigaes ate ite ee See See CL eon EE 25 Steclsiorce pss tODMamp assis ina ces once ce setae ae ee ears - porate Se Ee Sin ee eee 22 Girigignne ORC Gabo oe noeadade toss saesou bor sAe echo clueSdstesmouee Hoses ceemabe 1 50 Platinumesware-holder: wath (six wiles: oc -eneeieaeme ga see toe eee tr ereee 1 50 LMM CL) seceferncieicie ole rele ota tolete etaiaie ei ci elev oasis eel, Scape imiere ole crepe Sere tee say ote eee eS 79 Amalie cet ets sae shee SESE SELL OLEL US ea, AS 2 EA Oe tee ee 65 Bars aon © beaters) ose elseicie eehae oie) ola ele rise soe elon ears sete oie ates tee ae eee 35 Maonitiervwithttwo. lenses s-csce -o- nee eye. eee eee pieee eee eee e eer eee 1s Alcoholslamp, wathabrassicover42)¢iys- tates 2 aes SIs es 9 ae 75 Glrarcoallisawi scr = -n.ooe sec Sieisaisciene Sas Cato piso acca een aaa e eee eee ees 35 ROTO rehab ee crate se eatin ese sia sisaef te asin Se exe aiae ae esta wiser ea eee See oe eee eee 3f Mv SDLUSHES see si afree Sociss eee iesse eee p Sin ala PS ales Ses ete neat etet a eee aden ener 26 AMP SCISSOTS sec elc na paaei seein eae ae beens ae eveclr ae sole ack eee Ee eee 40 (Co mleimaiy te eats mia tere nose Sone sete ere eerie ae eaten miele ie eae ese er erie 65 Din b=tEAyicepeste ape cates eee tetes oS es See od J ee eee 40 Charcoal-borerclub-shape seat vea-.s-ce ae especie cet ae eee Cee cence 125 Steel mixing-spatula........-.- joan abo docUsaGbOu BEUDoSS Gde Su SSSsSoEeSad Gane Oaee 40 21 06 FOR QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATIONS. Holder for evaporatine-dish,, triangle, &c¢o-5- 42-22 2o ese eases | eee eee ee $2 00 Holdertortunnelyand chimney: seas sece ese aee eee ee ee ee eer eee oer eA Flat-nose plyers, (nippers)---.-.-------- SNS hee, deh eee saeere ease mise are/eie a ee 45 Charcoal-borersfoum cormmeredis3s- 4 a-4 oop eee ce ee eee eee eee eee 62 C@harcoal=borer; sways pabull ea ae ayaa cies este pee ele ee ee oe 40 AWOL VOLES POODS see eis ache Ne Ne eet oe oko eeie ere ite ieeteeyayee ee 60 Mattrass-holder.ciooce cae det eda caea seoas be aaa ee reed asses Geet See ee eee ten 35 Mixinoecapsule; brass -Clulded sot). \-)s cose secre cjeyenais oir sce reese eee eee 45 Two brushes); 220s. SOO. oe SL UND eet SS ink eita s ie'a a epeieroce eimiernietorteies 26 Box: for sod ajPapense 34 esac aeons seversecs pecans ae eles a eee eee Bebe eres at 23 Wooden form forjpaper Cylinders) <2 -e cee reise aea seen eee eee eee eee 15 Cupel-holder, with two cupel-cups and one mold. ..---. 12-2... 22222 2--+. eee 1 75 Charcoal-holder, with platinum ring and screen..-... .-..--+ 2+ ---4--2----s 2 25 Pestilead measure secasiscesss osc cos] wise cle cie seltione Sse esses oss 2 SS cee 38 Assay soubton RUShVAs Seen eee cS Eeee oe yee ToL DTS, Se ee See 45 Stand for.charcoaleholdery sos is 25. eoe ee eee once eerie aa O45 Eee eee 12 Wharcoal-borer,;clulbishapesrcace. a2 osc caer eeeeeees Sone eeee erica =e Cee eee 1 25 THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. A LECTURE DELIVERED BEFORE THE VIENNA SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE, By Epwarp SUESS. [Translated for the Smithsonian Institution. ] If we were to attempt a general review of the whole past history of our earth and its inhabitants, we should be immediately led to consider the first appearance of man as one of its chief epochs. The study of the countless ages preceding that epoch belongs exclusively to geol- ogy and paleontology; the study of the later and much shorter period principally to history. The boundary between geology and history is therefore the time of the first appearance of man, and it is the part of a lecturer on this epoch to describe the phenomena which attended the first appearance of the human race. However, that cannot be done in the present state of science, since it is probable that man did not appear everywhere at the same time. Perhaps thousands of years intervened between his first appearance in Asia and America, in Europe and in Australia, and hence it is necessary to divide our subject into geographical periods. We shall confine ourselves to the first appearance of man in Central Hurope, that part of the earth being the only one which has been sufficiently inves- tigated in this respect to arrive at any possible scientific conclusions. Geology teaches that our mountains were produced by numerous dis- turbances after many changes in the distribution of land and water, and that afterward they assumed their present forms, and the continents their present outlines. Paleontology exhibits to us strange beings in the first periods of life, whose forms, only in a few instances, present any analogy to existing species. The nearer we approach the present time, however, the greater becomes the similarity to the present animals and plants. Even before the appearance of man in Central Europe, there were first marine and then land animals and plants, kindred to which still exist; and since their places and modes of living are known, we are enabled to draw from them many certain conclusions as to the external conditions of life in those ancient times. In this way the geologist and the paleontologist approach the first appearance of man from distant ages, and the nearer they approach the clearer are their observations and the more certain their conclusions. The opposite is the case in his- tory; the historian must go backward to arrive at the same point. If, now, in Middle and Northern Europe we endeavor to go back before the times of which we have the short and partial descriptions of 2°24 THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLCGY AND HISTORY. Roman historians, we find nothing but a few obscure traditions. It is known, however, especially through the examination of ancient graves, that these regions were inhabited by people who made their weapons and tools of bronze, a mixture of copper and tin. The remnants left by these people indicate peculiar taste for ornaments and great skill in the working of these metals. This great epoch of civilization is called the age of bron 26. Other discoveries show that before the age of bronze there lived a people who were ignorant of the manner of working the metals. They made their weapons and utensils only of stone, sharp splinters of bones, and of wood. This more ancient epoch has been called the age of stone. To it belongs a great number of the graves found in Denmark and Sweden. Our knowledge of the mode of life of some of these ancient peoples has been increased in an unexpected manner by the discoveries of the Swiss archeologists. The very low water-mark to which the Swiss lakes fell in 1854 laid bare extensive palafittes or pile-construc- tions in the lakes of Geneva, Constance, and many others. In some of these, remnants of the age of bronze, and in others of the age of stone, were found between the piles in the muddy bottom of the lakes. On these piles were erected formerly the habitations of the natives in such a manner as to protect them against the attacks of their enemies and of wild beasts. It is known that such palafittes are still in use in New Guinea; and Herodotus gives a detailed description of similar construe- tions in Lake Prasias, where Megabazus, the general of Darius, found them. Apparently the age of stone can be divided into an earlier one, in which men only knew how to cleave stones in oréer to give them the required shape, and a more recent one, in which they understood the art of grinding and polishing stone articles. The traces of the oldest time are the most interesting, because we can inquire how far they corre- spond with the facts which natural science reveals to us. Here, then, geology and paleontology have their brightest pages, while history shows us the first traces of human existence. For this reason our con- sideration of the question is geological rather than archeological. Our method will be as follows: First, we shall consider the phenomena ap- parent in the inorganic creation of that epoch, and then describe the plants and animals which existed in these regions immediately before the appearance of man. We shall also show under what circumstances traces of the oldest age of stone have been in various places discovered. There are in these places large masses of loose rocks, which evidently came into their present position at a time after the surrounding country had assumed its present condition. The most remarkable of these are those brought to their present places by the glaciers. Ice is not abso- lutely solid, but possesses a certain degree of viscosity, which causes masses of it collected on the high mountains to flow slowly down into the valleys in the form of great streams of ice. These would soon fill THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. 225 up the eailer were it not for the milder temperature of the latter, which melts them and puts an end to their progress. Frequently rocks fall down upon them from the precipices above and are carried down into the valley. These stones collect at the lower end of the glaciers, form- ing heaps called moraines, and are usually in the shape of a half-moon with its concave side toward the glacier. If a long-continued cold temperature sets in, which favors the progress of the glacier, the latter will push before it the moraine, along with a mound of earth, uprooted trees, &c.; and if the temperature rises, the lower end of the glacier melts away and the glacier apparently recedes, leaving the moraine at its advanced position as a mark of its extent to future observers. Such advanced moraines are found with nearly all the larger groups of glaciers in Central Europe, some of them miles away from the pres- ent end of the glacier, as, for instance, at Berne and Zurich in Switzer- Jand. Mountain-ridges like the Carpathian, which have no ice near them to-day, have ancient moraines. Marienzell rests upon bowlders brought to their present position by glaciers. At the foot of the Rosalia Mountains are found the traces of glaciers which formerly ex- isted on the Wechsel and Schnee Mountains. Since these moraines extend directly across the valleys, they often ob- struct the water-courses and give rise to Alpine lakes. The upper lake of Gosau is bounded toward the valley by the moraine of the western Dachstein glacier. The “ Meerauge,” a lake in the Tatra Mountains, is hemmed in by a similar moraine, although at the present time there is neither a glacier nor even an extensive snow-field in the place. All these moraines are a proof that a much colder temperature must have prevailed in these regions at a time after they possessed their present formation, and if these traces of past glaciers are so numerous in the latitude of Switzerland, we can easily imagine that they are still more extensive farther north, in Scandinavia. The northern part of Europe also presents other striking phenomena, which must be described in detail. The topography of aregion depends on the relative height of its different parts; the distribution of land and water on the absolute height of the whole. The level of the sea may be taken as unchanged. By the “continental” elevation and de- pression of large regions, considerable changes have been produced in the outlines of the dry lands, and these changes are divided into three great epochs. 1. The first epoch is that of depression. Then the seaextended as far as Hanover, and from Breslau to Cracow. The whole North German and Central Russian lowlands were under water. Scandinavia and parts of the British Isles were above the surface of the sea. In Scandi- navia the ends of the glaciers reached down into the sea, just as they do in arctic regions in the present day, and from time to time a large piece, often covered with huge blocks of the moraine, would separate, float down to the southward, and there deposit its load. Thus it hap- 158° 226 THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. ‘ pens that a large portion of Central Europe is to-day covered with a bowlder formation of Scandinavian or Finnie origin. 2. The following epoch is, on the contrary, one of extensive and con- siderable upheaval or elevation, which has been specially studied by the English geologist Austin. While the sea had before extended so far into Central Europe, all the sea-bottom between Ireland, France, En- gland, and Scandinavia was now raised above the surface of the water, and our continent extended as far as the Shetland Islands. What is to-day the North Sea was then an extensive lowland, traversed, no doubt, by a large stream, the continuation of the present Rhine, which then had the Eibe and the Thames for tributaries, and its mouth far to the northward. Even at the present day fishers find in the deeper portions of the North Sea bones of deer and elephants, which once lived on the banks of that great river. On many portions of its banks submerged forests are known to exist, reaching far below the present sea. The present bottom of the sea presents a line of steep descent at a depth of about 200 fathoms. This line runs west of Scotland and of Ireland, in- cluding, therefore, that island also, and approaches the present continent only in the direction of the Bay of Biscay. There is some reason for supposing that this line indicates the former outlines of Europe. 3. The next epoch was that of the depression, which gave the conti- nent of Europe its present form. The most important changes which can be recognized in Europe at so late a period are aseverer climate and repeated alterations in the dis- tribution of water and land. Astonishing as these phenomena may appear, a glance at the present state of things will demonstrate their possibility. Europe possesses at present an exceptionally mild climate; a stream of warm water coming from the Gulf of Mexico washes and warms the greater part of its western coast; warm currents of air blow over its southern parts from the Desert of Sahara, and the absence of a large ex- tent of country near the north pole prevents the accumulation of great masses of snow, and the cold winds resulting from it. But all these favorable conditions could be completely removed by a change in the distribution of land and water. Such changes are, indeed, still going on in some places. A portion of Sweden is known to be rising, while a part of Greenland is sinking with considerable rapidity. Having thus far considered only the inorganic world, let us now turn our attention to the organized beings which inhabit Central Europe under the above circumstances, and we will see that their character entirely corresponds to a severer climate. The remains of the land-animals of those times are found either in alluvium or in caves. An alluvium of yvellowish-brown clay, found in most river-valleys of Central Europe, is formed by fresh-water rivers or lakes, and contains no sea-shells. In it we find the shells of various land-snails and the remains of herbivorous mammals much more fre- THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. 227 quently than those of beasts of prey. In caverns, however, the latter pre- dominate. Since the herbivorous animals, which were carried to the caverns by beasts of prey, were the same as those found in the alluvium, and since we occasionally find remains of the same beasts of prey in the alluvium, we are justified in considering their existence as coeval. The whole fauna of mammals may be divided into four groups: _1. Animals now extinct and not mentioned in human traditions. To these belong the mammoth (Elephas primigenius), the large two- horned rhinoceros with bony septum in its nose (Rhinoceros tichor- hinus), the cave-lion, hyena, and bear, and the Ursus priscus. 2. Animals which are known to have become extinct, or to have been exterminated in historical times. Among these are the “schelch” of Niebelungen-Lied, (Cervus ewryceros Aldr.,) a very large species of deer, related to the fallow-deer, but much larger; the Urus, or ur, of the an- cient Germans; and another species of ox, the Bos longifrons. Among those which are nearly exterminated or driven out of Central Europe in historical times are the wisent of the Niebelungen-Lied—an animal still kept in the Lithuanian forests by order of the Russian government, and often exhibited as a Urus in menageries—the elk, and the beaver. 3. Animals still living in Central Europe, such as the wolf, fox, pole- cat, hog, horse. 4, Animals still extant, but not in the lowlands of Central Europe. To these belong the reindeer, the North American musk-ox, the com- mon lemming, the glutton, (wolverine,) which now live much farther north, and the marmot, now found on the Alps. The fourth group of mammals points with great certainty to a colder climate during those times. The bones of all the above-named animals have either been found in the alluvium, or in caverns, or in both. But besides these direct discoveries, there is an indirect way of obtaining information concerning the ancient flora and fauna, which the English naturalist, Edward Forbes, has the credit of discovering. The phe- nomena which will now be mentioned seem better calculated than all others to cast some light on the first appearance of man in Central HKurope. The researches of the last decade leave no doubt that each species of animal or plant had an original home, from which it spread in different directions in the course of time, according as the external conditions of life permitted, and no geographical obstacles, such as a sea, or a very high mountain-chain in the case of a land-animal, were in the way. Hence, each species has a geographically connected region; and where this is not the case, we may assume that this region was divided by later influences. In many cases human influence is perceptible ; the lion, for instance, has a considerably divided region, having been exterminated in the ancient civilized countries. The ox, on the contrary, has a twofold home, by having been transported to America. 228 THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. All these changes produced by man affect only single species, and not the whole fauna. The phenomena which must be ascribed to geo- logical revolutions are much grander. The flora of the Canary Islands and of the Azores, in particular, shows so great a resemblance to that of the Western European coasts, that we must assume the former con- nection of these points in spite of their present distance apart. The inhabitants of the island of Madagascar differ, on the other hand, from those of the eastern coasts of Africa, and those of the Galapagos Islands from those of the coasts of South America. Hence it follows either that the separation of these islands from the continent is older than the inhabitants of the islands, or older than those of the conti- nent, or older than either. In Central Europe there are to-day two remarkable examples of di- vided regions. The first consists in the identity of the fish species in our various rivers, and this is at least partially explained, on geologi- cal grounds, by the very plausible supposition of a large stream in the region of the present North Sea, which had the Thames, the Elbe, and others for tributaries. The present inhabitants of our rivers may be considered as the isolated remains of those which formerly peopled the great united stream. The second phenomenon is the following: Cn the isolated heights of various mountains a peculiar flora repeats itself, and many species of this Alpine flora are found again far away in Scandinavia and Lapland. Many animal species are distributed in the same way. The white mountain-hare, (Lepus variabilis,) for instance, is found in the pine-dis- tricts of the Alps, on the mountains of Scotland and Iveland, and in Scandinavia, Lapland, Northern Russia, Siberia, and Greenland. If this animal came on our mountains from the far north, how does it hap- pen that it is not found in the intervening valleys ? Now if the hypothesis of the original connection of such regions is correct, these Alpine species must have had some connection with the northeri ones; and since it has been observed that the reindeer and lemming not always lived far north, but also in Central Europe, and that the marmot could also exist there, it is highly probable that in Central Europe all those species of plants and animals existed then which are now found both on our mountains and on those in the north. In the colder time these beings, therefore, had their common abode in Central Europe, and were distributed gradually while the change of temperature was going on, since they could only find the conditions necessary to their existence on high mountains or in boreal countries. Some only remained in the valleys, (those of the second and third groups,) some became extinct, (those of the first group,) and some emi- grated, (those of the fourth group.) At the same time new species of animals and plants appeared, which form the greater part of those of the present day. The merit of having indicated how we may obtain THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. 229 information on the order of their appearance also belongs to Edward Forbes. The gradual appearance of these species is connected with the estab- lishment of a milder climate, a consequence of the great depression or sinking of the European coasts, through which the sea gradually en- croached on the Rhine, forming the North Sea and also St. George’s Channel. With the immigration of new species the British Islands gradually separated from the continent, and this isolation had been already accomplished before the new-comers had spread. These found insuperable obstacles in the newly formed channels, and never reached Great Britain. Hence it comes that of the twenty-two species of rep- tiles existing in Belgium, only eleven are found in England, and only five in Ireland. According to Mr. Thompson, if we compare the Irish fauna with the English, we will find that the former is deficient in many instances. Ireland lacks fourteen or fifteen species of the eighteen English varie- ties of bats, many other common animals, as the squirrel, the dormouse, all field-mice without exception, the common field-hare, the pole-cat, the wild cat, the mole, many kinds of shrew-mice, all snakes, the common lizard, (Lacerta agilis,) &c. All these, we may therefore suppose, reached England only after Ireland had separated. Hence we see why the mountain-hare is found on the Irish mountains, while the common field- hare is wanting in the valleys.. It also appears that some of the most common inhabitants of our fields and meadows are among the animals wanting in Ireland. Perhaps the country was composed only of forests and swamps at the time Ireland became separate. We furthermore see that the animals now existing together in Cen- tral Europe did not appear together; they may, therefore, be divided into groups, not according to their organization as by the systematist, but simply according to the date of their appearance in Central Europe. It is from this point of view that we may obtain the means of judging of the first appearance of man in these regions. We must show under what circumstances the most ancient traces of man were found. Two instructive and fully accredited discoveries will suttice to show that the first appearance of man dates much farther back than is generally sup- posed. 1. Belgian scholars (especially Schmerling and Spring) found humana bones and crudely made weapons of flint in the caverns of Gouffen- taine and Chokier in the “Trou chauvan” between Namur and Dijon. These remains were accompanied by the bones of the cave-bear, hyena, lion, ‘schelch” deer, and a species of horse, in a manner which leaves no doubt as to their co-existence. Three fragments of human skulls were found there, which differ from all at present existing in Europe by being long and flattened out at the sides and by the shape of the fore- head. They apparently belonged to an elderly man, a twelve-year-old and a seven-year-old child. Human lower jaws have also been found. 230 THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. They are broader in front, and the chin forms a sharper angle backward, than in any of the present European races. These skulls, therefore, exhibit a prognathous form, which is only found in a low state of civ- lization. 2, In 1849 M. Boucher de Perthes, of Abbeville, in Northeastern France, announced that he had found strata of sand and alluvium, in which skel- etons of extinct species of animals occurred, together with human weap- ons and tools of flint and stag-horn. Soon atterward Dr. Rigollot, of Amiens, made similar discoveries, and many excellent geologists, like Prestwich, Lyell, &c., who visited these regions since, agree that the human and animal remains found there are of the same date. Human bones have not been found there. Of the animal remains it is suflicient tomention the mammoth, the rhinoceros with divided nose, and the cave- hyena; the appearance of the reindeer is also of special interest. Sir Charles Lyell described these discoveries in detail last fall in his opening address as president of the British Association. According to his statement the alluvium stratum has been explored to a distance of fifteen English miles, and has already furnished over 1,000 flint utensils. To explain such a numerous occurrence of these manufactures along with animal skeletons without the presence of human bones, Lyell instances a phenomenon observed by him on Saint Simon’s Island, in Georgia, North America. There the traces of an old Indian settlement are visible in a stratum 5 feet thick and covering about ten acres, which contains oyster-shells, arrow-heads, stone hatchets,and fragments of Indian pottery. If now the Altamaha River were to wash away this stratum from the island and deposit it again farther along its course or at its mouth, we would have a deposit of numerous human manutactures, but without human bones, just as at Abbeville. The occurrence of the reindeer along with human remains has re- cently again been confirmed by Mr. Prestwich, who found a flint weapon immediately under the horns of a reindeer in the cave of Brixham, En- gland. This animal, as is well known, is very sensitive to milder tem- peratures ; all attempts to acclimatize it in Northern Scotland have failed. It therefore follows, not only that man was the contemporary of the extinct large mammals of the first group, but also, from his simul- taneous appearance with the reindeer, that he was a hunter in Central Europe already at the time when the climate was much severer than it is Now. If we compare these most ancient human remains yet discovered with those of the palafittes, which may be counted as belonging to the age of stone, we will perceive striking differences; first, the position of the palafittes proves certainly that the water-level of the Swiss lakes has not changed very considerably since their construction,and we may therefore conclude that the glacier period was past at the time of their construction. In some cases this can be fully proved. Among the remains found in them neither the reindeer uor any of the animals of THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. 231 the first or fourth groups occur. Tortoises, whose remains are found there, are cospecific with the European swamp-tortoise, the shells of which occur with human remains in Scandinavia, in peat in Hungary, and which, according to Tschudi, is even found alive in the Reuss Valley, Switzerland. Among vegetable remains numerous broken bazel-nut shells are remarkable, not because they were necessarily an article of food of the lacustrians, but because they belong to a plant, which was formerly widely distributed and whose fruit is even found in the peat of the Shetland Islands. Cereals have also been found. The articles of human manufacture from the palafittes also differ from those of Abbeville and the Belgian caverns. They are not cleft but eround. Sherds of pottery-ware are only found in the former, and every- thing points to a higher civilization and to external circumstances, which could not have been very different from those of the present day. A pearl of amber found by M. Keller in the palafittes of Meilen, in Lake Zurich, is perhaps another proof that the eastern coasts of Prussia were the same then as now. If we are warranted, therefore, in assuming the prevalence of a severe climate during the first division of the age of stone, because of the simultaneous occurrence of the reindeer and weapons of flint, and that the palatittes contain indications of conditions similar to the pres- ent, it follows that the last great changes in the temperature and the concomitant redistribution of land and water took place within the age of stone of the archeologists. And since the migration of organic beings, like that of the lowland flora of those times, to the Alps and to Scandina- via could only take place very slowly and under a very gradual change of climate, we must assume that the age of stone included an extremely long period of time. The first progress of tribes in civilization is always slow, and the Hindoos do not show divine honors to Twachtri, who taught the prep- ‘aration of brass, without a cause. No one knows how long before Pan- sanias the Sarmatian stuck to his arrows of bone-splinters, or how long the African has hurled his boomerang. At the time of Diodorus, the arms of the Libyan consisted of three light darts and a leather bag of stones. ‘To-day the traveler finds the same weapons in the hands of the African. Combining what has been said, the following appears to be the result of the most recent researches concerning the antiquity of man in Cen- tral Europe. Even at a time when Central Europe was cold enough for the reindeer to live in Northern France, when the mammoth and the rhinoceros in- habited the swampy shores, and lions, hyenas, and bears the caves, when Great Britain was probably connected with the continent, and Scandinavia with Denmark, a race of men lived there who had prog- nathous skulls, and possessed only weapons of flint and bone-splinters to hunt food with and to protect themselves against these large beasts. 232 THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. Gradually, in the course of thousands of years, the land sank, the sea separated parts from it, and a milder temperature prevailed. Then a portion of the flora and fauna slowly migrated, partly to the mount- ains, partly to the north, and partly to both. Many large animals like the mammoth, incapable of living in the mountains, remained behind; the lowlands at the lower part of the Rhine’s course, which were prob- ably the principal abodes of these large herbivorous animals, gradu- ally sank below the present North Sea, so that they, exposed to an un- congenial climate, surrounded by a new immigrated flora not their orig- inal food, and subjected to the attacks of man, gradually died out. In the lowlands new species continually appeared, many after Ireland and some few after England had already become separated from the conti- nent. Finaily came new tribes of men with new arts, and we find the first traces of agriculture. Here the historian takes up the account from the geologist and paleontologist. This sketch necessarily remained imperfect, because it was not possi- ble to make it include all the further proofs furnished by the study of the present distribution of plants, of lower animals, (land-snails,) and especially of marine animals. It was also necessary to pass over all those phenomena which relate to the existence of a separate population in Western Europe. But perhaps what has been said will be sufficient to give a general idea. Defenseless, like no other animal of the same size, man is born with- out sharp teeth, without claws, without any external means of defense, such as the fur of many beasts. The child is dependent a longer time on its mother than the young of any other animal, and no being is as helpless. And yet man has made himself the master of all. He has made a thousand instruments, fire, and the modulations of speech his own. The space of time, which now follows and which is called the Age ef Man, exhibits one great, enduring, eminent characteristic—the pro- gressive, irresistible triumph of the intellect. EXPLANATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND CRYSTALLOPHYSICS.’ By ARISTIDES BREZINA. [TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY PROFESSOR T. EGLESTON. ] INTRODUCTION. Among all the methods in crystallography there is not a single one which has remained so completely confied within special limits as Mil- ler’s. The reason for this is not the abstract method in which the sub- ject is treated, nor its difficult mathematical principles, but is principally owing to the fact that, up to this time, it has never been treated separ- ately from those operations which serve for the derivation of certain special mathematical formule in the first principles of geometry. Miller’s method is really capable of an elementary treatment, which, almost without the use of mathematics, renders possible not only the quick and certain explanation of all combinations in the way of zone- observations, but also the recognition of the physical characters of crystals on the basis of their relations of symmetry. These characters of this known method are especially useful for min- eralogists and lithologists, who make microscopical observations : for the first, because he, without many measurements and calculations, can show, from only the simple inspection of a crystal, the connection of the different faces, together with the explanation of the combination ; and for the latter, because he is in position, on account of a precise know]- edge of the relations of symmetry, to recognize, in thin sections, both the crystalline system and the elements of a crystal; and in both cases, without presumption of such mathematical knowledge, which is without the departments of mineralogists and lithologists. This method is, for this reason, not only simple and fundamental, but is in every way supe- rior to the others in use, which have originated with Weiss, Naumann, and Levy. One of the most important advantages of it is the possibility of a simultaneous development of the erystallographic and physical rela- tions of every system from its known symmetry. This method of pro- cedure gives, from the very commencement, a complete insight into its habits and characteristics, and secures, during its development, a survey of the whole theoretical structure. But while this method of derivation was first carried out for the crystallographic part by von Lang’, the in- 'Mineralogische Mittheilungen. Wien, 1872. 2 Lang, Krystallographie. Wien, Braumiiller, 1866. 234 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. troduction of Whewell’s! method of notation of the faces of crystals was an important element in Miller’s system. Miller’s symbols consist, as will be explained later, of three indices, which are inversely proportional to the intersections of the faces on the three axes; while in Weiss’s system they are directly proportional. Naumanu’s and Levy’s systems sometimes give sections of the axes and sometimes the relations betweeen two sections. The advantages of Mil- ler’s notations are very numerous : Chiefly it allows of representing every individual face; while Naumann’s and Levy’s symbols give only the form, i. e., the re-union of all the faces which belong together. When it is necessary to represent the whole form in Miller’s system, the symbol of the face is represented in parentheses; it has, therefore, the advan- tage, that, according as it is required, either the face or the form can be exactly and concisely designated. Miller’s symbol is, besides, exceeding simple and convenient. While here three low whole numbers, 0, 1, and seldom 2, are sufficient, in Weiss’s system three or four fractions, and three or four letters, in groups of three or four, are required, Separated by colons: jazb: oe or |da! ra’: 2a’: e In Naumann’s, two fractions and a letter, with perhaps as many as four accents, as: 2P or £'P: 2 Levy’s symbols are, in many cases, complicated, as in pyramids : bt d@ ds where there are three letters and three fractions. Naumann’s, and Levy’s symbols are not symmetrical with regard to the crystallographic axes, 7. e., while with Miller the first, second, and third indexes refer invariably to the first, second, and third axes, it is never the case with Naumann, and with Levy only in the most compli- cated cases (the pyramid of the second order) that every axis is repre- sented by an index, and even in this case the signs of the axes change their position. This symmetry of axes is important, because it makes both the transformation of the indicesin changes of axes, as wellas the calculation of zone-equations, exceedingly simple and demonstrative. Singularly enough, this side of Miller’s symbols has been attacked be- cause in Naumann’s and Levy’s symbols the difference between pyra- mids, prisms, domes, and pinacoids is apparent. This is, however, extremely unjust. In Miller’s system, in the symbol of the pyramid, there are three 0’s of different values. In the symbol of a prism or dome, an index is equal to 0; a pinacoid has the symbol (1 0 0), (0 1 0), or (0 01), which contains two 0’s, and is certainly a difference which strikes the eye. As opposed to the notation of Weiss, Miller’s method, besides the 1 Whewell, Phil. Trans., 1825, p. 87. PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 235 brevity mentioned above, has the further advantage that, instead of the symbol o, zero is used, because the figures of both these systems are reciprocal. How great the importance of this particular is in the ealeu- lation of zone-equations will be immediately shown. On the facility of zone-development, however, depends the quick and sure solution of the combination. The method of establishing a zone-equation is, according to Miller, as follows: Given two faces, e/g and pqr, the sign of the zone formed by both can be obtained by crosswise multiplication and subtraction, as follows: efg efg xX XX he Daa 995 oP er eg 7p | [w v w| [wv] is the symbol of the zone; now, efg pqr are severally whole num- bers; the products, fr, 99, 9p,....., are, for that reason, likewise so; the same is therefore true of their differences, which represent the in- dives wvw of the zone. If the face xyz lies in the zone represented by [wv w], the similarly-sit- uated indices of face and zone multiplied, and all three added together, must be equal to 0: UL+vy+wue= A numerical example makes the brevity still more apparent : DDO eg 66 ag PW) 7) MY) edt) - Ee, WOME ao aio Aco dk Wak Legal Ab oll Dal: tO Onl Oa? pee, 1—0; 0O—2; —2-1 HOMIES oy el Oe tp Mee 2 3 Ly Daeuate toro: Bhs 3229) .02- Gyo 3223 = 0) The face 301, therefore, lies in the zone [1 2 3], produced by 210 and aia Let us observe the method of zone-calculation according to Weiss:* Given two faces— Ca) aa ae ne| and TGR Tet! xd which are already reduced to a similar co-efficient of ¢. The zone pro- duced is— eee (nc; a at” b) erefore— qu a ae ; Bl = a 1 —— (0592) 8 8! (a—a’) a fp! —a! B * Weiss, Berliner academische Abhandlungen, 1820-21, pp. 169-173. 236 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. The values aa’, £4’, are therefore negative when the axes a or b, for which they stand, are primed (a/b). If the face— THEE, AVIA YS ne] lies in this zone, one of the following propositions must be right: pi Ti pil afl! — gf! gill « pit = Gil 1B pv pis al! oll : pit pit pr gy AN al! The simple inspection of this method shows how minute in detail this method is. Jn the first place, the symbols of the faces, with respect to an axis, (in the above case ¢,) must be reduced to similar co-efficients ; then by multiplication and addition, respective subtraction and division, the values a” and /” are to be determined. It is to be remarked that both the numerator and the denominator of these quantities are frac- tions, which must be reduced to a common denominator. The calcula- tion, it is true, (loc. cit., p. 169,) can be simplified when the symbols of the faces are written This, however, is using Miller’s symbols, which are the reciprocals of Weiss’s; and even then the calculation is more circumstantial, because the three symbols are equated with reference to ¢, and are not symmet- rical according to the three axes. The steps of the calculation in the hexagonal system are still more incumbered, since, from a four-membered symbol a three-membered parameter must be first calculated, and then introduced into the previ- ously-developed calculation. Quenstedt* employs these symbols in his so-called zone-point formule in a somewhat more convenient, although in a much less concise, man- ner than Miller. Let there be three faces— ma:nb: c|, |pa:gbie ,and|xa:yb:e whose tautozonality is to be proved. For every pair of these the zone- point formule must be written, and the verification as to whether the zones are identical, made. Thus, for the zone— ma:nd:¢| to |pa:qbie mg pn mg pn ———— * Quenstedt, Mineralogie, 1863, p. 44. PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 23:0 The same must be done for the zone— maind:e| to Jwaryd : c| mss Chena yon AiO Mee ry dis mI b my on my £N from which, as a condition of tautozonality, follows the equality of both relations. Quenstedt and P. Klein* employ the zone-control in this form. It is to be remarked that these zone-point formule can be essentially simplified, because the denominators of both sides are alike; thus— Gg a) OG a) ace)? Also, the condition— -): G-D-G-D: GD But this equation is much more complicated than Miller’s. In our former example we had— 210=44:60:Mme;111=4a:0'1¢;301=t4a:Hb26 Exchanging the axes a and ¢ in all the three faces, in order to be able to make the co-efficient of ¢ equal to unity, which has no influence on the tautogonality, we have— PDOs UEC INE 20) NC ne. COO te or— é . CYGAW20) SCT Gis Ol Oe aA ke. CaU-2 C It follows that— THT) n DD q x Ou 1G by substitution— 1-D:(-1) = 0-0-1) or— The proportion is correct, consequently the zones exist. The numerical values of the letters must here, also, be substituted according to the above-mentioned method, and the division carried out; while in Miller’s method the very simple and symmetrical calculation can be carried out on the indices, without the help of letters, by means of the crosswise multiplication and subtraction of whole numbers. * Klein; Leonh. Jahrb., 1871, p. 480. 238 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. Naumann’s method is still more circuitous: first, Weiss’s parameters must be calculated, and then they must be introduced into the equation— il ig ee ae 1 1 abe! Gaal) cab" > abe Weta ' camel in which abe, a/b’ c’, a’ bc’, represent the parameters of the faces. If these numbers contain two figures, as is frequently the case in the hex- agonal system, there must be twelve multiplications, six divisions, and the addition made. The division must be carried out to four decimal places, and sometimes farther; while in Miller’s system the convenienee of a calculation with whole numbers is always secured. This circuitous course has caused the adherents of the schools of Nau- mann and Weiss, to this day, to use Quenstedt’s method; and they are contented with an approximative zone-verification, while, since the foun- dation of Miller’s method, even the beginner is both capable of and accustomed to verify every zone by means of the exceedingly simple calculation of zone-equations. In fact, Kohscharow,! in the year 1866, again first called attention to the zone-verification calculation, which, since the publication of Weiss, had been almost entirely forgotten; von Rath,’ Hessenberg,’ and C. Klein* followed, replacing the construction in specially-complicated cases by ealculation. The use of the angle of the normal to the faces, instead of the interior angle of the solid, is also important: in the first place, with respect to convenience and conciseness, while, as a rule, the interior angle is greater than 100°, and therefore contains three figures, the angles of the normals have, for the most part, two figures; further, the angles measured at present with the reflecting-goniometer are for the most part angles of normals. In the simple evaluation of an angle with the eye even the supplement is easier to estimate than the real angle, be- cause it is generally smaller. The most important advantage of normal angles is, that they can be immediately introduced into the calculation. Thisis especially apparent jn tautozonal faces, in which, from two angles of every two out of three tautozonal faces, the third can be had by simple addition or substraction, (Fig. 1,) as— oe 80 43 =. 37 Udine, North Italy ...--. . 63 obits) || oe WI Onennye Ges scacsceceac- . 87 44 —. 43 Valin an sas Sacer eect er . 38 230) 108) Atstracams ae -e- =m nee a 30.22 | 29.88 —. 34 vorth and West Russia. Caucasus. PAT CHAN Peli eens densa s .74 70 | —..04 || Redut Kale..~-.--..--.-1 . 09 84 —.25 Nine ebersDUroene ees e-ee neo isi il =n (0re ||P abbas) sae cont Smee 28,55 | 28.29 —. 26 TSOStROM ie seeks eck = 34 -15 | —.19 |} Bakwsssiise) ostece csseee 30. 21 |) 29. 81 —. 40 V ars 5 _— 5 || = ‘s wh: stn ile arta? me oe -59 is -15 || West Siberia and Central KG Gvysacmes wise se cseeeee: | . 88 .67 | —.21 Asia. Eastern Asia. Bogosloysk ..----.+--=-- 1-99.98} 2905] —==93 Teleatek o¢.78| 28.19 | —.59 || Catherinburg.--...-.--- 29,13 | 28.78 —.35 ay S 9 ee te! Nertichinsk ..........-.. 27.96 | 97.56) —. 49 || Batnaul-..--.-.--.- -----[ 81] 29-10 “Tit Nya) pay be « ~9 = Pele ke (eat _| 30.24] 99.67| —.77 Novo Petrovsk Se aeseee| 30. 08 Err. - 36 it The monthly differences of pressure have only lately attracted general attention. The cause of this is that in Western Europe, Eastern North America, and the tropics, these differences are very small. It was only after the observations in Siberia, China, and India were known, that the barometrical depression of the summer was noticed, and the summer monsoon of India and China was explained by the rarefaction of the air in the middle of the continent, and the consequent drawing in of the air of the surrounding seas. Now that the relations of the pressure to the winds are better known, much more attention is given to barometrical observations, and espe- cially those of the Asiatic continent attract the attention of all me- teorologists. There are two problems which remain to be solved here in regard to this matter: (1) Barometrical observations in the interior of Asia, to ascertain the true amount of summer depression at a distance from the influence of the ocean, and (2) a line of levels from the Baltic to the Pacific Ocean. So long as the true height of Siberian points of observation is not known, and the adopted heights may be wrong from 500 to 500 feet, we can know very little of the pressure of the air in this region. It isa circulus vitiosus, as the heights are measured by the barometer, and afterwards the observed barometrical readings arereduced to sea-level, on the supposition that the obtained height is true. The isobars drawn in Buchan’s excellent work on the mean'pressure are not free from this reproach, as any isobars must be so long as the actual height is not accurately known. The plan of a line of levels from the 84 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. Ww Ural Mountains to Lake Baikal was discussed last year by a special commission of the Russian geographical society, and the importance of this work clearly pointed out. The council of the society, however, declined to undertake the work immediately for want of adequate means, yet it was hoped that private individuals would help the society in this important enterprise, the more so as it has a practical bearing. A line of railroad from Nijny-Novgorod over the Ural to Irkutsk, and from thence to the Amoor River, or directly to China, is in serious contemplation. Its feasibility is beyond doubt, as the difficulties are far from being so great as those of the American Pacifie Railroads. The barometrical minima have an important bearing on the produc- tion cf storms, as it is now well ascertained that these violent commo- tions of the atmosphere are caused by a great barometrical difference between places near each other. Generally the barometer is very low in the center of a storm, this center drawing in from every direction the surrounding air. On the other hand, a great barometrical depression can only be sustained by the condensation of vapor; cold and dry con- tinental areas will then arrest the progress of storms moving towards them. The coldest region of Siberia can have no storms in winter, if the foregoing views are correct. Thisis also the case; for example, at Nertschinsk, we find scarcely a moderate wind in the three winter months, calm or very light northwest winds being the rule. In West- ern Siberia calms prevail in very cold winter months, while the winds are stronger in warm winters. In considering European winter storms, *Mohn arrives at the following conclusions: Storm-centers move from 8S. 71° W. in the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, from N. 7° W. in Scandinavia and Germany, and from N. 27° W.in Russia. He says that the air is too cold and dry in Northern and Eastern Russia to sustain the barometrical depression ; the condensation on the southern side is much greater, and so the storm moves south- ward, while the barometer rises in its center. The mean pressure in the center of storms is 28.68 inches over Scandinavia and Germany, and 29.15 over Russia. Mohn has not attempted to trace the European storms to Siberia, as the observations were too few for this purpose. I have tried to gain some knowledge of the subject of storms by considering the barometri- cal range; that is, the mean maxima and minima of each monthj I can, however, only briefly state the results: The mean barometrical minima of the winter months, reduced to sea-level, are: At Reikiavik, in Iceland, 726 millimeters, or 28.5 inches; at Hammerfest, Norway, 730 millimeters, or 28.7 inches; at St. Petersburg, 737.3 millimeters, 29.0 inches. At Barnaul, (West Siberia,) 754.7 millimeters, or 29.7 inches ; at Nertschinsk, (East Siberia,) 763 millimeters, or 30.04 inches. In the last-mentioned place, the mean barometrical minima are an inch and = In his “Storm-Aflas.” + Zeitschrift der Gsterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie, year 1871, p. 161. METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. — 285 Mean monthly barometric curves. Bu Gis 2 8 8 : | See Deer hunter Conic Vane ands ac om pester Se fey ate =| =] =) — =] 5 5 A = OTs tks, | POT ae Ren te ee em ee oS ie Se iE) Gl he Seep segs ci eS OP POMC eee es) WS Lever Ol OO Br sy ete el Ss Fo a Ione 1 ; St. Louis, Mo. i Brunswick, Me. Hammerfest, Norway, 71° N. St. Petersburg, 60° N. Vienna, 48° N. Lugan, S. Russia, 48° N. » Orenburg, E. Russia, 51° N. Catharinenburg, Ural, 57° N. Barnaul, S. W. Siberia, 53° N. } Mines of Nertschinsk, E. Siberia, 51° N., 2,000 feet. Pekin, China, 40° N. 286 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. a half higher than in Iceland. In Siberia the mean minima are also higher in January than in the other months, while generally in Europe and North America the contrary is the case, indicating a greater inten- sity of the storms in midwinter. In the annexed diagram the move- ment of the minima is graphically represented. North America and Western Europe have the same system of curves, the minima being highest in summer, lowest in winter. In Siberia and Eastern Asia the contrary is the case; this is especially marked at Pekin. The stations of Lugan, in 8S. Russia, and Catharinenburg, on the Ural, occupy an intermediary position, having neither the oceanic nor the true continental type. The greatest difference between the last two places being that in Lugan October has the highest minima in the year, and Catharinenburg the lowest. This is not accidental. In October the conditions of the temperature and moisture of the air on the Ural, and in Siberia, are more favorable to the propagation of storms than in winter. In the same season the Atlantic storms take a more northern course, causing a great depression of the minima on the Ural. In Southern Russia the pressure is generally high in autumn, as also the minima. Octo- ber is not a stormy month there, while November and December are. It is possible that in October Atlantic storms may reach as far as Jakutsk. The sky is generally overcast there, it is the most cloudy month of the year,and the number of west and southwest winds is great, The temperature has not yet fallen so low, even in the northern inte- rior of Siberia, as to prevent the propagation of storms. We shall next consider the winds, which are in so intimate a connection with the pressure of the air. IJ have said before that Wesselovsky had proved the existence of a belt of eastern winds during autumn and winter in Southern Russia, while at the same time the southwest winds prevail in the northern part of the country. The movements of the atmosphere are better known at the present time as far as the Jenissei, and I have been able to prove the existence of a belt of prevailing southwest winds in Northern Siberia, and of eastern winds in the south of that country and Central Asia. The division line runs about the parallel of 50° or 52° north in Siberia, and a little more south near the shores of the Black Sea.* This is illustrated by the following table, which shows the percentage of winds in winter in Western Siberia, Central Asia, and Southeastern Russia: South of 52°. Nis ENE |) Ei) Sade SS Soe Vee EN/ SW is Onenbure reese eee scssiccs -aecetee eee eeaee eee coe ce 11 17 19 8 11 17 9 7 Semipalatinskseecss-mcn.s-csceses see aeeneeee 1 4 26 19 15 13 13 9 Raimsk, (Syo-Daria)--....-...2. hoe eee Eee ow LE BES 9 19 Q1 18 8 7 12 8 PA SLTACH AN occa seenices his se ode cece te beeen een eas Ms 6 16 22 16 3 8 15 15 ~““Tswistia” of the Russian Geographical Society, year 1871, No. 5.) METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. 287 North of 52°. ” N. |N.E.| E | S.. |S. SW.) We. INOW: (eae Eastern Ural, (three stations) -...-..---.----------- 5 5 1 10 10 24 Q7 17 tT SONS) Sewn sine Code 1 22 SD CORED SEO DSRD SES eseoe CoO Be 4 A 7 30 21 12 | 9 13 Disc iiimipee ee se orem cease Raine sc akaams 8 5 6 By 12s) o4taai ed 10 WROUR PAM = a5 oe = som n-ne nnn nn ean nnn nnn nine 12 8 9 | 10 20 ey || a 9 (OWNER nos so peccodSesessnapNogebuaE ico eddéSocoondss 4 13 6 9 10 24 | 16 19 ES YER a Lear eee ai> ara teeine Sain lore la\= se alot nietcloime = =< 8 13 1 15 44 | 9 5 Nomncnay Pies ches cecaeeee =p comenonoseDBSIe5e Hosa Se 4 6 fal ee 2 66 | 14 5 | \ The prevalence of southwest winds in the northern part of the country is clearly seen in this table. Even Orenburg and Semipalatinsk, situ- ated between 50° and 52°, have prevailing east winds, but a great num- ber of southerly also, while Astrachan and Raimsk have much less southwest and much more northeast winds than all the other points. The differences we notice between the several points are easily accounted for, if we consider the rough mode of observing the wind-gauge and the different local circumstances having an influence on the indications of this instrument. I have aiso noticed an influence of the upper river valley, the winds in the direction of this being generally more frequent. For example, at Tobolsk the Irtysch comes from the southeast, and the winds trom that quarter prevail. At Jschim, Barnaul, and Krasnojarsk the rivers flow from the southwest, and so the local direction corresponds with the general one, giving an enormous prevalence to the southwest winds, At Omsk only this isnot the case; the rivers flow from east and south- east, and yet the prevailing wind is southwest. This is probably due to the very level position of the surroundings of Omsk. The winds of this place can be considered as typical for Western Siberia, north of 52°, that is, a moderate prevalence of the southwest, extending also to the south and west winds. Three or four years ago nothing accurate was known as to the winds in the basin of the Yenissei. Now we know that the southwest extends as far as there, and probably even to the east of this river. Further to the east the winds are so rare and irregular in the winter, and calms so general, that I may eall this region one of prevailing calms. It embraces the basin of the Lena and the tributaries of the Northern Ocean, east and west of it, as also Transbaikalia. It is the region of the Siberian meteorological pole. The atmosphere is generally clear and calm, with cold generated on the spot by radiation, and not brought from other places by the winds. We must not imagine that this region is of equal magnitude every winter; it extends and contracts unperiodically. In very cold winters it stretches westward to the Ural, and even farther, while the warm winters of Western Siberia are those in which it shares in the atmospherical currents of Europe. To prove this I calculated the temperature of the winds at Krasnojarsk in the 288 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. winter months of 187071, as given in the following table, in which N. C. indicates the number of winds observed : ” N.E DA hie Sli S.E S. W. WwW. | N.W. | Calms | Month: E z | E E S e ee A Josie Veal cir sila a o |S : a Ra t= Balitics ; = o ae) Sh ss =e g 1é) =e) Sale g Oo | 3 aS 2 2 : o : SD) . 3) 5 A > ‘ r eae Doi cia et = P= | el December..| 0 |....-- On /Eatoes } JO Res! Oilessese 44) 0 Dd |—24.7] 6 |—4.0 7 \—27.6 Ure eiay aac) DSS) Aiea! @iLseso: iW itgeeee Fl Chee ll Osa) “Miilbgesce 16 —13.2 February --| 5] —1.5} 1] 24.6] 2] 21.2) 6] 9.0 46) 1.4) 9 5.2) 2 |—19.1 tS ee dro { | The temperatures of the months were: in December, —12.2; Jan- uary, —4.2; February, 4.0. February is much warmer than Decem- ber, yet the temperature of the prevailing southwest winds is nearly the same, differing only 1.4, while the mean temperature differs by 169.2. But we see that in December calms were much more prevalent than in February, and the temperature of the calm days very low. To show more clearly that the movement of the airin thisregion tends to elevate the temperature, I have calculated separately the temperature of light, moderate, and strong southwest winds. S.W. Month. Light. |Moderate.| Strong. December? sa. aac sem scct Se cececk cecaseecese- eee —3.1 —2.4 ONG INA ers rice ene oj ee Soke este ie = epee ae epecieepetaee —2.0 1.2 13.8 INSDENATY pee seie cee eas, aie oe, Sy eek ae a Ae oe —2.4 14.4 The strong winds are by far the warmest, the difference of tempera- ture between light and strong being 12.8 in December, 15.8 in Janu- ary, and 12.3in February. The region of caims, or of the Siberian pole, is bounded on the south and east by that of the Asiatic monsoons, or periodic winds, blowing from the land in winter and from the sea in summer. It is only within the last year that the true extent of this interesting region has become known. In the winter the interior of the continent is cooled by radiation, the atmospheric pressure rises, and the air flows out to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, where the pressure is less. In summer the continent is heated, the pressure is much lowered, and the air from the surrounding seas flows in upon Asia. Encounter- ing high mountains on the south and east, the sea-air is forced up into a higher and colder altitude, and loses its vapor in copious rains; so the gap can never be filled, as the precipitation causes a low pressure near the mountain sides. These movements of air are especially marked in Southern and Eastern Asia, because the heated plateaus of the inte- METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. 289 rior are there nearest to the ocean. Air is also drawn into Central Asia from the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, but, having a much longer distance to travel before reaching the mountains, and being originally colder, it does not cause such a great precipitation. The in-draught from the north and west is also less regular, since the pressure over the Arctic is not high in summer, and the air of the Atlantic is also drawn toward the deserts of Africa where the pressure is low in summer. The Asiatic monsoons were first known to the Europeans in India, and therefore we often find them called Indian monsoons. It is also supposed that they always blow from the northeast in winter, (dry monsoons,) and from the southwest in summer, (wet monsoons.) In the lately published “pilot-chart” of the British admiralty the monsoon region is repre- sented as extending northward to Southern China only. But the winds much farther to the north have the same periodical character. Even in Northern China, Japan, Mantschuria, the Russian Amoor provinces, and on the western coast of the Sea of Ochotsk, cold, dry winds (northwest) from the interior of the continent generally prevail in winter, while in summer they are from the sea, bringing cloud and rain. There is, therefore, no reason why we should not extend the Asiatic monsoons to these countries, since their climates are of the same char- acter as that of India, the temperature alone excepted, the winter being the clear, dry time of the year, and the summer being the rainy period. Sometimes the summer monsoon extends as far inland as Lake Baikal. In 1869 this lake, the greatest fresh-water basin of the world except Lake Superior, rose more than 10 feet above its ordinary level, causing disastrous floods in the neighborhood. Such copious and long-continued rains in summer are unknown in European Russia; the great rivers are unaccompanied with freshets in SUID eE, especially those traversing great lakes, as the Neva. The following table shows the periodical character of the winds in the regions of Eastern Asia: Percentage of winds at Nicolajevsk, mouth of the Amoor. Months. N. | NE.| E. |SE.| S. |SW.| W. |NW JAMMU Angee hae es seis iss ses ee eee fe cn eae HOR VO SEA OS e020) By I ts He Dray eeeeegee ot pennies Some sa rei. scan aoe 10) 4 TA ON Satan 36 Marching as seman ai aiee cee, saeise st Saciawcuteetaae GH |e lS oe As le me SO es PST Man aac SIE TOSI a eco t ison aatieeeee TON |LL4 | SL. ly - Ona ieee Rosia as Meigen = hake eee Rees Set. SUR Pere PSO A! HSE Tere tae OG) 9 TRH OR NLT SS Scere SORE, LER ei i2. oe SST et) La og a) 1a ts) 6 mT oe - 2/2 ss Se wae sep ee Ad acerde Sete PHU |: (OF 4G: Wana ely ETS Ina 9 PUSS ert aee - ro Sfaeeaseaee cis oe see SS. Seta eettit || 101i Gt (ESGaleed hy PO tS O38 Seplernber 52.26. so eet htt et eee ee 10; | AS AGal Oe Ol Oy 2). 236 Octo Eth or 3-4) a ee ips al, ees. |) OUTS LOM CAN dol. oa, Log INGVETAING hae ees sei eee PEI > che (oem As eee ON Salou era WWEGR MAC R pe cs fcotoe tee ary Sic lena ss eae eee HOS | ES aE ae By eax ae 290 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. The western winter monsoon is established as early as the end of September; that is, in the time of the typhoons of the Southern China Seas. ‘The navigators in the Sea of Ochotsk have long known the periodicity of the winds in this region, of which they take advantage in going in the summer from Kamtschatka to the western coast of this sea, and returning in September or October, when the western winds have fairly set in. The extremely unpleasant cold and damp summer climate of these regions is caused by the prevailing east wind coming from the cold Sea of Ochotsk, a true polar basin transfered to a lower latitude. The yearly increase of temperature is also checked to a great degree by this influence, the warmest month being generally August, when the sea- water has acquired a higher temperature. The summer rains are very copious, even in places inland as far as Pekin. In this place, as also at the mines of Nertschinsk, the fall of water is more than fifty times larger in July than in January. In the last place there is hardly any sledging in winter, though the tempera- ture remains six months below the freezing-point. The countries on the Lower Amoor and Japan have more of snow and rain in autumn and winter. The east winds from the adjoining sea are seldom experienced, yet when they do occur the precipitation is copious, the difference of temperature between land and sea being very great. We find a resem- blance to this in the climate of Eastern North America, where the rain- fall is more copious than in Kurope; yet the sky is clearer and the number of rainy days less. Precipitation in inches, | | Year. | Winter, | Spring. | Summer, | Autumn. | Greatest, Least. Rekinge acess Rea ASAE 24. 21 0. 64 2/23 17. 36 4.00 | 8. 06JSuly.) 0. 14 dan. Nertschinsk.......c-..eeceee- | i547] * 0.30 1.73 10, 64 2. 80 | 3,96 Ang.| 0.07 Feb. Hakodadi, Japan ............- | 44. 01 8. 14 8. 49 16, 46 10, $4 | 8. 21 July.} 1.89 Jan. T have said before that the monsoon climate is characterized by a gen- erally clear winter and a rather cloudy summer. The amount of cloudi- ness has only begun within the last few years to attract the attention of scientific men. An extensive collection of tables of this element has been commenced by Kamtz, and continued by Wild, who has published the results in the new “ Repertorium fiir Meteorology.” They embrace many places in Russia and in Siberia. I present here an extract from these tables, in which the means of several places have been combined together. The amount of cloudiness is expressed in percentage; acloud- less sky taken as zero. METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. 291 het eel asec late oneness | aul. PS EC FOE A Thar Se EBs geil mia | ee leh ed © Aito |S) elSisieble)eisle “i AlBRIifbB# lalallala lnlalalolal (1) Alaska: PTR Weececatalintrettdita ale slefe'a’sielciw n’ole tees yn iate'on ans 63} 65 | 66) GL | 638°) G6 ) 72) YS | 74) 71) 73 |) 6B 68 (2) Eastern Asia : SR LNs ee reeves te teiciotal o = iclm elalpiw ais ania atejeimieimince 23 | 25 | 31 | 39 | 46 | 49 | 56 | 63 | 56 | 46} 30 | 32 42 Ochotsk, Ajan, Nicolajovsk......-......-.. 26 | 25 | 27 | 35 | 37 | 48 | 47 | 48 | 50) 44 | 35] 34] 37 VEIN GMIOLNOUGSCOIN SIS «ein cislrieninielein caisio'ia ene 19 | 13 | 14 | 22 | 36 | 44 | 47 | 48 | 46 | 44] 38) 25] 83 (3) Central and West Siberia : PPRUIUR Cp ehitetenite pins ep alcioicis ain« bislels tialoielale'n’s 46 | 46 | 35 | 26 | 37} 49 | 49 | 47 | 49 | 55 | 69 | 48 | 46 BATT) Ail cetetatete nite chere ecabaty sinisicueix' die oinis'ein'giniswninls 51 | 41 |, 39 | 35.) 38 | 37 | 39 | 38 | 38} 55 | 46 |} 54 tL Tobolsk, ‘Lara, TUR GUM Se icisininicleeiaine ainin’s'e: ia 54 | 46 | 43 | 41 | 42) 44 | 45 | 44 | 47 | 40 | 58 | 58 13 Bogoslowsk and Berezov .:......--..--..--- 42 | 43 | 40 | 38 | 43 | 46 | 44 | 43 | 46 | 53) 52] 50] 45 (4) Central and Northern Russia : . Weliki-Ustjug, Glazov, Slobodskoi........ 66 | 60 | 61 | 52] 47 | 42 | 40 | 34 | 43 | 49 | 67 | TL] 52 Ardatoy, Balachua, Gorbatoy, Tambov, Sim- ITS KOUNVOISIE, ceteacincislarsince ca Siaretslatainieie eins 66 | 60 | 60 | 50 | 49 | 44 | 42 | 42 | 41 | 47 | 62 | 68 52 Anandus, Reval, Baltischport, Riga :....... 59 | 541 52 | 48 | 44 | 38 | 87 | 34 | 35 | 44 | 56] 61 47 OZ STR MAIND Biase phtecat naan omni dan emcees 75 | 76 | 65 | 59 | 49 | 43] 42] 41 | 42 | 50 | 64] 74) 55 (5) Southern Russia: TIME Key OVC Mea tara /e'nie wiwraiele a'ciaw o/01< ctere\e\sin'eiwinjove'a!s 70 | 63 | 58 | 50} 47 | 40 | 388 |] 38 | 37 | 47 | 55 | 65 51 Sudscha, Lugan, Catherinbosburg.......... 72 | 63 | 64 | 57 | 42] 33 | 31 | 31 | 80 | 38 | 52) 68) 48 OdesepeNicolojey scisccacs deawcileposesctils 73 | 70 | 63 | 62 | 52 | 44 | 40 | 36 | 32 | 36 | 49:| 68] 52 (6) Southeastern Steppes: Astrachan, It. Alexander, Uralsk .........- 57 | 57 | 49 | 43 | 34 | 28 | 26 | 24 | 21 | 24) 34] 389) 37 Raimsk, Kasalinsk, and Fort Perovski...... 46 | 41 | 40 | 37 | 27 | 28 | 25 | 23) 19 | 20} 24 | 34) 30 (7) Caspian : Baku, Lenkoran, Ashur-Ade ......-....---- 59 | 59 | 64 | 62] 56] 48} 44 | 38] 39 | 46] 49) 59] SL The contrasting climates are those of European Russia and Eastern Asia, the first having the greatest amount of cloud generally in Decem- ber, the last in July or August. The greatest part of Siberia is a land of transition, haying the least amount of cloud in March and the great- est in October or November. Barnaul has very little cloudiness trom February to August, so as to form a transition between the steppes on the southwest, and the countries on the east of it. Yet it must be said that the accuracy of this table is not very great, the amount of cloud- iness not being observed in former times in Russia, and only such des- ignations as clear, cloudy, overcast, &¢., being given, and sometimes also the different qualities of clouds, (cirro cumulus,) &e. It seems especially that the amount of cloudiness in Southern Russia is less than that Shown in Wild’s table, and the same probably applies to the south- east steppes. In regions where the sky:is clear for some weeks together the observers will record “ cloudy ” if only a few clouds appear, &c. A cloudiness of from 70 to 72 at Odessa and Lugan seems to me quite impossible. I have already spoken of the summer winds in the monsoon region. In the region of the southwest winds the change from winter to summer is far less marked, the winds being a little more from the north in sum- 292 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. mer, the prevailing direction being still west. In the steppes of South- ern Russia, and far into Central Asia, the winds are also west in June and July, the prevailing direction being the opposite of that of winter. Yet this has not so great an influence on all the features of the climate as in Eastern Asia—1st, because winds from other directions are more or Jess common in both seasons; and 2d, because there is not the contrast existing in Eastern Asia between the winds from the continent and those _ from the ocean. Jn Transcaucasia the winds are also generally easterly in winter and westerly insummer, as on the northern shores of the Black Sea. Yet the influence of the mountains and sea is strongly felt. On the Caspian, especially, the day and night breezes are very regular in summer. The Persian sailors know this very well, and in going from the south to As- trachan they keep along the eastern shore, where the breezes are stronger than on the western. We possess very few observations on the quantity of falling water, and this has induced the Geographical Society to establish a more gen- eral system, especially for this element. Yet we must wait at least from ten to fifteen years before having reliable data from the new stations. Some general features can, however, be ascertained even now, with the aid of the few points of observation we possess. In awork on the rains of Russia* I have divided the country thus: 1. Region of prevailing summer rains, with a maximum in July: In- cluding the northern part of Russia and Siberiaas far as the 50° in the west, and 54° in the east. 2, Region of prevailing summer rains, with a maximum in June: In- cluding the country south of the former, being the principal part of the steppes (prairies) of southern and eastern Russia. The two regions differ, moreover, in this, that the second has a very marked dry time in September and October, with easterly winds, and a second maximum in November. Possibly the difference of the time of most copious rains coincides with the physical aspect of the country, being well wooded in the north and nearly naked in the south. In the beginning of the summer the grasses and corn-fields of the steppes are green, and in this condition the evaporation is considerable, giving enough of vapor to the air, while at the same time the cold caused by evaporation is favorable to the condensation of moisture. In July the grasses are already withered, the corn ripened, and in these conditions the plants evaporate much less water, and therefore the rains are less frequent and copious. In the wooded region of the north evaporation from the leaves of trees goes on the whole summer, the best conditions for rain being in July, the hottest month. In the United States the conditions are simi- lar. The country east of the Rocky Mountains is also principally one of *To be published in the “Sapiski” of the Russian Geographical Society ; also, “Zeitschrift der ésterreichischen Gessellschaft fiir Meteorologie,” year 1871, p. 193. i) METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. Zoe summer rains, but in the prairie States the maximum of falling water is reached earlier ; so in Missouri and Kansas there is a marked maximum in June; farther to the south even in April and May, which is due to the earlier vegetation. In the wooded Atlantic sea-board, on the con- trary, there is no such tendency to an early maximum, the rains being very equally distributed in the Northern States, and having a maximum in July or August in the South. Besides the above stated difference between the north and south, there is a marked one between the east and west of Russia. Precipi- tation in winteris much less in the former. This is not due to the differ- ence of the currents of the air, but to the winter cold, which is greater in the east. The warm, moist southwest winds contain little vapor in Eastern Russia, and therefore the quantity precipitated cannot be great. Yet snow falls occasionally, and in small quantities, even at Jakutsk, which has the coldest winter of which we have any knowledge. Snow- falls have been observed there at temperatures of from — 40 to — 46 Fahr. The rain-fall of summer does not diminish generally from the Baltic to the Obi in Siberia. Local circumstances seem to have a great influence on the summer rains, but their study requires many more observations. There are also two small regions with prevailing rains in autumn—one on the Baltic coast, comprising Southwest Finland and Libau; another in the southern part of the Crimea, south of the Jaila Mountains.’ 3. Nearly rainless region of the Caspian and Kirghez steppes. Here the amount of rain falling yearly is from 4 to 6 inches, and is very irreg- ularly distributed. It is an arid, desolate country, in which agriculture is impossible without irrigation. The boundary of the region of sum- mer rains No. 2 is very clearly marked on the west. It is the high, right bank of the Volga from 50° to 48° N., and a line of heights called Jergeni, forming its continuation tothe south, extending tothe Kuma-Manytsch depression, about 46° N. On the south of this depression the plateau of the Western Caucasus rises, and its eastern border is also the line of division between the two regions, the eastern being low, salt, and desert; the western having regular summer rains, and a luxurious nat- ural grass vegetation. A great part of it is already under cultivation, yielding excellent corn-crops. The mountains of Central Asia have more rains than the steppes at their foot, and the rivers descending from them are extensively used for irrigation. The inhabitants are well aware of the benefit of this sys- tem, and, though not very civilized, have excellent modes of irrigation. The whole of Central Asia, as much as we know of it, has a similar eli- mate, the sedentary inhabitants gathering, around mountain streams, and often draining them to the last drop for their fields. 4. East of this country is the monsoon region of Eastern Asia, with an enormous prevalence of summer rains. The principal features and ex- tent of this region have been already described. These are the four principal regions from the Baltic to the Pacific. The floods of the riv- 294 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. ers furnish us also means of distinguishing the European climate from that of the Pacific slope. All great rivers of European Russia, as also the Obi and Jenissei, have one principal tlood in the year, after the melt- ing of the winter snow. The rise of water is more or less protracted, owing to the climate and extent of the basin, so that the highest stage of water is reached as late as the 15th of June by the Volga at Astra- chan, owing to the late melting of the snow on the western slopes of the Ural and the enormous distance the water has to pass from thence to Astrachan. The summer rains are not long enough continued, and too local to have great influence on the rivers. The Angara River, tributary of the Jenissei, does not rise generally in Spring, the quantity of snow falling there being too small. But sometimes the river and Lake Baikal, which it traverses, rise very high in summer. The Amoor has alsono great flood, due to the melting of snow, but rises very high sometimes in summer. The disastrous flood of 1872 will long be remembered by the inhabitants of the country. The rivers of China have also floods, due to the spring and summer rains, and, like all rivers in such condition, their floods are very disas- trous and irregular. The Caucasian provinces, though of small extent, show great differen- ces in the quantity and ahananeae of their rains. South of the principal chain we must distinguish three principal belts: (1) that of the eastern coast of the Black Sea, a country of very copious precipitation. It in- cludes Mingrelia, Imeretia, Guria, and Abchasia, being bounded on the northeast by the principal chain of the Caucasus, and on the east by the Suram Mountains, separating Imeretia from Grusia. About 60 inches fall in the year, which is tolerably well distributed, the maxima being in June and December. A warm climate and copious rains pro- duce a rank, luxurious vegetation, having some features of that of the tropics. Climbing plants are especially favored by the climate, and the trees of Central Europe attain immense dimensions. (2.) Grusia has a less rainy climate, the maximum falling in May. Irrigation is found much necessary in the valleys, while the mountain-sides, from 2,000 to 5,000 feet high, are clad with forests. The maximum of rain-fall in May is strongly marked, this month at Tiflis having also the greatest number of rainy days and the greatest amount of cloud. On the higher plateau of Armenia, 4,800 feet, May is also the rainiest month, as it is due north of the Caucasian chain at Alagir. (3.) The western shores of the Caspian have sub-tropical rains—that is, the greatest quantity falls in autumn and winter, while the summer is decidedly dry. The distribu- tion is nearly the same along all this shore, while the quantity varies much; Lenkoran, for example, has more than 50 inches, while Baku has only 10. The vapor coming from the Caspian, places having mountains - to the westward receive copious rains. Lenkoran has a similar position, the Talysh Mountains rising from 5,000 to 7,000 feet due west of the METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. 295 town. Baku is situated in a low, arid country north of this place. The vicinity of Kuba and Derbent has much more rains, because the ramifications of the high Shah-Dagh approach the Caspian. This country has magnificent forests and very favorable conditions for agriculture. I have already said that the opening and freezing of rivers was long ago observed in Russia. These data give us the means of ascertaining something of climates where no thermometrical observations have been made. In the following table the rivers are arranged according to natural basins. The principal rivers are taken from their source to their mouth, and their affluents afterwards. Number of days the rivers were frozen. BASIN OF THE PACIFIC. ANMOOMATPNICOl al OySKiert celsecsee scsiacm ccilnaeicsine cine clo sioee ats seis = aor eee see 193 MnonumeauNeLvichinskesoasee Messe sen eee sie saisewie a tae s a ep ccmisiee ee sepsis cee 170 BASIN OF THE ARCTIC. Vine ohn URES ks MUS DN BBEReoicocerD Oopmoo noacen sane os CosSOn Gg eaGor) aces conoses6 260 Men ayabwMOnensketose cae cissercc sca imcccce cloves susie clcisteis ciate ie = nis sem eae eee 204 Men mAbaVak ous, 622 -s2si.0-accias-c\eeeelsccaisisne cect occ aee o aaa ee yee ee 204 Noeniserabevemisseisks OOo) sae mis ele se cia sins = 2asS08 ceo ses oa SSon00 onoson dross 171 Aoane) hp JEAROOUEIK: 22) Sse ece aac peCOAs bcp oon E20 OSneTs NG SIRO heCoosaS case Coonee 87 Ol idatwsarmal HSS ke ene oic!oncaisicieisinloysiais's (nian am w\ja02 ajn)aia ls mints alee ei ye See eee ee 167 Ieeiiein, anh INOW OIES, Gise 5 Bo Sos Sar cisoooeolc bo canosadas Se Sebase 6de PP ee bik UN A. 73 MOMEAT MOMS sc Ol semitone sciaisteereisieie lee slalearaieioral ere earae eh seeie rater yaaa eae epee 180 Tool aij IRWIN oR NN BoSSc0 daucbS Gaosrcooodaesooend Loon ose. soos cncKes ssa ks SeeeSo o50- ilzfil SWS 2) Qi Telemees OI, WHS 5 oo be5 those cso Soo son cs bss S000s05 sobees QbS550 aSSese Gas ace 207 JSSE5 Fh Caylee tye oe a oomeas esa g Sse Soe SO SED EES IO se Sse Hone sseeee ae saesnG 179 PROMO Ab TIE AOI YN, ONO sao dos ceo RE Eee or seeno F600 BoLb ace Boeead Bascde Beaeoc 240 ID Ayabagh Gy AURG Ahn) HG a) eRe eee oro Bea e ee Oe-CooSpeSEScor Ceo beLoeeeeaeesaas UGiil SOMA eit WSUWIos cosctScedass Suc co eoestooD Sonos see cu osenouserdsucsaduecuodaT 168 Ways Nee emma tie tlie Kerem teeta et ea reer anal al i re -- 132 Dolado aiNMolos@a;iS992= -meswe tats antec ssje sate sof -lncio ee cee va creeapaeee see ee) OmagE, Geo so onbeodcoccce. epee tapaneeSto tens ser dosodo HB Gaon couELoescDce caceoe 169 Tana at Utsjoki, 69°....-. 6 boccecdngs yaad bn0e Hocene Guccnedesapecdd suadcoua ceoser 197 BASIN OF THE BALTIC. Teepe mvepne AMoMeOy) (DAC Soo Bosc sosche psesooondaeo Seay BoboD po ebaoe sed eoon bese 207 MONTE KOISNOSS Sse snigc damsel tgas oe coo Se el sclera Stents acs led os Saya ees pe aeee 298 LORS) Bein WWI er ya eee ee eee ae ee ee! AP Arye 201 NG Vicia LoSoe ee rerebUll, OOP aan aes nc.5 2 oop ieee eas omtn sa Je ana ee eee eG] NarovyanabuNanvyastoo oars tosis sciceeicr = +04 sysicimeinoic saeieciscii~ nies oousis eaten. seen 137 EmbachvabsDorpatyosO™ Sas, The fitful currents and the corresponding perturbations manifested along the telegraphic lines, on the occasion of the aurora of February 4, were greater on the lines extending from east to west than on those ex- tending from north to south. This was the case even when the lines running from east to west were much shorter than those from north to south. In fact, Inspector-General Masi, who was at the office of Bag- nara, Calabria, from his accurate observations concludes that the line from Bagnara to Naples, which runs almost entirely along the meridian, and which is the longest of all the lines that meet at Bagnara, gave by the needle of the galvanometer the least deviation of all other lines. And that, on the other hand, the line from Bagnara to St. Euphemia, al- though shorter, but running almost exactly from east to west, showed the influence of the aurora more than any other line. The same conclu- sion is drawn from the observations made in Sardinia. On the lines from Cagliari to Iglesias, and from Santa Teresa to Isola Madalena, both very short lines and running from east to west, the perturbations were greater than on the long lines from Santa Teresa to Cagliari, both the latter lines running from north to south. This fact had been noticed 300 PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. by General Masi and entered in his minutes on the exhibition of the aurora on the 24th of October, 1870, and was also observed by Messrs. Sureau and H. Tarry along the French lines. * The changes: of direction as well as the changes of intensity which the currents that ran over the telegraphic wires underwent, were very great during the aurora. The perturbations produced by the aurora began to be noticed on the Italian lines at 4 o’clock 30 minutes p. m. of the 4th. The maximum of the current manifested itself at 6 o’clock 31 minutes, and in that moment the current changed its direction suddenly. Another maximum somewhat less than the preceding manifested itself at 6 hours 37 minutes. At 6 hours 52 minutes the needles of the galvanome- ters remained stationary for about 3 minutes. Toward 8 p.m. the pertur- bations lest much of their intensity, and after this no perturbations took place intense enough to obstruct the transmission of dispatches. Not- withstanding this, the luminous phenomena, taken as a whole, though very variable, were not less splendid from 8 to 10 than they had been from 6 to 8. Mr. Masi in his account of the phenomena states as fol- lows: “ Looking at my compass, and at the same time at the luminous phenomena, I observed that the deflection of the compass increased with the increase of the luminosity at the northwest and decreased with its decrease.” Mr. Masi’s remark of the correspondence between the deflection of the needle of the compass and the luminous variations of the aurora in the northwest may be true, but it seems to me, from the examination I have been able to make of the various observations, that the intensity of the luminous phenomena, considered as a whole, was not proportionate to the amount of the perturbations. Indeed, | think that the magnetic perturbations on the telegraphic lines preceded in time the luminous phenomena. Mr. Masi was led by his observations to think that, on the telegraphic lines which were situated much above the level of the sea, the phenom- ena produced by the aurora were manifested sooner and with greater energy than on lines less elevated. And also that on the latter lines the phenomena exhibited themselves later and with less intensity. Mr. Masi, however, adds that we have not a sufficient number of observa- tions to consider this as an established fact, but that it deserves atten- tion in the future. The time given above is mean time at Rome, and it would be very im- portant to ascertain whether in other lines, differing considerably in longitude from the Italian lines, the same phenomena manifested them- selves, and exactly at what time. Mr. H. Tarry, who attempted to ascertain this circumstance, says that the magnetic perturbations which took place on the telegraphic lines manifested themselves at the same time in Italy, France, and America, within perhaps one minute’s differ- ence.t * Comptes-rendus de ’Académie des sciences, Vol. LXXIV, page 484. +t Comptes-rendus, Vol. LX XIV, page 519. PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. 301 But the facts on which he bases his conclusion seem to me too gen- eral and too few, and that we require more particular and more numer- ous observations before accepting his statement as that of an estab- lished fact. Mr. Tarry also adds that ‘“‘in the telegraphic line from Brest to Paris, from 5h. 55m. to 6 o’clock p. m. (Paris time) there were two very singular waves. The deflection of the needle at first increased progressively from 0° to + 60°. Then there was for one minute a firm adherence of the armature of the telegraphic instrument, with per- sistent deflection. After this the needle went gradually down to 0, then up to + 60°, where it remained one minute. At six it jumped suddenly from + 60° to — 60°.* I have tried to ascertain whether in the interval of time which cor- responds to between 5h. 55m. and 6 o’clock, mean time of Paris, there were any observations made in Italy, in order to compare them with those made in France, and I find that from the observations made at Rome by Messrs. Perelli and Gotti, on the line from Rome to Milan, and from those made at Florence by Messrs. Donalisio, Guidi, and Gabrielli, on the line from Florence to Turin, the following table can be con- structed: Line from Rome to Milan.t Mean time of Paris. The needle of the galvanometer, at 1000 turns. From 5° 55™ to 55 57™, moves gradually from.-.-..... — 62° to + 78° Do 57 5. 57.5, passes rapidly from.......-..- - + 78 — 50 5 57.5 5 358, oe ss SOREN es ere S50 + 73 5 58 B FE8ib, wae ee RO tare ea + 73 — 65 5 58.5 5 59 almost stationary between.... + 73 — 65 5 59 GuCUoPEUSHEeS) OVER ZELO LOlins cases etree tere sis. + 60 Line from Florence to Turin. From 5" 55" to 5" 56™, oscilates and goes rapidly from — 80° to + 80° 5 57 moves rapidly from.........-. + 80 — 60 5 58 gs gs GOSEN Vere EY - — 60 + 75 5 58.5 MOVES! HOMT LEG SSSA OL LETS — 65 Toen e600 4: almost stationary towards...-.- — 70 then jumps violently tows wioitll. Jo. 22 + 10 In comparing the preceding observations with those reported by Mr. Tarry, it seems as if we may conclude that both in Italy and in France *Comptes-rendus, Vol.LXXIV, page 484. +The line from Rome to Milan passes through Foligno, Florence, Bologna, and Pia- cenza. The line from Florence to Turin passes through Empoli, Pisa, Spezia, Genoa. The time of the Italian observations are reduced to mean Paris time, by subtracting 40™, from the time indicated by the observers of Rome and Florence. The observa- tions made at Rome are preceded by the following notice. It being known on which side the needle is deflected when Rome sends a positive current, the deflection ob- served on the opposite quarter is marked thus, (-+) and that on the same quarter is marked thus(—.) The resistance of the galvanometer used in Florence was 101, and that used at Rome 104 Tiemens units. 302 PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. from 5°.55 to 5".57 (mean time of Paris) there was a gradual movement of the needle; that after this there occurred sudden leaps, and that at 6 o’clock the needle remained stationary for about one minute ; after this rest the needle moved violently. Mr. Tarry reports that at 5°.28™ the needle jumped in France from — 40° to + 60°. At that time the galvanometer had not as yet been used by the inspectors at the office of Rome, but I find that the needle of the common compass used by telegraphists jumped in Rome from + 20° to — 22° at 5%.27™. Mr. Tarry also reports that at 5".34™ the needle of the galvanometer moved suddenly in France from — 40° to + 50; and I find that the needle of the common compass at Rome moved from + 36° to — 26° between 5°.30™ and 55.37". No comparison can be instituted with the observations made in Florence during the the above-mentioned time, for observations in that city com- menced later. They are all given in mean Paris time. Mr. Coumbary, director of the observatory at Constantinople, says that on the lines of Turkey, toward 74.35™ the current was reversed and be- came positive, showing great intensity. Judging from the whole of his remarks, it appears that at the above-mentioned time the greatest per- turbation occurred, which manifested itself on the Turkish lines.* I have already said that the Italian lines had reached their maximum at 6.31", (mean time of Rome ;) if the time stated by Mr. Coumbary is given in mean time of Constantinople, (as is presumable,) then the greatest per- turbations on the Turkish lines manifested themselves at 6%.25™ mean time of Rome.t Mr. Coumbary says that at 9 o’clock (7".54" mean time of Rome) tele- graphic communication was resumed in Turkey. It has been already mentioned that in Italy perturbations on the lines became much weaker toward 8 o’clock, (mean time of Rome.) So that it seems that the great perturbations ceased contemporaneously in Italy and in Turkey. Irom what has been stated it appears that we may conclude with Mr. Tarry that the perturbations on the telegraphic lines took place, as a general rule, simultaneously. On this important point, however, more extensive researches are needed, and with more particulars than have hitherto been given; inasmuch as the perturbations on the telegraphic wires followed each other almost continuously, and errors, however small, in the times noted, or in the deflections observed, might make acoincidence appear where there was really none. To prove the general simultaneousness of the electrical perturbations - which manifest themselves in the electrical telegraphs im auroral mani- festations, would be the much more important, inasmuch as it appears sufficiently proved by experience that the luminous phenomena proceed- ing from auroras are not at all simultaneous, but manifest themselves first in the more eastern countries, and then in the western. In support > * Comptes-rendus, Vol. LXXIV, page 828. t Constantinople is east from Rome about 1».06™, PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. 303 of the above view, Professor Olmstead cites many facts in a learned essay, published in the contributions of the Smithsonian Institution of America. Mr. Tarry also has noted a similar fact in the great aurora of February 4, 1872, while comparing the times in which the luminous phe- nomena were seen in Europe with the times in which they were seen in Duxbury, near Boston.* To this I can add that the J alia consul of Cyprus addressed a letter to his excellenecy our minister of foreign affairs, which was kindly com- municated to me, from which it appears that the luminous phenomena of the aurora of February 4 last were very conspicuous at Cyprus, that they became feebler toward 10 o’clock, (local time,) and after that disap- peared almost entirely. At Paris, also, the luminous phenomena of the same aurora were very vivid till 10 o’clock, (local time,) then became much weaker, and disappeared almost entirely. Now, as Cyprus is about two hours east of Paris, it follows that in absolute time the luminous phenomena of the aurora ceased at Cyprus two hours before they dis- appeared in Paris. If it were not so, and the light of the aurora borealis had been very bright at Cyprus at the same time that it appeared very splendid in Paris, instead of beginning to decrease in the latter place at 10 o’clock without any further increase of brightness, it ought to have continued in its splendor till after midnight. Now, how can we explain the fact that the luminous phenomena of the aurora borealis appear first in the east and after in the west? The theory that the aurora is nothing else but a slow electrical discharge, which takes place between the upper and the lower strata of our atmos- phere, is well known, generally admitted, and confirmed by the beauti- ful experiments of De La Rive. On this point there can be very little doubt at present. But is this a complete explanation; that is, does it give a reason for all the circumstances which accompany the aurora bo- realis? Besides the circumstance that the luminous phenomena of the aurora move, so to speak, from east to west, there is another very im- portant one which must not be overlooked when we are seeking for an explanation of these phenomena as satisfactory as we can obtain. The late researches made by Professor Loomis prove that in latitudes which are not very high the number of auroras and their luminous intensity has a maximum and a minimum about every ten years; and this fact is also confirmed by an examination which I have undertaken of an ex- tensive series of observations existing in this observatory, in which the exhibitions of auroras are accurately recorded. Although the theory which regards the aurora borealis as the result of slow and prolonged discharges of electricity is physically complete, and explains fully the electrical and luminous phenomena, it does not seem of itself to give a satisfactory reason either for the periodicity of the auroras or of the successive progress of the phenomena from east to west. That the- * Denison Olmstead, Smithsonian Contributions January, 1855, pp. 44-45; H. Tarry, Comptes-rendus, Vol. LXXIV, p. 549. 304 PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. ory may still be adopted as general exposition of the phenomena, al- though it may require to be supplemented with additional hypotheses. It seems to me that this can be done by adinitting, with Sir John Her- schel, that between the sun and the planets there may be an interchange of electrical currents. In such a case these currents will be at different times more or less intense, according to the position and the distance which the planets occupy in space with respect to the sun and to each other; and on this account the resulting phenomena will be subject to a periodicity. If we admit that between the different bodies of our sys- tem there is a continuous exchange of electrical action, that is, if we ad- mit that there exists a cosmical electricity, the former may combine with the natural electricity of the earth, and procuce almost constant auro- ras at the poles, where.the terrestrial magnetism is more energetic ; then, if from any cause whatever the cosmical electricity increases, the north- ern lights may increase correspondingly, so as to become visible even in places very distant from the poles. If the existence of cosmical electrical currents is admitted, we may also imagine that in certain cases an electrical discharge takes place toward the sun or from it; in such a case we can conceive that certain phenomena can occur only in such places as have a certain direction and a certain position with respect to that discharge. Consequently such phenomena will make themselves visible successively under the differ- ent meridians, according as, by the diurnal motion of the earth, they come to occupy successively the same position and the same direction with respect to the discharge which we have imagined. It is true that we have no direct proof of these cosmical electrical currents, but it is a very old idea, put forth by Galileo, Kepler, and many other philosophers, that the sun and the planets may be magnetic bodies, and why not electrical as well as the earth? and if this is the case, (which seems very natural,) it may also be admitted that through that ether which is gen- erally admitted as filling the universe, there may be an interchange of electric currents between planet and planet, and between tbe planets and the sun. Sir John Herschel, in a note at the end of the fifth chapter of his astronomy published in 1833, writes as follows: ‘‘Blectricity traversing excessively rarefied air or vapors gives out light, and, doubtless, also heat. May not a continual current of electric matter be constantly circulating in the sun’s immediate neighborhood, or traversing the planetary spaces, and exciting, in the upper regions of its atmosphere, those phenomena of which, on however diminutive a scale, we have yet an unequivocal manifestation in our aurora borealis ? The possible analogy of the solar light to that of the aurora has been distinctly insisted on by my father, in his paper already cited. It would be a highly curious subject of experimental inquiry, how far a mere re- duplication of sheets of flame, at a distance one behind the other, (by which their light might be brought to any required intensity,) would PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. 305 communicate to the heat of the resulting compound ray the penetrating character which distinguishes the solar calorific rays. We may also observe that the tranquillity of the sun’s polar, as compared with its equatorial regions, (if its spots be really atmospheric,) cannot be ac- counted for by its rotation on its axis only, but must arise from some cause external to the sun, as we see the belts of Jupiter and Saturn, and our trade-winds, arise from a cause external to these planets, combining itself with their rotation, which alone can produce no motions when once the form of equilibrium is attained. “The prismatic analysis of the solar beam exhibits in the spectrum a series of fixed lines, totally unlike those which belong to the light of any known terrestrial flame. This may, hereafter, lead us to a clearer insight into its origin.” * Though science cannot prove directly that electrical currents travel through the planetary spaces, yet there exist not a few data which seem to indicate sufficiently that certain phenomena which take place in the sun and the planets depend on the distance and the position of the latter with respect to the sun and with respect to themselves. Galileo, in one of his letters, says: “The fact that the spots of the sun are on that belt of the solar globe which is under that part of the heavens through which the planets travel, and nowhere else, is an indi- cation that those planets may have something to do with that result.”f This suggestion of Galileo, that the phenomena of the solar spots may have some connection with the position of the planets, has remained unnoticed for nearly two centuries and a half, until lately new facts have come to light which indicate its importance. In 1859, Mr. Wolf undertook to investigate whether the phenomena of the solar spots varied with the distances of the planets from the sun, and he reached results which generally tend to prove that, with the change of those distances, and especially with those of Jupiter, the number of solar spots also changes within certain limits. Mr. Carring- ton, in his work on the solar spots, published in 1863, presented the results of a similar research, and having determined the number of solar spots observed every year from 1750 to 1860, he compared them with the distances of Jupiter from the sun, and concludes that according as Jupiter moves away from the sun the number of solar spots increases, and when Jupiter approaches the sun the number of spots decreases. Professor Loomis has lately announced that the decennial period of the solar spots, instead of corresponding with the distance of Jupiter alone, has a nearer and more regular correspondence with another period which can be found by comparing together the movements of Jupiter and of Saturn. These two planets, in fact, occupy in space *A remarkable prediction, well worthy of attention as an evidence of the sagacity of this eminent savant to whom itis due.—J. H. + Lettera seconda di Galilei a Marco Valseri; nuovamente pubblicata dal Prof. P. Volpicelli. Roma, tipografia delle Belle Arti, 1860. 208 306 PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. such positions that every ten years Jupiter is either in conjunction or in opposition with Saturn. Other relations seem to exist between the solar spots and the positions of the planets. Messrs. De La Rue, Stewart, and Loewy, in a series of essays, which they published together from 1845 to 1848, concerning the physics of the sun, have shown that the spots of this luminary (irrespective of their number) increase in size when, by means of the solar rotation, they are carried farthest from the place which Venus occupies in space, and that they diminish in size when they aproach that planet. Mars also contributes to the increase and decrease of the size of the solar spots in the same way that Venus does, but his influence is less powerful than that of Venus, perhaps on ac- count of his greater distance from the sun. Mercury seems to possess somewhat of a similar influence, which, however, shows itself less dis- tinetly on account of the rapidity with which he moves round the sun. The position as well as the size of the solar spots depends on the place occupied by the planets in space. When Jupiter and Venus, in their orbital motions, cross the plane of the solar equator, then the spots appear nearer the same equator ; and, on the contrary, when these two planets occupy positions distant from the sun’s equator, then these spots also appear farthest from the same equator. From some observations made on the occasion of the solar eclipse, December 22, 1870, Professor Serpieri concludes that the protuberances which emerge from the sun during the eclipses are directed toward the planets. In fact, he observed one protuberance bending toward Saturn. Serpieri’s conclusions seem confirmed by other observations made by Professor Tacchini, who, on the 27th May, 1571, saw, while the sun was shining, one of those protuberances, which seemed directed toward a eroup of planets. But if the number, the position, and the size of the solar spots depend on the positions of the planets, terrestrial magnetism must be dependent on the same; for it is established, with considerable certainty, that the phenomena of the variations and perturbations of all the magnetic elements are also connected with the solar spots. Con- sequently, (to resume the subject which more especially concerns us,) the auroras also may somewhat depend on the relative positions of the planets, and therefore they are subject to periodicity, and also advance from east to west in the way and for reasons already mentioned. [The remainder of the paper of Professor Donati is occupied with a defense of his claim to the foregoing hypothesis, which, being of no in- terest to the readers of this report, is omitted. 1t is proper, however, to remark that, in this translation, the expression electrical currents has been substituted for the phrase magnetic currents, used by the author. The reasons for this change are, because this is the term used by Sir John Herschel in the quotation from his astronomy by Professor Donati, and furthermore because there is, strictly speaking, nothing in the phe- nomenon of magnetism to which we canapply the term current, or a trans- ference of magnetism from one body to another, as is the case in the phe- PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. 307 nomenon of an electrical discharge. If we rightly understand it, the theory given in this essay by Professor Donati is, that the sun and the planets, including the earth, are electrical, and that electrical discharges may take place from one to the other. This hypothesis has the support of the fact that the earth is known to be a great charged conductor, per- manently electrified negatively, and that the intensity of this electrical condition is varied from time to time by perturbations produced by ter- restrial, and, possibly, by cosmical causes. There is another theory ad- vanced by the distinguished physicist Balfour Stewart, professor of natural philosophy in Owen’s College, Manchester, according to which the sun and planets, like the earth, are great magnetic bodies, with op- posite poles of greater intensity, subject to perturbations from cosmical ar special causes, and that these poles, acting by induction on the mag- retism of the earth, give rise to the movements of the magnetic needle, and to the induced electrical currents to which the appearance of the aurora is attributed. There is still another hypothesis proposed by M. Becquerel as to the origin of the electricity of the atmosphere and of the aurora polaris which has been modified by M. Faye. This hypothesis, like that of Uerschel, refers the electricity of our atmosphere to the sun, and founds the conception of it on the constitution of that luminary as revealed by modern spectroscopic discoveries. From these discoveries the following conclusions have been deduced : Ist. The sun consists of a nucleus, relatively obscure, having a tem- perature excessively elevated, and which is in a fluid state at least to a certain depth. 2d. This nucleus, on account of the cooling by radiatien, is surrounded by a terminated envelope which has the constitution of a gas with par- ticles floating in or disseminated through it, of a solid or liquid nature. These minute particles radiate energetically as do the particles of car- bon in the flame of burning gas, and give to this envelope, which is called the photosphere, its name and its luminosity. 3d. Above the photosphere is found the chromosphere, formed princi- pally of a thin layer of incandescent hydrogen. To this stratum appar- ently belong the protuberances which of late years have excited so much interest. 4th. Lastly, above the photosphere is found a fourth atmosphere, discovered during the last solar eclipse, which has been named the cor- onal. This, which appears to be extremely rare, is very distinet from the chromosphere, although formed of the same gas, namely, hydrogen. The foregoing propositions are considered as facts immediately de- duced from the phenomena and well-established physical principles. The hypothesis as to the origin of this condition is that the nucleus of the sun, as seen through the spots as a darker mass, is in reality much hotter than the photosphere—so hot, indeed, as to prevent the union of the oxygen with the hydrogen and the vapor of other substances 308 PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. whose presence is manifest by the spectroscope. That the spots them- , selves are craters of eruptions through which the dark gases issue into the chromosphere, and being reduced in temperature combine, giving rise to intense light on account of the vibrations of the solid or liquid parti- cles produced by this union. The hydrogen, being the liglttest of all the gases, will be driven farthest from the center of the sun by its expan- sion, and will appear, as it is seen to do, in the form of the protuber- ances, which are found to consist of this gas in a pure but highly attenu- ated condition. Now, although neither evaporization nor condensation of vapor produces electricity, chemical action does in a high degree; and, therefore, at every eruption of matter from the lower into the upper stratum of the sun, there must be a great development of positive electricity, the nucleus being negative. Whatever influence this elece- tricity may have on the electricity of the earth and the appearance of the aurora must be manifest at the time of the appearance of spots on the sun, and hence we have an hypothetical cause for the connection of two phenomena which have been established by Woolf and others. But the question occurs, how does the variable electrical condition of the sun affect that of the earth? Two answers may be given to this question: First, it may affect it by induction, or action, at a distance. The redundant electricity of the surface of the sun, acting by repulsion on the electricity of the earth, thus disturbs its equilibrium. But if the nucleus of the sun is electrified minus to an equal degree as the outer spheres are electrified plus, the two resulting actions would neu- tralize each other, and the effect at the distance of the earth would be nothing. M. Faye gives another suggestion as to the means by which the elec- tricity of the sun affects the electrical condition of the earth. He claims to have found a repulsive force in the sun, of which he considers the existence strikingly manifest in the gigantic phenomena of comets. This force, unlike that of attraction, is not proportional to the mass but to the surface of the body repelled; it is insensible in the case of dense bodies such as the planets, while it exerts very marked effects upon bodies which are greatly rarified, such as the nebulosity of comets and the outer hydrogen of the sun. A small portion of this latter, according to M. Faye, at every eruption is driven off into space, carrying with it its charge of plus electricity, which extends to all the planets, and in unit- ing with the ozone in the higher regions of the atmosphere may be con- verted into the vapor of water, while the electric charge produces the electricity of the higher atmosphere of our earth. The quantity of hy- drogen thus lost by the sun is too minute to be sensible by any of our measurements during the historic period. There is one phenomenon connected with this subject which is not clearly explained by this hypo- thesis, and that is the apparent fact that the appearance of the aurora and the disturbance of the magnetic needle are almost, if not quite, sim- ultaneous with the commotions in the sun. This would indicate an in- PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. 309 duetive action analogous to attraction in the instantaneousness of its action at a distance. A similar hypothesis has been proposed by Professor Newton, of Yale College. According to this the corona is made up of matter in the act of streaming off from the sun, instead of being a permanent solar at- mosphere, or a mass of revolving meteors. The explosive actions, which are the most probable causes of the spots, may, perhaps, furnish the luminary matter, which, dispersed at intervals by reason of the varying action of the planets as it flows away into space, forms the corona, with its accompanying radiations and streamers, visible in the total eclipses. The zodiacal light is also made of the streams of particles flow- ing away from the sun under the operation of solar repulsion. In the American Journal of Science, (March and July, 1855,) Profes- sor Newton explains the irregular perturbations of the magnetic needle by electric currents developed in the upper atmosphere (or photosphere) of the earth by the arrival of the solar matter, which is probably the substance of terrestrial auroras. Whatever truth may be in these speculations, they indicate a tendency in the scientific mind of the day to adopt the conclusion that many of the phenomena which have heretofore been considered entirely of a ter- restrial character really belong to the solar system; that not only are disturbances of the magnetism of the earth connected with commotions in the sun, but that cyclones and other violent movements of our atmos- phere have a similar relation to the central luminary.—J. H. ETHNOLOGY. THE TROGLODYTES, OR CAVE-DWELLERS, OF THE VALLEY OF THE VEZURE. By M. PAu BRo¢CA. An Address delivered before the French Association for the Advancement of Science. {Translated from ‘‘La Revue Scientifique,” November 16, 1872, for the Smithsonian Institution.] LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: Impressed by the splendor which sur- rounds me, and by the sight of this large audience, I am impelled to render homage to the beauty and intelligence which have prepared so brilliant a reception for the French Association. The members of the society have reason to congratulate themselves upon having chosen Bordeaux for its first session. Our institution is one that appeals to general interest. Although it has originated entirely in private enterprise, it rests upon bases which assure its continuance, and it cannot fail to survive the struggle which may be maintained for years against public indifference. Yes, although our début should be greeted with coldness and neglect, we would persevere, for we consider the diffusion of knowledge as an important element of the greatness of nations, and surely the necessity of this diffusion has been rendered palpable by the recent disasters which have shown the danger of extreme intellectual centralization. Convinced of the utility of our objects, undismayed by obstacles, and undiscouraged by apparent defeat, we will renew our sessions year by year, increasing in numbers as we gradually enlist recruits, and assured that in a country like ours success, however long deferred, must sooner or later crown our efforts. For the success of the first session, which has far surpassed our hopes, thanks are due to my esteemed colaborers, MM. Broca and Girondin; also, to the distinguished gentlemen of the local committee, especially Profes- sor Azani, the intelligent and indefatigable secretary. The subject of my discourse is the troglodytes, or cave-dwellers, of the Vézere, that fossil population whose subterraneous dwellings we are about to investigate. Their existence dates back to a remote antiquity. We do not know their names; no historian has mentioned them, and it is only eight years since the first traces of them were discovered, and yet in some re- spects we are better acquainted with them than with certain celebrated nations of classicrenown. We know their mode of existence, their arts, their industries, many details of their lives. Does not such knowledge constitute the real history of nations, a history more interesting than that of their battles, their conquests, and even their dynasties ? ETHNOLOGY. oul How does it happen that we know so much about people who have left no trace in the memory of man, and whose existence, even twenty years ago, was deemed impossible? Are they children of romanee, iike the celebrated troglodytes of Montesque? On the contrary, nothing is more real than our troglodytes; nothing is more authentic than theiz annals. In the caves they inhabited, or in which they deposited thei: dead, we find the residue of their feasts, the products of their indus- tries and their arts, and the remains of their bodies. These are the books in which we read their history; these are the documents which have resuscitated their past. Several savans have taken part in these investigations ; among them Christy, the Marquis of Vibrage, M. Falconer, and our two colleagues, MM. Louis Lartet and Elie Massénat, deserve respect; but one name eclipses all others—that of the founder of human paleontology, Edward Lartet. We with reason admire Cuvier, who, in his study of fossil bones, suc- ceeded in restoring the successive fauna of the geological periods ; also Champollion, who, with so much sagacity and patience, deciphered the hieroglyphical monuments of Egypt, but not less admirable in his im- portant labors was Edward Lartet. His field of investigation lay be- tween that of Cuvier and that of Champollion, and shared in both. He revived human associations in those paleontological periods in which Cuvier found only extinct brute animals; he discovered the history and the chronology of the ancient man, the contemporary of the mammoth, as Champollion discovered that of the architects of the great pyramids. These three men are the glory of French science. They were initiators; they founded schools. Their disciples and followers have but widened the paths they opened, and although foreign savans have made great progress, they do not forget that to France belongs the honor of having led the way. J.—DETERMINATION OF TIME. Before discussing a population it may be well to assign it a place in time. But in this case ordinary chronology is not applicable, for we have to do with periods of inealeulable length. Since the time when our troglodytes were in existence great changes’ have taken place in climate and fauna. These were produced without revolution, without violent action, by the gradual influence of insensible causes, which are still in exereise at the present day ; and when we think that these causes, during the course of the centuries known to us, have produced only changes almost inappreciable, we may form some idea of the immense duration of what is called a geological period. It is not by years, centuries, or thousands of years, that we can meas- ure these immense periods ; it is not by figures that we can express these dates; but we can deterfnine the order in which these geological periods succeeded each other, and the sub-periods of which each was composed. at? THE TROGLODYTES. These are the dates of the history of our planet, and the elements of what Edward Lartet called the chronology of paleontology. I need not speak of the Primary and Secondary geological periods, as they are foreign to the chronology of man, since he did not then exist ; nor need the Tertiary period scarcely more arrest our attention. It is true that the discoveries of M. Desnoyers in the Pliocene chalk-pits of Saint Prest, show the existence of man as early as the end of the Ter- tiary period in company with the southern elephant, the rhinoceros leptorhinus, and the great hippopotamus; he even lived, according to the Abbé Bourgeois, during the Miocene period, contemporary with the mastodons, the predecessors of the elephants: but the latter fact is doubtful; and as to the Tertiary man of Saint Prest, he was so much anterior to our troglodytes, that he need not figure in our chronology. It is sufficient in the determination of our dates to commence with the beginning of the Quaternary period. The end of the Tertiary period was distinguished by a remarkable phenomenon, the causes of which are still imperfectly known. The northern hemisphere was gradually cooled. Immense masses of ice de- scended the sides of the mountains, into the valleys and plains, and covered a large part of Europe, Asia, and North America, and the tempe- rature of our zone, previously torrid, gradually became glacial. This cold period, called the Glacial period, was excessively long. After reach- ing their utmost southern extent the glaciers receded considerably, and then advanced again without attaining their previous limits. This was the last phase of the Tertiary epoch. The Glacial period came to an end. The gradual increase of temperature melted the ice, and the Quater- nary period commenced. The masses of snow constituting the glaciers, which had been accu- mulating for years, produced, by their melting, immense floods, which bore upon their powerful waves the débris of the mountains, inundated the plains, plowed the surface of the earth, excavated valleys, and left in their passage large deposits of sand, clay, and bowlders. From this period, called the Diluvian, date our present rivers, which give us, however, but a faint idea of their former magnitude. In their now limited and unchanging channels they transmit only the water which descends day by day from the clouds, while the freshets occasioned by the melt- ing of winter snows are of very little moment compared with those im- mense inundations formerly produced when the heat of summer melted not only the annual snows, but a part of the ancient glacier. The great power of the floods of water was especially remarkable dur- ing the first part of the Quaternary period. It became less and less until the glaciers were reduced to their present limits, and the tempera- ture to its'present degree. It was at this time that the phenomena of great changes ceased, and the Quaternary period came to anend. Since then, although mountain torrents carry with them sand and pebbles, and sometimes tear from the sides of the valleys masses of considerable ETHNOLOGY. 13 size, the rivers and smaller streams bear with them only fine particles of earthy matter, which give rise to alluvial deposits. The time which has elapsed since the end of the Quaternary period bears the name of the present period, and the strata formed during its continuance are called recent deposits. They are recent compared with those of the Quaternary period, but not so when estimated by our ordi- nary chronology, since in most cases their formation has required thou- sands of centuries. These preliminary ideas enable us to comprehend the essential facts which determine the dates of human paleontology. These dates are established, in the first place by pure geology, in the second by paleont- ology, in the third by prehistoric archeology. The geological dates are principally inscribed in the valleys and in the plains, where the great floods of water of the Quaternary period have left deposits in the form of beds, more or less regularly stratified. If these strata have remained undisturbed, they are found superposed according toage. ‘The oldest lie lowest, and are called the lowest levels; above them lie the mean levels, which are posterior to them, and which in turn are covered by the upper levels, formed during the latter part of the Quaternary period. Finally astratum, more or less thick, of recent formation, consisting of alluvicns, peat, &c., almost always covers the Quaternary deposits. These different strata are not everywhere found in complete series, and the nature of the elements of which they are composed varies more or less with the locality; but I cannot now enter into details. I can only give a general idea of the way in which, by the study of the superpo- sition of these beds, thatis to say, their stratification, the relative age of the various deposits, recent or Quaternary, is determined. In this determination we first apply to geology. Thanks to the data it furnishes, we know the age of the animals whose bones are found in the different strata; these animals in turn serve to establish the periods, and also the dates of certain formations or partial deposits which do not form a part of a complete and regular stratification. Of the animals living at the commencement of the Quaternary period, some, like the mammoth, only exist now as fossils; these are the extinct animals; others, like the fox, have disappeared from our locality, but still live in other parts of the world; these are migrated animals; and others, like the horse, continue with uso the present day; these are called per- sisting animals. Extinct animals abounded in the first part of the Quaternary period. Some of them were immense mammals with terribly powerful limbs, beside which man, naked and feeble, was of little account. Such were the large bear of the caves, (Ursus speleus ;) the great lion, also of the caves, (elis speleus ;) the amphibious hippopotamus, (Hip. amphibius ;) the rhinoceros, with chambered nostrils, (2h. tichorhinus ;) the ancient ele- phant, (Hlephas antiquus;) and, above all, the giant king of this fauna, the wo 314 THE TROGLODYTES. mammoth, (Hlephas primigenius.) Of the other extinct species of the period it would be superfluous to speak. The reindeer and several other migrated animals are found in this fauna, but are rare, and a large num- ber of persistent species had already made their appearance. Of all these animals, the most remarkable, the most powerful in strength and numbers, was the mammoth. Protected from the cold by a thick covering of fur, and provided with formidable means of defense against its enemies, it prospered and multiplied; it spread and dominated over all the earth, so that the first part of the Quaternary period, which cor- responds with the lower levels of the valleys, may well be called the age of the mammoth. At that time every condition was favorable to the prosperity of this animal. But in time there were changes which led to its decadence. An elevation in the temperature allowed the exten- sion of numerous herbivorous species hitherto restrained in their devel- opment. The reindeer, the horse, the ox, and the bison multiplied. These, his powerful rivals, disputed with the mammoth his vegetable nutrition, and with him commenced the struggle for existence. Already he saw opposed to him the power of man, which under the ameliorated condi- tions of climate was sufficient to declare war against him, and finally this same climate which was so favorable to his enemies and rivals became directly prejudicial to his organization, intended for a boreal tempera- ture. Thus the mammoth, once so important in the first part of the Quater- nary period, commenced to decline. He ceased to be the predominant species of the fauna, and as to the other animals which formed his ancient cortége, many yielded with him to the destructive influence of the changed temperature, and decreasing in numbers we see them slowly, one after the other, disappear. Some, it is true, survive, and may pro- long their existence to the end of paleontological time, but their reign is over. Thus about the middle of the Quaternary period there was an inter- mediate age, corresponding with the mean levels of the valleys ; an age when several species contemporary with the mammoth had already be- come extinet, and others, which had almost disappeared, were repre- sented by only a few individuals, while animals better adapted to the changed conditions prospered. Prominent among the latter was the reindeer, (Cervus tarandus,) but it was not until the following period that it attained its full importance. ’ The fauna of the intermediate age has no especial paleontological characteristics. It is distinguished less by the nature of the species than by the relative proportion of their representation. Certain ani- mals of the age of the mammoth no longer existed, but others were found here and there. The mammoth, although reduced in numbers, had not yet become rare, while the reindeer, the stag, the horse, and the ox had become common. This intermediate age gradually yielded to the third and last age of ETHNOLOGY. 315 the Quaternary period. When the strata of the upper levels began to be formed, the animals we call extinct had almost entirely disappeared. A. few rare specimens of the mammoth still survived. Still more rare was the great Irish stag (Jlegaceros hibernicus) and the large lion of the caves. The rest of the fauna had changed but little. The reindeer, however, had increased to a most extraordinary extent, and the third period is deservedly called the age of the reindeer. It is not only in the existence of the reindeer that this period differs from that of our day. In company with the reindeer lived in our still cold region a number of animals to whom frost and snow were congenial elements, and who could not exist in temperate climates. As the tem- perature approached its present condition, the individuals which upon our plateaus and in our plains represented these species disappeared ; but the species themselves, far from perishing, found in a colder climate a more congenial temperature, and have been perpetuated to the present day. Among these species called migratory, some, like the reindeer, the sloth, the musk-ox, have gone toward the north; others, such as the chamois, the goat, the marmot, have not left our zone, but have sought greater altitudes, and have taken refuge in the lofty peaks of the Alps and the Pyrenees. The disappearance of the reindeer and other migratory species marked the end of the Quaternary period, and of paleontological time. Then comménced the modern period. Our climate, at that time, was probably rather colder than at present, but it was already temperate, and the slight changes it has since undergone have not been sufficient to produce the extinction of species. It is true that the urus, (Bos primigenius,) and the aurochs, (Bison europeus,) have disappeared — from our region, but this must be attributed to the destructive actior of man rather than to the effects of climate; and to man, also, is attributable the introduction of certain new species, for the most part domestic. With these exceptions, we may say that since the end of the Quaternary period our fauna has undergone no change, and that the recent deposits contain only actual or living species. The dates we seek toestablish are then determined both by strat- ography and~ paleontology. They also rest upon a certain order of facts which to-day constitutes a new science—that of prehistoric arche- ology. Man lived in all the periods of which we have just spoken. It does not concern us whether or not he existed in the latter part of the Ter- tiary period. This Tertiary man does not come within the limits of our present observations, and, besides, it is by no means certain that he existed. But what does concern us, and has been positively proved by Boucher de Perthes, is, that the most ancient strata of the Quaternary period contain evidences of human industry. The knowledge of the use of metals dates, we may say, only from yesterday. But before man possessed these powerful auxiliaries he was not without instruments of 316 THE TROGLODYTES. labor or means of defense. He fabricated tools and weapons of war- fare, out of various hard materials, such as the bones, teeth, and horns of animals, and above all of stone, especially flint, and this is the reason why in the history of man the name of Stone age has been given to the whole period which preceded the use of metals. This age of stone still continues among certain savage tribes, and it came to an end with the most anciently civilized nations at a period only a very little anterior to historic times. It therefore includes almost the entire duration of the existence of humanity. Now, the mode of fabrication, the form and nature of these instruments, necessarily varied during this immense period, with the needs, the kind of life, and the so- cial state of the men who employed them; and when we remember that hard substances like stones may be preserved for an unlimited period in the ground, we comprehend that these remains of human industry con- stitute ineffaceable records of the past, chronological documents of the utmost importance. The dates established by prehistoric archeology accord very well, and Sometimes coincide, in a most remarkable manner, with those of paleon tology and stratography. Just as certain species of animals have con- tinued from the earliest Quaternary times, So certain forms of flint instru- ments have been perpetuated through several archeological ages. Such are the elongated pieces of stone, with their two edges sharpened, and one face cut with two sides, while the other has but one, called knives. The small knives of obsidian, still in use among the aborigines of Mex- ico, and the flint knives, which our ancestors of the Bronze age frequently deposited in their sepulchers, are very similar to those of the age of the mammoth. But this is an exceptional case ; in general, prehistori¢ in- struments have from age to age undergone various modifications. I cannot attempt here to mention, still less to describe, the numerous instruments of each period ; axes, knives, points of lances, or of arrows, scrapers, hammers, &c. Geologists frequently, as we have seen, deter- mine and designate an entire fauna by a single characteristic species. So archeologists distinguish the different periods of the Stone age by the instrument the most characteristic of each of them. A precise determination of these periods and of their number is not possible ; for the flint instruments have, during the same period, under- gone different changes in different localities, but a general reduction into three has been made by M. de Mortillet of the archeological divisions of the Quaternary period. 1. The most remarkable type of the first Quaternary division is the so-called Saint Acheul ax. (See Figs. land 2.) It is of flint, of variable size, always quite large, longer than wide, thick in the middle, sharp- ened at the edges, with one end pointed, or rather orgival, while the other is rounded; but its most distinguishing characteristic is that its two faces or sides are shaped; these are more or less convex, and more or less symmetrical. This type abounds at Saint Acheul, near Amiens, in the valley of the Somme; hence its name; but it is found in almost all ETHNOLOGY. yl (i , the deposits of the Mammoth age, and sometimes, though rarely, in less ancient strata. wi Lh), f wate ni ie, i afl \ \ UN ‘| A \ \ x oss ih Ve (Uj . fa \ A & Fig. 2. ( Fig. 1. The Saint Acheul type——Ax with both faces shaped. Fig. 1, view of face. Fig. 2, view of edge. 2. The second division of the Stone age is characterized by the Moustier spear-head. (See Figs. 3, 4, and 5.) This instrument, which was at- tached to the end of a long lance, differs little in contour from the Saint Acheul ax—is somewhat more pointed, but is distinguished by having only one of its sides shaped. The other was made at one blow which split it from the adjacent stone, and was never retouched. It is there- fore not biconvex, like the preceding, but plano-convex, and conse- quently only half as thick. SG \ AK \ ——=> .S , \\ Ber (UMA a SSW ’E.BECHER DEL ; tees : Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 3. The Moustier type——Lance-head shaped only upon one side. Fig.3, the side not shaped, showing at the base the point of percussion. Fig. 4, the shaped side. Fig. 5, side view. 318 THE TROGLODYTES. The Moustier type takes its name from the Moustier cave, where it is very common and where it was first discovered by Edward Lartet and Christy. A few specimens have been found in more ancient deposits, corresponding with the first Quaternary period, and also in more recent deposits corresponding with the latest; but it properly belongs to the intermediate. 3. In a third period, which corresponds to the age of the reindeer, the flint instrument was perfected. The ends are more pointed, the contour more regular and symmetrical, and the edges have evidently been formed with finer touches. This period of the stone age is distinguished. more by the character of the manufacture than by the kind of instrument. The lance-head of Solutré has been generally taken as a type, because only a short time ago the lances from Solutré, in Maconnais, were the best made instruments which had been found in the Quaternary depos- its, (see Fig. 6;) but since then Dr. Jules Parrot, and his brother, M. Philippe Parrot, have found at Saint Martin of Excideuil, (Dordogne,) in a cave of the age of the reindeer, numerous flint instruments much more perfected. The Solutré type.—Point of Solutré lance. The polished ax. We have now come to the end of the age of the reindeer, and to the commencement of the present period. We now find an improvement in the manufacture of flint instruments, which marks the beginning of a ‘ ETHNOLOGY. 319 new archeological era. Hitherto these instruments were made by per- cussion or by pressure; although, it is true, some implements of sec- ondary use were rounded into shape by friction, but the flint tools and weapons were always chipped. In the era upon which we are now en- tering these implements were made in the same way, but the flint was polished, and the polished ax, too well known to need description, be- came the principal auxiliary of man. (See Fig. 7.) This ax characterized the period of polished stone or the neolithic period which terminated the stone age, and consequently lasted until the introduction of the metals. All the periods which precede the appearance of the polished ax con- stitute the period of stone, also called the archzolithic, or, rather, the paleolithic period. The various phases of the age of chipped stone succeeded each other progressively, and by almost insensible transitions, like the correspond- ing geological periods; but the change to the period of polished stone was much more abrupt. Its commencement coincides exactly with the disappearance of the reindeer, that is with the end of paleontological time, and with the beginning of the present geological era. It coin- cides also with a complete change in the social condition of man, with the domestication of the dog, with the adoption of pastoral life, marked by the domestication of several herbivorous animals, and also with the introduction of agriculture. Thus many centuries passed until the appearance of the bronze, which put an.end to the stone age. The length of the period of polished stone was very great; the entire dura- tion of historic time was nothing in comparison, and yet it was immeas- urably shorter than any of those which form the age of chipped stone. We have thus examined the succession of pre-historic ages from the commencement of the Quaternary period, under the triple point of view of stratigraphy, paleontology, and archeology, and we have obtained three series of dates which, if not altogether precise, are sufficiently approximate to form the following table, which may serve as a review : Stratigraphical periods. Paleontological periods. Archeological periods. 5 Lower strata of valleys undis- | Age of mammoth..-.-.......-. The St. Acheul ax. = 'S | turbed. oH NN “ . : = Ss | Mie diamisimaitiays)\)mc/ta)sasjsas als alee Intermediate age -..-..--.-- Lance-head of Moustier. = “ je (0) Upperisirata eee asia ata Age of reindeer. .------.---- Lance-head of Solutré. Present ? ».,, F ° isan : = period. § ReEcenindepositig ss seeesecewees Actoalstaumnayee=— sees The polished ax. | -IL.—SUCCESSIVE LOCALITIES OF THE TROGLODYTES OF THE VE- ZERE. We now possess the knowledge requisite to assign a place in time to the troglodytes of the valley of the Vézéere. In their numerous localities not a single polished ax has been found; their industrial im- plements belong to the age of chipped stone, and are, therefore, anterior AyAY) THE TROGLODYTES. to the recent period. They were familiar with the mammoth, fought with him, fed upon him, and even sketched him, and yet in their most ancient locality, at least the most ancient known, the extinct species are rare. Therefore, our troglodytes do not date from the first Quaternary period, or the age of the mammoth. The Moustier locality incontesta- bly belongs to the age we have called intermediate, and which precedes the age of the reindeer, while their other localities descend from period to period until the end of the age of the reindeer. They witnessed then the extinction of the ancient fauna. They did not, it is true, see disap- pear the last survivor—the mammoth—for occasional remains of this animal are found in the most recent caves of the Vézére, although afew leagues from there, at Excideuil, MM. Jules and Philippe Parrot discov- ered a paleolithic cave in which there was no trace of the extinct spe- cies, and even the reindeer was rare. Thus the troglodytes of Périgord existed during the last two divisions of the Quaternary period, from the decadence of the mammoth to the disappearance of the reindeer. It is impossible to calculate the number of centuries they lived, but we can form some idea from the relation of their localities to the present level of the Vézére. After the Moustier cave ceased to be inhabited it was frequently inundated by the Vézere, and gradually filled with alluvium. This stratum of earth, which is about 64 feet in thickness, contains no osseous or siliceous remains. Below it lies the stratum which formed the habitation of man, in which he left traces of his industry and re- mains of his feasts. his proves that the opening of the cave was once beyond the reach of the waters, and consequently above the level of the river, while now it is 30 yards below low-water mark. The bottom of the valley has, therefore, been considerably elevated by deposition since the time of the troglodytes of Moustier. On the other hand, the Madelaine locality, which is perhaps the most recent of the valley, is a little above the level of the highest present tide, and we may therefore conclude that the valley at that period was very much the same as it is now, the level having become only a little lower. Thus this deposit of 30 yards, due to the action of the waters, was effected almost entirely under the eyes of our troglodytes, and since then, throughout the entire duration of the recent period, that is to say, for thousands of centuries, little change appears. Judge, then, what countless generations of humanity must have intervened between the time of the Moustier locality and that of the Madelaine. It is evident that, in this immense lapse of time, the habits and manu- factures of these people must have undergone great changes, which we find to have been the case in examining their different localities. All the localities now known are found in a very circumscribed district, grouped on both sides of the river Vézere. From that of Moustier, the highest up the river, to the Eyzies, the lowest, the distance ETHNOLOGY. By Al is only about 5 miles in a straight line, but almost double as far if the sinuosities of the valley are followed. Between these extreme stations lie, upon the right shore, those of the Madelaine, of Upper and Lower Laugerie, of the Gorge d’Enfer ; on the left shore that of Cromagnon, very near the Eyzies. (See map.) . Aull @Tuutnys OS ik, 2000 3000 Echelle de 86-600 Figure 8.—Map of quaternary localities of the Vézere. 1. Cave of Moustier. 2. Hol- low rock of Moustier. 3. Hollow rock of Madelaine. 4. Sepulcher of Cromagnon. 5. Hollow rock of Upper Laugerie. 6. Hollow rock of Lower Laugerie. 7. Cave of Gorge @’Enfer. 8. Cave of the Eyzies. Some of these are genuine caves; others merely hollows in the rocks, largely open to the valley. At the Moustier there is both a cave and a hollow. The Gorge d’Enfer and the Eyzies are caves; the Madelaine, the two Laugerie, and Cromagnon are hollows, but these distinctions have no chronological importance. The most ancient troglodytes, as well as the more recent, used both the cave and the hollow; it is not from the kind of habitation they occupied, but from the nature of their remains, that we judge of their relative age. 218 aon THE TROGLODYTES. The Moustier locality evidently preceded all the others; that of Cro- magnon is less ancient, but still belongs, with the Moustier, to the inter- mediate age. The Upper Laugerie and Gorge d’Enfer are of the age of the reindeer; and, lastly, the Lower Laugerie, the Eyzies, and the Madelaine form a group which leads us to the end of the Quaternary period. The troglodytes of the Moustier were completely uncivilized. They formed neither bone nor horn, but only stone implements. Tools of chipped flint abound in their various localities, but with the exception of a single arrow-head, which is carefully fashioned, these are of rude manufacture. No delicate objects; no small instruments; a few rare axes of the Saint Acheul type; a few thin pieces of stone, which may have been used for knives, and a large number of massive hatchets, with a Single convex edge, to be held in the hand; such were the only im- plements of domestic use; all their other instruments were for warfare. A few arrow-heads prove that they were not ignorant of the use of the bow; but this was not their ordinary weapon. The true means of de. fense which characterized this period was the lance, or spear, already described. (See Figs. 3, 4, and 5.) This sturdy instrument, with ogi- val point, and both sides shaped, large enough to make severe wounds, yet small enough to penetrate the flesh easily, constituted a much more terrible weapon than the Saint Acheul ax. Fastened at the end of a spear it brought death to the largest mammal. Hitherto man, badly armed, could not compete with those powerful animals. He maintained with them merely a defensive warfare. But now he took the offensive. He ceased to fear them; their gigantic forms were no longer beyond his reach. With his long lance in his hand he assayed the conquest of the world. At Moustier remains of the mammoth, of the great lion, and of the great hyena of the caves have been found; but the principal food of man at this period was first the horse, then the urus, and only third in importance the reindeer. The instruments of the chase were made for attacking game which would resist rather than take flight, and the arrow and other instruments for the killing of smaller quadrupeds or birds were probably unknown. Not a single bone of a bird or of a fish is found in the Moustier locality. These rude hunters cared only for violent combats, to which they devoted their entire energy and intelli- gence. The men of Cromagnon, less ancient than those of Moustier, made notice- able progress; their tools were less massive, more numerous, more varied, and, above all, better made. The Moustier lance was superseded by a species of flint poignard. They wore ornaments of shells, and the large number of scraping-knives seems to indicate that they prepared skins for clothing. Their principal food was still the horse, but their larder was already varied. We find among the remains of their repasts, beside the reindeer, then commencing to be common, the bones and teeth of ETHNOLOGY. 523 the urus, the boar, the stag, the goat, the wolf, the fox, the hare, and even of a bird of the crane species. Man hunted then the smaller ani- mals, as well as large game, but he had not yet learne? how to reach the fish. Prominent among the animal remains we always find the mammoth and the great lion of the caves. There is alsoa great bear, probably the Ursus speleus. The reindeer had not yet begun to multiply, and appears less frequently than the horse; so the period is still intermediate, while, in the localities we next notice, we enter definitely the age of the reindeer, and the remains of this animal are more abundant in them alone than in all the other periods taken together. We observed at Cromagnon evident improvement in the manufacture of flint instruments; in the generations which followed further prog- ress was made in this art, which attained its greatest perfection at Upper Laugerie. The most beautiful flint implements of the valley of the Vézere belong to this locality. All the industrial instruments and weapons found here are of flint. They are innumerable, and very varied in form and dimension. It is true, many are in no way remarkable; some are even very rude in construction, such as certain lance or spear heads, which resemble the Moustier. But side by side with these im- perfect objects we find others of elegant form and elaborated contour, evidently the result of skillful workmanship. These beautiful flint instruments of Upper Laugerie belong to the type called Solutré. Their form is sharply lanceolate; they have little thick- ness, and their sides, chipped into fine edges, are regular and symmetri- . cal; their base is often fashioned so as to be easily inserted in a handle. They were evidently intended to be attached to the extremity of a long wooden handle. Their dimension varies greatly, but whether large, of medium size, or small, they are all very nearly of the same type. It is evident that the smallest are the heads of arrows; the medium s:ze, of ‘darts, tarown with the hand. The largest were lance-heads, but their want of breadth shows that the handle was not heavy, but quite light. For combating the mammoth or great lion weapons such as these could not compare with the Moustier spear. But these dangerous ani- mals had become rare. The brute creation no longer resisted man, but fled at his approach. Arms which were light and easily portable were necessary. If the reindeer avoided the lance he might be pierced by the dart; but, if too fleet for the dart, he could not escape the swift arrow. But the arrow and the dart failed of their end; they were too rudely constructed. The slightest irregularity or want of symmetry in form, a single point too heavy, caused them to deviate from their course This the men of Upper Laugerie understood, and they improved the working of flint in order to perfect their armory. They were guided by no artistic sensibility. Art was still a stranger to them; they had as yet only made acquaintance with utility. They gave a more elegant form to their arrow-head, only that it might fly with greater precision. 324 THE TROGLODYTES. They did not take time to form their other implements with the same care. These finely-formed arrow-heads, so common at Upper Laugerie, are not met with in the ulterior localities of the Vézere Valley. It would seem that the manufacture of flint instruments, after improving until the age of Upper Laugerie, then declined. It is astonishing that a people so skillful as the troglodytes of the age of the reindeer have proved them- selves to be, should thus have allowed to perish their fundamental art. But several instruments found in their more recent localities show that they had not lost the secrets of this delicate workmanship, and if they ceased to form arrow-points like those of Upper Laugerie, it was because they no longer needed them. A great step had been taken. They had learned to make use of the antlers of the reindeer and the bones of animals. Out of these sub- stances, more manageable than flint, not so hard undoubtedly, but still sufficiently strong, they manufactured implements for the chase of longer reach and greater precision; and having learned the value of horn and bone in the construction of such implements, they proceeded to form utensils of all kinds out of the same materials. But the reign of flint was not over. On the contrary, there never had been a greater or more varied assortment of flint instruments; to those used as weapons, or utensils, had been added a number of small tools, used for working the horns of the reindeer. Here was an important evolution in industry. Hitherto the hand alone had been used in forming the manufactured substance, but now a secondary means was employed. Tools were made to use in constructing others. From the earliest times it is true that flint had.been used as a means of manufacture. From the commencement of the Stone age it nad been employed to cut wood, make piles, clubs, stems of lances, and arrows. Nor was the idea of substituting the hard parts of animals for stone any newer, for, in the ancient station of Cromagnon, several arrow- . points of deer-horn, and even of ivory, have been found. What was pe- culiar to the period we are entering upon, was the creation of a kind of tool, which did not directly minister to the necessities of life, but was intended to facilitate and perfect the fabrication of the instruments in use. It was the commencement of that division of labor which later increased a hundred fold the power of man, and brought nature under his subjection. The use of deer-horn was far advanced in the locality of Gorge D’En- ter. We find there a large assortment of lances, darts, arrows, bod- kins, needles, &c., very well made, but without ornament, and the weap- ons for the chase are of very simple form, merely conical points, without barbs. (See Fig. 9.) : The invention of the barbs is worthy of attention. These recurrent points undoubtedly rendered the weapon more dangerous. The pro- jectile remained fixed in the flesh, and the wounded animal could not ETHNOLOGY. 325 get rid of it by brushing through the bushes. But this was probably not the principal intention of the barbs. Disposed in regular series on each side of the arrow (see Fig. 10) they sustained it in the air like E.BECHER. DLL: Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Veryag, Figure 9.—Horn point without barbs, (Gorge d@’Enfer.) Fig. 10.—Arrow with bilateral barbs. Fig. 11.—Harpoon with unilateral barbs. wings, and added to the extent and precision of its flight this improve- ment indicates a certain acquaintance with experimental physics. The barbs generally have upon one of their faces one or several furrows, sup- posed to be intended to receive poison. The barb, and more or less artistic ornamentation, are the two distin- guishing characteristics of the localities of the last period. These are three in number: the Eyzies, Lower Laugerie, and the Madelaine. They strongly resemble each other, and were probably almost contem- porary. In some respects art is in a higher state of perfection at the Madelaine, but the difference is not sufficient to establish a chronologi- cal distinction. These three localities, remarkable for the number and variety of works of art and industry, have furnished the largest part of the means we now have of studying the life and habits of the troglo- dytes of the Vézére. II.—THE SOCIETY OF THE TROGLODYTES. The caves of the troglodytes were situated at a short distance from the river, with no particular orientation, except that they were never 326 THE TROGLODYTES. open to the north. In them these people lived throughout the year, as we discover by the remains of their repasts. We find that the young of the deer formed their food at each stage of its development, and by the study of the teeth, the bones, and the growth of the horn, we can esti- mate their age, and, consequently, at what season of the year they were killed. We conclude, therefore, that the troglodytes had a fixed place of abode; in other words, that they were not nomads. When they started on their fishing or hunting expeditions, they closed the mouths of their caves to prevent the incursion of carnivorous ani- mals. A bone found at the Madelaine shows the marks of the teeth of a hyena, which, probably by accident, had gained admittance. The hyena was rare at this period, but wolves and foxes were numerous, and if the bones, scattered freely over the floors of the caves, were undis- turbed by them, it was because they were carefully excluded. By what means was the entrance to these habitations guarded? In other localities we find sepulchral caves closed by a slab of stone. This answered very well for the dead, but the living required a door more easily removed, and as no vestige remains in these caves of a defense of stone, we conclude that palisades were used for this purpose. Fhey lived by hunting and fishing. Did they add to their régime any vegetable nutriment? There is no proof of this. We find, itis true, in the three localities of the last period, a certain number of stones of granite, sandstone, or quartz, rounded and polished by friction, with a regular cup-shaped depression on one side, which resemble small mortars. It has been suggested that these were intended to receive the end of a piece of dry wood, which was then turned rapidly with the hands, in order to produce fire—a celebrated custom of the ancient Aryans, and still observed among savages; but these vessels are too shallow in pro- portion to their width for this purpose. They were evidently mortars, and certain rounded stones of the size of the cup seem to have been used as pestles. Hence has arisen the supposition that the troglodytes pounded or bruised grain to prepare it for food, but everything tends to prove that they knew nothing of agriculture, and these mortars were probably intended for the preparation of poisons or colors. Their principal occupation and means of support was the chase. They hunted animals of every size, from the little bird to the huge mammoth. This old giant of Quaternary times still survived, although he had be- come very rare. Fora long time it was supposed that he became extinct about the middle of the Quaternary period, and when several teeth of the animal, and various pieces of carved ivory were found in the more recent troglodytic localities of the Vézeére, it was thought by many per- sons that these remains belonged to an anterior epoch ; that long after the extinction of the mammoth, man collected and used the fossil ivory, as is done to-day by the people of Siberia. In that polar region the summer heat affects only a superficial stratum of the ground; the lower soil has been frozen for centuries, and has preserved the bodies of mam- ETHNOLOGY. 327 moths entire, so perfectly that their flesh is still good to eat, or rather One of my friends has tasted it, and found it tough as leather. Owing to these favorable circumstances the ivory of Siberia is in such a very bad. Fig. 12. 4 al ah ft PS arr ( Dal ta i \ aah s ae a i thin h WVHA il hee Ss CSS im yy \ i wi ANS i THe , Pray Ubon 7 ii nf | i Tah) MIA nul Neal 4 N ) ul 1 Hell i \ aN i Nae al aA a AAU i an Ns ul : Wy Sa en) a / Ney] “he y condition that it can be employed in the arts and in industry, but ordi- nary fossil ivory is only of value in the museum. The alternations of temperature and humidity to which it has been subjected have altered its texture—veined and softened it so that it is of no practical use what- ever. 328 THE TROGLODYTES. Now the climate of the Vézére, at the age of the reindeer, although still cold, had long ceased to be glacial, and if the men of the period had dug into the soil, which they did not, the fossil ivory they found would have been of no use. The mammoths, then, whose ivory they carved, must have been their contemporaries. We have besides a decisive proof of this. Here is a cast (see Fig. 12) of an ivory plate discovered in 1864 at the Madelaine by MM. Ed. Lartet, de Verneuil, and Falconer. Upon this plate is engraved a representation of the mammoth, with his large head, concave forehead, his curved tusks, his small eye, his trunk, his curled-up tail, and his long mane; in fact, exactly such a mammoth as perpetual frost has preserved, until our day, on the shore of the Lena. The troglodytes of the age of the reindeer did not often encounter the mammoth. They more frequently hunted the boar, the horse, the ox. It was undoubtedly for combat with these large animals that they still retained some large lances armed with flint, differing little from those of Moustier. But their weapons were mostly light, and arrow- heads of horn had replaced the flint points of the anterior periods. The bow had become the principal weapon. The animal, as we have said, no longer defied man, but fled before him, and the combat was succeeded by the chase. There were two kinds of arrows. The small- pointed arrow, not barbed, for the smaller animals and birds, and the large arrow, with double rows of barbs, which was chiefly used in killing the reindeer. Light lances terminated with flattened points, darts with conical points, and long and sharp poignards, completed the equipment of the huntsman. I was about to forget the rallying whistle. This was a bone of the reindeer, at one end pierced by an oblique hole, which did not pass entirely through the bone, but only to the medullary canal. By blow- ing upon this hole as upon a hollow key, sound can still be produced. Fish furnished a means of support for our later troglodytes, unknown to their predecessors. Their various localities contain a great many bones, and, what is worthy of remark, they all belong to the fishes of the salmon species. Now, the salmon of the present day does not come up as high as the Vézére, nor even to that part of the Dordogne into which that river empties. A few leagues below the confluence of the two streams, not far from Lalinde, there exists in the bed of the Dordogne a bank of rocks, which in high water forms a rapid, and at low water a regular cascade, called the Saut de la Gratusse. This is the present limit of the salmon, and as, in the days of the troglodytes, they did not stop here, we must conclude that the level of the Dordogne since then has lowered, either by the wearing down of the bed of the river, which uncov- ered the rocks, or by loss of a portion of the waters. These antique fishermen evidently did not use nets, for with nets all kinds of fish are taken. Their sole instrument was the harpoon, with which they could only catch the large fish, and among these they chose the one whose flesh they preferred. Had they boats for fishing? There ETHNOLOGY. 329 is no evidence of it; besides the river was then sufficiently narrow to allow the use of the harpoon from its banks. The harpoon was a small dart of reindeer horn, very like the large barbed arrows, except that the barbs were only on one side ; aslight protuberance at the base allowed a cord to be attached, which was held in the hand of the fisherman. (See Fig. 11.) It has been frequently, and is still, confounded with the arrow. It is clear that an ar- row barbed only on one side would be very defective in flight, as it describes a long curve; its course is necessa- rily affected by the resistance of the air which sustains it; but in the short flight of the harpoon this inconvenience is much less, and besides the direction of the harpoon is downward, and it does not need to be sustained by the air. The instrument barbed only on one side is then not an arrow, and must bea harpoon. The use of its barbs was to catch and retain the fish after it was struck, but why were they all upon one side? To diminish the width of the dart so that it might penetrate more readily? I cannot say.* Nig. 13, After hunting and fishing the troglodytes resorted to the caves for their meals. They carried with them en- tire the carcasses of the reindeer, and the smaller animals they had killed, but the larger animals, such as the horse and the ox, were too heavy for transportation; they were cut up where they fell, and only the head and limbs were taken. This accounts for the fact that no bones of the body of the large mammifers are found among the residue of these feasts, while the skeletons of the reindeer and of the smaller animals are complete. Throughout all these caves, wherever these broken bones are found, there is always a large amount of char- coal; and this association is so general, so uniform, that Harpoon of bone, of the inhabitants of Terra del Fuego. * One of my colleagues of the French Association, M. Lecoq, of Boisbeaudran, in a communication before the anthropological section, makes some very interesting re- marks upon the mode of action of the unilateral barbs of the harpoon. While passing through the air these barbs do not cause the harpoon to deviate perceptibly, but as soon as it enters the water the unequal resistance it encounters must necessarily change its direction. It would seem, then, that the fisherman who aimed straight fer the fish would miss it. Now, it is well known that astraight stick appears to be broken when plunged obliquely in water; in like manner, in consequence of the refraction of the luminous rays, the image of the fish is displaced, and if direct aim was taken at this image it would also be missed. Here are, then, two causes of error. Now, it is evident that if they can be brought to act in opposite directions they will counteract each other, and M. Lecoq shows that when the barbed side is turned up the harpoon will reach its destination. This arrangement of the harpoon was then intended to rectify its course, which indicates great sagacity of observation in our troglodytes. The inhabitants of Terre-de-Feu still use a harpoon barbed on one side only. (See Fig. 13.) 330 THE TROGLODYTES. it is difficult to believe that the fires which were lighted, not only every day, but at every season of the year, were only for warmth. It is much more probable that they were used by the troglodytes for cooking their food. P We do not know how they produced the fire; whether by striking flint, or heating wood by friction. Nor do we know anything about their arrangements for cooking. They had no pottery, and could not boil their meat; neither did they roast it, for only occasionally calcined bones are found, and these are calcined evidently by accident. It is possible that they used wooden vessels, in which the water was brought to the boiling-point by the immersion of red-hot pebbles, but it seems to me much more probable that the food was cooked under the ashes, as is still the custom among savage people. They were very fond of the brain of animals, and of the marrow of the long bones, for the heads and the marrow-bones (to the exclusion of all others) are uniformly broken. Marrow is considered a great delicacy among all savages. They break the bone in a peculiar manner, and the head of the tribe is honored with the first suck. Our troglodytes used wedge-shaped pieces of flint as a kind of hatchet for breaking the bones. They also had an instrument of horn, which was probably employed in extracting the marrow. (See Fig. 14.) Archzeologists disagree in regard to this instrument. Some have supposed it to be a dart, because one of its extremities, if not pointed, is conical in shape, and that the cavity formed in the other was intended to admit the handle; but, if so, the latter extremity would not have been sharpened to an oblique point before the cavity was made. On the contrary, the part used for the handle, where strength was required, would have been heavier, not smaller and weaker. Besides, the elegant ornamentation of the exterior surface indicates that it was an object of luxury. The time required for such work was not wasted in forming a weapon which might be lost in the first thicket encountered. I therefore think, with Edward Lar- tet and Christy, that this instrument was for extracting marrow, and was only used by persons of distinction. The troglodytes, when their repasts were ended, left the bones seat- tered upon the ground. Ina warm climate these would have exhaled frightful odors, but we must remember that the temperature was much lower then than now. Moreover, we must admit that cleanliness was not the dominant virtue of the men of this period, but their want of neathess serves us well, for, in consequence, the floors of their caves show us exactly what they had to eat. The flesh of the reindeer was their principal food, but they also lived upon the horse, the urus, seve- ral species of ox, the chamois, the goat, and even of the carnivorous animals. Thus far they but followed the example of their predecessors; but they had, in addition, the products of the fisheries, while the im- provement of the bow enriched their larder with a great variety of birds, whose bones are found among the remains of the repasts. ETHNOLOGY. gol Among all these osseous fragments there is not a single human bone. Our good troglodytes were not anthropophagi. They were unacquainted with the savage delight of eating a vanquished enemy. I state this with satisfaction, although I am not of the number of those who attach great importance to cannibalism. In the eyes of a philosopher the crime consists not in eating the man, but in killing him. I» the latter respect we are perhaps more barbarous than they, for our boasted civiliza- tion, which ought to put an end to war, has only rendered it more mur- derous. I do not suppose the troglodytes always lived in peace; they were obliged sometimes to fight in order to defend or increase their hunting. grounds, but their weapons are those of men of the chase— hunters, rather than warriors. Fig. 14, Fig. 18. Fig. 17. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 14. Spoon for marrow. Figs. 15 and 16. Needles. Fig. 17. A hunting scorer and marker. Fig. 18. Record. When we review their panoply we find their most formidable weap- ons, those which could be used in a hand-to-hand conflict, are few in number, so we must conclude that they were pacific in their habits. It has been supposed that they wore no clothing, because the figures of them drawn by their artists are entirely naked. But this is no proof; the Greeks always represented their gods and heroes in a state of nudity. Bye THE TROGLODYTES. We found in the caves all the instruments needful for sewing. They had needles of bone and horn; some with only a point like our shoe- maker’s awl; others with an eye for carrying thread. (See Figs. 15 and 16.) Some are very fine; we have seen a needle-case made of the bone of a bird, which contained several needles. Lartet and Christy have discovered the mode of manufacture. They found a metacarpus of a horse, in which, made with a fine saw, were incisions, longitudinal and parallel, isolating narrow and regular pieces of bone. The work was unfinished, but it is evident that these isolated splinters of bone were to be formed into needles. The nature of the thread employed varied greatly. Did they use vege- table fiber and narrow slips of leather? Itis possible, and even probable. It is certain that our troglodytes made thread, or at least cord, out of tendons. Several savage tribes at this day use fine tendinous fibers for sewing. The large posterior ligament of the herbivora might have fur- nished thread and cord of great strength. I have known this part of the ox to be used in more recent times by parents, in the moral improve- ment of their children. Whether the sinews of the reindeer were used for sewing I do not know, but the long tendons of the limbs were detached with great care, by means of a peculiar stroke which produced a slight but regular abrasion of the bone. This abrasion, always the same, is found on different bones, but always at the point of insertion of a ten- don, and was evidently the result of an operation methodically per- formed, probably before the animals were handed over to the cooking department, and which had for its object the preparation of thread for sewing. The art of sewing implies the existence of clothing, not merely that primitive vesture which consists of a single skin thrown over the shoulders, but a much more complete raiment, formed, perhaps, of sev- eral skins. The abundance of needles, and of scrapers used in the prep- aration of skins, shows that the use of clothing was general. They also wore ornaments, which, perhaps, served as marks of dis- tinction, such as bracelets and necklaces formed of shells, perforated and strung together. These are found in almost all the localities, and in great numbers in the ancient burial-place of Cromagnon. Some plates of ivory, prepared with great care and pierced with two holes, seem to have served as fastenings for these necklaces. These were not the only manifestations of that spirit of vanity which leads man to adorn himself. Almost all savages make use of paint, and the barbarous practice of tattooing, in order to embellish their persons, and we have no right to look down upon them, for in the most civilized countries the tattoo is still in favor, especially among sailors, and the fine lady of society has not, it is said, entirely forgotten the use of pig- ments. It is therefore not surprising that we find among the troglo- dytes similar customs. Their caves contain numerous fragments of a species of redstone, called sanguine. The stripes observed upon these ETHNOLOGY. 393 show that they have been scraped. A red color was thus formed, which was constantly used in personal adornments. It is likely that tattooing also was practiced, since among the figures engraved upon various objects of reindeer horn, there are several representing the hand and fore-arm of a man, and upon the lower part of the fore-arm are designs in such regular patterns they can hardly be anything else than tattooing. I have already said our troglodytes were not nomadic; individuals may have undertaken long journeys, but the tribe seldom or never wintered far from the cave. They must have obtained, by exchange or commerce, certain articles foreign to the locality, such as the perforated shells, of which their necklaces and bracelets were made. These were mostly of the species Littorina littorea, and came from the shores of the Atlantic, where they are abundant. They were recent shells, that is, not fossils, which is proved by the tints they retain to this day. There are others also pierced with a hole for suspension, which belong to five ex- tinct species of the Miocene age. They are entirely discolored; and their molecular condition and worn appearance prove that they had been for a long time in the fossil state before they were unearthed to assist in adornment. Now the places where these fossils were found were not in the neighborhood of the Vézere; the nearest were those of Touraine, and thence, in all probability, our troglodytes imported this addition to their toilet. We also find at these localities, and especially at Upper Laugerie, small objects of rock-erystal, which substance must have come from the Pyrenees, the Alps, or the mountains of Auvergne. The foreign relations of the troglodytes were therefore far extended. Had they religious belief? We found in their dwelling-places no objects which could serve for worship; but they wore a talisman, or amulet, which consisted of a canine or incisor tooth of the wolf, the reindeer, the ox, or the horse; a hole was carefully perforated in one end of the tooth to receive the suspending cord. Similar talismans are worn at the present day to assist the fortunes of the chase, and M. de Mortillet has observed in Italy an analogous custom. To counteract the influence of evil spirits, the tooth of a hog, mounted in silver, is fast- ened to the swaddling-clothes of the new-born child; and later, when the teeth commence to appear, it is suspended from the neck of the infant, and serves as a coral or rattle. The perforated teeth of the troglodytes were certainly not rattles; they were, perhaps, protective amulets, but more probably talismans for hunting. In either case, they were objects of superstitious venera- tion. May it not then be said that these people had a religion? I am no theologian; I cannot say. It is difficult to know where superstition ends and religion begins. At the same period of time in other places certain funeral rites were observed. The dead were deposited in a cave, the narrow opening of which was closed with a stone slab. In front of the cave was a small esplanade upon which the afflicted relatives comforted themselves with aoe THE TROGLODYTES. a feast. This mode of consolation has been continued from age to age, even down to the present time. At present only one burial-place of the troglodytes of the Vézére is known—that of Cromagnon. It is a hollow rock, not a cave. Near the bodies were placed some flint instruments and ornaments of shells, but there is no trace of a closing stone. The government of the troglodytes was hierarchically organized. There were dignitaries of several degrees of importance. The proofs of such organization are found only in the localities of the latest period : the Eyzies, Lower Laugerie, and the Madelaine. They consist of cer- tain large pieces of the horn of the reindeer, carefully formed, and gen- erally called rulers’ staves or batons. They are very numerous, and of a uniform type. Their entire surface is richly ornamented with various designs, representing figures of animals, or hunting scenes. The care taken to make them as thin as possible, in proportion to their width, shows that lightness, and not strength, was desired. Most of them, not all, have, in one of their extremities, round holes, varying in num- ber from one to four. (See Figs. 19 and 20.) The destination of these Fig. 19. Fig. 20. BECKERDEL. Fig. 19.—Ruler’s stave or baton, with one hole, reduced to one-third. Fig. 20.—The sane, with four holes, reduced to one-third. Fig. 21.—The pogamagan of the Esqui- maux, reduced to one-fourth. ETHNOLOGY. 335 remarkable instruments has been, and still is, a subject of discussion. They have been considered weapons, and it must be confessed they re- semble in form the pogamagan employed by the Esquimaux of Macken- zie’s River as a tomahawk, one end of which, formed into a blunt chisel, serves to break the ice. The pogamagan, however, are longer, larger, and heavier, and instead of being flattened their cylindrical form has been preserved, so that, resistance being equal in every direction, they admit of violent blows. They also are not pierced by the large holes which rendered the batons of the troglodytes too fragile for any mechanical use. These batons may then be considered as the insignia of office. They recall the scepter of the ancients, which was carried not only by kings, but by chiefs of lower rank. At the present day the dignity of a marshal is represented by a baton, a similar symbol of office. The batons of the troglodytes are too numerous to be marks of royalty. They were simply signs of hierarchal distinction, the holes, like the gold and silver lace of our officers, indicating the rank of the wearer ; those with four holes represented the highest office; those without any, the lowest. The unity of design in the ornamentation, which generally includes the holes, shows that the baton was made after the individual for whom it was intended was invested with his office. But in some cases the holes were evidently added afterward, as they cut into and mutilate the drawings. For instance, on one baton a horse is represented; and, later, a hole was pierced, which divided the horse into two portions, ‘see Fig. 19,) the possessor having been so fortunate as to receive a yvromotion. This division into ranks, or grades, a sure sign that the community was large, may have arisen out of the necessities of war; but it is much more probable that they originated in the organization of hunting expedi- tions, for the chase was the principal element of publie prosperity, and it was of the utmost importance that it should be properly regulated, since upon it depended the sustenance of the whole people. The tempera- ture was then much lower than it is now, and the flesh of the game could be preserved for a long time, especially during the winter months, so that there was constantly a greater or less amount of food stored in the cave, and the intervention of a domestic economy was necessary to avoid either waste or unjust division of these provisions. Certain rods of horn, with a great number of notches upon them, arranged in regular series, seem to have served as account books. These objects, known as hunting regis- ters, (see Fig.17,) resemble the recording sticks used at the present day by the bakers of small villages, and in the country, to keep the accounts of those, alas too numerous, who can no more read than our troglodytes. A wide, thin plate of bone, or ivory, with two rows of notches on the sides, and its two faces covered with series of points arranged trans- versely, seems also to have been a register of accounts. (See Fig. 18.) Thanks to the organization and administration whose indications we 336 THE TROGLODYTES. have just noticed, the troglodytes, though a large community, lived at ease. Food was so abundant that they could select the better parts, and reject those inferior in quality. Thus they disdained the feet of animals, which contain, between the bones and tendons, a considerable amount of alimentary matter, and we find in their caves entire feet of the deer, with every bone in place, as perfect as those of the skeletons of our museums. They were evidently cast aside as undesirable for food, a fact which shows that the sources of subsistence more than sup- plied actualneed. The destruction of the dangerous animals had insured safety, and the perfection of the chase secured abundance of food. The more urgent necessities of life no longer required an entire consecration of the activity, intelligence, and time of the tribe. Leisure hours were possible, and leisure, combined with intelligence, engenders the arts. IV.—THE ARTS OF THE TROGLODYTES. To Egypt no longer belongs the distinction of having originated the arts. We learned a few years ago, to our great astonishment, that the men of the age of the reindeer practiced drawing, carving, and even sculp- ture. At first their efforts received only our admiration; but now, the excitement of discovery over, we must confess there were some very bad artists among them. Still, although a large number of the draw- ings are very crude, resembling the rude sketches made by idle children with charcoal upon our walls, there are some truly remarkable, indi- cating not only a skillful hand, but an eye accustomed to the observa- tion of nature. . Drawing, with these people, undoubtedly preceded sculpture. Fig- ures in relief are much more rare and less perfect than those made by lines. The latter are found quite frequently at the Eyzies, and at Lower Laugerie, but are particularly abundant at the Madelaine, where they are also much more correct. All the drawings are made with indented lines, that is, etched, and for the most part ornament various objects of reindeer horn, such as the commanders’ batons, or the handles of poignards. There are some, however, made upon certain plates of ivory or horn, which could have been intended for no other purpose than to receive and display the work of the artist. (See Fig. 12 and Fig. 22.) Almost all the drawings are of natural objects, although there are some merely ornamental lines, forming zigzags and festoons of more or less elegance; and, with the exception of three rose-like leaves engraved upon the handle of deer’s horn, which seem intended to represent a poly- petal flower, they are principally of animals. The reindeer most fre- quently appears, then the horse; the ox and the urus more seldom. These animals are readily recognizable. Their characteristics are repro- duced with great accuracy, and often with elegance ; frequently they are isolated figures, covering without order, and in great numbers, the entire surface of an instrument, but sometimes they are formed into groups, and are seen in combat, or flying before man. ETHNOLOGY. aot Of all these drawings the most important, and also the most rare, since, at present there is but one specimen, is a representation of the mammoth, to which I have already alluded. It was found at the Made- laine in 1864, The execution of the head is remarkably correct. (See Fig. 12.) Since then the Marquis de Vibraye has discovered at Lower Laugerie a fragment of a commander’s baton, with the head of a mam- moth seulptured upon it. These are the only representations of the animal transmitted to us by the artists of the Vézére, but they are suffi- cient to prove that it was not yet extinct. Fig. 22.—Combat of reindeers. Representations of fish are quite common, and, with a single exception, that of an eel or lamprey, (if it is not a serpent,) they generally resem- ble the salmon in form. M. Elie Massénat has discovered at Lower Laugerie, upon a fragment of the scapula of an ox, a rude drawing of a fishing scene. It represents a man in the act of harpooning an aquatic animal. The latter, although it has the form of a fish, is so much larger than the man that it has been supposed to be one of the cetacea, probably a whale, and that the artist, in consequence, must have found his way to the Gulf of Gascogne. I am not disposed to admit this interpretation. It is hardly possible that the men of that time were sufficiently expert navigators to venture upon the ocean to harpoon the whale. — It is said the tail and back suggest the form of a cetaceous animal; but may it not rather be a porpoise than a whale? Porpoises sometimes sport in the Gironde, and I saw once, in my childhood, one of these animals car- ried by a flood even into the Dordogne, where it was stranded between Libourne and Castillon. It was killed by fishermen with boat-hooks, and exhibited from village to village. If, as is probable, the tide rose higher in those days than now, and particularly if the Dordogne was wider and deeper, it is conceivable that a porpoise might ascend the river high enough to come within reach of the harpoons of our troglo- dytes, and so unusual an event would naturally inspire the enthusiasm of an artist—in this case very unskillful. oe g ad ted 338 THE TROGLODYTES. But I am tempted to believe that this preteuded cetacean is only a badly drawn fish. The relative size of the man proves nothing, for the artist throughout the entire sketch has manifested entire contempt for propor- tion. This too diminutive man has a gigantic arm, and the harpoon he throws is proportioned to the size of the fish. Weare reminded of cer- tain jocose drawings of the present day,in which puny bodies are supplied with enormous heads. The great interest of this particular work of art consists in the unanswerable proof it gives that the troglodytes used the harpoon in fishing. I have already shown by indirect evidence that the darts, barbed only on one side, could only be used as harpoons, and this drawing fully confirms that conclusion. The troglodytes, sometimes so skillful in the representation of animals, drew the human form very badly. They very seldom attempted it, and only a single study of a head has been found. It is in profile, very small, and very grotesque. Two other drawings, very similar to each other, represent a fore-arm, terminated by a hand with four fingers, the thumb hidden from view. Add to these the fisherman with the harpoon, and two hunting scenes, in which a man entirely naked, and armed with a dart, ov baton, is very rudely drawn, among figures of animals very skillfully executed, and you have a complete list of all the repre- sentations of man to be found in the gallery of the troglodytes. I have already said that the specimens of sculpture Fig. 23. are much more rare than the drawings. We only know of about half a dozen, and they all came from Lower Laugerie. One of them, belonging to the Mar- quis of Vibraye, represents a woman; the others the following animals: a reindeer, (see Fig. 23,) the head of a reindeer, the head of a mammoth already mentioned, and the head of an animal not yet identified ; lastly, a specimen discovered by M. Elie Massénat, called the ' twin oxen, representing two animals which may be either oxen or uri. These sculptures are sometimes unfinished, and _ al- ways badly executed. It is true they ornament the handles of poignards, or commanders’ batons, and in order toaccommodate the animal forms employed to this purpose, the artist was obliged to choose unnatural and ungraceful positions; but, in spite of these extenuating circumstances, it must be confessed that the troglodytes were very poor sculptors. On the contrary, in the art of drawing they mani- fested surprising skill. From [ know not what rea- ype eee ot ee son they paid little attention to the human form, and ¢lengated reindeer. failed in its representation, but the characteristics of animals were reproduced with such faithfulness, elegance, and spirit, as to denote true artistic feeling. ETHNOLOGY. 339 V.—THE RACE. In concluding the study of this interesting people we will now deter- mine the race to which they belong. The human bones thus far col- lected are, unfortunately, not sufficiently numerous to satisfy entirely our curiosity. Still, they suffice to prove that their race was very differ- ent from those which succeeded it, and that the learned anthropologist Retzius and his disciples were mistaken in supposing that all the popu- lations of Southern Europe, before the comparatively recent period of the Indo-European migrations, belonged to the type of the short heads, or brachycéphales. M. Elie Massénat discovered a few months ago, at Lower Laugerie, the skeleton of a man who appeared to have been killed by an aceidental fall of earth. But the anatomical description of this valuable specimen has not yet been published, which I especially regret, since it is the sole representative of the troglodytes of the latest period. The skulls and bones in the annexed drawings belong to a very much more ancient date. They came from the ancient sepulcher of Cromagnon, of which M. Louis Lartet, worthy son of an illustrious father, has determined, with great accuracy, the geological, paleontological, and archeological char- acteristics. This burial-place contained the remains of at least five indi- viduals; but only three skulls, two masculine, one feminine, were suffi- ciently preserved for examination. One of the men was apparently very old; the other was an adult, as was also the woman. Near them was a young child. They were superior in stature to ourselves. The length of the femur of the old man indicates a height of five feet nine inches, while the size of the bones, the extent and roughness of the surfaces of muscular in- sertion, and the extraordinary development of the maxillary bone, in which are inserted the masticatory muscles, manifest a strong constitu- tion. The tibias, instead of being triangular and prismatic like ours, are flattened like those of a gorilla. (See Fig. 24.) The upper part of the cubitus is very large and curved, and has a very small sigmoidal cavity, which characteristics recall the cubitus of the gorilla. But the con- fomation of the femur differs radically from that of the apes. With the anthropomorphous apes the body of the femur is flattened, is much wider than it is thick, and has not upon its posterior surfaces the longi- tudinal crease which in man is called the sharp line. In existing races the thickness of the body of the femur is, in general, greater than its width, but the difference is slight. In the specimens of Cromagnon the femur is much thicker than wide. The sharp line, enormously devel- oped, is no longer a simple ridge, but a thick and prominent osseus col- umn, which greatly increases the strength of the bone and the extent of the muscular insertions. In this respect the people of Cromagnon differed much more from the simian type than the present races. The skeletons of these robust troglodytes bear traces of the violence of their manners; in the lower extremity of one of the femurs of the old 340 THE TROGLODYTES. man is a hollow similar to that sometimes produced in our day by a spent ball. It is evidently the result of an old wound received, perhaps, in the chase; perhaps in war; but a human hand, armed with a flint instrument, must have produced a long, deep aperture which appears Fig. 26. Fig. 24.—Flattened tibia of the old man of Cromagnon. Fig.25.—Femur of the same in profile. Fig. 26.—Fibula of the same. in the skull of the woman; the width of the opening shows that the brain must have been injured, but still the victim was not killed instantly by the blow. The vascularization of the bone and the internal surface of the skull show that she survived about fifteen days. (See Figs. 27 and 28.) This shameful murder of a woman is not to the credit of the people of Cromagnon. The study of the industries of these people has already shown us that their social condition was not above that of a savage tribe, and an examination of their skulls confirms this opinion. With them the sutures of the anterior cranial region are very simple, while those of the posterior region are quite complicated. Besides, the former have a decided tendency to close long before the latter, two characteristics always observed in races or individuals leading an entirely material life. The troglodytes of Cromagnon were then savages, but savages of intel- ETHNOLOGY. 34] ligence, and capable of improvement. We find among them certain signs of a powerful cerebral organization. The skulls are large in diameter, curve, and capacity, and surpass the mean of those of existing races. They are very elongated in form, such as are called dolichocéphales, (which means long headed,) but this shape of the head is not due, as with the Australian negroes, to narrowness of the skull; on the contrary, the Y LY « I) »; \ (a Yi \\\Y \ i i DAYS LA Skull of the woman of Cromagnon in profile; the aperture in the frontal bone is apparent. transversal dimensions are well developed ; it is the increase of the antero-posterior diameter which gives the elongated form; the alveolar arch of the old man is oblique, but the upper part of the face is vertical, and the facial angle very obtuse. The forehead is wide, not ‘receding, Fig. 28. Skull of the woman of Cromagnon ; front view. and describes a beautiful curve. The amplitude of the trontal compart- ment denotes a great development of the anterior cerebral lobes, which are the seat of the most noble faculties of the mind. 342 THE TROGLODYTES. If the troglodytes of Cromagnon were in a savage state it was be- cause the surrounding conditions were unfavorable to their development. The conformation of their brains shows that they were capable of culture, and, under favorable auspices, would make great and rapid ad- Fig. 29. Skull of the old man of Cromagnon; profile view. vances in civilization. These rude hunters of the mammoth, the lion, and the bear are the worthy ancestors of the artists of the Madelaine. Skull of the old man of Cromagnon ; front view. I have now given you the principal facts in the history of the troglo- ETHNOLOGY. 343 dytes of the Vézere. For want of time I have been obliged to omit and curtail much that woulc have been interesting to have dwelt upon, but hope that you have been enabled to follow from Moustier to Cromagnon, from Cromagnon to Upper Laugerie and George d’Enfer, and then to the three localities of the Eyzies, Lower Laugerie, and the Madelaine, the progressive evolution of an intelligent race who advanced gradually from the most savage state to the very threshold of civilization; for the troglodytes of the last period, with a regularly organized society, and possessing industry and the arts—the two great levers of progress— were, So to say, within one step of a truly civilized condition. at wil it mn fi I a Ae ee uc me Skull of the old man of Cromagnon ; vertical view. This interesting people suddenly disappeared, leaving no trace in the traditions of men, not gradually, after a period of decadence, but rapidly, without transition, perhaps suddenly, and with them the light of the arts is extinguished. Then followsa period of darkness, a sort of middle age, of unknown duration. The chain of time is broken, and, when we would resume it again, we find in the place of the hunters of the rein- deer a new society, a new industry, a new race, a people who are acquainted with agriculture, who domesticate animals, raise megalithic monuments, and have the ax of polished flint. It is the dawn of a new day, but the knowledge of the arts has been lost. Sculpture and design have entirely disappeared, and it is not until the latest days of polished stone that we discover, and then only here and there upon an occasional monument, some attempts at ornamentation, which have absolutely nothing in common with the remarkable artistic productions of the troglodytes. This sudden and complete extinction of the troglodytes suggests the occurence of a cataclysm, but such a supposition is contradicted by 344 THE TROGLODY'TES. geology, and, in order to explain this phenomenon, it is not necessary to introduce any other influence than that of man. Our hunters of the rein- deer, with their peaceable mode of life and their light weapons, were not prepared for combat, and not in a condition to resist attack, so that their budding civilization yielded immediately when their valleys were in- vaded by tribes better equipped for war; perhaps already in possession of the polished ax. Then, as now, might was right. APPENDIX. EXCURSION TO THE EYZIES. At 5 o’clock a special train carried seventy-two excursionists; the sun arose in splendor and announced a beautiful day. The road as far as Periguex presented little to attract attention, and animated conver- sation beguiled the time until at 6 o’clock we entered the celebrated valley of the Vézere, and stopped at the station of the Eyzies. After partaking of an excellent repast prepared for us, at 11 o’clock we climbed the steep sides of the eminence which overlooks the present village, on the banks of the Beune, and, surrounding M. Louis Lartet, were so fortunate as to hear a detailed account of the discoveries which have rendered so illustrious the cave of the Eyzies, where his father, our regretted master, with the aid of Christy, commenced his series of distinguished explorations. The cave still contains numerous osseous fragments, in which are mingled pieces of bone, flint implements, rounded or angular pebbles and schistose plates of rock, for the most part foreign to the valley. Many a museum has been enriched by similar fragments from the Eyzies by MM. Ed. Lartet and Christy, and we were each allowed to col- lect some specimens. In this cave were found the first drawings of the age of the reindeer. (August, 1563.) Near the entrance of the cave, upon the lateral and exterior prolonga- tion of the platform are traces of artificial constructions, of a relatively very recent period. A stable was partly suspended in the air, and covered, doubtless, with a pent-house roof supported in holes in the rock which still exist. We then proceeded to Cromagnon, a place very celebrated in the annals of science. In 1868 the construction of the railroad necessitated the removal of an enormous talus at the base of the rocks on the left shore of the Vézére, and at the bottom of a cave so shallow it might rather be called a hollow, some human bones were discovered. M. Louis Lartet was immediately sent to the place by the minister of public in- struction, and found that there were four superposed strata blackened by fire. In all these strata were the same industrial implements, flint chiefly shaped into scrapers, instruments of bone, bodkins, arrows, &c., and ETIINOLOGY. 345 also the same animals—the great bear, Felis spelwa, the wolf, Canis vulpes, a spermophile, two Lepus, the Hlephas primigenius, the sus, the horse very abundant, the reindeer, the urus, some teeth of the com- ion deer, and lastly a species of goose. Without a doubt the vestiges of successive habitation in the hollow of Cromagnon are traces of the same race of hunters. When the accumulation of culinary débris had considerably reduced the height of the little cave it became the final abode of a few of these ancient people. Five skeletons, a woman, a child, an old man, and two young men were found in it, and, with them, | nearly three hundred marine shells, especially the Littorina littorea, some amulets of ivory-pierced teeth, instruments of reindeer horn, &e. From the absence of barbed arrows and of engraving on stone, and from the predominance of the horse over the reindeer, Cromagnon dates before the last period of the caves, and is very nearly contemporary with that of Upper Laugerie, which was visited immediately afterward by the association. Each member had been supplied by M. Emile Car- tailhac with a map of the valley of the Vézére, on the side of which were represented the excavations of Cromagnon and Lower Laugerie. In passing to Tayae the association stopped for a few moments to examine an interesting Roman church ; a short distance further on they crossed the Vézeére in a ferry-boat, and were charmed with the pictur- esque aspect of the valley. The right branch of the river is not wide, and the steep declivities which rise almost vertically are less than 50 meters from the river. Above the hamlet of Upper Laugerie we ob- served a talus with a line of enormous blocks of stone upon it, and were told that it was a cornice of rock which had fallen during the last cen- tury, destroying human habitations, sheep, and cows in its descent. The present occupants of the soil, with no fear of a similar accident, have rebuilt their miserable cabins upon some of the fallen rocks. It is here that MM. de Vibraye and Franchet collected, sometimes below the level of the waters of the Vézére, large quantities of those flint instruments with oval ends and both sides shaped, which have become characteristic of an intermediate period between the age of the locality of the Moustier which succeeded that of Saint Acheul, and the age of Eyzies, of the Madelaine, &e. Above this important stratum lie the deposits of the last period of the time of the reindeer, which witnessed the birth of industry and the arts, of drawing and of sculpture. These commence at Upper Laugerie, and continue for several hundred yards toward Lower Laugerie, where they form a talus of 12 meters in thickness. Protected from the damp by the overhanging rocks, the bones are admirably preserved, and the excavations made have been attended with astonishing results. MM. Ed. Lartet and Christy, and the Marquis of Vibraye commenced the work which was continued for six years by M. Elie Massenat, (de Brives.) Numerous relics of every period have been collected at the surface of the talus, but especially of the age of bronze and of polished stone. 346 THE TROGLODYTES. The superficial strata have been trequently searched for specimens, as they sdll continue to be by the present inhabitants. These poor people even dig up the floors of their dwellings for this purpose, and we were quite astonished to find deep holes under their beds and tables and bureaus, excavated for the extraction of these vestiges of ancient life. We have especially noticed the avalanche of rocks of the Upper Laugerie, but similar occurrences have taken place all along the valley. Rocks have constantly fallen. The savages of the age of the reindeer were established on the banks of the Vézere when the valley was in its present condition. Undismayed by the avalanches of stone which, at intervals, destroyed their homes, they fearlessly re-assumed possession of the soil and rekindled their extinguished fires in the space between the fallen rocks. It is between the rocks, therefore, that the excavations have been made, but these irregular subterranean passages are difficult and dangerous to explore. The day before our visit heavy rain had fallen, the Vézere had risen 3 meters, and the modern troglodyte who was in M. Massénat’s employ had heard ominous cracking sounds. The rocks around which the opening had been made had settled down, and at any moment might fall. Prudence deterred us, the excursionists, from venturing into the deep passages, through which it would have been necessary to crawl on — hands and knees; and, by the light of a candle, we looked into an open- ing black as night, in which we could see broken bones and flint instru- ments without number. M. Massénat then conducted us to the place where, last March, in company with MM. Lalande and Cartailhac, he had exhumed an entire human skeleton, all the bones of which have been preserved and cast. The members of the association were convinced that these valuable remains were contemporary with the great extension of the reindeer in the country, but one of their number was doubtful as to the cause of their presence position. He supposed that the place in which they rested must have been a sepulcher. MM. Massénat, Lalande, and Car- tailhac, who had carefully observed every circumstance of the discovery, thought that the man had been killed by the descent of an avalanche, and Professor Broca and others adopted the latter opinion. M. Massénat spoke of the human bones he had frequently found in the kitchen remains, which he regarded as a proof of cannibalism, or at least that the men of the age of the reindeer paid little respect to their dead, a fact which increased his doubts as to the existence of sepul- chers at this time, although later they were employed, beyond a doubt. But time was passing, and, leaving Lower Laugerie, where each member of the association bad made ample collections of flint instru- ments, fossil bones, reindeer-lorn, &e., we descended to the Gorge D’Enter. Here the luxuriance of the vegetation was in strong contrast with the somewhat desolate aspect of the declivities of the Végere. ETHNOLOGY. ord We entered an immense cave, as large as a great theater, dimly lighted by such rays of the setting sun as found their way through the foliage of a thicket of trees which shaded the entrance. It was empty. Most of the fossil bones it once contained had been used to enrich the fields it overlooked, and the remainder had been carefully removed by M. Lartet. They were especially valuable, for this locality is more ancient than that of Lower Laugerie and others of a similar age. We had now seen all the prehistoric localities of the Eyzies, with the exception of the Moustier cave, which is a type of the most ancient deposits made by men in the caves when the valley was only partially formed ; but this excursion could not be made on foot, and our time was too limited for its accomplishment. Thanks to the exertions of M. Laganne, from the Eyzies, head work- man of MM. Christy and Lartet, the arrangements for the comfort of the excursionists throughout the day were unexceptionable, and as we descended the Vézéere in order to reach the ferry near the railroad bridge, we found some ladders placed against the declivity, which en- abled us to climb into an artificial cave of several interior stories. In these chambers were niches, mangers for the animals, rings, &e., cut in the rather softrock. These caves are not rare in this neighborhood. In Corréze, about Brives, at Lamourou an entire hill is cut into five stories of stalls, large and small, and very irrregular in form. Similar excavations are found all over France, and in certain regions, Aisne, for example, are still inhabited. In Dordogne and Corréze they must be of very ancient date. At 5 o’clock we retook the train, and our regret, as we rapidly left the valley of the Vézere, was tempered by the pleasant memory of what we had seen and heard. Our locomotive saluted the declivities of Lau- gerie in passing, and we thought there could not be a more striking demonstration of the law of progress than to speed, with the full power of steam, under the brows of the mountain which had served our savage ancestors as a rendezvous for the chase. See the people of Moustier, hunting the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the bear, and the lion with rude stone implements, held in the hand or imbedded in a heavy spear. Again, long after, when the river had deepened its bed 30 meters, be- hold their descendants of Upper Laugerie, the gorge d’Enfer, Cromag- non, armed with the bow and arrow. Then civilization commenced ; at the Madelaine, the Eyzies, Lower Laugerie, bone was worked into va- rious forms and art was generated. Then appeared a new people, with pottery, domestic animals, and the polished ax; we know the rest. Upon such facts may be based the most happy auspices for the future; a future, it is true, not of nations nor of races, but of humanity. At Perigueux we dined at the railroad-station, and entered Bordeaux at half past 11 o’clock. ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. By CHARLES Rav. The following essay was published in German, Vol. V of the Archiv fiir Anthro- pologie (Braunschweig, 1872); but as the subject is purely North American in char- acter, the author has deemed it proper to prepare a version in the language of the country to which it refers. The present reproduction, however, is enlarged and im- proved. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Imtroduction! {h-cesss-bee eseasecee eee aes 1 in Ge SSE RE Sk eT hs aE ee G2 18 Coppers.asecce reek < hans ses tste seo s- theres 3 Red) Pipestone =} -i5=,.<60etee ss cbe estes cs 21 Galena sateen cect siete ae aes ne Ces 8 Shells’. 23.2 scesese recess hae os es cee aaek ecules 25 OOsIGIAN Wwesasee ee pee se aero en oe eee eee 10 Pearls ti: ssedieh a lestied EAR ee 36 Mica 2.2. thea. creeeete eee Shee eck t 13 MivisioniofMiahorss. see sesssessameeds ce < 39 DlahOpeesccisehen meee tic «acta ostiea cies sate 15 Conclusion .\2 2 -Sasje.=a 35 Rhees, William J., chief clerk of the Institution.............-..-...---------- 6 list of mstitutions in the United States..-..........-...---- 28 ‘INDEX. 455 Page Fevers, OpenInS aNd JNCCZIME Of oe. - seme ee ancien wie tale alesie ates sisal ni's 295 Ee nlesHOMCistelbUnLonOL publications scl - saci ce emis osoecietieeciesenecice = 20 TP Er a2 25-5. ade cat See ates. coe 40 Unity of structure in organized beings, Ampére on.....-...----- .------------- 147 rans, erpibjotmby.brof., Ss Newconib..=. 35825-2252 se. 4b. aoe <2 oreo oo: 24 Virginia stock, statement relative to.............--. I iy tye 19,74, 84 Mocabularies otelndiank tribess-25 -252.4-5-... 25 -eis w eeeos. oco hoes oe: 26 Waldrum, W. H., remains in Caddo Parish, Louisiana...........-.......-..--- 428 Wampum, history of 379 456 INDEX. Page. Ward, Prof. H. A., presentation of fossil casts by ..----------.--.--.----..----. 78 Warner, Jared, account of big elephant mound in Wisconsin......-------.---- 416 Washington City, account of prehistoric remains found in..--....------------ 480 Washington, pistols of, bequeathed to Institution--...-----.--..--------------- 41 Washington, report on claim for portrait of........--..----.------------------ 81, 82 WEEP ee ORO S o 36550 GeSSa0 CoSe55 Seeded Sdene oscean oShooS cescocosHede 37 Western Union Telegraph Company, free telegrams of astronomical discoveries. 82 Wheeler, Lieutenant, valuable collection from...--.....-.-.-.-----------.----- 45 WandstofethelolobediscussioniOfe camer ai elsere alae seer eee erator eet telat ral 38 Wing, Hon. R., valuable collections from. ..---.---.-.----.----.-------------- 46 Weikoff, Dr. A. J., meteorology in Russia...-..-..-.-.---.-----.-------------- 267 Wood, Dr: Horatio C., on fresh) water aloce\.- 222. - =... es-eem eee oe a) 22 Worcester, free institute of science, Peabody’s address.....-..--.-------------- 185 Work done in the Institution and in connection with cther establishments. - - --- 30 Youmans, Dr. E. L., trustee of Tyndall fund......--....-- Faces oe ee ee rice 105 Young, Clarence B., bookkeeper of the Institution. -...--- Ne nega oe ease ce nee oe 6 a Ny et sy - if i iw) ie Nwe y AM : ETE tee iA Lon Poe y ; Re ee renin f on | ee ay a ie } ie ia ravi ie iy ns Ty yi Ti mi ity i on iy | i i vf! i 7 ' es ae pias Nee PW i i 1h ah 1 J My fi j + Mae = s . Py 8 1 ‘ i ~ ri nw x 4% a i * { . i oy i 4% \ ; : VLR en 5 2 i , Q sia , _ 4 any o b ) we ) ath as ' , )3 H BR . + 5 " \ ‘ ‘ * 5 \ \ ‘ 5 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES wil 3 9088 01421 6311 VR PUA ey Nee ae cs | . 5 i } 4 a AAS Sy 4 ‘ . , ‘ sy ay ) ) 1 ‘ ag Vb Hoh . Pin f ; « ‘ 4 ‘ \ ' . ‘ cA YA , is ( ey, ‘ SAS 1 1 d i y 4 \ x eM { r ‘ A t\h\ ‘ : , i 4 ‘ Aa t Wi) . p é 1 ‘ rey ‘s ‘ £ ft . { 4 5 ‘ A tn " C ; Wy, s é x N oe ‘ earns 1 ‘ yy hs , . . s ‘ { a ‘ \ ‘ 5 { 4 j ‘ ‘ 4 ‘ ‘ , { ‘ r } 1 4 pf) 4 ) f4\ ¢ } ) H : \ “he } : } POA \ : } 5 ) 0 5 yy i o 7